ENCYCLOPAEDIA
JJRITANNICA
KIJEVENTH
'
1
a
taHaa
H
.
y-
'&wm
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty . 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 1823 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
*
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXII
POLL to REEVES
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
191 1
AE.
E 3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
of j:
A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L.
Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of -J Pope.
Paris. Editor of the Canoniste Contemporain.
A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHF.R, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S.
Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, iSj^-iSgs. Gold Medallist, J DV t;<*
Royal Society, 1878. "Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia,\
Salientia and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c.
A. C. McG. REV. ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFFERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of ] D--_V.. /
History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia') " f an) -
of Eusebius.
A. D. AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D, D.C.L. f ^ Matthe ,
See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. \ n
A. de W. F. ARTHUR DE WINT FOOTE. _f Power Transmission:
Superintendent of North Star Mining Company, California. ^ Pneumatic.
A. E. G.* REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D.
Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J _ ,
the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life \ Predestination.
of Jesus ; &c. I
A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON.
Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the \ Quesada y Matheus.
Bourbons in Spain. \,
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. 4 Priapuloidea.
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History.
A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908).
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale; { Prison.
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. I
A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D. f _ . t . . A
See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF.
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. /- _ . .
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of -j Primitive Methodist Church;
Mysore Educational Service. [_ Priscillian.
A. L. ANDREW LANG. J Poltergeist; Prometheus;
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. "^ Psychical Research.
A. McA. ALEXANDER McAuLAY, M.A. ("
Professor of Mathematics and Physics, University of Tasmania. Author of Utility J. Quaternions (in part),
of Quaternions in Physics; &c.
A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde).
Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Source s s Publican!.
of Roman History, 133-70 B.C.
f Pratincole; Quail; Quezal:
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. ^ aU ( ( n part \, n
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Raven; Razorbill;
Redshank; Redstart;
1 Redwing.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
V
1991
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. f
Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- "j Prostitution.
Supply ; Industrial Efficiency ; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.
A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J i>,,fi. .
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 ^nagoras n part).
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. I
A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f
Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of i Pterodactyles.
the Geological Society of London. L
A. T. H.
C. T. J.
ARTHUR TWINING HADLEY, LL.D. f ..
See the biographical article: HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING. \ ways: Economics.
A. Wi.* ANEURIN WILLIAMS, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. Chairman of Executive, International I _ , . .
Co-operative Alliance. M. P. for Plymouth, 1910. Author of Twenty-eight Years | t-snarmg.
of Co-partnership at Guise; &c.
A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A.
Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College,
London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books -j Polyglott.
and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe "
Chaucer.
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the-{ Proclamation.
Laws of England. I
B. B. A. BRAMAN BLANCHARD ADAMS. _f
Associate Editor of the Railway Age Gazette, New York. \ Railways: Accident Statistics.
C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.LiTT. /n,,i,,i, ,
See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. \ Quicnerat.
C. E. W. C. E. WEBBER, C.B., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.E.E. (1838-1905). f
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Served in Indian Mutiny, 1857-1860; Egyptian I Railways: Light Railways (in
Expedition, 1882; &c. Founder (with late Sir Francis Bolton) and Past President j tart)
of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. L *
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. ["
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal { Ravenna: Battle of 1512.
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [
C. G. Cr. CHARLES GEORGE CRUMP, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, London. Editor of J Record.
Lander's Works; &c.
C, Hi. CHARLES HIAIT.
Author of Picture Posters; &c.
Poster.
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member -! Purgatory,
of the American Historical Association.
C. H. T.* CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D. J _ . _ . .
See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL. \ Proverbs, Book of.
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c.
Polo, Marco (In part);
Ptolemy (in part);
Pytheas (in part).
CHARLES T. JACOBI. f p.. inHn(r
Managing Partner of the Chiswick Press, London. Author of Printing; &c. \ r
D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J
Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional H
Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c.
D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER.
Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon ; J Raffles, Sir Thomas.
India in the if>th Century ; History of Belgium ; &c.
D. D. A. REV. DANIEL DULANY ADDISON, D.D. C
Rector of All Saints' Church, Brookline, Mass. Examining Chaplain to Bishop of J n,nt ctanf Fnicrnml rhurph
Massachusetts. Secretary, Cathedral Chapter of Diocese of Massachusetts. Author 1
of The Episcopalians ; &c. I
D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The < Programme MUSIC.
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. t
D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, j Priene;
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and ~
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
D. H.
D. H. S.
D. W. T.
E. A. J.
E. A. M.
E. Ba.
E. Br.
E. B. E.
E. C. B.
E. G.
E. Ga.
E. Gr.
E. G. C.
E. H. B.
E. J. J.
E. O'N.
E. Pr.
E. Ru.
E. R. B.
F. C. C.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.
Quiberon, Battle of;
Raleigh, Sir Walter.
DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
I 'resident of the Linnean Society. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, -j Pringsheim, Nathanael.
London, 1885-1892. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. I
D'ARCY WENTWORTH THOMPSON, C.B., M.A.
Professor of Natural History, University College, Dundee. British Delegate, J Ray John.
Bering Sea Fisheries and other Conferences. Author of A Glossary of Creek Birds ; \
&c. I
le of Man; Old Silver]
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Catalogue^ Quaich.
E. ALFRED JONES.
Author of Old English Gold Plate ; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man ; Old Silver
of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate ; A Private Catalogue of the Royal
Plate at Windsor Castle ; &c.
EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S.
Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow
Merton College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy
University College, London.
EDWIN BALE, R.I.
Art Director, Cassell & Company, Ltd. Member of the Royal Institute of Painters 4 Process,
in Water Colours. Hon. Sec., Artists' Copyright Committee.
, f Polyp;
01 4 Protoplasm;
[ Protozoa.
ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in
Fellow and Tutor of Merton
(Raymund of Antioch;
Raymund of Toulouse;
Raymund of Tripoli;
t J _ r>l_ " *: II
Raynald of Chatillon.
EDWARD B. ELLINGTON. f
Founder and Chief Engineer of the General Hydraulic Power Co., Ltd. Author of J Power Transmission:
Contributions to Proceedings of Institutions of Civil Engineers and of Mechanical 1 Hydraulic.
Engineers. I
RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., Lrrr.D.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius "
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
Premonstratensians ;
Ranee, Armand de.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.
EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E.
Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co.,
Electrical Undertakings; &c.
ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
J Prologue; Prose.
Ltd. Author of Manual of .
Li & hi *''"yf (in
part).
Propylaea.
ERNEST GEORGE COKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), M.Sc., M.I.MECH.E. f
Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Technical J ,
College. Author of various papers in Transactions of the Royal Societies of London, I
Edinburgh and Canada ; &c. I
SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). f Pompeii (in part);
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; < Ptolemy (in part) ;
&c. [ Pytheas (in part).
EDMUND JANES JAMES, A.M., PH.D., LL.D. f
President of the University of Illinois; President of American Economic Associa- I Protection
tion. Author of History of American Tariff Legislation, and Essays and Mono- |
graphs on Economic, Financial, Political and Educational subjects. L
ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (Mrs H. O. O'Neill).
Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester.
Prebendary; Prelate;
Prior; Procurator.
EDGAR PRESTAGE. I"
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester.
Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. J
Commendador, Portuguese Order of S Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon 1 Portugal: Literature.
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of
a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c.
ERNEST RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. , D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D. f
Langworthy Professor of Physics, University of Manchester. Nobel Prize for -I Radio-activity .
Chemistry, 1908. Author of Radio-activity; Radio-active Transformations; &c.
EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A.
New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus ; Jerusalem under the High \ Ptolemies.
Priests. [
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. r
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. J purification.
Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and"]
Morals; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. C. S. S. FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc. f
Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Riddles of the \ Pragmatism.
Sphinx ; Studies in Humanism ; &c.
F. Dr. FRANCIS M. D. DRUMMOND. \ Precedence (in part).
F. D. A. FRANK DAWSON ADAMS, PH.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.S. f
Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill - , . ..
University, Montreal; President of Canadian Mining Institute. Author of Papers-! MUBDec (in part);
dealing with problems of Metamorphism, &c., also Researches on Experimental Queen Charlotte Islands.
Geology; &c.
F. E. W. REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., F.S.A.
Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds, and Honorary Canon of Ely. Fellow of
St John's College, Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of The Old Catholic Ritual done into \ Prayer, Book Of Common.
English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman and Old German
Manuals ; The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church ; &c.
F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. f p .
Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). \ in<
F. H. D.* FRANK HAIGH DIXON, PH.D., A.M.
Professor of Economics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H. Member of the 4 Kailwa y s: American Railway
National Waterways Commission. Author of State Railroad Control. { Legislation.
F. J. H. M. HON. FREDERICK JAMES HAMILTON MERRILL, PH.D., F.G.S. (America), M. f
AMERICAN INST.M.E., &c.
Consulting Geologist and Mining Engineer. State Geologist of New York, "j Quarrying.
18991904. Author of Reports of New Jersey and New York Geological Surveys;
&c.
F. K.* FERNAND KHNOPFF. J
See the biographical article: KHNOPFF, F. E. J. M. \ rortaels, J. F.
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Psammetichus'
Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial { TJ Q _
German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis; I Kameses ( in f an >-
&c. [
F. M. L.* FRANCIS MANLEY LOWE.
Major R.A. (retired). Member of the Staff of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth
& Co., Ltd., Elswick Works. Assistant-Superintendent of Experiments, Shoebury- -i Range-finder,
ness, 1898-1903. Author of articles in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery I
Institution; &c.
F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (d. 1910).
Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Studies in Psychical Research ; Modern -j p rer nonition
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f Portuguese East Africa;
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Rabah Zobeir.
F. Wa. FRANCIS WATT, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room. Pound (in part,)
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. r p ..
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J *~" rl '
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Pyrope,
F. Y. E. FRANCIS YSIDRO EDGEWORTH, M.A., D.C.L.
Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford, and of King's College, London. Editor of the Economic Journal. *
Author of Mathematical Psychics, and numerous papers on the Calculus of Proba- I
bilities in the Philosophical Magazine; &c.
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lrrr. f
Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-
1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice- President of the Royal J
Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages 1 Rajasthani.
of India ; &c.
G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. r
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J . p .
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition 1 "rieur, Pierre,
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers.
G. E.* ROBERT GEOFFREY ELLIS. f
Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Joint-editor of English J. Privy Council.
Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History.
G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A.
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The J Ramsay Allan.
Days of James I V. ; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c.
G. J. A. GEORGE JOHNSTON ALLMAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D.Sc. (1824-1005). f Ptolemy (in part)-
Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of -j _ . . /-.,..._L/_..
Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid ; &c. \ Pythagoras. Geometry.
G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f Provision;
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden { T,
Society. I Ra P e '
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
G. Re. SIR GEORGE REID, LL. I). f_
See the biographical article: REID, SIR GEORGE. \ Portraiture.
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. f Quinet; Rabelais;
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. | Racine.
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -I Rawendis.
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. I
H. A. Y. HORATIO ARTHUR YORKE, C.B. f jjaiiu/avc- R,,-/,'C;, /?,;/,,
Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. (retired). Chief Inspecting Officer of Railways, Board oH Railways, fin/, j/, Railway
Trade. Served in Afghan War, 1879-1880; Nile Expedition, 1884-1885. I Legislation.
H. D. W. SIR HENRY DRUMMOND WOLFF, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. (1830-1908). f
Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary at Madrid, 1892-1900. M.P. for I .>_!_,.. i. ._....
Christchurch, 187.1-1880; for Portsmouth, 1880-1885. Author of A Life o/|
Napoleon at Elba ; &c.
H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ 5 Puvis de chavannes.
Art Critic, Gazette des beaux arts. Pans. (.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW. F.R.S., PH.D. f Python;
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author^ Ratitae;
of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. I Rattlesnake (in part)
H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.I.. /DI,,I,I,,
See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. \ PolyblUS (in part).
H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO ROSS. f Railways' Inlrntiurtim
Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering i
Supplement. Author of British Railways. ( siruction, Rolling Slock.
H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.G.S.
Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, } p j g^
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University. ]
Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c.
H. 0. HERMANN OELSNER, M.A., PH.D. (
Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in the University of Oxford. Mem- I ProvenQal Literature:
ber of Council of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Provencal Litera- j Modern.
lure; &c. I
H. R. L. THE REV. HENRY RICHARDS LUARD, M.A., D.D. (1825-1891).
Registrary of the University of Cambridge, 1862-1891. Formerly Fellow, Bursar
and Lecturer at Trinity College. Honorary Fellow of King's College, London. -| Person (in part).
Editor of the Annales Monastici; the Historia of Matthew Paris and other works
for the " Rolls " Series, [
H. Ti. HENRY TIEDEMANN.
London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Author of a Dutch biography, J. Potgieter.
and various pamphlets and travel works, including Via Flushing.
H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of " The I
Commentary on Acts" in the Westminster New Testament;. Handbook on the]. Presbyter.
Apocryphal Books in the " Century " Bible. I
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Ralph of Coggeshall.
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. f Polo, Marco (in part);
"i
See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. "i p re ster John; Ramusio.
Proselyte; Qaraites; Qaro;
EL BRAHAMS, .. R h R
Reader. in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge.
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short \ Rabbah
.
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. R h R i n ;pnh Rpn Hama
.
Bar Nahmani;
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Rapoport. Samuel;
I Rashbam; Rashi.
J. A. B. SIR JERVOISE ATHELSTANE BAINES, C.S.I.
President, Royal Statistical Society, 1909-1910. Census Commissioner under
the Government of India, 1889-1893. Secretary to Royal Commission on Opium, J Population.
1894-1895. Author of Official Reports on Provincial Administration of Indian 1
Census Operations; &c.
J. A. BI. JOHN A. BLACK.
Press reader of the New Volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (loth ed.). | *
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology. London. Author of J Pre-Cambrian.
The Geology of Building Stones.
J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f p ontanus Jovianus.
See the biographical article: SYMONDS, JOHN A. I
J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D. (
Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, J p n _ nn /, /,.,,.')
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of A History of Classical 1
Scholarship; &c. L
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lirr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. [
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University.
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. -{ Quevedo V Villegas
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of I
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.
3. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f
Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln "] Pontus.
College. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893.
J. G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. f ,
See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING.
[ Praefect (in part);
J. G. FT. JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lrrr.p. Praeneste (in part);
Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, { Praetor (in part) ;
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c. Proserpine (in part);
[ Province (in part).
3. G. K. JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S.
Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demon-
strator in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's < Ray (in part)
College, Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, '
Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1904.
J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; -i Rangoon.
The Upper Burma Gazetteer.
3. Hn. JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D.
Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of -| Puttkammer.
Das Rheinland unter der Franzosische Herrschaft.
3. H. M. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lrrr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896).
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J Raphael.
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times;
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D.
Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding J Purim.
Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin
England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c.
3. L.* SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in _ ,. ,. _. .
the University. Secretary of the Roval Societv. Professor of Natural Philosoohv. J Kaaiauon ' Ineory Ot;
the University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Professor of Natural Philosophy,
Queen's College, Galway, 1880-1885.
memoirs on Mathematics and Physics.
Queen's College, Galway", 1880^1885. Author of Ether and Matter, and various Radiometer.
J. M. SIR JOHN MACDONELL, C.B., LL.D.
Master of the Supreme Court. Counsel to the Board of Trade and London Chamber
of Commerce. Formerly Quain Professor of Comparative Law, University College, *j Protectorate.
London. Editor of State Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey
of Political Economy ; The Land Question ; &c.
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r D . . .
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J romponazzi, t
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Price, Richard.
J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J Prefect;
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droil i Provost (in France).
franfais ; &c.
J. P. P. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. r
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. 1 Propertius, SextUS.
Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c.
J. R.* JOHN RANDALL. r
Formerly Secretary of the London Association of Correctors of the Press. Sub- J p pnn f ro orfino- (i* ^,,,f\
editor of the Athenaeum and Notes and Queries. \ Pr00lH
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Pornhvrv Pnmir
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- f" UI
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby H ryroxemte;
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Quartzite; Quartz-Porphyry.
J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. r
Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, J o . ....
Cambridge. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's 1 yul nan '
Academia, De Amicitia; &c.
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. f Poltava (in part);
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical J Pskov (in part)
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. I i a J om ( j. A
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
J. T. Cr.
J. W.
J. W.*
J. W. G.
K. G. J.
K. S.
L. BI.
L. J. S.
L. Wr.
L. W. V.-H.
M. Br.
M. Ha.
M. M. Bh.
M. N. T,
M. 0. B. C.
N. M.
N. W. T.
0. C. W.
0. H.
P. A. K.
Fellow of Lincoln
JAMES TROUBRIDGE CRITCHELL.
London Correspondent of the Australasian Pastoralists' Review, North Queensland J Q IIO ,,nclanH. HV <<,*.,
Herald; &c. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Author of Polynesian \
Labour in Queensland ; Guide to Queensland ; &c.
JAMES WILLIAMS, D.C.L., LL.D.
All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford.
College. Author of Wills and Succession; &c.
TAMES WARD, LL.D.
See the biographical article: WARD, JAMES.
JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J _ _._.. /-. ,
. Author of The Dead Heart'} Queensland: Geology
\ Possession (law);
1 Prescription (in part)
I
Psychology.
Mineralogy at the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904
of A ustralia ; &c.
I
KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNF,.
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of the Portfolio cf Musical Archaeology.
Orchestra.
f Portugal: Geography and
Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. -j History
Pommer; Portative Organ;
Positive Organ; Psaltery;
Rackett; Ravanastron;
Rebab; Rebec;
Recorder (music);
Reed Instruments.
Author of The Instruments of the .
COUNT LUTZOW, Lrrr.D. (Oxon.), D.Pn. (Prague), F.R.G.S. f
Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member j
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. -j Prague.
Author of Bohemia: a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester
Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John IIus; &c.
Louis BELL, PH.D. f
Consulting Engineer, Boston, U.S.A. Chief Engineer, Electric Power Trans- J Power Transmission:
mission Department, General Electric Co., Boston. Formerly Editor of Electrical ] Electrical.
World, New York. Author of Electric Power Transmission ; &c. (.
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Proustite; Pyrargyrite;
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j p vr nliicitp- Pvrnmnrnhita-
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineral- } L- vro
ogical Magazine. ( Pyrrhotite; Quartz; Realgar.
LEWIS WRIGHT.
Author of The Practical Poultry Keeper; The New Book of Poultry; &c.
L. W. VERNON-HARCOURT (d. 1909).
Barrister-at-Law. Author of His Grace the Steward and the Trial of Peers.
MARGARET BRYANT.
Poultry and Poultry-farming.
J Reclamation of Land.
j Pope, Alexander (in part}.
Formerly Fellow of 'the Royal
in Cambridge Natural History;
MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork.
University of Ireland. Author of " Protozoa "
and papers for various scientific journals.
SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I.E.
Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906.
of History of the Constitution of the East India Company ; &c.
Proteomyxa;
Radiolaria.
| Readymoney,
Author Sir cowasji Jehangir.
MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham
University, 1905-1908.
NORMAN M'LEAN, M.A. f
Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's -j Rabbula.
College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint.
NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. (
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the_
Soci6t<5 d'Anthropolpgip de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; &c.
REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D.
Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. _
Formerly Principal and Professor of Biblical Exegesis and Theology in the Countess "
of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt. Author of Primer of Hebrew Antiquities; &c.
OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent
Figures; &c.
Pylos.
J Poly crates;
1 Punic Wars.
Possession (Psychology).
Priest (in part);
Prophet (in part).
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.
Projection.
[ Poltava (in part);
< Pskov (in part);
[ Radom (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. f Prvnnp William a*
Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. { tym, John
P.O. PERCY GARDNER, LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A. / Polyelitus; Polygnotus;
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. 1 Praxiteles
P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1 Q "
Society. t
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist A Potter, Paul.
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.
P. G. T. PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D. f Quaternions (in *nrf\
See the biographical article : TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE. \ ( P
P. M. PAUL MEYER. / Provencal Language;
See the biographical article: MEYER, PAUL HYACINTHE. I ProvenQal Literature (in part).
P. McC. PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S.
Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer; -' Reaping.
&c. I
R. H. K. REV. ROBERT HATCH KENNETT, M.A., D.D.
Regius Professor of Hebrew, Cambridge, and Canon of Ely. Formerly Fellow and I Pcalmc Rnnlr nf (; M j, *i\
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Queens' College, and University Lecturer in 1
Aramaic. Author of A Short Account of the Hebrew Tenses; In our Tongues; &c. L
R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. I Pycnogonida.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. f
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formeriy Editor of the St James's ] Racquets.
Gazette, London. L
{Porcupine (in part);
Porpoise* Primates-
Prnhncoirtoa Prnnir'hiiplr-
rroDosciaea, rrongoucK,
Rabbit (in part);
Rat; Ratel.
R. Mo. RAY MORRIS, M.A. ( Rai i wavs . r, pnprn i <JM/,V/,V,
Formerly Managing Editor, Railway Age Gazette, New York. Author of Railroad \
Administration. ( and "* Organization.
R. M. L. ROBERT MURRAY LESLIE, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.P. f
Senior Physician, Prince of Wales's General Hospital, London. Lecturer on I
Medicine, London Post-Graduate College. Author of Clinical Types of Pneu- 1 Pygniy.
mania; &c.
R. M. W. R. MORTIMER WHEELER. { Punch.
' Poniatowski, Joseph A.;
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 18831909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, inij-ipoo; The First Romanovs, '
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from
to 1796 ; &c.
Potemkin, Prince;
Potocki, Ignaty;
Potocki, Stanislaw F.;
Prokopovich; Pugachev;
Rakoczy; Razin.
R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D.-ES-L.
Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque J Provence;
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil~\ Quierzy, Capitulary of.
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c.
R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, "j Porch.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
R. R. M. ROBERT RANULF MARETT, M.A.
Reader in Social Anthropology, Oxford University, and Fellow and Tutor of Exeter ! Prayer. *
College. Author of The Threshold of Religion.
R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. f Pompeii: Oscan Inscriptions;
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. I Praeneste (in hart)'
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville I _
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. ltu -
St C. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. f Quesnel, Pasquier;
See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. (_ Quietism.
S. F. H. SIDNEY FREDERIC HARMER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Departments, British Museum. Fellow, J Polyzoa;
formerly Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of The | Pterobranchia.
Cambridge Natural History.
St G. M. ST GEORGE JACKSON MIVART, M.D., F.R.S. / nattiosnakp (;
See the biographical article: MIVART, ST GEORGE JACKSON. \ K
S. R. G. SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., D.C.L. f pjynne William (in parf*
See the biographical article: GARDINER, S. R.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT.
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna.
Pompeii (in part);
Pomposa; Pomptine Marshes;
Popilia, Via; Portus;
Postumia, Via;
Praeneste (in part);
Praenestina, Via;
Puteoli; Pyrgi;
Ravenna (in part).
T. A. C. TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O.
Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, QnoontlanH- r~ J
1886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth \
and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand- StoHatCS.
&c.
f Post and Postal Service;
T.A.I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. J p nllnH I4n A ,,,,I.
Trinity College, Dublin.
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. . r privateer-
Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I _. .,,'
Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for 1 ""* War',
Blackburn, 1910. { Raid; Rebellion.
T. F. D. THOMAS F. DALE, M.A.
Queen's College, Oxford. Steward and Member of the Council of the Polo and - Polo.
Riding Pony Society. Author of Polo, Past and Present ; &c.
T. H. THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., Lirr.D. / R
See th 2 biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS.
T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc.
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., ) Q H
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's M
Award; India; Tibet.
T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., Sc.D.
Assistant-Secretary to the Treasury. London. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. I p .
Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treatise on Conic Sections; The Thirteen Books of\ ' -
Euclid's Elements ; &c.
T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, ) H
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 1 ' inry '
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. I
T. Wo. THOMAS WOODHOUSE.
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. \
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of-\ Ragatz; Rambert.
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and
in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.
W. A. L. WILLIAM ALEXANDER LINDSAY, K.C., M.A., J.P., D.L., F.S.A.
Windsor Herald. Bencher of the Middle Temple. Peerage Counsel. Author of The -} Precedence (in part).
Royal Household, 1837-1897; &c.
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, -i Pf" 106 ;
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. [Provost (in part).
W. Ba. WILHELM BACKER, PH.D. f
Professor at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. Knight of the Iron Crown. -< Rabbi.
Author of Die Agada der Tannaiten; &c.
W. B. P. WILLIAM BARCLAY PARSONS, C.E., LL.D. ,. , _ ..
Formerly Chief Engineer, Rapid Transit Commission, New York. Advisory-^ *
Engineer, Royal Commission on London Traffic. Author of Track; Turnouts; &c. [ ways.
W. E. D. WILLI\M ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E.
Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London Power Transmission: Inlro-
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University^ ductorv and Mechanical-
Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Dii,auc. r , , t> ,
Balancing of Engines; Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism; &c. [ Kail ways. Locomotive fo ' xr.
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f ft _
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ Q uarter Sessions, Court of,
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yA edition). [ Recognizance.
W. G. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L.
Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and
Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, J polytechnic (in part)
Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; '
&c.
W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f Porcupine (in part);
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ Rabbit (in part).
W. H. L. WILLIAM H. LANG, M.B., D.Sc.
Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, University of Manchester.
xiv
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
W. L. G.
W. M.
W. M. F. P.
W. 0. B.
W. R. M.
W. R. S.
W. W. F.*
W. Y.
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada.
Prince Edward Island;
Formerly Beit Lecturer in J n,.-!,-.,. p...
Colonial History at Oxford University." Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial 1 J* 1 " .' *_,rmnce (in part) ;
Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). I yuenec: Lily.
WILLIAM MINTO, M.A., LL.D.
See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM.
WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LiTT.D.
See the biographical article: PETRIE. W. M. F.
VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A.
Archdeacon of Birmingham. Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884-
1891. Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900. Author of The Mystery of the
Cross.
Pope, Alexander (in part).
Pyramid.
Prayers for the Dead.
WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). f
Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University I Pushkin
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; }
Slavonic Literature; &c.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
I
r Priest (in part) ;
I Prophet (in part);
1 Psalms, Book of (in
[ Rameses (in part).
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,] Pontitex
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; \
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c.
REV. WILLIAM YOUNG. r
Minister, Higher Broughton Presbyterian Church, Manchester, 1877-1901, and -I Presbyterianism.
Association Secretary for the Religious Tract Society in the North of England.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Pollination.
Polygon.
Polyhedron.
Polynesia.
Pomegranate.
Pomerania.
Pontoon.
Poor Law.
Poplar.
Porto Rico.
Portuguese Guinea.
Potassium.
Potato.
Potentiometer.
Prerogative.
Press Laws.
Primrose.
Primulaceae.
Princeton University.
Principal and Agent.
Probate.
Procession.
Proctor.
Prohibition.
Protestant.
Prussia.
Prussie Acid.
Public Health.
Publishing.
Puffin.
Pugilism.
Pump.
Punjab.
Pyrazoles.
Pyrenees.
Pyridine.
Pyrones.
Quarantine.
Quinine.
Quinoline.
Quinones.
Radium.
Rainbow.
Ranunculaceae.
Rare Earths.
Raspberry.
Rationalism.
Ravenna, Exarchate of.
Real Property.
Red River.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXII
POLL, strictly the head, in men or animals. Skeat connects
the word with O. Swed. kolle (initial p and k being interchange-
able), and considers a Celtic origin probable; cf. Irish coll, Welsh
col, peak, summit. " Poll " is chiefly used in various senses
derived from that of a unit in an enumeration of persons or
things, e.g. poll-tax (q.v.), or " challenge to the polls " in the case
of a jury (q.v.). The most familiar derivative uses are those
connected with voting at parliamentary or other elections;
thus " to poll " is to vote or to secure a number of votes, and
" the poll," the voting, the number of votes cast, or the time
during which voting takes place. The verb " to poll " also
means to clip or shear the top of anything, hence " polled " of
hornless cattle, or " deed-poll " (i.e. a deed with smooth or
unindented edges, as distinguished from an " indenture ").
A tree which has been " polled," or cut back dose in order to
induce it to make short bushy growth, is called a " pollard."
At the university of Cambridge, a " pass " degree is known as
a " poll-degree." This is generally explained as from the Greek
oi TToXXoi, the many, the common people.
POLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a fish of the family Gadidae,
abundant on rocky coasts of northern Europe, and extending as
far south as the western parts of the Mediterranean, where,
however, it is much scarcer and does not attain to the same size
as in its real northern home. In Scotland and some parts of
Ireland it is called lythe. It is distinguished from other species
of the genus Gadus by its long pointed snout, which is twice
as long as the eye, with projecting lower jaw, and without a
barbel at the chin. The vent is below the anterior half of the
first dorsal fin. A black spot above the base of the pectoral
fin is another distinguishing mark. Although pollack are well-
flavoured fish, and smaller individuals (from 12 to 16 in.)
excellent eating, they do not form any considerable article of
trade, and are not preserved, the majority being consumed by
the captors. Specimens of 12 Ib are common, but the species
is said to attain occasionally as much as 24 Ib in weight. (See
also COALFISH.)
POLLAIUOLO, the popular name of the brothers Antonio and
Piero di Jacobo Benci, Florentines who contributed much to
Italian art in the isth century. They were called Pollaiuolo
because their father was a poulterer. The nickname was also
extended to Simone, the nephew of Antonio.
ANTOXIO (1429-1498) distinguished himself as a sculptor,
jeweller, painter and engraver, and did valuable service in
perfecting the art of enamelling. His painting exhibits an excess
of brutality, of which the characteristics can be studied in the
" Saint Sebastian," painted in 1475, and now in the National
Gallery, London. A " St Christopher and the Infant Christ "
is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. But it was as a
sculptor and metal-worker that he achieved his greatest suc-
cesses. The exact ascription of his works is doubtful, as his
brother Piero did much in collaboration with him. The museum
of Florence contains the bronze group " Hercules strangling
Cacus " and the terra-cotta bust " The Young Warrior "; and
in the South Kensington Museum, London, is a bas-relief
representing a contest between naked men. In 1489 Antonio
took up his residence in Rome, where he executed the tomb of
Sixtus IV. (1493), a composition in which he again manifested the
quality of exaggeration in the anatomical features of the figures.
In 1496 he went to Florence in order to put the finishing touches
to the work already begun in the sacristy of Santo Spirito. He
died in 1498, having just finished his mausoleum 'of Inno-
cent VTIL, and was buried in the church of San Pietro in
Vincula, where a monument was raised to him near that of
his brother.
PIERO (1443-1496) was a painter, and his principal works
were his " Coronation of the Virgin," an altar-piece painted
in 1483, in the choir of the cathedral at San Gimignano; his
" Three Saints," an altar-piece, and " Prudence " axe both at
the Uffizi Gallery.
SIMONE (1457-1508), nephew of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a cele-
brated architect, was born in Florence and went to Rome in
1484; there he entered his uncle's studio and studied architecture.
On his return to Florence he was entrusted with the completion
of the Strozzi palace begun by Benedetto de Maiano, and the
cornice on the facade has earned him lasting fame. His highly
coloured accounts of Rome earned for him the nickname of U
Cronaca (chronicler). About 1498 he built the church of San
Francesco at Monte and the vestibule of the sacristy of Santo
Spirito. In collaboration with Guiliano da Sangallo he designed
the great hall in the Palazzo Vecchio. He was a dose friend
and adherent of Savonarola.
See also Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo (1907).
POLLAN (Coregonus pollan), the name given to a spedes of
the Salmonoid genus Coregonus (whitefish) which has been found
in the large and deep loughs of Ireland only. A full account of
the fish by its first describer, W. Thompson, may be found in his
Natural History of Ireland, iv. 168.
5
POLLARD POLLINATION
POLLARD, EDWARD ALBERT (1828-1872), American
journalist, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the 27th of
February 1828. He graduated at the university of Virginia in
1849, studied law at the College of William and Mary, and in
Baltimore (where he was admitted to the bar), and was engaged
in newspaper work in California until 1855. In 1857-1861 he
was clerk of the judiciary committee of the National House of
Representatives. By 1859 he had become an outspoken
Secessionist, and during the Civil War he was one of the principal
editors of the Richmond Examiner, which supported the Con-
federacy but was hostile to President Jefferson Davis. In 1864
Pollard sailed for England, but the vessel on which he sailed
was captured as a blockade runner, and he was confined in Fort
Warren in Boston Harbour from the 29th of May until the i2th
of August, when he was paroled. In December he was placed
in close confinement at Fort Monroe by order of Secretary
Stanton, but was soon again paroled by General B. F. Butler,
and in January proceeded to Richmond to be exchanged there
for Albert D. Richardson (1833-1869), a well-known corre-
spondent of the New York Tribune, who, however, had escaped
before Pollard arrived. In 1867-1869 Pollard edited a weekly
paper at Richmond, and he conducted the Political Pamphlet
there during the presidential campaign of 1868.
His publications include Black Diamonds Gathered in the Darkey
Homes of the South (1859), in which he advocated a reopening of
the slave trade; The Southern History of the War (3 vols. : First
Year of the War, with B. M. DeWitt, 1862; Second Year of the War,
1864; Third Year of the War, 1864); Observations in the North:
Eight Months in Prison and on Parole (1865) ; Tlie Lost Cause (1866) ;
Lee and His Lieutenants (1867); The Lost Cause Regained (1868),
a southern view of reconstruction urging the necessity of white
supremacy; The Life of Jefferson Davis (1869), an arraignment of
the Confederate president; and The Virginia Tourist (1870).
POLLENTIA (mod. Pollenzo), an ancient town of Liguria,
Italy, 10 m. to the north of Augusta Bagiennorum, on the left
bank of the Tanarus (mod. Tanaro). Its position on the road
from Augusta Taurinorum to the coast at Vada Sabatia, at the
point of divergence of a road to Hasta (Asti) gave it military
importance. Decimus Brutus managed to occupy it an hour
before Mark Antony in 43 B.C.; and it was here that Stilicho
on the 29th of March 403 fought the battle with Alaric
which though undecided led the Goths to evacuate Italy.
The place was famous for its brown wool, and for its pottery.
Considerable remains of ancient buildings, an amphitheatre, a
theatre and a temple still exist. The so-called temple of Diana
is more probably a tomb.
See G. Franchi-Pont in AM dell' accademia di Tornio (1805-
1808), p. 321 sqq.
POLLINATION, in botany, the transference of the pollen from
the stamen to the receptive surface, or stigma, of the pistil of a
flower. The great variety in the form, colour and scent of
flowers (see FLOWER) is intimately associated with pollination
which is effected by aid of wind, insects and other agencies.
Pollen may be transferred to the stigma of the same flower
self-pollination (or autogamy), or to the stigma of another flower
on the same plant or another plant of the same species cross-
pollination (or allogamy). Effective pollination may also occur
between flowers of different species, or occasionally, as in the
case of several orchids, of different genera this is known as
hybridization.
The method of pollination is to some extent governed by the
distribution of the stamens and pistil. In the case of unisexual
flowers, whether monoecious, that is, with staminate and pistillate
flowers on one and the same plant, such as many of our native
trees oak, beech, birch, alder, &c., or dioecious with staminate
and pistillate flowers on different plants, as in willows and pop-
lars, cross pollination only is possible. In bisexual or herma-
phrodite flowers, that is, those in which both stamens and pistil
are present, though self-pollination might seem the obvious
course, this is often prevented or hindered by various arrange-
ments which favour cross-pollination. Thus the anthers and
stigmas in any given flower are often mature at different times;
this condition, which is known as dichogamy and was first
pointed out by Sprengel, may be so well marked that the stigma
has ceased to be receptive before the anthers open, or the anthers
have withered before the stigma becomes receptive, when cross-
pollination only is possible, or the stages of maturity in the two
organs are not so distinct, when self-pollination becomes possible
later on. The flower is termed proteratidrous or proterogynous
according as anthers or stigmas mature first. The term
homogamy is applied to the simultaneous maturity of stigma and
anthers. Spontaneous self-pollination is rendered impossible
in some homogamous flowers in consequence of the relative
position of the anthers and stigma this condition has been
termed herkogamy. Flowers in which the relative position of
the organs allows of spontaneous self-pollination may be all
alike as regards length of style and stamens (homomorphy or
homostyly), or differ in this respect (heteromorphy) the styles
(From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bottmik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.)
FIG. I. Long-styled, L, and short-styled, K, flowers of Primula
sinensis.
G, Level of stigma ; 5, level of anthers ; P, N, pollen grains and
stigmatic papillae of long-styled form ; p, n, ditto of short-styled form.
and stamens being of different lengths in different flowers
(heterostyly) or the stamens only are of different lengths (heter-
anthery). Flowers which are closed at the time of maturity of
anthers and stigmas are termed cleistogamous.
Self-pollination is effected in very various ways. In the
simplest case the anthers are close to the stigmas, covering these
with pollen when they open; this occurs in a number of small
annual plants, also in Narcissus, Crocus, &c. In snowdrop and
other pendulous flowers the anthers form a cone around the style
and the pollen falls on to the underlying stigmas, or in erect
flowers the pollen may fall on to the stigmas which lie directly
beneath the opening anthers (e.g. Nafthecium). In very many
cases the pollen is carried to the stigma by elongation, curvature
or some other movement of the filament, the style or stigma, or
corolla or some other part of the ..flower, or by correlated move-
ments of two or more parts. For instance, in many flowers
the filaments are at first directed outwards so that self-pollina-
tion is not possible, but later incline towards the stigmas and
pollinate them (e.g. numerous Saxifragaceae, Cruciferae and
others), or the style, which first projects beyond the anthers,
shortens later on so that the anthers come into contact with the
stigmas (e.g. species of Cactaceae), or the style bends so that the
stigma is brought within the range of the pollen (e.g. species of
Oenothera, Epilobium,most Malvaceae, &c.). In Mirabilis Jalapa
and others the filaments and style finally become intertwined,
so that pollen is brought in contact with the stigma. Self-
pollination frequently becomes possible towards the end of the
life of a flower which during its earlier stages has been capable
only of cross-pollination. This is associated with the fact, so
ably demonstrated by Darwin, that, at any rate in a
large number of cases, cross-pollination yields better results, as
measured by the number of seeds produced and the strength of
the offspring, than self-pollination; the latter is, however,
preferable to absence of pollination. In many cases pollen has
no effect on the stigma of the same flower, the plants are self-
sterile, in other cases external pollen is more effective (pre-potent)
than pollen from the same flower; but in a very large number of
cases experiment has shown that there is little or no difference
POLLINATION
between the effects of external pollen and that from the same
flower.
Cross-pollination may occur between two flowers on the same
plant (geitonogamy) or between flowers on distinct plants
(xenogamy). The former, which is a somewhat less favourable
method than the latter, is effected by air-currents, insect
agency, the actual contact between stigmas and anthers in
neighbouring flowers, where, as in the family Compositae,
flowers are closely crowded, or by the fall of the pollen from a
(From Darwin's Different Farms of Flowers by permission.)
FIG. 2. Diagram of the flowers of the three forms of Lythrum
salicaria in their natural position, with the petals and calyx
removed on the near side. (X 6 times.)
The dotted lines with the arrow show the directions in which
pollen must be carried to each stigma to ensure full fertility.
higher on to the stigmas of a lower flower. Anton Kerner has
shown that crowded inflorescences such as those of Compositae
and Umbelliferae are especially adapted for geitonogamy.
Xenogamy is of course the only possible method in diclinous
plants; it is also the usual method in monoclinous plants, owing
to the fact that stamens and carpels often mature at different
times (dichogamy), the plants being proterandrous or protero-
gynous. Even in homogamous flowers cross-pollination is in a
large proportion of cases the effective method, at any rate at
first, owing to the relative position of anther and stigma or the
fact that the plant is self-sterile.
The subject of heterostyly was investigated by Darwin (see
his Forms of Flowers) and later by Hildebrand. In the case of a
dimorphic flower, such as Primula, four modes of pollination
are possible, two distinguished by Darwin as legitimate, between
anthers and stigmas on corresponding levels, and two so-called
illegitimate unions, between anthers and stigmas at different
levels (cf. fig. i). In a trimorphic flower such as Lythrum
salicaria there are six possible legitimate unions and twelve
illegitimate (see fig. 2). Experiment showed that legitimate
unions yield a larger quantity of seed than illegitimate.
FIG. 3. Cleistogamous
Many plants produce, in addition to ordinary open flowers,
so-called cleistogamous flowers, which remain permanently
closed but which notwithstanding
produce fruit; in these the corolla is
inconspicuous or absent and the pollen
grows from the anther on to the
stigma of the same flower. Species of
Viola (see fig. 3), Oxalis acelosella
(wood sorrel) and Lamium amplexi-
caule are commonly occurring in-
stances. The cleistogamous flowers
are developed before or after the
normal open flowers at seasons less
favourable for cross-pollination. In
some cases flowers, which open under
normal circumstances, remain closed
owing to unfavourable circumstances,
and self-pollination occurs as in a
typical cleistogamous flower these flower of Viola sylvatica.
have been distinguished as pseudo- i, j| ver X4.
cleistogamous. Instances occur in mfgnifieTanTcut open 7
water plants, where flowers are un- a , anther; s, pistil;
able to reach the surface (e.g. Alisma st, style; v, stigmatic
natans, water buttercup, &c.) or surface,
where flowers remain closed in dull or cold weather.
Systems of classification of flowers according to the agency by
which pollination is effected have been proposed by Delpino,
H. Mtiller and other workers on the subject. Knuth suggests
the following, which is a modification of the systems proposed by
Delpino and M tiller.
A. Water-pollinated plants, Hydropkilae. A small group which is
subdivided thus:
a. Pollinated under the water; e.g. Najas where the pollen grains
are rather heavier than water, and sinking down are caught
by the stigmas of the extremely simple female flowers.
b. Pollination on the surface, a more frequent occurrence than
(a). In these the pollen floats on the surface and reaches
the stigmas of the female flowers as in Callitriche, Ruppia,
Zostera, Elodea. In Vallisneria (fig. 4) the male flowers
become detached and float on the surface of the water;
. the anthers are thus brought in contact with the stigmas
of the female flowers.
B. Wind-pollinated plants, Anemophilae. In these the pollen
grains are smooth and light so as to be easily blown about,
and are produced in great quantity; the stigmas are brush-
like or feathery, and usually long and protruding so as readily
to catch the pollen. As no means of attraction are required
the flowers are inconspicuous and without scent or nectar.
The male inflorescence is often a pendulous catkin, as in hazel
and many native English trees (fig. 5) ; or the anthers are
loosely fixed on long thread-like filaments as in grasses (fig. 6).
B , B
FIG. 4. Vallisneria spiralis.
A, female flower; s, stigmas.
B, male flowers; I before; 2, after spreading of the petals. A
male flower has floated alongside a female and one of its
anthers, which have opened to set free the pollen, is in contact
with a stigma, a, anther.
C. Animal- pollinated plants, Zoidiophilae, are subdivided according
to the kind of animal by agency of which pollination is
effected, thus:
a. Bat-pollinated, Chiropterophilae. A Freycinetia, native of
Java, and a species of Bauhinia in Trinidad are visited by
bats which transfer the pollen.
POLLINATION
b. Bird-pollinated, Ornithophilae. Humming-birds and honey-
suckers are agents of pollination in certain tropical plants;
they visit the generally large and brightly-coloured flowers
either for the honey which is secreted in considerable
quantity or for the insects which have been attracted by
the honey (fig. 7).
FIG.
FIG. 6. Grass Flower show-
5. Catkin of Male ing pendulous anthers and pro-
Flowers of Hazel. truding hairy stigmas.
Snail or slug-pollinated flowers, Malacophilae. In small
flowers which are crowded at the same level or in flat
flowers in which the stigmas and anthers project but little,
slugs or snails creeping over their surface may transfer to
the stigma the pollen which clings to the slimy foot. Such
a transfer has been described in various Aroids, Rohdea
japonica (Liliaceae), and other plants.
(From a drawing in the Botanical Gallery at the British Museum.)
FIG. 7. Flower of Datura sanguinea visited by humming-bird
Docimastes ensi/erus. (About nat. size.)
d. Insect-pollinated, Entomophilae, a very
large class characterized by sticky
pollen grains, the surface of which bears
spines, warts or other projections (fig. 8)
which facilitate adhesion to some part
of the insect's body, and a relatively
small stigma with a sticky surface.
The flowers have an attractive floral
envelope, are scented and often contain
honey or a large amount of pollen;
by these means the insect is enticed
to visit it. The form, colour and
scent _of the flower vary widely,
according to the class of insect whose
FIG. 8. i, anther; 2,
pollen grain of Hollyhock
(Althaea rosea) enlarged.
The pollen grain bears
numerous spines, the
dark spots indicate thin
places in the outer wall.
aid is sought, and there are also numerous devices for pro-
tecting the pollen and nectar from rain and dew or
from the visits of those insects which would not serve
the purpose of pollen-transference (unbidden guests). 1 The
following subdivisions have been suggested
A. Pollen Flowers. These offer only pollen to their visitors,
as species of anemone, poppy, rose, tulip, &c. They
are simple in structure and regular in form, and the
generally abundant pollen is usually freely exposed.
B. Nectar Flowers. These contain nectar and include the
following groups:
1. Flowers with exposed nectar, readily visible and accessible
to all visitors. These are very simple, open and gener-
ally regular flowers, white, greenish-yellow or yellow
in colour and are chiefly visited by insects with a
short proboscis, such as short -tongued wasps and flies,
also beetles and more rarely bees. Examples are
Umbelliferae as a family, saxifrages, holly, Acer,
Rhamnus, Euonymus, Euphorbia, &c.
2. Flowers with nectar partly concealed and visible only in
bright sunshine. The generally regular flowers are
completely open only in bright sunshine, closing up
into cups at other times. Such are most Cruciferae,
buttercups, king-cup (Caltha), Potenlilla. White and
yellow colours predominate and insects with a pro-
boscis of medium length are the common pollinating
agents, such as short -tongued bees.
3. Flowers with nectar concealed by pouches, hairs, &c.
Regular flowers predominate, e.g. Geranium, Cardamine
pratensis, mallows, Rubus, Oxalis, Epilobium, &c., but
many species show more or less well-marked median
symmetry (zygomorphism) as Euphrasia, Orchis, thyme,
&c., and red, blue and violet are the usual colours.
Long-tongued insects such as the honey-bee are the
most frequent visitors.
4. Social flowers, whose nectar is concealed as in (3), but the
flowers are grouped in heads which render them
strikingly conspicuous, and several flowers can be simul-
taneously pollinated. Such are Compositae as a class,
also Scabiosa, Armeria (sea-pink) and others.
5. Hymenopterid flowers, which fall into the following groups:
Bee-flowers proper, humble-bee flowers requiring a
longer proboscis to reach the nectar, wasp-flowers such
as fig-wort (Scrophularia nodosa) and ichneumon
flowers such as t way-blade (Lislera ovata).
The shapes and colours are extremely varied ; bilater-
ally symmetrical forms are most frequent with red,
blue or violet colours. Such are Papilionaceous
flowers, Violaceae, many Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae
and others. Many are highly specialized so that
pollination can be effected by a few species only.
Examples of more special mechanisms are illustrated
by Salvia (fig. q). The long connective of the single
stamen is hinged to the short filament and has a shorter
arm ending in a blunt process and a longer arm bearing
a half-anther. A large bee in probing for honey comes
in contact with the end of the short arm of the lever
and causes the longer arm to descend and the pollen
is deposited on the back of the insect (fig. 9, i). In a
later stage (fig. 9, 2) the style elongates and the forked
stigma occupies the same position as the anther in
fig- 9- i-
(From Strasburger's Lekrbuck der Bolanik , by
FIG. 9. Pollination
1, Flower visited by a humble-
bee, showing the projection of
the curved connective bearing
the anther from the helmet-
shaped upper lip and the depo-
sition of the pollen on the back
of the humble-bee.
2, Older flower, with connective
drawn back, and elongated style.
permission of Gustav Fischer.)
of Salvia pratensis.
4, The staminal apparatus at
rest, with connective enclosed
within the upper lip.
3, The same, when disturbed
by the entrance of the proboscis
of the bee in the direction of the
arrow;/, filament; c, connective;
s, the obstructing half of the
anther.
1 See A. Kerner, Plants and their Unbidden Guests.
POLLIO
In Broom there is an explosive machanism; the
pressure of the insect visitor on the keel of the corolla
causes a sudden release of the stamens and the scatter-
ing of a cloud of pollen over its body.
6. Lepidopterid flowers, visited chiefly by Lepidoptera,
which are able to reach the nectar concealed in deep,
narrow tubes or spurs by means
of their long slender proboscis.
Such are: (a) Butterfly-flowers,
usually red in colour, as
Dianthus carthusianorum; (b)
Moth-flowers, white or whitish,
as honeysuckle (Loniceta
periclymenum).
7. Fly flowers, chiefly visited by
Diptera, and including very
different types:
a. Nauseous flowers, dull and
yellowish and dark purple in
colour and often spotted, with
a smell attractive to carrion
flies and dung flies, e.g. species
of Saxifraga.
b. Pitfall flowers such as Asarum,
Aristolochia and Arum macu-
latum, when the insect is
caught and detained until
pollination is effected (fig.
10).
c. Pinch-trap flowers, as in the
family Asclepiadaceae, where
the proboscis, claw or bristle
of the insect is caught in the
clip to which the pairs of
pollinia are attached. Bees,
wasps and larger insects serve
as pollinating agents
FIG. 10. Spadix of Arum
maculatum from which the
greater part of the spathe has
been cut away.
p, Pistillate, s, staminate
flowers; h, sterile flowers form-
ing a circlet of stiff hairs closing
the mouth of the chamber
formed by the lower part of
the spathe.
FIG. ii. Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris). Half nat. size,
i, One of the scales which form the coronet in the flower, enlarged.
d. Deceptive flowers such as Parnassia, where the conspicuous
coronet of glistening yellow balls suggests a plentiful
supply of nectar drops (fig. u).
e. Hoverfly flowers, small flowers which are beautifully coloured
with radiating streaks pointing to a sharply-defined
centre in which is the nectar, as in Veronica chamaedrys
(fig. 12).
LITERATURE. Joseph Gottlieb Kolreuter 1 (d. 1806) was the first
to study the pollination of flowers and to draw attention to the
necessity of insect visits in many cases; he
gave a clear account of cross-pollination
by insect aid. He was followed by Christian
Konrad Sprengel, whose work Das entdeckte
Geheimniss der Natur im Bau und in der
Bejruchtung der Blumen (Berlin, 1733),
contains a description of floral adaptations
to insect visits in nearly 500 species of
plants. Sprengel came very near to
appreciating the meaning of cross-pollina-
tion in the lite of plants when he states
that " it seems that Nature is unwilling
that any flower should be fertilized by its
own pollen." In 1799 an Englishman. (From Vines's Tact Book of
Thomas Andrew Knight, after experiments Botany - by t*
on the cross-fertilization of cultivated
FIG.
12. Flower of
plants, formulated the conclusion that no
plant fertilizes itself through many genera- k. Calyx,
tions. Sprengel's work, which had been u, u, u, The three lobes
almost forgotten, was taken up again by of the lower lip of
Charles Darwin, who concluded that no the rotate corolla,
organic being can fertilize itself through o, The upper lip.
an unlimited number of generations; but s, s, The two stamens,
a cross with other individuals is occasion- n, The stigma.
ally perhaps at very long intervals indis-
pensable. Darwin's works on dimorphic flowers and the fertiliza-
tion of orchids gave powerful support to this statement. The
study of the fertilization, or as it is now generally called " pollina-
tion," of flowers, was continued by Darwin and taken up by other
workers, notably Friedrich Hildebrand, Federico Delpino and the
brothers Fritz and Hermann Miiller. Hermann Muller's work on
The Fertilization of Flowers by Insects and their Reciprocal Adapta-
tions (1873), followed by subsequent works on the same lines, brought
together a great number of observations on floral mechanisms and
their relation to insect-visits. Miiller also suggested a modification
of the Knight-Darwin law, which had left unexplained the numer-
ous instances of continued successful self-pollination, and restated
it on these terms: " Whenever offspring resulting from crossing
comes into serious conflict with offspring resulting from self-
fertilization, the former is victorious. Only where there is no
such struggle for existence does self-fertilization often prove satis-
factory for many generations." An increasing number of workers
in this field of plant biology in England, on the Continent and in
America has produced a great mass of observations, which have
recently been brought together in Dr Paul Knuth's classic work,
Handbook of Flower Pollination, an English translation of which
has been published (1908) by the Clarendon Press.
POLLIO, GAIUS ASINIUS (76 B.C.-A.D. 5; according to some,
75 B.C.-A.D. 4), Roman orator, poet and historian. In 54 he
impeached unsuccessfully C. Porcius Cato, who in his tribunate
(56) had acted as the tool of the triumvirs. In the civil war
between Caesar and Pompey Pollio sided with Caesar, was
present at the battle of Pharsalus (48), and commanded against
Sextus Pompeius in Spain, where he was at the time of Caesar's
assassination. He subsequently threw in his lot with M.
Antonius. In the division of the provinces, Gaul fell to Antony,
who entrusted Pollio with the administration of Gallia Trans-
padana. In superintending the distribution of the Mantuan
territory amongst the veterans, he used his influence to save
from confiscation the property of the poet Virgil. In 40 he
helped to arrange the peace of Brundisium by which Octavian
(Augustus) and Antonius were for a time reconciled. In the
same year Pollio entered upon his consulship, which had been
promised him in 43. It was at this time that Virgil addressed
the famous fourth eclogue to him. Next year Pollio conducted
a successful campaign against the Parthini, an Illyrian people
who adhered to Brutus, and celebrated a triumph on the 25th
of October. The eighth eclogue of Virgil was addressed to
Pollio while engaged in this campaign. From the spoils of the
war he constructed the first public library at Rome, in the
Atrium Libertatis, also erected by him (Pliny, Nat. hist. xxxv.
10), which he adorned with statues of the most celebrated
1 Vorlaufige Nachricht von einigen das Geschlecht der Pflanzen
betreffenden Versuchen und Beobachtungen, 3, 4, 6 (Leipzig, 1761).
POLLNITZ POLL-TAX
authors, both Greek and Roman. Thenceforward he withdrew
from active life and devoted himself to literature. He seems to
have maintained to a certain degree an attitude of independence,
if not of opposition, towards Augustus. He died in his villa at
Tusculum, regretted and esteemed by all.
Pollio was a distinguished orator; his speeches showed ingenuity
and care, but were marred by an affected archaism (Quintilian,
Inst. x. I, 113; Seneca, Ep. loo). He wrote tragedies also, which
Virgil (Ed. viii. id) declared to be worthy of Sophocles, and a prose
history of the civil wars of his time from the first triumvirate (60)
down to the death of Cicero (43) or later. This history, in the
composition of which Pollio received assistance from the grammarian
Ateius Praetextatus, was used as an authority by Plutarch and
Appian (Horace, Odes, ii. I ; Tacitus, Annals, iv. 34). As a literary
critic Pollio was very severe. He censured Sallust (Suetonius,
Gram. 10) and Cicero (Quintilian, Inst. xii. I, 22) and professed
to detect in Livy's style certain provincialisms of his native Padua
(Quintilian, i. 5, 56, viii. I, 3); he attacked the Commentaries of
Julius Caesar, accusing their author of carelessness and credulity,
if not of deliberate falsification (Suet. Caesar, 56). Pollio was the
first Roman author who recited his writings to an audience of his
friends, a practice which afterwards became common at Rome.
The theory that Pollio was the author of the Bellum africanum,
one of the supplements to Caesar's Commentarii, has met with little
support. All his writings are lost except a few fragments of his
speeches (H. Meyer, Oral. rom. frag., 1842), and three letters
addressed to Cicero (Ad. Fam. x. 31-33).
See Plutarch, Caesar, Pompey; Veil. Pat. ii. 36, 63, 73, 76;
Florus iv. 12, II; Dio Cassius xlv. 10, xlviii. 15; Appian, Bell,
civ. ; V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit (1891), i. ; P. Groebe, in
Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (1896), ii. pt. 2 ; Teuffel-Schwaben,
Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), 221 ; M. Schanz, Geschichte
der romischen Litteratur, pt. 2, p. 20 (2nd ed., 1899); Cicero, Letters,
ed. Tyrrell and Purser, vi. introd. p. 80.
POLLNITZ, KARL LUDWIG, FREIHERR VON (1692-1775),
German adventurer and writer, was born at Issum on the 25th
of February 1692. His father, Wilhelm Ludwig von Pollnitz
(d. 1693), was in the military service of the elector of Branden-
burg, and much of his son's youth was passed at the electoral
court in Berlin. He was a man of restless and adventurous
disposition, unscrupulous even for the age in which he lived,
visited many of the European courts, and served as a soldier in
Austria, Italy and Spain. Returning to Berlin in 1735 he
obtained a position in the household of King Frederick William I.
and afterwards in that of Frederick the Great, with whom he
appears to have been a great favourite; and he died in Berlin on
the 23rd of June 1775.
Pollnitz's Memoires (Lie'ge, 1734), which were translated into
German (Frankfort, 1735), give interesting glimpses of his life and
the people whom he met, but they are very untrustworthy. He
also wrote Nouveaux memoires (Amsterdam, 1737); Etat abrege de
la cour de Saxe sous le regne d'Auguste III. (Frankfort, 1734; Ger.
trans., Breslau, 1736); and Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des
guatres derniers souverains de la maison de Brandenbourg, published
by F. L. Brunn (Berlin, 1791; Ger. trans., Berlin, 1791). Per-
haps his most popular works are La Saxe galante (Amsterdam,
1734), an account of the private life of Augustus the Strong, elector
of Saxony and king of Poland; and Histoire secrete de la duchesse
d'Hanovre, Spouse de Georges I. (London, 1732). There is an
English translation of the Memoires (London, 17381739). See
P. von Pollnitz, Stammtafeln der Familie von Pollnitz (Berlin,
1894); and J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, pt. iv.
(Leipzig, 1870).
POLLOCK, the name of an English family which has con-
tributed many important members to the legal and other profes-
sions. David Pollock, who was the son of a Scotsman and built
up a prosperous business in London as a saddler, had three distin-
guished sons: Sir David Pollock (1780-1847), chief justice of
Bombay; Sir Jonathan Frederick Pollock, Bart. (1783-1870),
chief baron of the exchequer; and Sir George Pollock, Bart.
(1786-1872), field-marshal. Of these the more famous were
the two last. Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, who rendered
valuable military service in India, and especially in Afghanistan
in 1841-1843, ended his days as constable of the Tower of London,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his baronetcy, created in
1872, descended to his son Frederick (d. 1874), who assumed
the name of Montagu- Pollock, and so to his heirs. Chief Baron
Sir J. Frederick Pollock, who had been senior wrangler at Cam-
bridge, and became F.R.S. in 1816, was raised to the bench in
1844, and created a baronet in 1866. He was twice married
and had eight sons and ten daughters, his numerous descendants
being prominent in many fields. The chief baron's eldest son,
Sir William Frederick Pollock, 2nd Bart. (1815-1888), became a
master of the Supreme Court (1846) and queen's remembrancer
(1874); his eldest son, Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Bart. (b. 1845),
being the well-known jurist and legal historian, fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge, and Corpus professor of jurisprudence at
Oxford (1883-1903), and the second son, Walter Herries Pollock
(b. 1850), being a well-known author and editor of the Saturday
Review from 1883 to 1894. The chief baron's third son, George
Frederick Pollock (b. 1821), became a master of the Supreme
Court in 1851, and succeeded his brother as queen's (king's)
remembrancer in 1886; among his sons were Dr W. Rivers
Pollock (1850-1909), Ernest Murry Pollock, K.C. (b. 1861),
and the Rt. Rev. Bertram Pollock (b. 1863), bishop of Norwich,
and previously head master of Wellington College from 1893 till
1910. The chief baron's fourth son, Sir Charles Edward Pollock
(1823-1897), had a successful career at the bar and in 1873
became a judge, being the last survivor of the old barons of the
exchequer; he was thrice married and had issue by each wife.
POLLOK, ROBERT (1798-1827), Scottish poet, son of a small
farmer, was born at North Moorhouse, Renfrewshire, on the igth
of October 1798. He was trained as a cabinet-maker and after-
wards worked on his father's farm, but, having prepared himself
for the university, he took his degree at Glasgow, and studied for
the ministry of the United Secession Church. He published
Tales of the Covenanters while he was a divinity student, and
planned and completed a strongly Calvinistic poem on the spiri-
tual life and.destiny of man. This was the Course of Time (1827),
which passed through many editions and became a favourite
in serious households in Scotland. It was written in blank
verse, in ten books, in the poetic diction of the i8th century, but
with abundance of enthusiasm, impassioned elevation of feeling
and copious force of words and images. The poem at once
became popular, but within six months of its publication, on the
i8th of September 1827, its author died of consumption.
POLLOKSHAWS, a police burgh and burgh of barony of
Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the White Cart, now virtually a
suburb of Glasgow, with which it is connected by electric
tramway and the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian
railways. Pop. (1901), 11,183. It is named from the shows
or woods (and is locally styled " the Shaws ") and the lands of
Pollok, which have been held by the Maxwells since the i3th
century. The family is now called Stirling-Maxwell, the estate
and baronetcy having devolved in 1865 upon Sir William
Stirling of Keir, who then assumed the surname of Maxwell.
Pollok House adjoins the town on the west. The staple indus-
tries are cotton-spinning and weaving, silk-weaving, dyeing,
bleaching, calico-printing and the manufacture of chenille and
tapestry, besides paper mills, potteries and large engineering
works. Pollokshaws was created a burgh of barony in 1813,
and is governed by a council and provost. About 2 m. south-
west is the thriving town of Thornliebank (pop. 2452), which
owes its existence to the cotton-works established towards the
end of the i8th century.
POLL-TAX, a tax levied on the individual, and not on
property or on articles of merchandise, so-called from the old
English poll, a head. Raised thus per capita, it is sometimes
called a capitation tax. The most famous poll-tax in English
history is the one levied in 1380, which led to the revolt of the
peasants under Wat Tyler in 1381, but the first instance of the
kind was in 1377, when a tax of a groat a head was voted by both
clergy and laity. In 1379 the tax was again levied, but on a
graduated scale. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, paid ten
marks, and the scale descended from him to the peasants, who
paid one groat each, every person over sixteen years of age being
liable. In 1380 the tax was also graduated, but less steeply.
For some years after the rising of 1381 money was only raised
in this way from aliens, but in 1513 a general poll tax was
imposed. This, however, only produced about 50,000, instead
of 160,000 as was expected, but a poll-tax levied in 1641
resulted in a revenue of about 400,600. During the reign of
POLLUX, JULIUS POLO, MARCO
Charles II. money was obtained in this way on several occasions,
although in 1676-1677 especially there was a good deal of
resentment against the tax. For some years after 1688 poll-
taxes were a favourite means of raising money for the
prosecution of the war with France. Sometimes a single
payment was asked for the year; at other times quarterly
payments were required. The poll-tax of 1697 included a
weekly tax of one penny from all persons not receiving ahns.
In 1698 a quarterly poll-tax produced 321,397. Nothing
was required from the poor, and those who were liable may be
divided roughly into three classes. Persons worth less than 300
paid one shilling; those worth 300, including the gentry and
the professional classes, paid twenty shillings; while tradesmen
and shopkeepers paid ten shillings. Non-jurors were charged
double these rates. Like previous poll-taxes, the tax of 1698
did not produce as much as was anticipated, and it was the last
of its kind in England.
Many of the states of the United States of America raise
money by levying poll-taxes, or, as they are usually called,
capitation taxes, the payment of this tax being a necessary
preliminary to the exercise of the suffrage.
See S. Dowell, History of Taxation and Taxes in England (1888),
vol. iii. ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (1896), vol. ii.
POLLUX, JULIUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek grammarian
and sophist of the 2nd century A.D. He taught at Athens,
where, according to Philostratus (Vit. Soph.), he was appointed
to the professorship of rhetoric by the emperor Commodus on
account of his melodious voice. Suidas gives a list of his
rhetorical works, none of which has survived. Philostratus
recognizes his natural abilities, but speaks of his rhetoric in very
moderate terms. Pollux is probably the person attacked by
Lucian in the Lexiphanes and Teacher of Rhetoricians. In the
Teacher of Rhetoricians Lucian satirizes a worthless and ignorant
person who gains a reputation as an orator by sheer effrontery ; the
Lexiphanes, a satire upon the use of obscure and obsolete words,
may conceivably have been directed against Pollux as the author
of the Onomasticon. This work, which we still possess, is a
Greek dictionary in ten books, each dedicated to Commodus,
and arranged not alphabetically but according to subject-matter.
Though mainly a dictionary of synonyms and phrases, chiefly
intended to furnish the reader with the Attic names for indi-
vidual things, it supplies much rare and valuable information on
many points of classical antiquity. It also contains numerous
fragments of writers now lost. The chief authorities used were
the lexicological works of Didymus, Tryphon, and Pamphilus;
in the second book the extant treatise of Rufus of Ephesus
On the Names of the Parts of the Human Body was specially
consulted.
The chief editions of the Onomasticon are those of W. Dindorf
(1824), with the notes of previous commentators, I. Bekker (1846),
containing the Greek text only, and Bethe (1900). There are mono-
graphs on special portions of the vocabulary; by E. Rohde (on
the theatrical terms, 1870), and F. von Stojentin (on constitutional
antiquities, 1875).
POLLUX, or POLLUCITE, a rare mineral, consisting of hydrous
caesium and aluminium silicate, H 2 Cs4AL((Si03)9. Caesium
oxide (Cs2O) is present to the extent of 30-36 %, the
amount varying somewhat owing to partial replacement by
other alkalis, chiefly sodium. The mineral crystallizes in the
cubic system. It is colourless and transparent, and has a
vitreous lustre. There is no distinct cleavage and the fracture
is conchoidal. The hardness is 6| and the specific gravity 2-90.
It occurs sparingly, together with the mineral " castor " (see
PETALITE), in cavities in the granite of the island of Elba, and
with beryl in pegmatite veins at Rumford and Hebron in Maine.
POLO, CASPAR GIL (?i53O-iS9i), Spanish novelist and
poet, was born at Valencia about 1530. He is often confused
with Gil Polo, professor of Greek at Valencia University between
1566 and 1373; but this professor was not named Caspar. He
is also confused with his own son, Caspar Gil Polo, the author
of De origins et progressu juris romani (1615) and other
legal treatises, who pleaded before the Cortes as late as 1626.
A notary by profession, Polo was attached to the treasury
commission which visited Valencia in 1571, became coadjutor to
the chief accountant in 1572, went on a special mission to
Barcelona in 1580, and died there in 1591. Timoneda, in the
Sarao de amor (1561), alludes to him as a poet of repute; but of
his miscellaneous verses only two conventional, eulogistic sonnets
and a song survive. Polo finds a place in the history of the novel
as the author of La Diana enamorada, a continuation of Monte-
mayor's Diana, and perhaps the most successful continuation
ever written by another hand. Cervantes, punning on the
writer's name, recommended that " the Diana enamorada should
be guarded as carefully as though it were by Apollo himself " ;
the hyperbole is not wholly, nor even mainly, ironical.
The book is one of the most agreeable of Spanish pastorals;
interesting in incident, written in fluent prose, and embellished
with melodious poems, it was constantly reprinted, was imitated
by Cervantes in the Canto de Caliope, and was translated into
English, French, German and Latin. The English version of
Bartholomew Young, published in 1598 but current in manu-
script fifteen years earlier, is said to have suggested the Felismena
episode in the Two Gentlemen of Verona; the Latin version of
Caspar Barth, entitled Erotpdidascalus (Hanover, 1625), is a per-
formance of uncommon merit as well as a bibliographical curiosity.
POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324), the Venetian, greatest of
medieval travellers. Venetian genealogies and traditions of
uncertain value trace the Polo family to Sebenico in Dalmatia,
and before the end of the nth century one Domenico Polo is
found in the great council of the republic (1094). But the
ascertained line of the traveller begins only with his grandfather.
Andrea Polo of S. Felice was the father of three sons, Marco,
Nicolo and Maffeo, of whom the second was the father of the
subject of this article. They were presumably " noble," i.e.
belonging to the families who had seats in the great council,
and were enrolled in the Libro d' Oro; for we know that Marco
the traveller is officially so styled (nobilis vir). The three
brothers were engaged in commerce; the elder Marco, resident
apparently in Constantinople and in the Crimea (especially at
Sudak), suggests, by his celebrated' will, a long business
partnership with Nicolo and Maffeo.
About 1260, and even perhaps as early as 1250, we find Nicolo
and Maffeo at Constantinople. Nicolo was married and had left
his wife there. The two brothers went on a speculation to the
Crimea, whence a succession of chances and openings carried
them to the court of Barka Khan at Sarai, further north up to
Bolghar (Kazan), and eventually across the steppes to Bokhara.
Here they fell in with certain envoys who had been on a mission
from the great Khan Kublai to his brother Hulagu in Persia,
and by them were persuaded to make the journey to Cathay in
their company. Under the heading CHINA the circumstances
are noticed which in the last half of the I3th century and first
half of the I4th threw Asia open to Western travellers to a degree
unknown before and since until the igth century. Thus began
the medieval period of intercourse between China and catholic
Europe. Kublai, when the Polos reached his court, was either
at Cambaluc (Khanbaligh, the Khan's city), i.e. Peking, which he
had just rebuilt, or at his summer seat at Shangtu in the country
north of the Great Wall. It was the first time that the khan, a
man full of energy and intelligence, had fallen in with European
gentlemen. He was delighted with the Venetian brothers,
listened eagerly to all they had to tell of the Latin world, and
decided to send them back as his envoys to the poperwrtirteUers
requesting the despatch of a large body of educated men to
instruct his people in Christianity and the liberal arts. With
Kublai, as with his predecessors, religion was chiefly a political
engine. Kublai, the first of his house to rise above the essential
barbarism of the Mongols, had perhaps discerned that the
Christian Church could afford the aid he desired in taming his
countrymen. It was only when Rome had failed to meet his
advance that he fell back upon Buddhism as his chief civilizing
instrument.
The brothers arrived at Acre in April 1269. They learned
that Clement IV. had died the year before, and no new pope had
yet been chosen. So they took counsel with an eminent church-
man, Tedaldo, archdeacon of Liege and papal legate for the
8
POLO, MARCO
whole realm of Egypt, and, being advised by him to wait
patiently, went home to Venice, where they found that Nicole's
wife was dead, but had left a son Marco, now fifteen. The papal in-
terregnum was the longest that had been known, at least since the
dark ages. After the Polos had spent two years at home there was
still no pope, and the brothers resolved on starting again for the
East, taking young Marco with them. At Acre they again saw
Tedaldo, and were furnished by him with letters to authenticate
the causes that had hindered their mission. They had not yet left
Lajazzo, Layas, or Ayas on the Cilician coast (then one of the
chief points for the arrival and departure of the land trade of
Asia), when they heard that Tedaldo had been elected pope.
They hastened back to Acre, and at last were able to execute
Kublai's mission, and to obtain a papal reply. But, instead of
the hundred teachers asked for by the Great Khan, the new pope
(styled Gregory X.) could supply but two Dominicans; and these
lost heart and turned back, when they had barely taken the first
step of their journey.
The second start from Acre must have taken place about
November 1271; and from a consideration of the indications
and succession of chapters in Polo's book, it would seem that the
party proceeded from Lajazzo to Sivas and Tabriz, and thence
by Yezd and Kirman down to Hormuz (Hurmuz) at the mouth
of the Persian Gulf, with the purpose of going on to China by sea ;
but that, abandoning their naval plans (perhaps from fear of the
flimsy vessels employed on this navigation fronrthr^ttH east-
wards), they returned northward through Persia. Traversing
Kirman and Khorasan they went on to Balkh and Badakshan,
in which last country young Marco recovered from illness. In
a passage touching on the climate of the Badakshan hills,
Marco breaks into an enthusiasm which he rarely betrays, but
which is easily understood by those who have known what
it is, with fever in the blood, to escape to the exhilarating
mountain air and fragrant pine-groves. They then ascended
the upper Oxus through Wakhan to the plateau of Pamir
(a name first heard in Marco's book). These regions were
hardly described again by any European traveller (save Benedict
Goes) till the expedition in 1838 of Lieut. John Wood of the
Indian navy, whose narrative abounds in incidental illustratio
of Marco Polo. Crossing the Pamir the travellers descend
upon Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan (Khutan). These are
regions which remained almost absolutely closed to our know-
ledge till after 1860, when the temporary overthrow of the
Chinese power, and the enterprise of British, Russian and other
explorers, again made them known.
From Khotan the Polos passed on to the vicinity of Lop-Nor,
reached for the first time since Polo's journey by Prjevalsky
in 1871. Thence the great desert of Gobi was crossed to
Tangut, as the region at the extreme north-west of China, both
within and without the Wall, was then called.
In his account of the Gobi, or desert of Lop, as he calls it,
Polo gives some description of the terrors and superstitions of
the waste, a description which strikingly reproduces that of
the Chinese pilgrim Suan T'sang, in passing the same desert in
the contrary direction six hundred years before.
The Venetians, in their further journey, were met and
welcomed by the Great Khan's people, and at last reached his
presence at Shangtu, in the spring of 1275. Kublai received
them with great cordiality, and took kindly to young Marco, by
this time about twenty-one years old. The " young bachelor,"
as the book calls him, applied himself diligently to the acquisi-
tion of the divers languages and written characters chiefly in use
among the multifarious nationalities subject to the Khan; and
Kublai, seeing that he was both clever and discreet, soon
began to employ him in the public service. G. Pauthier found
in the Chinese annals a record that in the year 1 277 a certain Polo
was nominated as a second-class commissioner or agent attached
to the imperial council, a passage which we may apply to the
young Venetian. Among his public missions was one which
carried him through the provinces of Shansi, Shensi, and
Szechuen, and the wild country on the borders of Tibet, to the
remote province of Yunnan, called by the Mongols Karajang,
and into northern Burma (Mien). Marco, during his stay at
court, had observed the Khan's delight in hearing of strange
countries, of their manners, marvels, and oddities, and had
heard his frank expressions of disgust at the stupidity of envoys
and commissioners who could tell of nothing but their official
business. He took care to store his memory or his note-book
with curious facts likely to interest Kublai, which, on his return
to court, he related. This south-western journey led him
through a country which till about 1860 was almost a terra
incognita though since the middle of the iQth century we have
learned much regarding it through the journeys of Cooper,
Gamier, Richthofen, Gill, Baber and others. In this region
there existed and still exists in the deep valleys of the great
rivers, and in the alpine regions which border them, a vast
ethnological garden, as it were, of tribes of various origin, and
in every stage of semi-civilization or barbarism; these afforded
many strange products and eccentric traits to entertain Kublai.
Marco rose rapidly in favour and was often employed on
distant missions as well as in domestic administration; but we
gather few details of his employment. He held for three years
the government of the great city of Yangchow; on another
occasion he seems to have visited Kangchow, the capital of
Tangut, just within the Great Wall, and perhaps Karakorum on
the north of the Gobi, the former residence of the Great Khans:
again we find him in Ciampa, or southern Cochin-China; and
perhaps, once more, on a separate mission to the southern states
of India. We are not informed whether his father and uncle
shared in such employments, though they are mentioned as
having rendered material service to the Khan, in forwarding
the capture of Siang-yang (on the Han river) during the war
against southern China, by the construction of powerful
artillery engines a story, however, perplexed by chronological
difficulties.
All the Polos were gathering wealth which they longed to carry
back to their home, and after their exile they began to dread
what might follow Kublai's death. The Khan, however, was
deaf to suggestions of departure and the opportunity only
carneby chance. ' _^7
oqfl^-rsrghun, khan of Persia, the grandson of Kublai's brother
eft. -Hulagu, lost in 1286 his favourite wife, called by Polo Balgana
(i.e. Bulughan or " Sable "). Her dying injunction was that her
place should be filled only by a lady of her own Mongol tribe.
Ambassadors were despatched to the court of Peking to obtain
such a bride. The message was courteously received, and
the choice fell on the lady Cocacin (Kukachin), a maiden of
seventeen. The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was then
imperilled by war, so Arghun's envoys proposed to return by
sea. Having made acquaintance with the Venetians, and eager
to profit by their experience, especially by that of Marco, who
had just returned from a mission to the Indies, they begged the
Khan to send the Franks in their company. He consented with
reluctance, but fitted out the party nobly for the voyage, charging
them with friendly messages to the potentates of Christendom,
including the pope, and the kings of France, Spain and England.
They sailed from Zaiton or Amoy Harbour in Fukien (a town
corresponding either to the modern Changchow or less probably
toTswanchoworChinchew),thenoneof the chief Chinese havens
for foreign trade, in the beginning of 1292. The voyage in-
volved long detention on the coast of Sumatra, and in south
India, and two years or more passed before they arrived in
Persia. Two of the three envoys and a vast proportion of their
suite perished by the way; but the three Venetians survived all
perils, and so did the young lady, who had come to look on them
with filial regard. Arghun Khan had died even before they
quitted China; his brother reigned in his stead; and his son
Ghazan succeeded to the lady's hand. The Polos went on
(apparently by Tabriz. Trebizond, Constantinople and Negro-
pont) to Venice, which they seem to have reached about the end
of 1295.
The first biographer of Marco Polo was the famous geo-
graphical collector John Baptist Ramusio, who wrote more than
two centuries after the traveller's death. Facts and dates
POLO, MARCO
sometimes contradict his statements, but he often adds detail,
evidently authentic, of great interest and value, and we need not
hesitate to accept as a genuine tradition the substance of his
story of the Polos' arrival at their family mansion in St John
Chrysostom parish in worn and outlandish garb, of the scornful
denial of their identity, and the stratagem by which they secured
acknowledgment from Venetian society.
We next hear of Marco Polo in a militant capacity. Jealousies
had been growing in bitterness between Venice and Genoa
thioughout the I3th century. In 1298 the Genoese prepared
to strike at their rivals on their own ground, and a powerful fleet
under Lamba Doria made for the Adriatic. Venice, on hearing
of the Genoese armament, equipped a fleet still more numerous,
and placed it under Andrea Dandolo. The crew of a Venetian
galley at this time amounted, all told, to 250 men, under a
comito or master, but besides this officer each galley carried a
sopracomito or gentleman-commander, usually a noble. On one
of the galleys of Dandolo's fleet Marco Polo seems to have gone
in this last capacity. The hostile fleets met before Curzola
Island on the 6th of September, and engaged next morning.
The battle ended in a complete victory for Genoa, the details
of which may still be read on the facade of St Matthew's church
in that city. Sixty-six Venetian galleys were burnt in
Curzola Bay, and eighteen were carried to Genoa, with 7000
prisoners, one of whom was Marco Polo. The captivity was of
less than a year's duration; by the mediation of Milan peace
was made, on honourable terms for both republics, by July
1299; and Marco was probably restored to his family during
that or the following month.
But his captivity was memorable as the immediate cause of
his Book. Up to this time he had doubtless often related his
experiences among his friends; and from these stories, and the
'frequent employment in them (as it would seem) of grand
numerical expressions, he had acquired the nickname of Marco
Millioni. Yet it would seem that he had committed nothing
to writing. The narratives not only of Marco Polo but of
several other famous medieval travellers (e.g. Ibn Batuta,
Friar Odoric, Nicolo Conti) seem to have been extorted from
them by a kind of pressure, and committed to paper by other
hands. Examples, perhaps, of that intense dislike to the use of
pen and ink which still prevails among ordinary respectable
folk on the shores of the Mediterranean.
In the prison of Genoa Marco Polo fell in with a certain person
of writing propensities, Rusticiano or Rustichello of Pisa, also a
captive of the Genoese. His name is otherwise known as that
of a respectable literary hack, who abridged and recast several
of the French romances of the Arthurian cycle, then in fashion.
He wrote down Marco's experiences at his dictation.
We learn little of Marco Polo's personal or family history
after this captivity; but we know that at his death he
left a wife, Donata (perhaps of the Loredano family, but
this is uncertain), and three daughters, Fantina and Bellela
(married, the former to Marco Bragadino), and Moreta
(then a spinster, but married at a later date to Ranuzzo
Dolfino). One last glimpse of the traveller is gathered from
his will, now in St Mark's library. On the gth of January
1324 the traveller, in his seventieth year, sent for a neighbouring
priest and notary to make his testament. We do not know the
exact time of his death, but it fell almost certainly within the
year 1324, for we know from a scanty series of documents,
beginning in June 1325, that he had at the latter date been
some time dead. He was buried, IrTaccordance with his will,
in the Church of St Lorenzo, where the family burying-place
was marked by a sarcophagus, erected by his filial care for his
father Nicolo, which existed till near the end of the i6th century.
On the renewal of the church" in 1592 this seems to have
disappeared.
The archives of Venice have yielded a few traces of our tra-
veller. Besides his own will just alluded to, there are the wills of
his uncle Marco and of his younger brother Maffeo; a few legal
documents connected with the house property in St John
Chrysostom, and other papers of similar character; and
two or three entries in the record of the Maggior Con-
siglio. We have mentioned the sobriquet of Marco Millioni.
Ramusio tells us that he had himself noted the use of this name
in the public books of the commonwealth, and this statement
has been verified in an entry in the books of the Great Council
(dated April 10, 1305), which records as one of the securities
in a certain case the " Nobilis vir Marchus Paulo MILION."
It is alleged that long after the traveller's death there was
always in the Venetian masques one individual who assumed
the character of Marco Millioni, and told Munchausen-like
stories to divert the vulgar. There is also a record (March 9,
1311) of the judgment of the court of requests (Curia Peti-
tionum) upon a suit brought by the " Nobilis vir Marcus Polo "
against Paulo Girardo, who had been an agent of his, to recover
the value of a certain quantity of musk for which Girardo had
not accounted. Another document is a catalogue of certain
curiosities and valuables which were collected in the house of
Marino Faliero, and this catalogue comprises several objects
that Marco Polo had given to one of the Faliero family.
The most tangible record of Polo's memory in Venice is a
portion of the Ca' Polo the mansion (there is reason to believe)
where the three travellers, after their long absence, were denied
entrance. The court in which it stands was known in Ramusio's
time as the Corte del millioni, and now is called Corte Sabbionera.
That which remains of the ancient edifice is a passage with a
decorated archway of Italo-Byzantine character pertaining to
the I3th century.
No genuine portrait of Marco Polo exists. There is a medallion
portrait on the wall of the Sala dello Scudo in the ducal palace,
which has become a kind of type; but it is a work of imagination
no older than 1761. The oldest professed portrait is one in the
gallery of Monsignor Badia at Rome, which is inscribed Marcus
Polus venetus lolius orbis et Indie peregrator primus. It is
a good picture, but evidently of the i6th century at earliest.
The Europeans at Canton have absurdly attached the name of
Marco Polo to a figure in a Buddhist temple there containing a
gallery of " Arhans " or Buddhist saints, and popularly known
as the " temple of the five hundred gods." The Venetian
municipality obtained a copy of this on the occasion of the
geographical congress at Venice in 1881.
The book indited by Rusticiano is in two parts. The first, or
prologue, as it is termed, is unfortunately the only part which con-
sists of actual personal narrative. It relates in an interesting
though extremely brief fashion the circumstances which led the
two elder Polos to the Khan's court, together with those of their
second journey (when accompanied by Marco), and of the return
to the west by the Indian seas and Persia. The second and staple
part consists of a series of chapters of unequal length and unsystem-
atic structure, descriptive of the different states and provinces of
Asia (certain African islands and regions included), with occasional
notices of their sights and products, of curious manners and re-
markable events, and especially regarding the Emperor Kublai,
his court, wars and administration. A series of chapters near __
the close treats of sundry wars that took place between various''
branches of the house of Jenghiz in the latter half of the I3th
century. This last series is either omitted or greatly curtailed in
all the MS. copies and versions except one (Paris, National Library,
Fonds Fr. 1116).
It was long doubtful in what language the work was originally
written. That this had been some dialect of Italian was a natural
presumption, and a contemporary statement could be alleged in
its favour. But there is now no doubt that the original was French.
This was first indicated by Count Baldelli-Boni, who published an
elaborate edition of two of the Italian texts at Florence in 1827,
and who found in the oldest of these indisputable signs that it was
a translation from the French. The argument has since been
followed up by others; and a manuscript in rude and peculiar
French, belonging to the National Library of Paris (Fonds Fr.
1116), which was printed by the Socifti de gto^raphie in 1824, is
evidently either the original or a close transcript of the original
dictation. A variety of its characteristics are strikingly indicative
of the unrevised product of dictation, and are such as would
necessarily have disappeared either in a translation or in a revised
copy. Many illustrations could be adduced of the fact that the use
of French was not a circumstance of surprising or unusual nature;
for the language had at that time, in some points of view, even a
wider diffusion than at present, and examples of its literary em-
ployment by writers who were not Frenchmen (like Rusticiano
himself, a compiler of French romances) are very numerous.
IO
POLO, MARCO
Eighty-five MSS. of the book are known, and their texts exhibit
considerable differences. These fall under four principal types.
Of these, type i. is found completely only in that old French codex
which has been mentioned (Paris, National Library, Fr. 1116).
Type ii. is shown by several valuable MSS. in purer French (Paris,
Nat. Libr., Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; Bern, Canton Library,
125), which formed the basis of the edition prepared by the late
M. Pauthier in 1865. It exhibits a text condensed and revised
from the rude original, but without any exactness, though perhaps
under some general direction by Marco Polo himself, for an inscrip-
tion prefixed to certain MSS. (Bern, Canton Libr. 125; Paris,
Nat. Libr., Fr. 5649) records the presentation of a copy by the tra-
veller himself to the Seigneur Thiebault de C6poy, a distinguished
Frenchman known to history, at Venice in the year 1306. Type
iii. is that of a Latin version prepared in Marco Polo's lifetime,
though without any sign of his cognisance, by Francesco Pipino,
a Dominican of Bologna, and translated from an Italian copy.
In this, condensation and curtailment are carried a good deal further
than in type ii. Some of the forms under which this type appears
curiously illustrate the effects of absence of effective publication,
not only before the invention of the press, but in its early days.
Thus the Latin version published by Grynaeus at Basel in the
Novus Orbis (1532) is different in its language from Pipino's, and
yet is clearly traceable to that as its foundation. In fact it is a
retranslation into Latin from some version of Pipino (Marsden
thinks the Portuguese printed one of 1502). It introduces changes
of its own, and is worthless as a text; yet Andreas Miiller, who in
the 1 7th century took so much trouble with Polo, unfortunately
chose as his text this fifth-hand version. The French editions
published in the middle of the i6th century were translations
from Grynaeus's Latin. Hence they complete this curious and vicious
circle of transmission -French, Italian, Pipino's Latin, Portuguese,
Grynaeus's Latin, French.
Type iv. deviates largely from those already mentioned; its
history and true character are involved in obscurity. It is only
represented by the Italian version prepared for the press by John
Baptist Ramusio, with interesting preliminary dissertations, and
published at Venice two years after his death, in the second volume
of the Navigation* e viaggi. Its peculiarities are great. Ramusio
seems to imply that he made some use of Pipino's Latin, and various
passages confirm this. But many new circumstances, and anec-
dotes occurring in no other copy, are introduced; many names
assume a new shape; the whole style is more copious and literary
than that of any other version. While a few of the changes and
interpolations seem to carry us farther from the truth, others
contain facts of Asiatic nature or history, as well as of Polo's
alleged experiences, which it is difficult to ascribe to any hand
but the traveller's own.
We recognize to a certain extent tampering with the text, as in
cases where Polo's proper names have been identified, and more
modern forms substituted. In some other cases the editorial
spirit has gone astray. Thus the age of young Marco has been
altered to correspond with a date which is itself erroneous. Ormuz
is described as an island, contrary to the old texts, and to the fact
in Polo's time. In speaking of the oil-springs of Caucasus the
phrase " camel-loads " has been substituted for " ship-loads,"
in ignorance that the site was Baku on the Caspian.
But, on the other hand, there are a number of new circumstances
certainly genuine, which can hardly be ascribed to any one but
Polo himself. Such is the account which Ramusio's version gives
of the oppressions exercised by Kublai's Mahommedan minister
Ahmad, telling how the Cathayans rose against him and murdered
him, with the addition that Messer Marco was on the spot when
all this happened. Not only is the whole story in substantial
accordance with the Chinese annals, even to the name of the chief
conspirator (Vanchu in Ramusio, Wangcheu in the Chinese records),
but the annals also tell of the frankness of " Polo, assessor of the
privy council," in opening Kublai's eyes to the iniquities of his
agent.
Polo was the first traveller to trace a route across the whole
longitude of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after kingdom
which he had seen ; the first to speak of the new and brilliant court
which had been established at Peking; the first to reveal China in
all its wealth and vastness, and to tell of the nations on its borders;
the first to tell more of Tibet than its name, to speak of Burma,
of Laos, of Siam, of Cochin-China, of Japan, of Java, of Sumatra
and of other islands of the archipelago, of the Nicobar and Andaman
Islands, of Ceylon and its sacred peak, of India but as a country
seen and partially explored; the first in medieval times to give
any distinct account of the secluded Christian Empire of Abyssinia,
and of the semi-Christian island of Sokotra, and to speak, however
dimly, of Zanzibar, and of the vast and distant Madagascar; whilst
he carries us also to the remotely opposite region of Siberia and the
Arctic shores, to speak of dog-sledges, white bears and reindeer-
riding Tunguses.
The diffusion of the book was hardly so rapid as has been some-
times alleged. We know from Gilles Mallet's catalogue of the books
collected in the Louvre by Charles V., dating c. 1370^1375, that
five copies of Marco Polo's work were then in the collection ; but on
the other hand, the 202 known MSS. and the numerous early printed
editions of " Mandeville," with his lying wonders, indicates a much
greater popularity. Dante, who lived twenty-three years after
the book was dictated, and who touches so many things in the seen
and unseen worlds, never alludes to Polo, nor, we believe, to any-
thing that can be connected with him; nor can any trace of Polo
be discovered in the book of his contemporary, Marino Sanudo
the Elder, though this worthy is well acquainted with the work,
later by some years, of Haytpn the Armenian, and though many
of the subjects on which he writes in his own book (Secrela Fidelium
Crucis 1 ) challenge a reference to Polo's experiences. " Mande-
ville " himself, who plundered right and left, hardly ever plunders
Polo (see one example in Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 323, note).
The only literary works we know of the I4th century which show
acquaintance with Polo's book or achievements are Pipino's
Chronicle, Villani's Florentine History, Pietro d'Abano's Conciliator,
the Chronicle of John of Ypres, and the poetical romance of Baudouin
de Sebourc, which last borrows themes largely from Polo.
Within the traveller's own lifetime we find the earliest examples
of the practical and truly scientific coast-charts (Portolani), based
upon the experience of pilots, mariners, merchants, &c. In two of
the most famous of the I4th century Portolani, we trace Marco
Polo's influence first, very slightly in the Laurentian or Medicean
Portolano of 1351 (at Florence), but afterwards with clearness
and in remarkable detail in the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (now at
Paris). Both of these represent a very advanced stage of medieval
knowledge, a careful attempt to represent the known world on the
basis of collected fact, and a disregard for theological or pseudo-
scientific theory; in the Catalan Atlas, as regards Central and
Further Asia, and partially as regards India, Marco Polo's Book is
the basis of the map. His names are often much perverted, and it
is not always easy to understand the view that the compiler took
of his itineraries. Still we have Cathay placed in the true position
of China, as a great empire filling the south-east of Asia. The
trans-Gangetic peninsula is absent, but that of India proper is,
for the first time in the history of geography, represented with a
fair approximation to correct form and position.
It is curious that, in the following age, owing partly to his un-
happy reversion to the fancy of a circular disk, the map of Fra
Mauro (1459), one of the greatest map-making enterprises in history,
and the result of immense labour in the collection of facts and the
endeavour to combine them, gives a much less accurate idea of
Asia than the Carta catalana. Columbus possessed a printed
copy of the Latin version of Polo's book made by Pipino, and on
more than seventy pages of this there are manuscript notes in the
admiral's handwriting, testifying, what is sufficiently evident from
the whole history of the Columbian voyages, to the immense in-
fluence of the work of the Venetian merchant upon the discoverer
of the new world.
When, in the i6th century, attempts were made to combine
new and old knowledge, the results were unhappy. The earliest
of such combinations tried to realize Columbus's ideas regarding
the identity of his discoveries with the Great Khan's dominions;
but even after America had vindicated its independent existence,
and the new knowledge of the Portuguese had named China where
the Catalan map had spoken of Cathay, the latter country, with
the whole of Polo's nomenclature, was shunted to the north, forming
a separate system. Henceforward the influence of Polo's work
on maps was simply injurious; and when to his names was added
a sprinkling of Ptolemy's, as was usual throughout the i6th century,
the result was a hotchpotch conveying no approximation to facts
(see further MAP).
As to the alleged introduction of important inventions into
Europe by Polo although the striking resemblance of early Euro-
pean block-books to those of China seems clearly to indicate the
derivation of the art from that country, there is no reason for
connecting this introduction (any more than that of gunpowder
or the mariner's compass) with the name of Marco. In the I4th
century not only were missions of the Roman Church established in
some of the chief cities of eastern China, but a regular overland
trade was carried on between Italy and China, by way of Tana
(Azov), Astrakhan, Otrar, Kamul (Hami) and Kanchow. Many
a traveller other than Marco Polo might have brought home the
block-books, and some might have witnessed the process of making
them. This is the less to be ascribed to Polo, because he so curiously
omits to speak of the process of printing, when, in describing the
block-printed paper-money of China, his subject seems absolutely
to challenge a description of the art.
See the Recueil of the Paris Geographical Society (1824), vol. i.,
giving the text of the fundamental MS. (Nat. Libr. Paris, Fr.
1116; see above), as well as that of the oldest Latin version; G.
Pauthier's edition, Livre . . . de Marco Polo . . . (Paris, 1865),
based mainly upon the three Paris MSS. (Nat. Libr. Fr. 2810;
Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; see above) and accompanied by a commentary
of great value; Baldelli-Boni's Italian edition, giving the oldest
Italian version (Florence, 1827); Sir Henry Yule's edition, which
in its final shape, as revised and augmented by Henri Cordier
(. . . Marco Polo . . . London, 1903), is the most complete
1 Printed by Bongars in the collection called Gesla Dei per Francos
(1611), ii. 1-281.
POLO
ii
storehouse of Polo learning in existence, embodying the labours
of all the best students of the subject, and giving the essence of
such works as those of Major P. Molesworth Sykes (Ten Thousand
Miles in Persia, &c.) so far as these touch Marco Polo; the
Archimandrite Palladius Katharov's " Elucidations of Marco Polo "
(from vol. x. of the Journal of the North China Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society (1876), pp. 1-54; F. von Richthofen, Letters
to Shangai Chamber of Commerce; E. C. Baber, Travels . . . in
Western China; G. Phillips, Identity of . . . Zailun with Chang-
chau in T'oung Poo (Oct. 1890), and other studies in T'oung-Pao
(Dec. 1895 and July 1896). There are in all 10 French editions
of Polo as well as 4 Latin editions, 27 Italian, 9 German, 4 Spanish,
i Portuguese, 12 English, 2 Russian, I Dutch, I Bohemian (Chekh),
I Danish and I Swedish. See also E. Bretschneider, Mediaeval
Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, i. 239, 167; ii. 8, 71, 81-84,
184; Leon Cahun, Introduction a Vhistoire de I'Asie, 339, 386;
C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 15-160,
545-547. 554, 556-563. (H. Y!; C. R. B.)
POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball), the most ancient of games with
stick and ball. Hockey, the Irish national game of hurling
(and possibly golf and cricket) are derived from polo.
History. T j je j atter was ca u e d hockey or hurling on horse-
back in England and Ireland respectively, but historically
hockey and hurling are polo on foot.
The earliest records of polo are Persian. From Persia the
game spread westward to Constantinople, eastwards through
Turkestan to Tibet, China and Japan. From Tibet polo travelled
to Gilgit and Chitral, possibly also to Manipur. Polo also flourished
in India in the i6th century. Then for 200 years its records in
India cease, till in 1854 polo came into Bengal from Manipur by
way of Cachar and in 1862 the game was played in the Punjab.
There have been twelve varieties of the game during its
existence of at least 2000 years, (i) A primitive form
consisting of feats of horsemanship and of skill with stick and
ball. (2) Early Persian, described in Shahnama, a highly
organized game with rules, played four aside. (3) Later
Persian, i6th century, the grounds 300 by 1 70 yds. Sir Anthony
Shirley says the game resembled the rough football of the same
period in England. (4) The game in the lyth century in Persia.
A more highly organized game than No. 3, as described by
Chardin. (5) The Byzantine form played at Constantinople
in the i2th century. A leathern ball the size of an apple and
a racquet were used. (6) The Chinese game, about A.D. 600
played with a light wooden ball. The goal was formed by
. two posts with a boarding between, in the latter a hole being
cut and a net attached to it in the form of a bag. The side
which hit the ball into the bag were the winners. Another
Chinese form was two teams ranged on opposite sides of
the ground, each defending its own goal. The object of the
game was to drive the ball through the enemy's goal. (7) The
Japanese game, popular in feudal times, still survives under
the name of Dakiu, or ball match. The Japanese game
has a boarded goal; 5 ft. from the ground is a circular hole
i ft. 2 in. in diameter with a bag behind. The balls are of
paper with a cover of pebbles or bamboo fibre, diameter
1-7 in., weight ij oz. The sticks are racket shaped. The
object is to lift over or carry the ball with the racket and
place it in the bag. (8) Called rol, played with a long stick
with which the ball was dribbled along the ground. (9) Another
ancient Indian form in which the sides ranged up on opposite
sides of the ground and the ball was thrown in. This is
probably the form of the game which reached India from
Persia and is represented at the present day by Manipur and
Gilgit polo, though these forms are probably rougher than the
old Indian game. (10) Modern English with heavy ball and
sticks, played in England and the colonies and wherever polo
is played in Europe. Its characteristics are: offside; severe
penalties for breach of the rules; close combination; rather
short passing; low scoring, and a strong defence, (ii) Indian
polo has a lighter ball, no boards to the grounds, which are
usually full-sized; a modified offside-rule, but the same system of
penalties. It is a quicker game than the English. (12) The
American game has no offside and no penalties, in the English
sense. The attack is stronger, the passing longer, the pace
greater and more sustained. American players are more certain
goal-hitters and their scoring is higher. They defeated the
English players in 1909 with ease.
Polo was first played in England by the loth Hussars in 1869.
The game spread rapidly and some good play was seen at Lillie
Bridge. But the organization of polo in England dates from
its adoption by the Hurlingham Club in 1873. The ground
was boarded along the sides, and this device, which was employed
as a remedy for the irregular shape of the Hurlingham ground,
has become almost universal and has greatly affected the develop-
ment of the game. The club committee, in 1874, drew up the first
code of rules, which reduced the number of players to five a side
and included offside. The next step was the foundation 9f the
Champion Cup, in 1877. Then came the rule dividing the game
into periods of ten minutes, with intervals of two minutes for
changing ponies after each period, and five minutes at half-
time. The height of ponies was fixed at 14-2, and a little later
an official measurer was appointed, no pony being allowed to
play unless registered at Hurlingham. The next change was
the present scale of penalties for offside, foul riding or dangerous
play. A short time after, the crooking of the adversary's stick,
unless in the act of hitting the ball, was forbidden. The game
grew faster, partly as the result of these rules. Then the ten
minutes' rule was revised. The period did not close until the
ball went over the boundary. Thus the period might be ex-
tended to twelve or thirteen minutes, and although this time
was deducted from the next period the strain of the extra
minutes was too great on men and ponies. It was therefore
laid down that the ball should go out of play on going out of
bounds or striking the board, whichever happened first. In 1910
a polo handicap was established, based on the American system
of estimating the number of goals a player was worth to his
side. This was modified in the English handicap by assigning
to each player a handicap number as at golf. The highest
number is ten, the lowest one. The Hurlingham handicap is
revised during the winter, again in May, June and July, each
handicap coming into force one month after the date of issue.
In tournaments under handicap the individual handicap numbers
are added together, and the team with the higher aggregate
concedes goals to that with the lower, according to the con-
ditions of the tournament. The handicap serves to divide
second from first class tournaments, for the former teams must
not have an aggregate over 25.
The size of the polo ground is 300 yds. in length and from
1 60 to 200 yds. in width. The larger size is only found now
where boards are not used. The ball is made of willow root, is
3J in. in diameter, weight not over s| oz. The polo stick has
no standard size or weight, and square or cigar-shaped heads
are used at the discretion of the player. On soft grounds, the
former, on hard grounds the latter are the better, but Indian
and American players nearly always prefer the cigar shape.
The goal posts, now generally made of papier mache, are
8 yds. apart. This is the goal line. Thirty yards from the goal
line a line is marked out, nearer than which to the goal no one
of a fouled side may be when the side fouling has to hit out,
as a penalty from behind the back line, which is the goal line
produced. At 50 yds. from each goal there is generally a mark
to guide the man who takes a free hit as a penalty.
Penalties are awarded by the umpires, who should be two in
number, well mounted, and with a good knowledge of the rules
of the game. The Hurlingham and Ranelagh clubs appoint
official umpires. There should also be a referee in case of
disagreement between the umpires, and it is usual to have a
man with a flag behind each goal to signal when a goal is
scored. The Hurlingham club makes and revises the rules of
the game, and its code is, with some local modifications, in force
in the United Kingdom, English-speaking colonies, the Argentine
Republic, California, and throughout Europe. America and
India are governed by their own polo associations. .
The American rules have no offside, and their penalties consist
of subtracting a goal or the fraction of a goal, according to the
offence, from the side which has incurred a penalty for fouling.
The differences between the Hurlingham and Indian rules
12
POLONAISE POLONNARUWA
are very slight, and they tend to assimilate more as time
goes on.
Polo in the army is governed by an army polo committee,
which fixes the date of the inter-regimental tournament. The
semi-finals and finals are played at Hurlingham. The earlier
ties take place at centres arranged by the army polo committee,
who are charged by the military authorities with the duty of
checking the expenditure of officers on the game. The value of
polo as a military exercise is now fully recognized, and with the
co-operation of Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton the
expenses of inter-regimental tournaments have been regulated
and restrained.
The County Polo Association has affiliated to it all the county
clubs. It is a powerful body, arranging the conditions of county
tournaments, constructing the handicaps for county players, and
in conjunction with the Ranelagh club holding a polo week for
county players in London. The London clubs are three
Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton. Except that they use
Hurlingham rules the clubs are independent, and arrange the con-
ditions and fix the dates of their own tournaments. Ranelagh
has four, Roehampton three and Hurlingham two polo grounds.
There are about 400 matches played at these clubs, besides
members' games from May to July during the London season.
At present the Meadowbrook still hold the cup which was won
inter- by an English team in 1886. In 1902 an American
national team made an attempt to recover it and failed.
Polo. They lacked ponies and combination; but they bought
the first and learned the second, and tried again successfully
in 1909, thus depriving English polo of the championship of
the world.
Polo in England has passed through several stages. It was
always a game of skill. The cavalry regiments in India in early
The Game. P' days, the 5th, 9th, 1 2th and i7th Lancers, the
loth Hussars and the i3th Hussars, had all learned the
value of combination. In very early days regimental players had
learned the value of the backhanded stroke, placing the ball so as
to give opportunities to their own side. The duty of support-
ing the other members of the team and riding off opponents
so as to clear the way for players on the same side was
understood. This combination was made easier when the
teams were reduced from five a side to four. Great stress
was laid on each man keeping his place, but a more
flexible style of play existed from early days in the I7th Lancers
and was improved and perfected at the Rugby Club by the late
Colonel Gordon Renton and Captain E. D. Miller, who had
belonged to that regiment. For a long time the Rugby style
of play, with its close combination, short passes and steady
defence, was the model on which other teams formed themselves.
The secret of the success of Rugby was the close and unselfish
combination and the hard work done by every member of the
team. After the American victories of 1909 a bolder, harder
hitting style was adopted, and the work of the forwards became
more important, and longer passes are now the rule. But the
main principles are the same. The forwards lead the attack and
are supported by the half-back and back when playing towards
the adversaries' goal. In defence the forwards hamper the
opposing No. 3 and No. 4 and endeavour to clear the way for
their own No. 3 and No. 4, who are trying not merely to keep the
ball out of their own goal but to turn defence into attack. Each
individual player must be a good horseman, able to make a pony
gallop, must have a control of the ball, hitting hard and clean
and in the direction he wishes it to go. He must keep his eye
on the ball and yet know where the goal-posts are, must be
careful not to incur penalties and quick to take advantage of an
opportunity. Polo gives no time for second thoughts. A polo
player must not be in a hurry, but he must never be slow nor
dwell on his stroke. He must be able to hit when galloping his
best pace on to the ball and able to use the speed of his pony
in order to get pace. He must be able to hit a backhander or
to meet a ball coming to him, as the tactics of the game require.
Polo has given rise to a new type of horse, an animal of
14 hands 2 in. with the power of a hunter, the courage of a
racehorse and the docility of a pony. At first the ponies were
small, but now each pony must pass the Hurlingham official
measurer and be entered on the register. The English The Polo
system of measurement is the fairest and most Pony.
humane possible. The pony stripped of his clothing is led by
an attendant, not his own groom, into a box with a perfectly
level floor and shut off from every distraction. A veterinary
surgeon examines to see that the pony is neither drugged nor
in any way improperly prepared. The pony is allowed to
stand easily, and a measuring standard with a spirit-level is
then placed on the highest point of the wither, and if the pony
measures 14-2 and is five years old it is i cgistered for life. Ponies
are of many breeds. There are Arabs, Argentines, Americans,
Irish and English ponies, the last two being the best. The Polo
and Riding Pony Society, with headquarters at 12 Hanover
Square, looks after the interests of the English and Irish pony
and encourages their breeders. The English ponies are now
bred largely for the game and are a blend of thoroughbred
blood (the best are always the race-winning strains) or Arab and
of the English native pony.
AUTHORITIES. Polo in England: J. Moray Brown, Riding and
Polo, Badminton Library, revised and brought up to date by
T. F. Dale (Longmans, 1899) ; Captain Younghusband, Polo in India,
(n.d.); J. Moray Brown, Polo (Vinton, 1896); T. F. Dale, The Came
of Polo (A. Constable & Co., 1897); Captain Younghusband, Tourna-
ment Polo (1897); Captain de Lisle, Durham Light Infantry, Hints
to Polo Players in India (1897); T. B. Drybrough, Polo (Vinton,
1898; revised, Longmans, 1906); Captain E. D. Miller, Modern
Polo (1903); H. L. Fitzpatrick, Equestrian Polo, in Spalding's
Athletic Library (1904) ; Major G. J. Younghusband, Tournament
Polo (1904); T. F. Dale " Polo, Past and Present," Country Life;
Walter Buckmaster, " Hints on Polo Combination," Library of
Sport (George Newnes Ltd., 1905 ; Vinton & Co., 1909) ; Hurlingham
Club, Rules of Polo, Register of Ponies; Polo and Riding Pony
Society Stud Book (12 vols., 12 Hanover Square). A nnuals: American
Polo Association, 143 Liberty Street, New York; Indian Polo
Association, Lucknow, N. P.; Captain E. D. Miller, D.S.O., The
Polo Players' Guide and Almanack; The Polo Annual, ed. by L. V. L.
Simmonds. Monthlies: Bailey's Magazine (Vinton & Co.); The
Polo Monthly (Craven House, Kingsway, London).
Polo in Persia: Firdousi's Shahnama, translated as Le Livre
des rois by J. Mohl, with notes and comm. ; Sir Anthony
Shirley, Travels in Persia (1569); Sir John Chardin, Voyages en
Perse (1686), ed. aug. de notes, &c. par L. Langles, 181 1 ; Sir William
Ouseley, Travels in Various Countries of the East, particularly Persia
(1810).
There are many allusions to polo in the poets, notably Nizami, .
Jam! and Omar Khayyam.
Polo in Constantinople; Cinnamus Joannes epitome rerum ab
loanne et Alexio Commenis gest. (Bonn, 1836).
Polo in India: Ain-i-Akbari (1555); G. F. Vigne, Travels in
Kashmir (Ladakh and Iskardo, 1842); Colonel Algernon Durand,
The Making of a Frontier (1899).
Polo in digit and Chitral: " Polo in Baltistan." The Field
(1888); Polo in Manipur, Captain McCulloch, Manipuris and the
Adjacent Tribes (1859). (T. F. D.)
POLONAISE (i.e. Polish, in French), a stately ceremonious
dance, usually written in J time. As a form of musical com-
position it has been employed by such ccmposers as Bach,
Handel, Beethoven, and above all by Chopin. It is usual to
date the origin of the dance from the election (1573) of Henry
duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, to the throne
of Poland. The ladies of the Polish nobility passed in cere-
monial procession before him at Cracow to the sound of stately
music. This procession of music became the regular opening
ceremony at royal functions, and developed into the dance.
The term is also given to a form of skirted bodice, which has
been fashionable for ladies at different periods.
POLONNARUWA, a ruined city and ancient capital of
Ceylon. It first became a royal residence in A.D. 368, when the
lake of Topawewa was formed, and succeeded Anuradhapura
as the capital in the middle of the 8th century. The principal
ruins date chiefly from the time of Prakrama Bahu (A.D. 1153-
ii 86). The most imposing pile remaining is the Jetawa-
narama temple, a building 170 ft. in length, with walls about
80 ft. high and 12 ft. thick. The city is now entirely deserted,
and, as in the case of Anuradhapura, its ruins have only recently
been rescued from the jungle.
POLOTSK POLTAVA
POLOTSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vitebsk,
at the confluence of the Polota with the Dvina, 62 m. by rail
N.W. of the town of Vitebsk. Pop. 20,751. Owing to the
continuous wars, of which, from its position on the line of
communication between central Russia and the west it was for
many centuries the scene, scarcely any of its remarkable anti-
quities remain. The upper castle, which stood at the confluence
of the rivers and had a stone wall with seven towers, is in ruins,
as is the lower castle formerly enclosed with strong walls and
connected with the upper castle by a bridge. The cathedral
of St Sophia in the upper castle, built in the I2th century,
fell to ruins in the i8th century, whereupon the United Greek
bishop substituted a modern structure. Upwards of two-thirds
of the inhabitants are Jews; the remainder have belonged mostly
to the Orthodox Greek Church since 1839, when they were
compelled to abandon the United Greek Church. Flax, linseed,
corn and timber are the leading articles of commerce.
Polotesk or Poltesk is mentioned in 862 as one of the towns
given by the Scandinavian Rurik to his men. In 980 it had
a prince of its own, Ragvald (Rogvolod or Rognvald), whose
daughter is the subject of many legends. It remained an
independent principality until the I2th century, resisting the
repeated attacks of the princes of Kiev; those of Pskov, Lithu-
ania, and the Livonian tCnights, however, proved more effective,
and Polotsk fell under Lithuanian rule in 1320. About 1385 its
independence was destroyed by the Lithuanian prince Vitovt.
It was five times besieged by Moscow in 1500-18, and was
taken by Ivan the Terrible in 1563. Recaptured by Stephen
Bathory, king of Poland, sixteen years later, it became Polish
by the treaty of 1582. It was then a large and populous
city, and carried on an active commerce. Pestilences and
conflagrations were its ruin; the plague of 1566 wrought
great havoc among its inhabitants, and that of 1600 destroyed
15,000. The castles, the town and its walls were burned in
1607 and 1642. The Russians continued their attacks, burning
and plundering the town, and twice, in 1633 and 1705, taking
possession of it for a few years. It was not definitely annexed,
however, to Russia until 1772, after the first dismemberment
of Poland. In 1812 its inhabitants resisted the French invasion,
and the town was partially destroyed.
POLTAVA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded
by the government of Chernigov on the N., Kharkov on the E.,
Ekaterinoslav and Kherson on the S., and Kiev on the W., and
having an area of 19,260 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating
plain 500 to 600 ft. above sea-level, with a few elevations reach-
ing 670 ft. in the north, and gently sloping to 300 and 400 ft. in
the south-west. Owing to the deep excavations of the rivers,
their banks, especially those on the right, have the aspect of
hilly tracts, while low plains stretch to the left. Almost the
whole of the surface consists of Tertiary deposits; Cretaceous
rocks appear in the north-east, at the bottom of the deeper
ravines. The government touches the granitic region of the
Dnieper only in the south, below Kremenchug. Limestone
with dolerite veins occurs in the isolated hill of Isachek, which
rises above the marshes of the Sula. The whole is covered with
a layer, 20 to 60 ft. thick, of boulder clay, which again is often
mantled with a thick sheet of loess. Sandstone (sometimes
suitable for grindstones) and limestone are quarried, and a few
beds of gypsum and peat-bog are known within the government.
With the exception of some sandy tracts, the soil is on the whole
very fertile. Poltava is drained by the Dnieper, which flows
along its border, navigable throughout, and by its tributaries
the Sula, Psiol, Vorskla, Orel, Trubezh, and several others,
none of them navigable, although their courses vary from 150
to 270 m. each in length. Even those which used to be navigated
within the historical period, such as the Trubezh and Supoi,
are now drying up, while the others are being partially trans-
formed into marshes. Deep sand-beds intersected by number-
less ravines and old arms of the river stretch along the left
bank of the Dnieper, where accordingly the settlements are
few. Only 5% of the total area is under forest; timber, wooden
wares, and pitch are imported.
The estimated population in 1906 was 3,312,400. The great
majority are Little Russians. Agriculture is the principal
pursuit, 60% of the total area being arable land. The crops
chiefly grown are wheat, rye and oats; the sunflower is largely
cultivated, especially for oil, and the growing of tobacco, always
important, has made a great advance. Kitchen gardening,
the cultivation of the plum, and the preparation of preserved
fruits are important branches of industry. At Lubny, where
an apothecaries' garden is maintained by the Crown, the col-
lection and cultivation of medicinal plants are a speciality.
The main source of wealth in Poltava always has been, and still
is, its live-stock breeding horses, cattle, sheep, pigs. Some
of the wealthier landowners and many peasants rear finer breeds
of horses. The land is chiefly owned by the peasants, who
possess 52% of the cultivable area; 42% belongs to private
persons, and the remainder to the Crown, the clergy, and the
municipalities.
Among the manufactures distilleries hold the leading place,
after which come flour-mills, tobacco factories, machine-making,
tanneries, saw-mills, sugar-works and woollen manufactures.
In the villages and towns several domestic trades are carried
on, such as the preparation of sheepskins, plain woollen cloth,
leather, boots and pottery. The fair of Poltava is of great
importance for the whole woollen trade of Russia, and
leather, cattle, horses, coarse woollen cloth, skins, and various
domestic wares are exchanged for manufactures imported from
Great Russia. The value of merchandise brought to the fair
averages over 2,500,000. Several other fairs, the aggregate
returns for which reach more than one-half of the above, are
held at Romny (tobacco), Kremenchug '(timber, corn, tallow
and salt), and Kobelyaki (sheepskins). Corn is exported to a
considerable extent to the west and to Odessa, as also saltpetre,
spirits, wool, tallow, skins and woollen cloth. The Dnieper is
the principal artery for the exports and for the import timber.
The chief river-ports are Kremenchug and Poltava. Steamers
ply between Kiev and Ekaterinoslav; but the navigation is
hampered by want of water and becomes active only in the
south. Traffic mostly follows the railway. Poltava is divided
into fifteen districts, of which the chief towns are Poltava,
Gadyach, Khorol, Kobelyaki, Konstantinograd, Kremenchug,
Lokhvitsa, Lubny, Mirgorod, Pereyaslavl, Piryatin, Priluki,
Romny, Zenkov and Zolotonosha.
History. At the dawn of Russian history the region now
occupied by Poltava was inhabited by the Slav tribe of the
Syeveryanes. As early as 988 the Russians erected several
towns on the Sula and the Trubezh for their protection against
the Turkish Petchenegs and Polovtsi, who held the south-
eastern steppes. Population extended, and the towns of
Pereyaslavl, Lubny, Priluki, Piryatin, Romny, begin to be
mentioned in the nth and i2th centuries. The Mongol invasion
of 1230-42 destroyed most of them, and for two centuries
afterwards they disappear from Russian annals. About 1331
Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, annexed the so-called " Syeversk
towns " and on the recognition of the union of Lithuania with
Poland they were included in the united kingdom along with
the remainder of Little Russia. In 1476 a separate principality
of Kiev under Polish rule and Polish institutions was formed
out of Little Russia, and remained so until the rising of the
Cossack chief Bogdan Chmielnicki in 1654. By the Andrussowo
Treaty, the left bank of the Dnieper being ceded to Russia,
Poltava became part of the dominions of the Zaporogian
Cossacks, and was divided into " regiments," six of which
(Poltava, Pereyaslavl, Priluki, Gadyach, Lubny and Mirgorod)
lay within the limits of the present government. They lost
their independence in 1764. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
POLTAVA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, on the right bank of the Vorskla, 88 m. by
rail W.S.W. of Kharkov. Pop. 53,060. The town is built on
a plateau which descends by steep slopes on nearly every side.
Several suburbs, inhabited by Cossacks, whose houses are buried
amid gardens, and a German colony, surround the town. The
oldest buildings are a monastery, erected in 1650, and a wooden
POLTERGEIST
church visited by Peter the Great after the battle of Poltava.
There are a military school for cadets, a theological seminary
and two girls' colleges; also flour-mills, tobacco works and a
tannery.
Poltava is mentioned in Russian annals in 1174, under the
name of Ltava, but does not again appear in history until 1430,
when, together with Glinsk, it was given by Gedimin, prince of
Lithuania, to the Tatar prince Leksada. Under the Cossack
chief, Bogdan Chmielnicki, it was the chief town of the Poltava
" regiment." Peter the Great of Russia defeated Charles XII.
of Sweden in the immediate neighbourhood on the 27th of June
1709, and the victory is commemorated by a column over 50 ft.
in height.
POLTERGEIST (Ger. for " racketing spirit "), the term
applied to certain phenomena of an unexplained nature, such
as movements of objects without any traceable cause, and
noises equally untraced to their source; but in some 'cases
exhibiting intelligence, as when raps answer a question by a
code. In the word Poltergeist, the phenomena are attributed
to the action of a Geist, or spirit : of old the popular explanation
of all residuary phenomena. The hypothesis, in consequence
of the diffusion of education, has been superseded by that of
"electricity"; while sceptics in all ages and countries have
accounted for all the phenomena by the theory of imposture.
The last is at least a tier a causa: imposture has often been
detected; but it is not so certain that this theory accounts for all
the circumstances. To the student of human nature the most
interesting point in the character of poltergeist phenomena is
their appearance in the earliest known stages of culture, their
wide diffusion, and their astonishing uniformity. Almost all
the beliefs usually styled " superstitious " are of early occurrence
and of wide diffusion: the lowest savages believe in ghosts
of the dead and in wraiths of the living. Such beliefs when
found thriving in our own civilization might be explained as
mere survivals from savagery, memories of all
" The superstitions idle-headed eld
Received and did deliver to our age."
But we have not to deal only with a belief that certain
apparently impossible things may occur and have occurred in
the past. We are met by the evidence of sane and credible
witnesses, often highly educated, who maintain that they
themselves have heard and beheld the unexplained sounds and
sights. It appears, therefore, that in considering the phenomena
of the poltergeist we are engaged with facts of one sort or
another; facts produced either by skilled imposture, or resting
on hallucinations of the witnesses; or on a mixture of fraud
and of hallucination caused by " suggestion." There remains
the chance that some agency of an unexplored nature is, at least
in certain cases, actually at work.
A volume would be needed if we were to attempt to chronicle
the phenomena of the poltergeist as believed in by savages
and in ancient and medieval times. But among savages they are
usually associated with the dead, or with the medicine-men of the
tribes. These personages are professional " mediums," and like
the mediums of Europe and America, may be said to have do-
mesticated the poltergeist. At their seances, savage or civilized,
the phenomena are reported to occur such as rappings and
other noises, loud or low, and " movements of objects without
physical contact." (See, for a brief account, A. Lang, Cock
Lane and Common Sense, " Savage Spiritualism "; and see the
Jesuit Lettres edifiantes, North America, 1620-1770, and
Kohl's Kitchi Garni.) But ;< induced phenomena," where
professional mediums and professional medical men are the
agents, need not here be considered. The evidence, unless in
the case of Sir William Crookes's experiments with Daniel Dunglas
Home, is generally worthless, and the laborious investigations
of the Society for Psychical Research resulted only in the
detection of fraud as far as " physical " manifestations by
paid mediums were concerned.
The spontaneous poltergeist, where, at least, no professional
is present, and no stance is being held, is much more curious and
interesting than the simple tricks played in the dark by impudent
charlatans. The phenomena are identical, as reported, literally
"from China to Peru.". The Cieza de Leon (1549) tells us
that the cacique of Pirza, in Popyan, during his conversion
to Christianity, was troubled by stones falling mysteriously
through the air (the mysterious point was the question of
whence they came, and what force urged them), while Chris-
tians saw at his table a glass of liquor raised in the air, by no
visible hand, put down empty, and replenished! Mr Dennys
(Folk Lore of China, 1876, p. 79) speaks of a Chinese householder
who was driven to take refuge in a temple by the usual phenomena
throwing about of crockery and sounds of heavy footfalls
after the decease of an aggrieved monkey. This is only one of
several Chinese cases of poltergeist; and the phenomena are
described in Jesuit narratives of the i8th century, from Cochin
China. In these papers no explanation is suggested. There
is a famous example in a nunnery, recorded (1528) by a notable
witness, Adrien de Montalembert, almoner to Francis I. The
agent was supposed to be the spirit of a sister recently deceased.
Among multitudes of old cases, that of the " Drummer of
Tedworth " (1662-1663; see Glanvil, Sadducismus triumphatus,
1666); that at Rerrick, recorded by the Rev. Mr Telfer
in 1695; that of the Wesley household (1716-1717) chronicled
in contemporary letters and diaries of the Wesley family
(Southey's Life of John Wesley); tha of Cideville (1851), from
the records of the court which tried the law-suit arising out of
the affair (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xviii. 454-463); and
the Alresford case, attested by the great admiral, Lord St
Vincent, are among the most remarkable. At Tedworth we
have the evidence of Glanvil himself, though it does not
amount to much; at Rerrick, Telfer was a good chronicler
and gives most respectable signed vouchers for all the marvels:
Samuel Wesley and his wife were people of sense, they were
neither alarmed nor superstitious, merely puzzled; while the
court which tried the Cideville case, only decided that " the
cause of the events remains unknown." At Alresford, in
Hampshire, the phenomena attested by Lord St Vincent and
his sister Mrs Ricketts, who occupied the house, were pecu-
liarly strange and emphatic: the house was therefore pulled
down. At Willington Mill, near Morpeth (1831-1847), the
phenomena are attested by the journal of Mr Procter, the
occupant, a Quaker, a " tee-totaller," and a man of great
resolution. He and his family endured unspeakable things for
sixteen years, and could find no explanation of the sights and
sounds, among which were phantasms of animals, as at
Epworth, in the Wesley case.
Of all these cases that of the Wesleys has attracted most
critical attention. It was not, in itself, an extreme instance
of poltergeist: at Alresford, at the close of the i8th century,
and at Willington Mill in the middle of the igth the disturbances
were much more violent and persistent than at Epworth, while
our evidence is, in all three examples, derived from the contem-
porary narratives, letters and journals of educated persons.
The Wesleys, however, were people so celebrated and so active
in religion that many efforts have been made to explain their
" old Jeffrey," as they called the disturbing agency. These
attempts at explanation have been fruitless. The poet Coleridge,
who said that he knew many cases, explained all by a theory of
contagious epidemic hallucination of witnesses. Dr Salmon,
of Trinity College, Dublin, set all down to imposture by Hetty
Wesley, a vivacious girl (Fortnightly Review, 1866). The
documents on which he relied, when closely studied, did not
support his charges, for he made several important errors in
dates, and on these his argument rested. F. Podmore, in several
works (e.g. Studies in Psychical Research), adopted a theory
of exaggerative memory in the narrators, as one element,
with a dose of imposture and of hallucination begotten of
excited expectation. The Wesley letters and journals, written
from day to day, do not permit of exaggerative memory, and
when the records of 1716-1717 are compared with the remini-
scences collected from his family by John Wesley in 1726, the
discrepancies are seen to be only such as occur in all human
POLTERGEIST
evidence about any sort of events, remote by nine or ten
years. Thus, in 1726, Mrs Wesley mentioned a visionary
badger seen by her. She did not write about it to her son
Samuel in 1717, but her husband and her daughter did then
describe it to Samuel, as an experience of his mother at
that date. The whole family, in 1717, became familiar with the
phenomena, and were tired of them and of Samuel's questions.
(Mr Podmore's arguments are to be found in the Journal of the
Studies of Psychical Research, ix. 40-45. Some dates are mis-
printed.) The theory of hallucination cannot account for the
uniformity of statements, in many countries and at many
dates, to the effect that the objects mysteriously set in motion
moved in soft curves and swerves, or " wobbled." Suppose
that an adroit impostor is throwing them, suppose that the
spectators are excited, why should their excitement every-
where produce a uniform hallucination as to the mode of
motion? It is better to confess ignorance, and remain in
doubt, than to invent such theories.
A modern instance may be analysed, as the evidence was
given contemporaneously with the events (Podmore, Proc.
Soc. Psychical Research, xii. 45-58: " Poltergeists ") On
the 2oth or 2ist of February 1883 a Mrs White, in a
cottage at Worksop, was " washing up the tea-things at the
table," with two of her children in the room, when " the table
tilted up at a considerable angle," to her amazement. On the
26th of February, Mr White being from home, Mrs White
extended hospitality to a girl, Eliza Rose, " the child of an
imbecile mother." Eliza is later described as " half-witted,"
but no proof of this is given. On the ist of March, White being
from home, at about 11.30 p.m. a number of things " which had
been in the kitchen a few minutes before " came tumbling down
the kitchen stairs. Only Mrs White and Eliza Rose were then
in the kitchen. Later some hot coals made an invasion. On
the following night, White being at home in the kitchen, with his
wife and Eliza, a miscellaneous throng of objects came in,
Mr White made vain research upstairs, where was his brother
Tom. On his return to the kitchen " a little china woman left
the mantelpiece and flew into the corner." Being replaced, it
repeated its flight, and was broken. White sent his brother to
fetch a doctor; there also came a policeman, named Higgs; and
the doctor and policeman saw, among other things, a basin and
cream jug rise up automatically, fall on the floor and break.
Next morning, a clock which had been silent for eighteen months
struck; a crash was heard, and the clock was found to have
leapt over a bed and fallen on the floor. All day many things
kept flying about and breaking themselves, and Mr White sent
Miss Rose about her business. Peace ensued.
Mr Podmore, who visited the scene on the 7th and 8th of
April and collected depositions, says (writing in 1883): "It
may be stated generally that there was no possibility, in most
cases, of the objects having been thrown by hand. . . . More-
over it is hard to conceive by what mechanical appliances,
under the circumstances described, the movements could have
been effected. ... To suppose that these various objects
were all moved by mechanical contrivances argues incredible
stupidity, amounting almost to imbecility, on the part of all
the persons present who were not in the plot," whereas Higgs,
Dr Lloyd and a miner named Curass, all " certainly not wanting
in intelligence," examined the objects and could find no explana-
tion. White attested that fresh invasions of the kitchen by
inanimate objects occurred as Eliza was picking up the earlier
arrivals; and he saw a salt-cellar fly from the table while Eliza
was in another part of the room. The amount of things broken
was valued by White at 9. No one was in the room when the
clock struck and fell. Higgs saw White shut the cupboard
doors, they instantly burst open, and a large glass jar flew into
the yard and broke. " The jar could not go in a straight line
from the cupboard out of the door; but it certainly did go "
(Higgs). The depositions were signed by the witnesses (April
1883).
In 1896, Mr Podmore, after thirteen years of experience
in examining reports of the poltergeist, produced his explana-
tions, (i) The witnesses, though " honest and fairly intelli-
gent," were " imperfectly educated, not skilled in accurate
observation of any kind." (They described, like many others,
in many lands, the " wobbling " movement of objects in flight.)
(2) Mr Podmore took the evidence five weeks after date; there
was time for exaggerated memories. (Mr Podmore did not
consult, it seems, the contemporary evidence of Higgs in the
Retford and Gainsborough Times, oth of March 1883. On
examination it proves to tally as precisely as possible with the
testimonies which he gave to Mr Podmore, except that in March
he mentioned one or two miracles which he omitted five weeks
later! The evidence is pubh'shed in Lang's The Making oj
Religion, 1898, p. 356.) (3) In the evidence given to Mr Podmore
five weeks after date, there are discrepancies between Higgs and
White as to the sequence of some events, and as to whether
one Coulter was present when the clock fell: he asserts, Higgs
and White deny it . (There is never evidence of several witnesses,
five weeks after an event, without such discrepancies. If there
were, the evidence would be suspected as " cooked." Higgs
in April gave the same version as in March.) (4) As there
are discrepancies, the statements that Eliza was not always
present at the abnormal occurrences may be erroneous. " It
is perhaps not unreasonable to conjecture that Eliza Rose herself,
as the instrument of mysterious agencies, or simply as a half-
witted girl gifted with abnormal cunning and love of mischief,
may have been directly responsible for all that took place."
(How, if, as we have seen, the theory of mechanical appliances
is abandoned, " under the circumstances described " ? We need
to assume that all the circumstances are wrongly described.
Yet events did occur, the breakages were lamentable, and we
ask how could the most half-witted of girls damage so much
property undetected, under the eyes of the owner, a policeman,
a medical practitioner and others ? How could she throw things
from above into the room where she was picking up the things
as they arrived? Or is that a misdescription ? No evidence
of Eliza's half-wittedness and abnormal cunning is adduced.
If we call her "the instrument of mysterious agencies," the
name of these agencies is poltergeist! No later attempt to
find and examine the abnormal girl is recorded.)
The explanations are not ideally satisfactory, out they are the
result, in Mr Podmore's mind, of examination of several later
cases of poltergeist. 1 In one a girl, carefully observed, was
detected throwing things, and evidence that the phenomena
occurred, in her absence, at another place and time, is discounted.
In several other cases, exaggerations of memory, malobservation
and trickery combined, are the explanations, and the conclu-
sion is that there is " strong ground " for believing in trickery
as the true explanation of all these eleven cases, including
the Worksop affair. Mr Podmore asserts that, at Worksop,
" the witnesses did not give their testimony until some weeks
after the event." That is an erroneous statement as far as Higgs
goes, the result apparently of malobservation of the local news-
paper. More or less of the evidence was printed in the week
when the events occurred. Something more than unconscious
exaggeration, or malobservation, seems needed to explain the
amazing statements made by Mr Newman, a gamekeeper of
Lord Portman, on the 23rd of January 1895, at Durmeston in
another case. Among other things, he said that on the i8th
of December 1894, a boot flew out of a door. " I went and put
my foot on the boot and said ' I defy anything to move- this
boot.' Just as I stepped off, it rose up behind me and knocked
my hat off. There was nobody behind me." Gamekeepers are
acute observers, and if the narrative be untrue, malobservation
or defect of memory does not explain the fact. In this case,
at Durmeston, the rector, Mr Anderson, gave an account of
1 The present writer criticized Mr Podmore's explanation in
The Making of Religion. Mr Podmore replied (Proc. Soc. Psychical
Research, xiv. 133, 136), pointing out an error in the critic's
presentation of his meaning. He, in turn, said that the writer
' champions the supernormal interpretation," which is not exact,
as the writer has no theory on the subject, though he is not
satisfied that " a naughty little girl " is a uniformly successful
solution of the poltergeist problem.
i6
POLTERGEIST
some of the minor phenomena. He could not explain them, and
gave the best character to the Nonconformist mother of the
child with whom the events were associated. No trickery
was discovered.
The phenomena are frequently connected with a person,
often a child, suffering from nervous malady or recent nervous
shock. No such person appears in the Alresford, Willington,
Epworth and Tedworth cases, and it is not stated that Eliza
Rose at Worksop was subjected to a medical examination. In
a curious case, given by Mrs Crewe, in The Night Side of Nature,
the young person was the daughter of a Captain Molesworth.
Her own health was bad, and she had been depressed by the
death of a sister. Captain Molesworth occupied a semi-detached
villa at Trinity, near Edinburgh; his landlord lived next door.
The phenomena set in: the captain bored holes in the wall to
discover a cause in trickery, and his landlord brought a suit
against him in the sheriff's court at Edinburgh.
The papers are preserved, but the writer found that to
discover them would be a herculean labour. He saw, how-
ever, a number of documents in the office of a firm of
solicitors employed in the case. They proved the fact of the
lawsuit but threw no other light on the matter. We often
find that the phenomena occur after a nervous shock to the
person who may be called the medium. The shock is frequently
consequent on a threat from a supposed witch or wizard. This
was the case at Cideville in 1850-1851. (See an abstract of the
documents of the trial, Proceedings S.P.R. xviii. 454-463.
The entire report was sent to the writer.) In 1901 there
was a case at Great Grimsby; the usual flying of stones
and other objects occurred. The woman of the house had been
threatened by a witch, after that the poltergeist developed.
No explanation was forthcoming. In Proc. S.P.R. xvii.
320 the Rev. Mr Deanley gives a curious parallel case
with detection of imposture. In Miss O'Neal's Devonshire
Idylls is an excellent account of the phenomena which occurred
after a Devonshire girl of the best character, well known to Miss
O'Neal, had been threatened by a witch. In the famous instance
of Christian Shaw of Bargarran (1697) the child had been thrice
formally cursed by a woman, who prayed to God that her soul
" might be hurled through hell." Christian fell into a state
which puzzled the medical faculty (especially when she floated
in the air), and doubtless she herself caused, in an hysterical
state, many phenomena which, however, were not precisely
poltergeistish. A very marked set of phenomena, in the way
of movements of objects, recently occurred in the Hudson Bay
territory, after a half-breed girl had received a nervous shock
from a flash of lightning that struck near her. Heavy weights
automatically " tobogganed," as Red Indian spectators said,
and there were the usual rappings in tent and wigwam. If we
accept trickery as the sufficient explanation, the uniformity of
tricks played by hysterical patients is very singular. Still
more singular is a long series, continued through several years,
of the same occurrences where no hysterical patient is known to
exist. In a very curious example, a carpenter's shop being the
scene, there was concerned nobody of an hysterical temperament,
no young boy or girl, and there was no explanation (Proc. S.P.R.
vii- 383-394). The events went on during six weeks.
An excellent case of hysterical fraud by a girl in France is given
by Dr Grasset, professor of clinical medicine at Montpellier (Proc.
S.P.R. xviii. 464-480). But in this instance, though things
were found in unusual places, nobody over eight years old saw
them flying about ; yet all concerned were deeply superstitious.
On the whole, while fraud, especially hysterical fraud, is a
vera causa in some cases of poltergeist, it is not certain that the
explanation fits all cases, and it is certain that detection of
fraud has often been falsely asserted, as at Tedworth and
Willington. No good chronic case, as at Alresford, Epworth,
Spraiton (Bovet's Pandaemon ium) , Willington, and in other
classical instances, has been for months sedulously observed by
sceptics. In short-lived cases, as at Worksop, science appears
on the scene long enough after date to make the theory of
exaggeration of memory plausible. If we ask science to explain
how the more remarkable occurrences could be produced by a
girl ex hypothese half-witted, the reply is that the occurrences
never occurred, they were only " described as occurring " by
untrained observers with " patent double magnifying " memo-
ries; and with a capacity for being hallucinated in a uniform
way all the world over. Yet great quantities of crockery
and furniture were broken, before the eyes of observers, in a
house near Ballarmina, in North Ireland, in January 1907.
The experiment of exhibiting a girl who can break all the
crockery without being detected, in the presence of a doctor
and a policeman, and who can, at the same time, induce the
spectators to believe that the flying objects waver, swerve and
" wobble," has not been attempted.
An obvious difficulty in the search for" authentic information
is the circumstance that the poor and imperfectly educated are
much more numerous than the well-to-do and well educated.
It is therefore certain that most of the disturbances will occur
in the houses of the poor and ill educated, and that their evidence
will be rejected as insufficient. When an excellent case occurs
in a palace, and is reported by the margravine of Bayreuth, sister
of Frederick the Great, in her Memoirs, the objection is that her
narrative was written long after the events. When we have
contemporary journals and letters, or sworn evidence, as in the
affairs of Sir Philip Francis, Cideville and Willington, criticism
can probably find some other good reasons for setting these
testimonies aside. It is certain that the royal, the rich and the
well-educated observers tell, in many cases, precisely the same
sort of stories about poltergeist phenomena as do the poor and
the imperfectly instructed.
On the theory that there exist " mysterious agencies " which
now and then produce the phenomena, we may ask what these
agencies can possibly be? But no answer worthy of considera-
tion has ever been given to this question. The usual reply is
that some unknown but intelligent force is disengaged from the
personality of the apparent medium. This apparent medium
need not be present; he or she may be far away. The High-
landers attribute many poltergeist phenomena, inexplicable noises,
sounds of viewless feet that pass, and so forth, to taradh, an
influence exerted unconsciously by unduly strong wishes on the
part of a person at a distance. The phrase falbh air farsaing
(" going uncontrolled ") is also used (Campbell, Witchcraft and
Second Sight in the Scottish Highlands, 1902, pp. 144-147). The
present writer is well acquainted with cases attributed to
taradh, in a house where he has often been a guest. They excite
no alarm, their cause being well understood. We may call this
kind of thing telethoryby, a racket produced from a distance.
A very marked case in Illinois would have been attributed in
the Highlands to the taradh of the late owner of the house, a
dipsomaniac in another state. On his death the disturbances
ceased (first-hand evidence from the disturbed lady of the
house, May 1907). It may be worth while to note that the
phenomena are often regarded as death-warnings by popular
belief. The early incidents at the Wesleys' house were thought
to indicate the death of a kinsman; or to announce the approach-
ing decease of Mr Wesley pere, who at first saw and heard
nothing unusual. At Worksop the doctor was called in, because
the phenomena were guessed to be " warnings " of the death
of a sick child of the house. The writer has first-hand
evidence from a lady and her son (afterwards a priest) of
very singular movements of untouched objects in their presence,
which did coincide with the death of a relation at a distance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of the subject is profuse, but
scattered. For modern instances the Proceedings of the Society
for Psychical Research may be consulted, especially an essay by
F. W. H. Myers, vii. 146-198, also iy. 29-38; with the essay by
Podmore, already quoted. Books like Dale Owen's Footfalls
on the Boundary of Another World, and Fresnoy's Recueil des dis-
sertations sur les apparitions, are stronger in the quantity of anec-
dotes than in the quality of evidence. A. Lang's Book of Dreams
and Ghosts, contains outlandish and Celtic examples, and Telfair's
(Telfer's) A True Relation of an Apparition (1694-1696) shows un-
usual regard for securing signed evidence. Kiesewetter's Geschichte
des neueren Occultismus and Graham Dalyell's Darker Super-
stitions of Scotland, with any collections of trials for witchcraft
POLTROON POLYANTHUS
may be consulted, and Bovet's Pandaemonium (1684) is very rich
in cases. The literature of the famous drummer of Tedworth
(March i662-April 1663) begins with an abstract of the sworn
deposition of Mr Mompesson, whose house was the scene of the dis-
turbances. The abstract is in the Mercurius publicus of April
1663, the evidence was given in a court of justice on the isth of April.
There is also a, ballad, a rhymed news-sheet of 1662 (Anthony
\\< nl's Collection 401 (193). Bodleian Library). Pepys mentions
" books " about the affair in his Diary for June 1663. Glanvil's
first known version is in his Sadductsmus triumphatus of 1666.
Tin- sworn evidence of Mompesson proves at least that he was
disturbed in an intolerable manner, certainly beyond any means
at the disposal of his two daughters, aged nine and eleven or there-
abouts. The agent may have been the taradh of the drummer
whom Mompesson offended. Glanvil in 1666 confused the dates,
and, save for his own experiences, merely repeats the statements
current in 1662-1663. The ballad and Mompesson's deposition
iveu in Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 304336, in a discussion between
tin- writer and Mr Podmore. The dated and contemporary
narrative of Procter in the Willington Mill case (1835-
1847), is printed in the Journ. S.P.R. (Dec. 1892), with some
conu-mporary letters on the subject. Mr Procter endured the
disturbances for sixteen years before he retreated from the
place. There was no naughty little girl in the affair; no nervous
or hysterical patient. The Celtic hypothesis of idradh, exercised
by " the spirit of the living," includes visual apparitions, and many
a sd-called " ghost " of the dead may be merely the taradh of a
living person. (A. L.)
POLTROON, a coward, a worthless rogue without courage or
spirit. The word comes through Fr. poltron from Ital. poltrone,
an idle fellow, one who lolls in a bed or couch (Milanese palter,
Venetian poltrona, adapted from Ger. Polster, a pillow; cf.
English " bolster"). The old guess that it was from Lat. pollice
truncus, maimed in the thumb, and was first applied to those
who avoided military service by self-mutilation, gave rise
probably to the French application of poltron to a falcon whose
talons were cut to prevent its attacking game.
POLTROT, JEAN DE (c. 1537-1561.), sieur de Mere or Merey,
a nobleman of Angoumois, who murdered Francis, duke of Guise.
He had lived some time in Spain, and his knowledge of Spanish,
together with his swarthy complexion, which earned him the
nickname of the " Espagnolet," procured him employment as a
spy in the wars against Spain. Becoming a fanatical Huguenot,
he determined to kill the duke of Guise, and gained admission
as a deserter to the camp of the Catholics who were besieging
Orleans. In the evening of the i8th of February 1563 he hid
by the side of a road along which he knew the duke would pass,
fired a pistol at him, and fled. But he was captured the next day,
and was tried, tortured several times, and sentenced to be drawn
and quartered. On the i8th of March 1563 he underwent a
frightful punishment. The horses not being able to drag off his
limbs, he was hacked to pieces with cutlasses. He had made
several contradictory declarations regarding the complicity of
Coligny. The admiral protested emphatically against the
accusation, which appears to have had no foundation.
See Memoires du prince de Conde (London, 1 743) ; T. A. D'Aubign<5,
Histoire universelle (ed. by de Ruble, Soc. de I'histoire de France,
1886) ; A. de Ruble, L'Assassinat du due Francois de Lorraine (Paris,
1897).
POLYAENUS, a Macedonian, who lived at Rome as a rhetori-
cian and pleader in the 2nd century A.D. When the Parthian War
(162-5) broke out, Polyaenus, too old to share in the campaign,
dedicated to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus a
work, still extant, called Stratcgica or Strategemata, a historical
collection of stratagems and maxims of strategy written in Greek
and strung together in the form of anecdotes. It is not strictly
confined to warlike stratagems, but includes also examples of
wisdom, courage and cunning drawn from civil and political life.
The work is uncritically written, but is nevertheless important on
account of the extracts it has preserved from histories now lost.
It is divided into eight books (parts of the sixth and seventh
are lost), and originally contained nine hundred anecdotes,
of which eight hundred and thirty-three are extant. Polyaenus
intended to write a history of the Parthian War, but there is no
evidence that he did so. His works on Macedonia, on Thebes,
and on tactics (perhaps identical with the Strategical are lost.
His Strategica seems to have been highly esteemed by the Roman
emperors, and to have been handed down by them as a sort of
heirloom. From Rome it passed to Constantinople; at the end of
the gth century it was diligently studied by Leo VI., who himself
wrote a work on tactics; and in the middle of the loth century
Constantino Porphyrogenitus mentioned it as one of the most
valuable books in the imperial library. It was used by Stobaeus,
Suidas, and the anonymous author of the work npt iirlaTiaii (see
PALAEPHATUS). It is arranged as follows: bks. i., ii., iii., strata-
gems occurring in Greek history; bk. iv., stratagems of the Mace-
donian kings and successors of Alexander the Great; bk. v., strata-
gems occurring in the history of Sicily and the Greek islands and
colonies; bk. vi., stratagems of a whole people (Carthaginians,
Lacedaemonians, Argives), together with some individuals
(Philopoemen, Pyrrhus, Hannibal); bk. vii., stratagems of the
barbarians (Medes, Persians, Egyptians, Thracians, Scythians,
Celts); bk. viii., stratagems of Romans- and women. This dis-
tribution is not, however, observed very strictly. Of the negligence
or haste with which the work was written there are many instances :
e.g. he confounds Dionysius the elder and Dionysius the younger,
Mithradates satrap of Artaxerxes and Mithradates the Great,
Scipio the elder and Scipio the younger, Perseus, king of Macedonia
and Perseus the companion of Alexander; he mixes up the strata-
gems of Caesar and Pompey; he brings into immediate connexion
events which were totally distinct; he narrates some events twice
over, with variations according to the different authors from whom
he draws. Though he usually abridges, he occasionally amplifies
arbitrarily the narratives of his authorities. He never mentions
his authorities, but amongst authors still extant he used Herodotus,
Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Frontinus
and Suetonius; amongst authors cf whom only fragments now
remain he drew upon Ctesias, Ephorus, Timaeus, Phylarchus and
Nicolaus Damascenus. His style is clear, but monotonous and
inelegant. In the forms of his words he generally follows Attic
usage.
The best edition of the text is Wolfflin and Melber (Teubner
Series, 1887, with bibliography and editio princeps of the Strate-
eemata of the emperor Leo) ; annotated editions by Isaac Casaubon
(1589) and A. Coraes (1809); I. Melber, Ueber die Quellen tind
Werth der Strategemensammlung Polydns (1885); Knott, De fide
et fontibus Polyaeni (1883), who largely reduces the number of
the authorities consulted by Polyaenus. Eng. trans, by R. Shepherd
(1793)-
'POLYANDRY (Gr. iroXtis, many, and &VTIP, man), the system
of marriage between one woman and several men, who are her
husbands exclusively (see FAMILY). The custom locally legal-
izing the marriage of one woman to more than one husband at a
time has been variously accounted for as the result of poverty and
of life in unfertile lands, where it was essential to check popula-
tion as the consequence of female infanticide, or, in the opinion
of J. F. McLennan and L. H. Morgan, as a natural phase through
which human progress has necessarily passed. Polyandry is to
be carefully differentiated from communal marriage, where the
woman is the property of any and every member of the tribe.
Two distinct kinds of polyandry are practised: one, often called
Nair, in which, as among the Nairs of India, the husbands are
not related to each other; and the second, the Tibetan or fraternal
polyandry, in which the woman is married to all the brothers of
one family. Polyandry is practised by the tribes of Tibet,
Kashmir and the Himalayan regions, by the Todas, Koorgs,
Nairs and other peoples of India, in Ceylon, New Zealand, by
some of the Australian aborigines, in parts of Africa, in the
Aleutian archipelago, among the Koryaks and on the Orinoco.
See McLennan's Primitive Marriage (London, 1885); Studies in
Ancient History (London, 1886); "The Levirate and Polyandry,"
in The Fortnightly Review, new series, vol. xxi. (London, 1877);
L. H. Moigan, System of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human
Family (Washington, 1869); Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilization;
E. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage.
POLYANTHUS, one of the oldest of the florists' flowers, is
probably derived from P. variabilis, itself a cross between the
common primrose and the cowslip; it differs from the primrose in
having the umbels of flowers carried up on a stalk. The florists'
polyanthus has a golden margin, and is known as the gold-laced
polyanthus, the properties being very distinctly laid down and
rigidly adhered to. The chief of these are a clear, unshaded,
blackish or reddish ground colour, an even margin or lacing of
yellow extending round each segment and cutting through its
centre down to the ground colour, and a yellow band surrounding
the tube of exactly the same hue as the yellow of the lacing. The
plants are quite hardy, and grow best in strong, loamy soil
tolerably well enriched with well-decayed dung and leaf -mould ;
i8
POLYBIUS
they should be planted about the end of September or not
later than October. Plants for exhibition present a much
better and cleaner appearance if kept during winter in a cold
well-aired frame.
For the flower borders what are called fancy polyanthuses are
adopted. These are best raised annually from seed, the young
crop each year blooming in succession. The seed should be
sown as soon as ripe, the young plants being allowed to stand
through the winter in the seed bed. In April or May they are
planted out in a bed of rich garden soil, and they will bloom
abundantly the following spring. A few of the better " thrum-
eyed " sorts (those having the anthers in the eye, and the pistil
sunk in the tube) should be allowed to ripen seed; the rest may be
thrown away. In some remarkable forms which have been
cultivated for centuries the ordinarily green calyx has become
petaloid; when this is complete it forms the hose-in-hose prim-
rose of gardeners. There are also a few well-known double-
flowered varieties.
POLYBIUS (c. 204-122 B.C.), Greek historian, was a native of
Megalopolis in Arcadia, the youngest of Greek cities (Paus. viii.
9), which, however, played an honourable part in the last days of
Greek freedom as a stanch member of the Achaean League (?..).
His father, Lycortas, was the intimate friend of Philopoemen, and
on the death of the latter, in 182, succeeded him as leader of the
league. The date of Polybius's birth is doubtful. He tells us
himself that in 181 he had not yet reached the age (? thirty years,
Polyb. xxix. 9) at which an Achaean was legally capable of
holding office (xxiv. 6). We learn from Cicero (Ad Fam. v. .12)
that he outlived the Numantine War, which ended [in 132, and
from Lucian (Macrob. 22) that he died at the age of eighty-two.
The majority of authorities therefore place his birth between
214 and 204 B.C. Little is known of his early life. As the son of
Lycortas he was naturally brought into close contact with the
leading men 'of the Achaean League. With Philopoemen he
seems to have been on intimate terms. After Philopoemen's
tragic death in Messenia (182) he was entrusted with the honour-
able duty of conveying home the urn in which his ashes had been
deposited (Plut. Phil. 21). In 181, together with his father,
Lycortas and the younger Aratus, he was appointed, in spite of
his youth, a member of the embassy which was to visit Ptolemy
Epiphanes, king of Egypt, a mission, however, which the sudden
death of Ptolemy brought to a premature end (xxv. 7). The
next twelve years of his life are a blank, but in 169 he reappears
as a trusted adviser of the Achaeans at a difficult crisis in the
history of the League. In 1 7 1 war had broken out between Rome
and the Macedonian king Perseus, and the Achaean statesmen
were divided as to the policy to be pursued; there were good
reasons for fearing that the Roman senate would regard neu-
trality as indicating a secret leaning towards Macedon. Polybius
therefore declared for an open alliance with Rome, and his views
were adopted. It was decided to send an Achaean force to co-
operate with the Roman general, and Polybius was selected to
command the cavalry. The Roman consul declined the proffered
assistance, but Poiybius accompanied him throughout the
campaign, and thus gained his first insight into the military
system of Rome. In the next year (168) both Lycortas and
Polybius were on the point of starting at the head of 1200
Achaeans to take service in Egypt against the Syrians, when an
intimation from the Roman commander that armed inter-
ference was undesirable put a stop to the expedition (xxix. 23).
The success of Rome in the war with Perseus was now assured.
The final victory was rapidly followed by the arrival in Achaea
of Roman commissioners charged with the duty of establishing
Roman interests there. Polybius was arrested with 1000 of
the principal Achaeans, but, while his companions were con-
demned to a tedious incarceration in the country towns of Italy,
he obtained permission to reside in Rome. This privilege he
owed to the influence of L. Aemilius Paullus and his two sons,
Scipio and Fabius (xxxii. 9). Polybius was received into Aemi-
lius's house, and became the instructor of his sons. Between
Scipio (P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus the younger), the future
conqueror of Carthage, and himself a friendship soon sprang up,
which ripened into a lifelong intimacy, and was of inestimable
service to him throughout his career. It protected him from
interference, opened to him the highest circles of Roman society,
and enabled him to acquire a personal influence with the leading
men, which stood him in good stead when he afterwards came
forward to mediate between his countrymen and Rome. It
placed within his reach opportunities for a close study of Rome
and the Romans such as had fallen to no historian before him,
and secured him the requisite leisure for using them, while
Scipio's liberality more than once supplied him with the means of
conducting difficult and costly historical investigations (Pliny,
N.H. v. 9). In 151 the few surviving exiles were allowed to
return to Greece. But the stay of Polybius in Achaea was brief.
The estimation in which he was held at Rome is clearly shown
by the anxiety of the consul Marcus (or Manlius) Manilius (149)
to take him as his adviser on his expedition against Carthage.
Polybius started to join him, but broke off his journey at Corcyra
on learning that the Carthaginians were inclined to yield (xxxvi.
3). But when, in 147, Scipio himself took the command in
Africa, Polybius hastened to join him, and was an eye-witness
of the siege and destruction of Carthage. During his absence in
Africa the Achaeans had made a last desperate attempt to
assert their independence of Rome. He returned in 146 to find
Corinth in ruins, the fairest cities of Achaea at the mercy of the
Roman soldiery, and the famous Achaean League shattered to
pieces (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). All the influence he possessed
was freely spent in endeavouring to shield his countrymen from
the worst consequences of their rashness. The excesses of the
soldiery were checked, and at his special intercession the statues
of Aratus and Philopoemen were preserved (xxxix. 14). An
even more difficult task was that entrusted to him by the
Roman authorities themselves, of persuading the Achaeans to
acquiesce in the new regime imposed upon them by their con-
querors, and of setting the new machinery in working order.
With this work, which he accomplished so as to earn the heartfelt
gratitude of his countrymen (xxxix. 16), his public career seems
to have closed. The rest of his life was, so far as we know,
devoted to the great history which is the lasting monument of
his fame. He died, at the age of eighty-two, of a fall from his
horse (Lucian, Macrob. 22). The base of a statue erected to
him by Elis was found at Olympia in 1877. It bears the inscrip-
tion 17 iroXis i? 'HXtiaw IIoXti/3ioj> AuKopra Me7aXo7roXiTT)i'.
Of the forty books which made up the history of Polybius, the
first five alone have come down to us in a complete form ; of the rest
we have only more or less copious fragments. But the general
plan and scope of the work are explained by Polybius himself.
His intention was to make plain how and why it was that " all the
known regions of the civilized world had fallen under the sway
of Rome (iii. l). This empire of Rome, unprecedented in its
extent and still more so in the rapidity with which it had been ac-
quired, was the standing wonder of the age, and " who," he exclaims
(l. l), " is so poor-spirited or indolent as not to wish to know by
what means, and thanks to what sort of constitution, the Romans
subdued the world in something less than fifty-three years? "
These fifty-three years are those between 220 (the point at which
the work of Aratus ended) and 168 B.C., and extend therefore
f-om the outbreak of the Hannibalic War to the defeat of Perseus
at Pydna. To this period then the main portion of his history
is devoted from the third to the thirtieth book inclusive. But
for clearness' sake he prefixes in bks. i. and ii. such a preliminary
sketch of the earlier history of Rome, of the First Punic War, and
of the contemporary events in Greece and Asia, as will enable his
readers more fully to understand what follows. This seems to
have been his original plan, but at the opening of bk. iii., written
apparently after 146, he explains that he thought it desirable to
add some account of the manner in which the Romans exercised
the power they had won, of their temperament and policy and of
the final catastrophe which destroyed Carthage and for ever broke
np the Achaean League (iii. 4, 5). To this appendix, giving the
history from 168-146, the last ten books are devoted.
Whatever fault may be found with Polybius, there can be no
question that he had formed a high conception of the task before
him. He lays repeated stress on two qualities as distinguishing
his history from the ordinary run of historical compositions. The
first of these, its synoptic character, was partly necessitated by the
nature of the period. The various states fringing the basin of the
Mediterranean had become so inextricably interwoven that it
was no longer possible to deal with them m isolation. Polybius
therefore claims for his history that it will take a comprehensive
POLYBIUS
view of the whole course of events in the civilized world, within
the limits of the period (i. 4). He thus aims at placing before his
readers at each stage a complete survey of the field of action from
Spain to Syria and Egypt. This synoptic method proceeds from
a true appreciation of what is now called the unity of history, and
to Polybius must be given the credit of having first firmly grasped
and clearly enforced a lesson which the events of his own time
were especially well calculated to teach. It is the great merit
of his work that it gives such a picture of the 2nd and 3rd centuries
B.C. as no series of special narratives could have supplied.
The second quality upon which Polybius insists as distinguishing
his history from all others is its " pragmatic " character. It deals,
that is, with events and with their causes, and aims at an accurate
record and explanation of ascertained facts. This " pragmatic
method " (ix. 2) makes history intelligible by explaining the how
and the why; and, secondly, it is only when so written that history
can perform its true function of instructing and guiding those who
study it. For the great use of history, according to Polybius, is to
contribute to the right conduct of human life (i. 35). But this
it can do only if the historian bears in mind the true nature of his
task. He must remember that the historian should not write as
the dramatist does to charm or excite his audience for the moment
(ii. 56). He will aim simply at exhibiting events in their true
light, setting forth " the why and the how " in each case, not
confusing causes and occasions, or dragging in old wives' fables,
prodigies and marvels (ii. 16, iii. 48). He will omit nothing which
can help to explain the events he is dealing with : the genius and
temperament of particular peoples, their political and military
systems, the characters of the leading men, the geographical features
of the country, must all be taken into account. To this conception
of history Polybius is on the whole consistently faithful. It is
true that his anxiety to instruct leads often to a rather wearisome
iteration of his favourite maxims, and that his digressions, such
as that on the military art, are occasionally provokmgly long and
didactic. But his comments and reflections are for the most part
sound and instructive (e.g. those on the lessons to be learnt from
the revolt of the mercenaries in Africa, i. 65; from the Celtic raids
in Italy, ii. 35 ; and on the Roman character), while among his digres-
sions are included such invaluable chapters as those on the Roman
constitution (bk. vi), the graphic description of Cisalpine Gaul
(bk. ii.) and the account of the rise and constitution of the Achaean
League (ii. 38 seq.). To his anxiety again to trace back events
to their first causes we owe, not only the careful inquiry (bk. iii.)
into the origin of the Second Punic War, but the sketch of early
Roman history in bk. i., and of the early treaties between Rome
and Carthage in iii. 22 seq. Among the many defects which he
censures in previous historians, not the least serious in his eyes
are their inattention to the political and geographical surroundings
of the history (ii. 16, iii. 36), and their neglect duly to set forth the
causes of events (iii. 6).
Polybius is equally explicit as regards the personal qualifications
necessary for a good historian, and in this respect too his practice is
in close agreement with his theory. Without a personal knowledge
of affairs a writer will inevitably distort the true relations and im-
portance of events (xii. 28). Such experience would have saved
accomplished and fluent Greek writers like Timaeus from many
of their blunders (xii. 25a), but the shortcomings of Roman soldiers
and senators like Q. Fabius Pictor show that it is not enough by
itself. Equally indispensable is careful painstaking research. All
available evidence must be collected, thoroughly sifted, soberly
weighed, and, lastly, the historian must be animated by a sincere
love of truth and a calm impartiality.
It is important to consider how far Polybius himself comes up
to his standard. In his personal acquaintance with affairs, in the
variety of his experience, and in his opportunities for forming a
correct judgment on events he is without a rival among ancient
historians. A great part of the period of which he treats fell within
his own lifetime (iv. 2). He may just have remembered the battle
of Cynoscephalae (197), and, as we have seen, he was actively
engaged in the military and political affairs of the Achaean League.
During his exile in Rome he was able to study the Roman constitu-
tion, and the peculiarities of the Roman temperament; he made
the acquaintance of Roman senators, and became the intimate
friend of the greatest Roman of the day. Lastly, he was able to
survey with his own eyes the field on which the great struggle
between Rome and Hannibal was fought out. He left Rome
only to witness the crowning triumph of Roman arms in Africa,
and to gain a practical acquaintance with Roman methods of
government by assisting in the settlement of Achaea. When, in
146, his public life closed, he completed his preparation of himself
for his great work by laborious investigations of archives and monu-
ments, and by a careful personal examination of historical- sites and
scenes. To all this we must add that he was deeply read in the
learning of his day, above all in the writings of earlier historians.
Of Polybius's anxiety to get at the truth no better proof can be
given than his conscientious investigation of original documents
and monuments, and his careful study of geography and topography
both of them points in which his predecessors, as well as his
successor Livy, conspicuously failed. Polybius is careful con-
stantly to remind us that he writes for those who are
lovers of knowledge, with whom truth is the first consideration.
He closely studied the bronze tablets in Rome on which were in-
scribed the early treaties concluded between Romans and Cartha-
ginians. He quotes the actual language of the treaty which ended
the First Punic War (i. 62), and of that between Hannibal and Philip
of Macedon (vii. 9). In xvi. 15 he refers to a document which he
had personally inspected in the archives at Rhodes, and in iii. 33
to the monument on the Lacinian promontory, recording the
number of Hannibal's forces. According to Dionysius, i. 17, he
got his date for the foundation of Rome from a tablet in the pontifical
archives. As instances of his careful attention to geography and
topography we have not only the fact of his widely extended travels,
from the African coast and the Pillars of Hercules in the west, to
the Euxine and the coasts of Asia Minor in the east, but also the
geographical and topographical studies scattered throughout his
history.
Next to the duty of original research, Polybius ranks that of
impartiality. Some amount of bias in favour of one's own country
may, he thinks, be pardoned as natural (xvi. 14) ; but it is unpardon-
able, he says, for the historian to set anything whatever above the
truth. And on the whole, Polybius must be allowed here again
to have practised what he preached. It is true that his affection
for and pride in Arcadia appear in more than one passage (iv. 20,
21). as also does his dislike of the Aetolians (ii. 45, iv. 3, 16). His
treatment of Aratus and Philojsoemen, the heroes of the Achaean
League, and of Cleomenes of Sparta, its most constant enemy, is
perhaps open to severer criticism. Certainly Cleomenes does not
receive full justice at his hands. Similarly his views of Rome
and the Romans may have been influenced by his firm belief in
the necessity of accepting the Roman supremacy as inevitable,
and by his intimacy with Scipio. He had a deep admiration for
the great republic, for her well-balanced constitution, for her military
system, and for the character of her citizens. But just as his
patriotism does not blind him to the faults and follies of his country-
men (xxxviii. 4, 5, 6), so he does not scruple to criticize Rome.
He notices the incipient degeneracy of Rome after 146 (xviii. 35).
He endeavours to hold the balance evenly between Rome and
Carthage; he strongly condemns the Roman occupation of Sardinia
as a breach of faith (iii. 28, 31); and he does full justice to
Hannibal. Moreover, there can be no doubt that he sketched the
Roman character in a masterly fashion.
His interest in the study of character and his skill in its delinea-
tion are everywhere noticeable. He believes, indeed, in an over-
ruling fortune, which guides the course of events. It is fortune
which has fashioned anew the face of the world in his own time
(iv. 2), which has brought the whole civilized world into subjection
to Rome (i. 4) ; and the Roman Empire itself is the most marvellous
of her works (viii. 4). But under fortune not only political and
geographical conditions but the characters and temperaments of
nations and individuals play their part. The Romans had been
fitted by their previous struggles for the conquest of the world
(i. 63) ; they were chosen to punish the treachery of Philip of Macedon
(xv. 4) ; and the greatest of them, Scipio himself, Polybius regards
as the especial favourite of fortune (xxxii. i; x. 5).
In respect of form, Polybius is far the inferior of Livy, partly
owing to his very virtues. His laudable desire to present a picture
of the whole political situation at each important moment is fatal
to the continuity of his narrative. Thus the thrilling story of the
Second Punic War is broken in upon by digressions on the con-
temporary affairs in Greece and Asia. More serious, however,
than this excessive love of synchronism is his almost pedantic
anxiety to edify. For grace and elegance of composition, and for
the artistic presentation of events, he has a hardly concealed con-
tempt. Hence a general and almost studied carelessness of effect,
which mars his whole work. On the other hand he is never weary
of preaching. His favourite theories of the nature and aims_ of
history, of the distinction between the universal and special histories,
of the duties of an historian, sound as most of them are in them-
selves, are enforced with wearisome iteration; more than once the
effect of a graphic picture is spoilt by obtrusive moralizing. Nor,
lastly, is Polybius's style itself such as to compensate for these
defects. It is, indeed, often impressive from the evident earnest-
ness of the writer, and from his sense of the gravity of his subject,
and is unspoilt by rhetoric or conceit. It has about it the ring of
reality; the language is sometimes pithy and vigorous; and now
and then we meet with apt metaphors, such as those borrowed
from boxing (i. 57), from cock-fighting (i. 58), from draughts (i. 84).
But, in spite of these redeeming features, the prevailing baldness
of Polybius's style excludes him Irom the first rank among classical
writers; and it is impossible to quarrel with the verdict pronounced
by Dionysius of Hahcarnassus, who places him among those authors
of later times who neglected the graces of style, and who paid for
their neglect by leaving behind them works " which no one was
patient enough to read through to the end."
It is to the value and variety of his matter, to his critical insight,
breadth of view and wide research, and not least to the surpassing
importance and interest of the period with which he deals, that
Polybius owes his place among the writers of history. What is
known as to the fortunes of his histories, and the reputation they
enjoyed, fully bears out this conclusion. The silence respecting
20
POLYCARP
him maintained by Quintilian and by Lucian may reasonably be
taken to imply their agreement with Dionysius as to his merits
as a master of style. On the other hand, Cicero (De off. iii. 32)
describes him as " bonus auctor in primis"; in the De republica
(ii. 14) he praises highly his accuracy in matters of chronology;
and Cicero's younger contemporary, Marcus Brutus, was a devoted
student of Polybius, and was engaged on the eve of the battle of
Pharsalia in compiling an epitome of his histories (Sui'das, s.ii. ;
Plutarch, Brut. 4). Livy, however, notwithstanding the extent
to which he used his writings (see LIVY), speaks of him in such
qualified terms as to suggest the idea that his strong artistic sensi-
bilities had been wounded by Polybius's literary defects. He has
nothing better to say of him than that he is 'by no means con-
temptible " (xxx. 45), and "not an untrustworthy author" (xxxiii.
10). Posidonius and Strabo, both of them Stoics like Polybius
himself, are said to have written continuations of his history (Sui'das,
s.v. ; Strabo p. 515). Arrian in the early part of the 2nd and
Aelian in the 3rd century both speak of him with respect, though
with reference mainly to his excellence as an authority on the art
of war. In addition to his Histories Polybius was the author of
the following smaller works: a life of Philopoemen (Polyb. x. 24),
a history of the Numantine War (Cic. Ad Fam. v. 12), a treatise on
tactics (Polyb. ix. 20; Arrian, Tactica; Aelian, Tact. i.). The
geographical treatise, referred to by Geminus, is possibly identical
with the thirty-fourth book of the Histories (Schweighauser,
Praef. p. 184.
AUTHORITIES. The complete books (i.-v.) of the Histories
were first printed in a Latin translation by Nicholas Perotti in
1473. The date of the first Greek edition, that by Obsopaeus,
is 1530. For a full account of these and of later editions, as well
as of the extant MSS., see Schweighauser's Preface to his edition
of Polybius. Our knowledge of the contents of the fragmentary
books is derived partly from quotations in ancient writers, but
mainly from two collections of excerpts; one, probably the work
of a late Byzantine compiler, was first printed at Basel in 1549
and contains extracts from books vi.-xviii. (wepl irpeafit'uav, vtpl
apertjs icai xaxias) ; the other consists of two fragments from the
" select passages " from Greek historians compiled by the directions
of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century. To these
must be added the Vatican excerpts edited by Angelo Mai in the
present century.
The following are the more important modern editions of Polybius:
Ernest! (3 vols., 1763-1764); Schweighauser (8 vols., 1793, and
Oxford, 1823); Bekker (2 vols., 1844); L. Dindorf (4 vols., 1866-
1868, 2nd ed., T. Biittner-Wobst, 5 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1904);
Hultsch (4 vols., 1867-1871); J. L. Strachan-Davidson, Selections
from Polybius (Oxford, 1888). For the literature of the subject,
see Engelmann, Biblioth. script, class.: Script, graeci, pp. 646-
650 (8th ed. Leipzig, 1880). See also W. W. Capes, The History
of the Achaean League (London, 1888); F. Susemihl, Gesch. d.
griech. Litteratur in d. Alexandrinerzeit, ii. 80128 (Leipzig, 1891
1892); O. Cuntz, Polybios und sein Werk (Leipzig, 1902); R. v.
Scala, Die Studien des Polybios (Stuttgart, 1890); J. B. Bury,
Ancient Greek Historians (1909), " a whole-hearted appreciation
of Polybius"; J. L. Strachan-Davidson, in Hellenica, pp. 353-
387 (London, 1898), and in Appendix II. to Selections from Polybius
pp. 642-668 (Oxford, 1888). (H. F. P.; X.)
POLYCARP (c. 6o-c. 155), bishop of Smyrna and one of the
Apostolic Fathers, derives much of his importance from the fact
that he links together the apostolic age and that of nascent
Catholicism. The sources from which we derive our knowledge
of the life and activity of Polycarp are: (i) a few notices in the
writings of Irenaeus, (2) the Epistle of Polycarp to the Church at
Philippi, (3) the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp, (4) the Epistle
of the Church at Smyrna to the Church at Philomelium, giving
an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp. Since these authori-
ties have all been more or less called in question and some of them
entirely rejected by recent criticism, it is necessary to say a few
words about each.
i. The Statements of Irenaeus are Sound (a) inh\sAdversus haereses,
iii. 3, 4, (6) in the letter to Victor, where Irenaeus gives an account
of Polycarp's visit to Rome, (c) in the letter to Florinus a most
important document which describes the intercourse between
Irenaeus and Polycarp and Polycarp's relation with St John. No
objection has been made against the genuineness of the statements
in the Adversus haereses, but the authenticity of the two letters
has been stoutly contested in recent times by van Manen. 1 The
main attack is directed against the Epistle to Florinus, doubtless
because of its importance. " The manifest exaggerations," says
van Manen, " coupled with the fact that Irenaeus never shows
any signs of acquaintance with Florinus . . . enable us to perceive
clearly that a writer otherwise unknown is speaking to us here."
The criticism of van Manen has, however, found no supporters
outside the Dutch school. The epistle is quoted by Eusebius
1 Ency. Bib. iii. 3490.
(v. 20), and is accepted as genuine by Harnack 2 and Kriiger.*
The relevant statements in the letter, moreover, are supported
by the references to Polycarp which we find in the body of
Irenaeus's great work.
2. 'The Epistle of Polycarp. Though Irenaeus states that Polycarp
wrote many " letters to the neighbouring churches or to certain
of the brethren " 4 only one has been preserved, viz. the well-known
letter to the Philippians. The epistle is largely involved in the
Ignatian controversy (see IGNATIUS). The testimony which it
affords to the Ignatian Epistles is so striking that those scholars
who regard these letters as spurious are bound to reject the Epistle
of Polycarp altogether, or at any rate to look upon it as largely
interpolated. The former course has been adopted by Schwegler, 6
Zeller, 6 and Hilgenfeld, 7 the latter by Ritschl 8 and Lipsius. 9 The
rehabilitation of the Ignatian letters in modern times has, however,
practically destroyed the attack on the Epistles of Polycarp. The
external evidence in its favour is of considerable weight. Irenaeus
(iii. 3, 4) expressly mentions and commends a " very adequate "
(iKa.vwTa.Tri) letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, and we have no
reason for doubting the identity of this letter mentioned by Irenaeus
with our epistle. Eusebius (iii. 36) quotes extracts from the
epistle, and some of the extracts contain the very passages which
the critics have marked as interpolations, and Jerome (De Vir. III.
xvii.) testifies that in his time the epistle was publicly read in the
Asiatic churches. The internal evidence is equally strong. There
is absolutely no motive for a forgery in the contents of the epistle.
As Harnack says, " There is no trace of any tendency beyond the
immediate purpose of maintaining the true Christian life in the
church and warning it against covetousness and against an un-
brotherly spirit. The occasion of the letter was a case of embezzle-
ment, the guilty individual being a presbyter at Philippi. It shows
a fine combination of mildness with severity; the language is simple
but powerful, and, while there is undoubtedly a lack of original
ideas, the author shows remarkable skill in weaving together
pregnant sentences and impressive warnings selected from the
apostolic epistles and the first Epistle of Clement. In these circum-
stances it would never have occurred to any one to doubt the
genuineness of the epistle or to suppose that it had been inter-
polated, but for the fact that in several passages reference is made
to Ignatius and his epistles." The date of the epistle depends
upon the date of the Ignatian letters and is now 'generally fixed
between 112 and 118. An attempt has been made in some quarters
to prove that certain allusions in the epistle imply the rise of the
heresy of Marcion and that it cannot therefore be placed earlier than
140. Lightfoot, however, has proved that Polycarp's statements
may equally well be directed against Corinthianism or any other
form of Docetism, while some of his arguments are absolutely
inapplicable to Marcionism.
3. The Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp. This epistle has of course
been subjected to the same criticism as has been directed against
the other epistles of Ignatius (see IGNATIUS). Over and above the
general criticism, which may now be said to have been completely
answered by the investigations of Zahn, Lightfoot and Harnack,
one or two special arguments have been brought against the Epistle
to Polycarp. Ussher, for instance, while accepting the other six
epistles, rejected this on the ground that Jerome says that Ignatius
only sent one letter to Smyrna a mistake due to his misinterpre-
tation of Eusebius. Some modern scholars (among whom Harnack
was formerly numbered, though he has modified his views on the
point) feel a difficulty about the peremptory tone which Ignatius
adopts towards Polycarp. There was some force in this argument
when the Ignatian Epistles were dated about 140, as in that case
Polycarp would have been an old and venerable man at the time.
But now that the date is put back to about 112 the difficulty
vanishes, since Polycarp was not much over forty when he received
the letter. We must remember, too, that Ignatius was writing
under the consciousness of impending martyrdom and evidently
felt that this gave him the right to criticize the bishops and churches
of Asia.
4. The Letter of the Church at Smyrna to the Philomelians is a
most important document, because we derive from it all our in-
formation with regard to Polycarp's martyrdom. Eusebius has
preserved the greater part of this epistle (iv. 15), but we possess it
entire with various concluding observations in several Greek MSS.,
and also in a Latin translation. The epistle gives a minute
description of the persecution in Smyrna, of the last days of
Polycarp and of his trial and martyrdom; and as it contains many
instructive details and professes to have been written not long after
the events to which it refers, it has always been regarded as one
of the most precious remains of the 2nd century. Certain recent
critics, however, have questioned the authenticity of the narrative.
2 Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 593-594.
3 Early Christian Literature (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 150.
4 Letter to Florinus ap. Euseb. v. 20.
5 Nachapostolisches Zeitalter, ii. 154.
e Apostolgeschichte, p. 52.
7 A postolische Vater, p. 272.
8 Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, p. 584.
* Ueber das Verhaltniss, &c., p. 14.
POLYCARP
21
Lipsius brings 1 the date of the epistle down to about 260, though
he admits many of the statements as trustworthy. Keim, too, 1
endeavours to show that, although it was based on good information,
it could not have been composed till the middle of the 3rd century.
A similar position has also been taken up by Schurer,' Holtzmann,'
Gebhardt, 6 Reville," and van Manen. 7 The last named regards the
document " as a decorated narrative of the saint's martyrdom
framed after the pattern of Jesus' martyrdom," though he thinks
that it cannot be put as late as 250, but must fall within the limits
of the 2nd century. It cannot be said, however, that the case
against the document has been at all substantiated, and the more
modi-rate school of modern critics (e.g. Lightfoot, 8 Harnack, 8
Krugcr) 10 is unanimous in regarding it as an authentic document,
though it recognizes that here and there a few slight interpolations
have been inserted." Besides these we have no other sources for
the life of Polycarp; the Vita S. Polycarpi auctore Pionio (published
by Duchesne, Paris, 1881, and Lightfoot Ignatius and Polycarp,
1885, ii- 1015-1047) is worthless.
Assuming the genuineness of the documents mentioned, we
now proceed to collect the scanty information which they afford
with regard to Polycarp's career. Very little is known about
his early life. He must have been born not later than the year
6g, for on the day of his death (c. 155) he declared that he had
served the Lord for eighty-six years (Martyrium, 9). The
statement seems to imply that he was of Christian parentage ;
he cannot have been older than eighty-six at the time of his
martyrdom, since he had paid a visit to Rome almost immediately
before. Irenaeus tells us that in early life Polycarp " had been
taught by apostles and lived in familiar intercourse with many
that had seen Christ " (iii. 3,4). This testimony is expanded
in the remarkable words which Irenaeus addresses to Florinus:
" I saw thee when I was still a boy (TTGUS in &v) in Lower Asia
in company with Polycarp ... I can even now point out the
place where the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed,
and describe his goings out and his comings in, his manner of
life and his personal appearance and the discourses which he
delivered to the people, how he used to speak of his intercourse
with John and with the rest of those who had seen the Lord, and
how he would relate their words. And everything that he had
heard from them about the Lord, about His miracles and about
His teaching, Polycarp used to tell us as one who had received
it from those who had seen the Word of Life with their own eyes,
and all this in perfect harmony with the Scriptures. To these
things I used to listen at the time, through the mercy of God
vouchsafed to me, noting them down, not on paper but in my
heart, and constantly by the grace of God I brood over my
accurate recollections." These are priceless words, for they
establish a chain of tradition (John-Polycarp-Irenaeus) which is
without a parallel in early church history. Polycarp thus
becomes the living link between the Apostolic age and the great
writers who flourished at the end of the 2nd century. Recent
criticism, however, has endeavoured to destroy the force of the
words of Irenaeus. Harnack, for instance, attacks this link at
both ends. 12 (a) The connexion of Irenaeus and Polycarp, he
argues, is very weak, because Irenaeus was only a boy (irals) at
the time, and his recollections therefore carry very little weight.
The fact too that he never shows any signs of having been influ-
enced by Polycarp and never once quotes his writings is a further
proof that the relation between them was slight, (b) The
connexion which Irenaeus tries to establish between Polycarp
and John the apostle is probably due to a blunder. Irenaeus has
confused John the apostle and John the presbyter. Polycarp
was the disciple of the latter, not the former. In this second
1 Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. (1874), p. 200 seq.
2 A us dem Urchristcnth:'.m (1878), p. 90.
8 Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. (1870), p. 203 seq.
4 Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol. (1877).
5 Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. (1875).
6 De anno Polycarpi (1881).
7 Oud-Christ (1861), and Ency. Bib. iii. 3479.
' Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 589 seq.
Gesch. d. altchrist. Lit. II. i. 341.
10 Early Christian Lit. (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 380.
"Amongst these we ought probably to include the expression
i) KofloXoci) (KK\ri<Tla. (xvi. ig), <cofloX6s being here used in the sense
of orthodox a usage which is not foundi elsewhere at so early a
date.
u Chronologic, i. 325-329.
Argument Harnack has the support of a considerable number of
nodern scholars who deny the Ephesian residence of John the
apostle. But, as Gwatkin " has pointed out, Harnack's argu-
ments are by no means decisive, (a) When Irenaeus describes
limself as a boy (TTCUS), he need not have meant a very young lad,
under thirteen, as Harnack makes out. Lightfoot has cited many
nstances which prove that the word could be used of a man
)f thirty." Nor does the alternative phrase which Irenaeus uses
n iii. 3, 4 ( ov /ecu fiittis tiapoKafitv kv TJ? Trpwrfl iin&v ^Xudp)
militate against this interpretation, for elsewhere Irenaeus him-
clf distinctly says " triginta annorum.actas prima indoles est
uvenis " (ii. 22, 5). It is true that Harnack has adduced argu-
nents which cannot be discussed here to prove that Irenaeus
was not born till about 140;" but against this we may quote the
decision of Lipsius, who puts the date of his birth at i3, w while
^ightf oot argues for 1 2O. 17 The fact that Irenaeus never quotes
3 olycarp does not count for much. Polycarp wrote very little,
le does not seem to have been a man of great mental capacity.
' His influence was that of saintliness rather than that of
ntellect." (b) A discussion of Harnack's second line of argument
s impossible here. His theory with regard to the confusion
of names is a gratuitous assumption and cannot be proved.
The tradition of St John's residence at Ephesus is too strong to
5e easily set aside. In spite therefore of much modern criticism
there seems to be no solid reason for rejecting the statements of
Irenaeus and regarding Polycarp as the link between the Apostolic
age and the first of the Catholic fathers.
Though Polycarp must have been bishop of Smyrna for nearly
lalf a century we know next to nothing about his career. We
get only an occasional glimpse of his activity, and the period
3etween 115 and 155 is practically a blank. The only points of
sure information which we possess relate to (i) his relations with
Ignatius, (2) his protests against heresy, (3) his visit to Rome in
the time of Anicetus, (4) his martyrdom.
1 . His Relations with Ignatius. Ignatius, while on his way to
Rome to suffer martyrdom, halted at Smyrna and received a
warm welcome from the church and its bishop. Upon reaching
Troas he despatched two letters, one to the church at Smyrna,
another addressed personally to Polycarp. In these letters
Ignatius charged Polycarp to write to all the churches between
Smyrna and Syria (since his hurried departure from Troas made
it impossible for him to do so in person) urging them to send
letters and delegates to the church at Antioch to congratulate
it upon the cessation of the persecution and to establish it in the
faith. The letters of Ignatius illustrate the commanding
position which Polycarp had already attained in Asia. It was
in the discharge of the task which had been laid upon him by
Ignatius that Polycarp was brought into correspondence with
the Philippians. The Church at Philippi wrote to Polycarp
asking him to forward their letters to Antioch. Polycarp replied,
promising to carry out their request and enclosing a number of
the letters of Ignatius which he had in his possession.
2. Polycarp's Attack on Heresy. All through his life Polycarp
appears to have been an uncompromising opponent of heresy.
We find him in his epistle (ch. vii.) uttering a strong protest
against certain false teachers (probably the followers of
Cerinthus).
For every one who shall not confess that Jesus Christ is come
in the flesh is antichrist; and whosoever shall not confess the
testimony of the Cross is of the devil ; and whosoever shall pervert
the oracles of the Lord to his own lusts and say that there is neither
resurrection nor judgment, that man is the first-born of Satan.
Wherefore let us forsake their vain doing and their false teaching
and turn unto the word which was delivered unto us from the
beginning."
Polycarp lived to see the rise of the Marcionite and Valentinian
sects and vigorously opposed them. Irenaeus tells us that on
13 Contemp. Review, February 1897.
14 Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 432, for instance, Constantino (Euseb.
V.C. ii. 51) describes himself as Ko/iiijj TOIS, though he must have
been over thirty at the time.
15 Chronologic, i. 325-333.
16 See Lightfoot, op. at. i. 432. ,
17 Essays on Supernatural Religion, 264, 265.
22
POLYCLITUS
one occasion Marcion endeavoured to establish relations with
him and accosted him with the words, " Recognize us." But
Polycarp displayed the same uncompromising attitude which his
master John had shown towards Cerinthus and answered, " I
recognize you as the first-born of Satan." The steady progress
of the heretical movement in spite of all opposition was a cause
of deep sorrow to Polycarp, so that in the last years of his life the
words were constantly on his lips, " Oh good God, to what times
hast thou spared me, that I must suffer such things!"
3. Polycarp' s Visit to Rome. It is one of the most interesting
and important events in the church history of th'e 2nd century
that Polycarp, shortly before his death, when he was considerably
over eighty years old, undertook a journey to Rome in order to
visit the bishop Anicetus. Irenaeus, to whom we are indebted
for this information (Haer. iii. 3, 4; Epist. ad victorem, ap.
Euseb. v. 24), gives as the reason for the journey the fact that
differences existed between Asia and Rome " with regard to
certain things " and especially about the time of the Easter
festival. He might easily have told us what these " certain
things " were and given us fuller details of the negotiations
between the two great bishops, for in all probability he was
himself in Rome at the time. But unfortunately all he says is
that with regard to the certain things the two bishops speedily
came to an understanding, while as to the time of Easter, each
adhered to his own custom, without breaking off communion
with the other. We learn further that Anicetus as a mark of
special honour allowed Polycarp to celebrate the Eucharist in
the church, and that many Marcionites and Valentinians were
converted by him during his stay in Rome.
4. Polycarp's Martyrdom. Not many months apparently
after Polycarp's return from Rome a persecution broke out in
Asia. A great festival was in progress at Smyrna. The pro-
consul Statius Quadratus was present on the occasion, and the
asiarch Philip of Tralles was presiding over the games. Eleven
Christians had been brought, mostly from Philadelphia, to be
put to death. The appetite of the populace was inflamed by the
spectacle of their martyrdom. A cry was raised " Away with
the atheists. Let search be made for Polycarp." Polycarp took
refuge in a country farm. His hiding-place, however, was be-
trayed and he was arrested and brought back into the city.
Attempts were made by the officials to induce him to recant, but
without effect. When he came into the theatre the proconsul
urged him to " revile Christ, ""and promised, if he would consent
to abjure his faith, that he would set him at liberty. To this
appeal Polycarp made the memorable answer, " Eighty and six
years have I served Him and He hath done me no wrong. How
then can I speak evil of my King who saved me? " These words
only intensified the fury of the mob. They clamoured for a lion
to be let loose upon him there and then. The asiarch however
refused, urging as an excuse that the games were over. When
they next demanded that their victim should be burned, the
proconsul did not interfere. Timber and faggots were hastily
collected and Polycarp was placed upon the pyre. With calm
dignity and unflinching courage he met his fate and crowned a
noble life with an heroic death.
The question as to the date of the martyrdom has evoked
considerable controversy. Eusebius in his Chronicon gives
A.D. 166 as the date of Polycarp's death, and until the year 1867
this statement was never questioned. In that year appeared
Waddington's Memoire sur la chronologic de la vie du rheteur
Aelius Aristide, in which it was shown from a most acute combin-
ation of circumstances that the Quadratus whose name is men-
tioned in the Martyrium was proconsul of Asia in 155-156, and
that consequently Polycarp was martyred on the 23rd of February
155. Waddington's conclusion has received overwhelming
support amongst recent critics. His views have been accepted
by (amongst many others) Renan, 1 Hilgenfeld, 2 Gebhardt, 3
Lipsius, 4 Harnack, 6 Zahn, 6 Lightfoot, 7 Randell. 8 Against this
1 Antichrist (1873), P- 2O 7- 2 Zeitschr.f. wiss. Theol. (1874), p. 325.
' Zeilschr. f. hist. Theol. (1875), p. 356.
1 Jahrb. f. prot. Theol. (1883), p. 525. 6 Chronologie, \. 334-356.
'Zeitschr.f. wiss. Theol. (1882), p. 227; (1884), p. 216.
7 Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 629-702. * Studia biblica (1885), i. 175.
array of scholars only the following names of importance can be
quoted in support of the traditional view Keim, 9 Wieseler 10 and
Uhlhorn. 11 The problem is too complex to admit of treatment
here. There seems to be little doubt that the case for the earlier
date has been proved. The only point upon which there is
division of opinion is as to whether Waddington's date 155, or
as is suggested by Lipsius and supported by C.H. Turner 12 the
following year 156 is the more probable. The balance of opinion
seems to favour the latter alternative, because it leaves more
room for Polycarp's visit to Anicetus, who only became bishop of
Rome in 154. Harnack, however, after careful investigation,
prefers 155.
The significance of Polycarp in the history of the Church is
out of all proportion to our knowledge of the facts of his career.
The violent attack of the Smyrnaean mob is an eloquent tribute
to his influence in Asia. " This is the teacher of Asia," they
shouted, " this is the father of the Christians: this is the des-
troyer of our gods: this is the man who has taught so many no
longer to sacrifice and no longer to pray to the gods." 13 And
after the execution they refused to deliver up his bones to the
Christians for burial on the ground that " the Christians would
now forsake the Crucified and worship Polycarp." 14 Polycarp
was indeed, as Polycrates says, 1 ' " one of the great luminaries "
Gue7<xXa 0roix"0 of the time. It was in no small degree due to
his stanch and unwavering leadership that the Church was saved
from the peril of being overwhelmed by the rising tide of the
pagan revival which swept over Asia during the first half of the
2nd century, and it was his unfaltering allegiance to the Apostolic
faith that secured the defeat of the many forms of heresy which
threatened to destroy the Church from within. Polycarp had
no creative genius. He was a " transmitter, not a maker,"
but herein lies his greatness. Much occurred between the
Apostolic age and the age when the faith of the Church was
fixed in the earliest creed and protected by the determination
of the canon of the New Testament. This intervening period
was the most perilous epoch in the history of the ante-Nicene
Church. The Apostolic tradition might have been perverted
and corrupted. The purity of the Gospel might have been
defiled. The Christian ideal might have been lost. That the
danger was so largely averted is to no small extent the result of
the faithful witness of Polycarp. As Irenaeus says (iii. 3, 4),
" Polycarp does not appear to have possessed qualifications for
successfully conducting a controversial discussion with erroneous
teachers . . . but he could not help feeling how unlike their
speculations were to the doctrines which he had learned from
the Apostles, and so he met with indignant reprobation their
attempt to supersede Christ's gospel with fictions of their own
devising." It is this that constitutes Polycarp's service to the
Church, and no greater service has been rendered by any of its
leaders in any age.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, pt. ii.
(2nd ed., 1889). Polycarp is dealt with in i. 417-459, 530-704;
ii. 807-1086; G. Volkmar, Epistula Polycarpi Smyrnaei genuina
(Zurich, 1885); T. Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des Kanons, &c.,
iv. 249, 279; J. M. Cotterill, "The Epistle of Polycarp to the
Philippians," Journ. of PhUol. (1891), xix., 241-285; Harnack,
Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur (1897). See also APO-
STOLIC FATHERS. (H. T. A.)
POLYCLITUS, the name of two Greek sculptors of the school
of Argos; the first belonging to the fifth century, the second to
the early part of the fourth.
i. The elder and best known Polyclitus was a contemporary of
Pheidias, and in the opinion of the Greeks his equal. He made
a figure of an Amazon for Ephesus which was regarded as superior
to the Amazon of Pheidias made at the same time; and his
colossal Hera of gold and ivory which stood in the temple neat
Argos was considered as worthy to rank with the Zeus of Pheidias.
8 Aus dem Urchristentum, p. 90.
10 Die Christenverfolgungen der Caesaren (1878), p. 34.
11 Studio, biblica (1890), ii. 105-156.
12 Reakncyk. f. prot. Theol., 2nd ed. xii. 105.
13 Martyrium, ch. 12.
14 Ibid. 17.
16 A p. Euseb. v. 24.
POLYCRATES POLYGAMY
It would be hard for a modern critic to rate Polyclitus so high:
the reason is that balance, rhythm and the minute perfection of
bodily form, which were the great merits of this sculptor, do not
appeal to us as they did to the Greeks of the 5th century. He
worked mainly in bronze.
As regards his chronology we have data in a papyrus pub-
lished by Grenfell and Hunt containing lists of athletic victors.
From this it appears that he made a statue of Cyniscus, a victori-
ous athlete of 464 or 460 B.C., of Pythocles (452) and Aristion
(452). He thus can scarcely have been born as late as 480 B.C.
His statue of Hera is dated by Pliny to 420 B.C. His artistic
activity must thus have been long and prolific.
Copies of his spearman (doryphorus) (see GREEK ART, Plate VI.
fig. 80), and his victor winding a ribbon round his head (diadu-
menus) have long been recognized in our galleries. We see their
excellence, but they inspire no enthusiasm, because they are
more fleshy than modern figures of athletes, and want charm.
They are chiefly valuable as showing us the square forms of body
affected by Polyclitus, and the scheme he adopted, throwing
the weight of the body (as Pliny says of him) on one leg. We
must not, however, judge of a great Greek sculptor by Roman
copies of his works. This has been enforced by the discovery at
Delos, by the French excavators, of a diadumenus of far more
pleasing type and greater finish, which also goes back to Poly-
clitus. The excavations at Olympia have also greatly widened
our knowledge of the sculptor. Among the bases of statues
found on that site were three signed by Polyclitus, still bearing
on their surface the marks of attachment of the feet of the
statues. This at once gives us their pose; and following up the
clue, A. Furtwangler has identified several extant statues as
copies of figures of boy athletes victorious at Olympia set up by
Polyclitus. Among these the Westmacott athlete in the British
Museum is conspicuous. And it is certain that these boys,
although the anatomy of their bodies seems to be too mature, yet
have a real charm, combining beauty of form with modesty and
unaffected simplicity. They enable us better to understand the
merit of the sculptor.
The Amazon of Polyclitus survives in several copies, among
the best of which is one in the British Museum (for its type see
GREEK ART, fig. 40). Here again we find a certain heaviness;
and the womanly character of the Amazon scarcely appears
through her robust limbs. But the Amazon of Pheidias, if
rightly identified, is no better. The masterpiece of Polyclitus,
his Hera of gold and ivory, has of course totally disappeared.
The coins of Argos give us only the general type. Many archaeo-
logists have tried to find a copy of the head. The most defen-
sible of all these identifications is that of C. Waldstein, who
shows that a head of a girl in the British Museum (labelled as
Polyclitan) corresponds so nearly with that of Hera on 5th
century coins of Argos that we must regard it as a reflex of the
head of the great statue. It seems very hard and cold beside
such noble heads of the goddess as those in the Ludovisi Gallery
(Terme Museum) Rome. American archaeologists have in
recent years conducted excavations on the site of the Argive
temple of Hera (ARGOS and GREEK ART, fig. 39); but the sculp-
tural fragments, heads and torsos, which seem to belong to the
temple erected in the time of Polyclitus, have no close stylistic
resemblance to other statues recognized as his; and at present
their position in the history of art is matter of dispute.
The want of variety in the works of Polyclitus was brought as
a reproach against him by ancient critics. Varro says that his
statues were square and almost of one pattern. We have
already observed that there was small variety in their attitudes.
Except for the statue of Hera, which was the work of his old
age, he produced scarcely any notable statue of a deity. His
field was narrowly limited; but in that field he was unsurpassed.
2. The younger Polyclitus was of the same family as the elder,
and the works of the two are not easily to be distinguished.
Some existing bases, however, bearing the name are inscribed
in characters of the 4th century, at which time the elder sculptor
cannot have been alive. The most noted work of the younger
artist was a statue in marble of Zeus Milichius (the Merciful)
set up by the people of Argos after a shameful massacre which
took place in 370 B.C. The elder artist is not known to have
worked in marble. (P. G.)
POLYCRATES, tyrant of Samos (c. 535-515 B.C.). Having
won popularity by donations to poorer citizens, he took advan-
tage of a festival of Hera, which was being celebrated outside
the walls, to make himself master of the city (about 535 B.C.).
After getting rid of his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson, who
had at first shared his power, he established a despotism which
is of great importance in the history of the island. Realizing
clearly the value of sea-power for a Greek state, he equipped
a fleet of too ships, and so became master of the Aegean basin.
This ascendancy he abused by numerous acts of piracy which
made him notorious throughout Greece; but his real purpose
in building his navy was to become lord of all the islands of the
archipelago and the mainland towns of Jonia. The details
of his conquests are uncertain, but it is known that in the
Cyclades he maintained an alliance with the tyrant Lygdamis
of Naxos, and curried favour with the Delian Apollo by dedi-
cating to him the island of Rheneia. He also encountered and
heavily defeated a coalition of two great naval powers of the
Asiatic coast, Miletus and Lesbos. Doubtless with the object
of expanding the flourishing foreign trade of Samos, he entered
into alliance with Amasis, king of Egypt, who, according to
Herodotus, renounced his ally because he feared that the gods,
in envy of Polycrates' excessive good fortune, would bring
ruin upon him and his allies. It is more probable that the
breach of the compact was due to Polycrates, for when Cambyses
of Persia invaded Egypt (525) the Samian tyrant offered to
support him with a naval contingent. This squadron never
reached Egypt, for the crews, composed as they were of Poly-
crates' political enemies, suspecting that Cambyses was under
agreement to slay them, put back to Samos and attacked their
master. After a defeat by sea, Polycrates repelled an assault
upon the walls, and subsequently withstood a siege by a joint
armament of Spartans and Corinthians assembled to aid the
rebels. He maintained his ascendancy until about 515, when
Oroetes, the Persian governor of Lydia, who had been reproached
for his failure to reduce Samos by force, lured him to the
mainland by false promises of gain and put him to death by
crucifixion.
Beside the political and commercial pre-eminence which he
conferred upon Samos, Polycrates adorned the city with public
works on a large scale an aqueduct, a mole and a temple of
Hera (see SAMOS; AQUEDUCTS). The splendour of his palace
is attested by the proposal of the Roman emperor Caligula to
rebuild it. Foreign artists worked for him at high wages;
from Athens he brought Democedes, the greatest physician of
the age, at an exceptional salary. He was also a patron of
letters: he collected a library and lived on terms of intimate
friendship with the poet Anacreon, whose verses were full of
references to his patron. The philosopher Pythagoras, however,
quitted Samos in order to escape his tyranny. (M. O. B. C.)
POLYCRATES, Athenian sophist and rhetorician, flourished
in the 4th century B.C. He taught at Athens, and afterwards
in Cyprus. He composed declamations on paradoxical themes
an Encomium on Clylaemnestra, an Accusation of Socrates,
an Encomium on Busins (a mythical king of Egypt, notorious
for his inhumanity); also declamations on mice, pots and
counters. His Encomium on Busiris was sharply criticized
by Isocrates, in a work still extant, and Dionysius of Hali-
carnassus characterizes his style as frigid, vulgar and inelegant.
POLYGAMY (Gr. TroXw, many, and y&nos, marriage), or as it
is sometimes termed, POLYGYNY (yvrii, woman), the system
under which a man is married to several women at the same time.
Derivatively it includes the practice of polyandry, but it has
become definitely restricted to expressing what has been, and still
is, far the commonest type of relations between the sexes (see
FAMILY and MARRIAGE). Among Oriental nations plurality of
legal wives is customary. Mahommedans are allowed four. A
Hindu can have as many as he pleases: the high-caste sometimes
having as many as a hundred. Polygamy is the rule among
POLYGENISTS POLYGON
African tribes, and is common among those of Australia and Poly-
nesia. In China, however, only one wife is lawful. In many
polygamous countries the practical obstacle of expense prevents
men from taking advantage of their privileges. While poly-
gamy was the rule in biblical days among the ancient Jews, and
was permitted and even enjoined in certain cases by the Mosaic
law, the Christian Church, though it is nowhere forbidden, except
for "bishops," in the New Testament, has always set its face
against it. There have, however, been divines who dissented
from this general disapproval. The Anabaptists insisted on
freedom in the matter, and Bernardino Ochino conditionally
defended plurality of wives. When in 1 540 Philip the Magnani-
mous, the reforming Landgrave of Hesse, determined (with his
wife's approval, she being a confirmed invalid) to marry a second
wife, Luther and Melanchthon approved "ashis personal friends,
though not as doctors of theology"; while Martin Bucer assisted
at the marriage. In later times the Mormons (q.v.) in America
provide the most notable instance of the revival of polygamy.
POLYGENISTS, the term applied to those anthropologists
who contend that the several primary races of mankind are
separate species of independent origin. (See MONOGENISTS.)
POLYGLOTT (Gr. TroXus, many, and 7\o>TTa, tongue), the term
for a book which contains side by side versions of the same text
in several different languages; the most important polyglotts
are editions of the Bible, or its parts, in which the Hebrew and
Greek originals are exhibited along with the great historical
versions, which are of value for the history of the text and its
interpretation. The first enterprise of this kind is the famous
Hexapla of Origen in which the Old Testament Scriptures were
written in six parallel columns, the first containing the Hebrew
text, the second a transliteration of this in Greek letters, the
third and fourth the Greek translations by Aquila and Sym-
machus, the fifth the Septuagint version as revised by Origen,
the sixth the translation by Theodotion. Inasmuch, however, as
only two languages, Hebrew and Greek, were employed the work
was rather diglott than polyglott in the usual sense. After the
invention of printing and the revival of philological studies,
polyglotts became a favourite means of advancing the knowledge
of Eastern languages (for which no good helps were available) as
well as the study of Scripture. The series began with the
Complutensian printed by Arnaldus Guilielmus de Brocario at
the expense of Cardinal Ximenes at the university at Alcala de
Henares (Complutum). The first volume of this, containing the
New Testament in Greek and Latin, was completed on the loth
of January 1514. In vols. ii.-v. (finished on July 10, 1517)
the Hebrew text of the Old Testament was printed in the
first column of each page, followed by the Latin Vulgate and
then by the Septuagint version with an interlinear Latin trans-
lation. Below these stood the Chaldee, again with a Latin
translation. The sixth volume containing an appendix is dated
1515, but the work did not receive the papal sanction till March
1520, and was apparently not issued till 1522. The chief editors
were Juan de Vergara, Lopez de Zuniga (Stunica), Nunez de
Guzman (Pincianus), Antonio de Librixa (Nebrissensis), and
Demetrius Ducas. About half a century after the Complu-
tensian came the Antwerp Polyglott, printed by Christopher
Plantin (1569-1572, in 8 vols. folio). Of this the principal editor
was Arias Montanus aided by Guido Fabricius Boderianus,
Raphelengius, Masius, Lucas of Bruges and others. This work
was under the patronage of Philip II. of Spain; it added a new
language to those of the Complutensian by including the Syriac
New Testament; and, while the earlier polyglott had only the
Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, the Antwerp Bible had
also the Targum on the Prophets, and on Esther, Job, Psalms
and the Salomonic writings. Next came Le Jay's Paris Poly-
glotl (1645), which embraces the first printed texts of the Syriac
Old Testament (edited by Gabriel Sionita, a Maronite, but the
book of Ruth by Abraham Ecchelensis, also a Maronite) and of
the Samaritan Pentateuch and version (by Morinus). It has also
an Arabic version, or rather a series of various Arabic versions.
The last great polyglott is Brian Walton's (London, 1657),
which is much less beautiful than Le Jay's but more complete
in various ways, including, among other things, the Syriac of
Esther and of several apocryphal books for which it is wanting
in the Paris Bible, Persian versions of the Pentateuch and Gospels,
and the Psalms and New Testament in Ethiopic. Walton was
aided by able scholars, and used much new manuscript material.
His prolegomena, too, and collections of various readings mark an
important advance in biblical criticism. It was in connexion
with this polyglott that E. Castell produced his famous Heptaglott
Lexicon (2 vols. folio, London, 1669), an astounding monument of
industry and erudition even when allowance is made for the fact
that for the Arabic he had the great MS. lexicon compiled and
left to the university of Cambridge by the almost forgotten
W. Bedwell. The liberality of Cardinal Ximenes, who is said
to have spent half a million ducats on it, removed the Complu-
tensian polyglott from the risks of commerce. The other three
editions all brought their promoters to the verge of ruin. The
later polyglotts are of little scientific importance, the best
recent texts having been confined to a single language ; but every
biblical student still uses Walton and, if he can get it, Le Jay.
Of the numerous polyglott editions of parts of the Bible it may
suffice to mention the Genoa psalter of 1516, edited by Giustini-
ani, bishop of Nebbio. This is in Hebrew, Latin, Greek, Chaldee
and Arabic, and is interesting from the character of the Chaldee
text, being the first specimen of Western printing in the Arabic
character, and from a curious note on Columbus and the dis-
covery of America on the margin of Psalm xix. (A. W. Po.)
POLYGNOTUS, Greek painter in the middle of the jth century
B.C., son of Aglaophon, was a native of Thasos, but was adopted
by the Athenians, and admitted to their citizenship. He painted
for them in the time of Cimon a picture of the taking of Ilium
on the walls of the Stoa Poecile, and another of the marriage of
the daughters of Leucippus in the Anaceum. In the hall at the
entrance to the Acropolis other works of his were preserved.
The most important, however, of his paintings were his frescoes
in a building erected at Delphi by the people of Cnidus. The
subjects of these were the visit to Hades by Odysseus, and the
taking of Ilium. Fortunately the traveller Pausanias has left
us a careful description of these paintings, figure by figure
(Paus. x. 25-31). The foundations of the building have been
recovered in the course of the French excavations at Delphi.
From this evidence, some modern archaeologists have tried to
reconstruct the paintings, excepting of course the colours of them.
The best of these reconstructions is by Carl Robert, who by the
help of vase-paintings of the middle of the fifth century has
succeeded in recovering both the perspective of Polygnotus
and the character of his figures (see GREEK ART, fig. 29). The
figures were detached and seldom overlapping, ranged in two or
three rows one above another; and the farther were not smaller
nor dimmer than the nearer. The designs are repeated in
Frazer's Pausanias, v. 360 and 372. It will hence appear
that paintings at this time were executed on almost precisely
the same plan as contemporary sculptural reliefs. We
learn also that Polygnotus employed but few colours, and
those simple. Technically his art was primitive. His excellence
lay in the beauty of his drawing of individual figures; but
especially in the "ethical" and ideal character of his art. The
contemporary, and perhaps the teacher, of Pheidias, he had the
same grand manner. Simplicity, which was almost childlike,
sentiment at once noble and gentle, extreme grace and charm
of execution, marked his works, in contrast to the more
animated, complicated and technically superior paintings of
a later age. (P. G.)
POLYGON (Gr. TroXus, many, and yuivla., an angle), in geo-
metry, a figure enclosed by any number of lines the sides
which intersect in pairs at the corners or vertices. If the sides
are coplanar, the polygon is said to be "plane"; if not, then it
is a "skew" or "gauche" polygon. If the figure lies entirely
to one side of each of the bounding lines the figure is " convex";
if not it is " re-entrant " or " concave ." A "regular" polygon
has all its sides and angles equal, i.e. it is equilateral and equi-
angular; if the sides and angles be not equal the polygon is
"irregular." Of polygons inscriptible in a circle an equilateral
POLYGON
figure is necessarily equiangular, but the converse is only true
when the number of sides is odd. The term regular polygon
is usually restricted to " convex " polygons; a special class of
polygons (regular in the wider sense) has been named " star
polygons " on account of their resemblance to star-rays; these
are, however, concave.
Polygons, especially of the " regular " and " star " types, were
extensively studied by the Greek geometers. There are two
important corollaries to prop. 32, book i., of Euclid's Elements
rrluting to polygons. Having proved that the sum of the angles
of a triangle is a straight angle, i.e. two right angles, it is readily
seen that the sum of. the internal angles of a polygon (necessarily
convex) of n sides is re 2 straight angles (2re 4 right angles), for the
on can be divided into n2 triangles by lines joining one
vertex to the other vertices. The second corollary is that the
sum of the supplements of the internal angles, measured in the
same direction, is 4 right angles, and is thus independent of the
number of sides.
The systematic discussion of regular polygons with respect to the
inscribed and circumscribed circles is given in the fourth book of
the Elements. (We may note that the construction of an equilateral
triangle and square appear in the first book.) The triangle is dis-
cussed in props. 2-6; the square in props. 6-9; the pentagon (5-side)
in props. 10-14; the hexagon (6-side) in prop. 15; and the quin-
decagon in prop. 16. The triangle and square call for no special
mention here, other than that any triangle can be inscribed or
circumscribed to a circle. The pentagon is of more interest. Euclid
bases his construction upon the fact that the isosceles triangle
formed by joining the extremities of one side of a regular penta-
gon to the opposite vertex has each angle at the base double the
angle at the vertex. He constructs this triangle in prop. 10, by
dividing a line in medial section, i.e. the square of one part equal to
the product of the other part and the whole line (a construction given
in book ii. u), and then showing that the greater segment is the
base of the required triangle, the remaining sides being each equal
to the whole line. The inscription of a pentagon in a circle is
effected by inscribing an isosceles triangle similar to that constructed
in prop. 10, bisecting the angles at the base and producing the bisec-
tors to meet the circle. Euclid then proves that these intersections
and the three vertices of the triangle are the vertices of the required
pentagon. The circumscription of a pentagon is effected by con-
structing an inscribed pentagon, and drawing tangents to the circle
at the vertices. This supplies a general method for circumscribing
a polygon if the inscribed be given, and conversely. In book xiii.,
prop. 10, an alternative method for inscribing a pentagon is indicated,
for it is there shown that the sum of the squares of the sides of a
square and hexagon inscribed in the same circle equals the square
of the side of the pentagon. It may be incidentally noticed that
Euclid's construction of the isosceles triangle which has its basal
angles double the vertical angle solves the problem of quinquesecting
a right angle; moreover, the base of the triangle is the side of the
regular decagon inscribed in a circle having the vertex as centre
and the sides of the triangle as radius. The inscription of a hexagon
in a circle (prop. 15) reminds one of the Pythagorean result that
six equilateral triangles placed about a common vertex form a plane;
hence the bases form a regular hexagon. The side of a hexagon
inscribed in a circle obviously equals the radius of the circle. The
inscription of the quindecagon in a circle is made to depend upon
the fact that the difference of the arcs of a circle intercepted by
covertical sides of a regular pentagon and equilateral triangle is
$ i, = j*s> of the whole circumference, and hence the bisection
of this intercepted arc (by book iii., 30) gives the side of the
quindecagon.
The methods of Euclid permit the construction of the following
series of inscribed polygons: from the square, the 8-side or octagon,
I6-, 32- . . ., or generally 4-2"-side; from the hexagon, the 12-side
or dodecagon, 24-, 48- . . ., or generally the 6-2"-side; from the
pentagon, the lo-side or decagon, 20-, 40- . . ., or generally 5-2"-
side; from the quindecagon, the 30-, 60- . . ., or generally 15-2"-
side. It was long supposed that no other inscribed polygons were
possible of construction by elementary methods (i.e. by the ruler
and compasses); Gauss disproved this by forming the 17-side, and
he subsequently generalized his method for the (2 n -|-i)-side, when
this number is prime.
The problem of the construction of an inscribed heptagon, nonagon,
or generally of any polygon having an odd number of sides, is readily
reduced to the construction of a certain isosceles triangle. Suppose
the polygon to have (2n + i) sides. Join the extremities of one
side to the opposite vertex, and consider the triangle so formed.
It is readily seen that the angle at the base is n times the angle at
the vertex. In the heptagon the ratio is 3, in the nonagon 4, and
so on. The Arabian geometers of the 9th century showed that the
heptagon required the solution of a cubic equation, thus resembling
the Pythagorean problems of " duplicating the cube " and " tri-
secting an angle." Edmund Halley gave solutions for the heptagon
and nonagon by means of the parabola and circle, and by a
parabola and hyperbola respectively.
Although rigorous methods for inscribing the general polygons in
a circle are wanting, many approximate ones have been devised.
Two such methods are here given: (i) Divide the diameter of the
circle into as many parts as the polygon has sides. On the
diameter construct an equilateral triangle; and from its vertex
draw a line through the second division along the diameter,
measured from an extremity, and produce this Tine to intercept
the circle. Then the chord joining this point to the extremity of
the diameter is the side of the required polygon. (2) Divide the
diameter as before, and draw also the perpendicular diameter.
Take points on these diameters beyond the circle and at a dis-
tance from the circle equal to one division of the diameter. Join the
points so obtained; and draw a line from the point nearest the
divided diameter where this line intercepts the circle to the third
division from the produced extremity; this line is the required
length.
The construction of any regular polygon on a given side may be
readily performed with a protractor or scale of chords, for it is
only necessary to lay off from the extremities of the given side
lines equal in length to the given base, at angles equal to the interior
angle of the polygon, and repeating the process at each extremity
so obtained, the angle being always tak--n on the same side; or lines
may be laid off at one half of the interior angles, describing a circle
having the meet of these lines as centre and their length as radius,
and then measuring the given base around the circumference.
Star Polygons. These figures were studied by the Pythagoreans,
and subsequently engaged the attention of many geometers
Boethius, Athelard of Bath, Thomas Bradwardine, archbishop
of Canterbury, Johannes Kepler and others. Mystical and magical
properties were assigned to them at an early date; the Pythagoreans
regarded the pentagram, the star polygon derived from the pentagon,
as the symbol of health, the Platonists of well-being, while .others
used it to symbolize happiness. Engraven on metal, &c.. it is
worn in almost every country as a charm or amulet.
The pentagon gives rise to one star polygon, the hexagon gives
none, the heptagon two, the octagon one, and the nonagon two.
In general, the number of star polygons which can be drawn with
the vertices of an n-point regular polygon is the number of numbers
which are not factors of n and are less than J.
A
Pentagrams.
Heptagrams.
Nonograms.
Number of n-point and n-side Polygons. A polygon may be
regarded as determined by the joins of points or the meets of lines.
The termination -gram is often applied to the figures determined
by lines, e.g, pentagram, hexagram. It is of interest to know how
many polygons can be formed with n given points as vertices (no
three of which are collinear), or with n given lines as sides (no two
of which are parallel). Considering the case of points it is obvious that
we can join a chosen point with any one cf the remaining (n i)
points; any one of these (re i) points can be joined to any one
of the remaining (n2), and by proceeding similarly it is seen that
we can pass through the re points in (n i) (n2) . . . 2-1 or
(n i)! ways. It is obvious that the direction in which we pass
is immaterial ; hence we must divide this number by 2, thus obtaining
(n 1)!/2 as the required number. In a similar manner it may
be shown that the number of polygons determined by n lines is.
(n 1)!/2. Thus five points or lines determine 12 pentagons,
6 points or lines 60 hexagons, and so on.
Mensuration. In the regular polygons the fact that they can be
inscribed and circumscribed to a circle affords convenient expres-
sions for their area, &c. In a w-gon, i.e. a polygon with n-sides,
each side subtends at the centre the angle 2r/n, i.e. 36o/n, and
each internal angle is (n 2)ir/n or (n2) iSofn. Calling the
length of side a we may derive the following relations: Area
Number
of sides.
Triangle.
Square.
5
Pentagon.
6
Hexagon.
Heptagon.
8
Octagon.
9
Nonagon.
10
Decagon.
ii
Undecagon.
12
Dodecagon.
a
ft
A
R
r
60
120
0-43301
0-57735
0-28867
9 o
90
i
0-70710
o-5
108
72
1-72048
0-85065
0-68819
120
60
2-59808
i
0-86602
1284"
5if
3-6339I
1-1523
1-0383
I35
45
4-82843
1-3065
1-2071
140
40
6-18182
1-4619
1-3737
144
36
7-69421
1-6180
1-5388
H7 A"
3*A
9-36564
1-7747
1-7028
150
30
11-19615
1-9318
1-8660
POLYGONACEAE
(A) = J <fn cot (ir/n) ; radius of circum-circle (R) = J a cosec (ir/n)
radius of in-circle (r) = %a cot (ir/n).
The table at foot of p. 1592 gives the value of the internal angle
(a), the angle /3 subtended at the centre by a side, area (A), radius
of the circum-circle (R), radius of the inscribed circle (r) for the
simpler polygons, the length of the side being taken as unity.
POLYGONACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Dicotyledons,
containing 30 genera with about 700 species, chiefly in the north
temperate zone, and represented in Great Britain by three
genera, Polygonum, Rumex (Dock, q.t.) and Oxyria. They are
mostly herbs characterized by the
union of the stipules into a
sheath or ocrea, which protects the
younger leaves in the bud stage
(fig. i). Some are climbers, as, for
instance, the British Polygonum
Convolvulus (black bindweed). In
Muehlenbeckia platyclada, a native
of the Solomon Islands, the stem
and branches are flattened, form-
ing ribbon-like cladodes jointed at
the nodes. The leaves are alter-
FIG i. Leaf of Polygonum, nate simple and generally entire;
with part ot stem (?, ocrea). . . . n j L i iL
' the edges are rolled back m the
bud. They are generally smooth, but sometimes, especially in
mountain species, woolly. The small regular, generally her-
maphrodite flowers are borne in large numbers in compound
inflorescences, the branches of which are cymose. The parts of
the flower are whorled (cyclic) or acyclic. The former arrange-
ment may be derived from a regular trimerous flower with two
whorls of perianth leaves, two staminal whorls and a three-sided
ovary such a flower occurs in the Californian genus Pteroslegia
(fig. 2). The flower of rhubarb (Rheum) is derived from
this by doubling in the outer staminal whorl (fig. 3), and
FIG. 2. Pterostegia. FIG. 3. Rheum. FIG. 4. Rumex.
that of the dock (Rumex) by doubling in the outer staminal
whorl and suppression of the inner (fig. 4). In Koenigia, a
tiny annual less than an inch high, native in the arctic and
sub-arctic regions and the Himalayas, there is one perianth and
one staminal whorl only. Dimerous whorled flowers occur in
Oxyria (mountain sorrel), another arctic and alpine genus, the
flowers of which resemble those of Rumex but are dimerous
(fig. 5). In the acyclic flowers a 5-merous perianth is followed
FIG. 6. Polygonum.
FIG. 7. Dry one-seeded fruit
of dock (Rumex) cut vertically
(enlarged).
ov, Pericarp formed from ovary
wall.
Seed.
Endosperm.
Embryo with radicle point-
ing upwards and cotyledons
downwards.
s,
e,
Pi,
by s to 8 stamens as in Polygonum (fig. 6). The perianth leaves
are generally uniform and green, white or red in colour. They
are free or more or less united, and persist till the fruit is ripe,
often playing a part in its distribution, and affording useful
characters for distinguishing genera or species. Thus in the docks
the three inner leaves enlarge and envelope the fruit as three
membranous wings one or more of which bear on the back large
fleshy warts. Less often, as in the South American genus
Triplaris, the three outer perianth leaves form the agent of
distribution, developing into long flat membranous wings, the
whole mechanism suggesting a shuttlecock. The number of the
carpels is indicated by the three-sided (in dimerous flowers two-
sided) ovary, and the number of the styles; the ovary is uni-
locular and contains a single erect ovule springing from the top
of the floral axis (fig. 7). The fruit is a dry one-seeded nut, two-
FIG. 8.
Rumex obtusifolius, Common Dock.
1. Upper part of plant, showing the flowers (about J nat. size).
2. Leaf from base of the stem (3 nat. size).
3. Fruit enlarged.
4. Fruit of Rumex Acetosa (sorrel) (enlarged).
sided in bicarpellary flowers, as in Oxyria. The straight or
curved embryo is embedded in a mealy endosperm. The flowers
are wind-pollinated, as in the docks (Rumex), where they are
pendulous on long slender stalks and have large hairy stigmas;
or insect-pollinated, as in Polygonum or rhubarb (Rheum), where
the stigmas are capitate and honey is secreted by glands near the
base of the stamens. Insect-pollinated flowers are rendered
conspicuous chiefly by their aggregation in large numbers, as
for instance in Bistort (Polygonum Bistorta), where the perianth
is red and the flowers are crowded in a spike. In buckwheat
(q.v., P. Fagopyrum) the numerous flowers have a white or red
perianth and are perfumed; they are dimorphic, i.e. there are
two forms of flowers, one with long styles and short stamens,
the other with short styles and long stamens. In other cases
self-pollination is the rule, as in knot-grass (P. aviculare) , where
the very small, solitary odourless flowers are very rarely visited
by insects and pollinate themselves by the incurving of the three
inner stamens on to the styles.
Polygonaceae is mainly a north temperate order. A few genera
are tropical, e.g. Coccoloba, which has 125 species restricted to tropical
and sub-tropical America. Polygonum has a very wide distribution
spreading from the limits of vegetation in the northern hemisphere
to the mountains of tropical Africa and South Africa,' through the
highlands of tropical Asia to Australia, and in America as far south
as Chile. Most of the genera have, however, a limited distribution.
Of the three which are native in the British Isles, Polygonum has
POLYGONAL NUMBERS POLYHEDRON
27
12 species; Rumex (fig. 8) (11 species) includes the various species of
dock (q.v.) and sorrel (R. Acetosa); and Oxyria digyna, an alpine
plant (mountain sorrel), takes its generic name (Gr. b#x, sharp)
From the acidity of its leaves. Rheum (Rhubarb, q.v.) is central
Asiatic.
POLYGONAL NUMBERS, in mathematics. Suppose we have
a number of equal circular counters, then the number of counters
which can be placed on a regular polygon so that the tangents to
the outer rows form the regular polygon and all the internal
counters are in contact with its neighbours, is a " polygonal
number " of the order of the polygon. If the polygon be a
triangle then it is readily seen that the numbers are 3, 6, 10, 15
, . . and generally \n (n + i); if a square, 4, 9, 16, . . . and gener-
ally 2 ; if a pentagon, 5, 12, 22. .. and generally wfon-i); if a
hexagon, 6, 15, 28, ... and generally n(m i) ; and similarly for a
polygon of r sides, the general expression for the corresponding
polygonal number is \n\(n i) (r 2) + 2].
Algebraically, polygonal numbers may be regarded as the sums
of consecutive terms oi the arithmetical progressions having I for
the first term and i, 2, 3, ... for the common differences. Taking
unit common difference we have the series I; 1+2=3; 1+2+3
= 6; i + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10; or generally 1+2+3 .+ n =
j n ( n -|_i) ; these are triangular numbers. With a common difference
2 we have i; 1+3 = 4; 1+3+5=9: i+3 + 5+7 = i6;
or generally 1+3+5+ ... -f- (2n-i)=n 2 ; and generally for
the polygonal number of the rth order we take the sums of consecu-
tive terms of the series
I, I + (r-2), 1+2 (r-2), . . . l+n-l.r-2;
and hence the nth polygonal number of the rth order is the sum of
n terms of this series, i.e.,
linear
= n + Jn.n i.r 2.
The series i, 2, 3, 4, ... or generally n, are the so-called
numbers " (cf. FIGURATE NUMBERS).
POLYHEDRAL NUMBERS, in mathematics. These numbers
are related to the polyhedra (see POLYHEDRON) in a manner
similar to the relation between polygonal numbers (see above)
and polygons. Take the case of tetrahedral numbers. Let AB,
AC, AD be three covertical edges of
a regular tetrahedron. Divide AB,
. . . into parts each equal to A I, so
that tetrahedra having the common
vertex A are obtained, whose linear
dimensions increase arithmetically.
Imagine that we have a number of
spheres (or shot) of a diameter equal
to the distance Ai. It is seen that
4 shot having their centres at the
vertices of the tetrahedron Ai will form
a pyramid. In the case of the tetra-
hedron of edge A 2 we require 3 along each side of the base, i.e.
6, 3 along the base of Ai, and i at A, making 10 in all. To add
a third layer, we will require 4 along each base, i.e. g, and i in
the centre. Hence in the tetrahedron A3 we have 20 shot.
The numbers 1,4, 10, 20 are polyhedral numbers, and from their
association with the tetrahedron are termed " tetrahedral
numbers."
This illustration may serve for a definition of polyhedral
numbers: a polyhedral number represents the number of equal
spheres which can be placed within a polyhedron so that the
spheres touch one another or the sides of the polyhedron.
In the case of the tetrahedron we have seen the numbers to be
I, 4, 10, 20; the general formula for the nth tetrahedral number is
Jn(n + i)(n+2). Cubic numbers are i, 8, 27, 64, 125, &c. ;
or generally n 3 . Octahedral numbers are i, 6, 19,44, &c., or generally
Jn(2n 2 + i). Dodecahedral numbers are i, 20, 84, 220, &c.; or
generally Jre(9n 2 971+2). Icosahedral numbers are I, 12, 48,
124, &c., or generally jn(5re 2 5n+2).
POLYHEDRON (Gr. iroXw, many, ifSpa, a base), in geometry,
a solid figure contained by plane faces. If the figure be entirely
to one side of any face the polyhedron is said to be " convex, "
and it is obvious that the faces enwrap the centre once; if, on the
other hand, the figure is to both sides of every face it is said to be
" concave, " and the centre is multiply enwrapped by the faces.
" Regular polyhedra " are such as have their faces all equal
regular polygons, and all their solid angles equal; the term is
usually restricted to the five forms in which the centre is singly
enclosed, viz. the Platonic solids, while the four polyhedra in
which the centre is multiply enclosed are referred to as the
Keplcr-Poinsot solids, Kepler having discovered three, while
Poinsot discovered the fourth. Another group of polyhedra
are termed the " Archimedean solids," named after Archimedes,
who, according to Pappus, invented them. These have faces
which are all regular polygons, but not all of the same kind,
while all their solid angles are equal. These figures are often
termed " semi-regular solids," but it is more convenient to restrict
this term to solids having all their angles, edges and faces equal,
the latter, however, not being regular polygons.
Platonic Solids. The names of these five solids are: (i) the
tetrahedron, enclosed by four equilateral triangles; (2) the cube
or hexahedron, enclosed by 6 squares; (3) the octahedron,
enclosed by 8 equilateral triangles; (4) the dodecahedron, en-
closed by 12 pentagons; (5) the icosahedron, enclosed by 20
equilateral triangles.
The first three were certainly known to the Egyptians; and
it is probable that the icosahedron and dodecahedron were added
by the Greeks. The cube may have originated by placing three
equal squares at a common vertex, so as to form a trihedral angle.
Two such sets can be placed so that the free edges are brought
into- coincidence while the vertices are kept distinct. This
solid has therefore 6 faces, 8 vertices and 12 edges. The equi-
lateral triangle is the basis of the tetrahedron, octahedron and
icosahedron. 1 If three equilateral triangles be placed at a
common vertex with their covertical sides coincident in pairs,
it is seen that the base is an equal equilateral triangle; hence four
equal equilateral triangles enclose a space. This solid has 4
faces, 4 vertices and 6 edges. In a similar manner, four covertical
equilateral triangles stand on a square base. Two such sets placed
base to base form the octahedron, which consequently has 8
faces, 6 vertices and 12 edges. Five equilateral triangles coverti-
cally placed would stand on a pentagonal base, and it was found
that, by forming several sets of such pyramids, a solid could be
obtained which had 20 triangular faces, which met in pairs to
form 30 edges, and in fives to form 12 vertices. This is the
icosahedron. That the triangle could give rise to no other solid
followed from the fact that six covertically placed triangles formed
a plane. The pentagon is the basis of the dodecahedron. Three
pentagons may be placed at a common vertex to form a solid
angle, and by forming several such sets and placing them in
juxtaposition a solid is obtained having 12 pentagonal faces,
30 edges, and 20 vertices.
These solids played an important part in the geometry of the
Pythagoreans, and in their cosmology symbolized the five ele-
ments: fire (tetrahedron), air (octahedron), water (icosahedron),
earth (cube), universe or ether (dodecahedron). They were
also discussed by the Platonists, so much so that they became
known as the " Platonic solids." Euclid discusses them in the
thirteenth book of his Elements, where he proves that no more
regular bodies are possible, and shows how to inscribe them in a
sphere. This latter problem received the attention of the
Arabian astronomer Abul Wefa (loth century A.D.), who solved
it with a single opening of the compasses.
Mensuration of the Platonic Solids. The mensuration of the regular
polyhedra is readily investigated by the methods of elementary
geometry, the property that these solids may be inscribed in and
circumscribed to concentric spheres being especially useful.
If F be the number of faces, n the number of edges per face, m
the number of faces per vertex, and / the length of an edge, and if
we denote the angle between two adjacent faces by I, the area by A,
the volume by V, the radius of the circum-sphere by R, and of the
in-sphere by r, the following general formulae hold, o being written
for 2r/n, and /3 for 2ir/m :
Sin JI =cos /3/sin a; tan JI =cos /3/(sin 2 o cos 2 0)J.
A = } PnF cot a.
V = JrA = jV'n F tan JI cot 2 a
= t l*n F cot 2 a cos 0/(sin 2 o cos 2 0)J.
R = J/tan JI tan /3 = J/ sin 0/(sin 2 o cos 2 /3)i.
r = \l tan JI cot a = J/ cot o cos 0/(sin 2 a cos 2 /J)i.
1 In the language of Proclus, the commentator: " The equilateral
triangle is the proximate cause of the three elements, ' fire,' ' air ' and
' water '; but the square is annexed to the ' earth.' "
POLYHEDRON
The following Table gives the values of A. V, R, r for the five Polyhedra:
A.
Area.
Volume
V.
Radius of Circum-sphere.
R.
Radius of In-sphere.
r.
Tetrahedron
P.V3
(1-7321 P).
P/6V2
(0-II785/ 3 )
/.V6/4
/.V6/I2
Cube
6 I 1
l
/.V3/2
*/
Octahedron
F.2V3
(3.4643*)
/ 3 .V2/3
(0-47 140/3)
VVa
//V6
Dodecahedron ....
P.I5VU+2V5)
(20-64578 P)
/ 3 .5V!(47+2iV5)/4o!
(7-6631 19 /')
/.iV{(5+3V5)/2|
;.V|(20+uV5)/4o!
Icosahedron
P.5V3
(8-6605 P)
/ 3 .fV!(7+3V5)/2l
(2-18169 / 3 )
.|Vl<5+V5)/al
/.H!(7+3V5)/6!
Kepler- Poinsot Polyhedra. These solids have all their faces
equal regular polygons, and the angles at the vertices all equal.
They bear a relation to the Platonic solids similar to the
relation of " star polygons " to ordinary regular polygons,
inasmuch as the centre is multiply enclosed in the former
and singly in the latter. Four such solids exist: (i) small
stellated dodecahedron; (2) great dodecahedron; (3) great
stellated dodecahedron; (4) great icosahedron. Louis Poinsot
discussed these solids in his memoir, " Sur les polygones et les
polyedres " (Journ. cole poly, [iv.] 1810), three of them having
been previously considered by Kepler. They were afterwards
treated by A. L. Cauchy (Journ. Ecole poly, [ix.] 1813), who
showed that they were derived from the Platonic solids, and
that no more than four were possible. A. Cayley treated
them in several papers (e.g. Phil. Mag., 1859, 17, p. 123 seq.),
considering them by means of their projections on the
circumscribing sphere and not, as Cauchy, in solido.
The small stellated dodecahedron is formed by stellating the Platonic
dodecahedron (by " stellating " is meant developing the faces con-
tiguous to a specified base so as to form a regular pyramid). It has
12 pentagonal faces, and 30 edges, which intersect in fives to form 12
vertices. Each vertex is singly enclosed by the five faces; the
centre of each face is doubly enclosed by the succession of faces about
the face ; and the centre of the solid is doubly enclosed by the faces.
The great dodecahedron is determined by the intersections of the
twelve planes which intersect the Platonic icosahedron in five of its
edges; or each face has the same boundaries as the basal sides
of five covertical faces of the icosahedron. It is the reciprocal
(see below) of the small stellated dodecahedron. Each vertex
is doubly enclosed by the succession of covertical faces, while the
centre of the solid is triply enclosed by the faces. The great stellated
dodecahedron is formed by stellating the faces of a great dodecahe-
dron. It has 12 faces, which meet in 30 edges; these interseet in
threes to form 20 vertices. Each vertex is singly enclosed by the
succession of faces about it ; and the centre of the solid is quadruply
enclosed by the faces. The great icosahedron is the reciprocal of
the great stellated dodecahedron. Each of the twenty triangular
faces subtend at the centre the same angle as is subtended by four
whole and six half faces of the Platonic icosahedron ; in other words,
the solid is determined by the twenty planes which can be drawn
through the vertices of the three faces contiguous to any face of
a Platonic icosahedron. The centre of the solid is. septuply enclosed
by the faces.
A connexion between the number of faces, vertices and edges of
regular polyhedra was discovered by Euler, and the result, which
assumes the form E + 2:= F + V, where E, F, V are the number
of edges, faces and vertices, is known as Euler's theorem on poly-
hedra. This formula only holds for the Platonic solids. Poinsot
gave the formula E + 2k eV + F, in which k is the number of
times the projections of the faces from the centre on to the surface
of the circumscribing sphere make up the spherical surface, the area
of a stellated face being reckoned once, and e is the ratio " angles at a
vertex /2ir" as projected on the sphere, E, V, F being the same as
before. Cayley gave the formula E + 2D = eV + e'F, where
e, E, V, F are the same as before, D is the same as Poinsot's k with
the distinction that the area of a stellated face is reckoned as the sum
of the triangles having their vertices at the centre of the face and
standing on the sides, and ' is the ratio: " the angles subtended at
the centre of a face by its sides /2w."
The following table gives these constants for the regular poly-
hedra ; n denotes the number of sides to a face, n\ the number of faces
to a vertex:
F
V
E
n
i
e
e'
D
k
Tetrahedron
Cube
4
6
4
8
6
12
3
4.
3
7
Octahedron
Dodecahedron
Icosahedron ....
8
12
2O
6
20
12
12
30
30
3
5
3
4
3
5
Small stellated dodecahedron .
Great dodecahedron
Great stellated dodecahedron .
Great icosahedron ....
12
12
12
2O
12
12
2O
12
30
30
30
30
5
5
5
3
5
5
3
5
i
2
I
2
2
I
2
I
3
3
7
7
2
3
4
7
Archimedean Solids. These solids are characterized by
having all their angles equal and all their faces regular
polygons, which are not all of the same species. Thirteen
such solids exist.
1. The truncated tetrahedron is formed by truncating the vertices
of a regular tetrahedron so as to leave the original faces hexagons.
(By the truncation of a vertex or edge we mean the cutting 'a way of
the vertex or edge by a plane making equal angles with all the faces
composing the vertex or with the two faces forming the edge.) It
is bounded by 4 triangular and 4 hexagonal faces; there are 1 8 edges,
and 12 vertices, at each of which two hexagons and one triangle are
covertical.
2. The cuboctahedron is a tesserescae-decahedron (Gr. reaaapes-Kai-
Sexa, fourteen) formed by truncating the vertices of a cube so as to
leave the original faces squares. It is enclosed by 6 square and
8 triangular faces, the latter belonging to a coaxial octahedron. It
is a common crystal form.
3. The truncated cube is formed in the same manner as the
cuboctahedron, but the truncation is only carried far enough to
leave the original faces octagons. It has 6 octagonal faces
(belonging to the original cube), and 8 triangular ones (belonging to
the coaxial octahedron).
4. The truncated octahedron is formed by truncating the vertices
of an octahedron so as to leave the original faces hexagons; con-
sequently it is bounded by 8 hexagonal and 6 square faces.
5. 6. Rhombicuboctahedra. Two Archimedean solids of 26
faces are derived from the coaxial cube, octahedron and semi-
regular (rhombic) dodecahedron (see below). The " small rhombi-
cuboctahedron " is bounded by 12 pentagonal, 8 triangular and
6 square faces; the " great rhombicuboctahedra " by 12 decagonal,
8 triangular and 6 square faces.
7. The icosidodecahedron or dyocaetriacontahedron (Gr. Svo-Kal-
TpioKovTo, thirty-two), is a 32-faced solid, formed by truncating the
vertices of an icosahedron so that the original faces become triangles.
It is enclosed by 20 triangular faces belonging to the original icosa-
hedron, and 12 pentagonal faces belonging to the coaxial dodecahe-
dron.
8. The truncated icosahtdron is formed similarly to the icosidode-
cahedron, but the truncation is only carried far enough to leave the
original faces hexagons. It is therefore enclosed by 20 hexagonal
faces belonging to the icosahedron, and 12 pentagonal faces belonging
to the coaxial dodecahedron.
9. The truncated dodecahedron is formed by truncating the vertices
of a dodecahedron parallel to the faces of the coaxial icosahedron
so as to leave the former decagons. It is enclosed by 20 triangular
faces belonging to the icosahedron and 12 decagons belonging to the
dodecahedron.
10. The snub cube is a 38-faced solid having at each corner 4 tri-
angles and I square; 6 faces belong to a cube, 8 to the coaxial
octahedron, and the remaining 24 to no regular solid.
11. 12. The rhombicosidodecahedra. Two 62-faced solids are
derived from the dodecahedron, icosahedron and the semi-regular
POLYMETHYLENES
29
triacontahedron. In the " small rhombicosidodecahedron " there
are 12 pentagonal faces belonging to the dodecahedron, 20 triangular
faces belonging to the icosahedron and 30 square faces belonging
to the triacontahedron. In the " great rhombicosidodecahedron
the dodecahedral faces are decagons, the icosahedral hexagons
and the triacontahedral squares; this solid is sometimes called the
" truncated icosidodecahedron."
13. The snub dodecahedron is a Q2-faced solid having 4 triangles
and a pentagon at each corner. The pentagons belong to a dodeca-
hedron, and 20 triangles to an icosahedron ; the remaining 60 triangles
belong to no regular solid.
Semi-regular Polyhedra. Although this term is frequently
given to the Archimedean solids, yet it is a convenient de-
notation for solids which have all their angles, faces, and edges
equal, the faces not being regular polygons. Two such solids
exist: (i) the " rhombic dodecahedron, " formed by trun-
cating the edges of a cube, is bounded by 12 equal rhombs; it
is a common crystal form (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY); and (2) the
" semi-regular triacontahedron," which is enclosed by 30 equal
rhombs.
The interrelations of the pplyhedra enumerated above are con-
siderably elucidated by the introduction of the following terms:
(i) Correspondence. Two polyhedra correspond when the radii
vectores from their centres to the mid-point of the edges, centre of
the faces, and to the vertices, can be brought into coincidence. (2)
Reciprocal. Two polyhedra are reciprocal when the faces and ver-
tices of one correspond to the vertices and faces of the other. (3)
Summital or facial. A polyhedron (A) is said to be the summital
or facial holohedron of another (B) when the faces or vertices of A
correspond to the edges of B, and the vertices or faces of A corre-
spond to the vertices and faces together of B. (4) Hemihedral.
A polyhedron is said to be the hemihedral form of another poly-
hedron when its faces correspond to the alternate faces of the latter
or holohedral form; consequently a hemihedral form has half the
number of faces of the holohedral form. Hemihedral forms are of
special importance in crystallography, to which article the reader
is referred for a fuller explanation of these and other modifications
of polyhedra (tetartohedral, enantiotropic, &c.).
It is readily seen that, the tetrahedron is its own reciprocal, i.e.
it is self-reciprocal ; the cube and octahedron, the dodecahedron and
icosahedron, the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodeca-
hedron, and the great stellated dodecahedron and great icosahedron
are examples of reciprocals. We may also note that of the Archime-
dean solids: the truncated tetrahedron, truncated cube, and trun-
cated dodecahedron, are the reciprocals of the crystal forms triakis-
tetrahedron, triakisoctahedron and triakisicosahedron. Since the
tetrahedron is the hemihedral form of the octahedron, and the octa-
hedron and cube are reciprocal, we may term these two latter solids
" reciprocal holohedra " of the tetrahedron. Other examples of
reciprocal holohedra are: the rhombic dodecahedron and cubocta-
hedron, with regard to the cube and octahedron; and the semi-
regular triacontahedron and icosidodecahedron, with regard to the
dodecahedron and icosahedron. As examples of facial holohedra
we may notice the small rhombicuboctahedron and rhombic dode-
cahedron, and the small rhombicosidodecahedron and the semi-
regular triacontahedron. The correspondence of the faces of poly-
hedra is also of importance, as may be seen from the manner in which
one polyhedron may be derived from another. Thus the faces
of the cuboctahedron, the truncated cube, and truncated octahe-
dron, correspond; likewise with the truncated dodecahedron, trun-
cated icosahedron, and icosidodecahedron ; and with the small and
great rhombicosidodecahedra.
The general theory of polyhedra properly belongs to combinatorial
analysis. The determination of the number of different polyhedra
of n faces, i.e. n-hedrons, is reducible to the problem: In how many
ways can multiplets, i.e. triplets, quadruplets, &c., be made with n
symbols, so that (i ) every contiguous pair of symbols in one multiplet
are a contiguous pair in some other, the first and last of any mul-
tiplet being considered contiguous, and (2) no three symbols in any
multiplet shall occur in any other. This problem is treated by
the Rev T. P. Kirkman in the Manchester Memoirs (1855, 1857-
1860); and in the Phil. Trans. (1857).
See Max Bruckner, Vielecke und Vielflache (1900); V. Eberhard,
Zur Morphologic der Polyeder (1891).
POLYMETHYLENES, in chemistry, cyclic compounds, the
simplest members of which are saturated hydrocarbons of
general formula C.Hjn, where n may be i to 9, and known as
tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, and hepta-methylene, &c., or cyclo-
propane, -butane, -pentane, -hexane, -heptane, &c.:
f TT /"""U f"*U /~*LJ /~*11 f"*U f^U
/i_n 2 , v,ri 2 > ^rij /i^ri 2 'V,ri 2 /v-n 2 '\~ri2v
2X .[ II CH< I | CH< >CH 2 ,&c.
\CH 2 , CH 2 C-H 2 \CH 2 -CH 2 , \CH 2 -CH^
Cyc/o-propane, -butane, -pentane, -hexane.
The unsaturated members of the series are named on the
Geneva system in which the termination -one is replaced by-ene,
-diene, -Iriene, according to the number of double linkages in
the compound, the position of such double linkages being
shown by a numeral immediately following the suffix -ene;
for example I. is methyl-cyc/o-hexadiene i. 3. An alterna-
tive method employs A. v. Baeyer's symbol A. Thus
A 2-4 indicates the presence of two double bonds in
the molecule situated immediately after the carbon atoms
2 and 4; for example II. is A 2-4 dihydrophthalic acid.
C(CO.H):CH
(6) (5)
(6)
II.
(5)
As to the stability of these compounds, most trimethylene
derivatives are comparatively unstable, the ring being broken
fairly readily; the tetramethylene derivatives are rather more
stable and the penta- and hexa-methylene compounds are very
stable, showing little tendency to form open chain compounds
under ordinary conditions (see CHEMISTRY: Organic).
Isomerism. No isomerism can occur in the monosubstitution
derivatives but ordinary position isomerism exists in the di-
and poly-substitution compounds. Stereo-isomerism may
occur: the simplest examples are the dibasic acids, where a. cis-
(maleinoid) form and a trans- (fumaroid) form have been ob-
served. These isomers may frequently be distinguished by
the facts that the 's-acids yield anhydrides more readily than
the trans-acids, and are generally converted into the trans-adds
on heating with hydrochloric acid. O. Aschan (Ber., 1902, 35,
p. 3389) depicts these cases by representing the plane of the
carbon atoms of the ring as a straight line and denoting the
substituted hydrogen atoms by the letters X, Y, Z. Thus for
dicarboxylic acids (C0 2 H = X) the possibilities are represented by
.A. .A. / \ -A. /, \ X /
(cis), JT (trans), jj (I).
The trans compound is perfectly asymmetric and so its mirror
image (I) should exist, and, as all the trans compounds syn-
thetically prepared are optically inactive, they are presumably
racemic compounds (see O. Aschan, Chemie der alicyklischen
Verbindungen, p. 346 seq.).
General Methods of Formation. Hydrocarbons may be ob-
tained from the dihalogen paraffins by the action of sodium or
zinc 'dust, provided that the halogen atoms are not attached
to the same or to adjacent carbon atoms (A. Freund, Monats.,
1882, 3, p. 625; W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53,
p. 213):
CH2-CH 2 -Br , ... ,vr p , CHz-CHz.
CH r CH 2 -Br+ 2Na - 2NaBr +CH r CH 2 !
by the action of hydriodic acid and phosphorus or of phos-
phonium iodide on benzene hydrocarbons (F. Wreden, Ann.,
1877, 187, p. 153; A. v. Baeyer, ibid., 1870, 155, p. 266), ben-
zene giving methylpentamethylene; by passing the vapour of
benzene hydrocarbons over finely divided nickel at 180-250 C.
(P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, Comptes rettdus, 1901, 132, p.
210 seq.); and from hydrazines of the type CnHm-i-NH-NH*
by oxidation with alkaline potassium ferricyanide (N. Kijner,
Journ. prak. Chem., 1901, 64, p. 113). Unsaturated hydro-
carbons of the series may be prepared from the corre-
sponding alcohols by the elimination of a molecule of water,
using either the xanthogenic ester method of L. Tschugaeff
(Ber. 1899, 32, p. 3332): C n H 2n _ I ONa->C B H 2n _,O-CS.SNa(R)
>C n H2n-2+COS+R-SH; or simply by dehydrating with
anhydrous oxalic acid (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3249);
and by eliminating the halogen acid from mono- or di-halogen
polymethylene compounds by heating them with quinoline.
Alcohols are obtained from the corresponding halogen com-
pounds by the action of moist silver oxide, or by warming them
with silver acetate and acetic acid; by the reduction of ketones
with metallic sodium; by passing the vapours of monohydric
phenols and hydrogen over finely divided nickel (P. Sabatier and
J. B. Senderens, loc. '/.); by the reduction of cyclic esters with
POLYMETHYLENES
sodium and alcohol (L. Bouveault and G. Blanc, Comptes rendus,
1903, 136, p. 1676; 137, p. 60); and by the addition of the
elements of water to the unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons on
boiling with dilute acids.
Aldehydes and Ketones. The aldehydes are prepared in the
usual manner from primary alcohols and acids. The ketones
are obtained by the dry distillation of the calcium salts of di-
basic saturated aliphatic acids (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275,
p. 309): [CH 2 -CH 2 -CO 2 ] 2 Ca->[CH 2 -CH 2 ] 2 CO; by the action of
sodium on the esters of acids of the adipic and pimelic acid
series (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 103, 2475):
CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CO 2 R CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 .
CH 2 -CH 2 -CO 2 R ~*CH 2 -CH 2 C-O '
by the action of sodium ethylate on 5-ketonic acids (D. Vor-
lander, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2348):
/CH 2 -CH 2 v
X
xCH 2 -CH 2 \
CH< >CO;
X CO-CH 3 \CO-CH 2 '
from sodio-malonic ester and a|3-unsaturated ketones or ketonic
esters:
/CH 2 CO V
(R0 2 C) 2 CH 2 +Ph-CH :CH-CO-CH3-PhCH< >CH 2 ;
\CH(C0 2 R)-CO/
from aceto-acetic ester and esters of a|3-unsaturated acids,
followed by elimination of the carboxyl group:
2 x
>CHCO 2 R ;
/
2CH 8 -CO-CH 2 -CO 2 R+OHC-R'-
CH,;
CH 3 -CO-CH 2 -CO 2 R+R' 2 C:CH-CO 2 R-CO<
\CH 2 -CO
by the condensation of two molecules of aceto-acetic ester with
aldehydes followed by saponification (E. Knoevenagel, Ann.,
1894, 281, p. 25; 1896, 288, p. 321; Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4461) :
J "'\
: co
from i-s-diketones which contain a methyl group next the
keto-group (W. Kerp, Ann., 1896, 290, p. 123):
/CH 2 -C(CH 3 k
3 CH,-CO-CH S -(CH 3 ) 2 C< >CH;
X CH 2 CO/
by the condensation of succinic acid with sodium ethylate, fol-
lowed by saponification and elimination of carbon dioxide:
CH 2 -CH 2 -CO
^CO-CH.i-CHz 1
and from the condensation of ethyl oxalate with esters of other
dibasic acids in presence of sodium ethylate (W. Dieckmann,
Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1470; 1899, 32, p. 1933):
C 2 R ___ /CO 2 R CO-CH*
2C 2 H 4 (C0 2 H) 2 -v
+CH 2
>
COjR N C0 2 R CO-
Acids may be prepared by the action of dihalogen paraffins on
sodio-malonic ester, or sodio-aceto-acetic ester (W. H. Perkin,
jun., Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, p. 194):
C 2 H 1 Br 2 +2NaCH(C0 2 R) 2 ->(CH 2 ) 2 C(C0 2 R) 2 +CH 2 (CO 2 R) 2 ;
ethyl butane tetracarboxylate is also formed which may be
converted into a tetramethylene carboxylic ester by the action
of bromine on its disodium derivative (W. H. Perkin and
Sinclair, ibid., 1829, 61, p. 36). The esters of the acids may
also be obtained by condensing sodio-malonic ester with
a-halogen derivatives of unsaturated acids:
/CH-C0 2 R
CH 3 -CH : CBr-CO 2 R+NaCH(CO2R)2-CH 3 -CH/ . |
\C(C0 2 R) 2
by the action of diazomethane or diazoacetic ester on the esters
of unsaturated acids, the pyrazoline carboxylic esters so formed
losing nitrogen when heated and yielding acids of the cyclo-
propane series (E. Buchner, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 703; Ann., 1895,
284, p. 212; H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1891):
CH-CO 2 R N:N-CH-CO 2 R X CHC0 2 R
CH 2 N 2 + II -> 1 I ->H 2 C< ' ;
CH-CO 2 R H 2 C CH-CO 2 R \CHCO 2 R
and by the Grignard reaction (S. Malmgren, Ber., 1903, 36, pp.
668, 2(122; N. Zelinsky, ibid., 1902, 35, p. 2687).
Cydo-propane Group.
Trimethylene, C 3 H 6 , obtained by A. Freund (Monats., 1882, 3,
p. 625) by heating trimethylene bromide with sodium, is a gas, which
may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at 35 C. (749 mm.). It dis-
solves gradually in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming propyl
sulphate. Hydriodic acid converts it into w-propyl iodide. It is
decomposed by chlorine in the presence of sunlight, with explosive
violence. It is stable to cold potassium permanganate.
Cyclo-propane carboxylic acid, C 3 H5-CO 2 H, is prepared by heating
the i.i-dicarboxylic acid; and by the hydrolysis of its nitrile, formed
by heating -y-chlorbutyro-nitrilewith potash (L. Henry and P. Dalle,
Chem. Centralblatt, 1901, I, p. 1357; 1902, I, p. 913). .It is a colour-
less oil, moderately soluble in water.
The I.I dicarboxylic acid is prepared from ethylene dibromide and
sodio-malonic ester. The ring is split by sulphuric or hydrobromic
acids. The cis 1 .2-cydo-propane dicarboxylic acid is formed by elimi-
nating carbon dioxide from cyc/0-propane tricarboxylic acid -1.2.3
(from a/3-dibrompropionic ester and sodio-malonic ester). The
trans-acid is produced on heating pyrazolin-4.5-dicarbpxylic ester,
or by the action of alcoholic potash on a-bromglutaric ester. It
does not yield an anhydride.
Cydo-butane Group.
Cydo-butane, C 4 H 8 , was obtained by R. Willstatter (Ber., 1907,
40, p. 3979) by the reduction of cyclobutene by the Sabatier and
Senderens method. It is a colourless liquid which boils at 1 1-12 C.,
and its vapour burns with a luminous flame. Reduction at 1 80-
200 C. by the above method gives n-butane.
Cydo-butene, CiH 6 , formed by distilling trimethyl-cyc/o-butyl-
ammonium hydroxide, boils at 1.5-2.0 C. (see N. Zelinsky, ibid.,
p. 4744; G. Schweter, ibid., p. 1604).
When sodio-malonic ester is condensed with trimethylene bromide
the chief product is ethyl pentane tetracarboxylate, tetramethylene
i.i-dicarboxylic ester being also formed, and from this the free
acid may be obtained on hydrolysis. It melts at 154-156 C.,
losing carbon dioxide and passing into cycfo-butane carboxylic acid,
C4H 7 CO 2 H. This basic acid yields a monobrom derivative which,
by the action of aqueous potash, gives the corresponding hydroxy-
cyc/o-butane carboxylic acid, C4H 6 (OH)-CO 2 H. Attempts to elimi-
nate water from this acid and so produce an unsaturated acid were
unsuccessful; on warming with sulphuric acid, carbon monoxide
is eliminated and cyc/o-butanone (keto-tetramethylene) is probably
formed.
The truxillic acids, CisHieO^ which result by the hydrolytic split-
ting of truxilline, Cs8HN 2 O s , are phenyl derivatives of cyc/o-butane.
Their constitution was determined by C. Liebermann (Ber., 1 888,
21, p. 2342; 1889, 22, p. 124 seq.). They are polymers of cinnamic
acid, into which they readily pass on distillation. The a-acid
on oxidation yields benzoic acid, whilst the /3-acid yields benzil
in addition. The a-acid is diphenyl-2.4-cyc/o-butane dicarboxylic
acid -1.3; and the 0-acid diphenyl-34-cyclo-butane dicarboxylic
acid -1.2. By alkalis they are transformed into stereo-isomers,
the a-acid giving -y-truxillic acid, and the j3-acid 6-truxillic acid.
The a-acid was synthesized by C. N. Riiber (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2411;
1904, 37, p. 2274), by oxidizing diphenyl-2.4-cyc/o-butane-bismethy-
lene malonic acid (fron cinnamic aldehyde and malonic acid in the
presence of quinoline) with potassium permanganate.
Cydo-pentane Group.
Derivatives may be prepared in many cases by the breaking down
of the benzene ring when it contains an accumulation of negative
atoms (T. Zincke, Ber., 1886-1894; A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1887, 20, p.
2780; 1889, 22, p. 1238), this type of reaction being generally brought
about by the action of chlorine on phenols in the presence of alkalis
(see CHEMISTRY: Organic). A somewhat related example is seen in
the case of croconic acid, which is formed by the action of alkaline
oxidizing agents on hexa-oxybenzene :
HO-C-C(OH) : C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-Ca
.. I - .- !- A >CO
HO-C-C(OH) i C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-CO/
Hexa-oxybenzene. Rhodizonic acid. Croconic acid.
Cyclo-pentane, C 6 Hio, is obtained from rycfo-pentanone by reducing
it to the corresponding secondary alcohol, converting this into the
iodo-compound, which is finally reduced to the hydrocarbon (J.
Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 327). It is a colourless liquid which
boils at 50-51 C. Methyl-cydo-pentane, CsHgCHs, first obtained
by F. Wreden (Ann., 1877, 187, p. 163) by the action of hydriodic
acid and red phosphorus on benzene, and considered to be hexahydro-
benzene, is obtained synthetically by the action of sodium on 1-5
dibromhexane ; and by the action of magnesium on acetylbutyl
iodide (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2684). It is a liquid boiling
at 72 C. Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) oxidizes it to succinic and acetic
acids. Cydo-pentene, C 6 H 8 , a liquid obtained by the action of
alcoholic potash on iodo-cycto-pentane, boils at 45 C. Cyclo-
pentadiene, CeHe, is found in the first runnings from crude benzene
distillations. It is a liquid which boils at 41 C. It rapidly poly-
merizes to di-cyc/o-pentadiene. The -CH 2 - group is very reactive
and behaves in a similar manner to the grouping -CO-CH 2 -CO- in
open chain compounds, e.g. with aldehydes and ketones it gives the
POLYMETHYLENES
fulvcnes, substances characterized by their intense orange-red colour
HC:CH
(J. Thiele, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 669). Phenylfulven, \ >C:CHPh,
HC-.CH 7
obtained from benzaldehyde and cyc/o-pentadiene, forms dark red
plates. Diphenylfulven, from benzophenone and cyc/o-pentadienc,
crystallizes in deep red prisms. Dimethylfulven is an orange-
coloured oil which oxidizes rapidly on exposure. Concentrated
sulphuric acid converts it into a deep red tar.
Cydo-pentanone, CsH s O, first prepared pure by the distillation of
calcium adipate (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 312), is also ob-
tained by the action of sodium on the esters of pimelic acid; by the
distillation of calcium succinate; and by hydrolysis of the cyclo-
pentanone carboxylic acid, obtained by condensing adipic and
oxalic esters in the presence of sodium ethylate. Reduction gives
cyc/o-pentanol, CsH 9 OH.
Croconic acid (dioxy-eyc/0-pentene-trione), C 6 H 2 O 6 , is formed when
triquinoyl is boiled with water, or by the oxidation of hexa-oxyben-
zene or dioxydiquinoyl in alkaline solution (T. Zincke, Ber., 1887,
20, p. 1267). It has the character of a quinone. On oxidation it
yields cyc/o-pentane-pentanone (leuconic acid).
Derivatives of the cyc/o-pentane group are met with in the break-
ing-down products of the terpenes &..).
Campholactone, C 9 H] 4 O 2 , is the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-
pentanol-5-carboxylic acid-3. For an isomer, isocampholactone
(the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-eyc/o-pentanol-3-carboxylic acid-i)
see W. H. Perkin, jun., Proc. Ghent. Soc., 1903, 19, p. 61. Lauronolic
acid, C,H M O 2 , is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-4-acid-i. Isolauro-
nolic acid, C 9 HuO 2 , is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-3-acid-4.
Campholic acid, CioHi 8 O 2 , is tetrametnyl-i-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentane
acid-3. Camphononic acid, C 9 Hi4O 3 , is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/0-penta-
none- 1 -carboxylic acid-3. Camphorphorone, C 9 HuO, is methyl-2-
isobuty-lene-5-cycfo-pentanone-l. Isothujone, Ci Hi 6 O, is dim-
ethyl-i-2-isopropyl-3-cyc/o-pentene-l-one-5. (F. W. Semmler, Ber.,
I9o, 33, p. 275.)
L. Bouveault and G. Blanc (Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1460),
prepared hydrocarbons of the eyc/o-pentane series from cyclo-
hexane compounds by the exhaustive methylation process of A. W.
Hofmann (see PYRIDINE). For phenyl derivatives of the cyclo-
pentane group see F. R. Japp, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71, pp. 139,
144; H. Stobbe, Ann., 1901, 314, p. in; 315, p. 219 seq.; 1903,
326, p. 347.
Cydo-hexane Group.
Hydrocarbons. Cydo-hexane, or hexahydro benzene, C 6 Hi 2 , is
obtained by the action of sodium on a boiling alcoholic solution of
i 6-dibromhexane, and by passing the vapour of benzene, mixed
with hydrogen, over finely divided nickel. It is a liquid with an odour
like that of benzene. It boils at 80-81 C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to
adipic acid. When heated with bromine in a sealed tube for some
days at 150-200 C., it yields i-2-4'5-tetrabrombenzene (N. Zelinsky,
Ber., 1901, 34, p. 2803). It is stable towards halogens at ordinary
temperature. Benzene hexachloride, CtH 6 Cl s , is formed by the
action of chlorine on benzene in sunlight. By recrystallization
from hot benzene, the a form is obtained in large prisms which melt
at 157 C., and at their boiling-point decompose into hydrochloric
acid and trichlorbenzene. The /3 form results by chlorinating
boiling benzene in sunlight, and may be separated from the o variety
by distillation in a current of steam. It sublimes at about 310 C.
Similar varieties of benzene hexabromide are known.
Hexahydrocymene (methyl- i-isopropyl-4-cyc/o-hexane), CioH 20 , is
important since it is the parent substance of many terpenes (<?..).
It is obtained by the reduction of I -4 dibrommenthane with sodium
(J. de Montgolfier, Ann. chim. phys., 1880 [5], 19, p. 158), or of
cymene, limonene, &c., by Sabatier and Senderens's method.
It is a colourless liquid which boils at 180 C.
Cydo-hexene (tetrahydrobenzene), CH 10 , was obtained by A. v.
Baeyer by removing the elements of hydriodic acid from iodo-
cydo-hexane on boiling it with quinoline. It is a liquid which boils
at 82 C. Hypochlorous acid converts it into 2-chlor-cyc/o-hexanol-i,
whilst potassium permanganate oxidizes it to cycfc-hexandi-ol.
Cydo-hexadiene (dihydrobenzene), CH 8 . Two isomers are pos-
sible, namely cyc/o-hexadiene-i-3 and cyc/o-hexadiene-l-4. A. v.
Baeyer obtained what was probably a mixture of the two by
heating 1-4 dibrom-cycfo-hexane with quinoline. C. Harries (Ann.,
and oxalic acids. The 1-4 compound also boils at 81-82 C. and on
oxidation gives succinic and malonic acids.
Alcohols. Cydo-hexanol, C 6 H n OH, is produced by the reduction
of the corresponding ketone, or of the iodhydrin of quinite. Nitric
acid oxidizes it to adipic acid, and chromic acid to cyc/o-hexanone.
Quinite (cycJo-hexanediol- 1 -4) is prepared by reducing the correspond-
ing ketone with sodium amalgam, cis-, and /rani-modifications
being obtained which may be separated by their acetyl derivatives.
Phlorogluctte (cyc/o-hexane-triol-l-3-s) is obtained by reducing an
aqueous solution of phloroglucin with sodium (W. Wislicenus, Ber.,
1894, 27, p. 357). ' Quercite (cydo-hexane-pentol-i-2-3'4-5), isolated
from acorns in 1849 by H. Braconnot (Ann. chim. phys. [3], 27,
p. 392), crystallizes in colourless prisms which melt at 234 C. When
heated in vacua to 240 C. it yields hydroquinone, quinone and
pyrogallol. It is dextro-rotatory. A laevo-form occurs in the
leaves of Gymnema sylvestre (F. B. Power, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904,
85, p. 624).
Inosite (cyc/o-hexane-hexol), C 6 H 6 (OH),. The inactive form occurs
in the muscles of the heart and in other parts of the human body.
The d-form is found as a methyl ether in pinite (from the juice of Pinus
lambertina, and of caoutchouc iromMateza roritina of Madagascar),
from which it may be obtained by heating with hydriodic acid.
The /-form is also found as a methyl ether in quebrachite. By
mixing the d- and /- forms, a racemic variety melting at 253 C. is
obtained. A dimethyl ether of inactive inosite is dambonite which
occurs in caoutchouc from Gabon.
Ketones. Cydo-hexanone, CH 10 O, is obtained by the distillation
of calcium pimelate, and by the electrolytic reduction of phenol,
using an alternating current. It is a colourless liquid, possessing
a peppermint odour and boiling at 155 C. Nitric acid oxidizes it
to adipic acid. It condenses under the influence of sulphuric acid
to form dodecahydrotriphenylene, Cu>H 2<1 and a mixture of ketones
(C. Mannul, Ber., 1907,40, p. 153). Methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-^,
CHj-CH 9 O, is prepared by the hydrolysis of pulegone. It is an
optically active liquid which boils at 168-169 C. Homologues of
menthone may be obtained from the ketone by successive treatment
with sodium amide and alkyl halides (A. Haller, Comptes rendus,
1905, 140, p. 127). On oxidation with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4) at
60-70 C., a mixture of and -methyl adipic acids is obtained
(W. Markownikoff, Ann., 1905, 336, p. 299). It can be transformed
into the isomeric methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-2 (O. Wallach, Ann., 1904,
329, p. 368). For methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-4, obtained by distilling
y-methyl pimelate with lime, see O. Wallach, Ber., 1906, 39,
p. 1492.
Cydo-hexane-dione-l-3 (dihydroresorcin), CH 8 2 , was obtained
by G. Merling (Ann., 1894, 278, p. 28) by reducing resorcin in hot
alcoholic solution with sodium amalgam. Cydo-hexane-dione- 1 -4 is
obtained by the hydrolysis of succino-succinic ester. On reduction
it yields quinite. It combines with benzaldehyde, in the presence
of hydrochloric acid, to form 2-benzyl-hydroquinone. Cyclo-
hexane-trione-i-3-5 (phloroglucin) is obtained by the fusion of many
resins and of resorcin with caustic alkali. It may be prepared
synthetically by fusing its dicarboxylic ester (from malonic ester
and sodio malonic ester at 145 C.) with potash (C. W. Moore,
Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 165). It crystallizes in prisms, which
melt at 218 C. With ferric chloride it gives a dark violet
coloration. It exhibits tautomerization, since in many of its
reactions it shows the properties of a hydroxylic substance.
Rhodizonic acid (dioxydiquinoyl), C 6 H 2 O 6 , is probably the enolic
form of an pxypentaketo-cycfo-hexane. It is formed by the
reduction of triquinoyl by aqueous sulphurous acid, or in the form
of its potassium salt by washing potassium hexa-oxybenzene with
alcohol (R. Nietzki, Ber., 1885, 18, pp. 513, 1838). Triquinoyl
(hexaketp-cyc/o-hexane) CeOe - 8H 2 O, is formed on oxidizing rhodi-
zonic acid or hexa-oxybenzene. Stannous chloride reduces it to
hexa-oxybenzene, and when boiled with water it yields croconic
acid (dioxy-cydo-pentene-trione) .
Cydo-hexenones. Two types of ketones are to be noted in this
group, namely the o/3 and jS-y ketones, depending upon the position
of the double linkage in the molecule, thus:
.CH 2 :CH ,CH-CH, V
H 2 C< \CO HCf >CO
N:H 2 -CH,/ N:H 2 -CH/
These two classes show characteristic differences in properties.
For example, on reduction with zinc and alcoholic potash, the off
compounds give saturated ketones and also bi-molecular compounds,
the /S? being unaffected; the 0-y series react with hydroxylamine
in a normal manner, the aft yield oxamino-oximes.
Melhyl-i-cydo-hexene-i-one-z, CHj-CjHvO, is obtained by condens-
ing sodium aceto-acetate with methylene iodide, the ester so formed
being then hydrolysed. Isocamphorphorone, C 9 HuO, is trimethyl
i-6-6.-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6. Isocamphor, Ci Hi 6 O, is methyl-l-
isopropyl-3-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6.
Acids. Hexahydrobenzoic acid, CHn'CO 2 H, is obtained by the
reduction of benzole acid, or by the condensation of 1-5 dibrompen-
tane with disodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in small plates which
melt at 30-31 C. and boil at 232-233 C. (J. C. Lumsden, Journ.
Chem. _Soc., 1905, 87, p. 90). The sulphochloride of the acid on
reduction with tin and hydrochloric acid gives hexahydrothiophenol,
CHnSH, a colourless oil which boils at 158-160 C. (W. Borsche,
Ber., 1906, 39, p. 392).
Quinic acid, CH 7 (OH)4CO 2 H (tetra-oxy-cyc/o-hexane carboxylic
acid), is found in coffee beans and in quinia bark. It crystallizes
in colourless prisms and is optically active. When heated to about
250 C. it is transformed into quinide, probably a lactone, which on
heating with baryta water gives an inactive quinic acid.
Hexahydrophthalic acids, CHio(CO s H) 2 (cyc/o-hexanedicarboxylic
acids). Three acids of this group are known, containing the Carb-
oxyl-groups in the 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 positions, and each exists in two
tereo-isomeric forms (CM- and trans-). The anhydride of theciVi-2
POLYMETHYLENES
A2 and A* TETRAHYDRO^-
' I Heat
A 1 TETEAHYDRO
Hydrobromidf
OH reduction
HEXAHYDRO
acid, obtained by heating the anhydride of the trans-acid, forms prisms
which melt at 192 C. When heated with hydrochloric acid it passes
into the /rani-variety. The racemic trans-acid is produced by the
reduction of the dihydrobromide of A 4 -tetrahydrophthalic acid or
A 2 ' 6 dihydrophthalic acid. It is split into its active components
by means of its quinine salt (A. Werner and H. E. Conrad, Ber.,
*899, 32, p. 3046). Hexahydroisophtholic acids (cyc/o-hexane-l'3-
dicarboxylic acids) are obtained by the action of methylene iodide on
disodio-pentane tetracarboxylic ester (W. H. Perkin, Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1891, 59, p. 798); by the action of trimethylene bromide on
disodio-propane tetracarboxylic ester ; and by the reduction of
isophthalic acid with sodium amalgam, the tetrahydro acids first
formed being converted into hydrobromides and further reduced
(A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger, Ann., 1893, 276, p. 255). The cis-
and trans- forms can be separated by means of their sodium salts.
The (rani-acid is a racemic compound, which on heating with acetyl
chloride gives the anhydride of the cii-acid.
Hexahydroterephthalic acids (cydo-hexane-l-4-dicarboxylic acids).
These acids are obtained by the reduction of the hydrobromides of
the di- and tetra-hydroterephthalic acids or by the action of ethylene
dibromide on disodio-butane tetracarboxylic acid. An important
derivative is succino-succinic acid, C 6 H 6 O2(CO 2 H)2, or cyc/o-hexane-
dione-2>5-dicarboxylic acid-1'4, which is obtained as its ester
by the action of sodium or sodium ethylate on succinic ester (H.
Fehling, Ann., 1844, 49, p. 192; F.
Hermann, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 306).
It crystallizes in needles or prisms, and
dissolves in alcohol to form a bright
blue fluorescent liquid, which on the
addition of ferric chloride becomes
cherry red. The acid on heating loses
COa and gives cye/o-hexanedione-1'4.
Tetrahydrobenzoic acid (cyc/o-hexene-
I -carboxy lie acid- 1 ) , C 6 H 9 - COjH . Three
structural isomers are possible. The
A 1 acid results on boiling the A 2 acid
with alkalis, or on eliminating hydro-
bromic acid from i-brom-cyc/o-hexane-
carboxylic acid- 1. The A 2 acid is
formed on the reduction of benzoic acid
with sodium amalgam. The A 3 acid is
obtained by eliminating the elements of
water from 4-oxy-cyc/o-hexane-i-carb-
oxylic acid (W. H. Perkin, iun., Journ.
Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 431). Shikimic
acid (3-4'6-trioxy-A 1 -tetrahydrobenzoic
acid) is found in the fruit of Illicium
religiosum. On fusion with alkalis it
yields para-oxybenzoic acid, and nas-
cent hydrogen reduces it to hydro-
shikimicacid. Sedanolic acid, CiaH^Os,
which is found along with sedanonic
acid, C^HigOa, in the higher boiling
fractions of celery oil, is an ortho-
oxyamyl-A 6 -tetrahydrobenzoic acid, sedanonic acid being ortho-
valeryl-A'-tetrahydrobenzoic acid(G. Ciamician and P. Silber, Ber.,
1897, 30, pp. 492, 501, 1419 seq.). Sedanolic acid readily decom-
poses into water and its lactone sedanolid, Ci2Hi 8 O 2 , the odorous
constituent of celery oil.
Telrahydrophthalic acids (cycfo-hexene dicarboxylic acids),
C 6 H S (CO2H)2. Of the ortho-series four acids are known. The
A 1 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating the A 2 acid to
220 C., or by distilling hydropyromellitic acid. Alkaline potassium
permanganate oxidizes it to adipic acid. The A 2 acid is formed
along with the A 4 acid by reducing phthalic acid with sodium
amalgam in hot solutions. The A 4 acid exists in cis- and trans-
forms. The /raws-variety is produced by reducing phthalic acid,
and the cis-acid by reducing A 2 ' 4 dihydrophthalic acid.
In the meta-series, four acids are also known. The A 2 acid is formed
along with the A 4 (cis) acid by reducing isophthalic acid. The
trans A 4 acid is formed by heating the m-acid with hydrochloric
acid under pressure. The A 3 acid is formed when the anhydride
of tetrahydro rimesic acid is distilled (W. H. Perkin, junr., Journ.
Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, p. 293).
In the para-series, three acids are known. The A 1 acid is formed
by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid; by boiling the A 2 acid
with caustic soda; and by the reduction (in the heat) of A 1 ' 4 dihydro-
terephthalic acid. The A 2 acid exists in cis- and trans- forms; these
are produced simultaneously in the reduction of A 1 '* or A 1 ' 6 dihydro-
terephthalic acids by sodium amalgam.
There are five possible dihydrobenzoic acids. One was obtained
in the form of its amide by the reduction of benzamide in alkaline
solution with sodium amalgam (A. Hutchinson, Ber., 1891, 24,
p. 177). The A 1 '* acid is obtained on oxidizing dihydrobenzalde-
hyde with silver oxide or by the reduction of meta-trimethyl-
aminobenzoic acid (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1859).
Of the dihydrophthalic acids, five are known in the ortho-series,
two of which are stereo-isomers of the cis- and trans-type, and a
similar number are knbwn in the para-series. The A 1 ' 4 acid is
obtained as its anhydride by heating A 2 ' 4 dihydrophthalic anhydride
with acetic anhydride. When boiled with caustic soda it isomerizes
to a mixture of the A 2 ' 4 and A 2 ' s dihydrophthalic acids. The A 2 ' 4
acid is obtained by boiling the dihydrobromide of the A 2 ' 6 acid with
alcoholic potash or by continued boiling of the A 2 ' 6 acid with
caustic soda.
The A 2 ' 6 acid is formed when phthalic acid is reduced in the cold by
sodium amalgam or by heating the A 2 ' 4 and A 3 ' 5 acids with caustic
soda. The (raws- modification of A 3 ' 5 acid is produced when phthalic
acid is reduced by sodium amalgam in the presence of acetic acid.
When heated for some time with acetic anhydride it changes to the
cis-iorm. The trans-acid has been resolved by means of its
strychnine salts into two optically active isomerides, both of which
readily pass to A 2 ' 6 dihydrophthalic acid (A. Neville, Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1906, 89, p. 1744).
Of the dihydroterephthalic acids, the A 1 ' 3 acid is obtained by heat-
ing the dibromide of the A 2 tetrahydro acid with alcoholic potash. It
cannot be prepared by a direct reduction of terephthalic acid. On
warming with caustic soda it is converted into the A 1 ' 4 acid. TheA 1 ' 4
acid is also obtained by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid.
It is the most stable of the dihydro acids. The A 1 5 acid is obtained
by boiling the cis- andirons-A 2 ' 6 acids with water, which are obtained
on reducing terephthalic acid with sodium amalgam in faintly alka-
line solution. The relationships existing between the various
hydrophthalic acids may be shown as follows:
Sodium amalgam (hot) Sodium amalgam + acetic acid
PHTHALIC ACID
Sodium
Sodium amalgam (cold)
amalgam (hot)
A 2-6 DIHYDRO
Alkali
Eydrobromide with
alcoholic potash
A3-5 DIHYDRO (TRANS.)
J, Acetic anhydride
A3-5 DIHYDRO (cis.)
A 2 ' 4 DIHYDRO
Anhydride with
acetic anhydride
AH DIHYDRO
Isetttmm
amalgam
Sodium amalgam in
faintly alkaline solution
Sodium
Boil with
I A2-6 DlHYDRO
amalgam
(hot)
water
( A 1-5 DlflYDRO
1 Sodium amalgam -. , Kan
rj
A 2 TETRAHYDRO-
>A 1 TETRAHYDRO
Reduce
Dibromide 4-
alcoholic potash
Remove H Br from
I
Hydrobromifc
on reduction
dibromide
-HEXAHYDRO
Cyclo-heptane Croup.
Cyclo-heptane (suberane), C 7 Hi 4 , obtained by the reduction of
suberyl iodide, is a liquid which boils at 117 C. On treatment
with bromine in the presence of aluminium bromide it gives chiefly
pentabromtoluene. When heated with hydriodic acid to 230 C.
acid
thick
_ _ reduction of
suberyl bromide.
Cyc\o-heptene, C^Hu, is obtained by the action of alcoholic potash
on suberyl iodide; and from eyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid, the amide
of which by the action of sodium hypobromite is converted into
cyc/o-heptanamine, which, in its turn, is destructively methylated
(R. Willstatter, Ber., 1901, 34, 131). Cyclo-heptadiene 1-3, C 7 H 10 ,
is obtained from cyc/o-heptene (Willstatter, loc. cit.). It is identical
with the hydrotropilidine, which results by the destructive methyla-
tion of tropane.
Euterpene (trimethyl-i-4-4-cyc/o-heptadiene I -5), CioHie is prepared
from dihydroeucarveol. By the action of hydrobromic acid (in
glacial acetic acid solution) and reduction of the resulting product
it yields l-2-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene (A. v. Baeyer, Ber., 1897, 30,
p. 2075). Cyc\o-heptatriene (tropilidine), C 7 H 8 , is formed on dis-
tilling tropine with baryta; and from cyc/o-heptadiene by forming
its addition product with bromine and heating this with quinoline
to 150-160 C. (R. Willstatter, loc. cit.). Chromic acid oxidizes it
to benzoic acid and benzaldehyde. With bromine it forms a di-
bromide, which then heated to IIO C. decomposes into hydro-
bromic acid and benzyl bromide,
Cyclo-heptanol, CiHupH, is formed by the reduction of suberone,
and by the action of silver nitrite on the hydrochloride of cyclo-
hexanamine (N. Demjanow, Centralblatt, 1904, i. p. 1214).
Cyc\o-heptanone (suberone), CyH^O, is formed on the dis-
tillation of suberic acid with lime, and from o-brom-cyc/o-heptane
carboxylic acid by treatment with baryta and subsequent distilla-
tion over lead peroxide (R. Willstatter, Ber.. -1898, 31, p. 2507).
It is a colourless liquid having a peppermint odour, and boiling
at I78'5-I79'5 C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to n-pimelic acid.
POLYNESIA
33
Tropilene, CjHioO, is obtained in small quantities by the distillation
of a-methyltropine methyl hydroxide, and by the hydrolysis of 0-
im-thyltropidine with dilute hydrochloric acid. It is an oily liquid,
with an odour resembling that of benzaldehyde. It forms a benzal
compound, and gives an oyxmethylene derivative and cannot be
oxidized to an acid, reactions which point to it being a ketone con-
taining the grouping -CH,-CO-. It is thus to be regarded as a
cyc/o-heptene-i-one-7.
Cyc\o-heptane carboxylic acid (suberanic acid), CrHuCOjH, is
obtained by the reduction of cyc/o-heptene-i-carboxylic acid;
from brom-cyc/o-heptane by the Grignard reaction; and by the re-
duction of hydrotropilidine carboxylic acid by sodium in alcoholic
solution (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2504^. The corresponding
oxyacid is obtained by the hydrolysis of the nitrile, which is formed
by the addition of hydrocyanic acid to suberone (A. Spiegel, Ann.,
1882, 211, p. 117).
Four cyo-heptene carboxylic acids are known. Cyc\o-heptene-i-
carboxylic acid-l is prepared from oxysuberanic acid. This acid
when heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 120-^130 C.
yields a chlor-acid, which on warming with alcoholic potash is trans-
formed into the cye/o-heptene compound. Cyc\o~heptene-2-carboxylic
acid-l is formed by the reduction of cyc/o-heptatriene 2-4-6-carb-
oxylic acid-l. On boiling with caustic soda it isomerizes to the
corresponding l-acid.
Cyc\o-heptatriene carboxylic acids, CiHjCOtH. All four are
known. According to F. Buchner (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2242) they may
be represented as follows :
aiWorji.
The a-acid (a-isophenylacetic acid) is obtained by the hydrolysis
of pseudophenylacetamide, formed by condensing diazoacetic ester
with benzene, the resulting pseudophenyl acetic ester being then left
in contact with strong ammonia for a long time. 0-Isophenylacetic
acid is formed by strongly heating pseudophenylacetic ester in an
air-free sealed tube and hydrolysing the resulting 0-isophenyIacetic
ester. y-Isophenylacetic acid is obtained by heating the and &
acids for a long time with alcoholic potash (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1894,
27, p. 2828; E. Buchner, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2249). d-Isophenyl-
acetic acid is obtained by heating the iodmethylate of anhydro-
ecgonine ester with dilute caustic soda (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1893, 26,
P- 329).
Numerous ammo-derivatives of the cyclo-heptane series have been
prepared by R. Willstatter in the course of his investigations on the
constitution of tropine (g.v.). Amino-cyclo-heptane (suberylamine)
is obtained by the reduction of suberone oxime or by the action of
sodium hypobromite on the amide of cycloheptane carboxylic acid.
Cyc\o-octane Croup.
Few members of this group are known. By the distillation of the
calcium salt of azelaic acid H. Mayer (Ann., 1893, 275, p. 363)
obtained azelain ketone, C 8 H U O, a liquid of peppermint odour.
It boils at 90-91 C. (23 mm.) and is readily oxidized by potassium
permanganate to oxysuberic acid. It is apparently cyc/o-octanone
(see also W. Miller and A. Tschitschkin, Centralblatt, 1899, 2.,
p. 181).
Pseudopelletierine (methyl granatonine), C 8 Hi 6 NO, an alkaloid of
the pomegranate, is a derivative of cyc/o-octane, and resembles
tropine in that it contains a nitrogen bridge between two carbon
atoms. It is an inactive base, and also has ketonic properties.
On oxidation it yields methyl granatic ester, which, by the exhaustive
methylation process, is converted into homopipcrylene dicarboxvlic
ester, HO,C-CH:CH CH, CH a CH:CH-CO S H, from which suberic
acid may be obtained on reduction. When reduced in alcoholic
solution by means of sodium amalgam it yields methyl granatoline,
CsHnOH-NCHj; this substance, on oxidation with cold potassium
permanganate, is converted into granatoline, C 8 HuNO, which on
listillation over zinc dust yields pyridine. Methyl granatoline on
treatment with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus, followed by
caustic potash, yields methyl granatinine, C9Hi 6 N, which when heated
with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 240 C. is converted into
methyl granatanine, C 8 H U .NCH3, and granatanine, C 8 H U NH. The
hydrochloride of the latter base when distilled over zinc dust yields
o-propyl pyridine. By the electrolytic reduction of pseudopellet-
icrine, W-methyl granatanine is obtained, and this by exhaustive
methylation is converted into A Mes-dimethyl granatanine. This
Uter compound readily forms an iodmethylate, which on treatment
with silver oxide yields the corresponding ammonium hydroxide.
The ammonium hydroxide on distillation decomposes into trimethyl-
amine, water and cyc/o-octadiene I -3.
CH.CH CH,
CH.NMe CO -
CH.CH CH,
Pseudopelletierine
CH 2 CH CH,
>CH,NMe CH,
CH.-CH CH,
JV-methyl
granatanine
CH, CH CH,
-CH,HO NMe,CH,
CH, CH CH,
CH.CH CH, CH, CH CH, CH,CH:CH
CH, NMe CH,<-CH,HO NMe,CH^-CH, CH
CH,CH = CH CH, CH = CH CH, CH, CH
A- 4 <i-methyl cyc/o-octadiene
granatanine
Cyclo-octadiene, CHi,, as above prepared, is a strong-smelling oil
which decolorizes potassium permanganate solution instantaneously.
It readily polymerizes to a di-eyc/o-octadiene and polymer (CgHuJ.
(R. Willstatter, Ber., 1905, 38, pp. 1975, 1984; G. Ciamician and P.
Silber, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2750; A. Piccinini, Cazz., 1902, 32, I p. 260).
P-cyclo-octadicne has been prepared from methyl granatinine
iodmethylate.
Cycle-octane, CH, is obtained by the reduction of the above
unsaturated hydrocarbon by the Sabatier and Senderens's method.
It is a liquid which boils at 146-3-148 C. and possesses a strong
camphor odour. On oxidation it yields suberic acid (R. Willstatter,
Ber., 1907, 40, pp. 957). O. Doebner (Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 2129,
2 .538; 1903, 36, p. 4318) obtained compounds, which in all probabi-
lity are cyc/o-octadienes, by the distillation of /3-vinylacrylic acid,
sorbic acid, and cinnamenyl acrylic acid with anhydrous baryta.
Cyclo-nowone Croup.
According to N. Zelinsky (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 780) cyclononanone,
CjHi.O, a liquid boiling at 95797 C., is formed on distilling sebacic
acid with lime, and from this, by reduction to the corresponding;
secondary alcohol, conversion of the latter into the iodide, and
subsequent reduction of this with zinc, cyclo-nonane, CH [8 , a liquid
boiling at 170-172 C. is obtained.
POLYNESIA, (Gr. TroXw, many, and wjtros, island), a term
sometimes used to cover the whole of the oceanic islands in
the central and western Pacific, but properly for the eastern
of the three great divisions of these islands. The chief groups
thus included are Hawaii, the Ellice, Phoenix, Union, Manihiki
and Marquesas groups, Samoa and Tonga, the Cook, Society,
Tubuai and Tuamotu groups, and many other lesser islands.
(See PACIFIC OCEAN, section on Island, and separate articles
on the principal groups, &c.)
The Polynesian Race. For the ethnological problems offered
by Polynesia no thoroughly satisfactory solutions have yet been
found. By some the term Polynesian has been treated as a
synonym for Malayo-Polynesian, and has been made to include
all the brown races of Malaysia, Melanesia, Micronesia and
Polynesia. Linguistically, physically and mentally this view
is untenable. Whatever be the origin of the Polynesians, they
are not Malays, though, themselves of mixed blood, they have
probably certain racial elements in common with the latter,
who are undoubtedly hybrids. There is every reason to be-
lieve that the Polynesians are ethnologically a far older race
than the Malays, who, as they now exist, are a comparatively
modern people; and thus Friedrich Muller's and D. G. Brinton's
theory, that they form a branch of the Malays, fails. Joseph
Deniker declares the Polynesians a separate ethnic group of
the Indo-Pacific area, and in this view he is followed by A. H.
Keane, who suggests that they are a branch of the Caucasic
division of mankind who possibly migrated in the Neolithic
period from the Asiatic mainland. Of the migration itself no
doubt is now felt, but the first entrance of the Polynesians into
the Pacific must have been an event so remote that neither by
tradition nor otherwise can it be even approximately fixed.
The journey of these Caucasians would naturally be in stages.
Their earliest halting place was probably the Malay Archi-
pelago, where a few of their kin linger in the Mentawi Islands
on the west coast of Sumatra. Thence at a date within historic
times a migration eastward took place. The absence of San-
skrit roots in the Polynesian languages appears to indicate that
this migration was in pre-Sanskritic times. Whether anything
like a definite date can be fixed for it may well be questioned.
Abraham Fornander 1 has, however, with great probability,
traced back the history of the Hawaiians to the 5th century.
He has studied the folk-lore of those islands exhaustively, and
from this source comes to the conclusion that the Polynesian
migration from the Indian Archipelago may be approximately
assigned to the close of the ist or to the 2nd century. The
traditions of many of the Polynesian peoples tend to make
Savaii, the largest of the Samoan Islands, their ancestral home
in the East Pacific, and linguistic and other evidence goes to
1 An Account of the Polynesian Race (1878), i. 168.
xxn. 2
34
POLYNESIA
support the theory that the first Polynesian settlement in the
East Pacific was in Samoa, and that thence the various branches
of the race made their way in all directions. Most likely Sarrtoa
was the first group permanently occupied by them. Owing
to the admixture of the Polynesians with the Papuans in Fiji
some authorities have thought the first settlement was in
those islands, and that the settlers were eventually driven thence
by the Papuan occupiers. We can, however, account for the
presence of Polynesian blood in Fiji in another way, viz. by the
intercourse that has been kept up between the people of Tonga
and Fiji. If the first resting-place of the Polynesians was in
that group, there is good reason to believe that Samoa was the
first permanent home of the race.
It used to be doubted whether these people could have gone
from the Indian archipelago so far eastward, because the pre-
vailing winds and currents are from the east. But it is now
well known that at times there are westerly winds in the region
over which they would have to travel, and that there would be no
insuperable difficulties in the way of such a voyage. The Poly-
nesians are invariably navigators. There is ample evidence
that in early times they were much better seamen than they
are at present. Indeed their skill in navigation has greatly
declined since they have become known to Europeans. They
used to construct decked vessels capable of carrying one or two
hundred persons, with water and stores sufficient for a voyage
of some weeks duration. These vessels were made of planks
well fitted and sewn together, the joints being caulked and
pitched. 1 It is only in recent times that the construction of
such vessels has ceased. The people had a knowledge of
the stars, of the rising and setting of the constellations at
different seasons of the year; by this means they determined
the favourable season for making a voyage and directed their
course.
The Polynesians were by no means a savage people when
they entered the Pacific. Indeed their elaborate historical
legends show that they possessed a considerable amount of
civilization. Those who are familiar with these legends, and
have studied native manners and customs, see many unmis-
takable proofs that the Polynesians had, at their migration,
considerable knowledge and culture, and that the race has
greatly deteriorated.
The Polynesians are physically a very fine race. On some
islands they average 5 ft. 10 in. in height. De Quatrefages,
in a table giving the stature of different races of men, 2 puts the
natives of Samoa and Tonga as the tallest people in the world.
He gives 5 ft. 9-92 in. as their average height. They are well
developed in proportion to their height. Their colour is a brown,
lighter or darker generally according to the amount of their
exposure to the sun being darker on some of the atolls where
the people spend much time in fishing, and among fishermen
on the volcanic islands, and lighter among women, chiefs and
others less exposed than the bulk of the people. Their hair
is dark brown or black; smooth and curly, very different from
the frizzly mop of the Papuan or the lank straight locks of the
Malay. They have very little beard. Their features are gen-
erally fairly regular and often beautiful; eyes invariably black,
and in some persons oblique; jaws not projecting, except in a
few instances; lips of medium thickness; the noses are naturally
long, well shaped and arched, but many are artificially flat-
tened at the bridge in infancy. Their foreheads are fairly high,
but rather narrow. The young of both sexes are good-looking.
The men often have more regular features than the women.
Formerly the men paid more attention to personal appearance
than the women. Polynesians generally are of singularly
cleanly habits, love bathing, and have a taste for neatness and
order. Their clothing is simple: a loin cloth for the men and
for the women a girdle or petticoat of leaves. Sometimes
women cover the shoulders, and. on great occasions the men
robe themselves in tapa, bark-cloth. The men are usually
1 Coco-nut fibre and the gum which exudes from the bread-fruit
tree are generally used for " caulking " and " pitching " canoes.
2 The Human Species (International Scientific Series), pp. 57-60.
tattooed in elaborate designs from the navel to the thigh, and
often around mouth and eyes.
As a race the Polynesians are somewhat apathetic. An
enervating climate and lavish natural resources incline them to
lead easy lives. On the more barren islands, and on those more
distant from the equator, they show more energy. Under
certain circumstances they become excitable, and manifest a
kind of care-for-nothing spirit. As savages they were strict
in their religious observances and religion came into almost
every action of life, and they have been, in most instances, easily
led to accept Christianity. Their essential trait is their per-
ennial cheerfulness, and their fondness for dance and song and
every sort of amusement. 3 They are shrewd, intelligent and
possess much common sense. Where they have from early
years enjoyed the advantages of a good education, Polynesian
youths have proved themselves to possess intellectual powers
of no mean order. They are almost invariably fluent speakers;
with many of them oratory seems to be a natural gift; it is also
carefully cultivated. An orator will hold the interest of his
hearers for hours together at a political gathering, and in his
speech he will bring in historical allusions and precedents, and
will make apt quotations from ancient legends in a manner which
would do credit to the best parliamentary orators. Many of
them are very brave, and think little of self-sacrifice for others
where duty or family honour is concerned.
Polynesian society is divided into the family and the clan. Each
clan has a name which is usually borne by one of the oldest members,
who is the chief or head for the time being. This clan system no
doubt generally prevailed in early times, and was the origin of the
principal chieftainships. But changes have been made in most of
the islands. In some the head of one clan has become king over
several. In many cases large clans have been divided into sections
under secondary heads, and have even been subdivided.
As a rule near relations do not intermarry. In some islands this
rule is rigidly adhered to. There have been exceptions, however,
especially in the case of high chiefs; but usually great care is taken
to prevent the union of those within the prescribed limits of con-
sanguinity. Children generally dwell with their kin on the father's
side, but they have : equal rights on the mother's side, and sometimes
they take up their abode with their mother's family. The only
names used to express particular relationships are father and
mother, son and daughter, brother and sister. There is usually
no distinction between brothers (or sisters) and cousins, all the
children of brothers and sisters speak of each other as brothers and
sisters, and they call uncles and aunts fathers and mothers. Above
the relationship of parents all are simply ancestors, no term being
used for grandfather which would not equally apply to any more
remote male ancestor. In the same way there is no distinctive
term for grandchild. A man speaks of his grandchild as his son
or daughter, or simply as his child. 4 Polygamy was often practised,
especially by chiefs, and also concubinage. In some places a widow
was taken by the brother of her deceased husband, or, failing the
brother, by some other relative of the deceased, as an additional wife.
Divorce was an easy matter, and of frequent occurrence; but, as a
rule, a divorced wife would not marry again without the consent of
her former husband. An adulterer was always liable to be killed
by the aggrieved husband, or by some member of his clan. If
the culprit himself could not be reached, any member of the clan
was liable to suffer in his stead. In some islands female virtue was
highly regarded. Perhaps of all the groups Samoa stood highest
in this respect. There was a special ordeal through which a bride
passed to prove her virginity, and a proof of her immorality brought
disgrace upon all her relatives. But in other islands there was much
freedom in the relations of the sexes. Owing to the almost promis-
cuous intercourse which prevailed among a portion of the race, in
some groups titles descended through the mother and not through
the father. In Hawaii there was a peculiar system of marriage
8 Wrestling and boxing, a kind of hockey and football, canoe and
foot races, walking-matches, swimming, archery, cockfighting,
fishing-matches and pigeon-catching are among their pastimes.
Of indoor games they have a number, many being of a gambling
nature. Much time is spent, especially after the evening meal,
in asking riddles, in rhyming, &c. The recital of songs and myths
is a common amusement, and on special occasions there is dancing.
The night-dances were generally accompanied by much indecency
and immorality.
4 Dr Lewis H. Morgan, in Ancient Society, pp. 419-423, makes the
Polynesians to have distinctive terms for grandfather, grandmother,
grandson and granddaughter. In this he is mistaken. It is evident
from his own lists that the Hawaiian kupuna means simply an
ancestor. In like manner moopuna simply means a descendant
of any generation after the first.
POLYNESIA
35
relationship," brothers with their wives, and sisters with their
InislMiids, possessing each other in common." There also, especially
in i In- rase of chiefs and chieftainesses, brothers and sisters some-
times intermarried. But these customs did not prevail in other
Croups. It is almost certain that they did not prevail in Hawaii in
times, hut that they were the result of that deterioration in the
which their traditions and many of their customs indicate. 1
Women have always occupied a relatively high position among
i In Polynesians. In most groups they have great influence and are
ire.iieil \viih much respect. In some cases they take hereditary
titles and hold high offices. As among their congeners in Mada-
;r, so also in parts of Polynesia, there may be a queen or a chief-
^s in her own right ; and a woman in high position will command
as much respect, and will exercise as great authority, as a man would
in the same position. Everywhere infanticide prevailed; in some
of the smaller islands it was regulated by law in order to prevent
population. It was also a very common practice to destroy
foetus, but parents were affectionate towards their children.
Tlu- practice of adopting children was, and still is, common. Often
there is an exchange made between members of the same clan;
but sometimes there is adoption from without. Tattooing generally
prevailed among the men, different patterns being followed in differ-
ent groups of islands. In some a larger portion of the body is
tattooed than in others. A youth was considered to be in his
minority until he was tattooed, and in former times he would have
no chance of marrying until he had, by submitting to this process,
proved himself to be a man. Puberty in the other sex was generally
marked by feasting, or some other demonstration, among the female
friends. Old age is generally honoured. Often an inferior chief
will give up his title to a younger man, yet he himself will lose but
little by so doing. The neglect of aged persons is extremely rare.
Property belonging to a clan is held in common. Each clan
usually possesses land, and over this no one member has an exclusive
right, but all have an equal right to use it. The chief or recognized
head of the clan or section alone can properly dispose of it or assign
its use for a time to an outsider; and even he is expected to obtain
the consent of the heads of families before he alienates the property.
Thus land is handed down through successive generations under the
nominal control of the recognized head of the clan. Changes
have been made in many islands in this respect; but there can be
little reason to doubt that the joint ownership of property in clans
was common among the entire race in former times.
In early times the head of each clan was supreme among his
own people, but in all matters he had associated with him the
principal men or heads of families in the clan. Their united
authority extended over all the members and the possessions of the
clan, and they were independent of every other clan. There are in
places vestiges of this primitive state of society still remaining ;
the transition to a limited or to a despotic monarchy may be traced
by means of the ancient legends in some islands, and in others it is
a matter of recent history. One clan being more numerous and
stronger than another, and its chief being ambitious, it is easy to
see how by conquering a neighbouring clan he increased the import-
ance of his clan and extended his own power. In some of the islands
this transition process has hardly yet developed into an absolute
monarchy. We may even see two or three stages of the progress.
In one instance a certain clan has the right to nominate the principal
chief over an entire district; though it is known as the ruling clan,
its rule is mainly confined to this nomination, and to decision for or
against war. In all other respects the district enjoys the privilege
of self-government. In another case the nominal king over a dis-
trict, or over an entire island, can be elected only from among the
members of a certain clan, the monarchy being elective within that
alone; but this king has little authority. In other cases a more
despotic monarchy has grown up the prowess of one man leading
to the subjugation of other clans. Even in this case the chiefs or
1 Morgan has founded one of his forms of family the consanguine
on the supposed existence in former times among the Malays and
Polynesians of the custom of " intermarriage of brothers and sisters,
own and collateral, in a group." All the evidence he finds in support
of this is (i) the existence of the custom above mentioned in Hawaii ;
and (2) the absence of special terms for the relationship of uncle,
aunt and cousin, this indicating, he thinks, that these were regarded
as fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters. He admits that " the
usages with respect to marriage which prevailed when the system
was formed may not prevail at the present time." But he adds,
" To sustain the deduction it is not necessary that they should "
Ancient Society, p. 408). Morgan has given special terms for grand-
father and grandmother, because it would prove too much to show
that the people had no grandfathers, &c. But these terms are used
for ancestors of any generation. The terms used for grandchildren,
in like manner, are used for any generation of descendants. He
says (p. 406) the terms of husband and wife are used in common by
a group of sisters or brothers, but the fact is that the words used for
husband and wife in Hawaii simply mean male and female. In
some islands there are terms used for wife in the most strict sense.
The word wife is not used more exclusively among us than among
some Polynesian people.
heads of clans sometimes still hold their property and rule over their
own people, only rendering a kind of feudal service and paying
tribute to the king.
The Polynesians are exceedingly fond of rank and of titles. Much
deference is paid to chiefs and to persons of rank; and special
terms are generally employed in addressing these. Every part of a
chief's body and all his belongings have names different from those
employed for common people. The grade of rank which a person
occupies will often be indicated by the language in which he is
addressed. Thus, in Samoa there are four different terms for to
come: sau is for a common man; tnaliu mat is a respectful term
for a person without a title; susu mai for a titled chief; and afio
mai for a member of the royal family. In addressing chiefs, or
others to whom one wishes to be respectful, the singular number
of the personal pronoun is rarely used; the dual is employed instead,
the dual of dignity or of respect.
Offices and titles are seldom hereditary in our sense of the term,
as descending from father to son. They are rather elective within
the limits of the clan, or the division of a clan. A common practice
is for the holder of a high title to nominate a successor; and his
nomination is generally confirmed by the chiefs, or heads of house-
holds, with whom the right of election rests. In ancient times the
authority of a high chief or king did not usually extend to any
details of government. But in Hawaii there are traditions of a wise
king who interested himself in promoting the social well-being of
the people, and made good laws for their guidance. 2 Usually all
matters affecting a district or an island were settled by the chiefs
of the district, while those of a single village were settled by a
council consisting of the chiefs and heads of households in the village.
In some islands each clan, or each village, would feel itself at liberty
to make war on another clan or village without consulting the views
of any higher authority. Indeed the rule was for each clan or dis-
trict to settle its own affairs. In the case of offences against
individuals, either the person injured, or another member of his
clan, would avenge the injury done. For most offences there was
some generally recognized punishment such as death for murder
or adultery; but often vengeance would fall upon another person
instead of the wrongdoer. In avenging wrong, a member of the
village or of the clan to which the offenqer belonged would serve
equally well to satisfy their ideas of justice if the culprit himself
could not be easily reached. Sometimes all the members of the
family, or of a village, to_ which a culprit belonged would flee from their
homes and take refuge in another village, or seek the protection of a
powerful chief. In some places, in cases of crime, the members of
the family or village would convey the culprit bound sometimes
even carrying him like a pig that is to be killed and place him with
apologies before those against whom he had transgressed. The
ignominy of such a proceeding was generally considered sufficient
atonement for the gravest offences. There were slaves in many
islands, either persons conquered in war, or those who had been
condemned to lose their personal liberty on account of evil conduct.
Pottery was not manufactured by the Polynesians: a fact which,
it has been argued, goes far to prove the remoteness of the Poly-
nesian migration from the Malay Archipelago, where there is not a
single tribe which does not possess the art. It may, however, be
that, moving among small coral islands for scores of generations and
thus without materials, they lost the art. Those of them who
possessed pottery obtained it from the Papuans. In most of their
manufactures they were, however, in advance of the Papuans.
They made use of the vegetable fibres abounding in the islands, the
women manufacturing cToth, chiefly from the bark of the paper
mulberry (Morus papyrifera), but also in some islands from the
bark of the bread-fruit tree and the hibiscus. This in former
times furnished them with most of their clothing. They also made
various kinds of mats, baskets and fans from the leaves of the pan-
danus, the bark of the hibiscus, from species of bohmeria or other
Urticaceous plants. Some of their mats are very beautifully made,
and in some islands they are the most valuable property the people
possess. The people also use the various fibre-producing plants for
the manufacture of ropes, coarse string and fine cord, and for making
fishing nets. The nets are often very large, and are netted with a
needle and mesh as in hand-netting among ourselves.
The Polynesians, who have always been entirely without metals,
are clever workers in wood. Canoe and house building are trades
usually confined to certain families. The large canoes in which they
formerly made long voyages are no longer built, but various kinds
of smaller canoes are made, from the commonest, which is simply
a hollowed-out tree cut into form, to the finely shaped one built
upon a keel, the joints of the various pieces being nicely fitted, and
the whole stitched together with cord made from the husk of coco-
nuts. Some of the larger canoes are ornamented with rude carving;
and in some islands they are somewhat elaborately decorated with
inlaid mother-of-pearl. The houses are generally well and elabor-
ately made, but nearly all the ornamentation is put on the inside of
the roof.
They manufacture several wooden utensils for household use,
s See a remarkable example in Fornander's Account of the Poly-
nesian Race, ii. 89.
POLYNESIA
such as dishes or deep bowls, head-rests and stools. Having no
metal or other vessels in which to boil water, all cooking is done by
baking, generally in holes in the ground. They also make wooden
gongs, or drums. They used to make wooden fishhooks, clubs,
spears and bows. They still make wooden fishspears and carved and
inlaid combs. They employ the bamboo for making drums and
flutes. Formerly knives were made of bamboo, which is still some-
times used for that purpose. In the manufacture of these things
they employed adzes made of stone, shell or hard wood, and a wooden
drill pointed with stone, shell or bone. They made mother-of-pearl
fishhooks, and they still use a part of those old hooks or artificial
bait in combination with steel hooks, the native-made portion
being generally shaped like a small fish. For water-vessels, &c.,
they employ gourds and large coco-nut shells, in preparing which
they pour in water and allow the pulp or the kernel to decay, so that
it may be removed without breaking the rind or shell. Their drink-
ing cups are made of half a coco-nut shell. Sharks' teeth, shells
and bamboo were formerly generally used as cutting instruments
for shaving and surgical operations. They employ vegetable dyes
for painting their bark-cloth, calabashes, &c. In some islands they
also use a red earth for this purpose. Their cloth is generally
ornamented with geometrical patterns. Any drawings of animals,
&c., which they make are exceedingly inartistic, and no attempt
is made at perspective. Their musical instruments are few and rude
consisting of the drums and flutes already mentioned, and shell
trumpets.
The Polynesians were all polytheists. Without doubt many of
their gods are deified men; but it is clear that some are the forces
of Nature personified, while others appear to represent human
passions which have become identified with particular persons who
have an existence in their historical myths. 1 But the conception
which they had of Tangaloa (Taaroa and Kanaloa in some islands)
is of a higher order. Among the Tahitians he was regarded as
"the first and principal god, uncreated and existing from the
beginning, or from the time he emerged from po, or the world of
darkness." 2 " He was said to be the father of all the gods, and
creator of all things, yet was scarcely reckoned an object of worship." 3
Dr Turner says, " the unrestricted, or unconditioned, may fairly
be regarded as the name of this Samoan Jupiter." 4
The worship of certain of the great gods was common to all the
people in a group of islands. Others were gods of villages or of
families, while others were gods of individuals. The gods of clans
were probably the spirits of the ancestors in their own line. In
some islands, when the birth of a child was expected, the aid of the
gods of the family was invoked, beginning with the god of the father.
The god prayed to at the instant of birth became the god of the
child. In other places the name of the child's god was declared
when the umbilical cord was severed. The gods were supposed to
dwell in various animals, in trees, or even in inanimate objects, as a
stone, a shell, &c. In some islands idols bearing more or less resem-
blance to the human shape were made. But in all cases the material
objects were regarded simply as the abodes of the immaterial spirits
of the gods.
Their temples were either national, for a single village, or for
the god of a family. They were sometimes large stone enclosures
(marae), sometimes a grove, or a house. The principal priests were
a particular order, the priesthood being hereditary. In some cases,
however, the father of a family was priest in his own household and
presented offerings and prayers to the family god.
In some islands human sacrifices were of frequent occurrence; in
others they were offered only on very rare and exceptional occasions,
when the demand was made by the priests for something specially
valuable. The usual offerings to the gods were food. The system
of taboo was connected with their religious rites. There were two
ways by which things might become taboo: (i) by contact with
anything belonging to the god, as his visible representation or his
priest. Probably it was thought that a portion of the sacred essence
of the god, or of a sacred person, was directly communicable to
objects which they touched. (2) Things were made taboo by being
dedicated to the god ; and it is this form of taboo which is still kept up.
If, e.g., any one wishes to preserve his coco-nuts from being taken,
he will put something upon the trees to indicate that they are sacred
or dedicated. They cannot then be used until the taboo is removed.
Disease and death were often connected with the violation of taboo,
the offended gods thus punishing the offenders. Disease was
generally attributed to the anger of the gods. Hence offerings, &c.,
were made to appease their anger. The first-fruits of a crop were
usually dedicated to the gods to prevent them from being angry;
and new canoes, fishing-nets, &c., were dedicated by prayers and
offerings, in order that the gods might be propitious to their owners
in their use.
1 The following books may be consulted on this subject : Rev.
W. W. Gill's Myths and Songs from the South Pacific; Dr Turner's
Samoa; and Mr Shortland's Maori Religion and Mythology; Sir
George Grey, Polynesian Mythology.
* Polynesian Researches i. 323.
' Tahitian Dictionary.
* Samoa, p. 52.
| The Polynesians invariably believe in the existence of the spirit
of man after the death of the body. Their traditions on the condi-
i tion of the dead vary considerably in different groups; yet there is a
general agreement upon main points. Death is caused by the
departure of the spirit from the body. The region of the dead is
subterranean. When the spirit leaves the body it is conveyed by
waiting spirits to the abode of spirits. In most islands the place
of descent is known. It is generally towards the west. In some
traditions there is a distinction between chief and common people
in the spirit world. In others all are much alike in condition. Some
traditions indicate a marked distinction between the spirits of
warriors and those of others: the former go to a place where they
are happy and are immortal, while the latter are devoured by the
gods and are annihilated. In some, however, the spirits are said to
live again after being eaten. Some speak of the abode of spirits
as being in darkness; but usually the condition of things is similar
to that which exists upon earth. Amongst all the people it is
believed that the spirits of the dead are able to revisit the scenes of
their earthly life. The visits are generally made in the night, and
are often greatly dreaded, especially when there may be any supposed
reason for spite on the part of the dead towards living relatives.
Some writers have connected Polynesian cannibalism with religion.
In the Cook and Society Islands, when a human being was offered
as a sacrifice, the priest presented an eye of the victim to the king,
who either ate it or pretended to do so. Probably the earliest
human sacrifices were the bodies of enemies slain in battle. As
it was supposed by some that the spirits of the dead were eaten by
the gods, the bodies of those slain in battle may have been eaten by
their victors in triumph. Mr Shortland appears to think that
cannibalism among the Maories of New Zealand may have thus
originated. 6 Among the Polynesians generally it appears to have
been the practice at times to eat a portion of a slain enemy to
make his degradation the greater. But where cannibalism was
practised as a means of subsistence, it probably originated in times
of actual want, such as may have occurred during the long voyages
of the people.
The Polynesian race has been continuously, and in some
places rapidly, decreasing since their first contact with Euro-
peans. Doubts have been thrown on the current statements
regarding the rate of decrease, which some good authorities
believe to be not so great as is commonly represented. They
hold that former estimates of the number of inhabitants in the
various insular groups were mere guesswork. Thus it is pointed
out that Cook's estimate of 240,000 for the Society Archipelago
(Tahiti) was at the time reduced by his associate, Forster, to
150,000, so that the 300,000 credited by him to the Sandwich
Islands should also be heavily discounted. That is probably
true, and it may be admitted that, as a rule, the early calcula-
tions erred on the side of excess. But when full allowance is
made for all such exaggerations, the following facts will show
that the decrease has been excessive. The Tahitians, 150,000
in 1774, fell from 17,000 in 1880 to 10,300 in 1899; and in this
group, while the pure stock appears to be dying out, there is
a small increase amongst the half-breeds. When New Zealand
was occupied (1840) the Maori were said to number 120,000,
and were doubtfully stated to be still 56,000 in 1857; since then
the returns of the 1881 and 1891 censuses gave 44,000 and 40,000
respectively. During the last two decades of the igth century
the decrease has been from 30,000 to 17,500 in Tonga; from
11,500 to 8400 in the Cook group; from 8000 to 3600 in Wallis;
from 1600 to loo in Manahiki; from 1400 to 1000 in Tubuai;
and from 600 to 100 in Easter Island. A general decline seems
thus to be placed beyond doubt, though it may be questioned
whether it is to be attributed to a decayed vitality, as some
hold, or to external causes, as is the more general opinion. The
prevalence of elephantiasis and the occurrence of leprosy, for
instance, in Hawaii, would seem to point at least in some places
to a racial taint, due perhaps to the unbridled licentiousness of
past generations. On the other hand, such a decrease as has
occurred in Tahiti and Tonga, can be accounted for only by an
accumulation of outward causes, such as wars, massacres, and
raidings for the Australian and South American labour mar-
kets before this traffic was suppressed or regulated. Other
destructive agencies were epidemics, such especially as measles
and small-pox, which swept away 30,000 Fijians in 1875; the
introduction of strong drinks, including, besides vile spirits,
a most pernicious concoction brewed in Tahiti from oranges;
6 Maori Religion and Mythology, p. 26.
POLYP POLYPHEMUS
37
the too sudden adoption of European clothing, rendering the
body supersensitive to changes of temperature; lastly, the action
of over-zealous missionaries in suppressing the dances, merry-
making and free joyous life of pagan times, and the preaching
of a sombre type of Christianity, with deadening effects on the
buoyant temperament of thes children of Nature. Most of
these abuses have been checked or removed, and the results
may perhaps be detected in a less accelerated rate of decline,
which no longer proceeds in geometric proportion, and seems
even almost arrested in some places, as in Samoa and New
Zealand. If such be indeed the case, perhaps the noblest of all
primitive races may yet be saved from what at one time seemed
inevitable extinction; and the Maori, the Samoans, and Tahi-
tians may, like the Hawaiians, take their place beside the
Europeans as free citizens of the various states of which they
are now subjects.
AUTHORITIES. Jean L. A. de Quatrefages, Les Polyntsiens et leur
migrations (Paris, 1866) ; G. "Burner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia
(London, 1861); Pierre Adolphe Lesson, Les Polynesiens, leur
origins, &c. (Paris, 1880-1884); Henri Mager, Le Monde polynesien
(Paris, 1902); Maximilien Albert H. A. Le Grand, Au pays des
Canaques (Paris, 1893); Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology
(London, 1855); T. A. Moerenhout, Voyages aux ties du Grand
Ocean, &c. (Paris, 1837); Abraham Fornander, An Account of the
Polynesian Race (1878). The account given above reproduces the
main descriptive passages in the Rev. S. J. Whitmee's article in the
9th ed. of the Ency. Brit.
POLYP, the name given by zoologists to the form of animal
especially characteristic of the subphylum Cnidaria of the
Coelentera (q.v.). In the subdivision Anthozoa, comprising the
sea-anemones and corals, the individual is always a polyp; in
the Hydrozoa, however, the individual may be either a polyp or a
medusa (?..).
A good example of a polyp may be seen in a common
sea-anemone or in the well-known fresh-water polyp, Hydra
(fig. i). The body may be roughly compared in structure to
a sac, the wall of which is
composed of two layers of
cells. The outer layer is
known technically as the
ectoderm, the inner layer
as the endoderm. Between
ectoderm and endoderm is
a supporting layer of struc-
tureless gelatinous substance
termed mesogloea, secreted
by the cell-layers of the
body-wall; the mesogloea
may be a very thin layer, or
may reach a fair thickness,
and then sometimes contains
skeletal elements formed by
cells which have migrated
into it from the ectoderm.
The sac-like body built up
in this way is attached
usually to some firm object
by its blind end, and bears
at the upper end the mouth
FIG. i. Hydra viridis, the fresh- surrounded by a circle of
water polyp. The animal is attached ten tacles. Each tentacle is
to the stem of a plant, and is repre- ... ,
sented with the base of attachment a glove-finger-hke outpush-
uppermost; the mouth, not actually ing of the whole wall of the
seen in the drawing, is at the lower sac and contains typically
:xticmit y of the body, surrounded a prolongation of its internal
by the circle of tentacles, ov, Ovary; ..
te, testis. cavity, so that primarily the
tentacles are hollow; but in
some cases the tentacle, may become solid by obliteration of its
cavity. The tentacles are organs which serve both for the tactile
sense and for the capture of food. By means of the stinging
nettle-cells or nematocysts with which the tentacles are thickly
covered, living organisms of various kinds are firmly held and at
the same time paralysed or killed, and by means of longitudinal
muscular fibrils formed from the cells of the ectoderm the
tentacles are contracted and convey the food to the mouth.
By means of circularly disposed muscular fibrils formed from
the endoderm the tentacles can be protracted or thrust out
after contraction. By muscle-fibres belonging to the same two
systems the whole body may be retracted or protruded.
We can distinguish therefore in the body of a polyp the
column, circular or oval in section, forming the trunk, resting
on a base or foot and surmounted by the crown of tentacles,
which enclose an area termed the perislome, in the centre of which
again is the mouth. As a rule there is no other opening to the
body except the mouth, but in some cases excretory pores are
known to occur in the foot, and pores may occur at the tips of
the tentacles. Thus it is seen that a polyp is an animal of very
simple structure.
The name polyp was given to these organisms from their
supposed resemblance to an octopus (Fr. pottlpe), with its
circle of writhing arms round the mouth. This comparison,
though far-fetched, is certainly more reasonable than the common
name " coral-insects " applied to the polyps which form coral.
It cannot be too emphatically stated that a coral-polyp is as
far removed in organization from either an octopus or an
insect as it is from man himself.
The external form of the polyp varies greatly in different
cases. In the first place the column may be long and slender,
or may be, on the contrary, so short in the vertical direction that
the body becomes disk-like. The tentacles may number many
hundreds or may be veiy few, in rare cases only one or two, or
even absent altogether; they may be long and filamentous, or
short and reduced to mere knobs or warts; they may be simple
and unbranched, or they may be feathery in pattern. All these
types are well illustrated by different species of British sea-
anemones. The mouth may be level with the surface of the
peristome, or may be projecting and trumpet-shaped. As regards
internal structure, polyps exhibit two well-marked types of
organization, each characteristic of one of the two classes,
Hydrozoa and Anthozoa.
It is an almost universal attribute of polyps to possess the
power of reproducing themselves non-sexually by the method
of budding. This mode of reproduction may be combined
with sexual reproductiveness, or may be the sole method by
which the polyp produces offspring, in which case the polyp
is entirely without sexual organs. In many cases the buds
formed do not separate from the parent but remain in con-
tinuity with it, thus forming colonies or stocks, which may
reach a great size and contain a vast number of individuals.
Slight differences in the method of budding produce great varia-
tions in the form of the colonies, which may be distinguished
in a general way as spreading, massive or arborescent. The
reef-building corals are polyp-colonies, strengthened by the
formation of a firm skeleton. For further details of colony-
formation the reader is referred to the articles ANTHOZOA
and HYDROMZDUSAE.
For figures of polyps see P. Gosse, A History of the British Sea-
Anemones and Corals (London, 1860); A. Andres, " Le Attinie," in
Fauna and Flora desColfes von Neapel, ix. I (Leipzig, 1884); G. J.
Allman, A Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or Tubularian Hydroids
(Ray Society, 1871-1872). (E. A. M.)
POLYPERCHON (incorrectly Polysperchon), one of Alex-
ander's generals, and the successor of Antipater as regent in
Macedonia in 319 B.C. He was driven out by Cassander in
317 B.C. (See PHOCION.)
POLYPHEMUS, in Greek mythology, the most famous of the
Cyclopes, son of Poseidon and the nymph Thoosa. He dwelt
in a cave in the south-west corner of Sicily, and was the owner
of large flocks and herds. He was of gigantic stature, with
one eye in the middle of his forehead, a consumer of human
flesh, without respect for the laws of god or man. Odysseus,
having been cast ashore on the coast of Sicily, fell into the hands
of Polyphemus, who shut him up with twelve of his companions
in his cave, and blocked the entrance with an enormous rock.
Odysseus at length succeeded in making the giant drunk, blinded
him by plunging a burning stake into his eye while he lay
asleep, and with six of his friends (the others having been
POLYPODIUM POLYTECHNIC
devoured by Polyphemus) made his escape by clinging to the
bellies of the sheep let out to pasture. Euripides in the Cyclops
essentially follows the Homeric account. A later story asso-
ciates Polyphemus with Galatea (see Acis).
Homer, Odyssey, ix. ; Ovid, Melam. xiii. 749; Theocritus xi.
See W. Grimm, Die Sage von Polyphem. (1857); G. R. Holland,
in Leipziger Studien (1884), vii. 139-312.
POLYPODIUM, in botany, a large genus of true ferns (<?.!>.),
widely distributed throughout the world, but specially developed
in the tropics. The name is derived from Gr. iroXus, many,
and irodiov, a little foot, on account of the foot-like appear-
ance of the rhizome and its branches. The species differ greatly
in size and general appearance and in the character of the frond ;
the sori or groups of spore-cases (sporangia) are borne on the
back of the leaf, are globose and naked, that is, are not covered
with a membrane (indusium) (see fig. i). The common poly-
pody (fig. 2) (P. wdgare) is widely diffused in the British Isles,
where it is found on walls,
banks, trees, &c.; the creep-
ing, densely-scaly rootstock
bears deeply pinnately cut
fronds, the fertile ones bear-
ing on the back the bright
yellow naked groups of
sporangia (sori). It is also
known as adder's foot,
golden maidenhair and
wood-fern, and is the oak-
fern of the old herbals.
FIG. i. Portion of a pinna
of leaf of Polypodium bearing
sori, s, on its back.
FIG. 2. Polypodium vulgare,
common polypody (about \ nat.
size).
i. Group of spore-cases (sorus) on
back of leaf (X 4).
There are a large number of varieties, differing chiefly
in the form and division of the pinnae; var. cambricum (origin-
ally found in Wales) has the pinnae themselves deeply cut
into narrow segments; var. cornubiense is a very elegant plant
with finely-divided fronds; var. cristatum is a handsome variety
with fronds forking at the apex and the tips of all the pinnae
crested and curled. P. dryopteris, generally known as oak-
fern, is a very graceful plant with delicate fronds, 6 to id in.
long, the three main branches of which are themselves pinnately
divided; it is found in dry, shady places in mountain districts
in Great Britain, but is very rare in Ireland. P. phegopteris
(beechfern) is a graceful species with a black, slender root-stock,
from which the pinnate fronds rise on long stalks, generally
about 12 in. long, including the stalk; it is characterized by
having the lower pinnae of the frond deflexed; it is generally
distributed in Britain, though not common. Many other
species from different parts of the world are known in green-
house cultivation.
POLYPUS, a term signifying a tumour which is attached by
a narrow neck to the walls of a cavity lined with mucous
membrane. A polypus or polypoid tumour may belong to any
variety of tumour, either simple or malignant. The most com-
mon variety is a polypus of the nose of simple character and
easily removed. Polypi are also met with in the ear, larynx,
uterus, bladder, vagina, and rectum. (See TUMOUR.)
POLYTECHNIC (Gr. iroX6s, many, and TX"?, an art), a
term which may be held to designate any institution formed
with a view to encourage or to illustrate various arts and sciences.
It has, however, been used with different applications in several
European countries. In France the first ecole polylcchnique
was founded by the National Convention at the end of the i8th
century, as a practical protest against the almost exclusive
devotion to literary and abstract studies in the places of higher
learning. The institution is described as one " ou Ton instruit
les jeunes gens, destines a entrer dans les ecoles speciales
d'artillerie, du genie, des mines, des ponts et chaussees, cree en
1794 sous le nom d'ecole centrale des travaux publiques, et
en 1795 sous celui qu'elle porte aujourd'hui " (Litlre). In Ger-
many there are nine technical colleges which, in like manner,
have a special and industrial, rather than a general educational
purpose. In Switzerland the principal educational institution,
which is not maintained or administered by the communal
authorities, but is non-local and provided by the Federal govern-
ment, is the Polytechnikum at Zurich. In all the important
towns of the Federation there are trade and technical schools
of a more or less special character, adapted to the local indus-
tries; e.g. schools for silk-weaving, wood-carving, watchmaking,
or agriculture. But the Zurich Polytechnikum has a wider and
more comprehensive range of work. It is a college designed
to give instruction and practical training in those sciences which
stand in the closest relation to manufactures and commerce
and to skilled industry in general and its work is of university
rank.
To the English public the word polytechnic has only recently
become familiar, in connexion with some London institutions of
an exceptional character. In the reign of William The First
IV. there was an institution in London called after Poiyiechaks
the name of his consort " The Adelaide Gallery " >* England.
and devoted rather to the display of new scientific inven-
tions and curiosities than to research or to the teaching of
science. It enjoyed an ephemeral popularity, and was soon
imitated by an institution called the Polytechnic in Regent
Street, with a somewhat more pretentious programme, a diving-
bell, electrical and mechanical apparatus, besides occasional
illustrated lectures of a popular and more or less recreative
character. In the popular mind this institution is inseparably
associated with " Professor " Pepper, the author of The Boy's
Playbook of Science and of Pepper's Ghost. Both of these
institutions, after a few years of success, failed financially; and
in 1880 Mr Quintin Hogg, an active and generous philan-
thropist, purchased the disused building in Regent Street, and
reopened it on an altered basis, though still retaining the name
of Polytechnic, to which, however, he gave a new significance.
He had during sixteen years been singularly successful in
gathering -together young shopmen and artisans in London in
the evenings and on Sunday for religious and social intercourse,
and in acquiring their confidence. But by rapid degrees his
enterprise, which began as an evangelistic effort, developed into
an educational institution of a novel and comprehensive char-
acter, with classes for the serious study of science, art, and
literature, a gymnasium, library, reading circles, laboratories
for physics and chemistry, conversation and debating clubs,
organized country excursions, swimming, rowing, and natural
history societies, a savings bank, and choral singing, besides
religious services, open to all the members, though not obli-
gatory for any. The founder, who from the first took the
closest personal interest in the students, well describes his own
aims: " What we wanted to develop our institute into was a
place which should recognize that God had given man more than
one side to his character, and where we could gratify any reason-
able taste, whether athletic, intellectual, spiritual or social.
The success of this effort was remarkable. In the first winter
POLYTECHNIC
39
6800 members joined, paying fees of 35. per term, or IDS. 6d. per
year; and the members steadily increased, until in 1900 they
reached a total of 15,000 The average daily attendance is
4000; six hundred classes in different grades and subjects are
held weekly; and upwards of forty clubs and societies have been
formed in connexion with the recreative and social departments.
The precedent thus established by private initiative has since
:en followed in the formation of the public institutions which,
under the name of " Polytechnics," have become
"ti'tutioas so prominent and have exercised such beneficent
this influence among the working population of London.
The principal resources for the foundation and
.tenance of these institutions have been derived from two
nds that administered under the City Parochial Charities
.ct of 1883, and that furnished by the London County Council,
first under the terms of the Local Taxation (Customs and
;cise) Act of 1890, and the Technical Instruction Act 1889,
,t since the ist of May 1904 under the Education Act 1902,
as applied to London by the act of 1903. More detailed refer-
ence to these two acts seems to be necessary in this place.
The royal commission of inquiry into the parochial char-
ities of London was appointed in 1878, mainly at the instance
TheCHy ^ ^ r J ames Bryce, and under the presidency of
Parochial the Duke of Northumberland. Its report appeared
Charities in iggo, giving particulars of the income of the
parishes, and revealing the fact that the funds had
largely outgrown the original purposes of the endowments,
which were ill adapted to the modern needs of the class for
;vhose benefit they were intended. The act of parliament of
1883 was designed to give effect to the recommendations of
the commissioners. It provided that while five of the largest
parishes were to retain the management of their own charitable
funds, the endowments of the remaining 107 parishes in the
city should be administered by a corporate body, to be en-
titled " the Trustees of the London Parochial Charities" (other-
wise known in relation to the polytechnics as " the Central
Governing Body" ), this body to include five nominees of the
Crown and four of the corporation of London. The remaining
members were to be chosen under a subsequent scheme of the
charity commission, which added four nominees of the Lon-
don County Council, two of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners,
and one each appointed by the university of London, Univer-
sity College, King's College, the City and Guilds institute, and
the governing bodies of the Bishopsgate and the Cripplegate
foundations. For the purpose of framing the scheme, a special
commissioner, Mr James Anstie, Q.C., was temporarily attached
to the charity commission, and it thus became the duty of the
commission to prepare a statement of the charity property
possessed by the 107 parishes, distinguishing between the secular
and the ecclesiastical parts of the endowments. The annual
income derived from the ecclesiastical fund was 35,000, and
that from the secular portion of the fund 50,000. The
scheme assigned capital grants amounting to 155,000 to the
provision of open spaces, and 149,500 to various institutions,
including free libraries in Bishopsgate and Cripplegate, the
People's Palace, the Regent Street and Northampton Institutes,
and the Victoria Hall. A capital sum of 49,355 out of the
ecclesiastical fund was devoted to the repair of city churches;
and the balance of the annual income of this fund, after
allowances for certain vested interests, was directed to be paid
to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. This balance has varied by
slight increases from year to year, and amounted in 1906 to
20,875. The remaining fund thus set free for secular purposes
was by the scheme largely devoted to the erection and main-
tenance of polytechnic institutions, or " industrial institutes,"
as they were at first called. It was the opinion of Mr Anstie
and his fellow-commissioners that in this way it would be possible
to meet one of the most urgent of the intellectual needs of the
metropolis, and to render service nearly akin to the original
purposes of the obsolete charitable endowments. For the year
1906-1907 the grants made to the polytechnics and kindred
institutions (the Working Men's College, College for Working
Women, &c.) by the Central Governing Body amounted to
39,140, and the total amount contributed by the Central
Governing Body since its creation amounts to 543,000.
The general scope and aims of the institutions thus con-
templated by the commissioners are defined hi the A Typlcal
" general regulations for the management of an indus- Scheme
trial institute," which are appended as a schedule to uaaertbe
the several schemes, and which run as follows: Act '
The object of this institution is the promotion of the industrial
skill, general knowledge, health and well-being of young men and
women belonging to the poorer classes by the following means:
_ i. Instruction in
a. The general rules and principles of the arts and sciences
applicable to any handicraft, trade or business.
b. The practical application of such general rules and
principles in any handicraft, trade or business.
c. Branches or details of any handicraft, trade or business,
facilities for acquiring the knowledge of which cannot
usually be obtained in the workshop or other place
of business.
The classes and lectures shall not be designed or arranged so as
to be in substitution for the practical experience of the workshop
or place of business, but so as to be supplementary thereto.
u. Instruction suitable for persons intending to emigrate.
iii. Instruction in such other branches and subjects of art,
science, language, literature and general knowledge as may be
approved by the governing body.
iv. Public lectures or courses of lectures, musical and other
entertainments and exhibitions.
v. Instruction and practice in gymnastics, drill, swimming and
other bodily exercises.
vi. Facilities for the formation and meeting of clubs and societies.
vii. A library, museum and reading room or rooms.
Within the limits prescribed, the governing body may from time
to time, out of the funds at their disposal, provide and maintain
buildings and grounds, including workshops and laboratories suit-
able for all the purposes herein specified, and the necessary furniture,
fittings, apparatus, models and books, and may provide or receive
by gift or on loan works of art or scientific construction, or objects
of interest .and curiosity, for the purpose of the institute, and for
the purpose of temporary exhibition.
Other provisions in the scheme require: (i) that the educa-
tional benefits of the institute shall be available for both sexes
equally, but that common rooms, refreshment rooms, gymnasia
and swimming-baths may be established separately, under such
suitable arrangements as may be approved by the governing
body; (2) that the fees and subscriptions shall be so fixed as to
place the benefits of the institute within the reach of the poorer
classes; (3) that no intoxicating liquors, smoking or gambling
shall be allowed in any part of the building; (4) that the build-
ings, ground and premises shall not be used for any political,
denominational or sectarian purpose, although this rule shall
not be deemed to prohibit the discussion of political subjects
in any debating society approved by the governing body; (5)
that no person under the age of sixteen or above twenty-five
shall be admitted to membership except on special grounds,
and that the number thus specially admitted shall not exceed
5 % of the total number of members.
These and the like provisions have formed the common basis
for all the metropolitan polytechnics. In 1890 a large sum
was placed by the Local Taxation (Customs and
Excise) Act at the disposal of the county and county
borough councils for the general purposes of tech-o/<Ae
nical education, and in 1893 the London County London
Council determined to devote a considerable portion
of this revenue to the further development and sus-
tentation of polytechnics. While the funds granted by the
Central Governing Body may be employed in aid of the social
and recreative as well as the educational purposes of the
various institutes, it is a statutory obligation that the sums
contributed by the London County Council should be applied
to educational work only.
Dr William Garnett, the educational adviser of the London
County Council, has, in a published lecture delivered before
the international congress on technical education in June
1897, thus described the conditions under which the council
offers financial help to the London polytechnics:
4 o
POLYTECHNIC
The objects which the technical education board has had in
view in its dealings with the polytechnics have been :
1. To allow to the several governing bodies the greatest possible
freedom in the conduct of social, recreative and even religious
work within the provisions of the schemes of the Charity Com-
missioners.
2. To secure to each polytechnic the services of an educational
principal, who should be responsible to his governing body for
the organization and conduct of the whole of the work of the
institution.
3. To provide in each polytechnic a permanent staff of teachers,
who should be heads of their respective departments and give
their whole time to the work of the institution, and thus to
establish a corporate or collegiate life in the polytechnic.
4. To ensure that all branches of experimental science are taught
experimentally, and that the students have the opportunity of
carrying out practical laboratory work, at an inclusive fee not
exceeding ten shillings for any one subject.
5. To provide efficient workshop instruction in all practical trade
subjects.
6. To secure that the number of students under the charge of
any one teacher in laboratory or workshop classes, or in other
classes in which personal supervision is of paramount importance,
shall not exceed a stated limit (fifteen in the workshop, or twenty
in the laboratory).
7. To exclude from classes students who, for want of preliminary
training, are incapable of profiting by the instruction provided;
and to this end to restrict the attendance at workshop classes to
those who are actually engaged in the trades concerned, and have
thus opportunities of acquiring the necessary manual dexterity in
the performance of their daily duties.
8. To furnish an adequate fixed stipend for all teachers, in place
of a contingent interest in fees and grants.
9. To encourage private subscriptions and donations.
10. To establish an efficient system of inspection.
1 1. To facilitate the advertisement of polytechnic classes, and
especially to invite the co-operation of trade societies in supporting
their respective classes.
12. To encourage the higher development of some special branch
of study in each polytechnic.
13. To utilize the polytechnic buildings as far as possible in the
daytime by the establishment of technical day schools, or otherwise.
14. To secure uniformity in the keeping of accounts.
The regulations under which the council has
attempted to secure its objects by means of
grants have been changed from time to time as
the work of the polytechnics has developed,
but they provide that the council's aid should
be partly in the form of a fixed grant to each
institution, partly a share of the salaries of the
principal and the permanent teachers, partly
a grant on attendance, the scale depending on
the subject and character of the instruction, and
partly a subsidy (15%) on voluntary contri-
butions. In addition to the annual grants for
maintenance, substantial grants for building
and equipment are made from time to time.
The scale of grants adopted by the council for the
session 1907-1908 was the following :
i. A fixed grant assigned to each polytechnic.
ii. Three-fourths of the salary of the principal
(subject to certain conditions).
iii. Fifty per cent, of the salaries of heads of approved
departments.
iv. Ten per cent, of the salaries of other teachers.
v. Fifteen per cent, on (voluntary) annual subscriptions or
donations.
vi. Attendance grants on evening classes varying from id. to
6d. per student-hour (subject to certain conditions of minimum
attendance, eligibility, &c.).
vii. Special grants not exceeding 50 for courses of lectures on
particular subjects required or approved by the council.
viii. Special grants towards any departments which the council
may desire to see established or maintained.
ix. Equipment grants and building grants in accordance with
the special requirements of the institutions.
The above grants are independent of any contributions which
the council may make towards secondary day schools or day
schools of domestic economy or training colleges of domestic economy
in the polytechnics.
With a view to a due division of labour, and also to the co-
operation of the public bodies concerned, the "London Poly-
technic Council" was created in 1894. It was composed of
representatives of the Central Governing Body, the technical
education board of the London County Council, and the
City and Guilds of London Institute, and its duty was to consult
as to the appropriation of funds, the organiza- London
'tion of teaching, the holding of needful examina- Polytechnic
tions, and the supervision of the work generally. CouncU '
After ten years of work the London polytechnic council
was dissolved in the summer of 1904 in consequence of the
abolition of the technical education board of the London
County Council, when the council became responsible for all
grades of education. A statement below shows the number
and names of the several institutions, and the extent to which
they have been severally aided by the Central Governing Body
and the London County Council.
The " People's Palace" owes its origin in part to the popu-
larity of a novel by Sir Walter Besant, entitled All Sorts and
Conditions of Men, in which the writer pointed out The
the sore need of the inhabitants of East London People's
for social improvement and healthy recreation, Palace -
and set forth an imaginary picture of a " Palace of Delight,"
wherein this need might be partly satisfied. Much public
interest was awakened, large subscriptions were given, and
the Central Governing Body aided the project; but the
munificence of the drapers' company in setting aside 7000 a
year for its permanent maintenance released the London County
Council from any obligation to make a grant. Apart from the
social and recreative side of this popular institution, the edu-
cational section, under the name of the East London Technical
College, steadily increased in numbers and influence under the
fostering care of the drapers' company and has now been re-
cognized as a "school" of the university of London under
the title of " The East London College" and is being utilized
by the London County Council in the same way as other " schools
of the university."
Grants to the London Polytechnics during the Session 1906-1907.
Central Governing Body. London County Council.
Under
Voluntary
Buildings
Main-
Scheme.
Grants.
Equipment.
tenance.
Battersea Polytechnic
2,500
1,701
i,545
4,760
Birkbeck College ....
1,000
1,005
445
3,45
Borough Road Polytechnic .
City of London College .
2,500
1,000
1,563
901
820
515
5,285
3,725
East London College
3,5oo
224
nil
nil
Northampton Institute .
3.350
1,555
3.415
4,525
Northern Polytechnic
1,500
2,183
2,660
4,145
Regent Street Polytechnic .
3.500
3,916
965
7,665
South- Western Polytechnic .
1,500
2,091
1.275
6,265
Woolwich Polytechnic .
nil
1,000
2 .5 2 5
5,495
Sir John Cass's Institute .
nil
50
Sio
2,400
Total ....
20,350
16,189
H-675
47,715
In the above table the grants are given to the nearest pound.
Up to July 1907 the total expenditure of the council upon the
polytechnics, apart from the day schools, training colleges, &c.,
conducted in them, was about 525,000, almost exactly the
same as that of the Central Governing Body. The voluntary
grants from the central governing body include a contribution
towards a compassionate fund, and a pension fund based on
endowment assurances for all permanent officers of the poly-
technics in receipt of salaries of not less than 100 a year.
The grants received from the board of education amount
to about 30,000 a year, while the fees of students and members
produce about 45,000. Voluntary subscriptions, including
those from city companies and other sources of income, pro-
duce about 30,000 in addition, so that out of a total expendi-
ture of about 200,000 a year the council now contributes 30%,
the Central Governing Body 18%, fees 22^%, the board
of education 15% and city companies and other subscribers
15%
POLYTECHNIC
The Goldsmiths' Institute at New Cross owed its existence
and its annual maintenance to the generous initiative of the
ancient city gild whose name it bore. It was therefore entirely
independent oi pecuniary subsidy from any other public body.
In the year 1900 the number of class entries to this institute
was 7574. In 1004 the goldsmiths' company presented the
premises, together with an annual subsidy, to the university of
London for the purposes of a training college for teachers, so
that from that date it ceased to be one of the London poly-
technics, although, pending the provision of other premises, many
of the technical evening classes have been continued under
the London County Council by permission of the university
with the approval of the company. The clothworkers' com-
pany has also contributed 18,000 to the Northern Polytechnic
at Holloway.
In all these institutions the general aims have been practically
the same, although special features have been differentiated
Aims and in order to meet the local needs and the wishes of
Methods, the inhabitants. In all there are laboratories and
lecture rooms, trade classes, art studios, gymnasia, provision
for manual training and domestic economy and applied science.
In nearly all, at first, mechanical and manual instruction
were the prominent objects in view, partly owing to the
conditions under which grants were made by the science
and art department. But of late increased attention has been
paid year by year to literary and humaner studies, and to
general mental cultivation, pursued pari passu with technical
and scientific training. The aid of the London organization for
university extension, now a department of the university,
has been especially serviceable in providing courses of lectures
and classes in literary subjects at nearly all the polytechnics.
As subsidiary to their main work, some of them have estab-
lished junior continuation schools, with a view to provide
suitable instruction for scholars who have left the public ele-
mentary schools and are not yet prepared to enter the technical
and trade classes. Although the workshops and the classes for
artisans are used chiefly in the evenings, there is an increasing
number of day students : e.g. at the Northampton Polytechnic
Institute in Clerkenwell there is a very important day school
of engineering conducted on the "sandwich system, " the
students entering engineering works for the summer months
and returning to the polytechnic for the winter session; at the
Battersea Polytechnic there is a very important training col-
lege for teachers of domestic economy; at Regent Street there
are day schools in engineering, architecture, photo-process and
carriage-building; at the South- Western Polytechnic there are
important schools of mechanical and electrical engineering and
a training college for women teachers of physical exercises;
at the Northern Polytechnic, as at Battersea, there is a training
college for teachers of domestic economy, and there are
departments of commerce and of physics and chemistry, while
the Woolwich Polytechnic receives in the daytime, by special
arrangement with the war office, a large number of engineering
apprentices employed in the arsenal. In short, the schemes of
the several institutions are so elastic that the governing bodies
are at liberty to open any classes or to try any educational or
recreative experiment for which they can find a genuine local
demand. The total number of scholars in the polytechnics
and their branch institutions is variously estimated at from
40,000 to 50,000, and the total number of regular scholars in the
evening schools of the council does not exceed 100,000. These
figures may be usefully compared with the census returns,
which show that within the metropolitan area there are
704,414 persons between the ages of thirteen and twenty-
one. It is a noteworthy fact that, whereas in the population
statistics for the whole of England and Wales the number
at each year of age is regularly diminished by death from
eight years onwards, there is a steady increase in London,
year by year, from fourteen up to the age of thirty. This fact
is owing to the constant immigration of young men and women
from the provinces to the metropolis. The census commis-
sioners in their report for 1001 (p. 15) computed that more than
one-third of the population of London were not natives. They
show also that, if all England and Wales be taken together,
the number of persons between twenty and twenty-one is less
by 12-8% than the number between thirteen and fourteen;
but that, taking London alone, the number of persons between
twenty and twenty-one is greater by 14-4% than the number
between thirteen and fourteen. Hence, the proportion of the
inhabitants who are of an age to benefit by polytechnics and
continuation schools is in London exceptionally large. It
would not be right for Londoners to complain that there is thus
cast upon them the duty of providing suitable instruction for so
many immigrants, for if the great city drains the rural districts
of some of their best brain and muscle, she gains much from
their industry and productive power. The figures, however,
point to the necessity for taking every means possible to
raise the standard, both physical and intellectual, of the
London boy. The immigration into London of youths and
young men means to a great extent the substitution of the
provincially trained improver or artisan for the less fit London
boy, who consequently falls into the ranks of the unskilled,
then of the unemployed and ultimately of the unemployable.
But it follows from the particulars thus given that neither
the supply of suitable provision for mental improvement and
rational recreation for the wage-earning classes, nor the demand
for such provision on the part of the workers themselves is
commensurate with the moral and intellectual needs of a com-
munity of nearly seven millions of people (four and a half
millions within the administrative county). The provision in
evening schools, institutes, classes and polytechnics is still in
some respects far inferior to that which is to be found in most
German and Swiss towns, and needs to be greatly increased.
In matters relating to the higher life, demand does not always
precede supply; it is simply which is needed not only to satisfy
the public demand, but to create it. As new and well-devised
opportunities for mental culture are placed within reach,
they will be more and more appreciated, new and healthier
appetites will be stimulated, the art of employing leisure
wisely and happily will be more systematically studied, and the
polytechnics will become still more important centres of
civilizing and educating influence than they have hitherto
been.
In particular, the reconstituted university of London has
been placed in new and most helpful relation to the best of the
polytechnics. By the statutes the senate of the university is
empowered to include in the list of " schools of the university "
all institutions which are duly equipped and able to furnish
suitable instruction of an advanced and scholarly type; and
also to recognize all thoroughly qualified professors in their
several faculties and subjects as " teachers of the university,"
although some of their' classes may meet in the evening only,
and no student is to be prevented from taking a degree as an
internal student of the university solely because he can attend
classes only in the evening. There is thus a way open for the
due recognition of the polytechnics as part of the teaching
machinery of the university, and for the admission of the best
students as undergraduates, with all the rights of internal
students. The great possibilities of the metropolitan univer-
sity under its new conditions were at first hardly revealed or
accurately foreseen. But there were during the session 1906-1907
no less than eighty-six recognized " teachers of the university "
on the staffs of the London polytechnics and more than 750
students who were working for London University degrees
in the polytechnic classes. There is no reason to fear that
the recreative, social, manual and industrial training, to which
at first the special attention of the founder of the Regent Street
Polytechnic was directed, will suffer from a fuller expansion
of the academic and literary side of " polytechnic " life. Rather
it may be hoped that the due co-ordination of the practical with
the purely intellectual purposes of these institutions will serve
to give to all the students, whatever their future destination
may be, a truer and broader conception of the value of mental
culture for its own sake.
POLYXENA POLYZOA
See also a paper by Mr Sidney Webb, The London Polytechnic
Institutes, in the second volume of special reports on educational
subjects (1898) issued by the Education Department; the Report
of the Central Governing Body of the London Parochial Charities;
the Annual Reports of the London County Council; the Polytechnic
Magazine, published from time to time at the institute in Regent
Street; and various memoirs and papers contained in the Proceed-
ings of the International Congress on Technical Education (1897),
especially two that by Mr Quintin Hogg, detailing his own early
experience in founding the first polytechnic, and that of Dr William
Garnett, then secretary of the Technical Education Board.
(J.G.F.-.W.G.)
POLYXENA, in Greek legend, daughter of Priam, king of
Troy, and Hecuba. She had been betrothed to Achilles, who
was slain by Paris in the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, where
the marriage was to have been celebrated (Hyginus, Fab. no).
The shade of Achilles afterwards appeared to the returning
Greeks in the Thracian Chersonese and demanded the sacrifice
of Polyxena, who was put to death by Neoptolemus, son of
Achilles, on his father's grave (Ovid, Metam. xiii. 440 sqq.).
The tragic story is the subject of the Hecuba of Euripides, the
Troades of Seneca and the Polyxena of Sophocles, of which only
a few fragments remain. According to Philostratus (Heroica,
20, 18), Polyxena fled to the Greeks after the murder of Achilles
and committed suicide on his tomb.
POLYZOA, in zoology, a term (introduced by J. V. Thompson,
1830) synonymous with Bryozoa (Ehrenberg, 1831) for a group
commonly included with the Brachiopoda in the Molluscoidea
(Milne Edwards, 1843). The correctness of this association is
questionable, and the Polyzoa are here treated as a primary
division or phylum of the animal kingdom. They may be
denned as aquatic animals, forming colonies by budding; with
ciliated retractile tentacles and a U-shaped alimentary canal.
The phylum is subdivided as follows.
Class I. ENTOPROCTA (Nitsche). Lophopbore circular, in-
cluding both mouth and anus. Tentacles infolded, during
retraction, into a vestibule which can be
closed by a sphincter. Body-wall not
calcified, body-cavity absent. Definite
excretory organs present. Reproductive
organs with ducts leading to the vesti-
bule. Zooids possessing a high degree
of individuality. Loxosoma Pedicellina
(fig. i), Ur.iatella.
Class II. ECTOPROCTA (Nitsche).
Lophophore circular or horseshoe
shaped, including the mouth but not
the anus. Tentacles retractile into an
introvert (" tentacle-sheath "). Body-
wall membranous or calcified, body-
cavity distinct. Specific excretory
organs absent, with the doubtful excep-
tion of the Phylactolaemata. Repro-
ductive organs not continuous with ducts.
Zooids usually connected laterally with
their neighbours.
Order i. GYMNOLAEMATA (Allman).
(After van Beneden.) Lophophore circular, with no epistome.
FIG. I. Part of the Body-cavities of zooids not continuous
creeping stolon, with with one another. Body-wall not muscular,
zooids, of Pedicellina Sub-order i. TREPOSTOMATA (Ulrich);
belgica. Fossil. Zooecia, long and coherent, pris-
a c, Stalks of zooids matic or cylindrical, with terminal orifices,
of 'different ages; b, their wall thin and simple in structure
bud ' proximally, thickened and complicated
distally. Cavity of the zooecium subdivided
by transverse diaphragms, most numerous in the distal portion.
Orifices of the zooecia often separated by pores (mesopores).
Sub-order 2. CRYPTOSTOMATA (Vine); Fossil. Zooecia usually
short. Orifice concealed at the bottom of a vestibular shaft, sur-
rounded by a solid or vesicular calcareous deposit.
Sub-order 3. CYCLOSTOMATA (Busk). Zooecia prismatic or
cylindrical, with terminal, typically circular orifice, not protected
by any special organ. The ovicells are modified zooecia, and
contain numerous embryos which in the cases so far investigated
arise by fission of a primary embryo developed from an egg. Crisia
(fig. 2), Tubulipora, Hornera, Lichenopora.
Sub-order &. CTENOSTOMATA (Busk). Zooecia with soft uncalci-
fied 1 walls, the external part of the introvert being closed during
retraction by a membranous collar. Zooecia either arising from
a stolon, without lateral connexion with one another, or laterally
united to form sheets. Alcyonidium, Flustrella, Bowerbankia
(fig. 3), Farrella, Victorella, Paludicella.
(After Hincks.)
FIG. 2. Part of a Branch of Crisia eburnea.
g, zooecia ; x, imperfectly developed ovicell.
Sub-order 5. CHEILOSTOMATA (Busk). Zooecia with more or
less calcified walls. Orifice closed by a lid-like operculum. Poly-
morphism usually occurs, certain individuals having the form of
avicularia or vibracula. The
ovicells commonly found as
globular swellings surmounting
the orifices are not direct
modifications of zooecia, and
each typically contains a single
egg or embryo. Membranipora,
Flustra, Onychocella, Lunu-
lites, Steganoporella, Scrupo-
cellaria, Menipea, Caberea,
Bicettaria, Bugula, Beania,
(After Hincks.) (After Hincks.)
FIG. 3. Part of a branch of FIG. 4. Zooecia of Umbonula
Bowerbankia pustulosa, showing payonella, showing a pair of
the thread-like stolon from which minute avicularia on either side
arise young and mature zooecia. of the orifice of each zooecium.
The tentacles are expanded in
some of the latter.
Membraniporetta, Cribrilina, Cellaria, Micropora, Selenaria, Um-
bonula (fig. 4), Lepralia, Schizoporella, Cellepora, Mucronella,
Smittia, Retepora, Catenicella, Microporella, Adeona.
Order 2. PHYLACTOLAEMATA (Allman). Lophophore horse-shoe
shaped, or in Fredericella circular. Mouth guarded by an epistome.
Body-cavities of zooids continuous with one another. Body-wall
uncalcified and muscular. Reproduction sexual and by means of
" statoblasts," peculiar internal buds protected by a chitinous shell.
Fredericella, Plumatella (fig. 5), Lophopus, Cristalella, Pectinalella.
Hatschek (1888) treated the Entoprocta as a division of his
group Scolecida, characterized by the possession of a primary
body-cavity and of protonephridia; while he placed the Ecto-
procta, with the Phoronida and Brachiopoda, in a distinct group,
the Tentaculata. Against this view may be urged the essential
similarity between the processes of budding in Entoprocta and
Ectoprocta (cf. Seeliger, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xlix. 168; 1., 560),
and the resemblances in the development of the two classes.
Of the forms above indicated there is no palaeontological evidence
with regard to the Entoprocta. The Trepostomata are in the
main Palaeozoic, although Heteropora, of which recent species exist,
is placed by Gregory in this division. The Cryptostomata are also
Palaeozoic, and include the abundant and widely-distributed
genus Fenestella. The Cyclostomata are numerous in Palaeozoic
rocks, but attained a specially predominant position in the Creta-
ceous strata, where they are represented by a profusion of genera
and species; while they still survive in considerable numbers at
the present day. The Ctenostomata are ill adapted for preserva-
tion as fossils, though remains referred to this group have been
1 Calcareous spicules have been described by Lomas in Alcyoni-
dium gelatinosum.
POLYZOA
43
(After AUman.)
on
shaped
phore;
Ectocyst ;
lopho-
described from Palaeozoic strata. They constitute a small proportion
of the recent Polyzoa. The Cheilostomata are usually believed to
have made their appearance in the Jurassic period. They are the
dominant group at the present day, and
are represented by a large number of
genera and species. The Phylactolaemata
are a small group confined to fresh water,
and possess clear indications of adaptation
to that habitat. The fresh-water fauna
also contains a representative of the
Entoprocta (Urnatella), two or three
Ctenostornes, such as Victorella and Palu-
dicella, and one or two species of Cheilo-
stomata. With these exceptions, the
existing Polyzoa are marine forms, occur-
ring from between tide-marks to abyssal
depths in the ocean.
The Polyzoa are colonial animals, the
colony (zoarium) originating in most
cases from a free-swimming larva, which
attaches itself to some solid object and
becomes metamorphosed into the primary
individual, or ancestrula." In the
Phylactolaemata, however, a new colony
may originate not only from a larva, but
also from a peculiar form of bud known
as a statoblast, or by the fission of a
fully-developed colony. The ancestrula
inaugurates a process of budding, con-
FIG. 5. Zpoid of tinued by its progeny, and thus gives
Plumatella, with ex- rise to the mature colony. In Loxosoma
panded tentacles. the buds break off as soon as they become
a, Anus; mature, and a colonial form is thus hardly
br. Tentacles, arranged assumed. In other Entoprocta the buds
a horseshoe retain a high degree of individuality, a
thread-like stolon giving off the cylindrical
stalks, each of which dilates at its end
into the body of a zooid. In some of the
, Caecum of stomach. Ctenostomata the colony is similarly
constituted, a branched stolon giving
off the zooids, which are not connected with one another. In
the majority of Ectoprocta there is no stolon, the zooids growing
out of one another and being usually apposed so as to form con-
tinuous sheets or branches. In the encrusting type, which is
found in a large proportion of the genera, the zooids are usually
in a single layer, with their orifices facing away from the sub-
stratum; but in certain species the colony becomes multilaminar
by the continued superposition of new zooids over the free surfaces
of the older ones, whose orifices they naturally occlude. The
zoarium may rise up into erect growths composed of a single layer
of zooids, the orifices of which are all on one surface, or of two layers
of zooids placed back to back, with the orifices on both sides of
the fronds or plates. The rigid Cheilostomes which have this
habit were formerly placed in the genus Eschara, but the bilaminar
type is common to a number of genera, and there can be no doubt
that it is not in itself an indication of affinity. The body-wall is
extensively calcified in the Cyclostomata and in most Cheilo-
stomata, which may form elegant network-like colonies, as in the
unilaminar genus Retepora, or may consist of wavy anastomosing
plates, as in the bilaminar Lepralia foliacea of the British coasts,
specimens of which may have a diameter of many inches. In
other Cheilostomes the amount of calcification may be much less,
the supporting skeleton being largely composed of the organic
material chitin. In Flustra and other forms belonging to this
type, the zoarium is accordingly flexible, and either bilaminar
or unilaminar. In many calcareous forms, both Cheilostomes and
Cyclqstomes, the zoarium is rendered flexible by the interposition
of chitinous joints at intervals. This habit is characteristic of the
genera Crisia, Ccllaria, Catenicella and others, while it occurs in
certain species of other genera. The form of the colony may thus
be a good generic character, or, on the contrary, a single genus or
even species may assume a variety of different forms. While
nearly all Polyzoa are permanently fixed to one spot, the colonies
of Cristatella and Lophopus among the Phylactolaemata can crawl
slowly from place to place.
Anatomy. The zooids of which the colonies of Ectoprocta are
composed consist of two parts: the body- wall and the visceral
mass (figs. 6, 9). These were at one time believed to represent
two individuals of different kinds, together constituting a zooid.
The visceral mass was accordingly termed the " polypide " and
the body-wall which contains it the " zpoecium." This view
depended principally on the fact that the life of the polypide anc
of the zooecium are not coextensive. It is one of the most re-
markable facts in the natural history of the Polyzoa that a single
zooecium may be tenanted by several polypides, which successively
degenerate. The periodical histolysis may be partly due to the
absence of specific excretory organs and to the accumulation o
pigmented excretory substances in the wall of the alimentary
canal. On the degeneration of the polypide, its nutritive materia
is apparently absorbed for the benefit of the zooid, while the pig
mented substances assume a spheroidal form, which either remains
as an inert " brown body " in the body-cavity or is discharged to
.he exterior by the alimentary canal of the new polypide. This
s formed as a two-layered " polypide-bud," which usually develops
rom the inner side of the zooecial wall, and soon occupies the place
of the previous polypide. The inner layer of the polypide-bud
;ives rise to the structures usually regarded as ectodermic and
:ndodermic, the outer layer to the mesodermic organs.
The polypide consists of a " lophophore " bearing a series of
ciliated tentacles by which Diatoms and other microscopic bodies
are collected as food, of a U-shaped alimentary canal, and of a
central nervous system. While the mouth is invariably encircled
jy the bases of the tentacles, the anus lies within the series in the
intoprocta and outside it in the Ectoprocta. The lophophore is
a simple circle in all Polyzoa except in the Phylactolaemata, where
t typically has the form of a horse shoe outlined by the bases of
the tentacles. In Fredericella belonging to this order it is, however,
:ircular, but the systematic position of the genus is sufficiently
ndicated by its possession of an " epistome," a lip-like structure
guarding the anal side of the mouth in all Phylactolaemata and
absent throughout the Gymnolaemata. The cavities of the hollow
tentacles open into a circular canal which surrounds the oesophagus
at the base of the lophophore. This is continuous with the general
Dody-cavity in the Phylactolaemata, while in the Gymnolaemata
t develops in the bud as a part of the body-cavity, from which
it becomes completely separated. In the Entoprocta the tentacles
are withdrawn by being infolded into the " vestibule," a depression
of the oral surface which can be closed by a sphincter muscle. In
the Ectoprocta they are retractile into an introvert, the " tentacle-
sheath " (fig. 9), the external opening of which is the " orifice " of
the zooecium. In the Cyclostomata, further distinguished by the
cylindrical or prismatic form of their highly calcified zoeecia, the
orifice is typically circular, without any definite closing organ.
In the Cheilostomata it is closed by a chitinous (rarely calcareous)
" operculum " (fig. 9, C), while in the Ctenostomata it is guarded
by a delicate membrane similar to a piece of paper rolled into a
longitudinally creased cylinder. During retraction this " collar "
lies concealed in the beginning of the introvert. It becomes visible
when the polypide begins to
protrude its tentacles, making
its appearance, through the
orifice as a delicate hyaline
frill through which the ten-
tacles are pushed.
In the Phylactolaemata the
outermost layer of the body-
wall is a flexible, uncalcified
cuticle or " ectocyst," be-
neath which follow in suc-
cession the ectoderm, the
muscular layers and the
coelomic epithelium. In a
few Gymnolaemata the ec-
tocyst is merely chitinous,
although in most cases the
four vertical walls and the
basal wall of the zooecium
are calcareous. The free
(frontal) wall may remain
membranous and uncalcified,
as in Membranipora (figs.
8 A, 9 A), but in many
Cheilostomes the frontal
surface is protected by a cal-
careous shield, which grows
from near the free edges of
the vertical walls and com-
monly increases in thickness
as the zooecium grows older
by the activity of the " epi-
theca," a layer of living
tissue outside it. The body-
wall is greatly simplified in
the Gymnolaemata, in cor-
relation with the functional
importance of the skeletal
part of the wall. Even the
ectoderm can rarely be recog-
nized as an obvious epithe-
lium except in regions where
budding is taking place, while
muscular layers are always
absent and a coelomic epi-
thelium can seldom be ob-
served. The body-cavity is,
however, traversed by mus-
of Paludicella
ehrenbergi).
(After Allman.)
FIG. 6. Zooid
articidata ( =
a, Anus.
br, Expanded tentacles.
i, Ectocyst.
m, r', Parietovaginal muscles.
mr, Retractor muscle.
Ovary.
Oesophagus.
Caecum of stomach.
testis.
Funiculi.
o,
oe,
v,
iiuwcvtif iidvci acvi uy niua~ *
cles, and by strands of meso- ^ .
dermic " funicular tissue,"
usually irregular, but sometimes constituting definite funiculi (fig.
6, x, x'). This tissue is continuous from zooecium to zooecium
44
POLYZOA
through perforated " rosette-plates " in the dividing walls. In
the Phylactolaemata a single definite funiculus passes from the body-
wall to the apex of the stomach. This latter organ is pigmented
in all Polyzoa, and is produced, in the Ectoprocta, beyond the
point where the intestine leaves it into a conspicuous caecum
(fig. 6, ). The nervous system is represented by a ganglion
situated between the mouth and the anus. The ovary (o) and
the testis (/) of Ectoprocta are developed on the body-wall, on the
stomach, or on the funiculus. Both kinds of reproductive organs
may occur in a single zooecium, and the reproductive elements pass
when ripe into the body-cavity. Their mode of escape is unknown
in most cases. In some Gymnolaemata, polypides which develop
an ovary possess a flask-shaped " intertentacular organ," situated
between two of the tentacles, and affording a direct passage into the
introvert for the eggs or even the spermatozoa developed in the same
zooecium. In other cases the reproductive cells perhaps pass out by
the atrophy of the polypide, whereby the body-cavity may become
continuous with the exterior. The statoblasts of the Phylactolaemata
originate on the funiculus, and are said to be derived partly from an
ectodermic core possessed by this organ and partly from its external
mesoderm (Braem), the former giving rise to the chitinous envelope
and to a nucleated layer (fig. 7, ect), which later invaginates to form
the inner vesicle of the polypide-bud. The mesodermic portion
becomes charged with a yolk-like material (y), and, on the germina-
tion of the statoblast, gives rise to the outer layer (mes) of the bud.
The production of a polypide by the statoblast thus differs in no
essential respect from the formation of a polypide in an ordinary
zooecium. The statoblasts require a period of rest before germina-
tion, and Braem has shown that their property of floating at the
surface may be beneficial to them by exposing them to the action
of frost, which in some
cases improves the ger-
ger-
The
(After Braem.)
FIG. 7. Section of a Germinating
Statoblast of Cristatella mucedo.
ann, Chitinous annulus, containing air-
cavities which enable the stato-
blast to float.
ect. Thickened part of the ectoderm,
occurrence of Phylac-
tolaemata in the tropics
would show, however,
without further evidence,
that frost is not a factor
essential for germination.
The withdrawal of the
extended polypide is
effected by the contrac-
tion of the retractor
muscles (fig. 6, mr), and
must result in an in-
crease in the volume of
the contents of the body-
which will give rise to the inner cavity. The alternate
layer of the polypide- bud. increase and diminution
mes, Mesoderm, forming the outer layer of volume is easily under-
sp,
y,
of the bud.
Anchoring spines of the statoblast.
The yolk-like mesodermic mass.
stood in forms with flex-
ible zooecia. Thus in the
Phylactolaemata the con-
traction of the muscular
body-wall exerts a pressure on the fluid of the body-cavity and is
the cause of the protrusion of the polypide. In the Gymno-
laemata protrusion is effected by the contraction of the parietal
muscles, which pass freely across the body-cavity from one part
of, the body-wall to another. In the branching Ctenostomes the
entire body-wall is flexible, so that the contraction of a parietal
muscle acts equally on the two points with which it is connected.
In encrusting Ctenostomes and in the Membranipora-\ike Cheilo-
stomes (figs. 8 A, 9 A) the free surface or frontal wall is the only
one in which any consider-
able amount of movement
can take place. The parie-
tal muscles (p.m.), which
pass from the vertical walls
to the frontal wall, thus
act by depressing the latter
and so exerting a pressure
on the fluid of the body-
cavity. In Cheilostomata
with a rigid frontal wall
Jullien showed that pro-
trusion and retraction were
rendered possible by the
existence of a "compensa-
FlG. 8. Diagrammatic Transverse
Sections.
A, of Membranipora; B, of an
immature zooecium of Cribrilina;
p.m., Parietal muscles.
tion-sac," in communication with the external water.
In its most fully-developed condition (fig. 9, C) the compensation-
sac (c.s.) is a large cavity which lies beneath the calcified frontal
wall and opens to the exterior at the proximal border of the oper-
culum (fig. 10). It is joined to the rigid body-wall by numerous
muscle-fibres, the contraction of which must exert a pressure on
the fluid of the body-cavity, thereby protruding the polypide.
The exchange of fluid in the sac may well have a respiratory signifi-
cance, in addition to its object of facilitating the movements of
the tentacles.
The evolution of the arrangements for protruding the polypide
seems to have proceeded along several distinct lines: (i.) In certain
species of Membranipora the " frontal membrane," or membranous
free-wall, is protected by a series of calcareous spines, which start
from its periphery and arch inwards. In Cribrilina similar spines
p.m
f.m. cr.
FIG. 9. Diagrammatic Longitudinal Sections of Cheilostomatous
Zooecia.
A, Membranipora (after Nitsche) ; B, Cribrilina; C, Some
of the Lepralioid forms, b.c., Body-cavity, cr., Cryptocyst. t.s.,
Compensation-sac, f.m., Frontal membrane, o., Orifice, through
which the tentacles are protruded, op., Operculum. p.m.. Parietal
muscles, t.s., Tentacle-sheath.
op,.
FIG. 10. Zooecium
are developed in the young zooecium, but they soon unite with one
another laterally, leaving rows of pores along the sutural lines
(fig. 10). The operculum retains its
continuity with the frontal membrane
(fig. 9, B) into which the parietal muscles
are still inserted. As indications that
the conditions described in Membranipora
and Cribrilina are of special significance
may be noted the fact that the ancestrula
of many genera which have well-developed
compensation-sacs in the rest of their
zooecia is a Membranipora-\i\ie individual
with a series of marginal calcareous spines,
and the further fact that a considerable
proportion of the Cretaceous Cheilos-
tomes belong either to the Membrani-
poridae or to the Cribrilinidae. (ii.) In
Scrupocellaria, Menipea and Cohered a
single, greatly dilated marginal spine, the
" scutum " or " fornix," may protect the , p "?-., .]?
frontal membrane. (iii.) In Umbonula Cnbnlina, showing
the frontal membrane and parietal the entra . n ce to the
muscles of the young zooecium are like compensation -sac on
those of Membranipora, but they become the Primal side of the
covered by the growth, from the proximal operculum (op).
and lateral sides, of a calcareous lamina covered externally
by a soft membrane. The arrangement is perhaps derivable
from a Cribrilina-\ike condition in which the outer layer of the
spines has become membranous while the spines themselves are
laterally united from the first, (iv.) In the Microporidae and
Steganoporellidae the body-cavity becomes partially subdivided
by a calcareous lamina (" cryptpcyst," Jullien) which grows from
the proximal and lateral sides in a plane parallel to the frontal
membrane and not far below it. The parietal muscles are usually
reduced to a single pair, which may pass through foramina
("opesiules ") in the cryptocyst to reach their insertion. There is
no compensation-sac in these families, (v.) Many of the Lepralioid
forms offer special difficulties, but the calcareous layer of the frontal
surface is probably a cryptocyst (as in fig. 9, C), the compensation-
sac being developed round its distal border. The " epitheca "
noticed above is in this case the persistent frontal membrane,
(vi.) In Microporella the opening of the compensation-sac has
become separated from the operculum by calcareous matter, and
is known as the " median pore." Jullien believed that this pore
opens into the tentacle-sheath, but it appears probable that it really
communicates with the compensation-sac and not with the tentacle-
sheath. The mechanism of protrusion in the Cyclostomata is a
subject which requires further examination.
The most singular of the external appendages found in the
Polyzoa are the avicularia and vibracula of the Cheilostomata.
The avicularium is so called from its resemblance, in its most
highly differentiated condition, to the head of a bird. In Bugula,
for instance, a calcareous avicularium of this type is attached by
a narrow'neck to each zooecium. The avicularium can move as
a whole by means of special muscles, and its chitinous lower iaw
POLYZOA
45
or " mandible " can be opened and closed. It is regarded as a
modified zooecium, the polypide of which has become vestigial,
although it is commonly represented by a sense-organ, bearing
tactile hairs, situated on what may be termed the palate. The
operculum of the normal zooecium has become the mandible,
while the occlusor muscles have become enormous. In the vibra-
culum the part representing the zooecium is relatively smaller,
and the mandible has become the " seta," an elongated chitinous
lash which projects far beyond the zooecial portion of the structure.
In Caberea, the vibracula are known to move synchronously, but
co-ordination of this kind is otherwise unknown in the Polyzoa.
The avicularia and vibracula give valuable aid to the systematic
study of the Cheilostomatu. In its least differentiated form the
avicularium occupies the place of an ordinary zooecium (" vicarious
avicularium "), from which it is distinguished by the greater
development of the operculum and its muscles, while the polypide
is normally not functional. Avicularia of this type occur in the
common Flustra foliacea, in various species of Membranipora, and
in particular in the Onychocellidae, a remarkable family common
in the Cretaceous period and still existing. In the majority of
Cheilostomes, the avicularia are, so to speak, forced out of the
ordinary series of zooecia, with which they are rigidly connected.
There are comparatively few cases in which, as in Bugula, they are
mounted on a movable joint. Although at first sight the arrange-
ment of the avicularia in Cheilostomes appears to follow no general
law some method is probably to be made out on closer study.
They occur in particular in relation with the orifice of the zooecium,
and with that of the compensation-sac. This delicate structure
is frequently guarded by an avicularium at its entrance, while
avicularia are also commonly found on either side of the operculum
or in other positions close to that structure. It can hardly be doubted
that the function of these avicularia is the protection of the ten-
tacles and compensation-sac. The suggestion that they are concerned
in feeding does not rest on any definite evidence, and is probably
erroneous. But avicularia or vibracula may also occur in other
places on the backs of unilaminar erect forms, along the sutural
lines of the zooecia and on their frontal surface. These are probably
important in checking overgrowth by encrusting organisms, and
in particular by preventing larvae from fixing on the zoarium.
Vibracula are of less frequent occurrence than avicularia, with which
they may coexist as in Scrupocellaria, where they occur on the
backs of the unilaminar branches. In the so-called Selenariidae,
probably an unnatural association of genera which have assumed
a free discoidal form of zoarium, they may reach a very high degree
of development, but Busk's suggestion that in this group they
" may be subservient to locomotion " needs verification.
Development and Affinities. It is generally admitted that the
larva of the Entoprocta (fig. n) has the structure of a Trocho-
sphere. This appears to indicate
that the Polyzoa are remotely
allied to other phyla in which
this type of larva prevails, and
in particular to the Mollusca and
Chaetopoda, as well as to the
Rotifera, which are regarded as
persistent Trochospheres. The
praeoral portion (lower in fig. n)
constitutes the greater part of
the larva and contains most of
the viscera. It is terminated by
a well-daveloped structure (Jg)
corresponding with the apical
sense-organ of ordinary Trocho-
spheres, and an excretory organ
(nph) of the type familiar in
these larvae occurs on the ventral
side of the stomach. The central
nervous system (x) is highly
devejoped, and in Loxosoma bears
a pair of eyes. The larva swims
by a ring of cilia, which corre-
sponds with the praeoral circlet
of a Trochosphere. The oral
surface, on which are situated
the mouth (m) and anus (a), is
relatively small. The apical sense-
organ is used for temporary attach-
ment to the maternal vestibule in
which development takes place,
but permanent fixation is effected
by the oral surface. This is followed by the atrophy of many of the
larval organs, including the brain, the sense-organ and the ciliated
ring. The alimentary canal persists and revolves in the median
plane through an angle of 180, accompanied by part of the larval
vestibule, the space formed by the retraction of the oral surface.
The vestibule breaks through to the exterior, and the tentacles,
which have been developed within it, are brought into relation
with the external water.
In the common and widely-distributed Cheilostome, Membrani-
(After Hatschek.)
FIG. ii. Larva of Pedicellina.
a, Anus.
fg. Apical sense-organ.
hg, Intestine.
/, Ventral wall of stomach.
m. Mouth.
nph, Excretory organ.
x, /Brain.
pora pilosa, the pelagic larva is known as Cyphonautes, and it has
a structure not unlike that of the larval Pedtcellina. The principal
differences are the complication of the ciliated band, the absence of
the excretory organ, the great lateral compression of the body,
the possession of a pair of shells protecting the sides, the presence
of an organ known as the " pyriform organ," and the occurrence
of a sucker in a position corresponding with the depression seen
between (m) and (a) in fig. n. Fixation takes place by means of
this sucker, which is everted for the purpose, part of its epithelium
becoming the basal ectoderm of the ancestrula. The pyriform
organ has probably assisted the larva to find an appropriate place
for fixation (cf. Kupelwieser, 1 8); but, like the alimentary canal
and most of the other larval organs, it undergoes a process of histo-
lysis, and the larva becomes the ancestrula, containing the primary
brown body derived from the purely larval organs. The polypide is
formed, as in an ordinary zooecium after the loss of its polypide,
from a polypide-bud.
The Cyphonaules type has been shown by Prouho (24) to occur
in two or three widely different species of Cheilostomata and Cteno-
stomata in which the eggs are laid and develop in the external
water. In most Ectoprocta, however, the development takes place
internally or in an ovicell, and a considerable quantity of yolk is
present. The alimentary canal, which may be represented by a
vestigial structure, is accordingly not functional, and the larva
does not become pelagic. A pyriform organ is present in most
Gymnolaemata as well as the sucker by which fixation is effected.
As in the case of Cyphonautes, the larval organs degenerate and
the larva becomes the ancestrula from which a polypide is developed
as a bud. In the Cyclostomata the primary embryo undergoes
repeated fission without developing definite organs, and each of
the numerous pieces so formed becomes a free larva, which possesses
no alimentary canal. Finally, in the Phylactolaemata, the larva
becomes an ancestrula before it is hatched, and one or several
polypides may be present when fixation is effected.
The development of the Ectoprocta is intelligible on the hypo-
thesis that the Entoprocta form the starting-point of the series.
On the view that the Phylactolaemata are nearly related to Phoronis
(see PHORONIDEA), it is extremely difficult to draw any conclusions
with regard to the significance of the facts of development. If the
Phylactolaemata were evolved from the type of structure repre-
sented by Phoronis or the Pterobranchia (?..), the Gymnolaemata
should be a further modification of this type, and the comparative
study of the embryology of the two orders would appear to be
meaningless. It seems more natural to draw the conclusion that
the resemblances of the Phylactolaemata to Phoronis are devoid
of phylogenetic significance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general accounts of the structure and
development of the Polyzoa the reader's attention is specially
directed to 12, 14, 6, 25, I, 2, 17, 26, 18, 23, 3, in the list given below;
for an historical account to I ; for a full bibliography of the group,
to 22; for fresh-water forms, to 1-3, 7-10, 17; for an indispensable
synonymic list of recent marine forms, to 15; for Entoprocta, to
10, II, 24; for the classification of Gymnolaemata, to 21, 14, 4,
13, 20; for Palaeontology, to 27, 22.
References to important works on the species of marine Polyzoa
by Busk, Hincks, Jullien, Levinsen, MacGillivray, Nordgaard,
Norman, Waters and others are given in the Memoir (22) by Nickles
and Bassler. (i) Allman, " Monogr. Fresh-water Polyzoa," Ray
Soc. (1856). (2) Braem, " Bry. d. siissen Wassers," Bibl. Zool.
Bd. ii. Heft 6 (1890). (3) Braem, " Entwickel. v. Plumatella,"
ibid., Bd. x. Heft 23 (1897). (4) Busk, " Report on the Polyzoa,"
" Challenger " Rep. pt. xxx. (1884), 50 (1886). (5) Caldwell, " Phoro-
nis," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1883), xxxiv. 371. (6) Calvet, " Bry. Ecto-
proctes Marins," Trav. Inst. Montpellier (new series), Mem.
8 (1900). (7) Cori, " Nephridien d. Cristatella," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.
(1893), Iv. 626. (8) Davenport, " Cristatella," Bull. Mus. Harvard
(1890-1 891), xx. 101. (9) Davenport, " Paludicetta," ibid. (1891-1892),
xxii. i. (10) Davenport, " Urnatella," ibid. (1893), xxiv. i. (ii)
Ehlers, " Pedicellineen," Abh. Ges. Gottingen (1890), xxxvi. (12)
Harmer, " Polyzoa," Cambr. Nat. Hist. (1896), ii. 463; art. " Poly-
zoa," Ency. Brit. (loth ed., 1902), xxxi. 826. (13) Harmer,
" Morph. Cheilostomata," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1903), xlvi.
263. (14) Hincks, " Hist. Brit. Mar. Pol." (1880). (15) Jelly,
" Syn. Cat. Recent Mar. Bry." (1889). (16) Jullien and Calvet,
" Bryozoaires," Res camp. set. prince de Monaco (1903), xxiii. (17)
Kraepelin, " Deutsch. Susswasser-Bry.," Abh, Ver. Hamburg
(1887), x. ; (1892), xii. (18) Kupelwieser, " Cyphonautes," Zoologica
(1906), Bd. xix. Heft 47. (19) Lankester, art. " Polyzoa,"
Ency. Brit, (ath ed., 1885), xix. 429. (20) Levinsen, " Bryozoa,"
Vid. Mead. Naturh. Foren. (Copenhagen, 1902). (21) MacGillivray,
" Cat. Mar. Pol. Victoria," P. Roy. Soc. Victoria (1887), xxiii. 187.
(22) Nickles and Bassler, " Synopsis Amer. Fbss. Bry.," Bull.
U.S. Geol. Survey (1900), No. 173. (23) Pace, " Dev. FlustreUa,"
Quart. Journ. Mtc. Soc. (1906), 50, pt. 3, 435. (24) Prouho, " Loxo-
somes," Arch. Zool. Exp. (2) (1891), ix. 91. (25) Prouho, " Bryo-
zoaires," ibid. (2) (1892), x. 557. (26) Seeliger, " Larven'u. Verwandt-
schaft," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1906), bcxxiv. I. (27) Ulrich,
" Fossil Polvzoa," in Zittel's Text-book of Palaeontology, Eng. ed.
(1900), i. 257- (S. F. H.)
POMADE POMEGRANATE
POMADE, or POMATUM, a scented ointment, used formerly
for softening and beautifying the skin, as a lip-salve, &c., but
now principally applied to the hair. It was made originally
from the juice of apples (Lat. pomum), whence the name.
POMANDER (from Fr. pomme d'ambre, i.e. apple of amber),
a ball made of perfumes, such as ambergris (whence the name),
musk, civet, &c., and formerly worn or carried in a case, also
known by the same name, as a protection against infection in
times of pestilence or merely as a useful article to modify bad
smells. The globular cases which contained the " pomanders "
were hung from a neck-chain or attached to the girdle, and were
usually perforated and made of gold or silver. Sometimes they
contained several partitions, in each of which was placed a
different perfume. There is an early Spanish pomander set
with emeralds, and a fine 16th-century one, dredged from the
Thames, in the British Museum.
POMBAL, SEBASTIAO JOSE DE CARVALHO E MELLO,
MARQUESS OF (1690-1782), Portuguese statesman, was born
at Soure near Pomba, on the I3th of May 1699. He was the
son of Manoel de Carvalho e Athayde, a country gentleman
(fidalgo) and of his wife D. Theresa Luiza de Mendonca e Mello.
He studied law at Coimbra University, served for a short time
as a private in the army, and afterwards lived the life of a man
about town in Lisbon, sharing in the diversions of the " Mohocks "
who then infested the streets. In 1733 he abducted and married
D. Theresa de Noronha, a widow belonging to one of the most
distinguished families in Portugal. He then retired to Soure,
where, on the recommendation of Cardinal de Motta, King John
V. commissioned him to write a series of biographical studies.
In 1739 he was sent as Portuguese ambassador to London, where
he remained until 1745- He was then transferred to Vienna.
His first wife having died on the 7th of January 1739, he married,
on the i8th of December 1745, Leonora Ernestine Daun,
daughter of General Count Daun. In 1749 he was recalled to
take up the post of secretary of state for foreign affairs and war.
The appointment was ratified on the 3rd of August 1750, by King
Joseph, who had succeeded John V. in that year. Carvalho's
career from 1750 to 1777 is part of the history of Portugal.
Though he came into power only in his sist year, without
previous administrative experience, he was able to reorganize
Portuguese education, finance, the army and the navy. He also
built up new industries, promoted the development of Brazil
and Macao, and expelled the Jesuits. His complete ascendancy
over the mind of King Joseph dates from the time of the great
Lisbon earthquake (Nov. i, 1755). Though the famous words
" Bury the dead and feed the living " were probably not spoken
by him, they summarize his action at this time of calamity.
In June 1759 his suppression of the so-called " Tavora plot "
gained for him the title of count of Oeyras; and in September
1770 he was made marquess of Pombal. His severe adminis-
tration had made many enemies, and his life had been attempted
in 1769. Soon after the death of King Joseph, in 1777, Pombal
was dismissed from office; and he was only saved from impeach-
ment by the death of his bitterest opponent, the queen-mother,
Mariana Victoria, in January 1781. On the i6th of August a
royal decree forbade him to reside within twenty leagues of the
court. He died at Pombal on the 8th of May 1782.
See, in addition to the works dealing with the period 1750-1777
and quoted under PORTUGAL: History; S.J.C.M. (Pombal), Relacao
abrewada, &c. (Paris, 1758); Memoirs of the Court of Portugal, &c.
(London, 1765); Anecdotes du minis tere de Pombal (Warsaw, 1781);
Administration du marquis de Pombal (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1787);
Cartes . . . do marques de Pombal (3 vols., Lisbon, 1820-1824) ;
J. Smith, Count of Carnota, Memoirs of the Marquess of Pombal,
&c. (London, 1843); F. L. Gomes, Le Marquis de Pombal, &c.
(Paris, 1869); B. Duhr (S.J.), Pombal, &c. (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1891) ; C. J. de Menezes, Os jesuitas e o marques de Pombal (Oporto,
1893). See also articles in the Revue des deux mondes for September
1870; the Revue bleue for September 1889, and the Revue historique
for September 1895 and January 1896.
POMEGRANATE. The pomegranate (Punica Granatum) is
of exceptional interest by reason of its structure, its history, and
its utility. It forms a tree of small stature, or a bush, with
opposite or alternate, shining, lance-shaped leaves, from the
axils of some of which proceed the brilliant scarlet flowers.
These are raised on a short stalk, and consist of a thick fleshy
cylindrical or bell-shaped calyx-tube, with five to seven short
lobes at the top. From the throat of the calyx proceed five to
FIG. i. Pomegranate, Punica Granatum, flowering branch, half
natural size.
1, Flower cut lengthwise; the 3, Same cut across, showing
petals have been removed. seeds.
2, Fruit, about one-third natural 4, Seed, natural size.
size.
seven roundish, crumpled, scarlet or crimson petals, and below
them very numerous slender stamens. The pistil consists of two
rows of carpels placed one above another, both rows embedded
in, and partially inseparate from, the inner surface of the calyx-
tube. The styles are confluent into one slender column. The
fruit, which usually attains the size of a large orange, consists
A B
(After Eichler, from Strasburger's Lehrbuch da Botaitik, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.)
FIG. 2. Punica Granatum.
A, Floral diagram. B, Longitudinal section of the ovary.
of a hard leathery rind, enclosing a quantity of pulp derived
from the coats of the numerous seeds. This pulp, filled as it is
with refreshing acid juice, constitutes the chief value of the tree.
The more highly cultivated forms contain more of it than the
wild or half-wild varieties. The great structural peculiarity
consists in the presence of the two rows of carpels one above
another (a state of things which occurs exceptionally in apples
and oranges), and in the fact that, while in the lower series the
seeds are attached to the inner border or lower angle of the cavity,
they occupy the outer side in the upper series, as if during growth
the upper whorl had become completely bent over.
By Bentham and Hooker the Punica is included as an anoma-
lous genus in the order Lythraceae; others consider it more
nearly allied to the myrtles; while its peculiarities are so great as,
in the opinion of many botanists, to justify its inclusion in a
POMERANIA
separate order, Punicaceae. Not only is the fruit valuable in
hot countries for the sake of its pulp, but the rind and the bark
and the outer part of the root (containing the alkaloid pelle-
ticrine) are valuable as astringents. The bark of the root is
likewise valued as an anthelmintic in cases of tape-worm.
The tree is wild in Afghanistan, north-western India, and the
districts south and south-west of the Caspian, but it has been so
long cultivated that it is difficult to say whether it is really
native in Palestine and the Mediterranean region. It has been
cited as wild in northern Africa, but this appears to be a mistake.
Professor Bayley Balfour met with a wild species, heretofore un-
known, in the island of Socotra, the flowers of which have only
a single row of carpels, which suggests the inference that it may
have been the source of the cultivated varieties. But, on the other
hand, in Afghanistan, where Aitchison met with the tree truly
wild, a double row of carpels was present as usual. The antiquity
of the tree as a cultivated plant is evidenced by the Sanskrit
name Dddimba, and by the references to the fruit in the Old
Testament, and in the Odyssey, where it is spoken of as cultivated
in the gardens of the kings of Phaeacia and Phrygia. The fruit
is frequently represented on ancient Assyrian and Egyptian
sculptures, and had a religious significance in connexion with
several Oriental cults, especially the Phrygian cult of Cybele
(Arnob. v. 5 seq.; see also Baudissin, Studien, ii. 207 seq.). It
was well known to the Greeks and Romans, who were acquainted
with its medicinal properties and its use as a tanning material.
The name given by the Romans, malum punicum, indicates that
they received it from Carthage, as indeed is expressly stated
by Pliny ; and this circumstance has given rise to the notion that
the tree was indigenous in northern Africa. On a review of the
whole evidence, botanical, literary and linguistic, Alphonse de
Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants) pronounces against its
African origin, and decides in favour of its source in Persia and
the neighbouring countries. According to Saporta, the pomegra-
nate existed in a fossil state in beds of the Pliocene epoch near
Meximieux in Burgundy. The pomegranate is sometimes met
with in cultivation against a wall in England, but it is too tender
to withstand a severe winter. The double-flowered varieties
are specially desirable for the beauty and long duration of their
flowers.
POMERANIA (German, Pommern), a territory of Germany
and a maritime province of Prussia, bounded on the N. by the
Baltic, on the W. by Mecklenburg, on the S. by Brandenburg,
and on the E. by West Prussia. Its area is 11,630 sq. m., and
the population in 1905 was 1,684,125, showing a density of 145
inhabitants to the square mile. The province is officially divided
into the three districts of Stralsund, Stettin and Koslin, but more
historical interest attaches to the names of Vorpommern and
Hinterpommern, or Hither and Farther Pomerania, the former
being applied to the territory to the west, and the latter to that
to the east of the Oder. Pomerania is one of the flattest parts
of Germany, although east of the Oder it is traversed by a range
of low hills, and there are also a few isolated eminences to the
west. Off the west coast, which is very irregular, lie the islands of
Riigen, Usedom and WoUin; the coast of Farther Pomerania is
smooth in outline and is bordered with dunes, or sandbanks.
Besides the Oder and its affluents, the chief of which are the
Peene, the Ucker and the Ihna, there are several smaller rivers
flowing into the Baltic; a few of these are navigable for ships,
but the greater number only carry rafts. Many of them end in
small lakes, which are separated from the sea by narrow strips
of land, through which the water escapes by one or more outlets.
The interior of the province is also thickly sprinkled with lakes,
the combined area of which is equal to about one-twentieth of
the entire surface.
The soil of Pomerania is for the most part thin and sandy,
but patches of good land are found here and there. About 55%
of the whole is under tillage, while 16% consists of meadow and
pasture and 21% is covered by forests. The principal crops are
potatoes, rye and oats, but wheat and barley are grown in the
more fertile districts; tobacco, flax, hops and beetroot are also
cultivated. Agriculture is still carried on in a somewhat
primitive fashion, and as a rule the livestock is of an inferior
quality, though the breed of horses, of a heavy build and mostly
used in agriculture, is held in high esteem. Large flocks of sheep
are kept, both for their flesh and their wool, and there are in the
province large numbers of horned cattle and of pigs. Geese
and goose feathers form lucrative articles of export. Owing
to the long line of coast and the numerous lakes, fishing forms an
important industry, and large quantities of herrings, eels and
lampreys are sent from Pomerania to other parts of Germany.
With the exception of the almost inexhaustible layers of peat,
the mineral wealth of the province is insignificant. Its industrial
activity is not great, but there are manufactures of machinery,
chemicals, paper, tobacco and sugar; these are made chiefly
in or near the large towns, while linen-weaving is practised as a
domestic industry. Ship-building is carried on at Stettin and at
several places along the coast. The commerce of Pomerania
is in a flourishing condition, its principal ports being Stettin,
Stralsund and Swinemiinde. Education is provided for by a
university at Greifswald and by numerous schools. The province
sends 14 members to the German Reichstag, and 26 to the Prussian
house of representatives. The heir to the Prussian crown bears
the title of governor of Pomerania.
History. In prehistoric times the southern coast of the Baltic
seems to have been occupied by Celts, who afterwards made way
for tribes of Teutonic stock. These in their turn migrated to
other settlements and were replaced, about the end of the 5th
century of our era, by Slavonic tribes, the Wilzi and the Pomerani.
The name of Pomore, or Pommern, meaning " on the sea," was
given to the district by the latter of the tribes about the time of
Charlemagne, and it has often changed its political and geo-
graphical significance. Originally it seems to have denoted the
coast district between the Oder and the Vistula, a territory
which was at first more or less dependent on Poland, but which,
towards the end of the i2th century, was ruled by two native
princes, who took the title of duke about 1 1 70 and admitted the
authority of the German king in 1181. Afterwards Pomerania
extended much farther to the west, while being correspondingly
curtailed on the east, and a distinction was made between
Slavinia, or modern Pomerania, and Pomerellen. The latter,
corresponding substantially to the present province of West
Prussia, remained subject to Poland until 1309, when it was
divided between Brandenburg and the Teutonic Order.
Christianity was introduced in the izth century, a bishopric
being founded in the Island of Wollin, and its advance went
rapidly hand in hand with the Germanizing of the district.
The history of Pomerania, as distinct from that of Pomerellen,
consists mainly of an almost endless succession of divisions of
territory among the different lines of the ducal house, and of
numerous expansions and contractions of territory through
constant hostilities with the elector of Brandenburg, who
claimed to be the immediate feudal superior of Pomerania,
and with other neighbouring rulers. The names of Vorpom-
mern and Hinterpommern were at first synonymous with
Pomerania proper, or Slavinia and Pomerellen, but towards
the close of the i4th century they were transferred to the two
duchies into which the former was divided. In 1625 the
whole of Pomerania became united under the sway of Duke
Bogislaus XIV., and on his death without issue, in 1637, Branden-
burg claimed the duchy by virtue of a compact made in 1571.
In the meantime, however, Pomerania had been devastated
by the Thirty Years' War and occupied by the Swedes, who had
taken possession of its towns and fortresses. At the peace of
Westphalia they claimed the duchy, in opposition to the elector
of Brandenburg, and the result was that the latter was obliged to
content himself with eastern Pomerania (Hinterpommern), and
to see the western part (Vorpommern) awarded to Sweden. In
1720, by the peace of Stockholm, Swedish Pomerania was cur-
tailed by extensive concessions to Prussia, but the district to the
west of the Peene remained in the possession of Sweden until the
general European settlement of 1815. Then Sweden assigned
her German possessions to Denmark in exchange for Norway,
whereupon Prussia, partly by purchase and partly by the cession
4 8
POMEROY POMONA
of the duchy of Lauenburg, finally succeeded in uniting the whole
of Pomerania under her rule.
For the history, see J. Bugenhagen, Pomerania, edited by O.
Heinemann (Stettin, 1900); yon Bohlen, Die Erwerbung Pommerns
durch die Hohenzollern (Berlin, 1865); H. Berghaus, Landbuch des
Herzogtums Pommern (Berlin, 1865-1876); the Codex Pomeraniae
diplomaticus, edited by K. F. W. Hasselbach and J. G. L. Kose-
garten (Greifswald, 1862); the Pommersches Urkundenbuch, edited
by R. Klempin and others (Stettin, 1868-1896); W. von Sommer-
feld, Geschichte der Germanisierung des Herzogtums Pommern
(Leipzig, 1896) ; F. W. Barthold, Geschichte von Rugen und Pommern
(Hamburg, 1839-1845); K. Mass, Pommersche Geschichte (Stettin,
1899); M. Wehrmann, Geschichte von Pommern (Gotha, 1904-1906);
and Uecker, Pommern in Wort und Bild (Stettin, 1904). See also
the publications of the Gesettschaft fur pommersche Geschichte und
Altertumskunde.
POMEROY, a village and the county-seat of Meigs county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 85 m. S.S.E. of Columbus.
Pop. (1890) 4726; (1900) 4639, including 453 foreign-born and
280 negroes; (1910) 4023. Pomeroy is served by the Hocking
Valley and (across the river) Baltimore & Ohio railways, by
inter-urban electric railway, and by passenger and freight boats
to the leading river ports. It occupies a strip of ground between
the river and a range of steep hills. Bituminous coal and salt
abound in the district, and there are deposits of building stone,
fireclay and glass sand. The first settlement here was established
in 1816, coal mining was begun three years later, and in 1827 a
town was laid out and named Nyesville. There was little pro-
gress, however, until 1833, when Samuel W. Pomeroy (in whose
honour the present name was adopted) formed a company,
which began mining coal on a large scale. Pomeroy was incor-
porated as a village and was made the county-seat in 1841. In
1850 the first of several salt wells, from 1000 to 1200 ft. in
depth, was operated.
POMFRET, JOHN (1667-1702), English poet, son of Thomas
Pomfcet, vicar of Luton, was born in 1667. He was educated
at Bedford grammar school and at Queens' College, Cambridge.
He became rector of Maulden, Bedfordshire, in 1695, and of
Millbrook in the same county in 1702. Dr Johnson says that
the bishop of London refused to sanction preferment for him
because in his Choice he declared that he would have no wife,
although he expressed a wish for the occasional company of a
modest and sprightly young lady. The poet was married in real
life all the same, and while waiting to clear up the misunder-
standing with the bishop he died in November 1702. The
Choice or Wish: A Poem written by a Person of Quality (1700)
expresses the epicurean desires of a cultivated man of Pomfret's
time. It is smoothly written in the heroic couplet, and was widely
popular. His Miscellany Poems were published in 1702.
POMMEL (through O. Fr. pomel, from a diminutive pomellus of
Lat. pomum, fruit, apple), any rounded object resembling an
apple, e.g. the rounded termination of a saddle-bow; in archi-
tecture, any round knob, as a boss, finial, &c.; more particularly
the rounded end to the hilt of a sword, dagger or other hand
weapon, used to prevent the hand from slipping, and as a balance
to the blade. " Pommel " is also a term used of a piece of
grooved wood used in graining leather. This word may be
the same in origin, or more probably from Fr. paumelle, from
paume, the hand, palm.
POMMER, or BOMBARD (Fr. hautbois; Ital. bombardo, bombar-
done), the alto, tenor and basses of the shawm or Schalmey
family, and the forerunners respectively of the cor-anglais,
bassoon or fagotto, and double bassoon or contrafagotto. The
main difference to the casual observer between the medieval
instruments and those of our orchestra which were evolved from
them would be one of size. In the Pommers no attempt had
been made to bend the tube, and its length, equal to that of an
open organ pipe of the same pitch, was outstretched in all its
unwieldiness in an oblique position in front of the performer.
The great contrabass Pommer was 9 ft. long without the
crook and reed, which, however, were bent downwards. It had
five open fingerholes and five keys working inside a perforated
case; in order to bring the holes within reach of the finger, they
were cut obliquely through the tube. The compass extended
from F below 8 ft. C to E or F in the bass stave, two octaves in all.
The other members of the family were the bass Pommer, from
8 ft. C to middle C, corresponding to the modern bassoon or
fagotto; the tenor or basset Pommer, a fifth higher in pitch; the
alto pommer or nicolo, a fourth or a fifth above the tenor; and
the high alto, or Klein Alt Pommer, an octave higher than the
tenor, corresponding approximately to the cor-anglais.
For the history of the Pommer family see OBOE and BASSOON.
(K. S.)
POMONA, an old Italian goddess of fruit and gardens. Ovid
(Met. xiv. 623) tells the story of her courtship by the silvan
deities and how Vertumnus, god of the turning year, wooed
and won her. Corresponding to Pomona there seems to have
been a male Italian deity, called Pomunus, who was perhaps
identical with Vertumnus. Although chiefly worshipped in the
country, Pomona had a special priest at Rome, the flamen Pomo-
nalis, and a sacred grove near Ostia, called the Pomonal. She
was represented as a beautiful maiden, with fruits in her bosom
and a pruning-knife in her hand.
POMONA, a city of Los Angeles county, in southern Cali-
fornia, U.S.A., about 33 m. E. of the city of Los Angeles. Pop.
(1890) 3634; (1900) 5526 (567 foreign-born); (1910) 10,207. It is
served by the Southern Pacific, the San Pedro, Los Angeles &
Salt Lake, and the .Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railways,
and by an inter-urban electric line. The city is about 850 ft.
above sea-level, and has a Carnegie library and several parks,
including Ganesha park (45 acres), which commands a fine view.
At Claremont, about 3 m. north, is Pomona College (1888, co-
educational), which in 1908 had 34 instructors and 488 students.
Pomona is in the midst of a prosperous fruit region, devoted
especially to the growing of oranges. Orchards of oranges,
lemons, apricots, peaches and prunes surround the city for miles ;
and some olives are grown; alfalfa and sugar-beets are raised in
large quantities in the immediate neighbourhood. Pomona was
settled by a colony of fruit-growers in 1875, and was chartered
as a city in 1888.
POMONA, or MAINLAND, the 'central and' largest island of
the Orkneys, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 16,235. It is 2 S m - l n g
from N.W. to S.E. and 15 m. broad from E. to W.; area, IQO
sq. m.; but where the coast is cut into, on the N. by Kirkwall
Bay and on the S. by Scapa Flow, the land is less than 2 m. across.
Consequently, the portion of the island to the west of the waist
of Pomona is sometimes described as the West Island, and the
portion to the East as the East Island. The west coast is
almost unbroken, the bays of Birsay and SkaiH being the only
bays of any importance. The east and south shores, on the
other hand, are extensively carved out. Thus on the east
side are found Eynhallow Sound, Wood Wick, the bays of
Isbister, Firth, Kirkwall, and Inganess and Dee Sound, and on
the south Holm Sound, Scapa Bay, Swanbister Bay and Bay
of Ireland. The highest points of the watershed from Costa
Head to the Scapa shore are Milldoe (734 ft.) to the north-east
of Isbister and Wideford Hill (740 ft.) to the west of Kirkwall.
There are also a few eminences towards the south-west, Ward
Hill (880 ft.) in the parish of Orphir being the highest peak in
the island. There are numerous lakes, some of considerable
size and most of them abounding with trout. Loch Harray is
4j m. long by from 5 m. to about 2 m. wide, and Loch Stenness
3 1 m. long by from | to 2j m. wide. Lochs Swannay, Board-
house and Hundland are situated in the extreme north, while
Loch Kirbister lies near the south coast and Loch Tankerness
adjoins Deer Sound. Off the east coast lie the islands of Rousay,
Egilshay, Viera, Eynhallow, Gairsay and Shapinshay, and off
the south Copinshay and Lamb Holm. The hilly country is
mostly moorland, and peat-mosses are met with in some of the
low-lying land, but many of the valleys contain fertile soil, and
there are productive tracts on the eastern and northern seaboard.
Kirkwall, the capital of the Orkneys, and Stromness are the only
towns.
In Harray, the only parish in the Orkneys not trenched at
some point by the sea, Norse customs have survived longer than
elsewhere in the group save in North Ronaldshay. In Deerness
POMPADOUR, MARQUISE DE
49
the most easterly parish in Pomona, were buried 200 Covenanters,
taken prisoners at the battle of Bothwell Brig. They were
carried to Barbados, to be sold as slaves for the plantations,
when the ship foundered in Deer Sound, and all were drowned.
In Sandside Bay, in the same parish, the fleet of Malcolm
Canmore was defeated by that of Jarl Thorfinn; and at
Summersdale, towards the northern base of the hills of Orphir,
Sir James Sinclair, governor of Kirkwall, vanquished Lord
Sinclair and 500 Caithness men in 1529.
The antiquities of Pomona are of great interest. The examples
of Pictish remains include brocks or round towers, chambered
mounds, or buildings of stone covered in with earth, and weems,
or underground dwellings afterwards roofed in. At Saverock,
on the west wing of Kirkwall Bay, a good specimen of an earth-
house will be found, and at Quanterness, i m. to the west of it, a
chambered mound, containing seven rooms with beehive roofs.
Farther west and 5 m. by road north-east of Stromness, and
within a mile of the stone circles of Stenness, stands the great
barrow or chambered mound of Maeshowe. The tumulus has
the form of a blunted cone, is 36 ft. high, 300 ft. in circum-
ference and 92 ft. in diameter, and at a distance of 90 ft. from
its base is encircled by a moat 40 ft. wide and from 4 ft. to 8 ft.
deep. The ground-plan shows that it was entered from the west
by a passage, 54 ft. long, from 2 ft. to 3 ft. wide and from 2| ft.
to 4$ ft. high, which led to a central apartment about 15 ft.
square, the walls of which ended in a beehive roof, the spring
of which began at a height of 13 ft. from the floor. This room
and the passage are built of undressed blocks and slabs of sand-
stone. About the middle of each side of the chamber, at a
height of 3 ft. from the floor, there is an entrance to a small
cell, 3 ft. high, 4$ ft. wide and from 5! ft. to 7 ft. long. Mr
James Farrer explored the mound in 1861, and discovered on the
walls and certain stones rude drawings of crosses, a winged
dragon, and a serpent curled round a pole, besides a variety of
Runic inscriptions. One of these inscriptions stated that the
tumulus had been rifled by Norse pilgrims (possibly crusaders)
on their way to Jerusalem under Jarl Rognvald in the I2th
century. There can be little doubt but that it was a
sepulchral chamber. Joseph Anderson ascribes it to the Stone
Age (tnat is, to the Picts), and James Fergusson to Norsemen of
the loth century.
The most interesting of all those links with a remote past are
the stone circles forming the Ring of Brogar and the Ring of
Stenness, often inaccurately described as the Stones of Stenness.
The Ring of Brogar is situated to the north-west and the Ring of
Stenness to the south-east of the Bridge of Brogar, as the narrow
causeway of stone slabs is called which separates Loch Harray
from Loch Stenness. The district lies some 4^ m. north-east
of Stromness. The Ring of Brogar, once known as the Temple
of the Sun, stands on a raised circular platform of turf, 340 ft.
in diameter, surrounded by a- moat about 6 ft. deep, which in
turn is invested by a grassy rampart. The ring originally
comprised 60 stones, set up at intervals of 17 ft. Only 13 are
now erect. Ten, still entire, lie prostrate, while the stumps of
13 others can yet be recognized. The height of the stones
varies from 9 ft. to 14 ft. The Ring of Stenness the Temple
of the Moon of local tradition is of similar construction to the
larger circle, except that its round platform is only 104 ft. in
diameter. The stones are believed to have numbered 12,
varying in height from 15 ft. to 17 ft. but only two remain up-
right. In the middle of the ring may be seen the relic of what
was probably the sacrificial altar. The Stone of Odin, the
great monolith, pierced by a hole at a height of 5 ft. from the
ground, which figures so prominently in Scott's Pirate, stood
i so yds. to the north of the Ring of Stenness. The stones of
both rings are of the native Old Red Sandstone.
POMPADOUR, JEANNE ANTOINETTE POISSON LE NOR-
MANT D'ETIOLES, MARQUISE DE (1721-1764), mistress of
Louis XV., was born in Paris on the 29th of December 1721, and
baptized as the legitimate daughter of Francois Poisson, an
officer in the household of the duke of Orleans, and his wife,
Madeleine de la Motte, in the church of St Eustache; but she
was suspected, as well as her brother, afterwards marquis of
Marigny, to be the child of a very wealthy financier and farmer-
general of the revenues, Le Normant de Tournehem. He at
any rate took upon himself the charge of her education; and, as
from the beauty and wit she showed from childhood she seemed
to be born for some uncommon destiny, he declared her " un
morceau de roi," and specially educated her to be a king's
mistress. This idea was confirmed in her childish mind by the
prophecy of an old woman, whom in after days she pensioned
for the correctness of her prediction. In 1741 she was married
to a nephew of her protector and guardian, Le Normant d'Etioles,
who was passionately in love with her r and she soon became a
queen of fashion. Yet the world of the financiers at Paris was
far apart from the court world, where she wished to reign;
she could get no introduction at court, and could only try to
catch the king's eye when he went out hunting. But Louis XV.
was then under the influence of Mme de Mailly, who carefully
prevented any further intimacy with " la petite Etioles," and
it was not until after her death that the king met the fair queen
of the financial world of Paris at a ball given by the city to the
dauphin in 1744, and he was immediately subjugated. She at
once gave up her husband, and in 1745 was established at
Versailles as " maitresse en titre." Louis XV. bought her the
estate of Pompadour, from which she took her title of marquise
(raised in 1752 to that of duchess). She was hardly established
firmly in power before she showed that ambition rather than
love had guided her, and began to mix in politics. Knowing
that the French people of that time were ruled by the literary
kings of the time, she paid court to them, and tried to play the
part of a Maecenas. Voltaire was her poet in chief, and the
founder of the physiocrats, Quesnay, was her physician. In the
arts she was even more successful; she was herself no mean etcher
and engraver, and she encouraged and protected Vanloo, Boucher,
Vien, Greuze, and the engraver Jacques Guay. Yet this policy
did not prevent her from being lampooned, and the famous
poissardes against her contributed to the ruin of many wits
suspected of being among the authors, and notably of the Comte
de Maurepas. The command of the political situation passed
entirely into her hands; she it was who brought Belle-Isle into
office with his vigorous policy; she corresponded regularly with
the generals of the armies in the field, as her letters to the Comte
de Clermont prove; and she introduced the Abbe de Bernis into
the ministry in order to effect a very great alteration of French
politics in 1756. The continuous policy of France since the days
of Richelieu had been to weaken the house of Austria by alliances
in Germany; but Mme de Pompadour changed this hereditary
policy because Frederick the Great wrote scandalous verses on
her; and because Maria Theresa wrote her a friendly letter she
entered into an alliance with Austria. This alliance brought on
the Seven Years' War, with all its disasters, the battle of Rosbach
and the loss of Canada; but Mme de Pompadour persisted
in her policy, and, when Bernis failed her, brought Choiseul
into office and supported him in all his great plans, the
Pacte de Famille, the suppression of the Jesuits, and the
peace of Versailles. But it was to internal politics that
this remarkable woman paid most attention; no one obtained
office except through her; in imitation of Mme de Maintenon,
she prepared all business for the king's eye with the
ministers, and contrived that they should meet in her room;
and she daily examined the letters sent through the post
office with Janelle, the director of the post office. By this
continuous labour she made herself indispensable to Louis.
Yet, when after a year or two she had lost the heart
of her lover, she had a difficult task before her; to maintain
her influence she had not only to save the king as much trouble
as possible, but to find him fresh pleasures. When he first
began to weary of her she remembered her talent for acting
and her private theatricals at Etioles, and established the
" theatre des petits cabinets," in which she acted with the greatest
lords about the court for the king's pleasure in tragedies and
comedies, operas and ballets. By this means and the " concerts
spirituels " she kept in favour for a time; but at last she found a
POMPEII
surer way, by encouraging the king in his debaucheries, and Louis
wept over her kindness to his various mistresses. Only once,
when the king was wounded by Damiens in 1757, did she receive
a serious shock, and momentarily left the court; but on his
recovery she returned more powerful than ever. She even
ingratiated herself with the queen, after the example of
Mme de Maintenon, and was made a lady-in-waiting; but the
end was soon to come. " Ma vie est un combat," she said,
and so it was, with business and pleasure she gradually grew
weaker and weaker, and when told that death was at hand she
dressed herself in full court costume, and met it bravely on the
1 5th of April 1764, at the age of forty-two.
See Capefigue, Madame la marquise de Pompadour (1858);
E. and J. de Goncourt, Les Mattresses de Louis XV., vol. ii. (1860);
and Campardon, Madame de Pompadour et la cour de Louis XV
au milieu du dix-huitieme siecle (1867). Far more valuable are
Malassis's two volumes of correspondence, Gorrespondance de Madame
de Pompadour aiiec son pere M. Poisson, et sonfrere M. de Vandieres,
&c. (1878), and Bonhomme, Madame de Pompadour, general d'armee
(1880), containing her letters to the Comte de Clermont. For her
artistic and theatrical tastes see particularly J. F. Leturcq, Notice
sur Jacques Guay, graveur sur pierres fines du roi Louis XV.:
Documents inedits emanant de Guay et notes sur les ceuvres de gravure
en taille douce et en pierres durs de la marquise de Pompadour (1873) ;
and Adolphe Jullien, Histoire du theatre de Madame de Pompadour,
dit Theatre des Petits Cabinets (1874). See also P. de Nolhac, La
Marquise de Pompadour (1903).
POMPEII, 1 an ancient town of Campania, Italy, situated near
the river Sarnus, nearly 2 m. from the shore of the Bay of
Naples, almost at the foot of Mt Vesuvius. Of its history before
79 B.C. comparatively little is recorded; but it appears that it
had a population of a very mixed character, and passed succes-
sively into the hands of several different peoples, each of which
contributed an element to its composition. Its foundation was
ascribed by Greek tradition to Heracles, in common with the
neighbouring city of Herculaneum, but it is certain that it was
not a Greek colony, in the proper sense of the term, as we know
to have been the case with the more important cities of Cumae
and Neapolis. Strabo'(v. 4, 8), in whose time it was a populous
and flourishing place, tells us that it was first occupied by the
Oscans 2 (to whom we must attribute the Doric temple in the
Foro Triangolare), afterwards by the Tyrrhenians (i.e. Etruscans)
and Pelasgians, and lastly, by the Samnites. The conquest of
Campania by the last-mentioned people is an undoubted historical
fact, and there can be no doubt that Pompeii shared the fate of
the neighbouring cities on this occasion, and afterwards passed
in common with them under the yoke of Rome. But its name
is only once mentioned during the wars of the Romans with
the Samnites and Campanians in this region of Italy, and then
only incidentally (Liv. ix. 38), when a Roman fleet landed near
Pompeii in 309 B.C. and made an unsuccessful marauding
expedition up the river valley as far as Nuceria. 3 At a later
period, however, it took a prominent part in the outbreak of the
nations of central Italy, known as the Social War (91-89 B.C.),
when it withstood a long siege by Sulla, and was one of the last
cities of Campania that were reduced by the Roman arms. The
inhabitants were admitted to the Roman franchise, but a military
colony was settled in their territory in 80 B.C. by Sulla (Colonia
Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum), and the whole population
was rapidly Romanized. The municipal administration here,
as elsewhere, was in the hands of two duoviri iure dicundo and
two aediles, the supreme body being the city council (decuriones) .
Before the close of the republic it became a resort of the Roman
nobles, many of whom acquired villas in the neighbourhood.
Among them was Cicero, whose letters abound with allusions
to his Pompeian villa. The same fashion continued under the
empire, and there can be no doubt that, during the first century
of the Christian era, Pompeii had become a flourishing place
_ iThe etymology of the name is uncertain; the ancients derived
: from pompa or x^iru (Gr. send), in allusion to the journey of
Heracles with the oxen of Geryon, but modern authorities refer
it to the Oscan pompa (five).
2 For the Oscan incriptions found in Pompeii see below ad fin
Pompeii was attacked as a member of the Nucerine League.
See Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 51 ; J. Beloch, Campanien, 2nd ed.,
P- 239.
with a considerable population. Two events only are recorded
of its history during this period. In A.D. 59 a tumult took place
in the amphitheatre between the citizens and visitors from the
neighbouring colony of Nuceria. Many were killed and wounded
on both sides. The Pompeians were punished for this violent
outbreak by the prohibition of all theatrical exhibitions for
ten years (Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 17). A characteristic, though
rude, painting, found on the walls of one of the houses gives a
representation of this event.
Four years afterwards (A.D. 63) an earthquake, which affected
all the neighbouring towns, vented its force especially upon
Pompeii, a large part of which, including most of the public
buildings, was either destroyed or so seriously damaged as to
require to be rebuilt (Tac. Ann. xv. 22; Seneca, Q.N. vi. i).
From the existing remains it is clear that the inhabitants were
still actively engaged in repairing and restoring the ruined edifices
when the whole city was overwhelmed by the great eruption
of A.D. 79. Vesuvius (q.v.), the volcanic forces of which had been
slumbering for unknown ages, suddenly burst into violent
eruption, which, while it carried devastation all around the
beautiful gulf, buried the two cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii
under dense beds of cinders and ashes. It is singular that, while
we possess a detailed description of this famous eruption in two
letters of the younger Pliny (Epist. vi. 16, 20), he does not even
notice the destruction of Pompeii or Herculaneum, though his
uncle perished in the immediate neighbourhood of the former
city. But their fate is noticed by Dio Cassius, and its circum-
stances may be gathered with certainty from the condition in
which the city has been found. These were such as to conduce to
its preservation and interest as a relic of antiquity. Pompeii was
merely covered with a bed of lighter substances, cinders, small
stones and ashes, which fe'll in a dry state, while at Herculaneum
the same substances, being drenched with water, hardened into
a sort of tufa, which in places is 65 ft. deep. The whole of this
superincumbent mass, attaining to an average thickness of from
18 to 20 ft., was the product of one eruption, though the materials
may be divided generally into two distinct strata, the one
consisting principally of cinders and small volcanic stones
(called in Italian lapilli), and the other and uppermost layer of
fine white ash, of ten. consolidated by the action of water from
above so as to take the moulds of objects contained in it (such
as dead bodies, woodwork, &c.), like clay or plaster of Paris.
It was found impossible to rebuild the town, and its territory
was joined to that of Nola. But the survivors returned to the
spot, and by digging down and tunnelling were able to remove
all the objects of value, even the marble facing slabs of the large
buildings.
In the middle ages, however, the very site was forgotten.
Two inscriptions were found in making an underground aqueduct
across the site in 1594-1600, but it was not until 1748 that a more
careful inspection of this channel revealed the fact that beneath
the vineyards and mulberry grounds which covered the site
there lay entombed ruins far more accessible, if not more inter-
esting, than those of Herculaneum. It was not till 1763 that
systematic excavations were begun; and, though they were
carried on during the rest of the i8th century, it was only in
the beginning of the igth that they assumed a regular character;
the work, which had received a vigorous stimulus during the
period of the French government (1806-1814), was prosecuted,
though in a less methodical manner, under the rule of the Bour-
bon kings (1815-1861). Since 1861 it has been carried on under
the Italian government in a more scientific manner, on a system
devised by G. Fiorelli (d. 1896), according to which the town is
for convenience divided into nine regions though this rests
on a misconception, for there is really no street between the
Capua and the Nocera gates and the results have been of the
highest interest, though the rate of progress has been very
slow.
The town was situated on rising ground less than a mile from
the foot of Vesuvius. This eminence is itself due to an outflow
of lava from that mountain, during some previous eruption in
prehistoric times, for we know from Strabo that Vesuvius had
POMPEII
been quiescent ever since the first records of the Greek settle-
ments in this part of Italy. Pompeii in ancient times was a
;>erous seaport town situated close to the seashore, from
which it is now nearly 2 m. distant, and adjoining the mouth
of the river Sarnus or Sarno, which now enters the sea
nearly 2 m. from its site. The present course of this stream is
due in part to modern alteration of its channel, as well as to the
effects of the great eruption. The prosperity of Pompeii was
due partly to its commerce, as the port of the neighbouring
towns, partly to the fertility of its territory, which produced
strong wine, olive oil (a comparatively small quantity), and
vegetables; fish sauces were made here. Millstones and pumice
were also exported, but for the former the more gritty lava of
Rocca Monfina was later on preferred.
The area occupied by the ancient city was of an irregular
oval form, and about 2 m. in circumference. It was sur-
rounded by a wall, which is still preserved for more than
two-thirds of its extent, but no traces of this are found on the
side towards the sea, and there is no doubt that on this side
it had been already demolished in ancient times, so as to give
room for the free extension of houses and other buildings in
that direction. 1 These walls are strengthened at intervals by
numerous towers, occupying the full width of the wall, which
occur in some parts at a distance of only about 100 yds., but in
general much less frequently. They are, however, of a different
style of construction from the walls, and appear to have been
added at a later period, probably that of the Social War. Similar
evidences of the addition of subsequent defences are to be traced
also in the case of the gates, of which no less than eight are found
in the existing circuit of the walls. Some of these present a
very elaborate system of defence, but it is evident from the
decayed condition of others, as well as of parts of the walls and
towers, that they had ceased to be maintained for the purposes
of fortification long before the destruction of the city. The
names by which the gates and streets are known are entirely of
modern origin.
The general plan of the town is very regular, the streets being
generally straight, and crossing one another at right angles
or nearly so. But exceptions are found on the west in the street
leading from the Porta Ercolanese (gate of Herculaneum) to
the forum, which, though it must have been one of the principal
thoroughfares in the city, was crooked and irregular, as well as
verynarrow, in some parts not exceeding 12 to 14 ft. in width,
including the raised footpaths on each side, which occupy a
considerable part of the space, so that the carriage-way could
only have admitted of the passage of one vehicle at a time.
The explanation is that it follows the line of the demolished
city wall. Another exception is to be found in the Strada
Stabiana (Stabian Street) or Cardo, which, owing to the existence
of a natural depression which affects also the line of the street
just east of it, is not parallel to the other north and south streets.
The other main streets are in some cases broader, but rarely
exceed 20 ft. in width, and the broadest yet found is about 32,
while the back streets running parallel to the main lines are only
about 14 ft. (It is to be remembered, however, that the standard
width of a Roman highroad in the neighbourhood of Rome itself
is about 14 ft.) They are uniformly paved with large poly-
gonal blocks of hard basaltic lava, fitted very closely together,
though now in many cases marked with deep ruts from the passage
of vehicles in ancient times. They are also in all cases bordered
by raised footways on both sides, paved in a similar manner;
and for the convenience of foot-passengers, which was evidently
a more important consideration than the obstacle which the
arrangement presented to the passage of vehicles, which indeed
were probably only allowed for goods traffic, these are connected
from place to place by stepping-stones raised above the level of
the carriage-way. In other respects they must have resembled
those of Oriental cities the living apartments all opening
towards the interior, and showing only blank walls towards
1 It consisted of two parallel stone walls with buttresses, about
15 ft. apart and 28 in. thick, the intervening space being filled
with earth, and there being an embankment on the inner side.
the street; while the windows were generally to be found only
in the upper storey, and were in all cases small and insignificant,
without any attempt at architectural effect. In some instances
indeed the monotony of their external appearance was broken
by small shops, occupying the front of the principal houses,
and let off separately; these were in some cases numerous enough
to form a continuous fagade to the street. This is seen especially
in the case of the street from the Porta Ercolanese to the forum
and the Strada Stabiana (or Cardo), both of which were among
the most frequented thoroughfares. The streets were also
diversified by fountains, small water-towers and reservoirs
(of which an especially interesting example was found in 1902
close to the Porta del Vesuvio) and street shrines. The source
of the water-supply is unknown.
The first-mentioned of the two principal streets was crossed, a
little before it reached the forum, by the street which led directly
to the gate of Nola (Strada delle Terme, della Fortuna, and di
Nola). Parallel to this last to the south is a street which runs
from the Porta Marina through the forum, and then, with a
slight turn, to the Sarno gate, thus traversing the whole area of
the city from east to west (Via Marina, Strada dell' Abbondanza,
Strada dei Diadumeni). These two east and west streets are
the two decumani.
The population of Pompeii at the time of its destruction
cannot be fixed with certainty, but it may very likely have ex-
ceeded 20,000. It was of a mixed character; both Oscan
and Greek inscriptions are still found up to the last, and, though
there is no trace whatever of Christianity, evidences of the
presence of Jews are not lacking such are a wall-painting,
probably representing the Judgment of Solomon, and a scratched
inscription on a wall, " Sodoma, Gomora." It has been estimated,
from the number of skeletons discovered, that about 2000
persons perished in the city itself in the eruption of A.D. 79.
Almost the whole portion of the city which lies to the west of
the Strada Stabiana, towards the forum and the sea, has been
more or less completely excavated. It is over one-half of the
whole extent, and that the most important portion, inasmuch as
it includes the forum, with the temples and public buildings
adjacent to it, the thermae, theatres, amphitheatre, &c. The
greater part of that on the other side of the Strada Stabiana
remains still unexplored, with the exception of the amphi-
theatre, and a small space in its immediate neighbourhood.
The forum at Pompeii was, as at Rome itself and in all
other Italian cities, the focus and centre of all the life and
movement of the city. Hence it was surrounded on all sides
by public buildings or edifices of a commanding character.
It was not, however, of large size, as compared to the open
spaces in modern towns, being only 467 ft. in length by 126 in
breadth (excluding the colonnades). Nor was it accessible to
any description of wheeled carriages, and the nature of its
pavement, composed of broad flags of travertine, shows that it
was only intended for foot-passengers. It was adorned with
numerous statues, some of the imperial family, others of dis-
tinguished citizens. Some of the inscribed pedestals of the latter
have been found. It was surrounded on three sides by a series
of porticos supported on columns; and these porticos were
originally surmounted by a gallery or upper storey, traces of the
staircases leading to which still remain, though the gallery
itself has altogether disappeared. It is, however, certain
from the existing remains that both this portico and the adjacent
buildings had suffered severely from the earthquake of 63, and
that they were undergoing a process of restoration, involving
material changes in the original arrangements, which was
still incomplete at the time of their final destruction. The
north end of the forum, where alone the portico is wanting, is
occupied in great part by the imposing temple of Jupiter, Juno
and Minerva being also worshipped here. It was raised on a
podium 10 ft. high, and had a portico with six Corinthian
columns in front. This magnificent edifice had, however, been
evidently overthrown by the earthquake of 63, and is in its
present condition a mere ruin, the rebuilding of which had not
been begun at the time of the eruption, so that the cult of
POMPEII
the three Capitoline divinities was then carried on in the so-
called temple of Zeus Milichius. On each side of it were two
arches, affording an entrance into the forum, but capable of
being closed by gates. On the east side of the forum were four
edifices; all of them are of a public character, but their names and
attribution have been the subject of much controversy. The
first (proceeding from the north), once known as the Pantheon,
is generally regarded as a macellum or meat-market, consisting
of a rectangular court surrounded by a colonnade, with a twelve-
sided roofed building (tholus) in the centre. On the south side
and Q. Catulus (78 B.C.), and therefore belongs to the Oscan
period of the city, before the introduction of the Roman colony.
It was an oblong edifice divided by columns into a central hall
and a corridor running round all the four sides with a tribunal
opposite the main entrance; and, unlike the usual basilicae, it
had, instead of a clerestory, openings in the walls of the corridor
through which light was admitted, it being almost as lofty as
the nave. The temple was an extensive edifice, having a com-
paratively small cella, raised upon a podium, and standing in
the midst of a wide space surrounded by a portico of^columns,
Scale. 1:7,200
Yards
50 loo 150 200
1. Tf tuple of Jupiter 8. Basilica
2. Mncellum 9. Temple of Apollo
3. Sanctuary of Lares 10. Temple of Hercules?
4. Temple of Vespasian 11. Temple of Isit
5. Building of Eumachia 12. Temple of Zeus
6. Comitium ? 13. Temple of Fortuna Augusta
7. Curia ere. 11 Temple of Venus fomatio.no.
15. Great Theatre
16. Small Theatre
17. Barracks of Gladiators
18. Palaestra
19. Tttermae near the
Forum
20. Stab/an Bathi
21. Central Baths
22. House of Sallust
O. House of the Vettii
M. House of the. Golden Cupid*
19. Water Reservoir
26. House of Pansa
n. House of the Fan*
M. House of Jucundus
IS. Home of the Silver Wedding
n.House of the Figured Capitals
IL. House of Ariadre
VL House of Holconius
33.House of Cornelius Rufus
U. House of the C/tharis'
(Redrawn by permission from Baedeker's Southern Italy.)
were shops, and in the centre of the east side a chapel for the
worship of the imperial house. Next to this comes the sanctuary
of the Lares of the city, a square room with a large apse; and
beyond this, as Mau proves, the small temple of Vespasian.
Beyond this again, bounded on the south by the street known
as the Strada dell' Abbondanza, is a large and spacious edifice,
which, as we learn from an extant inscription, was erected by a
priestess named Eumachia. Its purpose is uncertain possibly
a cloth-exchange, as the fullers set up a statue to Eumachia here.
It is an open court, oblong, surrounded on all four sides by a
colonnade; in front is a portico facing the forum, and on the
other three sides theie is a corridor behind the colonnade with
windows opening on it. On the south side of the Strada dell'
Abbondanza was a building which Mau conjectures to have been
the Comitium. At the south end of the forum are three halls
side by side, similar in plan with a common facade the central
one, the curia or council chamber, the others the offices respec-
tively of the duumvirs and aediles, the principal officials of the
city; while the greater part of the west side is occupied by two
large buildings a basilica, which is the largest edifice in
Pompeii, and the temple of Apollo, which presents its side to
the forum, and hence fills up a large portion of the surrounding
space. The former, as we learn from an inscription scratched
on its walls, was anterior in date to the consulship of M. Lepidus
Enxry W.lktf tc.
outside which again is a wall, bounding the sacred enclosure.
Between this temple and the basilica the Via Marina leads off
direct to the Porta Marina.
Besides the temples which surrounded the forum, the remains
of five others have been discovered, three of which are situated
in the immediate neighbourhood of the theatres. Of these by
far the most interesting, though the least perfect, is one which
is commonly known as the temple of Hercules (an appellation
wholly without foundation), and which is not only by far the
most ancient edifice in Pompeii, but presents us with all the
characters of a true Greek temple, resembling in its proportions
that of the earliest temple of Selinus, and probably of as remote
antiquity (6th century B.C.). Unfortunately only.the. foundation
and a few Doric capitals and other architectural fragments
remain; they were coated with stucco which was brightly painted.
In front of the temple is a monument which seems to have been
the tomb of the founder or founders of the city; so that for a time
this must have been the most important temple. The period
of its destruction is unknown, for it appears certain that it cannot
be ascribed wholly to the earthquake of 63. On the other hand
the reverence attached to it in the later periods of the city is
evidenced by its being left standing in the midst of a triangular
space adjoining the great theatre, which is surrounded by a
portico, so as to constitute a kind of forum (the so-called Foro
POMPEII
53
Triangolare). Not far off, and to the north of the great theatre,
stood a small temple, which, as we learn from the inscription
still remaining, was dedicated to Isis, and was rebuilt by a certain
Popidius Celsinus at the age of six (really of course by his parents),
after the- original edifice had been reduced to ruin by the great
earthquake of 63. Though of small size, and by no means re-
markable in point of architecture, it is interesting as the only
temple that has come down to us in a good state of preservation
of those dedicated to the Egyptian goddess, whose worship became
so popular under the Roman Empire. The decorations were of
somewhat gaudy stucco. The plan is curious, and deviates
much from the ordinary type; the internal arrangements are
adapted for the performance of the peculiar rites of this deity.
Close to this temple was another, of very small size, commonly
known as the temple of Aesculapius, but probably dedicated to
Zeus Milichius. More considerable and important was a temple
which stood at no great distance from the forum at the point
where the so-called Strada di Mercurio was crossed by the wide
line of thoroughfare (Strada delta Fortuna) leading to the gate
of Nola. We learn from an inscription that this was dedicated
to the Fortune of Augustus (Fortuna Augusta), and was erected,
wholly at his own cost, by a citizen of the name of M. Tullius.
This temple appears to have suffered very severely from the
earthquake, and at present affords little evidence of its original
architectural ornament; .but we learn from existing remains
that its walls were covered with slabs of marble, and that the
columns of the portico were of the same material. The fifth
temple, that of Venus Pompeiana, lay to the west of the basilica;
traces of two earlier periods underlie the extant temple, which
was in progress of rebuilding at the time of the eruption. Before
the earthquake of 63 it must have been the largest and most
splendid temple of the whole city. It was surrounded by a
large colonnade, and the number of marble columns in the whole
block has been reckoned at 206.
All the temples above described, except that ascribed to Her-
cules, which was approached by steps on all four sides, agree in
being raised on an elevated podium or basement an arrange-
ment usual with all similar buildings of Roman date. Neither
in materials nor in style does their architecture exceed what
might reasonably be expected in a second-rate provincial town;
and the same may be said in general of the other public buildings.
Among these the most conspicuous are the theatres,'of which there
were two, placed, as was usual in Greek towns, in close juxta-
position with one another. The largest of these which was partly
excavated in the side of the hill, was a building of considerable
magnificence, being in great part cased with marble, and fur-
nished with seats of the same material, which have, however,
been almost wholly removed. Its internal construction and
arrangements resemble those of the Roman theatres in general,
though with some peculiarities that show Greek influence, and
we learn from an inscription that it was erected in Roman times
by two members of the same family, M. Holconius Rufus and
M. Holconius Celer, both of whom held important municipal
offices at Pompeii during the reign of Augustus. It appears,
however, from a careful examination of the remains that their
work was only a reconstruction of a more ancient edifice, the date
of the original form of which cannot be fixed; while its first
alteration belongs to the " tufa " period, and three other periods
in its history can be traced. Recent investigations in regard to
the vexed question of the position of the actors in the Greek
theatre have as yet not led to any certain solution. 1 The smaller
theatre, which was erected, as we learn from an inscription, by
two magistrates specially appointed for the purpose by the
decuriones of the city, was of older date than the large one, and
must have been constructed a little before the amphitheatre, soon
after the establishment of the Roman colony under Sulla. We
learn also that it was permanently covered, and it was probably
used for musical entertainments, but in the case of the larger
theatre also the arrangements for the occasional extension of an
awning (velarium) over the whole are distinctly found. The
1 See A. Mau, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst (Leipzig, 1908), pp. 150
sqq.
smaller theatre is computed to have been capable of containing
fifteen hundred spectators, while the larger could accommodate
five thousand.
Adjoining the theatres is a large rectangular enclosure, sur-
rounded by a portico, at first the colonnade connected with the
theatres, and converted, about the time of Nero, into the barracks
of the gladiators, who were permanently maintained in the city
with a view to the shows in the amphitheatre. This explains
why it is so far from that building, which is situated at the
south-eastern angle of the town, about 500 yds. from the
theatres. Remains of gladiators' armour and weapons were
found in some of the rooms, and in one, traces of the slocks used
to confine insubordinate gladiators. The amphitheatre was
erected by the same two magistrates who built the smaller
theatre, C. Quinctius Valgusand M. Porcius (the former the father-
in-law of that P. Servilius Rullus, in opposition to whose bill
relating to the distribution of the public lands Cicero made his
speech, De lege agraria), at a period when no permanent edifice
of a similar kind had yet been erected in Rome itself, and is
indeed the oldest structure of the kind known to us. But apart
from its early date it has no special interest, and is wholly wanting
in the external architectural decorations that give such grandeur
of character to similar edifices in other instances. Being in
great part excavated in the surface of the hill, instead of the
seats being raised on arches, it is wanting also in the picturesque
arched corridors which contribute so much to the effect of those
other ruins. Nor are its dimensions (460 by 345 ft.) such as to
place it in the first rank of structures of this class, nor are there
any underground chambers below the arena, with devices for
raising wild beasts, &c. But, as we learn from the case of their
squabble with the people of Nuceria, the games celebrated in
the amphitheatre on grand occasions would be visited by large
numbers from the neighbouring towns. The seating capacity
was about 2o,ooo 2 (for illustration see AMPHITHEATRE).
Adjoining the amphitheatre was found a large open space,
nearly square in form, which has been supposed to be a forum
boarium or cattle-market, but, no buildings of interest being
discovered around it, the excavation was filled up again, and
this part of the city has not been since examined. Between
the entrance to the triangular forum (so-called) and the temple
of Isis is the Palaestra, an area surrounded by a colonnade;
it is a structure of the pre-Roman period, intended for boys, not
men.
Among the more important public buildings of Pompeii
were the public] baths (thermae). Three different establishments
of this character have been discovered, of which the first, exca-
vated in 1824, the baths near the forum, built about 80 B.C., was
for a long time the only one known. Though the smallest of
the three, it is in some respects the most complete and interesting;
and it was until of late years the principal source from which we
derived our knowledge of this important branch of the economy
of Roman life. At Pompeii the baths are so well preserved as
to show at a glance the purpose of all the different parts while
they are among the most richly decorated of all the buildings
in the city. We trace without difficulty all the separate apart-
ments that are described to us by Roman authors the apody-
terium, frigidarium, tepidarium, caldarium, &c. together with the
apparatus for supplying both water and heat, the places for de-
positing the bather's clothes, and other minor details (see BATHS).
The greater thermae (the so-called " Stabian " baths), which
were originally built in the and century B.C., and repaired about
80 B.C., are on a much more extensive scale than the others,
and combine with the special purposes of the building a palaestra
in the centre and other apartments for exercise or recreation.
The arrangements of the baths themselves are, however, almost
similar to those of the lesser thermae. In this case an inscription
records the repair and restoration of the edifice after the
1 The interest taken by the Pompeians in the sports of the
amphitheatre is shown by the contents of the numerous painted
and scratched inscriptions relating tc them which have been found,
in Pompeii notices of combats, laudatory inscriptions, including
even references to the admiration which gladiators won from the
fair sex, &c.
54
POMPEII
earthquake of 63. It appears, however, that these two establish-
ments were found inadequate to supply the wants of the in-
habitants, and a third edifice of the same character, the so-
called central baths, at the corner of the Strada Stabiana and the
Strada di Nola, but on a still more extensive scale, intended
for men only, while the other two had separate accommodation
for both sexes, was in course of construction when the town was
overwhelmed.
Great as is the interest attached to the various public buildings
of Pompeii, and valuable as is the light that they have in some
instances thrown upon similar edifices in other ruined cities,
far more curious and interesting is the insight afforded us by
the numerous private houses and shops into the ordinary life
and habits of the population of an ancient town. The houses
at Pompeii are generally low, rarely exceeding two storeys in
height, and it appears certain that the upper storey was generally
of a slight construction, and occupied by small rooms, serving
as garrets, or sleeping places for slaves, and perhaps for the
females of the family. From the mode of destruction of the city
these upper floors were in most cases crushed in and destroyed,
and hence it was long believed that the houses 'for the most
part had but one storey; but recent researches have in many
cases brought to light incontestable evidence of the existence of
an upper floor, and the frequent occurrence of a small staircase
is in itself sufficient proof of the fact. The windows, as already
mentioned, were generally small and insignificant, and contri-
buted nothing to the external decoration or effect of the houses,
which took both light and air from the inside, not from the
outside. In some cases they were undoubtedly closed with
glass, but its use appears to have been by no means general.
The principal living rooms, as well as those intended for the
reception of guests or clients, were all on the ground floor, the
centre being formed by the atrium, or hall, which was almost
always open above to the air, and in the larger houses was gener-
ally surrounded with columns. Into this opened other rooms,
the entrances to which seem to have been rarely protected by
doors, and could only have been closed by curtains. At the
back was a garden. Later, under Greek influences, a peristyle
with rooms round it was added in place of the garden. We notice
that, as in modern Italy until quite recent years, elaborate
precautions were taken against heat, but none against cold,
which was patiently endured. Hypocausts are only found in
connexion with bathrooms.
All the apartments and arrangements described by Vitruvius
and other ancient writers may be readily traced in the houses
of Pompeii, and in many instances these have for the first time
enabled us to understand the technical terms and details trans-
mitted to us by Latin authors. We must not, however, hastily
assume that the examples thus preserved to us by a singular
accident are to be taken as representing the style of building
in all the Roman and Italian towns. We know from Cicero
that Capua was remarkable for its broad streets and widespread
buildings, and it is probable that the Campanian towns in
general partook of the same character. At Pompeii indeed
the streets were not wide, but they were straight and regular,
and the houses of the better class occupied considerable spaces,
presenting in this respect no doubt a striking contrast, not only
with those of Rome itself, but with those of many other Italian
towns, where the buildings would necessarily be huddled to-
gether from the circumstances of their position. Even at
Pompeii itself, on the west side of the city, where the ground
slopes somewhat steeply towards the sea, houses are found which
consisted of three storeys or more.
The excavations have provided examples of houses of every
description, from the humble dwelling-place of the artisan or
proletarian, with only three or four small rooms, to the stately
mansions of Sallust, of the Faun, of the Golden Cupids, of the
Silver Wedding, of the Vettii, of Pansa, 1 &c. -the last of which
is among the most regular in plan, and may be taken as an almost
1 It may be observed that the names given in most cases to the
houses are either arbitrary or founded in the first instance upon
erroneous inferences.
perfect model of a complete Roman house of a superior class.
But the general similarity in their plan and arrangement is very
striking, and in all those that rise above a very humble class the
leading divisions of the interior, the atrium, tablinum, peristyle,
&c. may be traced with unfailing regularity. Another peculi-
arity that is found in all the more considerable houses in Pompeii
is that of the front, where it faces one of the principal streets,
being occupied with shops, usually of small size, and without
any communication with the interior of the mansion. In a few
instances indeed such a communication is found, but in these
cases it is probable that the shop was used for the sale of articles
grown upon the estate of the proprietor, such as wine, fruit, oil,
&c., a practice that is still common in Italy. In general the
shop had a very small apartment behind it, and probably in
most cases a sleeping chamber above it, though of this the only
remaining evidence is usually a portion of the staircase that led
to this upper room. The front of the shop was open to the
street, but was capable of being closed with wooden shutters,
the remains of which have in a few instances been preserved.
Not only have the shops of silversmiths been recognized by the
precious objects of that metal found in them, but large quantities
of fruits of various kinds preserved in glass vessels, various de-
scriptions of corn and pulse, loaves of bread, moulds for pastry,
fishing-nets and many other objects too numerous to mention,
have been found in such a condition as to be identified without
difficulty. Inns and wine-shops appear to have been numerous;
one of the latter we can see to have been a thermopolmm, where
hot drinks were sold. Bakers' shops are also frequent, though
arrangements for grinding and baking appear to have formed
part of every large family establishment. In other cases, how-
ever, these were on a larger scale, provided with numerous
querns or hand-mills of the well-known form, evidently intended
for public supply. Another establishment on a large scale was
a fullonica (fuller's shop), where all the details of the business
were illustrated by paintings still visible on the walls. Dyers'
shops, a tannery and a shop where colours were ground and
manufactured an important business where almost all the
rooms of every house were painted are of special interest, as
is also the house of a surgeon, where numerous surgical instru-
ments were found, some of them of a very ingenious and elaborate
description, but all made of bronze. Another curious discovery
was that of the abode of a sculptor, containing his tools, as well
as blocks of marble and half-finished statues. The number
of utensils of various kinds found in the houses and shops is
almost endless, and, as these are in most cases of bronze, they are
generally in perfect preservation.
Of the numerous works of art discovered in the course of the
excavations the statues and large works of sculpture, whether
in marble or bronze, are inferior to those found at Herculaneum,
but some of the bronze statuettes are of exquisite workmanship,
while the profusion of ornamental works and objects in bronze
and the elegance of their design, as well as the finished beauty
of their execution, are such as to excite the utmost admiration
more especially when it is considered that these are the casual
results of the examination of a second-rate provincial town,
which had, further, been ransacked for valuables (as Hercu-
laneum had not) after the eruption of 79. The same impression
is produced in a still higher degree by the paintings with which
the walls of the private houses, as well as those of the temples
and other public buildings, are adorned, and which are not merely
of a decorative character, but in many instances present us with
elaborate compositions of figures, historical and mythological
scenes, as well as representations of the ordinary life and manners
of the people, which are full of interest to us, though often of
inferior artistic execution. It has until lately been the practice
to remove these to the museum at Naples; but the present
tendency is to leave them (and even the movable objects
found in the houses) in situ with all due precautions as to
their preservation (as in the house of the Vettii, of the
Silver Wedding, of the Golden Cupids, &c.), which adds im-
mensely to the interest of the houses; indeed, with the help
of judicious restoration, their original condition is in large
POMPEII
55
measure reproduced. 1 In some cases it has even been possible
to recover the original arrangement of the garden beds, and to
replant them accordingly, thus giving an appropriate frame-
work to the statues, &c. with which the gardens were
decorated, and which have been found in situ. The same
character of elaborate decoration, guided almost uniformly
by good taste and artistic feeling, is displayed in the mosaic
pavements, which in all but the humbler class of houses
frequently form the ornament of their floors. One of these, in
the House of the Faun, well known as the battle of Alexander,
presents us with the most striking specimen of artistic com-
position that has been preserved to us from antiquity.
The architecture of Pompeii must be regarded as presenting
in general a transitional character from the pure Greek style to
that of the Roman Empire. The temples (as already observed)
have always the Roman peculiarity of being raised on a podium
of considerable elevation; and the same characteristic is found
in most of the other public buildings. All the three orders of
Greek architecture the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian are foun'd
freely employed in the various edifices of the city, but rarely
in strict accordance with the rules of art in their proportions
and details; while the private houses naturally exhibit still
more deviation and irregularity. In many of these indeed we
find varieties in the ornamentation, and even in such leading
features as the capitals of the columns, which remind one rather
of the vagaries of medieval architecture than of the strict rules
of Vitruvius or the regularity of Greek edifices. One practice
which is especially prevalent, so as to strike every casual visitor,
and dates from the early years of the empire, is that of filling
up the flutings of the columns for about one-third of their height
with a thick coat of stucco, so as to give them the appearance
of being smooth columns without flutings below, and only fluted
above. The unpleasing effect of this anomalous arrangement is
greatly aggravated by the lower part of each column being almost
always coloured with red or yellow ochre, so as to render the con-
trast between the two portions still stronger. The architecture of
Pompeii suffers also from the inferior quality of the materials
generally employed. No good building stone was at hand;
and the public as well as private edifices were constructed either
of volcanic tufa, or lava, or Sarno limestone, or brick (the latter
only used for the corners of walls). In the private houses even
the columns are mostly of brick, covered merely with a coat of
stucco. In a few instances only do we find them making use
of a whitish limestone wrongly called travertine, which, though
inferior to the similar material so largely employed at Rome,
was better adapted than the ordinary tufa for purposes where
great solidity was required. The portion of the portico sur-
rounding the forum which was in the process of rebuilding at
the time when the city was destroyed was constructed of this
material, while the earlier portions, as well as the principal
temples that adjoined it, were composed in the ordinary manner
of volcanic tufa. Marble appears to have been scarce, and
was sparingly employed. In some instances where it had been
freely introduced, as in the great theatre, it would seem that the
slabs must have been removed at a period subsequent to the
entombment of the city.
These materials are used in several different styles of con-
struction belonging to the six different periods which Mau
traces in the architectural history of Pompeii.
1 . That of the Doric temple in the Foro Triangolare (6th century
B.C.) and an old column built into a house in Region vi., Insula 5;
also of the older parts of the city walls date uncertain (Sarno
limestone and grey tufa).
2. That of the limestone atriums (outer walls of the houses of
ashlar-work of Sarno limestone, inner walls with framework of
limestone blocks, filled in with small pieces of limestone). Date,
before 200 B.C.
3. Grey tufa period ; ashlar masonry of tufa, coated with fine white
stucco; rubble work of lava. The artistic character is still Greek,
and the period coincides with the first (incrustation) style of mural
decoration, which (probably originating in Alexandria) aimed at
1 The paintings of the house of the Vettii are perhaps the
best-preserved in Pompeii, and extremely fine in conception and
execution, especially the scenes in which Cupids take part.
the imitation in stucco of the appearance of a wall veneered with
coloured marbles. No wall paintings exist, but there are often
fine floor mosaics. To this belong a number of private houses
(e.g. the House of the Faun), and the colonnade round the forum,
the basilica, the temples of Apollo and Jupiter, the large theatre
with the colonnades of the Foro Triangoiare, and the barracks of
the gladiators, the Stabian baths, the Palaestra, the exterior of
the Porta Marina, and the interior of the other gates all the
public buildings indeed (except the Doric temple mentioned under
(l), which do not belong to the time of the Roman colony). Date,
2nd century B.C.
4. The quasi-reticulate" period walling faced with masonry
not yet quite so regular as opus reticulatum, and with brick quoins,
coinciding with the second period of decoration (the architectural,
partly imitating marble like the first style, but without relief,
and by colour only, and partly making use of architectural designs).
It is represented by the small theatre and the amphitheatre, the
baths near the forum, the temple of Zeus Milichius, the Comitium
and the original temple of Isis, but only a few private houses. The
ornamentation is much less rich and beautiful than that of the
preceding period. Date, from 80 B.C. until nearly the end of the
Republic.
5. The period from the last decades of the Republic to the
earthquake of A.D. 63. No homogeneous series of buildings we
find various styles of construction (quasi-reticulate, opus reticulatum
of tufa with stone quoins, of the time of Augustus, opus reticulatum
with brick quoins or with mingled stone and brick quoins, a little
later); and three styles of wall decoration fall within its limits.
The second, already mentioned, the third or ornate, with its freer
use of ornament and its introduction of designs which suggest
an Egyptian origin (originating in the time of Augustus), and the
fourth or intricate, dating from about A.D. 50. Marble first appears
as a building material in the temple of Fortuna Augusta (c. 3 B.C.).
6. The period from the earthquake of A.D. 63 to the final de-
struction of the city, the buildings of which can_ easily be recognized.
The only wholly new edifice of any importance' is the central baths.
Outside the Porta Ercolanese, or gate leading to Herculaneum,
is found a house of a different character from all the others, which
from its extent and arrangements was undoubtedly a suburban
villa, belonging to a person of considerable fortune. It is called
as usual without any authority the villa of Arrius Diomedes;
but its remains are of peculiar interest to us, not only for comparison
with the numerous ruins of similar buildings which occur else-
where often of greater extent, but in a much less perfect state
of preservation but as assisting us in understanding the description
of ancient authors, such as Vitruvius and Pliny, of the numerous
appurtenances frequently annexed to houses of this description.
In the cellar of this villa were discovered no less than twenty
skeletons of the unfortunate inhabitants, who had evidently fled
thither for protection, and fourteen in other parts of the house.
Almost all the skeletons and remains of bodies found in the city
were discovered in similar situations, in cellars or underground
apartments those who had sought refuge in flight having appar-
ently for the most part escaped from destruction, or having perished
under circumstances where their bodies were easily recovered by
the survivors. According to Cassius Dio, a large number of the
inhabitants were assembled in the theatre at the time of the catas-
trophe, but no bodies have been found there, and they were probably
sought for and removed shortly afterwards. Of late years it has
been found possible in many cases to take casts of the bodies found
a complete mould having been formed around them by the fine
white ashes, partially consolidated by water.
An interesting farm-house (few examples have been so far dis-
covered in Italy) is that at Boscoreale excavated in 1893-1894,
which contained the treasure of one hundred and three silver vases
now at the Louvre. The villa of P. Fannius Synhistor, not far off,
was excavated in 1900; it contained fine wall paintings, which,
despite their importance, were allowed to be exported, and sold by
auction in Paris (some now in the Louvre). (See F. Barnabei,
La Villa pompeiana di P. Fannio Sinistore; Rome, 1901.)
The road leading from the Porta Ercolanese towards Herculaneum
is bordered on both sides for a considerable extent by rows of tombs,
as was the case with all the great roads leading into Rome, and in-
deed in all large Roman towns. These tombs are in many instances
monuments of considerable pretension, and of a highly ornamental
character, and naturally present in the highest degree the peculiar
advantage common to all that remains of Pompeii, in their perfect
preservation. Hardly any scene even in this extraordinary city
is more striking than the coup d'oeil of this long street of tombs,
preserving uninjured the records of successive generations eighteen
centuries ago. Unfortunately the names are all otherwise unknown ;
but we learn from the inscriptions that they are for the most part
those of local magistrates and municipal dignitaries of Pompeii.
Most of them belong to the early empire.
There appears to have been in the same quarter a considerable
suburb, outside the gate, extending on each side of the road towards
Herculaneum, apparently much resembling those which are now
found throughout almost the whole distance from thence to
Naples. It was known by the name of Pagus Augustus Felix
POMPEY
Suburbanus. Other suburbs were situated at the harbour and at
the saltworks (salinae).
No manuscripts have been discovered in Pompeii. Inscriptions
have naturally been found in considerable numbers, and we are
indebted to them for much information concerning the municipal
arrangements of the town, as well as the construction of various
edifices and other public works. The most interesting of these
are such as are written in the Oscan dialect, which appears to have
continued in official use down to the time when the Roman colony
was introduced by Sulla. From that time the Latin language
was certainly the only one officially employed, though Oscan may
have still been spoken by a portion at least of the population.
Still more curious, and almost peculiar to Pompeii, are the numerous
writings painted upon the walls, which have generally a semi-
public character, such as recommendations of candidates for muni-
cipal offices, advertisements, &c., and the scratched inscriptions
(graffiti), which are generally the mere expression of individual
impulse and feeling, frequently amatory, and not uncommonly
conveyed in rude and imperfect verses. In one house also a whole
box was found filled with written tablets diptychs and triptychs
containing the record of the accounts of a banker named L.
Caecilius Jucundus.
See A. Mau, Pompeii: its Life and Art (trans, by F. W. Kelsey,
2nd ed., New York and London, 1902; 2nd revised edition of the
German original, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst, Leipzig, 1908), the
best general account written by the greatest authority on the subject,
to which our description owes much, with full references to other
sources of information; and, for later excavations, Notizie degli
Scavi and Romische Mitteilungen (in the latter, articles by Mau),
passim. For the inscriptions on the tablets and on the walls,
Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, vol. iv. (ed. Zangemeister and
Mau). Recent works on the Pompeian frescoes are those of Berger,
in Die Maltechnik des Alterthums, and A. P. Laurie, Creek and
Roman Methods of Painting (1910). (E. H. B. ; T. As.)
Oscan Inscriptions. The surviving inscriptions which can
be dated, mainly by the gradual changes in their alphabet, are
of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., some certainly belonging to
the Gracchan period. The oldest of the Latin inscriptions are
C.I.L. x. 794, the record of the building of colonnades in the
forum by the " quaestor " V. Popidius, and two or three
election placards (C.I.L. iv. 29, 30, 36) of one R. Caecilius, a
candidate for the same office. It cannot be an accident that
the alphabet of these inscriptions belongs distinctly to Sullan
or pre-Sullan times, while no such officer as a quaestor appears in
any later documents (e.g. in C.I.L. x. 844, it is the duoviri who
build the small theatre), but does appear in the Oscan inscrip-
tions. Hence it has been inferred that these oldest Latin inscrip-
tions are also older than Sulla's colony; if so, Latin must have
been in use, and in fairly common use (if the programmata were
to be of any service), in Pompeii at that date. On the other
hand, the good condition of many of the painted Oscan inscrip-
tions at the times when they were first uncovered (1797 onwards)
and their subsequent decay and the number of Oscan graffiti
appear to make it probable that at the Christian era Oscan was
still spoken in the town. The two languages undoubtedly
existed side by side during the last century B.C., Latin being
alone recognized officially and in society, while Oscan was
preserved mainly by intercourse with the country folk who
frequented the market. Thus beside many Latin programmala
later than those just mentioned we have similar inscriptions
in Oscan, addressed to Oscan-speaking voters, where Illlner.
obviously relates to the quattuorvirate, a title characteristic
of the Sullan and triumviral colonies. An interesting stone
containing nine cavities for measures of capacity found in
Pompeii and now preserved in the Naples Museum with Oscan
inscriptions erased in antiquity shows that the Oscan system of
measurement was modified so as to correspond more closely with
the Roman, about 14 B.C., by the duoviri, who record their
work in a Latin inscription (C.I.L. x. 793; for the Oscan see Hal.
Dial. p. 67).
, See further OSCA LINGUA, and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects,
pp. 54 sqq.; Nissen, Pompeianische Studien; J. Beloch, Campanien,
and ed. (R. S. C.)
POMPEY, the common English form of Pompeius, the name
of a Roman plebeian family.
i. GNAEUS POMPEIUS (106-48 B.C.), the triumvir, the first
of his family to assume the surname MAGNUS, was born on the
30th of September in the same year as Cicero. When only
seventeen he fought together with his father in the Social War.
He took the side of Sulla against Marius and Cinna, but for a
time, in consequence of the success of the Marians, he kept in
the background. On the return of Sulla from the Mithradatic
War Pompey joined him with an army of three legions, which
he had raised in Picenum. Thus early in life he connected
himself with the cause of the aristocracy, and a decisive victory
which he won in 83 over the Marian armies gained for him from
Sulla the title of Imperator. He followed up his successes in
Italy by defeating the Marians in Sicily and Africa, and on his
return to Rome in 81, though he was still merely an eques and
not legally qualified to celebrate a triumph, he was allowed by
general consent to enjoy this distinction, while Sulla greeted him
with the surname of Magnus, a title he always retained and
handed down to his sons. Latterly, his relations with Sulla were
somewhat strained, but after his death he resisted the attempt of
the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus to repeal the constitution. In
conjunction with A. Lutatius Catulus, the other consul, he
defeated Lepidus when he tried to march upon Rome, and drove
him out of Italy (77). With some fears and misgivings the
senate permitted him to retain the command of his victorious
army, and decided on sending him to Spain, where the Marian
party, under Sertorius, was still formidable. Pompey was
fighting in Spain from 76 to 71, and though at first he met with
serious reverses he was ultimately successful. After Sertorius
had fallen a victim to assassination, Pompey easily defeated
his successor Perperna and put an end to the war. In 71 he won
fresh glory by finally crushing the slave insurrection of Spartacus.
That same year, amid great popular enthusiasm, but without
the hearty concurrence of the senate, whom he had alarmed by
talking of restoring the dreaded power of the tribunes, he was
elected with M. Licinius Crassus to the consulship, and entered
Rome in triumph (December 31) for his Spanish victories.
He was legally ineligible for the consulship,' having held
none of the lower offices of state and being under age.
The following year saw the work of Sulla undone; the tribunate
was restored, and the administration of justice was no longer
left exclusively to the senate, but was to be shared by it with
the wealthier portion of the middle class, the equites (q.v.)
and the tribuni aerarii. 1 The change was really necessary, as
the provincials could never get justice from a court composed
of senators, and it was carried into effect by Pompey with
Caesar's aid. Pompey rose still higher in popularity, and
on the motion of the tribune Aulus Gabinius in 67 he was
entrusted with an extraordinary command over the greater
part of the empire, specially for the extermination of piracy in
the Mediterranean, by which the corn supplies of Rome were
seriously endangered, while the high prices of provisions caused
great distress. He was completely successful; the price of corn
fell immediately on his appointment, and in forty days the
Mediterranean was cleared of the pirates. Next year, on the
proposal of the tribune Manilius, his powers were still further
extended, the care of all the provinces in the East being put
under his control for three years together with the conduct of
the war against Mithradates VI., who had recovered from the
defeats he had sustained from Lucullus and regained his
dominions. Both Caesar and Cicero supported the tribune's
proposal, which was easily carried in spite of the interested
opposition of the senate and the aristocracy, several of whom
held provinces which would now be practically under Pompey's
command. The result of Pompey's operations was eminently
satisfactory. The wild tribes of the Caucasus were cowed by
the Roman arms, and Mithradates himself fled across the
Black Sea to Panticapaeum (modern Kertch). In the years
64 and 63 Syria and Palestine were annexed to Rome's empire.
After the capture of Jerusalem Pompey is said to have entered
the Temple, and even the Holy of Holies. Asia and the East
generally were left under the subjection of petty kings who were
mere vassals of Rome. Several cities had been founded which
became centres of Greek life and civilization.
Pompey, now in his forty-fifth year, returned to Italy in 61 to
1 Their history and political character is obscure; they were at any
rate connected with the knights (see AERARIUM).
POMPEY
57
celebrate the most magnificent triumph which Rome had ever
witnessed, as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia (see A.
Holm, Hist, of Greece, Eng. trans., vol. iv.). This triumph marked
the turning-point of his career. As a soldier everything had
gone well with him; as a politician he was a failure. He found
a great change in public opinion, and the people indifferent to
his achievements abroad. The optimates resented the extra-
ordinary powers that had been conferred upon him; Lucullus
and Crassus considered that they had been robbed by him of
the honour of concluding the war against Mithradates. The
senate refused to ratify the arrangements he made in Asia or
to provide money and lands for distribution amongst his
veterans. In these circumstances he drew closer to Caesar on
his return from Spain, and became reconciled to Crassus. The
result was the so-called first triumvirate (see ROME: History).
The remainder of his life is inextricably interwoven with that
of Caesar. He was married to Caesar's daughter Julia, and as
yet the relations between the two had been friendly. On more
than one occasion Caesar had supported Pompey's policy,
which of late had been in a decidedly democratic direction.
Pompey was now in fact ruler of the greater part of the empire,
while Caesar had only the two provinces of Gaul. The control
of the capital, the supreme command of the army in Italy and
of the Mediterranean fleet, the governorship of the two Spains,
the superintendence of the corn supplies, which were mainly
drawn from Sicily and Africa, and on which the vast population
of Rome was wholly dependent, were entirely in the hands of
Pompey, who was gradually losing the confidence of all political
parties in Rome. The senate and the aristocracy disliked and
distrusted him, but they felt that, should things come to the
worst, they might still find in him a champion of their cause.
Hence the joint rule of Pompey and Caesar was not unwillingly
accepted, and anything like a rupture between the two was
greatly dreaded as the sure beginning of anarchy throughout the
Roman world. With the deaths of Pompey's wife Julia (54) and
of Crassus (53) the relations between him and Caesar became
strained, and soon afterwards he drew closer to what we may
call the old conservative party in the senate and aristocracy.
The end was now near, and Pompey blundered into a false
political position and an open quarrel with Caesar. In 50 the
senate by a very large majority revoked the extraordinary
powers conceded to Pompey and Caesar in Spain and Gaul
respectively, and called upon them to disband their armies.
Pompey's refusal to submit gave Caesar a good pretext for
declaring war and marching at the head of his army into
Italy. At the beginning of the contest the advantages were
decidedly on the side of Pompey, but the superior political
tact of his rival, combined with extraordinary promptitude and
decision in following up his blows, soon turned the scale against
him. Pompey's cause, with that of the senate and aristocracy,
was finally ruined by his defeat in 48 in the neighbourhood of the
Thessalian city Pharsalus. That same year he fled with the
hope of finding a safe refuge in Egypt, but was treacherously
murdered by one of his old centurions as he was landing. He
was five times married, and three of his children survived him
Gnaeus, Sextus, and a daughter Pompeia.
Pompey, though he had some great and good qualities,
hardly deserved his surname of " the Great." He was certainly
a very good soldier, and is said to have excelled in all athletic
exercises, but he fell short of being a first-rate general. He
won great successes in Spain and more especially in the East,
but for these he was no doubt partly indebted to what others had
already done. Of the gifts which make a good statesman he
had really none. As plainly appeared in the last years of his
life, he was too weak and irresolute to choose a side and stand
by it. But to his credit be it said that in a corrupt time he
never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion, and
his domestic life was pure and simple.
AUTHORITIES. Ancient: Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Casstus; Appian;
Velleius Paterculus; Caesar, De hello civtli; Strabo xii., 555-s6o-
Cicero, passim; Lucan, Pharsalia.
Modern: Histories of Rome in general (see ROME: Ancient
History, ad fin.); works quoted under CAESAR and CICERO. Also
G. Boissicr, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans., A. D. Jones, 1897);
J. L. Strachan-Davidson's Cicero (1894); Warde Fowler's Julius
Caesar (1892); C. VV. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later
Republic (1902); notes in Tyrrell and Purser's Correspondence of
Cicero (see index in vii. 80).
2. GNAEUS POMPEIUS, surnamed Strabo (squint-eyed),
Roman statesman, father of the triumvir. He was successively
quaestor in Sardinia (103 B.C.), praetor (94), propraetor in
Sicily (93) and consul (89). He fought with success in the
Social War, and was awarded a triumph for his services.
Probably towards the end of the same year he brought forward
the law (lex Pompeia de Gallia Transpadana), which conferred
upon the inhabitants of that region the privileges granted to
the Latin colonies. During the civil war between Marius and
Sulla he seems to have shown no desire to attach himself
definitely to either side. He certainly set out for Rome from the
south of Italy (where he remained as proconsul) at the bidding
of the aristocratic party, when the city was threatened by
Marius and Cinna, but he displayed little energy, and the engage-
ment which he fought before the Colline gate, although hotly
contested, was indecisive. Soon afterwards he was killed by
lightning (87). Although he possessed great military talents,
Pompeius was the best-hated general of his time -owing to his
cruelty, avarice and perfidy. His body was dragged from the
bier, while being conveyed to the funeral pile, and treated with
the greatest indignity.
See Plutarch, Pompey, i; Appian, Bell. civ. i. 50, 52, 66-68, 80;
Veil. Pat. ii. 21 ; Livy, Epit. 74-79; Florus iii. 18.
3. GNAEUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (c. 75-45 B.C.), the elder son of
the triumvir. In 48 B.C. during the civil war he commanded
his father's fleet in the Adriatic. After the battle of Pharsalus
he set out for Africa with the remainder of the Pompeian party,
but, meeting with little success, crossed over to Spain. Having
been joined by his brother Sextus, he collected a considerable
army, the numbers of which were increased by the Pompeians
who fled from Africa after the battle of Thapsus (46). Caesar,
who regarded him as a formidable opponent, set out against
him in person. A battle took place at Munda on the I7th of
March 45, in which the brothers were defeated. Gnaeus
managed to make his escape after the engagement, but was
soon (April 12) captured and put to death. He was generally
unpopular owing to his cruelty and violent temper.
See Pseudo-Oppius, Bellum hispaniense, 1-39; Lucan, Pharsalia,
ix. 120; Dio Cassius xliii. 28-40.
4. SEXTUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (75-35 B.C.), the younger son
of the triumvir. After his father's death he continued the
struggle against the new rulers of the Roman Empire. From
Cyprus, where he had taken refuge, he made his way to Africa,
and after the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus (46) crossed
over to Spain. After Caesar's victory at the battle of Munda
(45), in which he took no actual part, he abandoned Corduba
(Cordova), though for a time he held his ground in the south,
and defeated Asinius Pollio, the governor of the province. In
43, the year of the triumvirate of Octavius, Antony, and
Lepidus, he was proscribed along with the murderers of Caesar,
and, not daring to show himself in Italy, he put himself at the
head of a fleet manned chiefly by slaves or proscribed persons,
with which he made himself master of Sicily, and from thence
ravaged the coasts of Italy. Rome was threatened with a
famine, as the corn supplies from Egypt and Africa were cut
off by his ships, and it was thought prudent to negotiate a peace
with him at Misenum (39) , which was to leave him in possession
of Sicily, Sardinia and Achaea, provided he would allow Italy
to be freely supplied with corn. But the arrangement could
not be carried into effect, as Sextus renewed the war and gained
some considerable successes at sea. However, in 36 his fleet
was defeated and destroyed by Agrippa at Naulochus off the
north coast of Sicily. After his defeat he fled to Mytilene, and
from there to Asia Minor. In the attempt to make his way to
Armenia he was taken prisoner by Antony's troops, and put to
death at Miletus. Like his father, he was a brave soldier, but
a man of little culture.
POMPIGNAN POMPTINE MARSHES
See Dio Cassius, xlvi-xlix. ; Appian, Bell. civ. iv. 84-117, v.
2-143; Veil. Pat. ii. 73-87; Plutarch, Antony; Livy, Epit. 123
128, 129, 131; Cicero, Philippica, xiii., and many references in
Letters to Atticus.
POMPIGNAN, JEAN JACQUES LEFRANC, MARQUIS DE (1700-
1784), French poet, was born on the i7th of August 1709, al
Montauban, where his father was president of the cour d.es aides
and the son, who also followed the profession of the law, suc-
ceeded in 1745 to the same charge. The same year he was also
appointed conseiller d'honneur of the parlement of Toulouse
but his courageous opposition to the abuses of the royal power
especially in .the matter of taxation, brought down upon him
so much vexation that he resigned his positions almost immedi-
ately, his marriage with a rich woman enabling him to devote
himself to literature. His first play, Didon (1734), which owec
much to Metastasio's opera on the same subject, gained a great
success, and gave rise to expectations not fulfilled by the Adieux
de Mars (i 735) and some light operas that followed. His reputa-
tion was made by Poesies sacrees et philosophiques (1734), much
mocked at by Voltaire who punned on the title: " Sacres Us
sont, car personne n'y louche." Lefranc's odes on profane sub-
jects hardly reach the same level, with the exception of the ode
on the death of J. B. Rousseau, which secured him entrance to
the Academy (1760). On his reception he made an ill-con-
sidered oration violently attacking the Encyclopaedists, many
of whom were in his audience and had given him their votes.
Lefranc soon had reason to repent of his rashness, for the
epigrams and stories circulated by those whom he had attacked
made it impossible for him to remain in Paris, and he took
refuge in his native town, where he spent the rest of his life
occupied in making numerous translations from the classics,
none of great merit.
La Harpe, who is severe enough on Lefranc in his correspondence,
does his abilities full justice in his Cours litteraire, and ranks him
next to J. B. Rousseau among French lyric poets. With those
of other 18th-century poets his works may be studied in the Petits
ponies franfais (1838) of M. Prosper Poitevin. His (Euvres com-
pletes (4 vols.) were published in 1781, selections (2 vols.) in 1800,
1813, 1822.
His brother, JEAN GEORGES LEFRANC DE POMPIGNAN (1715-
1790), was the archbishop of Vienne against whose defence of
the faith Voltaire launched the good-natured mockery of Les
Letlres d'un Quaker. Elected to the Estates General, he passed
over to the Liberal side, and led the 149 members of the clergy
who united with the third estate to form the National Assembly.
He was one of its first presidents, and was minister of public
worship when the civil constitution was forced upon the clergy.
POMPONAZZI, PIETRO (PETRUS POMPONATIUS) (1462-1525),
Italian philosopher, was born at Mantua on the i6th of Sep-
tember 1462, and died at Bologna on the i8th of May 1525. His
education, begun at Mantua, was completed at Padua, where he
became doctor of medicine in 1487. In 1488 he was elected
extraordinary professor of philosophy at Padua, where he was
a colleague of Achillini, the Averroist. From about 1495 to
1509 he occupied the chair of natural philosophy until the
closing of the schools of Padua, when he took a professorship
at Ferrara where he lectured on the De anima. In 1512 he
was invited to Bologna where he remained till his death and
where he produced ah 1 his important works. The predominance
of medical science at Padua had cramped his energies, but at
Ferrara, and even more at Bologna, the study of psychology
and theological speculation were more important. In 1516 he
produced his great work De immortalilate animi, which gave
rise to a storm of controversy between the orthodox Thomists
of the Catholic Church, the Averroists headed by Agostino
Nifo, and the so-called Alexandrist School. The treatise was
burned at Venice, and Pomponazzi himself ran serious risk of
death at the hands of the Catholics. Two pamphlets followed,
the Apologia and the Defensorium, wherein he explained his
paradoxical position as Catholic and philosophic materialist.
His last two treatises, the De incantationibus and the De fato,
were posthumously published in an edition of his works printed
at Basel.
Pomponazzi is profoundly interesting as the herald of the
Renaissance. He was born in the period of transition when
scholastic formalism was losing its hold over men both in the
Church and outside. Hitherto the dogma of the Church had
been based on Aristotle as interpreted by Thomas Aquinas.
So close was this identification that any attack on Aristotle, or
even an attempt to reopen the old discussions on the Aristo-
telian problems, was regarded as a dangerous heresy. Pom-
ponazzi claimed the right to study Aristotle for himself, and
devoted himself to the De anima with the view of showing that
Thomas Aquinas had entirely misconceived the Aristotelian
theory of the active and the passive intellect. The Averroists had
to some extent anticipated this attitude by their contention that
immortality does not imply the eternal separate existence of
the individual soul, that the active principle which is common
to all men alone survives. Pomponazzi's revolt went further
than this. He held, with Alexander of Aprodisias, that, as
the soul is the form of the body (as Aquinas also asserted), it
must, by hypothesis, perish with the body; form apart from
matter is unthinkable. The ethical consequence of such a
view is important, and in radical contrast to the practice of the
period. Virtue can no longer be viewed solely in relation to
reward and punishment in another existence. A new sanction
is required. Pomponazzi found this criterion in TOV /caXoO evtKa
virtue for its own sake. " Praemium essentiale virtutis est
ipsamet virtus quae hominem felicem facit," he says in the De
immorlalilale. Consequently, whether or not the soul be im-
mortal, the ethical criterion remains the same: " Neque aliquo
pacto declinandum est a virtute quicquid accidat post mortem."
In spite of this philosophical materialism, Pomponazzi declared
his adherence to the Catholic faith, and thus established the
principle that religion and philosophy, faith and knowledge,
may be diametrically opposed and yet coexist for the same
thinker. This curious paradox he exemplifies in the De incanta-
tione, where in one breath he sums up against the existence
of demons and spirits on the basis of the Aristotelian theory of
the cosmos, and, as a believing Christian, asserts his faith in
their existence. In this work he insists emphatically upon the
orderly sequence of nature, cause and effect. Men grow to
maturity and then decay; so- religions have their day and
succumb. Even Christianity, he added (with the usual proviso
that he is speaking as a philosopher) was showing indications
of decline.
See A. H. Douglas, Philosophy and Psychology of Pietro Pompo-
nazzi (1910); also Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophie; J. A. Symonds,
The Renaissance in Italy; Windelband, History of Philosophy
(trans, by James H. Tufts, pt. 4, c. l); J. Burckhardt, Die Kultur
der Renaissance in Italien; L. Ferri, La Psicologia di P. Pom-
ponazzi. (j. M. M.)
POMPONIUS, LUCIUS, called Bononiensis from his birthplace
Bononia, Latin comic poet, flourished about 90 B.C. (or earlier).
He was the first to give an artistic form to the Atellanae
Fabulae by arranging beforehand the details of the plot which
had hitherto been left to improvisation, and providing a written
text. The fragments show fondness for alliteration and playing
upon words, skill in the use of rustic and farcical language,
and a considerable amount of obscenity.
Fragments in O. Ribbeck, Scenicae romanorum poesis fragmenla
(1897-1898); see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. iv. ch. 13;
Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. tr.), 151.
POMPOSA, an abbey of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
Ferrara, 2 m. from Codigoro, which is 30 m. E. of Ferrara in the
delta of the Po. The fine church, a work of the loth (?) century,
with interesting sculptures on the facade and a splendid Roma-
nesque campanile, contains a good mosaic pavement, and interest-
ng frescoes of the i4th century a " Last Judgment " of the
school of Giotto and others; and there are also paintings in the
refectory. It was abandoned in 1550 on account of malaria.
See G. Agnelli, Ferrara e Pomposa (Bergamo, 1902). (T. As.)
POMPTINE MARSHES, a low tract of land in the province of
iome, Italy, varying in breadth between the Volscian mountains
and the sea from 10 to 16 m., and extending N.W. to S.E. from
PONANI PONCHIELLI
59
Velletri to Terracina (40 m.). In ancient days this low tract
was fertile and well-cultivated, and contained several prosperous
cities (Sue.ssa Pometia, Ulubrae perhaps the mod. Cisterna
&c.), but, owing to the dying out of the small proprietors, it
had already become unhealthy at the end of the Republican
period. Attempts to drain the marshes were made by Appius
Claudius in 312 B.C., when he constructed the Via Appia through
them (the road having previously followed a devious course at
the foot of the Volscian mountains), and at various times
during the Roman period. A canal ran through them parallel
to the road, and for some reason that is not altogether clear it
was used in preference to the road during the Augustan period.
Trajan repaired the road, and Theodoric did the same some
four hundred years later. But in the middle ages it had fallen
into disrepair. Popes Boniface VIII., Martin V., Sixtus V.,
and Pius VI. all attempted to solve the problem, the last-named
reconstructing the road admirably. The difficulty arises from
the lack of fall in the soil, some parts no less than 10 m. from
the coast being barely above sea-level, while they are separated
from the sea by a series of sand-hills now covered with forest,
which rise at some points over 100 ft. above sea-level. Springs
also rise in the district, and the problem is further complicated
by the flood-water and solid matter brought down by the
mountain torrents, which choke up the channels made. By
a law passed in 1899, the proprietors are bound to arrange for
the safe outlet of the water from the mountains, keep the exist-
ing canals open, and reclaim the district exposed to inundation,
within a period of twenty-four years. The sum of 280,000 has
been granted towards the expense by the government.
See T. Berti, Paludi pontine (Rome, 1884); R. de la Blanchere,
Un Chapitre d'histoire pontine (Paris, 1889). (T. As.)
PONANI, a seaport on the west coast of India, in Malabar
district, Madras, at a mouth of a river of the same name. Pop.
(1901), 10,562. It is the headquarters of the Moplah or Map-
pilla community of Mahommedans, with a religious college and
many mosques, one of which is said to date from 1510. There
is a large export of coco-nut products.
PONCA, a tribe of North-American Indians of Siouan stock.
They were originally part of the Omaha tribe, with whom they
lived near the Red River of the North. They were driven
westward by the Dakotas, and halted on the Ponca river,
Dakota. After a succession of treaties and removals they were
placed on a reservation at the mouth of the Niobrara, where
they were prospering, when their lands were forcibly taken from
them, and they were removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma).
During the march thither and in their new quarters, the tribe's
health suffered, so that in 1878 they revolted and made their
way back to the Omahas. They were recaptured, but public
attention having been drawn to their hard case they were
liberated in 1880, after a long trial, which resulted in their
being declared United States citizens. They number some
700, mostly in Oklahoma.
PONCE, a seaport and the second largest city of Porto Rico,
the seat of government of the Department of Ponce, on the
south coast, about 50 m. (84 m. by the military road) S.W. of San
Juan. Pop. (1899), 27,952, of whom 2554 were negroes and
9942 of mixed races; (1910), 35,027. It is served by the American
Railroad of Porto Rico, by a railway to Guayama (1910), and by
steamboats from numerous ports; an old military road connects
it with San Juan. Ponce consists of two parts: Ponce, or the
city proper, and Ponce Playa, or the seaport ; they are separated
by the Portuguese River and ate connected by an electric street
railway. Ponce Playa is on a spacious bay and is accessible to
vessels drawing 25 ft. of water; Ponce is 2 m. inland at the
interior margin of a beautiful plain, with hills in the rear rising
to a height of 1000 to 2000 ft. The city is supplied with water
by an aqueduct about 2 m. long. There are two attractive
public squares in the heart of the city: Plaza Principal and Plaza
de las Delicias. Among prominent public buildings are the
city hall, the custom-house, the Pearl theatre, several churches
Roman Catholic (including a finely decorated cathedral) and
Protestant; St Luke's hospital and insane asylum, an asylum
for the blind, a ladies' asylum, a home for the indigent and
aged, and a military barracks. At the Quintana Baths near the
city are thermal springs with medicinal properties. The
surrounding country is devoted chiefly to the cultivation of
sugar cane, tobacco, oranges and cacao, and to the grazing of
cattle. Among the manufactures are sugar, molasses, rum,
and ice, and prepared coffee for the market. Ponce, named in
honour of Ponce de Leon, was founded in 1752 upon the site of
a settlement which had been established in the preceding century,
was incorporated as a town in 1848, and was'made a city in
1878.
PONCELET, JEAN VICTOR (1788-1867), French mathe-
matician and engineer, was born at Metz on the ist of July
1788. From 1808 to 1810 he attended the fole poly technique,
and afterwards, till 1812, the cole d'applicalion at Metz. He
then became lieutenant of engineers, and took part in the
Russian campaign, during which he was taken prisoner and was
confined at Saratov on the Volga. It was during his imprison-
ment here that, " priv6 de toute espece de livres et de secours,
surtout distrait par les malheurs de ma patrie et les miens
propres," as he himself puts it, he began his researches on pro-
jective geometry which led to his great treatise on that subject.
This work, the Traile des proprieties projectiles des figures, which
was published in 1822 (zd ed., 2 vols. 1865-1866), is occupied
with the investigation of the projective properties of figures (see
GEOMETRY). This work entitles Poncelet to rank as one of the
greatest of those who took part in the development of the
modern geometry of which G. Monge was the founder. From
1815 to 1825 he was occupied with military engineering at
Metz; and from 1825 to 1835 he was professor of mechanics at
the cole d'applicalion there. In 1826, in his Mimoire sur les
roues hydrauliques a aubes courbes, he brought forward im-
provements in the construction of water-wheels, which more
than doubled their efficiency. In 1834 he became a member of
the Academic; from 1838 to 1848 he was professor to the
faculty of sciences at Paris, and from 1848 to 1850 comman-
dant of the cole poly technique. At the London International
Exhibition of 1851 he had charge of the department of
machinery, and wrote a report on the machinery and tools on
view at that exhibition. He died at Paris on the 23rd of
December 1867.
See J. Bertrand, Aloge historique de Poncelet (Paris, 1875).
PONCHER, ETIENNE DE (1446-1524), French prelate and
diplomatist. After studying law he was early provided with
a prebend, and became councillor at the parlement of Paris
in 1485 and president of the Chambre des Enquetes in 1498.
Elected bishop of Paris in 1503 at the instance of Louis XII.,
he was entrusted by the king with diplomatic missions in
Germany and Italy. After being appointed chancellor of the
duchy of Milan, he became keeper of the seals of France in 1512,
and retained that post until the accession of Francis I., who
employed him on various diplomatic missions. Poncher
became archbishop of Sens in 1519. His valuable Constitutions
synodales was published in 1514.
PONCHIELLI, AMILCARE (1834-1886), Italian musical
composer, was born near Cremona on the ist of September 1834.
He studied at the Milan Conservatoire. His first dramatic
work, written in collaboration with two other composers, was
// Sindaco Babbeo (1851). After completing his studies at
Milan he returned to Cremona, where his opera / Promessi
sposi was produced in 1856. This was followed by La Savoyards
(1861, produced in a revised version as Line in 1877), Roderigo,
re dei Goti (1864), and La Stella del monte (1867). A revised
version of I Promessi sposi, which was produced at Milan in
1872, was his first genuine success. After this came a ballet,
Le Due Gemelle (1873), and an opera, I Liluani (1874, produced
in a revised version as Alduna in 1884). Ponchielli reached the
zenith of his fame with La Gioconda (1876), written to a libretto
founded by Arrigo Boito upon Victor Hugo's tragedy, Angela,
Tyran de Padoue. La Gioconda was followed by // Figliuol
prodigo (1880) and Marion Delorme (1885). Among his less
6o
PONCHO PONIARD
important works are II Parlatore eterno, a musical farce (1873),
and a ballet, Clarina (1873). In 1881 Ponchielli was made
maestro di cappella of Piacenza Cathedral. His music shows
the influence of Verdi, but at its best it has a distinct value of
its own, and an inexhaustible flow of typically Italian melody.
His fondness for fanciful figures in his accompaniments has
been slavishly imitated by Mascagni, Leoncavallo, and many of
their contemporaries. Ponchielli died at Milan on the i7th
of January 1886.
PONCHO (a South American Spanish word, adopted from the
Araucanian poncho or pontho in the i7th century), a form of
cloak worn originally by the South American Indians, and
afterwards adopted by the Spaniards living in South America.
It is merely a long strip of cloth, doubled, with a hole for the
head.
POND, JOHN (c. 1767-1836), English astronomer-royal, was
born about 1767 in London, where his father made a fortune
in trade. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age
of sixteen, but took no degree, his course being interrupted by
severe pulmonary attacks which compelled a long residence
abroad. In 1800 he settled at Westbury near Bristol, and
began to determine star-places with a fine altitude and azimuth
circle of 25 ft. diameter by E. Troughton. His demonstration
in 1806 (Phil. Trans, xcvi. 420) of a change of form in the
Greenwich mural quadrant led to the introduction of astro-
nomical circles at the Royal Observatory, and to his own appoint-
ment as its head. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
on the 26th of February 1807; he married and went to live in
London in the same year, and in 1811 succeeded Maskelyne as
astronomer-royal.
During an administration of nearly twenty-five years Pond
effected a reform of practical astronomy in England comparable
to that effected by Bessel in Germany. In 1821 he began to
employ the method of observation by reflection; and in 1825
he devised means (see Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. ii. 499) of combin-
ing two mural circles in the determination of the place of a single
object, the one serving for direct and the other for reflected
vision. Under his auspices the instrumental equipment at
Greenwich was completely changed, and the number of assis-
tants increased from one to six. The superior accuracy of his
determinations was attested by S. C. Chandler's discussion of
them in 1894, in the course of his researches into the variation
of latitude (Astron. Journ. Nos. 313, 315). He persistently con-
troverted (1810-1824) the reality of J. Brinkley's imaginary
star-parallaxes (Phil. Trans, cviii. 477, cxiii. 53). Delicacy of
health compelled his retirement in the autumn of 1835. He
died at Blackheath on the 7th of September 1836, and was
buried beside Halley in the churchyard of Lee. The Copley
medal was conferred upon him in 1823, and the Lalande prize
in 1817 by the Paris Academy, of which he was a corresponding
member. He published eight folio volumes of Greenwich
Observations, translated Laplace's Systeme du monde (in 2 vols.
8vo., 1809), and contributed thirty -one papers to scientific
collections. His catalogue of 1112 stars (1833) was of great
value.
See Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. x. 357; Proc. Roy. Soc. iii. 434;
Penny Cyclopaedia (De Morgan); F. W. Bessel, Pop. Vorlesungen,
p. 543; Report Brit. Assoc. i. 128, 136 (Airy); Sir G. Airy's
Autobiography, p. 127; Observatory, xiii. 204, xxii. 357; Annual
Biography and Obituary (1837); R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astron.
p. 491 ; Royal Society's Cat. Scient. Papers.
POND, a small pool or body of standing water, a word often
applied to one for which the bed has been artificially constructed.
The word is a variant of " pound " (q.v.), an enclosure.
PONDICHERRY, the capital of the French possessions in
India, situated on the Coromandel or western coast, 122 m. by
rail S. of Madras. The territory, which is entirely surrounded
by the British district of South Arcot, has an area of 115 sq. m.
with a population (1901) of 174,456. The chief crops are dry
grains, rice, earth-nuts and a little indigo. The territory is
traversed by a branch of the South Indian railway from Villa-
puram. The town has a population of 27,448. It is well laid
out with fine public buildings; the water-supply is derived from
artesian wells. It has an open roadstead, with a small iron
pier. The port is visited yearly by 500 vessels, and has trade
of the value of about some 1,300,000. The principal imports
are areca-nuts, wines and liqueurs, and the chief exports ground-
nuts, oil, cotton fabrics and rice. Of the export trade more
than one-half is with France, but of the import trade only one-
fourth. The weaving of various fabrics forms the principal
industry.
Pondicherry was founded in 1683 by Francois Martin, on the
site of a village given him by the governor of Gingee. In 1693
the Dutch took Pondicherry, but restored it, with the fortifica-
tions greatly improved, in 1697, at the peace of Ryswick. In
1748 Admiral Boscawen laid siege to. it without success, but in
1761 it was taken by Colonel Coote from Lally. In 1763 it
was restored to the French. In 1778 it was again taken by
Sir Hector Munro, and its fortifications destroyed. In 1783
it was retransf erred to the French, and in 1793 recaptured by
the English. The treaty of Amiens in 1802 restored it to the
French, but it was retaken in 1803. In 1816 it was finally
restored to the French.
PONDO, a Kaffir people who have given their name to Pondo-
land, the country comprising much of the seaboard of Kaffraria,
Cape province, immediately to the south-west of Natal. The
Pondo, who number about 200,000, are divided into several
tribal groups, but the native government, since the annexation
of the country to Cape Colony in 1894, has been subject to the
control of the colonial authorities. (See KAFFIRS.)
PONDWEED, a popular name for Potamogeton nalans, a
cosmopolitan aquatic plant found in ponds, lakes and ditches,
with broad, more or less oblong-ovate, olive-green, floating
leaves. The name is also applied to other species of Potamo-
geton, one of the characteristic genera of lakes, ponds and streams
all over the world, but more abundant in temperate regions.
It is the principal genus of the natural order of Monocotyledous
Potamogetonaceae, and contains plants with slender branched
stems, and submerged and translucent, or floating and opaque,
alternate or opposite leaves, often with membranous united
stipules. The small flowers are borne above the water in
(After Wossidlo. From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik.)
Potamogeton natans.
1, Apex of flowering shoot. 3, Flower viewed from the side.
2, Flower viewed from above. 4, Diagram of flower.
axillary or terminal spikes; they have four stamens, which bear
at the back four small herbaceous petal-like structures, and
four free carpels, which ripen to form four small green fleshy
fruits, each containing one seed within a hard inner coat;
the seed contains a large hooked embryo. An allied genus
Zannichellia (named after Zanichelli, a Venetian botanist),
occurring in fresh and brackish ditches and pools in Britain,
and also widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions,
is known as horned pondweed, from the curved fruit.
PONIARD, a dagger, particularly one of small size, used for
stabbing at close quarters. The French word poignard, from
PONIATOWSKI PONS
61
which the English is a 16th-century adaptation, is formed from
poing, fist, the clenched hand in which the weapon is grasped.
(See DAGGER.)
PONIATOWSKI, the name of a Polish princely family of
Italian origin, tracing descent from Giuseppe Torelli, who
married about 1650 an heiress of the Lithuanian family of
Poniator, whose name he assumed.
The first of the Poniatowskis to distinguish himself was
STANISLAUS PONIATOWSKI (1677-1762), who only belonged to
the family by adoption, being the reputed son of Prince Sapieha
and a Jewess. He was born at Dereczyn in Lithuania, and was
adopted by Sapieha's intendant, Poniatowski. With his father
he attached himself to the party of Stanislaus Leszczynski, and
became major-general in the army of Charles XII. of Sweden.
After the defeat of Pultowa he conveyed Charles XII. across
the Dnieper, and remained with him at Bender. From there
he was sent to Constantinople, where he extracted from the
sultan Achmet III. a promise to march to Moscow. When the
grand vizier, Baltagi Mehemet, permitted the tsar Peter I. to
retreat unharmed from the banks of the Pruth, Poniatowski
exposed his treason. He rejoined Leszczynski in the duchy
of Zweibriicken, Bavaria, of which he became governor.
After the death of Charles XII. in 1718 he visited Sweden;
and was subsequently reconciled with Leszczynski's rival on
the throne of Poland, Augustus II., who made him grand
treasurer of Lithuania in 1724. On the death of Augustus II.
he tried to secure the reinstatement of Leszczynski, who then
resumed his claims to the Polish crown. He was taken prisoner
at Danzig by the Russians, and presently gave his allegiance
to Augustus III., by whom he was made governor of Cracow.
He died at Ryki on the 3rd of August 1762.
His second son Stanislaus Augustus became king of Poland
(see STANISLAUS II.). Of the other sons, Casimir (1721-1780)
was his brother's chancellor; Andrew (1735-1773) entered the
Austrian service, rising to the rank of feldzeugmeister; and
Michael (1736-1794) became archbishop of Gnesen and primate
of Poland. Joseph Anthony Poniatowski (q.i).}, son of Andrew,
became one of Napoleon's marshals.
STANISLAUS PONIATOWSKI (1757-1833), son of Casimir,
shared in the aggrandisement of the family during the reign of
Stanislaus II., becoming grand treasurer of Lithuania, starost
of Podolia and lieutenant-general of the royal army. In 1793
he settled in Vienna, and subsequently in Rome, where he made
a magnificent collection of antique gems in his house on the
Via Flaminia. This collection was sold at Christie's in London
in May 1839. He died in Florence on the I3th of February
1833, and with him the Polish and Austrian honours became
extinct.
His natural, but recognized, son, JOSEPH MICHAEL XAVTER
FRANCIS JOHN PONIATOWSKI (1816-1873), w s born at Rome
and in 1847 was naturalized as a Tuscan subject. He received
the title of prince in Tuscany (1847) and in Austria (1850).
He had studied music under Ceccherini at Florence, and wrote
numerous operas, in the first of which, Giovanni di Procida,
he sang the title rdle himself at Lucca in 1838. He represented
the court of Tuscany in Paris from 1848, and he was made a
senator by Napoleon III., whom he followed to England in
1871. His last opera, Gelmina, was produced at Covent Garden
in 1872. He died on the 3rd of July 1873, and was buried at
Chislehurst. His son, Prince Stanislaus Augustus, married and
settled in Paris. He was equerry to Napoleon III., and died
in January 1908.
PONIATOWSKI, JOSEPH ANTHONY (1763-1813), ^ Polish
prince and marshal of France, son of Andrew PoniatowskiVnd the
countess Theresa Kinsky, was born at Warsaw in 1763. Adopt-
ing a military career, he joined the Imperial army when Austria
declared war against the Turks in 1788, and distinguished
himself at the storming of Sabac on the 25th of April, where
he was seriously wounded. Recalled by his uncle King Stanis-
laus when the Polish army was reorganized, he received the rank
of major-general, and subsequently that of lieutenant-general,
and devoted himself zealously to the improvement of the
national forces. In 1789, when Poland was threatened by the
armed intervention of Russia, he was appointed commander of
the Ukraine division at Braclaw on Bug. After the proclama-
tion of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 he was
appointed commander-in-chief, with instructions to guard the
banks of the Dniester and Dnieper. On the outbreak of the
war with Russia, Prince Joseph, aided by Kosciuszko, displayed
great ability. Obliged constantly to retreat, but disputing
every point of vantage, he turned on the pursuer whenever
he pressed too closely, and won several notable victories. At
Polonna the Russians were repulsed with the loss of 3000 men;
at Dubienka the line of the Bug was defended for five days
against fourfold odds; at Zielence the Poles won a still more
signal victory. Finally the Polish arms converged upon Warsaw,
and were preparing for a general engagement when a courier
from the capital informed the generals that the king had acceded
to the confederation of Targowica (see POLAND: History) and
had at the same time guaranteed the adhesion of the army.
All hostilities were therefore to be suspended. After an indig-
nant but fruitless protest, Poniatowski and most of the other
generals threw up their commissions and emigrated. During
the Kosciuszko rising he again fought gallantly for his country
under his former subordinate, and after the fall of the republic
resided as a private citizen at Warsaw for the next ten years.
After Jena and the evacuation of the Polish provinces by
Prussia, Poniatowski was offered the command of the National
Guard; he set about reorganizing the Polish army, and on the
creation of the grand duchy of Warsaw was nominated war
minister. During the war of 1809, when an Austrian army
corps under the archduke Ferdinand invaded the grand duchy,
Poniatowski encountered them at the bloody battle of Radzyn,
and though compelled to abandon Warsaw ultimately forced
the enemy to evacuate the grand duchy, and captured Cracow.
In Napoleon's campaign against Russia in 1812 Poniatowski
commanded the fifth army corps; and after the disastrous
retreat of the grand army, when many of the Poles began to waver
in their allegiance to Napoleon, Poniatowski remained faithful
and formed a new Polish army of 13,000 men with which he
joined the emperor at Lutzen. In the campaign of 1813 he
guarded the passes of the Bohemian mountains and defended
the left bank of the Elbe. As a reward for his brilliant services
at the three days' battle of Leipzig he was made a marshal of
France and entrusted with the honourable but dangerous duty
of covering the retreat of the army. Poniatowski heroically
defended Leipzig, losing half his corps in the attempt, finally
falling back slowly upon the bridge over the Elster which the
French in the general confusion blew up before he reached it.
Contesting every step with the overwhelming forces of the
pursuers, he refused to surrender, and covered with wounds
plunged into the river, where he died fighting to the last. His
relics were conveyed to Poland and buried in Cracow Cathedral,
where he lies by the side of Tadeusz Kosciuszko and Jan Sobieski.
Poniatowski's M es souvenirs sur la campagne de 1792 (Lemberg,
1863) is a valuable historical document.
See Stanislaw Kostka Boguslawski, Life of Prince Joseph Ponia-
towski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1831); Franciszek Paszkowski, Prince Joseph
Poniatowski (Pol.; Cracow, 1808); Correspondence of Poniatowski
(ed. E. Raczynski, Posen, 1843); Bronislaw Dembinski, Stanislaus
Augustus and Prince Joseph Poniatowski in the light of their Corre-
spondence (Fr.; Lemberg, 1904); Szymon Askenazy, Prince
Joseph Poniatowski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1905). (R. N. B.)
PONS, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1831), French astronomer, was
born at Peyres (Hautes Alpes) on the 24th of December 1761.
He entered the Marseilles observatory in 1789, and in 1819
became the director of the new observatory at Marlia near
Lucca, which he left in 1825 for the observatory of the museum
at Florence. Here he died on the i4th of October 1831.
Between 1801 and 1827 Pons discovered thirty-seven comets, one
of which (observed on the 26th of November 1818) was named
after J. F. Encke, who determined its remarkably short period.
See M. R. A. Henrion, Annuaire biographique, i. 288 (Paris, 1834);
Memoirs Roy. Astron. Soc. v. 410; R. Wolf, Geschichte der
Astronomie, p. 709; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. lit. Handwdrterbuch.
PONSARD PONTANUS
PONSARD, FRANQOIS (1814-1867), French dramatist, was
born at Vienne, department of Isere, on the ist of June 1814.
He was bred a lawyer, and his first performance in literature
was a translation of Manfred (1837). His play Lucrece was
represented at the Thedtre Francois on the ist of April 1843.
This date is a kind of epoch in literature and dramatic
history, because it marked a reaction against the romantic
style of Dumas and Hugo. He received in 1845 the prize
awarded by the Academy for a tragedy " to oppose a dike to
the waves of romanticism." Ponsard adopted the liberty of
the romantics with regard to the unities of time and place, but
he reverted to the more sober style of earlier French drama.
The tastes and capacities of the greatest tragic actress of the
day, Rachel, suited his methods, and this contributed greatly
to his own popularity. He followed up Lucrece with Agnes de
Meranie (1846), Charlotte Corday (1850), and others. Ponsard
accepted the empire, though with no very great enthusiasm,
and received the post of librarian to the senate, which, however,
he soon resigned, fighting a bloodless duel with a journalist on
the subject. L'Honneur el I'argent, one of his most successful
plays, was acted in 1853, and he became an Academician in
1855. For some years he did little, but in 1866 he obtained
great success with Le Lion amoureux, another play dealing with
the revolutionary epoch. His Galilee, which excited great
opposition in the clerical camp, was produced early in 1867.
He died in Paris on the 7th of July of the same year, soon after
his nomination to the commandership of the Legion of Honour.
Most of Ponsard's plays hold a certain steady level of literary
and dramatic ability, but his popularity is in the main due to
the fact that his appearance coincided with a certain public
weariness of the extravagant and unequal style of 1830.
His CEuvres completes were published in Paris (3 vols., 1865-
1876). See La Fin du theatre romantique et Francois Ponsard d'apres
des documents inedits (1899), by C. Latreille.
PONSONBY, JOHN (1713-1789), Irish politician, second son
of Brabazon Ponsonby, ist earl of Bessborough, was born on
the 2gth of March 1713. In 1739 he entered the Irish parliament
and in 1744 he became first commissioner of the revenue; in
1746 he was appointed a privy councillor, and in 1756 Speaker
of the Irish House of Commons. Belonging to one of the great
families which at this time monopolized the government of
Ireland, Ponsonby was one of the principal " undertakers," men
who controlled the whole of the king's business in Ireland, and
he retained the chief authority until the marquess Townshend
became lord-lieutenant in 1767. Then followed a struggle
for supremacy between the Ponsonby faction and the party
dependent on Townshend, one result of this being that Ponsonby
resigned the speakership in 1771. He died on the I2th of
December 1789. His wife was Elizabeth, daughter of William
Cavendish, 3rd duke of Devonshire, a connexion which was of
great importance to the Ponsonbys.
Ponsonby's third son, George Ponsonby (1755-1817), lord
chancellor of Ireland, was born on the 5th of March 1755 and
was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. A barrister, he
became a member of the Irish parliament in 1776 and was
chancellor of the Irish exchequer in 1782, afterwards taking
a prominent part in the debates on the question of Roman
Catholic relief, and leading the opposition to the union of the
parliaments. After 1800 Ponsonby represented Wicklow and
then Tavistock in the united parliament; in 1806 he was lord
chancellor of Ireland, and from 1808 to 1817 he was the official
leader of the opposition in the House of Commons. He left an
only daughter when he died in London on the 8th of July 1817.
George Ponsonby's elder brother, William Brabazon
Ponsonby, ist Baron Ponsonby (1744-1806), was also a leading
Whig politician, being a member of the Irish, and after 1800, of
the British parliament. In 1806 shortly before his death he
was created Baron Ponsonby of Imokilly. Three of his sons
were men of note. The eldest was John (c. 1770-1855), who
succeeded to the barony and was created a viscount in 1839;
he was ambassador at Constantinople from 1832 to 1837 and
at Vienna from 1846 to 1850. The second son was Major-
General Sir William Ponsonby (1772-1815), who, after serving
in the Peninsular War, was killed at the battle of Waterloo
whilst leading a brigade of heavy cavalry. Another son was
Richard Ponsonby (1772-1853), bishop of Derry. Sir William
Ponsonby's posthumous son William (1816-1861) became 3rd
Baron Ponsonby on the death of his uncle John, Viscount
Ponsonby; he died childless and was succeeded by his cousin
William Brabazon Ponsonby (1807-1866), only son of the bishop
of Derry, on whose death the barony of Ponsonby became extinct.
Among other members of this family may be mentioned Major-
General Sir Frederick Cavendish Ponsonby (1783-1837), son of
the 3rd earl of Bessborough, a soldier who distinguished himself
at the battles of Talavera, Salamanca and Vittoria, in the
Peninsular War, and was wounded at Waterloo; he was governor
of Malta from 1826 to 1835. His eldest son, Sir Henry Frederick
Ponsonby (1825-1895), a soldier who served in the Crimea, is
best remembered as private secretary to Queen Victoria from
1870 until a few months before his death.
PONSON DU TERRAIL [PIERRE ALEXIS DE PONSON],
VICOMTE DE (1820-1871), French romance writer, was born at
Montmaur (Isere) on the 8th of July 1829. He was a prolific
novelist, producing in the space of two years some seventy-
three volumes. Among his most successful productions were
Les Coulisses du monde (1853), Exploits de Rocambole (1859),
Les Drames de Paris (1865) and Le Forgeron de la Cour-Dieu
(1869). He died at Bordeaux on the 2oth of January 1871.
PONT (or KYLPONT), ROBERT (1524-1606), Scottish reformer,
was educated at St Andrews. In 1562 he was appointed
minister at Dunblane and then at Dunkeld; in 1563, commis-
sioner for Moray, Inverness and Banff. Then in succession
he became minister of Birnie (1567), provost of Trinity College
near Edinburgh (1571), a lord of session (1572), minister of St
Cuthbert's, Edinburgh (1573) and at St Andrews (1581). Pont
was a strenuous champion of ecclesiastical independence, and
for protesting against parliamentary interference in church
government he was obliged to leave his country. From 1584
to 1586 he was in England, but returning north he resumed his
prominence in church matters and kept it until his death in
1606. His elder son Timothy Pont (i56o?-i6i4?) was a good
mathematician, surveyor, and " the first projector of a Scottish
atlas."
PONTA DELGADA, the capital of an administrative district,
comprising the islands of St Michael's and St Mary in the
Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900), 17,620.
Ponta Delgada is built on the south coast of St Michael's, in
37 40' N. and 25 36' W. Its mild climate, and the fine scenery
of its mountain background, render it very attractive to visitors;
it is the commercial centre, and the most populous city of the
archipelago. Besides the cathedral, it contains several inter-
esting churches and monasteries, and an observatory. Formerly
its natural inner harbour only admitted vessels of light draught,
while larger ships were compelled to anchor in an open road-
stead, which was inaccessible during the prevalence of southerly
gales. But great improvements were effected after 1860 by
the construction of a breakwater 2800 ft. long.
PONT-A-MOUSSON, a town of northern France in the depart-
ment of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nancy by rail.
Pop. (1906), 12,282. The Moselle, which is canalized, divides
the town into two quarters, united by a bridge of the late i6th
century. The church of St Martin, dating from the i3th, i4th
and 1 5th centuries, has a handsome facade with two towers,
and in the interior a choir screen and Holy Sepulchre of the 1 5th
century. The lower ecclesiastical seminary occupies the build-
ing of an old Premonstratensian convent. There are several
interesting old houses. The town has a communal college and
engineering workshops, blast furnaces, and manufactures of
lacquered ware, paper, cardboard, cables and iron-ware. Dating
from the gth or loth century, Pont-a-Mousson constituted a
lordship, which was made a marquisate in 1354. It was from
1572 to 1763 the seat of a well-known university.
PONTANUS, JOVIANUS (1426-1503), Italian humanist and
poet, was born in 1426 at Cerreto in the duchy of Spoleto,
PONTARLIER PONTECOULANT
where his father was murdered in one of the frequent civil
brawls which then disturbed the peace of Italian towns. His
mother escaped with the boy to Perugia, and it was here that
Pontano received his first instruction in languages and literature.
Failing to recover his patrimony, he abandoned Umbria, and
at the age of twenty-two established himself at Naples, which
continued to be his chief place of residence during a long and
prosperous career. He here began a close friendship with the
distinguished scholar, Antonio Beccadelli, through whose in-
fluence he gained admission to the royal chancery of Alphonso
th_- Magnanimous. Alphonso discerned the singular gifts of
the young scholar, and made him tutor to his sons. Pontano's
connexion with the Aragonese dynasty as political adviser,
military secretary and chancellor was henceforth a close one;
and the most doubtful passage in his diplomatic career is when
he welcomed Charles VIII. of France upon the entry of that king
into Naples in 1495, thus showing that he was too ready to
abandon the princes upon whose generosity his fortunes had been
raised. Pontano illustrates in a marked manner the position
of power to which men of letters and learning had arrived in
Italy. He entered Naples as a penniless scholar. He was
almost immediately made the companion and trusted friend of
its sovereign, loaded with honours, lodged in a fine house,
enrolled among the nobles of the realm, enriched, and placed at
the very height of social importance. Following the example of
Pomponio Leto in Rome and of Cosimo de' Medici at Florence,
Pontano founded an academy for the meetings of learned and
distinguished men. This became the centre of fashion as well
as of erudition in the southern capital, and subsisted long after
its founder's death. In 1461 he married his first wife, Adriana
Sassone, who bore him one son and three daughters before her
death in 1491. Nothing distinguished Pontano more than the
strength of his domestic feeling. He was passionately attached
to his wife and children; and, while his friend Beccadelli signed
the licentious verses of Hermaphroditus, his own Muse celebrated
in liberal but loyal strains the pleasures of conjugal affection,
the charm of infancy and the sorrows of a husband and a father
in the loss of those he loved. Not long after the death of his
first wife Pontano took in second marriage a beautiful girl of
Ferrara, who is only known to us under the name of Stella.
Although he was at least sixty-five years of age at this period,
his poetic faculty displayed itself with more than usual warmth
and lustre in the glowing series ef elegies, styled Eridanus,
which he poured forth to commemorate the rapture of this
union. Stella's one child, Lucilio, survived his birth but fifty
days; nor did his mother long remain to comfort the scholar's
old age. Pontano had already lost his only son by the first
marriage; therefore his declining years were solitary. He died
in 1503 at Naples, where a remarkable group of terra-cotta
figures, life-sized and painted, still adorns his tomb in the church
of Monte Oliveto. He is there represented together with his
patron Alphonso and his friend Sannazzaro in adoration before
the dead Christ.
As a diplomatist and state official Pontano played a part of
some importance in the affairs of southern Italy and in the
Barons' War, the wars with Rome, and the expulsion and restora-
tion of the Aragonese dynasty. But his chief claim upon the
attentions of posterity is as a scholar. His writings divide
themselves into dissertations upon such topics as the " Liberality
of Princes " or " Ferocity," composed in the rhetorical style of
the day, and poems. He was distinguished for energy of Latin
style, for vigorous intellectual powers, and for the faculty, rare
among his contemporaries, of expressing the facts of modern
life, the actualities of personal emotion, in language sufficiently
classical yet always characteristic of the man. His prose
treatises are more useful to students of manners than the similar
lucubrations of Poggio. Yet it was principally as a Latin poet
that he exhibited his full strength. An ambitious didactic
composition in hexameters, entitled Urania, embodying the
astronomical science of the age, and adorning this high theme
with brilliant mythological episodes, won the admiration of
Italy. It still remains a monument of fertile invention,
exuberant facility and energetic handling of material. Not less
excellent is the didactic poem on orange trees, De hortis Hesperi-
dum. His most original compositions in verse, however, are
elegiac and hendecasyllabic pieces on personal topics the De
conjugali amore, Eridanus, Tumuli, Naeniae, Baiae, &c. in
which he uttered his vehemently passionate emotions with a
warmth of southern colouring, an evident sincerity, and a truth
of painting from reality which excuse their erotic freedom.
Pontano's prose and poems were printed by the Aldi at Venice.
For his life see Ardito, Giovanni Pontano e i suoi tempi (Naples,
1871); for his place in the history of literature, Symonds, Renais-
sance in Italy. G- A. S.)
PONTARLIER, a frontier town of eastern France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Doubs, 36 m. S.E. of
Besancon by road. Pop. (1006), 7896. It is situated 2750 ft.
above sea-level on the Doubs, about four miles from the Swiss
frontier, and forms an important strategic point at the mouth
of the defile of La Cluse, one of the principal passes across the
Jura. The pass is defended by the modern fort of Larmont,
and by the Fort de Joux, which was originally built in the loth
century by the family of Joux and played a conspicuous part
in the history of Franche-Comte. Pontarlier is the junction
of railway lines to Neuchatel, Lausanne, Lons-le-Saunier, D61e
and Besanc.on. A triumphal arch of the i8th century com-
memorates the reconstruction of the town after the destructive
fire of 1736. It was at Pontarlier that the French army of the
East made its last stand against the Prussians in 1871 before
crossing the Swiss frontier. The distillation of herbs, extensively
cultivated for the manufacture of absinthe, kirsch and other
liqueurs, is the chief industry. The town is the seat of a sub-
prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal
college.
PONT AUDEMER, a town of north-western France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Eure, 39 m. N.W.
of Evreux, on the Risle, a left-bank affluent of the Seine, and
on the railway from Evreux to Honfleur. Pop. (1906), 5700.
The church of St Ouen, which has fine stained glass of the
i6th century, combines the late Gothic and Renaissance styles;
its choir is Romanesque. Local institutions are the sub-prefec-
ture, a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade-arbitration, a
chamber and tribunal of commerce. Manufacturing industry
is active, and includes the founding of malleable metal, a spur
factory, the manufacture of glue and paper, cotton-spinning
and various branches of leather manufacture. There is trade
in flax, wool, grain, cattle, cider, paper, iron, wood and coal.
The port has a length of over half a mile on the Risle, which is
navigable for small vessels from this point toils mouth (10 m.).
The town owes its name to Audomar, a Frank lord, who in
the 7th or 8th century built a bridge over the Risle at this point.
It was the scene of several provincial ecclesiastical councils in
the i zth and i3th centuries and of meetings of the estates of
Normandy in the I3th century.
PONTE (Ital. for " bridge "), a rough game peculiar to the
city of Pisa, in which the players, divided into two sides
and provided with padded costumes, contended for the
possession of one of the bridges over the Arno. The weapon
used, both for offence and defence, was a kind of shield which
served as a club as well.
A history and description of the game may be found in William
Heywood's Polio and Ponte (London, 1904).
PONTECORVO, a city of Campania, Italy, in the province of
Caserta, on the Garigliano, about 48 m. from Caserta and 3 m.
from Aquino on the railway from Rome to Naples. Pop. (1001),
10,518 (town); 12,492 (commune). The town is approached by
a triumphal arch adorned with a statue of Pius IX. The princi-
pality of Pontecorvo (about 40 sq. m. in extent), once an indepen-
dent state, belonged alternately to the Tomacelli and the abbots
of Monte Cassino. Napoleon bestowed it on Bernadotte in 1806,
and in iSioit was incorporated with the French Empire.
PONTECOULANT, LOUIS GUSTAVE LE DOULCET, COMTE
DE (1764-1853), French politician, was born at Caen on the i?th
of November 1764. He began a career in the army in 1778.
6 4
PONTEFRACT
A moderate supporter of the revolution, he was returned to the
Convention for the department of Calvados in 1792, and became
commissary with the army of the North. He voted for the
imprisonment of Louis XVI. during the war, and his banishment
after the peace. He then attached himself to the party of the
Gironde, and in August 1793 was outlawed. He had refused to
defend his compatriot Charlotte Corday, who wrote him a letter
of reproach on her way to the scaffold. He returned to the
Convention on the 8th of March 1795, and showed an unusual
spirit of moderation by defending Prieur de la Marne and Robert
Lindet. President of the Convention in July 1795, he was for
some months a member of the council of public safety. He
was subsequently elected to the council of five hundred, but was
suspected of royalist leanings, and had to spend some time in
retirement before the establishment of the consulate. Becoming
senator in 1805, and count of the empire in 1808, he organized
the national guard in Tranche Comte in 1811, and the defence
of the north-eastern frontier in 1813. At the first restoration
Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France, and although he
received a similar honour from Napoleon during the Hundred
Days, he sat in the upper house under the Second Restoration.
He died in Paris on the 3rd of April 1853, leaving memoirs and
correspondence from which were extracted four volumes (1861-
1865) of Souvenirs historiques et parlementaires 1764-1848.
His son Louis Adolphe Le Doulcet, comte de Pontecoulant
(1794-1882), served under Napoleon in 1812 and 1814, and then
emigrated to Brazil, where he took part in the abortive insurrec-
tion at Pernambuco in 1817. He also organized a French
volunteer contingent in the Belgian revolution of 1830, and was
wounded at Louvain. The rest of his life was spent in Paris
in the study of ancient music and acoustics. Among his works
was one on the Musee instrumental du conservatoire de musique
(1864). A younger brother, Philippe Gustave Le Doulcet,
comte de Pontecoulant (1795-1874), served in the army until
1849, when he retired to devote himself to mathematics and
astronomy. His works include Theorie analytique du systeme
du monde (Paris, 1829-1846) and Traiti elementaire de physique
celeste (2 vols., Paris, 1840).
PONTEFRACT (pronounced and sometimes written " Pom-
fret "), a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough
in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 21 m. S.S.W. from
York, served by the Midland, North-Eastern and Lancashire &
Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891), 9702; (1901), 13,427. It is
well situated, mainly on an eminence, near the junction of the
Aire and the Calder. The most important of the antiquarian
remains are the ruins of the famous castle situated on a rocky
height, originally covering with its precincts an area of over
8 acres, and containing in all eight round towers. The remains
are principally of Norman date, and an unusual feature of the
stronghold is the existence of various subterranean chambers in
the rock. Below the castle is All Saints church, which suffered
severely during the siege of the castle, but still retains some work
of the 1 2th century. In 1837 the tower and transepts were
fitted for divine service. The church of St Giles, formerly a
chapel of ease to All Saints, but made parochial in the i8th
century, is of Norman date, but most of the present structure
is modern. The 17th-century spire was removed in 1707, and
replaced by a square tower, which was rebuilt in 1797; the chan-
cel was rebuilt in 1869. In Southgate is an ancient hermitage
and oratory cut out of the solid rock, which dates from 1396.
On St Thomas's Hill, where Thomas, earl of Lancaster, was
beheaded in 1322, a chantry was erected in 1373, the site of
which is now occupied by a windmill built of its stones. At
Monkhill there are the remains of a Tudor building called the
Old Hall, probably constructed out of the old priory of St John's.
A grammar school of ancient foundation, renewed by Elizabeth
and George III., occupies modern buildings. The town-hall
was built at the close of the i8th century on the site of one
erected in 1656, which succeeded the old moot-hall dating from
Saxon times. Among other buildings are the court house, the
market hall, the assembly rooms (a handsome building adjoining
the town-hall), and large barracks. The foundation of the
principal almshouse, that of St Nicholas, dates from before the
Conquest. Trinity Hospital was founded by Sir Robert Knolles
(d. 1407), an eminent military commander in the French wars
of Edward III. At Ackworth, in the neighbourhood, there is a
large school of the Society of Friends or Quakers (1778), in the
foundation of which Dr John Fothergill (1712-1780) was a prime
mover. There are extensive gardens and nurseries in the
neighbourhood of Pontefract, and liquorice is largely grown
for the manufacture of the celebrated Pomfret cakes. The
town possesses ironfoundries, sack and matting manufactories,
tanneries, breweries, corn mills and brick and terra-cotta works.
The parliamentary borough, falling within the Osgoldcross
division of the county, returns one member (before 1885 the
number was two). The town is governed by a mayor, six alder-
men and 1 8 councillors. Area, 4078 acres.
The remains of a Roman camp have been discovered near
Pontefract, but there is no trace of settlement in the town itself
until after the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday Survey
Tateshall (now Tanshelf, a suburb of the town) was the chief
manor and contained 60 burgesses, while Kirkby, which after-
wards became the borough of Pontefract, was one of its members.
The change was probably owing to the fact that Ilbert de Lacy,
to whom the Conqueror had granted the whole of the honour of
Pontefract, founded a castle at Kirkby, on a site said to have
been occupied by a fortification raised by Ailric, a Saxon thane.
Several reasons are given for the change of name but none is at
all satisfactory. One account -says that it was caused by a
broken bridge which delayed the Conqueror's advance to the
north, but this is known to have been at Ferrybridge, three
miles away; a second says that the new name was derived from
a Norman town called Pontfrete, which, however, never existed;
and a third that it was caused by the breaking of a bridge in
1153 on the arrival of the archbishop of York, St William, when
several people were miraculously preserved from drowning,
although the town was already known as Pontefract in 1 140
when Archbishop Thurstan died there. The manor remained
in the Lacy family until it passed by marriage to Thomas, duke
of Lancaster, who was beheaded on a hill outside the town after
the battle of Boroughbridge. His estates were restored to his
brother Henry, earl of Lancaster, on the accession of Edward III.,
and the manor has since then formed part of the duchy of
Lancaster. The town took part in most of the rebellions in the
north of England, and in 1399 Richard II. was imprisoned and
secretly murdered in the castle. During the Wars of the Roses
the town was loyal to Henry VI., and several of the Yorkist
leaders were executed here after the battle of Wakefield. It was
taken by Robert Aske, leader of the Pilgrimage of Grace, in
1536. In 1642 the castle was garrisoned for Charles I. and
sustained four sieges, the second, in 1644, being successful,
but two years later it was retaken by the royalists, who held it
until after the execution of the king, when they surrendered to
General Lambert and the castle was destroyed.
Roger de Lacy in 1194 granted a charter to the burgesses
confirming their liberties and right to be a free borough at a
fee-farm of i2d. yearly for every toft, granting them the same
privileges as the burgesses of Grimsby, and that their reeve
should be chosen annually by the lord of the manor at his court
leet, preference being given to the burgesses if they would pay
as much as others for the office. Henry de Lacy cofirmed this
charter in 1278 and in 1484 Richard III. incorporated the town
under the title of mayor and burgesses and granted a gild
merchant with a hanse. His charter was withdrawn on the
accession of Henry VII. and a similar one was granted, while in
1489 the king gave the burgesses licence to continue choosing a
mayor as they had done in the time of Richard III. In 1606-1607
James I. confirmed the charter of Henry VII. and regulated the
choice of the mayor by providing that he should be elected from
among the chief burgesses by the burgesses themselves. The
privilege of returning two members to parliament which had
belonged to Pontefract at the end of the I3th century was revived
in i62o-i62r on the grounds that the charter of 1606-1607
had restored all their privileges to the burgesses. Since the
PONTEVEDRA PONTIAC
Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 one member only has been
returned. Liquorice was largely grown as early as 1700-1701,
when the corporation prohibited the sale of buds or sets of
the plant. Richard III. by his incorporation charter granted
the market rights in the borough to the burgesses, who still
hold them under his charter.
See Victoria County History : Yorkshire ; Eighth Report of the Royal
Commission on Historical Manuscripts (1870 1897); Book of Entries of
the Pontefract Corporation, 1653-1726 (ed. by Richard Holmes, 1882);
Benjamin Boothroyd, The History of the Ancient Borough of Ponte-
fract (1807); George Fox, The History of Pontefract (1827).
PONTEVEDRA, a maritime province of north-western Spain,
formed in 1833 of districts taken from Galicia, and bounded
on the N. by Corunna, E. by Lugo and Orense, S. by Portugal
and W. by the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 457,262; area, 1695 sq. m.
Pontevedra is the smallest of the provinces of Spain except
the three Basque Provinces; its density of population, 269-8
inhabitants per square mile, is only excelled in the provinces of
Barcelona and Biscay (Vizcaya). Both of these are mining
and manufacturing districts, while Pontevedra is dependent
on agriculture and fisheries. The surface is everywhere moun-
tainous, and consists almost entirely of arable land, pasture or
forest. The coast-line is deeply indented; navigation is rendered
difficult by the prevalence of fogs in summer and storms in
winter. The river Mino (Portuguese Minho) forms the southern
frontier, and is navigable by small ships as far as Salvatierra;
and the province is watered by many smaller streams, all flowing,
like the Mino, into the Atlantic. The largest of these are the
UUa, which separates Pontevedra from Corunna, the Umia and
the Lerez. Pontevedra has a mild climate, a fertile soil and a
very heavy rainfall. Large agricultural fairs are held in the
chief towns, and there is a considerable export trade in cattle
to Great Britain and Portugal, hams, salt meat and fish, eggs,
breadstuffs, leather and wine. Vigo is the headquarters of
shipping, and one of the chief ports of northern Spain. There
are also good harbours at Bayona, Carril, Marin, Villagarcia and
elsewhere among the deep estuaries of the coast. At Tuy the
Spanish and Portuguese railways meet, and from this town one
line goes up the Mino valley to Orense, and another northward
along the coast to Santiago de Compostela.
PONTEVEDRA, the capital of the Spanish province of Ponte-
vedra; on the Tuy-Corunna railway, and on the river Lerez,
which here enters the Ria de Pontevedra, an inlet of the Atlantic.
Pop. (1900), 22,330. The name of the town is derived from the
ancient Roman bridge (pans velus) of twelve arches, which spans
the Lerez near its mouth. Pontevedra is a picturesque town,
mainly built of granite, and still partly enclosed by medieval
fortifications. It contains handsome provincial and municipal
halls erected in the igth century, and many convents, some of
which have been converted into hospitals or schools. Marin and
Sangenjo are ports on the Ria de Pontevedra, which is the seat
of a thriving sardine fishery. There is an active trade in grain,
wine and fruit ; cloth, hats, leather and pottery are manufactured.
PONTIAC (c. 1720-1769), Indian chief of the Ottawa and
leader in the " Conspiracy of Pontiac " in 1763-64, was born
between 1712 and 1720 probably on the Maumee river, near the
mouth of the Auglaize. His father was an Ottawa, and his
mother an Ojibwa. By 1755 he had become a chief of the
Ottawa and a leader of the loose confederacy of the Ottawa,
Potawatomi .and Ojibwa. He was an ally of France and
possibly commanded the Ottawa in the defeat (July 9, 1755) of
General Edward Braddock. In November 1760 he met Major
Robert Rogers, then on his way to occupy Michilimackinac and
other forts surrendered by the French, and agreed to let the
English troops pass unmolested on condition that he should be
treated with respect by the British. Like other Indians he soon
realized the difference between French and English rule that
the Indians were no longer welcomed at the forts and that they
would ultimately be deprived of their hunting grounds by en-
croaching English settlements. French hunters and traders
encouraged Indian disaffection with vague promises of help from
France; in 1762 an Indian "prophet" among the Delawares
on the Muskingum preached a union of the Indians to expel the
xxii. 3
English; and in that year (as in 1761) there were abortive con-
spiracies to massacre the English garrisons of Detroit, Fort
Niagara and Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg). Pontiac seems to have
been chief of a magic association (the Atetai), and he took advan-
tage of the religious fervour and the general unrest among the
Indians to organize in the winter 'of 1762-63 a simultaneous
attack on the English forts to be made in May 1763 at a certain
phase of the moon. On the 27th of April 1763, before a meeting
near Detroit of delegates from most of the Algonquian tribes, he
outlined his plans. On the 7th of May, with 60 warriors, he
attempted unsuccessfully to gain admission to Detroit, which
then had a garrison of about 160 under Major Henry Glad win
(1730-1791); and then besieged the fort from the 9th of May to
the end of October. On the 28th of May reinforcements from
Fort Niagara were ambuscaded near the mouth of the Detroit.
In June the Wyandot and Potawatomi withdrew from the siege,
but on the 29th of July they attacked reinforcements (280 men,
including 20 of Rogers's rangers) from Fort Niagara under
Captain James Dalyell (or Dalzell), who, however, gained the
fort, and in spite of Gladwin's opposition on the 3ist of July
attacked Pontiac's camp, but was ambuscaded on Bloody Run
and was killed, nearly 60 others being killed or wounded. On
the 1 2th of October the Potawatomi, Ojibwa and Wyandot made
peace with the English; with the Ottawa Pontiac continued the
siege until the 3oth of October, when he learned from Neyon
de la Valliere, commandant of Fort Chartres (among the Illinois)
that he would not be aided by the French. Pontiac then
withdrew to the Maumee.
Fort Pitt with a garrison of 330 men under Captain Simeon
Ecuyer was attacked on the 22nd of June and was besieged
from the 27th of July to the ist of August, when the Indians
withdrew to meet a relief expedition of 500 men, mostly High-
landers, under Colonel Henry Bouquet (1719-1766), who had
set out from Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on the i8th of July, and
relieved Fort Ligonier (on the site of the borough of Ligonier,
Westmoreland county, Penn.) on the 2nd of August, but
was surprised on the sth, and fought (5th and 6th) the battle
of Bushy Run (25 m. S.E. of Fort Pitt), finally flanking and
routing the Indians after tricking them by a feinted retreat of
a part of his force. Bouquet reached Fort Pitt on the loth
of August. At Michilimackinac (Mackinac), Michigan, on the
4th of June, the Indians gained admission to the fort by a trick,
killed nearly a score of the garrison and captured the remainder,
including Captain George Etherington, the commander, besides
several English traders, including Alexander Henry (1739-1824).'
Some of the captives were seized by the Ottawa, who had taken
no part in the attack ; a part of these were released, and reached
Montreal on the i3th of August. Seven of the prisoners kept
by the Ojibwa were killed in cold blood by one of their chiefs.
Fort Sandusky (on the site of Sandusky, Ohio) was taken on the
1 6th of May by Wyandot; and Fort St Joseph (on the site of the
present Niles, Mich.) was captured on the 25th of May and n
men (out of its garrison of 14) were massacred, the others with the
commandant, Ensign Schlosser, being taken to Detroit and
exchanged for Indian prisoners. On the 27th of May Fort
Miami (on the site of Fort Wayne, Indiana) surrendered to the
Indians after its commander, Ensign Holmes, had been treacher-
ously killed. Fort Ouiatanon (about 5 m. south-west of the present
Lafayette, Indiana) and Fort Presque Isle (on the site of Erie,
Penn.) were taken by the Indians on the ist and i6th of
June respectively; and Fort Le Boeuf (on the site of Waterford,
1 Henry, a native of New Brunswick, N.J., had become a fur-
trader at Fort Michilimackinac in 1761. He was rescued by
Wawatam, an Ottawa, who had adopted him as a brother; in 1764
he took part in Colonel John Bradstreet's expedition; in 1770, with
Sir William Johnson, the duke of Gloucester and others, formed a
Company to mine copper in the Lake Superior region; was a fur-
trader again until 1796; and then became a merchant in Montreal.
His Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories
between the Years 1760 and 1776 (1809; reprinted 1901) is a valuable
account of the fur trade and of his adventures at Michilimackinac.
He is not to be confused with his nephew of the same name, also a
fur-trader, whose journal was published in 1897 in 3 vols., as New
Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest.
66
PONTIAC PONTIVY
Penn.) was surprised on the i8th, but its garrison escaped,
and seven (out of 13) got safely to Fort Pitt Fort Venango
(near the site of the present Venango, Penn.) was taken
and burnt about the same time by some Senecas (the only
Iroquois in the conspiracy), who massacred the garrison and
later burned the commander, Lieut. Gordon. About 500
Senecas on the I4th of September surprised a wagon train,
escorted by 24 soldiers, from Fort Schlosser (2 m. above Niagara
Falls), drove most of them over the brink of the Devil's Hole
(below the cataract), and then nearly annihilated a party from
Fort Niagara sent to the rescue.
In 1763, although the main attacks on Detroit and Fort Pitt
had failed, nearly every minor fort attacked was captured,
about 200 settlers and traders were killed, and in property
destroyed or plundered the English lost about 100,000, the
greatest loss in men and property being in western Pennsylvania.
In June 1764 Colonel John Bradstreet (1711-1774) led about
1 200 men from Albany to Fort Niagara, where at a great gather-
ing of the Indians several treaties were made in July; in August
he made at Presque Isle a treaty (afterwards annulled by
General Thomas Gage) with some Delaware andShawnee chiefs;
and in September made treaties (both unsatisfactory) with the
Wyandot, Ottawa and Miami at Sandusky, and with various
chiefs at Detroit. He sent Captain Howard to occupy the forts
at Michilimackinac, Green Bay and Sault Ste Marie, and Captain
Morris up the Maumee river, where he conferred with Pontiac,
and then to Fort Miami, where he narrowly escaped death at
the hands of the Miami; and with his men Bradstreet returned
to Oswego in November, having accomplished little of value.
An expedition of 1500 men under Colonel Bouquet left Carlisle,
Pennsylvania, in August, and near the site of the present
Tuscarawas, Ohio, induced the Indians to release their prisoners
and to stop fighting the practical end of the conspiracy.
Pontiac himself made submission to Sir William Johnson on the
25th of July 1766 at Oswego, New York. In April 1769 he was
murdered, when drunk, at Cahokia (nearly opposite St Louis)
by a Kaskaskia Indian bribed by an English trader; and he was
buried near the St Louis Fort. His death occasioned a bitter
war in which a remnant of the Illinois was practically annihilated
in 1770 at Starved Rock (between the present Ottawa and La
Salle), Illinois, by the Potawatomi, who had been followers of
Pontiac. Pontiac was one of the most remarkable men of the
Indian race in American history, and was notable in particular
for his power (rare among the Indians) of organization.
See Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac (2 vols., Boston,
1851; loth ed., 1896).
PONTIAC, a city and the county-seat of Oakland county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on the Clinton river, about 26 m. N.W. of
Detroit. Pop. (1890), 6200; (1900) 9769, of whom 2020 were
foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 14,532. It is served by the Grand
Trunk and the Pontiac, Oxford & Northern railways (being the
southern terminus of the latter), and by the Detroit & Pontiac
and the North-Western electric inter-urban lines. In the sur-
rounding country there are many small, picturesque lakes (the
largest being Orchard, about 6 m. south-east of Pontiac, Cass
and Elizabeth lakes), and there is good hunting and fishing in
the vicinity. In- Pontiac is the Eastern Michigan Asylum for
the insane (1878), with grounds covering more than 500 acres.
The city has various manufactures, and the value of the factory
products increased from $2,470,887 in 1900 to $3,047,422 in
1904, or 23-3%. Agricultural products, fruit and wool from
the surrounding country are shipped in considerable quantities.
The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Pontiac,
named in honour of the famous Indian chief of that name, was
laid out as a town in 1818, became the county-seat in 1820, was
incorporated as a village in 1837, and was chartered in 1861.
PONTIANUS, pope from 230 to 235. He was exiled by the
emperor Maximinus to Sardinia, and in consequence of this sen-
tence resigned (Sept. 28,235). H C was succeeded by Anteros.
PONTIFEX. The collegium of the Pontifices was the most
important priesthood of ancient Rome, being specially charged
with the administration of the jus divinum, i.e. that part of the
civil law which regulated the relations of the comrriunity with
the deities recognized by the state officially, together with a
general superintendence of the worship of gens and family.
The name is clearly derived from pans and facere, but whether
this should be taken as indicating any special connexion with the
sacred bridge over the Tiber (Pans Sublicitts), or what the original
meaning may have been, cannot now be determined. The
college existed under the monarchy, when its members were
probably three in number; they may safely be considered as
legal advisers of the rex in all matters of religion. Under the
republic they emerge into prominence under a ponlifex maximus,
who took over the king's duties as chief administrator of religious
law, just as his chief sacrificial duties were taken by the rex
sacrorum; his dwelling was the regia, " the house of the king."
During the republican period the number of pontifices increased,
probably by multiples of three, until after Sulla (82 B.C.) we
find them fifteen; for the year 57 B.C. we have a complete list
of them in Cicero (Harusp. resp. 6, 12). Included in the
collegium were also the rex sacrorum, the flamines, three assistant
pontifices (minores), and the vestal virgins, who were all chosen
by the pontifex maximus. Vacancies in the body of pontifices
were originally filled by co-optation; but from the second Punic
War onwards the pontifex maximus was chosen by a peculiar
form of popular election, and in the last age of the republic this
held good for all the members. They all held office for life.
The immense authority of the college centred in the pontifex
maximus, the other pontifices forming his consilium or advising
body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but
these were the least important ; the real power lay in the adminis-
tration of the jus divinum, the chief departments of which may
briefly be described as follows: (t) the regulation of all expiatory
ceremonials needed as the result of pestilence, lightning, &c.;
(2) the consecration of all temples and other sacred places and
objects dedicated to the gods by the state through its magis-
trates; (3) the regulation of the calendar both astronomically
and in detailed application to the public life of the state; (4) the
administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places,
and the worship of the Manes, or dead ancestors; (5) the superin-
tendence of all marriages by confarreatio, i.e. originally of all
legal patrician marriages; (6) the administration of the law of
adoption and of testamentary succession. They had also the
care of the state archives, of the lists of magistrates, and kept
records of their own decisions (commentarii) and of the chief
events of each year (annales),
It is obvious that a priesthood having such functions as these,
and holding office for life, must have been a great power in the
state, and for the first three centuries of the republic it is probable
that the pontifex maximus was in fact its most powerful member.
The office might be combined with a magistracy, and, though
its powers were declaratory rather than executive, it may fairly
be described as quasi-magisterial. Under the later republic it
was coveted chiefly for the great dignity of the position; Julius
Caesar held it for the last twenty years of his life, and Augustus
took it after the 'death of Lepidus in 12 B.C., after which it
became inseparable from the office of the reigning emperor. _
With the decay of the empire the title very naturally fell to the
popes, whose functions as administrators of religious law closely
resembled those of the ancient Roman priesthood, hence the
modern use of " pontiff " and " pontifical."
For further details consult Marquardt, Slaatsverwaltung, iii.
2 35 seq^ ! Wissowa, Religion und Kullus der Romer, 430 seq. ;
Bouche'-Leclercq, Les Pontifes, passim. (W. W. F. *)
PONTIVY, a town of western France, chief town of an arron-
dissement in the department of Morbihan, 46 m. N.N.W. of
Vannes by rail. Pop. (1906), 6312 (town); 9506 (commune).
The town, situated on the Blavet, at its confluence with the
Nantes-Brest canal, comprises two distinct parts the old town
and that to the south known as Napoleonville. The latter,
built by order of Napoleon I., who desired to make it the military
headquarters for Brittany, and consisting chiefly of barracks,
subsequently gave its name to the whole town, but in 1871 the
old name was resumed. The ancient castle (1485) of the dukes
PONT-L'ABBE PONTOON
of Rohan, whose capital the town was, is occupied by the Musee
le Brigant of art and archaeology. A monument to commem-
orate the Breton-Angevin Union, the deputies of which met at
Pontivy in 1790, was erected in 1894, and there are statues of
Dr Guepin, a democrat, and General de Lourmel (d. 1854). The
i has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a
luce for boys. Pontivy had its origin in a monastery founded
in the ;th century by St Ivy, a monk of Lindisfarnc.
PONT-L'ABB6, a town of western France in the department
of Finistere, 13 m. S.W. of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1906), of the
town 4485, of the commune 6432. The town is situated on the
right bank of the estuary or river of Pont-1'Abbe, 2 m. from the
sru. Its port carries on fishing, imports timber, coal, &c., and
exports mine-props and the cereals and vegetables of the neigh-
bourhood. Of the old buildings of the town the chief is a church
of the i4th, I5th and i6th centuries, once attached to a Carmelite
convent; an old castle is occupied by the hotel de ville. The
local costumes, trimmed with the bright-coloured embroideries
for which the town is noted, are among the most striking in
Brittany; the bigouden or head-dress of the women has given its
name to the inhabitants. Pont-1' Ab.be carries on flour-milling
and the extraction of chemicals from seaweed.
PONTMARTIN, ARMAND AUGUSTIN JOSEPH MARIE
FERRARD, COMTE DE (1811-1890), French critic and man of
letters, was born at Avignon (Vaucluse) on the i6th of July 1811.
Imbued by family tradition with legitimist sympathies, he began
by attacking the followers of the encyclopaedists and their
successors. In the A ssemblee nalionale he published his Causeries
litteraires, a series of attacks on prominent Liberals, which created
some sensation. Pontmartin was an indefatigable journalist,
and most of his papers were eventually published in volume
form: Contes et reveries d'un planteur de choux (1845); Causeries
du samedi (1857-1860); Nouveaux samedis (1865-1881), &c.
But the most famous of all his books is Les Jeudis de Mme.
Charbonneau (1862), which under the form of a novel offered
a series of malicious and witty portraits of contemporary
writers. Pontmartin died at Avignon on the 29th of March
1890.
See Hatzfeld and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires du XIX'
siide (1894).
PONTOISE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-
dissement of the department of Seine-et-Oise, 18 m. N.W. of
Paris on the railway to Dieppe. Pop. (1906), 7963. Pontoise
is picturesquely situated on the right bank of the Oise where it
is joined by the Viosne. The traffic on the main river is large,
and the tributary drives numerous mills. Of the many churches
that used to exist in the town two only remain: St Maclou, a
church of the I2th century, altered and restored in the 15th and
i6th centuries by Pierre Lemercier, the famous architect of St
Eustache at Paris, and containing a fine holy sepulchre of the
1 6th century; and Notre-Dame, of the close of the i6th century,
which contains the tomb of St Gautier, abbot of Meulan in the
1 2th century. At the top of the flight of steps by which St
Maclou is approached is the statue of General Leclerc, a native of
the town and husband of Pauline Bonaparte. Grain and flour
are the principal staples of the trade; a well-known fair is held
in Xovember. The town has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first
instance and of commerce and a communal college. At Meriel,
near Pontoise, there are interesting remains of the Cistercian
abbey of Le Val. Pontoise existed in the time of the Gauls as
Brim Isarae (Bridge of the Oise). It was destroyed by the
Normans in the 9th century, united with Normandy in 1032, and
acquired by Philip I. in 1064. Capital of the French Vexin, it
possessed an important stronghold and played a conspicuous
part in the wars between the French and the dukes of Normandy
and in the Hundred Years' War. The English took it in 1419,
and again in 1437. In 1441 Charles VII. took it by storm after
a three months' siege. After belonging to the count of Charolais
down to the treaty of Conflans, it was given as a dowry to Jeanne
of France when she was divorced by Louis XII. The parlement
of Paris several times met in the town; and in 1561 the states-
general convoked at Orleans removed thither after the death of
Francis II. During the Fronde it offered a refuge to Louis XIV.
and Mazarin. Henry III. made it an apanage for his brother
the duke of Anjou. At a later period it passed to the duke of
Conti. Down to the Revolution it remained a monastic town.
PONTOON (Fr. ponton, from Lat. pans, a bridge), a flat-
bottomed boat, used as a ferry boat or lighter; especially a boat
of particular design intended to form part of a military bridge.
In modern hydraulic engineering the words ponton and pontoon
are used to designate hollow water-tight structures which are
secured to sunken wrecks and bring them up to the surface, and
also the hollow chambers which serve as gates for docks and
sluices, and are lowered and raised by the admission and pumping
out of water.
Military Pontoon Bridges. From time immemorial floating
bridges of vessels bearing a roadway of beams and planks have
been employed to facilitate the passage of rivers and arms of the
sea. Xerxes crossed the Hellespont on a double bridge, one line
supported on three hundred and sixty, the other on three hundred
and fourteen vessels, anchored head and stern with their keels
in the direction of the current. Darius threw similar bridges
across the Bosporus and the Danube in his war against the
Scythians, and the Ten Thousand employed a bridge of boats
to cross the river Tigris in their retreat from Persia. Floating
bridges have been repeatedly constructed over rivers in Europe
and Asia, not merely temporarily for the passage of an army,
but permanently for the requirements of the country; and to this
day many of the great rivers in India are crossed, on the lines of
the principal roads, by floating bridges, which are for the most
part supported on boats such as are employed for ordinary traffic
on the river.
But light vessels which can be taken out of the water and
lifted on to carriages are required for transport with an army in
the field. Alexander the Great occasionally carried with his
army vessels divided into portions, which were put together
on reaching the banks of a river, as in crossing the Hydaspes ; he
is even said to have carried his army over the Oxus by means
of rafts made of the hide tents of the soldiers stuffed with straw,
when he found that all the river boats had been burnt. Cyrus
crossed the Euphrates on stuffed skins. The practice of carrying
about skins to be inflated when troops had to cross a river, which
was adopted by both Greeks and Romans, still exists in the
East. In the 4th century the emperor Julian crossed the Tigris,
Euphrates and other rivers by bridges of boats made of skins
stretched over osier frames. In the wars of the i7th century
pontoons are found as regular components of the trains of armies,
the Germans using a leather, the Dutch a tin and the French a
copper " skin " over stout timber frames.
Modern military pontoons have been made of two forms, open
as an undecked boat, or closed as a decked canoe or cylinder.
During the Peninsular War the English employed open bateaux;
but the experience gained in that war induced them to introduce
the closed form. General Colleton devised a buoy pontoon,
cylindrical with conical ends and made of wooden staves like a
cask. Then General Sir Charles Pasley introduced demi-pon-
toons, like decked canoes with pointed bows and square sterns,
a pair, attached sternwise, forming a single " pier " of support
for the roadway; they were constructed of light timber frames
covered with sheet copper and were decked with wood; each
demi-pontoon was divided internally into separate compartments
by partitions which were made as water-tight as possible, and
also supplied with the means of pumping out water; when trans-
ported overland with an army a pair of demi-pontoons and the
superstructure of one bay formed the load for a single carriage
weighing 27-75 cwt - when loaded. The Pasley was superseded
by the Blanshard pontoon, a tin coated cylinder with hemis-
pherical ends, for which great mobility was claimed, two pon-
toons and two bays superstructure being carried on one waggon,
giving a weight of about 45 cwt., which was intended to be drawn
by four horses. The Blanshard pontoon was long used in the
British army, but was ultimately discarded; and British
engineers came to the conclusion that it was desirable to return
to the form of the open bateau to which the engineers of all the
68
PONTOON
Continental armies had meanwhile constantly adhered. Captain
Fowke, R.E., invented a folding open bateau, made of water-
proof canvas attached to sliding ribs, so that for transport it
could be collapsed like the bellows of an accordion and for use
could be extended by a pair of stretchers. This was followed by
the pontoon designed by Colonel Blood, R.E., an open bateau
with decked ends and sides partly decked where the rowlock
blocks were fixed. It consisted of six sets of framed ribs con-
nected by a deep kelson, two side streaks, and three bottom
streaks. The sides and bottom were of thin yellow pine with
canvas secured to both surfaces by india-rubber solution, and
coated outside with marine glue. The central interval between
the pontoons in forming a bridge was invariably maintained at
1 5 ft. ; for the support of the roadway five baulks were ordinarily
employed, but nine for the passage of siege artillery and the
heaviest loads; they fitted on to saddles resting on central
saddle beams. The pontoons were not immersed to within i ft.
of the tops of their " coamings " when carrying ordinary loads,
as of infantry in marching order " in fours " crowded at a check,
or the i6-pounder R.M.L. gun of position weighing 43 cwt.; nor
were they immersed to within 6 in. when carrying extraordinary
loads, such as disorganized infantry, or the 64-pounder R.M.L.
gun weighing 98 cwt. In designing this pontoon the chief points
attended to were (i) improvement in power of support, (2)
simplification in bridge construction, (3) reduction of weight in
transport, and (4) adaptation for use singly as boats for ferrying
purposes. One pontoon with the superstructure for a single
bay constituted a load for one waggon, with a total weight
behind horses of about 40 cwt.
The following table (from Ency. Brit, gth ed.) shows the powers
of various pontoons in use by different nations in the past. Modern
improvements are comparatively few. The " working power of
support " has been calculated in most instances by deducting from
the " available buoyancy " one-fourth for open and one-tenth for
closed vessels:
In the English and French equipment the pontoons were originally
made of two sizes, the smaller and lighter for the " advanced guard,
the larger and heavier for the " reserve; " in both equipments
the same size pontoon is now adopted for general requirements, the
superstructure being strengthened when necessary for very heavy
weights. The German army has an undivided galvanized iron pon-
toon, 24 ft. 6 in. long, handy as a boat, but of inadequate buoyancy
for heavy traffic, with the result that the span has to be diminished
and ipso facto the waterway obstructed. The Austrian and Italian
pontoons are made in three pieces, two with bows and a middle
piece without; not less than two pieces are ordinarily employed, and
the third is introduced when great supporting power is required,
but in all cases a constant interval is maintained between the
pontoons. On the other hand, in the greater number of pontoon
equipments greater supporting power is obtained not by increasing
the number of supports but by diminishing the central interval
between the pontoons. Within certain limits it does not matter
whether the buoyancy is made up of a large number of small or a
small number of large vessels, so long as the waterway is not unduly
contracted and the obstruction offered to a swift current dangerously
increased; but it is to be remembered that pontoon bridges have
failed as frequently from being washed away as from insufficient
buoyancy. In Austria efforts have been made to diminish the weight
of the Birago equipment by the substitution of steel for iron. The
present pontoon, in three pieces, is of steel, and 39 ft. 4 in. long, like
the old pattern.
In the British army Colonel Blood's equipment was later modified
by the introduction of a bipartite pontoon designed in 1889 by
Lieut. Clauson, R.E. Each pontoon is carried on one waggon with
a bay of superstructure, and consists of two sections, a bow-piece and
a stern-piece, connected together by easily manipulated couplings
of phosphor bronze. Decks and " coamings " are dispensed with,
and the rowlock holes are sunk in a strong gunwale. The detach-
able saddle-beam, which receives the load on the centre of the
thwarts, is made in sections, so as to form a continuous saddle of
any length required. The baulks (or road-bearers) and chesses
(or planks) remain unaltered, but chess-holders and chess-bearers
are added for use in constructing light bridges for infantry in file.
In this kind of bridge each pontoon section is used separately,
with a roadway of chesses placed longitudinally four abreast. In
the normal or medium bridge two sections, and in heavy bridge
three sections are joined together. The chief advantages of the
/
Pontoon.
I
ii
11
o^
Actual
Buoyancy
of Pontoon.
Weight of
Pontoon and
one Bay of
Superstructure .
Available
Buoyancy.
Hi
in
a
111
Sss
Power per
lineal foot of
Roadway.
Greatest
ordinary Load
per foot lineal .
Width of
Roadway.
Greatest
possible load at
i oo It) per foot
superficial of
roadway.
Ft.
Cub. Ft.
tt>
tb
Ib
ib
Ft.
Ib
Ib
Ft.
tb
Gribeauval : open bateau, oak
36-3
593
45.044
8,044
37,000
27,750
22-8
1,215
840
15-6
35,568
Austrian : open, wooden, 1799
27-0
354
22,123
3.332
18,791
14,093
16-6
849
560
11-4
18,924
Aust. -Birago: open, wooden; two pieces .
28-0
303
18,907
3,249
15,658
",744
21-7
542
5 60
9-3
20,181
, ,, three . . .
39-4
445
27.791
3,884
23,907
17,930
21-7
827
560
9'3
20,181
,, , iron; two pieces .
28-0
353
22,090
3,698
18,392
13,794
21-7
636
560
9-3
20,181
,, three . . . .
39-4
530
33.135
4,501
28,634
21,476
21-7
991
560
9-3
20,181
French : open, wooden ; reserve
3-9
325
20,286
3,608
16,678
12,509
19-7
635
560
10-5
20,685
, , advanced guard
19-7
156
9.734
1,506
8,228
6,171
16-4
376
5 60
9-3
15,252
, , general
30-9
321
20,065
3,153
16,912
12,684
19-7
644
560
9-8
19,306
Prussian : open, wooden ; open order ....
23-7
164
10,226
2,393
7,833
5,875
15-3
384
5 60
9-9
15,147
, close order ....
23-7
164
10,226
2,213
8,013
6,010
II-2
535
560
9-9
1 1, 088
,, , iron ; open order .
247
214
13.385
2,209
11,176
8,382
15-3
56i
560
9.9
15,147
,, , ,, close order ....
24-7
214
13.385
2,029
n,356
8,517
1 1 -2
759
500
9-9
1 1, 088
Italian : open wooden ; one piece ....
19-6
283
17,660
3,582
14,078
io,559
26-3
402
560
9-8
25,774
,, ,, two pieces ....
39-2
565
35,320
4,572
30,748
23,061
26-3
878
560
9-8
25,774
,, modified ; one piece ....
24-6
"*2S
20,290
2.4.OI
16,889
12,669
2VO
551
560
9-8
22.540
two pieces
49-2
o o
649
4 .58o
O'T 1
4,489
36,091
27,068
"O v
23-0
1,178
O*-"-*
560
9-8
U*t"
22,540
Russian \ P en ' canvas on I open order .
2I-O
209
13,042
2,355
10,687
8,015
16-6
493
560
10-4
17,264
I wooden framework; \ close order .
2I-O
209
13.042
2,083
io,959
8,219
11-7
70S
560
10-4
12,168
Belgian: open, iron; one piece
24-8
297
18,584
3,336
15,248
11.436
19-7
580
560
9-5
18,715
,, ,, two pieces
49-2
595
37.168
4,548
32,620
24,465
19-7
1,244
560
9-5
18,715
AmpriYan J india-rubber, three; ) open order .
m | cylinders connected ; \ close order .
2O-O
20-0
130
'30
8,125
8,125
1,980
1,824
6,145
6,301
5.530
5.761
18-0
14-7
307
393
580
560
II-O
II-O
19,800
18,370
English Pontoons.
Peninsular ( open, tin ; reserve ....
18-9
209
13,092
2,374
10,718
8,039
16-8
477
560
IO-O
16,800
equipment 1 advanced guard .
I5' 1
1 20
7,520
1,654
5,866
4,400
14-0
3>4
560
9-0
12,600
Pasley: closed demi-canoe; copper . . . .
25-0
141
8,781
2,103
6,678
6,oto
12-5
481
560
10-0
12,500
Blanshard : cylinder, tin ; open order ....
22-5
109
6,785
i, 600
5,l85
4,667
12-5
373
560
IO-O
12,500
,, ,, ,, close order ....
22-5
109
6,785
1,408
5,377
4,839
8-3
58i
560
IO-O
8,300
. ,, light pattern .
15-5
26
1,640
34
1,300
1,170
5'3
220
280
7-o
3-710
Fowke: open, collapsible, canvas; open order
22-O
134
8,460
1,246
7-214
5,4"
IO-O
54i
560
IO-O
10,000
Forbes: closed, spherangular, tin; open order
24-2
128
7,977
1,689
6,288
5,659
II-O
514
560
1O-O
11,000
Blood : open, wooden ; general
21-6
280
17 SOO
2 "JOO
15,200
i^.^so
15-0
890
560
Ht-O
15,000
/ G""
* o^^
*O'O*J
j
7
^
PONTOPPIDAN, E. PONTORMO
69
equipment are (i) the buoyancy of the piers can be proportionec
to the weight of traffic and to the roughness of the water; (2
owing to the special design of the bows, boats and rafts are easy to
row, while the pontoons in bridge oppose little resistance to the
current, and so require less anchor power; (3) transport rafts, pier-
IH- ids and flying bridges can be constructed with great ease, owing
to the flush gunwales on which baulks can rest if necessary; (4) the
pontoon sections are convenient to handle, easy to ship or to
transport by rail, and can readily be replaced singly if damaged in
bridge. A canoe pontoon and superstructure adapted for pack
transport has also been adopted from designs by Colonel (Sir) Elliott
Wood, C.B., R.E. _ The pontoon consists of four sections laced
together, each section being a framework of wood covered with
waterproof sheeting. Three pontoons and eight composite planks
form a " unit," from which can be constructed 48 ft. of bridge for
infantry in file, 84 ft. for infantry in single file, or a raft to carry ij
men or an empty wagon.
For the British army in India the standard pontoon for many
years was the Pasley; it was seldom used, however, for boats could
almost always be procured on the spot in sufficient numbers where-
ever a floating bridge had to be constructed. Later an equipment
was prepared for the Indian army of demi-pontoons, similar to the
Blood pontoon cut in half, and therefore more mobile; each has
a bow and a square stern, and they are joined at the stems when
required to form a " pier " ; they are fitted with movable covers and
can therefore be used in much rougher water than pontoons of the
home pattern, and their power of support and breadth of roadway
are the same. The Chitral Relief Expedition of 1895, however,
revealed certain defects. The shape of the bow was unsuited to
rapid currents; the balance was not satisfactory, and the copper
sheathing cracked. Experiments were then undertaken with the
bipartite pontoon.
The india-rubber pontoon does not appear to have been generally
employed even in America, where it was invented. The engineer
officers with the army of the Potomac, after full experience of the
india-rubber pontoon and countless other inventions of American
genius, adopted the French equipment, which they found " most
excellent, useful and reliable for all military purposes." The
Russians, in crossing the Danube in their war with Turkey in 1878,
employed the Austrian equipment. Aluminium pontoons have
been tried in Germany, but have not been adopted.
For light bridging work the Berthon and other collapsible boats
have been adopted in Germany and Great Britain, especially for
cavalry work in advance of the army. The German folding boat is
made of wood framework and canvas skin; two boats are easily
carried on one " folding-boat wagon." The total length of the three
sections together is 21 ft. 6 in. The British field troop R.E.,
attached to cavalry, carries two collapsible boats 18 ft. 6 in. long.
The methods of constructing pontoon bridges have been simpli-
fied of late years in most armies, and are usually restricted to (l)
adding pontoons one by one to the head of the bridge; (2) con-
necting rafts of two or more pontoons into bridge by intermediate
bays of superstructure; and (3) swinging across the river a bridge
previously prepared alongside the shore. The formation of a bridge
from rafts touching one another consumes an excessive amount
of equipment, and opposes unnecessary resistance to the stream ; it
s therefore being discarded in most armies. " Booming out "
the bridge bay by bay from the shore until the head reaches the
opposite bank is unsuited for rapid currents, and is almost obsolete
except for light infantry bridges.
In every army the pontoon service is in the hands of technical
specialists. 1 But there are many other forms of military
bridging, in which the specialist only supervises the work of the
rdinary soldier, or indeed, takes no part. whatever. Troops of
all arms are expected to be familiar with certain methods of
rough temporary bridging. In the British service the forms
of temporary timber bridge usually employed are called trestle,
lock and floating. The trestle bridge in its various forms con-
sists of a series of two-legged or three-legged trestles carrying the
road-bearers and chesses which form the roadway. Trestles
can be improvised, but some are carried, ready for use, by
mobile engineer units and they are frequently combined with
pontoon bridges at the shore ends, where holding ground for
the feet of the trestles is found. Lock bridges never touch
water, forming single spans over a chasm. These consist of
spars made into frames of which the feet rest in the banks of the
ver and the heads are interlocked, the whole being securely
lashed. Another type of frame-bridge is the cantilever, which
has been used in Indian frontier expeditions to bridge swift
1 In Germany, however, as mentioned below, light bridging
material has been placed in the hands of the cavalry. This tendency
accordance with the needs of modern armies, will probably
ome more pronounced in the future. It began with the pro-
ion ot demolition equipment for the cavalry pioneers.
steep-banked streams. Improvised suspension bridges are also
used. Floating bridges are made not only of pontoons but also
of boats of all sorts, casks lashed together, and rafts. They are
almost always combined with one or two bays of trestle bridging
at the shore ends.
The organization of bridging personnel in different armies shows
as much divergence of opinion as the design of pontoon equipment.
In Great Britain, since the divisional reorganization, the bridging
trains have been assigned to the " army troops," which include
two " bridging trains, ' totalling 14 officers and 454 men with 92
vehicles, most of them six-horsed. Each train carries 32 pontoons
and 32 bays of superstructure, as well as 16 trestles and 8 bays of
the appropriate superstructure, and can construct 200 yds. of
medium bridge in all. Besides these trains the divisional engineer
units (2 field companies per division) bear with them in all 4 pontoons
and 4 trestles, with the necessary bays of superstructure, their
total bridging capacity being about 40 yds. of medium bridge.
In France each army corps has a bridging train which admits of
the construction of bridges to the extent f about 120 yds. of
medium and 140 yds. of light bridging and bears besides 2 " advanced
guard " trains which can provide 33 yds. of medium bridging each.
Besides the corps trains there are also " army " trains, five in all,
which can furnish 280 yds. of medium bridging apiece. These
would be allotted in accordance with the requirements of particular
campaigns. In Germany the increasing importance attached to
independent cavalry operations has led to the assignment of a
folding-boat wagon to every cavalry regiment. The regimental
equipment provides for a ferry, capable of taking 25 to 30 infantrymen,
one artillery vehicle or four horses at one journey, a foot-bridge
22 to 35 yds. in length, or a light bridge of 8 to 13 yds. By
assembling the material of a whole cavalry division of 6 regiments,
a foot-bridge of no to 210 yds. or a light bridge of 57 to 70 yds.
can be constructed. The corps bridging train of a German army
corps can construct 140 yds. of medium or 170 yds. of light
bridging, and each of the two divisional trains, 40 yds. of medium
and 48 yds. of light bridging.
PONTOPPIDAN, ERIK (1698-1764), Danish author, was
born at Aarhus on the 24th of August 1698. He studied
divinity at the university of Copenhagen, and for some time
acted as a travelling tutor. In 1735 he became one of the
chaplains of the king. In 1738 he was made professor extra-
ordinary of theology at Copenhagen, and in 1745 bishop of
Bergen, Norway, where he died on the zoth of December 1764.
His principal works are: Theatrum Daniae veteris el modernae
(410, 1730), a description of the geography, natural history, an-
tiquities, &c., of Denmark; Gesta et vestigia danorum extra Daniam
(3 vols. 8vo, 1740), a laborious but uncritical work; Annales
ecclesiae danicae (3 vols., 1741-1747); Marmora danica selectiora
(2 vols. fol., 1739-1741); Glossarium norvegicum (1749); Del forste
forsog Norges naturlige historic (410, 1752-1754); Eng. trans.,
Natural History of Norway (2 vols., 1755), containing curious
accounts, often referred to, of the Kraaken, sea-serpent, and the
like; Origines hafnienses (1760); Menoza (3 vols., 1742-1743), a
religious novel. His Danske Alias (7 vols. 410), an historical and
topographical account of Denmark, was mostly posthumous.
See an article by S. M. Gjellerup in Danish Biografisk Lexikon
(vol. xiii., 1899).
PONTOPPIDAN, HENRIK (1857- ), Danish author, son
of a pastor, was born at Fredericia on the 24th of July 1857.
He studied physics and mathematics at the university of Copen-
hagen, and when he was eighteen he travelled on foot through
Germany and Switzerland. His novels show an intimate
acquaintance with peasant life and character, the earlier ones
showing clear evidence of the influence of Kjelland. An
excellent example of his work is in the trilogy dealing with the
history of Emanuel Hansted, a theorizing radical parson who
marries a peasant wife. These three stories, Muid (" Soil."
1891), Del Forjaeltede Land (" The Promised Land," 1892), and
Dommens Dag (1895) are marked by fine discrimination and
great narrative power. Among his other works are Fra Hylterne
[i&&l),Folkelivsskildringer (2 partsi 1888-1800), and Skyer (1890).
He began in 1898 a new series in Lykke Per. the story of a typical
[utlander.
See an article of Niels Moller in Dansk Biografisk Lexikon (vol.
xiii., 1899).
PONTORMO, JACOPO DA (1494-155?), whose family name
was Carucci, Italian painter of the Florentine school, was born
at Pantormo in 1494, son of a painter of ordinary ability, was
apprenticed to Leonardo da Vinci, and afterwards took lessons
rom Piero di Cosimo. At the age of eighteen he became a
PONTREMOLI PONTUS
journeyman to Andrea del Sarto, and was remarked as a young
man of exceptional accomplishment and promise. Later on,
but still in early youth, he executed, in continuation of Andrea's
labours, the " Visitation," in the cloister of the Servi in Florence
one of the principal surviving evidences of his powers. The
most extensive series of works which he ever undertook was a
set of frescoes in the church of S. Lorenzo, Florence, from the
" Creation of Man to the Deluge," closing with the " Last
Judgment." By this time, towards 1546, he had fallen under
the dangerous spell of Michelangelo's colossal genius and super-
human style; and Pontormo, after working on at the frescoes
for eleven years, left them incomplete, and the object of general
disappointment and disparagement. They were finished by
Angelo Bronzino, but have long since vanished under whitewash.
Among the best works of Pontormo are his portraits, which
include the likenesses of various members of the Medici family;
they are vigorous, animated and highly finished. He was fond
of new and odd experiments both in style of art and in method of
painting. From Da Vinci he caught one of the marked physio-
gnomic traits of his visages, smiles and dimples. At one time
he took to direct imitation or reproduction of Albert Diirer,
and executed a series of paintings founded on the Passion
subjects of the German master, not only in composition, but
even in such peculiarities as the treatment of draperies, &c.
Pontormo died of dropsy on the 2nd of January 1557, mortified
at the ill success of his frescoes in S. Lorenzo; he was buried
below his work in the Servi.
'PONTREMOLI, a town and bishop's see of the province of
Massa and Carrara, Tuscany, Italy, in the upper valley of the
Magra, 25 m. N. by E. of Spezia by rail and 49 m. S.S.W. of
Parma, 843 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 4107 (town);
14,570 (commune). It has a 17th-century cathedral. The
church of the Annunziata with its Augustinian monastery is
interesting. There are also mineral springs. The town, which
is well situated among the mountains, was an independent
republic in the I2th and i3th centuries, and in 1495 was sacked
by the troops of Charles VIII. of France. It was much damaged
by an earthquake in 1834.
PONTUS, a name applied in ancient times to extensive tracts
of country in the north-east of Asia Minor bordering on the
Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pantos
(the Main), by the Greeks. The exact signification of this
purely territorial name varied greatly at different times. The
Greeks used it loosely of various parts of the shores of the Euxine,
and the term did not get a definite connotation till after the
establishment of the kingdom founded beyond the Halys during
the troubled period following the death of Alexander the Great,
about 301 B.C., by Mithradates I., Ktistes, son of a Persian
satrap in the service of Antigonus, one of Alexander's successors,
and ruled by a succession of kings, mostly bearing the same name,
till 64 B.C. As the greater part of this kingdom lay within
the immense region of Cappadocia, which in early ages extended
from the borders of Cilicia to the Euxine, the kingdom as a
whole was at first called " Cappadocia towards the Pontus "
(jrpis rcS ILWtd), but afterwards simply " Pontus," the name
Cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half
of the region previously included under that title. Under the
last king, Mithradates Eupator, commonly called the Great,
the realm of Pontus included not only Pontic Cappadocia but
also the seaboard from the Bithynian frontier to Colchis, part
of inland Paphlagonia, and Lesser Armenia (see under MITHRA-
DATES). With the destruction of this kingdom by Pompey
in 64 B.C., the meaning of the name Pontus underwent a change.
Part of the kingdom was now annexed to the Roman Empire,
being united with Bithynia in a double province called " Pontus
and Bithynia": this part included (possibly from the first,
but certainly from about 40 B.C. onwards) only the seaboard
between Heracleia (Eregli) and Amisus (Samsun), the ora Pontica.
Hereafter the simple name Pontus without qualification was
regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province,
especially by Romans and people speaking from the Roman
point of view; it is so used almost always in the New Testament.
But it was also frequently used to denote (in whole or part) that
portion of the old Mithradatic kingdom which lay between the
Halys (roughly) and the borders of Colchis, Lesser Armenia,
Cappadocia and Galatia the region properly designated by
the title " Cappadocia towards the Pontus," which was always
the nucleus of the Pontic kingdom.
This region is regarded by the geographer Strabo (A.D. 19-20),
himself a native of the country, as Pontus in the strict sense
of the term (Geogr. p. 678). Its native population was of the
same stock as that of Cappadocia, of which it had formed a part,
an Oriental race often called by the Greeks Leucosyri or White
Syrians, as distinguished from the southern Syrians, who were
of a darker complexion, but their precise ethnological relations
are uncertain. Geographically it is a table-land, forming the
north-east corner of the great plateau of Asia Minor, edged on the
north by a lofty mountain rim, along the foot of which runs a
fringe of coast-land. The table-land consists of a series of fertile
plains, of varying size and elevation separated from each other
by upland tracts or mountains, and it is drained almost entirely
by the river Iris (Yeshil Irmak) and its numerous tributaries,
the largest of which are the Scylax (Tchekerek Irmak) with many
affluents and the Lycus (Kalkid Irmak), all three rising in the
highlands near, or on, the frontier of Armenia Minor and flowing
first in a westerly and then in a north-westerly direction to
merge their waters in a joint stream, which (under the name
of the Iris) pierces the mountain-wall and emerges on the east .
of Amisus (Samsun). Between the Halys and the Iris the
mountain rim is comparatively low and broken, but east of the
Iris it is a continuous lofty ridge (called by the ancients Pary-
adres and Scydises), whose rugged northern slopes are furrowed
by torrent beds, down which a host of small streams (among
them the Thermodon, famed in Amazon story) tumble to the
sea. These inaccessible slopes were inhabited even in Strabo's
time by wild, half-barbarous tribes, of whose ethnical relations
we are ignorant the Chalybes (identified by the Greeks with
Homer's Chalybes), Tibareni, Mosynoeci and Macrones, on
whose manners and condition some light is thrown by Xenophon
(Anab. V). But the fringe of coast-land from Trebizond
westward is one of the most beautiful parts of Asia Minor and
is justly extolled by Strabo for its wonderful productiveness.
The sea-coast, like the rest of the south shore of the Euxine,
was studded with Greek colonies founded from the 6th century
onwards: Amisus, a colony of Miletus, which in the 5th century
received a body of Athenian settlers, now the port of Samsun;
Cotyora, now Ordu; Cerasus, the later Pharnacia, now Kerasund;
and Trapezus (Trebizond), a famous city from Xenophon's
time till the end of the middle ages. The last three were
colonies of Sinope, itself a Milesian colony. The chief towns
in the interior were Amasia, on the Iris, the birthplace of Strabo,
the capital of Mithradates the Great, and the burial-place of the
earlier kings, whose tombs still exist; Comana, higher up the
river, a famous centre of the worship of the goddess Ma (or
Cybele); Zela, another great religious centre, refounded by
Pompey, now Zileh; Eupatoria, refounded by Pompey as
Magnopolis at the junction of the Lycus and Iris; Cabira,
Pompey's Diospolis, afterwards Neocaesarea, now Niksar;
Sebastopolis on the Scylax, now Sulu Serai; Sebasteia, now
Srvas; and Megalopolis, a foundation of Pompey, somewhere in
the same district.
The history of this region is the history of the advance of
the Roman Empire towards the Euphrates. Its political
position between 64 and 41 B.C., when Mark Antony became
master of the East, is not quite certain. Part of it was handed
over by Pompey to client princes: the coast-land east of the
Halys (except the territory of Amisus) and the hill-tribes of
Paryadres were given, with Lesser Armenia, to the Galatian
chief Deiotarus, with the title of king; Comana was left under
the rule of its high-priest. The rest of the interior was parti-
tioned by Pompey amongst the inland cities, almost all of which
were founded by him, and, according to one view, was included
together with the seaboard west of Amisus and the corner of north-
east Paphlagonia possessed by Mithradates in his new province
PONTUS DE TYARD PONTYPRIDD
Pontus-Bithynia. Others maintain that only the seaboard
W;IN included in the province, the inland cities being constituted
self-governing, " protected " communities. The latter view
is more in conformity with Roman policy in the East, which
did not usually annex countries till they reached (under the
rule of client princes) a certain level of civilization and order,
but it is difficult to reconcile with Strabo's statements (p. 541
sqq.)- In any case, during the years following 40 B.C. all inland
Pontus was handed over, like north-east Paphlagonia, to native
dynasts. The Pontic possessions of Deiotarus (d. 40 B.C.) were
given with additions (e.g. Cabira) in 39 B.C. to Darius, son of
I'harnaces, and in 36 B.C. to Polemon, son of a rhetorician of
Laodicea on the Lycus. The high-priest of Comana, Lycomedes,
received an accession of territory and the royal title. The
territories of Zela and Megalopolis were divided between Lyco-
medes, the high-priest of Zela and Ateporix, who ruled the
principality of Carana (later Sebastopolis). Amasia and
Amisus were also given to native princes.
After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Augustus restored
Amisus as a " free city " to the province of Bithynia-Pontus,
but made no other serious change. Polemon retained his king-
dom till his death in 8 B.C., when it passed to his widow Pytho-
doris. But presently the process of annexation began and the
Pontic districts were gradually incorporated in the empire,
each being attached to the province of Galatia, then the centre
of Roman forward policy, (i) The western district was an-
nexed in two sections, Sebastopolis and Amasia in 3-2 B.C.,
and Comana in A.D. 34-35. To distinguish this district from
the province Pontus and Polemon's Pontus, it was henceforth
called Pontus galalicus (as being the first part attached to
Galatia). (2) Polemon's kingdom, ruled since A.D. 38 by Pole-
mon II., grandson of the former king, was annexed by Nero in
A.D. 64-65, and distinguished by the title of Pontus polemoniacus,
which survived for centuries. [But the simple name Pontus,
hitherto commonly used to designate Polemon's realm, is still
employed to denote this district by itself or in conjunction
with Pontus Galaticus, where the context makes the meaning
clear (e.g. in inscriptions and on coins).] Polemoniacus
included the sea-coast from the Thermodon to Cotyora and the
inland cities Zela, Magnopolis, Megalopolis, Neocaesarea and
Sebasteia (according to Ptolemy, but apparently annexed since
2 B.C., according to its coins). (3) Finally, at the same time
(A.D. 64) was annexed the remaining eastern part of Pontus,
which formed part of Polemon's realm but was attached to
the province Cappadocia and distinguished by the epithet
cappadodcus. These three districts formed distinct adminis-
trative divisions within the provinces to which they were
attached, with separate capitals Amasia, Neocaesarea and
Trapezus; but the first two were afterwards merged in one,
sometimes called Pontus mediterraneus, with Neocaesarea as
capital, probably when they were definitively transferred
(about A.D. 114) to Cappadocia, then the great frontier military
province.
With the reorganization of the provincial system under
Diocletian (about A.D. 295), the Pontic districts were divided
up between four provinces of the dioecesis pontica: (i) Paphla-
gonia, to which was attached most of the old province Pontus;
(2) Diospontus, re-named Helenopontus by Constantine, con-
taining the rest of the province Pontus and the adjoining dis-
trict, eight cities in all (including Sinope, Amisus and Zela) with
Amasia as capital; (3) Pontus Polemoniacus, containing Comana,
Polemonium, Cerasus and Trapezus with Neocaesarea as
capital; and (4) Armenia Minor, five cities, with Sebasteia, as
capital. This rearrangement gave place in turn to the Byzantine
system of military districts (themes).
Christianity was introduced into the province Pontus (the
Ora pontka) by way of the sea in the ist century after Christ
and was deeply rooted when Pliny governed the province
(A.D. 111-113). But the Christianization of the inland Pontic
districts began only about the middle of the 3rd century and
was largely due to the missionary zeal of Gregory Thaumaturgus,
bishop of Neocaesarea.
See Ramsay, Histor. Geogr. of Asia Minor (1890); Anderson and
Cumont, Studia pontica (1903 et seq.); Babelon and Reinach,
Recueil des monnates d'Asie min., t. i. (1904) ; H. Grdgoire, " Voyage
dans le Pont " &c. in Bull, de corres. hell. (1909). (J- G. C. A.)
PONTUS DE TYARD (c. 1521-1605), French poet and member
of the Pleiade (see DAURAT), was seigneur of Bissy in Burgundy,
where he was born in or about 1521. He was a friend of Antoine
Heroet and Maurice Sceve, and to a certain extent anticipated
Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay. His Erreurs amoureuses,
originally published in 1549, was augmented with other poems
in successive editions till 1573. On the whole his poetry is
inferior to that of his companions, but he was one of the first
to write sonnets in French (the actual priority belongs to Melin
de St Gelais). It is also said that he introduced the sestine
into France, or rather reintroduced it, for it was originally
a Provencal invention. In his later years he gave himself up
to the study of mathematics and philosophy. He became bishop
of Chalons-sur-Sa&ne in 1578, and in 1587 appeared his Discours
phUosophiques. He was a zealous defender of the cause of
Henry III. against the pretensions of the Guises. This attitude
brought down on him the vengeance of the league; he was
driven from Chalons and his chateau at Bissy was plundered.
He survived all the members of the Pleiade and lived to see the
onslaught made on their doctrines by Malherbe. Pontus
resigned his bishopric in 1594, and retired to the chateau de
Bragny, where he died on the 23rd of September 1605.
His Oeuvres poetiques may be found in the Pleiade fran^aise (1875)
of M. Ch. Marty-Laveaux.
PONTYPOOL, a market town in the northern parliamentary
division of Monmouthshire, England, 8 m. N. of Newport,
served by the Great Western, London & North-Western, and
Rhymney railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 6126. It
is beautifully situated on an acclivity above the Afon Lwyd,
a tributary of the Usk. Its prosperity is due to its situation
on the edge of the great coal- and iron-field of Monmouthshire
and Glamorganshire. The earliest record of trade in iron is in
1588, but it was developed chiefly in the beginning of the i8th
century by the family of Hanbury, the proprietors of Pontypool
Park. Pontypool was formerly famed for its japanned goods,
invented by Thomas Allwood, a native of Northampton, who
settled in the town in the reign of Charles II., but the manu-
facture has long been transferred elsewhere. The town and
neighbourhood contain large forges and iron mills for the manu-
facture of iron-work and tin-plate. Water communication
is afforded with Newport by the Monmouthshire Canal. On
the south-east of Pontypool is the urban district of Panteg,
including Griffithstown, with a population (1901) of 7484.
PONTYPRIDD, a parish, market town, and urban district,
in the eastern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales,
situated on the Taff at its junction with the Rhondda, on the
Taff Vale railway, and on the Glamorganshire Canal, 12 m.
N.N.W. from Cardiff, 128. from Merthyr-Tydfil, and 169 by rail
from London. It is also connected with Newport by a Great
Western line i8J m. long. Pop. (1901), 32,316. It receives its
name from a remarkable bridge of one arch spanning the Taff,
erected in 1755 by William Edwards, a self-taught mason.
The bridge is a perfect segment of a circle, the chord being
140 ft., and the height at low water 36 ft. A three-arched bridge
was erected close to it in 1857. The town is built at the junc-
tion of the three parishes of Llanwonno, Llantwit Fardre and
Eglwysilan, out of portions of which Glyntaff was formed into
an ecclesiastical parish in 1848, and from this Pontypridd was
carved in 1884. The urban district was constituted into a
civil parish in 1894. The church of St Catherine, built in
1868, enlarged in 1885, is in early Decorated style; other places
of worship are the Baptist, Calvinistic Methodist, Congrega-
tional, and Wesleyan chapels. The principal secular buildings
are a masonic hall, town-hall built above the market, free library
(1890), county intermediate school (1895) and court-house.
Near the town is a far-famed rocking-stone 9^ tons in weight,
known as the Maen Chwyf, round which a circle of small stones
was set up in the middle of the igth century under the direction
PONY POOLE, R. S.
of Myvyr Morganwg, who used to style himself archdruid of
Wales. The place became, for a time, famous as a meeting
place for neo-Druidic gatherings. Pontypridd was an insig-
nificant village till the opening of the Taff Vale railway into
the town in 1840, and it owed its progress chiefly to the de-
velopment of the coal areas of the Rhondda Valley, for which
district it serves as the market town and chief business centre.
It also possesses anchor, chain, and cable works, chemical works,
and iron and brass foundries. Pontypridd has, jointly with
Rhondda, a stipendiary magistrate since 1872.
PONY (from the Lowland Scots powney, probably from O. Fr.
pouleriet, diminutive of poulain, a colt or foal; Late Lat. pullanus,
Lat. pullus, a young animal), a horse of a small breed, sometimes
confined to such as do not exceed 13 hands in height, but
generally applied to any horse under 14 hands (see HORSE). The
word is of frequent use as a slang term e.g. for a sum of 25;
for a liquor measure or glass containing less than a half-pint;
and in America for a literal translation of a foreign or classical
author, a " crib."
PONZA (anc. Poniiae), the principal of a small group of
islands belonging to Italy. Pop. (1901), 4621. The group is of
volcanic origin, and includes Palmarola (anc. Palmaria), Zannone
(Sinonia), Ventotene (Pandateria, pop. in 1901, 1986) and San
Stefano. It is situated about 20 m. S. of Monte Circeo and
70 m. W. of Naples, and belongs partly to the province of Caserta
and partly to that of Naples (Ventotene). There is regular
communication with Naples by steamer, and in summer with
Anzio. The islands rise to a height of about 70 ft. above sea-
level. They are now penal settlements, and their isolated
character led to their being similarly used in ancient times. A
colony with Latin rights was founded on Pontiae in 313 B.C.
Nero, Germanicus's eldest son, and the sisters of Caligula, were
confined upon it; while Pandateria was the place of banishment
of Julia, daughter of Augustus, of her daughter Agrippina the
elder, and of Octavia, the divorced wife of Nero.
POOD, a Russian weight, equivalent to 40 ft Russian and
about 36 Ib avoirdupois. A little more than 62 poods go to
the ton. The word is an adaptation of the Low German or
Norse pund, pound.
POOL, (i) A pond, or a small body of still water; also a
place in a river or stream where the water is deep and still, so
applied in the Thames to that part of the river known as The
Pool, which reaches from below London Bridge to Limehouse.
The word in Old English was pdl, which may be related to pull
or pyll, and the similar Celtic words, e.g. Cornish pol, a creek,
common on the Bristol Channel and estuary of the Severn, on
the English side in the form " pill." A further connexion has
been suggested with Lat. palus, marsh; Gr. 7117X65, mud. (2)
A name for the stakes, penalties, &c., in various card and other
games when collected together to be paid out to the winners;
also the name of a variety of games of billiards (q.v.). This
word has a curious history. It is certainly adapted from Fr.
poule, hen, chicken, apparently a slang term for the stakes in
a game, possibly, as the New English Dictionary suggests, used
as a synonym for plunder, booty. " Chicken-hazard " might
be cited as a parallel, though that has been taken to be a cor-
ruption of " chequeen," a form of the Turkish coin, a sequin.
When the word came into use in English at the end of the i7th
century, it seems to have been at once identified with " pool,"
pond, as Fr. fiche (ficher, to fix), a counter, was with "fish,"
counters in card games often taking the form of " fish " made
of mother-of-pearl, &c. " Pool," in the sense of a common
fund, has been adopted as a commercial term for a combination
for the purpose of speculating in stocks and shares, the several
owners of securities " pooling " them and placing them under a
single control, and sharing all losses and profits. Similarly
the name is given to a form of trade combination, especially in
railway or shipping companies, by which the receipts or profits
are divided on a certain agreed-upon basis, for the purpose of
avoiding competition (see TRUSTS).
POOLE, MATTHEW (1624-1679), English Nonconformist
theologian, was born at York, educated at Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, and from 1649 till the passing of the Act of Unifor-
mity (1662) held the rectory of St Michael le Querne, London.
Subsequent troubles led to his withdrawal to Holla'nd, and he
died at Amsterdam in 1679. The work with which his name
is principally associated is the Synopsis crUicorum biblicorum
(5 vols. fol., 1669-1676), in which he summarizes the views of one
hundred and fifty biblical critics. He also wrote English Anno-
tations on the Holy Bible, as far as Isa. Iviii. a work which
was completed by several of his Nonconformist brethren, and
published in 2 vols. fol. in 1683.
POOLE, PAUL FALCONER (1806-1879), English painter,
was born at Bristol in 1806. Though self-taught his fine feeling
for colour, poetic sympathy and dramatic power gained for him
a high position among British artists. He exhibited his first
work in the Royal Academy at the age of twenty-five, the sub-
ject being " The Well," a scene in Naples. There was an interval
of seven years before he next exhibited his " Farewell, Farewell "
in 1837, which was followed by the " Emigrant's Departure,"
" Hermann and Dorothea " and " By the Waters of Babylon."
In 1843 his position was made secure by his " Solomon Eagle,"
and by his success in the.Cartoon Exhibition, in which he received
from the Fine Art Commissioners a prize of 300 sterling. After
his exhibition of the " Surrender of Syon House " he was elected
an associate of the Royal Academy in 1846, and was made an
academician in 1861. He died in 1879.
Poole's subjects divide themselves into two orders one
idyllic, the other dramatic. Of the former his " May Day "
(1852) is a typical example. Of both styles there were excellent
examples to be seen in the small collection of his works shown
at Burlington House in the Winter Exhibition of 1883-1884.
Among his early dramatic pictures was " Solomon Eagle ex-
horting the People to Repentance during the Plague of 1665,"
painted in 1843. To this class belongs also the " Messenger
announcing to Job the Irruption of the Sabeans and the
Slaughter of the Servants " (exhibited in 1850), and " Robert,
Duke of Normandy and Arietta " (1848). Finer examples of
his more mature power in this direction are to be found in his
" Prodigal Son," painted in 1869; the " Escape of Glaucusand
lone with the blind girl Nydia from Pompeii" (1860); and
" Cunstaunce sent adrift by the Constable of Alia, King of
Northumberland," painted in 1868. More peaceful than these
are the " Song of Troubadours " (painted in 1854) and the " Goths
in Italy " (1851), the latter an important historical work of
great power and beauty. Of a less lofty strain, but still more
beautiful in its workmanship, is the " Seventh Day of the
Decameron," painted in 1857. In this picture Poole rises to his
full height as a colourist. In his pastorals he is soft and tender,
as in the " Mountain Path " (1853), the " Water-cress Gatherers "
(1870), the " Shepston Maiden " (1872). But when he turns to
the grander and 'more sublime views of nature his work is bold
and vigorous. Fine examples of this style may be seen in the
" Vision of Ezekiel " of the National Gallery, " Solitude "
(1876), the "Entrance to the Cave of Mammon" (1875), the
" Dragon's Cavern" (1877), and perhaps best of all in the "Lion
in the Path " (1873), a great representation of mountain and
cloud form.
POOLE, REGINALD STUART (1832-1895), English archae-
ologist and orientalist, was born in London on the 27th of
January 1832. His father was the Rev. Edward Poole, a well-
known bibliophile. His mother, Sopha, authoress of The
Englishwoman in Egypt (1844), was the sister of E. W. Lane,
the Arabic scholar, with whom R. S. Poole lived in Cairo from
1842 to 1849, thus imbibing an early taste for Egyptian
antiquities. In 1852 he became an assistant in the British
Museum, and was assigned to the department of coins and
medals, of which in 1870 he became keeper. In that capacity
he did work of the highest value, alike as a writer, teacher and
administrator. In 1882 he was largely responsible for founding
the Egypt Exploration Fund, and in 1884 for starting the Society
of English Medallists. He retired in 1893, and died on the 8th
of February 1895. Some of Poole's best work was done in his
articles for the Ency. Brit, (gth ed.) on Egypt, Hieroglyphics
POOLE POOP
73
and Numismatics, and considerable portions have been retained
in the present edition, even though later research has been
active in his sphere of work; he also wrote for Smith's Dictionary
of the Bible, and published several volumes dealing with his
special subjects. He was for some time professor of archae-
ology at University College, London, and also lecturer at the
Royal Academy.
His elder brother, EDWARD STANLEY POOLE (1830-1867),
who was chief clerk in the science and art department at South
Kensington, was an Arabic scholar, whose early death cut short
a promising career. His two sons, Stanley Lane-Poole (b. 1854),
professor of Arabic in Trinity College, Dublin, and Reginald
Lane-Poole (b. 1857), keeper of the archives at Oxford,
lecturer in diplomatic, and author of various historical works,
carried on the family tradition of scholarship.
POOLE, a municipal borough, county in itself, market town
and seaport in the eastern parliamentary division of Dor-
setshire, England, 113^ m. S.W. by W. from London by the
London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 19,463. It
is picturesquely situated on a peninsula between Holes Bay
and the shallow irregular inlet of Poole Harbour. There are
several modern churches, a guildhall, public library and school
of art. Poole Harbour, extending inland 6 m., with a general
breadth of 4 m., has a very narrow entrance, and is studded
with low islands, on the largest of which, Brownsea or Branksea,
is a castle, transformed into a residence, erected as a defence
of the harbour in Tudor times, and strengthened by Charles I.
Potters' clay is worked here. At low water the harbour is
entirely emptied except a narrow channel, when there is a
depth of 8J ft. There are some valuable oyster beds. There
is a considerable general coasting trade, and clay is exported
to the Staffordshire potteries. Some shipbuilding is carried
on, and there are manufacturers of cordage, netting and sail-
cloth. The town also possesses potteries, decorative tileworks,
iron foundries, agricultural implement works and flour-mills.
Poole Park, containing 40 acres of land and 62 acres of water,
was acquired in 1887 and 1889, and Branksome Park, of
40 acres, in 1895. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 1 8 councillors. Area, 5333 acres.
Although the neighbourhood abounds -in British earth-
works and barrows, and there are traces of a Roman road lead-
ing from Poole to Wimborne, Poole (La Pole) is not mentioned
by the early chroniclers or in Domesday Book. The manor,
part of that of Canford, belonged in 1086 to Edward of Salis-
bury, and passed by marriage to William Longespde, earl of
Salisbury, thence to Edmund de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and with
his heiress to Thomas, earl of Lancaster, and so to the Crown.
Poole is first mentioned in a writ of 1 224, addressed to the bailiffs
and good men of La Pole, ordering them to retain all ships within
their port. Entries in the Patent Rolls show that Poole had
considerable trade before William de Longespee, earl of Salis-
bury, granted the burgesses a charter about 1248 assuring to
them all liberties and free customs within his borough. The
bailiff was to be chosen by the lord from six men elected by
the burgesses, and was to hold pleas for breach of measures
and assizes. It is uncertain when the burgesses obtained their
town at the fee-farm rent of 8, 135. 4d. mentioned in 1312.
The mayor, bailiffs and good men are first mentioned in 1311
and were required to provide two ships for service against
Robert de Brus. In 1372 the burgesses obtained assize of
bread and ale, and right to hold the courts of the lord of the
manor, the prepositus being styled his mayor. The burgesses
were licensed in 1433 to fortify the town; this was renewed in
1462, when the mayor was given cognisance of the staple.
Elizabeth incorporated Poole in 1569 and made it a separate
county; Charles II. gave a charter in 1667. The corporation
was suspended after a writ of quo warranto in 1686, the town
being governed by the commission of the peace until the
charters were renewed in 1688. Poole returned two members to
parliament in 1362 and 1368, and regularly from 1452 to 1867,
when the representation was reduced, ceasing in 1885. It is
uncertain when the Thursday market was granted, but the
present fairs on the Feasts of SS Philip and James and All
Saints were granted in 1453- Poole, as the headquarters of the
Parliamentary forces in Dorset during the Civil War, escaped
the siege that crippled so many of its neighbours. When
Charles II. visited the town in 1665 a large trade was carried on
in stockings, though the prosperity of Poole still depended on
its usefulness as a port.
POONA, or PUNA, a city and district of British India, in
the Central division of Bombay. The city is at the confluence
of the Mutha and Mula rivers, 1850 ft. above sea-level and 1 19 m.
S.E. from Bombay on the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
Municipal area, about 4 sq. m.; pop. (1001), 153,320. It is
pleasantly situated amid extensive gardens, with a large num-
ber of modern public buildings, and also many temples and
palaces dating from the i6th to the igth century. The palace
of the peshwas is a ruin, having been destroyed by fire in 1827.
From its healthy situation Poona has been chosen not only
as the headquarters of the 6th division of the Southern army,
but also as the residence of the governor of Bombay during the
rainy season, from June to September. The native town, along
the river bank, is somewhat poorly built. The European quarter,
including the cantonment, extends north-west towards Kirkee.
The waterworks were constructed mainly by the munificence
of Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy. Poona was never a great centre
of trade or manufacture though still noted for brass-work,
jewelry and other articles of luxury. Cotton-mills, paper-
mills, a brewery (at Dapuri), flour-mills, factories of ice and
mineral waters, and dairy farms furnish the chief industries.
Educational institutions are numerous. They include the
government Deccan College, with a law class; the aided Fer-
gusson college; the government colleges of science and agricul-
ture; high schools; training schools for masters and mistresses;
medical school; and municipal technical school. The recent
history of Poona has been painfully associated with the plague.
During 1897, when the city was first attacked, the death-rate
rose to 93 pef 1000 in Poona city, 71 per 1000 in the canton-
ment, and 93 per 1000 in Kirkee.
The DISTRICT OF POONA has an area of 5349 sq. m. Popula-
tion (1901), 995,330, showing an increase of 18% after the dis-
astrous famine of 1876-1877, but a decrease of 7% in the last
decade. Towards the west the country is undulating, and
numerous spurs from the Western Ghats enter the district; to
the east it opens out into plains. It is watered by many streams
which, rising in the ghats, flow eastwards until they join the
Bhima, a river which intersects the district from north to south.
The principal crops are millets, pulses, oil-seeds, wheat, rice, sugar-
cane, vegetables and fruit (including grapes). The two most
important irrigation works in the Deccan are the Mutha canal,
with which the Poona waterworks are connected, and the Nira
canal. There are manufactures of cotton, silk and blankets.
The district is traversed by the Great Indian Peninsula railway,
and also by the Southern Mahratta line, which starts from Poona
city towards Satara. It is liable to drought, from which it
suffered severely in 1866-1867, 1876-1877, and again in
1896-1897.
In the 1 7th century the district formed part of the Mahom-
medan kingdom of Ahmadnagar. Sivaji was born within its
boundaries at Junnar in 1627, and he was brought up at Poona
town as the headquarters of the hereditary fief of his father.
The district thus was the early centre of the Mahratta power;
and when Satara became first the capital and later the prison
of the descendants of Sivaji, Poona continued to be the seat of
government under their hereditary ministers, with the title
of peshwa. Many stirring scenes in Mahratta history were
enacted here. Holkar defeated the last peshwa under its walls,
and his flight to Bassein led to the treaty by which he put
himself under British protection. He was reinstated in 1802,
but, unable to maintain friendly relations, he attacked the
British at Kirkee in 1817, and his kingdom passed from him.
POOP (Lat. puppis, stern), the stern or after-part of a ship; in
the i6th and 1 7th centuries a lofty and castellated deck. The verb
" to poop " is used of a wave breaking over the stern of a vessel.
74
POORE POOR LAW
POORE (or POOR), RICHARD (d. 1237), English bishop, was
a son of Richard of Ilchester, bishop of Winchester. About
1197 he was chosen dean of Sarum and, after being an un-
successful candidate for the bishoprics of Winchester and of
Durham, he became bishop of Chichester in 1214. In 1217 he
was translated to Salisbury, where he succeeded his elder brother,
Herbert Poore, and in 1228 to Durham. He died at Tarrant
Monkton, Dorset, said by some to be his birthplace, on the isth
of April 1237. Poore took some part in public affairs, under
Henry III., but the great work of his life was done at Salisbury.
Having in 1219 removed his see from Old to New Sarum, or
Salisbury, he began the building of the magnificent cathedral
there; he laid the foundation stone in April 1220, and during
his episcopate he found money and forwarded the work in other
ways. For the city the bishop secured a charter from Henry III.
and he was responsible for the plan on which it was built,
a plan which to some extent it still retains. He had something
to do with drawing up some statutes for his cathedral; he is
said to be responsible for the final form of the " use of Sarum,"
and he was probably the author of the Ancren Riwle, a valuable
" picture of contemporary life, manners and feeling " written
in Middle English. His supposed identity with the jurist,
Ricardus Anglicus, is more doubtful.
POOR LAW. The phrase " poor law " in English usage
denotes the legislation embodying the measures taken by the
state for the relief of paupers and its administration. The
history of the subject and its problems generally are dealt with
in the article CHARITY AND CHARITIES, and other information
will be found in UNEMPLOYMENT and VAGRANCY. This article
will deal only with the practice in the United Kingdom as
adopted after the reform of the poor law in 1834 and amended
by subsequent acts. This reform was brought about mainly
by the rapid increase of the poor rate at the beginning of the
19th century, showing that a change was necessary either
in the poor law as it then existed or in the mode of its adminis-
tration.
A commission was appointed in 1832 " to make diligent and
full inquiry into the practical operation of the laws for the
relief of the poor in England and Wales, and into the manner in
which those laws were administered, and to report their opinion
as to what beneficial alterations could be made." The com-
missioners reported " fully on the great abuse of the legislative
provision for the poor as directed to be employed by the statute
of Elizabeth," finding "that the great source of abuse was the
outdoor relief afforded to the able-bodied on their own account
or on that of their families, given either in kind or in money."
They also reported that " great maladministration existed in
the workhouses." To remedy the evils they proposed con-
siderable alterations in the law, and the principal portion of
their suggestions was embodied in the Poor Law Amendment
Act 1834. By virtue of this act three commissioners were
appointed (originally for five years, but subsequently con-
tinued from time to time) , styled " the poor law commissioners
for England and Wales," sitting as a board, and appointing
assistant commissioners and other officers. The administration
of relief according to the existing laws was subject to their
direction and control, and to their orders and regulations for
the government of workhouses and the guidance and control
of guardians and vestries and the keeping and allowing of
accounts and contracts, without interfering with ordinary relief
in individual cases. The whole of England and Wales was
divided into twenty-one districts, to each of which an assistant
commissioner was appointed. The commissioners under their
powers formed poor law unions by uniting parishes for general
administration, and building workhouses, guardians elected by
the ratepayers (or ex officio) having the general government
and administration of relief. The expense was apportioned to
each parish on settled principles and rules, with power, however,
to treat the united parishes as one for certain purposes. Out-
door relief might be given, on the order of two justices, to poor
persons wholly unable to work from old age or infirmity.
The obstacles which the act had to contend with in London
chiefly arose from the confusion and perplexity of jurisdiction
which existed in the one hundred and seventy parishes com-
prised within the city of London and the metropolitan district,
some of these containing governing bodies of their own; in some
the parish business was professedly managed by open vestries,
in others by select vestries, and in addition to these there were
elective vestries, while the majority of the large parishes were
managed under local acts by boards of directors, governors
and trustees. These governing bodies executed a great variety
of functions besides regulating the management of the poor.
The power, patronage and the indirect advantages which arose
from the administration of the local funds were so great that
much opposition took place when it was proposed to interfere
by constituting a board to be annually chosen and freely elected
by the ratepayers, on which the duty of regulating the expen-
diture for the relief of the poor was to depend. The general
management of the poor was, however, on a somewhat better
footing in London than in the country.
The act of 1834 was rather to restore the scope and intention
of the statute of Elizabeth by placing its administration in the
hands of responsible persons chosen by the ratepayers, and
themselves controlled by the orders of a central body, than to
create a new system of poor laws. The agents and instruments
by which the administration of relief is afforded are the fol-
lowing. The description applies to the year 1910, but, as
noticed below, the question of further reform was already to
the fore, and the precise direction in which changes should go
was a highly controversial matter.
The guardians of the poor regulate the cases and description
of relief within the union; a certain number of guardians are
elected from time to time by the ratepayers. The
number was formerly determined by the central
board, 1 by whom full directions as to the mode of election
were given. In addition to those elected there were ex officio
guardians, principally local magistrates. However, both these
and nominated guardians were done away with by the Local
Government Act 1894. The plural vote (which gave to the
votes of the larger ratepayers a higher value) was also abolished;
and in place of the old property qualification for the office of
guardian a ratepaying or residential qualification was sub-
stituted. In urban districts the act in other respects left the
board of guardians untouched, but in rural districts it inaugu-
rated a policy of consolidating local authorities. In the rural
districts the district council is practically amalgamated with the
guardians, for, though each body retains a separate corporate
existence, the district councillors are the guardians, and guar-
dians as such are no longer elected. These electoral changes,
extremely democratic in their character, brought about no
marked general change in poor law administration. Here and
there abrupt changes of policy were made, but the difficulty of
bringing general principles to bear on the administration of the
law remained much as before.
The guardians hold their meetings frequently, according to the
exigencies of the union. Individual cases are brought to their
notice most cases of resident poor by the relieving officer of
the union; the case of casual paupers by him or by the work-
house officers by whom they were admitted in the first instance.
The resident poor frequently appear in person before the guar-
dians. The mode of voting which the guardians follow in respect
to any matter they differ on is minutely regulated, and all their
proceedings, as well as those of their officers, are entered in pre-
scribed books and forms. They have a clerk, generally a local
solicitor of experience, who has a variety of responsible duties
in advising, conducting correspondence and keeping books of
'After an intermediate transfer in 1847 of the powers of the
poor law commissioners, and the constitution of a fresh board
styled " commissioners for administering the laws for relief of the
poor in England," it was found expedient to concentrate in one
department of the government the supervision of the laws relating
to the public health, the relief of the poor and local government;
and this concentration was in 1871 carried out by the establishment
(by Act of Parliament 34 & 35 Viet. c. 70) of the local government
board.
POOR LAW
75
accounts, and carrying out the directions of the guardians,
who in their turn are subject to the general or special regulations
of the local government board.
It may be mentioned here that the chief difficulty in under-
standing the English poor law arises from the fact that there are
three authorities, each of them able to alter its administration
fundamentally. The poor law is not only the creation of
statutes passed by parliament; it is also controlled by the
subordinate jurisdiction of the local government board, which in
virtue of various acts has the power to issue orders. In a
single year the local government board may issue nearly two
thousand orders, over a thousand of them having special reference
to the poor law. It is not possible therefore even to summarize
the mass of subordinate legislation. A third source of authority
is the local board of guardians, which, within the discretion
allowed to it by statutes and orders, can so variously administer
the law that it is difficult to understand how procedure so
fundamentally different can be based on one and the same law.
This elasticity, admirable or mischievous, as we choose to
regard it, is the most characteristic feature of the English poor
law system. The various officers of the union, from the medical
officers to workhouse porters, including masters and matrons
of workhouses, are generally appointed by the guardians, and
the areas, duties and salaries of ah 1 the paid officers may be
prescribed by the local government board.
Among a multitude of miscellaneous duties and powers of
the guardians, apart from the ordinary duties of ordering or
refusing relief in individual cases and superintending the officers
of the union, the duties devolve on them of considering the
adjustment of contributions to the common, fund whether
of divided or added parishes, and matters affecting other unions,
the building of workhouses and raising of money for that and
other purposes, the taking of land on lease, the hiring of buildings,
special provisions as to superannuation and allowances to officers,
the maintenance and orders as to lunatics apart from individual
instances, and the consideration of questions of settlement
and removal. A paramount obligation rests on the guardians
to attend to the actual visitation of workhouses, schools and
other institutions and places in which the poor are interested,
and to call attention to and report on any irregularity or neglect
of duty. Guardians may charge the rates with the expenses
of attending conferences for the discussion of matters con-
nected with their duties (Poor Law Conferences Act 1883). In
relation to expenditure the guardians have very considerable
but restricted powers. Their accounts are audited by district
auditors appointed by the local government board.
Overseers of the poor are still appointed under the statute
of Elizabeth, and the guardians cannot interfere with the ap-
Orerseers Pi ntment - As, however, the relief of the poor is
administered by boards of guardians, the principal
duties of overseers relate to the making and collection of rates
and payments. The guardians, by order of the local govern-
ment board, may appoint assistant overseers and collectors.
The conditions of persons entitled to relief are indicated by
the terms of the statute of Elizabeth. If they fall within the
definitions there given they have right to relief.
, ? . , .;, i i i- r
fundamental principle with respect to legal relief
of the poor is that the condition of the pauper
ought to be, on the whole, Igss eligible than that of the independent
labourer. The pauper has no just ground for complaint,
if, while his physical wants are adequately provided for,
his condition is less eligible than that of the poorest class of
those who contribute to his support. If a state of destitution
exists, the failure of third persons to perform their duty, as a
husband, or relative mentioned in the statute of Elizabeth,
neglecting those he is under a legal obligation to support, is no
answer to the application. The relief should be afforded, and is
often a condition precedent to the right of parish officers to take
proceedings against the relatives or to apply to other poor
unions. The duty to give immediate relief must, however,
vary with the circumstances. The case of wanderers under
circumstances not admitting of delay may be different from
Conditions
that of persons resident on the spot where inquiry as to all the
circumstances is practicable. The statute of Elizabeth con-
templated that the relief was to be afforded to the poor resi-
dent in the parish, but it is contrary to the spirit of the law that
any person shall be permitted to perish from starvation or want
of medical assistance. Whoever is by sudden emergency or
urgent distress deprived of the ordinary means of subsistence
has a right to apply for immediate relief where he may
happen to be. Persons comprehended within this class are
called " casual poor," although the term " casuals " is generally
used in reference to vagrants who take refuge for a short time
in the " casual wards " of workhouses. Various tests are
applied to ascertain whether applicants are really destitute.
Labour tests are applied to the able-bodied, and workhouse
tests are applied to those to whom entering a workhouse is
made a condition of relief.
As to the nature and kind of relief given under the poor laws
the great distinction restored rather than introduced by the
amendment of the poor law system in 1834 was Nature and
giving all relief to able-bodied persons of their Kind of
families in well-regulated workhouses (that is to * e/te/ -
say, places where they may be set to work according to the
spirit and intention of the statute of Elizabeth), and confining
outdoor relief to the impotent that is, all except the able-
bodied and their families. Although workhouses formed a
conspicuous feature in legislation for the poor from an early
period, the erection of those buildings for unions throughout
the country where not already provided followed immediately
on the amendment of the system in 1834. Since that time there
has been a constant struggle between the pauper class and
the administrators of the law, the former naturally wishing
to be relieved at their own homes, and in many instances
choosing rather to go without aid than to remove within
the walls of the workhouse. Relief given in a workhouse is
termed " in (or indoor) maintenance " relief, and when given
at the homes of the paupers is termed " outdoor relief."
Admission to a workhouse may be by a written order of the
board of guardians, or by the master or matron (or in their absence
by the porter) without an order in any case of sudden
or urgent necessity, or provisionally by a relieving :7
officer, or overseer or churchwarden. Any person who
is brought by a policeman as having been found wandering in a state
of destitution may be admitted. It is to be observed generally,
with respect to all persons who may apply for admission into the
workhouse under circumstances of urgent necessity, that thc-ir
destitution, coupled with the fact of being within the union cr
parish, entitles them to relief, altogether independently of their '
settlement, if they have one, which is a matter for subsequent
inquiry.
The regulations for the government of workhouses fall under
two classes: (i) those which are necessary for the maintenance of
good order in any building in which considerable numbers of
persons of both sexes and of different ages reside; (2) those which
are necessary in order that these establishments may not be alms-
houses, but workhouses in the proper meaning of the term.
The inmates of a workhouse are necessarily separated into certain
classes. In no well-managed institution of this sort, in any country,
are males and females, the old and the young, the healthy and the
sick, indiscriminately mixed together. Guardians are required to
divide the paupers into certain classes, and to subdivide any one
or more of these classes in any manner which may be advisable,
and which the internal arrangements of the workhouse admit ; and
the guardians are required from time to time, after consulting the
medical officer, to make necessary arrangements with regard to per-
sons labouring under any disease of body or mind, and, so far as cir-
cumstances permit, to subdivide any of the enumerated classes with
reference to the moral character or behaviour or the previous habits
of the inmates, or to such other grounds as may seem expedient.
The separation of married couples was long a vexed question, the
evils on the one hand arising from the former unrestricted practice
being very great, while on the other hand the separation of old
couples was felt as a great hardship, and by express statutory ^pro-
vision in 1847 husband and wife, both being above the age of sixty,
received into a workhouse cannot be compelled to live separate and
apart from each other (10 & n Viet. c. 109, 23). This exemption
was carried somewhat further by contemporaneous orders of the
board, under which guardians were not compelled to separate infirm
couples, provided they had a sleeping apartment separate from that
of other paupers; and in 1876 guardians were empowered, at their
discretion, to permit husband and wife where either of them is
POOR LAW
infirm, sick or disabled by any injury, or above sixty years of age
to live together, but every such case must be reported to the local
government board (39 & 40 Viet. c. 61, 10).
The classification of children apart from adult paupers is per-
emptory. Even in those unions where what is called a workhouse
school is maintained the children are kept in detached parts of
the building, and do not associate with the adult paupers. The
separate school is built on a separate and often distant site. Some-
times the separate school is one building, sometimes detached
" blocks," and sometimes a group of cottage homes. There still
remain ten district schools. In some places an experiment which
is called the scattered homes system has been adopted. This
consists in lodging-homes for the children placed in different parts
of the town, from which the children attend the local public ele-
mentary schools. In the rural districts and in less populous unions
the children generally attend the local public elementary school.
To these expedients boarding-out must be added. The above
refers of course only to those children who as inmates are under the
charge of the guardians. Outdoor paupers are responsible for
the education of their children, but guardians cannot legally continue
outdoor relief if the children are not sent regularly to school.
The tendency too has been to improve administrative methods
with reference to children.
Two important orders on the subject of the boarding-out of poor-
law children were issued in 1889. By the Boarding of Children in
Unions Order, orphan and deserted children can be boarded out
with suitable foster-parents in the union by all boards of guardians
except those in the metropolis. This can be done either through
a voluntary committee or directly. By the Boarding Out Order,
orphan and deserted children may be boarded out by all boards of
guardians without the limits of their own unions, but in all cases
this must be done through the offices of properly constituted local
boarding-out committees. The sum payable to the foster-parents
is not to exceed 43. per week for each child. The local committee
require to be approved by the Local Government Board.
The question of the education of poor law children was much
discussed in later years. During the early years of the central
authority, it was the object of the commissioners to induce boards
of guardians to unite in districts for educational purposes. This
was advocated on grounds of efficiency and economy. It was very
unpopular with the local authorities, and the number of such
districts has never exceeded a dozen. In London, where this
aggregation was certainly less desirable than in rural unions, several
districts were formed and large district schools were built. Adverse
criticism, by Mrs Nassau Senior in 1874, and by a department
committee appointed twenty years later, was directed against these
large, or, as they are invidiously called, barrack schools. The
justice of this condemnation has been disputed, but it seems
probable that some of these schools had grown too large. Many
of these have been dissolved by order of the local government
board on the application of the unions concerned. This con-
demnation of some schools has in certain quarters been extended
to all schools, and is construed by others as an unqualified
recommendation of boarding out, a method of bringing up poor law
children obviously requiring even more careful supervision than is
needed in the publicity of a school.
Other acts to be noted are the Poor Law Act 1889 and the Custody
of Children Act 1891, 3. The evil of allowing children who
have been reputably brought up in poor law schools to relapse
into vicious habits on return to the custody of unworthy parents
has been the subject of frequent remark. By the act of 1889,
guardians are authorized to detain children who are under their
charge, as having been deserted by their parents, up to the age of
1 6 if boys and of 18 if girls. By the Poor Law Act 1899 the
principle is extended to orphans and the children of bad parents
chargeable to the rates. The act of 1891 goes further, and enacts
that where a parent has (a) abandoned or deserted his child, or
(6) allowed his child to be brought up by another person at that
person's expense, or by the guardians of a poor law union for such
a length of time and in such circumstances as to satisfy the court
that the parent was unmindful of his parental duties, the court
shall not make an order for the delivery of the child to the parent
unless the parent has satisfied the court that, having regard to the
welfare of the child, he is a fit person to have the custody of the
child.
Casual and poor wayfarers admitted by the master and matron
are kept in a separate ward and dieted and set to work in such
manner as the guardians by resolution direct; and whenever any
vagrants or mendicants are received into a workhouse they are
usually (as a precaution necessary for preventing the introduction
of infectious or contagious diseases) kept entirely separate from the
other inmates, unless their stay exceeds a single night.
For the guidance of guardians an important circular was issued
from the local government board on the I5th of March 1886. It
stated that while " the board have no doubt that the powers which
the guardians possess are fully sufficient to enable them to deal
with ordinary pauperism, and to meet the demand for relief from
the classes who usually seek it," yet " these provisions do not in
all cases meet the emergency. What is required to relieve artisans
and others who have hitherto avoided poor law assistance, and who
are temporarily deprived of employment, is (i) Work which will
not involve the stigma of pauperism; (2) work which all can per-
form, whatever may have been their previous occupations; (3)
work which does not compete with that of other labourers at
present in employment; and lastly, work which is not likely
to interfere with the resumption of regular employment in their
own trades by those who seek it."
The circular went on to recommend that guardians should confer
with the local authorities, " and endeavour to arrange with the
latter for the execution of works on which unskilled labour may
be immediately employed." The conditions of such work were
(1) the men to be employed must be recommended by the guardians;
(2) the wages must be less than the wages ordinarily paid for such
work.
The circular was widely distributed. Many boards that were
inclined in that direction regarded it as an encouragement to open
or to promote the opening of relief works. Others, again, looked
closely at the conditions, and declared roundly that it was impos-
sible to fulfil them. A poor law authority, they said, cannot give
relief which will not subject the recipients to the legal (if any) and
economic disabilities attaching to the receipt of poor law relief.
Work which all can perform can only be found in the shape of
task-work under adequate supervision. If the work is of a useful
and necessary character, it must compete with the labour of others
belonging to the trades affected. If the relief works are opened by
authorities other than the poor law guardians, the conditions that
the men were only to be employed when recommended by the
guardians, and then paid less than the current rate of wages, were
calculated, it was urged, to secure bad work, discontent, and all
the " stigma of pauperism." The ambiguity of the circular indeed
was such, that both action and inaction seem amply justified by it.
In the administration of medical relief to the sick, the objects
kept in view are: (i) to provide medical aid for persons who are
really destitute, and (2) to prevent medical relief from
generating or encouraging pauperism, and with this
view to withdraw from the labouring classes, as well
as from the administrators of relief and the medical officers, all
motives for applying for or administering medical relief, unless
where the circumstances render it absolutely necessary.
Unions are formed into medical districts limited in area and
population, to which a paid medical officer is appointed, who is
furnished with a list of all such aged and infirm persons and persons
permanently sick or disabled as are actually receiving relief and
residing within the medical officer's district. Every person named
in the list receives a ticket, and on exhibiting it to' the medical
officer is entitled to advice, attendance and medicine as his case
may require. Medical outdoor relief in connexion with dispen-
saries is regulated in asylum districts of the metropolis by the
Metropolitan Poor Act 1867 (30 & 31 Viet. c. 6). In connexion
with medical relief must be noted the Medical Relief Disqualifica-
tion Removal Act 1885. This act relieved voters from disquali-
fication which would otherwise attach in consequence of the receipt
by them or their families of medical or surgical assistance, or of
medicine, at the expense of the poor rate. This does not apply
to guardian elections, and it does not include persons who, in
addition to medical relief, receive nourishment or other relief from
the poor rate. The provisions which require the removal of the
names of paupers from the electoral roll are, it is understood, very
perfunctorily carried out. The Outdoor Relief Friendly Societies
Act 1894 authorized guardians, in calculating the proper allowance
to be made, to disregard an income derived from a friendly society,
and to give relief as if the applicant in receipt of such an allowance
was wholly destitute. This act is a curious illustration of the
English poor law system. In earlier years, notably in what is
known as Paget's letter (22nd Rep. Poor Law Board, p. 108), the
central board, had, in answer to inquiry, pointed out that such
preferential treatment given to men receiving benefit, insufficient
to maintain them, from a friendly society, could not in equity
be withheld from persons in receipt of an adequate benefit, or from
those whose savings took the form of a deposit in a bank, of a share
in a co-operative society, or of cottage property; and further, that
an engagement on the part of guardians to supplement insufficient
allowance from a friendly society was a bounty on inadequate and
insolvent friendly society finance. The central board went so
far as to say that relief given in such disregard of the pauper's
income was illegal. They had, however, issued no peremptory
order on the subject, nor had guardians been surcharged for neglect
of the rule. The local authorities followed their own discretion,
and a very general practice was to reckon friendly society allowances
at half their value. The above act set aside the central board's
earlier interpretation of the law. It made, however, no attempt
to enforce its procedure on the numerous boards of guardians who
regard the course thereby authorized as contrary to'public policy.
A lunatic asylum is required to be provided by a county or
borough for the reception of pauper lunatics, with a committee of
visitors who, among other duties, fix a weekly sum to ..<
i f , ? j j* * i Lunatics-
be charged for the lodging, maintenance, medicine and
clothing of each pauper lunatic confined in such asylum. Several
.acts were passed. The Lunacy Act 1890 consolidated the acts
affecting lunatics. It was further amended by the Lunacy Act 1891.
POOR LAW
77
An explanatory letter issued by the local government board will
be found in the zoth Annual Report, p. 23. The tendency of this and
of all recent legislation for an afflicted class has been to increase the
care and the safeguards for their proper treatment.
A settlement is the right acquired in any one of the modes pointed
out by the poor laws to become a recipient of the benefit of those
laws in that parish or place where the right has been last acquired.
No relief is given from the poor rates of a parish to any person
who does not reside within the union, except where such person
TheQues- being casually within a parish becomes destitute by
tloa ol sudden distress, or where such person is entitled to
Settle- receive relief from any parish where non-resident
meat." under justice's order (applicable to persons undef
orders of removal and to non-resident lunatics), and except to
>ws and legitimate children where the widow was resident with
her husband at the time of his death out of the union in which she
not settled, or where a child under sixteen is maintained in a
workhouse or establishment for the education of pauper children
nut situate in the union, and in some other exceptional cases.
Immediately before the passing of the Poor Law Amendment
\i t 1834 settlements were acquired by birth, hiring and service,
apprenticeship, renting a tenement, estate, office or payment of
rates. In addition to these an acknowledgment (by certificate), by
relief or acts of acquiescence) has practically the effect of a settle-
ment, for, if unexplained, such an acknowledgment stops the parish
from disputing a settlement in the parish acknowledging. The
Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 abolished settlement by hiring
and service (or by residence under it) and by serving an office, and
by apprenticeship in the sea service. Moreover the guardians of
a union might agree (subject to the approval of the commissioners)
(hat all the parishes forming it should for the purposes of settle-
ment be considered as one parish.
It is to be observed that, for the purposes of relief, settlement
and removal and burial, the workhouse of any parish is considered
i uated in the parish to which each poor person is chargeable.
There may be a settlement by parentage, for legitimate children
take the settlement of their father, or if he has no settlement they
arc' entitled to the settlement of their mother; and it is only when
both these sources fail discovery that their right of settlement by
birth accrues; for until the settlement of the father or mother has
been ascertained the settlement of a legitimate child, like that of a
bastard, is in the place where the birth took place.
A settlement attaches to those persons who have a settlement of
some kind. Foreigners born out of the country and not acquiring
any in one of the modes pointed out must be provided for, if requiring
relief, where they happen to be.
As the burden of maintaining the poor is thrown on the parish
of settlement, when the necessity for immediate relief arises in
another parish, the important question arises whether the pauper
can be removed ; for, although the parish where the pauper happens
to be must afford immediate relief without waiting for removal,
the parish of settlement cannot in general be charged with the
cost unless the pauper is capable of being removed. The question
of removability is distinct from settlement. A pauper often
acquires a status or irremovability without gaining a settlement. _
Irremovability is a principle of great public importance quite
irrespective of the incident of cost as between one parish or another.
Before the introduction of a status of irremovability removal might
take place (subject to powers of suspension in case of sickness and
otherwise) after any interval during which no legal settlement
was obtained; mere length of residence without concurrent cir-
cumstances involving the acquisition of a settlement on obtaining
relief gave no right to a person to remain in the parish where he
resided.
In 1846 it was enacted that no person should be removed nor
any warrant granted for the removal of any person from any parish
in which such persons had resided for five years (9 & lo Viet. c. 66).
In 1861 three years was submitted for five (24 & 25 Viet. c. 55);
mil only four years later one year was substituted for three (28 &
-'i Viet. c. 79). Apart from these reductions of time in giving
the status of irremovability, actual removals to the parish of settle-
ment were narrowed by provisions giving to residence in any
part of a union the same effect as a residence in any parish of that
union (24 & 25 Viet. c. 55). On the other hand the time during
which parish relief is received, or during which the person is in any
poorhouse or hospital or in a prison, is excluded from the computa-
tion of time (9 & 10 Viet. c. 66).
The removability as well as the settlement of the family, i.e.
of the wife and unemancipated children, are practically subject to
one and the same general rule. Wherever any person has a wife
or children having another settlement, they are removable where
he is removable, and are not removable from any parish or place
from which he is not removable (n & 12 Viet. c. 211).
It is to be borne in mind that no person exempted from liability
to be removed acquires, by reason of such exemption, any settle-
ment in any parish ; but a residence for three years gives a qualified
settlement (39 & 40 Viet. C. 6l).
The cost of relief of paupers rendered irremovable is borne by the
common fund of the union (I i & 12 Viet. c. 1 10, 3) as union expenses
( 6), and any question arising in the union with reference to the
charging relief may be referred to and decided by the local govern-
ment board ( 4).
The poor rate is the fund from which the cost of relief is princi-
pally derived. The statute of Elizabeth (extended in some respects
as to places by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 12) embraced p oor g mte
two classes of persons subject to taxation occupiers
of real property and inhabitants in respect of personal property,
although the rateability under the latter head was reluctantly
conceded by the courts of law, and was in practice only partially
acted upon.
As regards occupiers of land and houses, the correct principles as
to the persons liable to be rated were, after many erroneous views
and decisions, established by the House of Lords in 1865 in the
case of the Mersey docks. The only occupier exempt from the
operation of the act of Elizabeth is the Crown, on the general prin-
ciple that such liabilities are not imposed on the sovereign unless
expressly mentioned, and that principle applies to the direct and
immediate servants of the Crown, whose occupation is the occupa-
tion of the Crown itself. If there is a personal private beneficial
occupation, so that the occupation is by the subject, that occupa-
tion is rateable. Thus for apartments in a royal palace, gratui-
tously assigned to a subject, who occupies them by permission of
the sovereign but for the subject's benefit, the latter is rateable;
on the other hand, where a lease of private property is taken in
the name of a subject, but the occupation is by the sovereign or
his subjects on his behalf, no rate can be imposed.
So far the ground of exemption is perfectly intelligible, but it
has been carried a good deal further, and applied to many cases in
which it can scarcely be said naturally, but only theoretically, that
the sovereign or the servants of the sovereign are in occupation.
A long series of cases have established that when property is occu-
pied for the purposes of the government of the country, including
under that head the police, and the administration of justice, no
one is rateable in respect of such occupation. And this applies not
only to property occupied for such purposes by the servants of the
great departments of state and the post office, the Horse Guards, and
the Admiralty, in all which cases the occupiers might strictly be
called the servants of the Crown, but to county buildings occupied
for the assizes and for the judge's lodgings, to stations for the local
constabulary, to jails and to county courts where undertakings
are carried out by or for the government and the government is in
occupation; the same principles of exemption have been applied
to property held by the office of works.
When the property is not de facto occupied by the Crown or for
the Crown, it is rateable ; and, although formerly the uses of property
for public purposes, even where the Crown was not constructively
interested in the way above pointed out, was treated as a ground
for exemption, it is now settled that trustees who are in law the
tenants and occupiers of valuable property in trust for public and
even charitable purposes, such as hospitals or lunatic asylums, are
in principle rateable notwithstanding that the buildings are actually
occupied by paupers who are sick or insane, and that the notion
that persons in the legal occupation of valuable property are not
rateable if they occupy in a merely fiduciary character cannot be
sustained.
With respect to the particular person to be rated where there is
a rateable occupation, it is to be observed that the tenant, as dis-
tinguished from the landlord, is the person to be rated under the
statute of Elizabeth ; but occupiers of tenements let for short terms
may deduct the poor rate paid by them from their rents, or the
vestries may order such owners to be rated instead of the occupiers ;
such payments or deductions do not affect qualification and fran-
chises depending on rating (Poor Rate Assessment and Collection
Act 1869 and Amendment Act 1882).
To be rated the occupation must be such as to be of value, and
in this sense the word beneficial occupation has been used in many
cases. But it is not necessary that the occupation should be bene-
ficial to the occupier; for, if that were necessary, trustees occupying
for various purposes, having no beneficial occupation, would not be
liable, and their general liability has been established as indicated
in the examples just given.
As to the mode and amount of rating it is no exaggeration to
say that the application of a landlord-and-tenant valuation in the
terms already given in the Parochial Assessment Act, with the
deductions there mentioned, has given rise to litigation on which
millions of pounds have been spent with respect to the rating of
railways alone, although the established principle applied to them,
after much consideration, is to calculate the value of the land as
increased by the line.
The Parochial Assessment Act referred to (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 96),
comprising various provisions as to the mode of assessing the rate
so far as it authorized the making of a valuation, was repealed in
1869, in relation to the metropolis, and other provisions made for
securing uniformity of the assessment of rateable property there
(32 & 33 Viet. c. 67).
The mode in which a rate is made and recovered may be concisely
stated thus. The guardians appoint an assessment committee_of
their body for the investigation and supervision of valuations, which
are made out in the first instance by the overseers according to specific
regulations and in a form showing among other headings the gross
POOR LAW
estimated rental of all property and the names of occupiers anc
owners, and the rateable value after the deductions specified in the
Assessment Act already mentioned, and as prescribed by the centra
board. This valuation list, made and signed by the overseers, is
published, and all persons assessed or liable to be assessed, and other
interested parties, may, including the officers of other parishes
inspect and take copies of and extracts from that list. A multitude
of provisions exist in relation to the valuation and supplemental
valuation lists. Objections on the ground of unfairness or incorrect-
ness are dealt with by the committee, who hold meetings to hear
and determine such objections. The valuation list, where approved
by the committee, is delivered to the overseers, who proceed to
make the rate in accordance with the valuation lists and in a
prescribed form of rate book. The parish officers certify to the
examination and comparison of the rate book with the assessments,
and obtain the consent of justices as required by the statute of
Elizabeth. This consent or allowance of the rate is merely a
ministerial act, and if the rate is good on the face of it the justices
cannot inquire into its validity.
The rate is then published and open to inspection. Appeals may
be made to special or quarter sessions against the rate, subject to the
restriction that, if the objection were such that it might have been
dealt with on the valuation lists, no appeal to sessions is permitted
unless the valuation list has been duly objected to and the objector
had failed to obtain such relief in the matter as he deemed to be just.
In the metropolis a common basis of value for the purposes of
government and local taxation is provided, including the promotion
of uniformity in the assessment of rateable property. Provision is
made for the appointment of an assessment committee by guardians
or vestries, and for the preparation of valuation lists, and the
deposit and distribution of valuation lists, and for the periodical
revision of valuation lists.
Many endeavours have been made to readjust the burden of
local expenditure. The system of making grants from the national
taxes in aid of local rates has been extended. The principle of the
metropolitan common poor fund, a device for giving metropolitan
grants assessed on the whole of London in aid of the London local
poor law authorities, has been followed, mutatis mutandis, in the
relations between the national and the local exchequers. At the
time of the repeal of the corn laws, Sir Robert Peel expressed an
opinion that this fiscal change necessitated some readjustment
of local rates. In that year, 1846, a beginning of grants from the
national exchequer in aid of local expenditure was made. The
salaries of poor-law teachers, medical officers and auditors were
provided from the larger area of taxation, and in 1867 the salaries
of public vaccinators were added to the list. In 1874 a grant of
45. per head per week was made for each pauper lunatic passed by
the guardians to the care of a lunatic asylum. By the Local
Government Act 1888, supplemented by the Local Taxation
(Customs and Excise) Act 1890, this principle was more widely
extended. The various grants in aid were abolished, and in
substitution the proceeds of certain specified taxes were set aside
for local purposes. From this source, the gross amount of which
of course varies, there are now distributed to local poor-law authori-
ties some 43. a week for lunatics in asylums, and allowances based
on their average expenditure in previous years in salaries of officials
and other specified charges. In London, in order not to conflict
with the operation of the common poor fund, which had already
spread these charges over a wide area, the grant takes the form
of a sum equivalent to about 4d. per diem for each indoor pauper.
The number on which this calculation is based is not, however, to
be the actual number, but the average of the last five years previous
to the passing of the act. By this legislation something like one-
quarter of the total expenditure on poor law relief is obtained from
national taxes as opposed to local rates. By the Agricultural
Rates Act 1896 the occupier of agricultural land was excused
one-half of certain rates, including the poor rate. The deficiency
is supplied by a contribution from the national exchequer.
Meanwhile, the spending authority continue to be elected by the
local ratepayers. In this connexion two further anomalies deserve
notice. By the Poor Rate Assessment and Collection Act 1869
owners who compound to pay the rates in respect of tenement
property are entitled to certain deductions by way of commission.
Such payments by the owner are constructively payments by the
occupier, who thereby is to be deemed duly rated for any qualifi-
cation or franchise. Under these arrangements a large number
of electors do not contribute directly to the rate. A converse
process is also going on, whereby the ownership of an important
and increasing body of property is practically unrepresented.
This is due to the great growth of property in the hands of railway
companies, docks and limited liability companies generally. The
railways alone are said to pay considerably over 13 % of the local
taxation of the country, and they have no local representation.
There is, in fact, in local administration a divorce between repre-
sentation and taxation to a greater extent than is generally supposed,
and it is impossible not to connect the fact with the rapid growth of
local expenditure and indebtedness.
Royal Commission of 1905-1909 The main points of the
system of English poor relief, as still in force in 1910, are as
outlined above. That it has been inadequate in dealing with
the various problems of unemployment and pauperism, which the
constantly changing conditions of the industrial world necessarily
evolve had however been long acknowledged. Accordingly,
in 1905 a royal commission was appointed to inquire into the
working of the law relating to the relief of poor persons, and
into the various means adopted outside of the poor laws for
meeting distress arising from want of employment, particularly
during the periods of severe industrial depression. The commis-
sion took voluminous evidence * and its report was issued in
1 The appendix volumes to the Report of the Royal Commission
number thirty-four. Their contents are as follows- vol. i. English
Official Evidence, minutes of evidence mainly of the officers of the
Local Government Board for England and Wales; vol. ii. London
Evidence, minutes of evidence mainly of London witnesses ; vol. iii.
Associations and Critics, minutes of evidence mainly of critics
of the Poor Law and of witnesses representing Poor Law and
Charitable Associations; vol. iv Urban Centres, minutes of
evidence containing the oral and written evidence of the British
Medical Association and of witnesses from the following provincial
urban centres Liverpool and Manchester districts, West Yorkshire,
Midland Towns; vol. v. Minutes of Evidence containing the oral
and written evidence of witnesses from urban centres in the following
districts South Wales and North Eastern Counties; vol. vi. Minutes
of Evidence relating to Scotland; vol. vii. Minutes of Evidence
containing the oral and written evidence of witnesses from various
rural centres in the South Western, Western and Eastern Counties,
from the parish of Poplar Borough and from the National Con-
ference of Friendly Societies; vol. viii. Minutes of Evidence con-
taining the oral and written evidence of witnesses relating chiefly
to the subject of " unemployment "; vol. ix. Evidence of further
witnesses on the subject of unemployment; vol. x. Minutes of
Evidence relating to Ireland ; vol. xi. Miscellaneous Papers. Com-
munications from Boards of Guardians and others, &c.,
vol. xii. Reports, Memoranda and Tables prepared by certain of
the Commissioners; vol. xiii. Diocesan Reports on the Methods
of administering charitable assistance and the extent and intensity
of poverty in England and Wales; vol. xiv. Report on the Methods
and Results of the present system of administering indoor and
outdoor poor law medical relief in certain unions in England and
Wales, by Dr J. C. McVail; vol. xv. Report on the Administrative
Relation of Charity and the Poor Law, and the extent and the
actual and potential utility of Endowed and Voluntary Charities
in England and Scotland, by A. C. Kay and H. V. Toynbee; vol. xvi.
Reports on the Relation of Industrial and Sanitary Conditions
to Pauperism, by Steel Maitland and Miss R. E. Squire ; vol. xvii.
Reports on the effect of Outdoor Relief on Wages and the Conditions
of Employment, by Thomas Jones and Miss Williams; vol. xviii.
Report on the Condition of the Children who are in receipt of the
various forms of Poor Law Relief in certain Unions in London
and in the Provinces, by Dr Ethel Williams and Miss Longman
and Miss Phillips; vol. xix. Reports on the Effects of Employment
or Assistance given to the Unemployed since 1886 as a means of
relieving distress outside the Poor Law in London, and generally
throughout England and Wales, and in Scotland and Ireland, by
Cyril Jackson and Rev. J. C. Pringle; vol. xx. Report on Boy
Labour in London and certain other typical towns, by Cyril Jackson,
with a Memorandum from the General Post Office on the Conditions
of Employment of Telegraph Messengers; vol. xxi. Reports on the
Effect of the Refusal of Out-Relief on the Applicants for such
Relief, by Miss G. Harlock; vol. xxii. Report on the Overlapping
of the work of the Voluntary General Hospitals with that of Poor
Law Medical Relief in certain districts of London, by Miss M. B.
Roberts; vol. xxiii. Report on the Condition of the Children who
are in receipt of the various forms of Poor Law Relief in certain
parishes in Scotland, by Dr C. T. Parsons and Miss Longman and
Miss Phillips; vol. xxiv. Report on a Comparison of the Physical
Condition of " Ordinary " Paupers in certain Scottish Poorhouses
with that of the Able-bodied Paupers in certain English Workhouses
and Labour Yards, by Dr C. T. Parsons; vol. xxv. Statistical
Memoranda and Tables relating to England and Wales, prepared
t>y the Staff of the Commission and by Government Departments
and others, and Actuarial Reports; vol. xxvi. Documents relating
more especially to the administration of charities; vol. xxvii.
Replies by Distress Committees in England and Wales to Questions
circulated on the subject of the Unemployed Workmen Act 1905;
vol. xxviii. Reports of Visits to Poor Law and Charitable Institutions
and to Meetings of Local Authorities in the United Kingdom;
vol. xxix. Report on the Methods of Administering Charitable
Assistance and the extent and intensity of Poverty in Scotland,
prepared by the Committee on Church Interests appointed by the
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland ; vol. xxx. Documents
relating especially to Scotland; vol. xxxi. Statistical Memoranda
and Tables relating to Ireland, &c.; vol. xxxii. Report on Visits
laid by the Foreign Labour Colonies Committee of the Commis-
iion to certain Institutions in Holland, Belgium, Germany and
Switzerland; vol. xxxiii. Foreign and Colonial Systems of Poor
POOR LAW
79
1909. It consists of a majority report, signed by the chairman
and 13 other members, and a minority report signed by 4 dis-
sentient members. To this report and its appendices those
who wish to obtain an exhaustive account of the working ol
tlu- English poor law must necessarily have recourse.
The " majority " report opens with a statistical survey ol
poor law problems, gives an historical sketch of the poor laws
Majority down to 1834, and proceeds to deal in detail with
Report. the historical development and present condition
of the various branches of the poor law under their appro-
priate headings: (a) the central authority; (b) the local
authority; (c) the officers of the local authority; (d) areas of
administration; (e) indoor relief; (/) outdoor relief; (g) the aged;
(h) the children; (i) the able-bodied under the poor law and
(j) the causes of pauperism. Other portions of the report
deal with medical relief, distress due to unemployment, and
charities and the relief of distress. In reviewing these various
subjects the commission lay bare the main defects of the
present system, which they briefly summarize as follows:
i. The inadequacy of existing poor law areas to meet the
growing needs of administration.
ii. The excessive size of many boards of guardians,
iii. The absence of any general interest in poor law work
and poor law elections, due in great part to the fact that poor
law stands in no organic relation to the rest of local govern-
ment.
iv. The lack of intelligent uniformity in the application
of principles and in general administration.
v. The want of proper investigation and discrimination
in dealing with applicants.
vi. The tendency in many boards of guardians to give out-
door relief without plan or purpose.
vii. The unsuitability of the general workhouse as a test
or deterrent for the able-bodied; the aggregation in it of all
classes without sufficient classification; and the absence of any
system of friendly and restorative help.
viii. The lack of co-operation between poor law and charity,
ix. The tendency of candidates to make lavish promises
of out-relief and of guardians to favour their constituents in
its distribution.
x. General failure to attract capable social workers and
leading citizens.
xi. The general rise in expenditure, not always accompanied
by an increase of efficiency in administration.
xii. The want of sufficient control and continuity of policy
on the part of the central authority.
The commission stated that these defects have produced a
want of confidence in the local administration of the poor law,
and that they have been mainly the cause of the introduction
of other forms of relief from public funds which are unaccom-
panied by such conditions as are imperatively necessary as
safeguards.
The commission proceed to formulate a scheme of reform, the
main features of which are summarized below:
Public Assistance. --The commissioners state that the name
" poor law " has gathered about it associations of harshness, and
still more of hopelessness, which might seriously obstruct the
reforms they recommend, and they suggest that the title " public
assistance " better expresses the system of help outlined in their
report. They propose the abolition of the existing boards of
guardians, the separation of their duties into two categories, and
the calling into existence of two bodies for the discharge of the
two sets of functions, viz. a local authority, known as the public
assistance authority, with an area conterminous with the area
of the county or county borough, for central administration and
control; and local committees in existing union area.- for dealing
with applications, investigating and supervising cases and under-
taking such other duties as may be delegated by the public assistance
authority. They recommend that the public assistance authority
should be a statutory committee of the County Council, with one-half
of its members appointed by the council from persons who are
members of the council, and the other half of its members appointed
by the council from outside their number, and to consist of persons
experienced in the local administration of public assistance or
Relief, with a memorandum on the Relief of Famines in India; vol.
xxxiv. Alphabetical Lists of Oral and Non-oral Witnesses.
other cognate work, women to be eligible for appointment in
either case.
Working in co-operation with the public assistance authorities
are to be voluntary aid councils and committees (the former super-
vising, the latter executive) for aiding persons in distress whose
cases do not appear to be suitable for treatment by the public
assistance committee. The commission epitomize what they
consider to be the main principles of a reformed poor law. They
are (i) that the treatment of the poor who apply for public assistance
should be adapted to the needs of the individual, and\ if institutional,
should be governed by classification; (2) that the public adminis-
tration established for the assistance of the poor should work in
co-operation with the local and private charities of the district;
(3) that the system of public assistance thus established should
include processes of help which would be preventive, curative, and
restorative, and (4) that every effort should be made to foster the
instincts of independence and self-maintenance amongst those
assisted. They proceed to recommend :
Indoor or " Institutional " Relief. That general workhouses
should be abolished. That indoor relief should DC given in separate
institutions appropriate to the following classes of applicants,
viz. (a) children, (b) aged and infirm, (c) sick, (d) able-bodied men,
(e\ able-bodied women, (/) vagrants, and (g) feeble-minded and
epileptics. Powers of removal to and detention in institutions
should be given, with proper safeguards, to the public assistance
authority. The treatment of inmates should be made as far as
possible curative and restorative.
Outdoor Relief or " Home Assistance." This should be given only
after thorough inquiry, except in cases of sudden and urgent
necessity; it should be adequate to meet the needs of those to whom
it is given; persons so assisted should be subject to supervision;
that such supervision should include in its purview the conditions,
moral and sanitary, under which the recipient is living; that
voluntary agencies should be utilized as far as possible for the
personal care of individual cases, and that there should be one
uniform order governing outdoor relief or home assistance.
Children. Effective steps should be taken to secure that the
maintenance of children in the workhouse be no longer recognized
as a legitimate way of dealing with them. Boarding-out might
and should be greatly extended. Power to adopt children of
vicious parents should be more frequently exercised and accom-
panied by a strict dealing with the parent, and the public assistance
authorities should retain supervision of adopted children up to the
age of twenty-one. A jocal government board circular of June
1910 to boards of guardians embodied many of the recommenda-
tions of the commission. Some recommendations, of course, the
guardians are not empowered, under existing legislation, to carry out.
The Aged. As regards institutional relief, the aged should
have accommodation and treatment apart from the able-bodied,
and be housed on a separate site, and be further subdivided into
classes as far as practicable with reference to their physical condition
and their moral character. As regards outdoor relief, greater
care should be taken to ensure adequacy of relief.
Medical Relief or Assistance. A general system of provident
dispensaries should be established, of which existing voluntary
outdoor medical organizations should be invited to form an integral
part, and every inducement should be offered to the working classes
below a certain wage to become, or continue to be, members of a
provident dispensary.
Unemployment. The commission review the social and industrial
developments since 1834, deal with the new problems, criticize the
existing methods of relief, and on their summing up of the new
Factors and developments, arrive at the conclusions: (a) that there
is an increasing aggregation of unskilled labour at the great ports
ind in certain populous districts; (b) that this aggregation of
low-grade labour is so much in excess of the normal local wants as
to promote and perpetuate under-employment, and (c) that this
normal condition of under-employment, when aggravated by periodic
contraction of trade or by inevitable changes in methods of pro-
duction, assumes such dimensions as to require special machinery
and organization for its relief and treatment. The commission
Droceed to make the following recommendations:
Labour Exchanges. A national system of labour exchanges
should be established and worked by the board of trade for the
jeneral purpose of assisting the mobility of labour and of collecting
iccurate information as to unemployment. (These were established
:>y the Labour Exchanges Act 1909; see UNEMPLOYMENT.)
Education and Training of the Young for Industrial Life. The
;ducation in the public elementary schools should be much less
iterary and more practical, and better calculated than at present
to adapt the child to its future occupation. Boys should be kept
at school until the age of fifteen; exemption below fifteen should be
granted only for boys leaving to learn a skilled trade, and there
should be school supervision till sixteen and replacing in school if not
jroperly employed.
Regularization of Employment. Government departments and
ocal and public authorities should be enjoined to regularize their
work as far as possible, and to endeavour, as far as possible, to
undertake their irregular work when the general demand for labour
is slack.
8o
POPAYAN
Unemployment Insurance. The establishment and promotion
of unemployment insurance, especially amongst unskilled and
unorganized labour, is of paramount importance in averting
distress arising from unemployment, and is of such national im-
portance as to justify, under specified conditions, contributions
from public funds towards its furtherance. The commission
further state that this insurance can best be promoted by utilizing
the agency of existing trade organizations, or of organizations of 1
a similar character. They are of opinion that no scheme of
unemployment insurance, either foreign or British, which has been
brought before them, is so free from objections as to justify them
in recommending it for general adoption.
Labour Colonies. The commission recommend their establish-
ment and use. (For .these see VAGRANCY.)
Four out of the seventeen members of the commission, being
unable to agree with their colleagues, issued a separate report,
which is very nearly as voluminous as that of the
Report* majority. Their recommendations were more drastic
than those of the majority, and had for their aim
not a reform of the poor law as it exists, but its entire break-
up. The minority agree with the majority in recommending
the abolition of workhouses, but instead of setting up new
authorities, they consider that the duties of the guardians should
be transferred to the county authorities, with an appropriate
distribution among four existing committees of the county
council. They recommend that the education committee
become responsible for the entire care of children of school
age. That the health committee should care for the sick and
permanently incapacitated, infants under school age, and the
aged requiring institutional care. The asylums committee
should have charge of the mentally defective and the
pension committee of the aged to whom pensions are awarded.
The minority consider there should be some systematic co-
ordination, within each local area, of all forms of public assis-
tance and, if possible, of all assistance dispensed by voluntary
agencies, and they recommend the appointment, by the county
or county borough council, of one or more responsible officers,
called " registrars of public assistance." Their duties would
be to keep a register of all persons receiving any form of public
assistance within their districts; they would assess the charge
to be made on individuals liable to pay any part of the cost
of the service rendered to them or their dependants, and re-
cover the amount thus due. They would also have to consider
the proposals of the various committees of the council for the
payment of out-relief, or, as the minority prefer to term it,
" home aliment." Other various duties are allotted to them
in the report.
The subject of unemployment was considered by the minority
and they made the following recommendations:
Ministry of Labour. The duty of organizing the national labour
market should be placed upon a minister responsible to parliament.
The ministry of labour should have six distinct and separately
organized divisions; viz. the national labour exchange; the trade
insurance division; the maintenance and training division; the
industrial regulation division; the emigration and immigration
division, and the statistical division.
National Labour Exchange. The function of the national labour
exchange should be, not only, (a) to ascertain and report the surplus
or shortage of labour of particular kinds, at particular places; and
(6) to diminish the time and energy now spent in looking for work,
and the consequent leaking between jobs; but also (c) so to dovetail
casual and seasonal employments as to arrange for practical con-
tinuity of work for those now chronically unemployed.
Absorption of Surplus Labour. To reduce the surplus of labour
the minority recommend (a) that no child should be employed, in
any occupation whatsoever, below the age of fifteen; no young
person under eighteen tor more than thirty hours per week, and all
so employed should be required to attend some suitable public
institution for not less than thirty hours per week for physical
training and technical education; (6) the hours of labour of railway,
omnibus and tramway employees should be reduced to a maximum
of sixty, if not of forty-eight in any one week; and (c) wage-earning
mothers of young children should be withdrawn from the industrial
world by giving them sufficient public assistance for the support of
their families.
Regularization of the National Demand for Labour. In order to
meet the periodically recurrent general depressions of trade the
government should take advantage of there being at these periods
as much unemployment of capital as there is unemployment of
labour; that it should definitely undertake, as far as practicable,
the regularization of the national demand for labour; and that it
should, for this purpose, and to the extent of at least 4,000,000 a
year, arrange a portion of the ordinary work required by each
department on a ten years' programme; 4.0,000,000 worth of work
for the decade being then put in hand, not by equal annual instal-
ments, but exclusively in the lean years of the trade cycle; being
paid for out of loans for short terms raised as they are required,
and being executed with the best available labour, at standard
rates, engaged in the ordinary way. That in this ten years'
programme there should be included works of afforestation, coast
protection and land reclamation; to be carried out by the board
of agriculture exclusively in the lean years of the trade cycle; by
the most suitable labour obtainable, taken on in the ordinary way
at the rates locally current for the work, and paid for out of loans
raised as required.
Trade Union Insurance. In view of its probable adverse effect
on trade union membership and organization the minority com-
missioners cannot recommend the establishment of any plan of
government or compulsory insurance against unemployment.
They recommend, however, a government subvention not exceeding
one half of the sum actually paid in the last preceding year as out-
of-work benefit should be offered to trade unions or other societies
providing such benefit.
Maintenance and Training. For the ultimate residuum of men
in distress from want of employment the minority recommend
that maintenance should be freely provided, without disfranchise-
ment, on condition that they submit themselves to the physical
and mental training that they may prove to require. Suitable
day training depots or residential farm colonies should be estab-
lished, where the men's whole working time would be absorbed
in such varied beneficial training of body and mind as they proved
capable of; their wives and families being, meanwhile, provided
with adequate home aliment.
AUTHORITIES. The Report and Evidence of the Royal Com-
mission of 19051909 is a library in itself on the subject of pauperism.
The contents of the various volumes are given supra. Other im-
portant publications are Report and Evidence of Royal Commission
on Aged Poor (1895) ; Report and Evidence of Select Committee of House
of Commons on Distress from Want of Employment (1895); Report
of Departmental Committee on Vag'ancy (1906). See also the
references in the bibliography to CHARITY AND CHARITIES; and
Sir G. Nicholls and T. Mackay, A History of the English Poor Law
(3 vols., 1899) ; the publications of the Charity Organization Society ;
Reports of Poor Law Conferences. For list of subjects discussed,
see index to Report of Central Conferences.
POPAYAN, a city of Colombia, capital of the department of
Cauca, about 240 m. S.W. of Bogota, on the old trade route
between that city and Quito, in 2 26' N., 76 49' W. Pop.
(1870), 8485; (1906, estimate), 10,000. Popayan is built on
a great plain sloping N.W. from the foot of the volcano Purace,
near the source of the Cauca and on one of its small tribu-
taries, 5712 ft. above the sea. Its situation is singularly pic-
turesque, the Purace rising to an elevation of 15,420 ft. about
20 m. south-east of the city, the Sotara volcano to approxi-
mately the same height about the same distance south by
east, and behind these at a greater distance the Pan de
Azucar, 15,978 ft. high. The ridge forming the water-parting
between the basins of the Cauca and Patia rivers crosses
between the Central and Western Cordilleras at this point
and culminates a few miles to the south. Popayan is the
seat of a bishopric dating from 1547, whose cathedral was
built by the Jesuits; and in the days of its prosperity it
possessed a university of considerable reputation. It has
several old churches, a college, two seminaries founded about
1870 by the French Lazarists, who have restored and occupy
the old Jesuit convent, and a mint established in 1749. The
city was at one time an important commercial and mining
centre, but much of its importance was lost through the transfer
of trade to Cali and Pasto, through the decay of neighbouring
mining industries, and through political disturbances. Earth-
quakes have also caused much damage to Popayan, especially
those of 1827 and 1834. The modern city has some small
manufacturing industries, including woollen fabrics for cloth-
ing, but its trade is much restricted, and its importance is
political rather than commercial.
Popayan was founded by Sebastian Benalcazar in 1 538 on the
site of an Indian settlement, whose chief, Payan, had the un-
usual honour of having his name given to the usurping town.
In 1558 it received a coat of arms and the title of " Muy noble y
muy leal " from the king of Spain a distinction of great
POPE
81
Various
significance in that disturbed period of colonial history. It
is noted also as the birthplace of Caldas, the Colombian
naturalist, and of Mosquera, the geographer. There are hot
sulphurous springs near by on the flanks of the volcano
Purace, especially at Coconuco, which are much frequented
by Colombians.
POPE (Or. irdiriraj, post-classical Lat. papa, father), an
ecclesiastical title now used exclusively to designate the head
of the Roman Catholic Church. In the 4th and 5th
1 centuries it was frequently used in the West of any
bishop (Du Cange, s.v.); but it gradually came to be
reserved to the bishop of Rome, becoming his official title.
In the East, on the other hand, only the bishop of Alexandria
seems to have used it as a title; but as a popular term it
was applied to priests, and at the present day, in the
Greek Church and in Russia, all the priests are called pappas,
which is also translated " pope." Even in the case of the
sovereign pontiff the word pope is officially only used as a less
solemn style: though the ordinary signature and heading of
briefs is, e.g. " Pius P.P.X.," the signature of bulls is " Pius
episcopus ecclesiae catholicae," and the heading, " Pius epi-
scopus, servus servorum Dei," this latter formula going back to
the time of St Gregory the Great. Other styles met with in
official documents are Pontifex, Summus pontifex, Romanus
pontifex, Sanctissimus, Sanctissimus pater, Sanctissimus domi-
nus noster, Sanctitas sua, Beatissimus pater, Beatitudo sua;
while the pope is addressed in speaking as " Sanctitas vestra,"
or " Beatissime pater." In the middle ages is also found
" Dominus apostolicus " (cf. still, in the litanies of the saints),
or simply " Apostolicus."
The pope is pre-eminently, as successor of St Peter, bishop
of Rome. Writers are fond of viewing him as representing
all the degrees of the ecclesiastical hierarchy; they
say that he is bishop of Rome, metropolitan of the
f , J t " rls ' Roman province, primate of Italy, patriarch of the
western Church and head of the universal Church.
This is strictly correct, but, with the exception of the first
and last, these titles are seldom to be found in documents. And
if these terms were intended to indicate so many degrees in the
exercise of jurisdiction they would not be correct. As a matter
of fact, from the earliest centuries (cf. can. 6 of Nicaea, in 325),
we see that the popes exercised a special metropolitan juris-
diction not only over the bishops nearest to Rome, the future
cardinal bishops, but also over all those of central and southern
Italy, including Sicily (cf. Duchesne, Origines du culte, ch. i),
all of whom received their ordination at his hands. Northern
Italy and the rest of the western Church, still more the eastern
Church, did not depend upon him so closely for their administra-
tion. His influence was exercised, however, not only in
dogmatic questions but in matters of discipline, by means
of appeals, petitions and consultations, not to mention spon-
taneous intervention. This state of affairs was defined and
developed in the course of centuries, till it produced the present
state of centralization, according to a law which can equally
be observed in other societies. In practice the different
degrees of jurisdiction, as represented in the pope, are of no
importance: he is bishop of Rome and governs his diocese
by direct episcopal authority; he is also the head of the
Church, and in this capacity governs all the dioceses, though the
regular authority of each bishop in his own diocese is also
ordinary and immediate, i.e. he is not a mere vicar of the pope.
But the mode of exercise of a power and its intensity are
subject to variation, while the power remains essentially the
same. This is the case with the power of the pope
Primacy. j i .
and his primacy, the exercise and manifestation of
which have been continually developing. This primacy, a
primacy of honour and jurisdiction, involving the plenitude of
power over the teaching, the worship, the discipline and
administration of the Church, is received by the pope as
part of the succession of St Peter, together with the episcopate of
Rome. The whole episcopal body, with the pope at its head,
should be considered as succeeding to the apostolic college,
presided over by St Peter; and the head of it, now as then, as
personally invested with all the powers enjoyed by the whole
body, including the head. Hence the pope, as supreme in mat-
ters of doctrine, possesses the same authority and the same in-
fallibility as the whole Church; as legislator and judge he pos-
sesses the same power as the episcopal body gathered around and
with him in oecumenical council. Such are the two essential
prerogatives of the papal primacy: infallibility in his supreme
pronouncements in matters of doctrine (see INFALLIBILITY);
and immediate and sovereign jurisdiction, under all its aspects,
over all the pastors and the faithful. These two privileges,
having been claimed and enjoyed by the popes in the course
of centuries, were solemnly denned at the Vatican Council by
the constitution " Pastor aeternus " of the i8th of July 1870.
The two principal passages in it are the following, (i) In the
matter of jurisdiction: " If any one say that the Roman Pontiff
has an office merely of inspection and direction, and not the
full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church,
not only in matters of faith and morals, but also as regards
discipline and the government of the Church scattered through-
out the whole world; or that he has only the principal portion
and not the plenitude of that supreme power; or that his power
is not ordinary and immediate, as much over each and every
church as over each and every pastor and believer: anathema
sit." (2) In the matter of infallibility: " We decree that when
the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is to say, when, in
his capacity as Pastor and Doctor of all Christians he defines,
in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, a certain doctrine
concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he
enjoys, by the divine assistance promised to him in the Blessed
Peter, that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer has
thought good to endow His Church in order to define its
doctrine in matters of faith and morals; consequently, these
definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in themselves
and not in consequence of the consent of the Church."
For the history of the papacy, and associated questions,
see PAPACY, CONCLAVE, CURIA ROMANA, CARDINAL, &c.
The ordinary costume of the pope is similar to that of the
other clergy and bishops, but white in colour; his shoes alone
are different, being low open shoes, red in colour, with a cross
embroidered on the front; these are what are called the " mules,"
a substitute for the compagi of ancient times, formerly reserved
to the pope and his clergy (cf. Duchesne, op. cit. ch. n, 6). Over
this costume the pope wears, on less solemn occasions, the lace
rochet and the red mozetta, bordered with ermine, or the
camauro, similar to the mozetta, but with the addition of a hood,
and over all the stole embroidered with his arms. The pope's
liturgical costume consists, in the first place, of all the elements
comprising that of the bishops: stockings and sandals, amice,
alb, cincture, tunicle and dalmatic, stole, ring, gloves, chasuble
or cope, the latter, however, with a morse ornamented with
precious stones, and for head-dress the mitre (see VESTMENTS).
The tiara (<?..), the pontifical head-dress, is not used strictly
speaking in the course of the liturgical functions, but only for
processions. To these vestments or insignia the pope adds:
the falda, a kind of long skirt trailing on the ground all round,
which the chaplains hold up while he is walking. Over the
chasuble he wears the fanone (see AMICE) ; and after that the
pallium (q.v.). He is preceded by the papal cross, carried with
the crucifix turned towards him. When going to solemn
ceremonies he is carried on the sedia, a portable chair of red
velvet with a high back, and escorted by two flabelli of peacock
feathers. The papal mass, now rarely celebrated, has preserved
more faithfully the ancient liturgical usages of the 8th and pth
centuries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bellarmine, De romano pontifice; Wilmers, De
christi ecclesia (Regensburg, 1897); Turmel, Htstoire de la theo-
logie positive, vol. ii. (Paris, 1906); Hinschius, Kirchenrechi, vol. i.
(Berlin, 1869); Rudolph Sohm, Kirchenrecht (1892); Duchesne, Les
Origines du culte chrhien Uth ed., Paris, 1908) ; Bouix, De papa
(Paris, 1869); Vacant, Etudes thtologiques sur les constitutions du
concUe du Vatican (Paris, 1895); Barbier de Montault, Le Costume
et les usages ecclesiastiques (Paris, 1897). (A. Bo.*)
82
POPE, ALEXANDER
POPE, ALEXANDER (1688-1744), English poet, was born in
Lombard Street, London, on the 2ist of May 1688. His father,
Alexander Pope, a Roman Catholic, was a linen-draper who
afterwards retired from business with a small fortune, and fixed
his residence about 1700 at Binfield in Windsor Forest. Pope's
education was desultory. His father's religion would have
excluded him from the public schools, even had there been no
other impediment to his being sent there. Before he was twelve
he had obtained a smattering of Latin and Greek from various
masters, from a priest in Hampshire, from a schoolmaster at
Twyford near Winchester, from Thomas Deane, who kept a
school in Marylebone and afterwards at Hyde Park Corner,
and finally from another priest at home. Between his twelfth
and his seventeenth years excessive application to study under-
mined his health, and he developed the personal deformity
which was in so many ways to distort his view of life. He
thought himself dying, but through a friend, Thomas (after-
wards the abbe) Southcote, he obtained the advice of the famous
physician John Radcliffe, who prescribed diet and exercise.
Under this treatment the boy recovered his strength and spirits.
" He thought himself the better," Spence says, " in some
respects for not having had a regular education. He (as he
observed in particular) read originally for the sense, whereas
we are taught for so many years to read only for words." He
afterwards learnt French and Italian, probably in a similar
way. He read translations of the Greek, Latin, French and
Italian poets, and by the age of twelve, when he was finally
settled at home and left to himself, he was not only a confirmed
reader, but an eager aspirant to the highest honours in poetry.
There is a story, which chronological considerations make
extremely improbable, that in London he had crept into Will's
coffee-house to look at Dryden, and a further tale that the old
poet had given him a shilling for a translation of the story of
Pyramus and Thisbe; he had lampooned his schoolmaster; he
had made a play out of John Ogilby's Iliad for his school-
fellows; and before he was fifteen he had written an epic, his
hero being Alcander, a prince of Rhodes, or, as he states else-
where, Deucalion.
There were, among the Roman Catholic families near Bin-
field, men capable of giving a direction to his eager ambition,
men of literary tastes, and connexions with the literary world.
These held together as members of persecuted communities
always do, and were kept in touch with one another by the
family priests. Pope was thus brought under the notice of Sir
William Trumbull, a retired diplomatist living at Easthamp-
stead, within a few miles of Binfield. Thomas Dancastle, lord
of the manor of Binfield, took an active interest in his writings,
and at Whiteknights, near Reading, lived another Roman
Catholic, Anthony Englefield, " a great lover of poets and
poetry." Through him Pope made the acquaintance of
Wycherley and of Henry Cromwell, who was a distant cousin of
the Protector, a gay man about town, and something of a pedant.
Wycherley introduced him to William Walsh, then of great
renown as a critic. 1 Before the poet was seventeen he was
admitted in this way to the society of London " wits " and
men of fashion, and was cordially encouraged as a prodigy.
Wycherley's correspondence with Pope was skilfully manipu-
lated by the younger man to represent Wycherley as sub-
mitting, at first humbly and then with an ill-grace, to Pope's
criticisms. The publication (Elwin and Courthope, vol. v.)
of the originals of Wycherley's letters from MSS. at Longleat
showed how seriously the relations between the two friends,
which ceased in 1710, had been misrepresented in the version
of the correspondence which Pope chose to submit to the public.
Walsh's contribution to his development was the advice to
study " correctness." " About fifteen," he says, " I got
acquainted with Mr. Walsh. He used to encourage me much,
and used to tell me that there was one way left of excelling;
1 The dates of Pope's correspondence with Wycherley are 1704-
1710; with Walsh, 1705-1707, and with Cromwell, 1708-1727;
with John Caryll (1666-1736) and his son, also neighbours, 1710-
1735-
for, though we had several great poets, we never had any one
great poet that was correct, and he desired me to make that
my study and aim " (Spence, p. 280). Trumbull turned Pope's
attention to the French critics, out of the study of whom grew
the Essay on Criticism; he suggested the subject of Windsor
Forest, and he started the idea of translating Homer.
It says something for Pope's docility at this stage that he
recognized so soon that a long course of preparation was needed
for such a magnum opus, and began steadily and patiently
to discipline himself. The epic was put aside and afterwards
burnt; versification was industriously practised in short
" essays "; and an elaborate study was made of accepted
critics and models. He learnt most, as he acknowledged,
from Dryden, but the harmony of his verse also owed something
to an earlier writer, George Sandys, the translator of Ovid.
At the beginning of the i8th century Dryden's success had given
great vogue to translations and modernizations. The air was
full of theories as to the best way of doing such things. What
Dryden had touched Pope did not presume to meddle with
Dryden was his hero and master; but there was much more of
the same kind to be done. Dryden had rewritten three of the
Canterbury tales; Pope tried his hand at the Merchant's Tale,
and the Prologue to the Wife of Bath's Tale, and produced also
an imitation of the House of Fame. Dryden had translated
Virgil; Pope experimented on the Thebais of Statius, Ovid's
Heroides and Metamorphoses, and the Odyssey. He knew little
Latin and less Greek, but there were older versions in English
which helped him to the sense; and, when the correspondents
to whom he submitted his versions pointed out mistranslations,
he could answer that he had always agreed with them, but
that he had deferred to the older translators against his own
judgment. It was one of Pope's little vanities to try to give
the impression that his metrical skill was more precocious
even than it was, and we cannot accept his published versions
of Statius and Chaucer (published in " miscellanies " at intervals
between 1709 and 1714) as incontrovertible evidence of his pro-
ficiency at the age of sixteen or seventeen, the date, according to
his own assertion, of their composition. But it is indisputable
that at the age of seventeen his skill in verse astonished a
veteran critic like Walsh, and some of his pastorals were in
the hands of Sir George Granville (afterwards Lord Lansdowne)
before 1706. His metrical letter to Cromwell, which Ehvin
dates in 1707, when Pope was nineteen, is a brilliant feat of
versification, and has turns of wit in it as easy and spirited as
any to be found in his mature satires. Pope was twenty-one
when he sent the " Ode on Solitude " to Cromwell, and said
it was written before he was twelve years old.
Precocious Pope was, but he was also industrious; and he
spent some eight or nine years in arduous and enthusiastic
discipline, reading, studying, experimenting, taking the advice
of some and laughing in his sleeve at the advice of others,
" poetry his only business," he said, " and idleness his only
pleasure," before anything of his appeared in print. In these
preliminary studies he seems to have guided himself by the
maxim formulated in a letter to Walsh (dated July 2, 1706)
that " it seems not so much the perfection of sense to say things
that had never been said before, as to express those best that
have been said oftenest." His first publication was his
" Pastorals. " Jacob Tonson, the bookseller, had seen these
pastorals in the hands of Walsh and Congreve, and sent a
polite note (April 20, 1706) to Pope asking that he might have
them for one of his miscellanies. They appeared accordingly
in May 1709 at the end of the sixth volume of Tonson's
Poetical Miscellanies, containing contributions from Ambrose
Philips, Sheffield, Garth and Rowe, with " January and May,"
Pope's version of Chaucer's " Merchant's Tale."
Pope's next publication was the Essay on Criticism .(1711),
written two years earlier, and printed without the author's
name. " In every work regard the writer's end " (1. 255) is one of
its sensible precepts, and one that is often neglected by critics
of the essay, who comment upon it as if Pope's end had been
to produce an original and profound treatise on first principles.
POPE, ALEXANDER
His aim was simply to condense, methodize, and give as perfecl
and novel expression as he could to floating opinions about
I he poet's aims and methods, and the critic's duties, to " what
oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed " (1. 298). " The
town " was interested in belles lettres, and given to conversing
on the subject ; Pope's essay was simply a brilliant contribution
to the fashionable conversation. The youthful author saic!
that he did not expect the sale to be quick because " not one
gentleman in sixty, even of liberal education,- could understand
it." The sales were slow until Pope caused copies to be sent
to Lord Lansdowne and others, but its success was none the
less brilliant for the delay. The town was fairly dazzled by
the young poet's learning, judgment, and felicity of expression.
Many of the admirers of the poem doubtless would have
thought less of it if they had not believed all the maxims to
be original. " I admired," said Lady Mary Wortley Montagu,
'' Mr Pope's Essay on Criticism at first very much, because I
had not then read any of the ancient critics, and did not know
that it was all stolen." Pope gained credit for much that might
have been found, where he found it, in the Institutes of
Quintilian, in the numerous critical writings of Rene Rapin,
and in Rene le Bossu's treatise on epic poetry. Addison has
been made responsible for the exaggerated value once set on
the essay, but Addison's paper (Spectator, No. 253) was not
unmixed praise. He deprecated the attacks made by Pope
on contemporary literary reputations, although he did full
justice to the poet's metrical skill. Addison and Pope became
acquainted with one another, and Pope's sacred eclogue,
" Messiah," was printed as No. 378 of the Spectator. In the
Essay on Criticism Pope provoked one bitter personal enemy
in John Dennis, the critic, by a description of him as Appius,
who " stares, tremendous, with a threat'ning eye." Dennis
retorted in Reflections . . upon a late Rhapsody . . (1711), abusing
Pope among other things for his personal deformity. Pope
never forgot this brutal attack, which he described in a note
inserted after Dennis's death, as late as 1743, as written " in
a manner perfectly lunatic."
The Rape of the Lock in its first form appeared in 1712 in
Linlot's Miscellanies; the " machinery " of sylphs and gnomes
was an afterthought, and the poem was republished as we now
have it early in 1714. William, 4th Baron Petre, had surrep-
titiously cut off a lock of Miss Arabella Fermor's hair, and the
liberty had been resented; Pope heard the story from his friend
John Caryll, who suggested that the breach between the
families might be healed by making the incident the subject
of a mock-heroic poem like Boileau's Lutrin. Pope caught at
the hint; the mock-heroic treatment of the pretty frivolities of
fashionable life just suited his freakish sprightliness of wit, and
his studies of the grand epic at the time put him in excellent
vein. The Rape of the Lock is admitted to be a masterpiece of
airiness, ingenuity, and exquisite finish. But the poem struck
Taine as a piece of harsh, scornful, indelicate buffoonery, a mere
succession of oddities and contrasts, of expressive figures un-
expected and grinning, an example of English insensibility
to French sweetness and refinement. Sir Leslie Stephen
objected on somewhat different grounds to the poet's tone
towards women. His laughter at Pope's raillery was checked
by the fact that women are spoken of in the poem as if they
were all like Belinda. The poem shows the hand of the
satirist who was later to assert that " every woman is at
heart a rake," in the epistle addressed to Martha Blount.
Windsor Forest, modelled on Sir John Denham's Cooper's Hill,
had been begun, according to Pope's account, when he was
sixteen or seventeen. It was published in March 1713 with a
flattering dedication to the secretary for war, George Granville,
Lord Lansdowne, and an opportune allusion to the peace of
Utrecht. This was a nearer approach to taking a political side
than Pope had yet made. His principle had been to keep clear of
politics, and not to attach himself to any of the sets into which
literary men were divided by party. Although inclined to the
Jacobites by his religion, he never took any part in the plots for
the restoration of the Stuarts, and he was on friendly terms with
the Whig coterie, being a frequent guest at the coffee-house
kept by Daniel Button, where Addison held his " little senate."
He had contributed his poem, " The Messiah " to the Spectator;
he had written an article or two in the Guardian, and he wrote
a prologue for Addison's Cato. Nevertheless he induced
Lintot the bookseller to obtain from John Dennis a criti-
cism of Cato. On the publication of Dennis's remarks, the
violence of which had, as Pope hoped, made their author ridicu-
lous, Pope produced an anonymous pamphlet, The Narrative
of Dr Robert N orris concerning the . . . Frenzy ' of Mr
John Dennis (1713), which, though nominally in defence of
Addison, had for its main purpose the gratification of Pope's
own hostility to Dennis. Addison disavowed any connivance
in this coarse attack in a letter written on his behalf by Steele
to Lintot, saying that if he noticed Dennis's attack at all it
would be in such a way as to allow him no just cause of
complaint. Coolness between Addison and Pope naturally
followed this episode. When the Rape of the Lock was
published, Addison, who is said to have praised the poem
highly to Pope in private, dismissed it in the Spectator with two
sentences of patronizing faint praise to the young poet, and,
coupling it with Tickell's " Ode on the Prospect of Peace,"
devoted the rest of the article to an elaborate puff of " the
pastorals of Mr Philips."
When Pope showed a leaning to the Tories in Windsor Forest,
the members of Addison's coterie made insidious war on him.
Within a few weeks of the publication of the poem, and when it
was the talk of the town, there began to appear in the Guardian
(Nos. 22, 23, 28, 30, 32) a series of articles on " Pastorals." Not
a word was said about Windsor Forest, but everybody knew
to what the general principles referred. Modern pastoral
poets were ridiculed for introducing Greek moral deities, Greek
flowers and fruits, Greek names of shepherds, Greek sports and
customs and religious rites. They ought to make use of English
rural mythology hobthrushes, fairies, goblins and witches;
they should give English names to their shepherds; they should
mention flowers indigenous to English climate and soil; and
they should introduce English proverbial sayings, dress,
and customs. All excellent principles, and all neglected by
Pope in Windsor Forest. The poem was fairly open to criticism
in these points; there are many beautiful passages in it, show-
ing close though somewhat professional observation of nature,
but the mixture of heathen deities and conventional archaic
fancies with modern realities is incongruous, and the com-
parison of Queen Anne to Diana was ludicrous. But the
sting of the articles did not lie in the truth of the oblique
criticisms. The pastorals of Ambrose Philips, published four
years before, were again trotted out. Here was a true pastoral
poet, the eldest born of Spenser, the worthy successor of
Theocritus and Virgil!
Pope took an amusing revenge, which turned the laugh
against his assailants. He sent Steele an anonymous paper
in continuation of the articles in the Guardian on pastoral
poetry, reviewing the poems of Mr Pope by the light of the
srinciples laid down. Ostensibly Pope was censured for
Breaking the rules, and Philips praised for conforming to them,
quotations being given from both. The quotations were
sufficient to dispose of the pretensions of poor Philips, and Pope
did not choose his own worst passages, accusing himself of
actually deviating sometimes into poetry. Although the
Guardian's principles were also brought into ridicule by bur-
esque exemplifications of them after the manner of Gay's
Shepherd's Week, Steele, misled by the opening sentences, was
at first unwilling to print what appeared to be a direct attack
on Pope, and is said to have asked Pope's consent to the
jublication, which was graciously granted.
The links that attached Pope to the Tory party were strength-
ened by a new friendship. His first letter to Swift, who
>ecame warmly attached to him, is dated the 8th of December
1713. Swift had been a leading member of the Brothers'
Dlub, from which the famous Scriblerus Club seems to have
>een an offshoot. The leading members of this informal
8 4
POPE, ALEXANDER
literary society were Swift, Arbuthnot, Congreve, Bishop
Atterbury, Pope, Gay and Thomas Parnell. Their chief object
was a general war against the dunces, waged with great spirit
by Arbuthnot, Swift and Pope.
The estrangement from Addison was completed in connexion
with Pope's translation of Homer. This enterprise was
definitely undertaken in 1713. The work was to be published
by subscription, as Dryden's Virgil had been. Men of all
parties subscribed, their unanimity being a striking proof of
the position Pope had attained at the age of twenty-five. It
was as if he had received a national commission as by general
consent the first poet of his time. But the unanimity was
broken by a discordant note. A member of the Addison clique,
Tickell, attempted to run a rival version. Pope suspected
Addison's instigation; Tickell had at least Addison's encourage-
ment. Pope's famous character of Addison as " Atticus " in
the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot (ii. 193-215) was, however, in-
spired by resentment at insults that existed chiefly in his own
imagination, though Addison was certainly not among his
warmest admirers. Pope afterwards claimed to have been
magnanimous, but he spoiled his case by the petty inventions
of his account of the quarrel.
The translation of Homer was Pope's chief employment for
twelve years. The new pieces in the miscellanies published in
1717, his "Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady," and his " Eloisa
to Abelard," were probably written some years before their
publication. His " Eloisa to Abelard " was based on an
English translation by John Hughes of a French version of the
Letters, which differed very considerably from the original
Latin. The Iliad was delivered to the subscribers in instal-
ments in 1715, 1717, 1718 and 1720. Pope's own defective
scholarship made help necessary. William Broome and John
Jortin supplied the bulk of the notes, and Thomas Parnell the
preface. For the translation of the Odyssey he took Elijah
Fenton and Broome as coadjutors, who between them trans-
lated twelve out of the twenty-four books. 1 It was completed
in 1725. The profitableness of [the work was Pope's chief
temptation to undertake it. His receipts for his earlier poems
had totalled about 150, but he cleared more than 8000 by the
two translations, after deducting all payments to coadjutors
a much larger sum than had ever been received by an English
author before.
The translation of Homer had established Pope's reputation
with his contemporaries, and has endangered it ever since it
was challenged. Opinions have varied on the purely literary
merits of the poem, but with regard to it as a translation few
have differed from Bentley's criticism, " A fine poem, Mr Pope,
but you must not call it Homer." His collaboration with
Broome (q.v.) and Fenton (q.v.) 2 involved him in a series of
recriminations. Broome was weak enough to sign a note at
the end of the work understating the extent of Fenton's assist-
ance as well as his own, and ascribing the merit of their trans-
lation, reduced to less than half its real proportions, to a
regular revision and correction mostly imaginary at Pope's
hands. These falsehoods were deemed necessary by Pope to
protect himself against possible protests from the subscribers.
In 1722 he edited the poems of Thomas Parnell, and in 1725
made a considerable sum by an unsatisfactory edition of Shake-
speare, in which he had the assistance of Fenton and Gay.
Pope, with his economical habits, was rendered independent
by the pecuniary success of his Homer, and enabled to live near
London. The estate at Binfield was sold, and he removed
with his parents to Mawson's Buildings, Chiswick, in 1716, and
in 1719 to Twickenham, to the house with which his name is
associated. Here he practised elaborate landscape gardening
on a small scale, and built his famous grotto, which was really
a tunnel under the road connecting the garden with the lawn
on the Thames. He was constantly visited at Twickenham
by his intimates, Dr John Arbuthnot, John Gay, Bolingbroke
1 I, 4, 19 and 20 are by Fenton; 2, 6, 8, II, 12, 16, 18, 23, with
notes to all the books, by Broome.
1 The correspondence with them is given in vol. viii. of Elwin and
Courthope's edition.
(after his return in 1723), and Swift (during his brief visits
England in 1726 and 1727), and by many other friends of the
Tory party. With Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, he was on
terms of affectionate intimacy, but he blundered in his evidence
when he was called as a witness on his behalf in 1723.
In 1717 his father died, and he appears to have turned to the
Blounts for sympathy in what was to him a very serious
bereavement. He had early made the acquaintance of Martha
and Teresa Blount, both of them intimately connected with
his domestic history. Their home was at Mapledurham,. near
Reading, but Pope probably first met them at the house of
his neighbour, Mr Englefield of Whiteknights, who was their
grandfather. He begun to correspond with Martha Blount
in 1712, and after 1717 the letters are much more serious
in tone. He quarrelled with Teresa, who had apparently
injured or prevented his suit to her sister; and although, after
her father's death in 1718, he paid her an annuity, he seems
to have regarded her as one of his most dangerous enemies.
His friendship with Martha lasted all his life. So long as his
mother lived he was unwearying in his attendance on her, but
after her death in 1733 his association with Martha Blount was
more constant. In defiance of the scandal-mongers, they
paid visits together at the houses of common friends, and at
Twickenham she spent part of each day with him. His earlier
attachment to Lady Mary Wortley Montagu was apparently a
more or less literary passion, which perished under Lady Mary's
ridicule.
The year 1725 may be taken as' the beginning of the third
period of Pope's career, when he made his fame as a moralist
and a satirist. It may be doubted whether Pope had the stay-
ing power necessary for the composition of a great imaginative
work, whether his crazy constitution would have held together
through the strain. He toyed with the idea of writing a grand
epic. He told Spence that he had it all in his head, and gave him
a vague (and it must be admitted not very promising) sketch
of the subject and plan of it. But he never put any of it on
paper. He shrank as with instinctive repulsion from the stress
and strain of complicated designs. Even his prolonged task
of translating weighed heavily on his spirits, and this was a much
less formidable effort than creating an epic. He turned rather
to designs that could be accomplished in detail, works of which
the parts could be separately laboured at and put together with
patient care, into which happy thoughts could be fitted that
had been struck out at odd moments and in ordinary levels of
feeling.
Edward Young's satire, The Universal Passion, had just
appeared, and been received with more enthusiasm than any
thing published since Pope's own early successes. This alone
would have been powerful inducement to Pope's emulous tem-
per. Swift was finishing Gulliver's Travels, and came over to
England in 1726. The survivors of the Scriblerus Club Swift,
Pope, Arbuthnot, and Gay resumed their old amusement of
parodying and otherwise ridiculing bad writers, especially bad
writers in the Whig interest. Two volumes of their Mis-
cellanies in Prose and Verse were published in 1727. A third
volume appeared in 1728, and a fourth was added in 1732.
According to Pope's own history of the Dunciad, an Heroic
Poem in Three Books, which first appeared on the 28th of May
1728, the idea of it grew out of'this. Among the Miscellanies
was a " Treatise of the Bathos or the Art of Sinking in Poetry,"
in which poets were classified, with illustrations, according to
their eminence in the various arts of debasing instead of elevating
their subject. No names were mentioned, but the specimens
of bathos were assigned to various letters of the alphabet, which,
the authors boldly asserted, were taken at random. But no
sooner was the treatise published than the scribblers proceeded
to take the letters to themselves, and in revenge to fill the news-
papers with the most abusive falsehoods and scurrilities they
could devise. This gave Pope the opportunity he had hoped
for, and provided him with an excuse for the personalities
of the Dunciad, which had been in his mind as early as 1720.
Among the most prominent objects of his satire were Lewis
POPE, ALEXANDER
Theobald, Colley Gibber, John Dennis, Richard Bentley, Aaron
Hill and Bernard Lintot, who, in spite of his former relations
with Pope, was now classed with the piratical Edmund Curll.
The book was published with the greatest precautions. It was
anonymous, and professed to be a reprint of a Dublin edition.
When the success of the poem was assured, it was republished
in 1729, and a copy was presented to the king by Sir Robert
Walpole. Names took the place of initials, and a defence
of the satire, written by Pope himself, but signed by his friend
William Cleland, was printed as " A letter to the Publisher."
Various indexes, notes and particulars of the attacks on Pope
made by the different authors satirized were added. To avoid
any danger of prosecution, the copyright was assigned to Lord
Oxford, Lord Bathurst and Lord Burlington, whose position
rendered them practically unassailable. We may admit that
personal spite influenced Pope at least as much as disinte-
>1 zeal for the honour of literature, but in the dispute as to
the comparative strength of these motives, a third is apt to be
overlooked that was probably stronger than either. This was
an unscrupulous elfish love of fun, and delight in the creations
of a humorous imagination. Certainly to represent the Dun-
dad as the outcome of mere personal spite is to give an exag-
gerated idea of the malignity of Pope's disposition, and an
utterly wrong impression of the character of his satire. He was
not, except in rare cases, a morose, savage, indignant satirist,
but airy and graceful in his malice, revengeful perhaps and
excessively sensitive, but restored to good humour as he thought
over his wrongs by the ludicrous conceptions with which he
invested his adversaries. The most unprovoked assault was
on Richard Bentley, whom he satirized in the reconstruction
and enlargement of the Dunciad made in the last years of his
life at the instigation, it is said, of William Warburton. In
the earlier editions the place of hero had been occupied by
Lewis Theobald, who had ventured to criticize Pope's Shake-
speare. In the edition which appeared in Pope's Works (1742),
he was dethroned in favour of Colley Gibber, who had just
written his Letter from Mr Gibber to Mr Pope inquiring into
the motives that might induce him in his satyrical writings to be
so frequently fond of Mr Gibber's name (1742). Warburton's
name is attached to many new notes, and one of the preliminary
dissertations by Ricardus Aristarchus on the hero of the poem
seems to be by him.
The four epistles of the Essay on Man (1733) were also
intimately connected with passing controversies. They belong
to the same intellectual movement with Butler's Analogy the
effort of the i8th century to put religion on a rational basis.
But Pope was not a thinker like Butler. The subject was
suggested to him by Henry St John, Lord Bolingbroke, who
had returned from exile in 1723, and was a fellow-member of
the Scriblerus Club. Bolingbroke is said and the statement
is supported by the contents of his posthumous works to
have furnished most of the arguments. Pope's contribution
to the controversy consisted in brilliant epigram and illustra-
tion. In this didactic work, as in his Essay on Criticism, he
put together on a sufficiently simple plan a series of happy
sayings, separately elaborated, picking up the thoughts as he
found them in miscellaneous reading and conversation, and
trying only to fit them with perfect expression. His readers
were too dazzled by the verse to be severely critical of the sense.
Pope himself had not comprehended the drift of the arguments
he had adopted from Bolingbroke, and was alarmed when he
found that his poem was generally interpreted as an apology
for the free-thinkers. Warburton is said to have qualified
its doctrines as " rank atheism, " and asserted that it was put
together from the " worst passages of the worst authors." The
essay was soon translated into the chief European languages,
and in 1737 its orthodoxy was assailed by a Swiss professor,
Jean Pierre de Crousaz. in an Examen de I'essay de M. Pope
sur ritomme. Warburton now saw fit to revise his opinion
of Pope's abilities and principles for what reason does not
appear. In any case he now became as enthusiastic in his
praise of Pope's orthodoxy and his genius as he had before been
scornful, and proceeded to employ his unrivalled powers of
sophistry in a defence of the orthodoxy of the conflicting and
inconsequent positions adopted in the Essay on Man. Pope
was wise enough to accept with all gratitude an ally who was
so useful a friend and so dangerous an enemy, and from that
time onward Warburton was the authorized commentator of
his works.
The Essay on Man was to have formed part of a series of
philosophic poems on a systematic plan. The other pieces
were to treat of human reason, of the use of learning, wit,
education and riches, of civil and ecclesiastical polity, of the
character of women, &c. Of the ten epistles of the Moral
Essays, the first four, written between 1731 and 1735, are
connected with this scheme, which was never executed.
There was much bitter, and sometimes unjust, satire in the
Moral Essays and the Imitations of Horace. In these epistles
and satires, which appeared at intervals, he was often the mouth-
piece of his political friends, who were all of them in opposition
to Walpole, then at the height of his power, and Pope chose
the object of his attacks from among the minister's adherents.
Epistle III., " Of the Use of Riches," addressed to Allen Bath-
urst, Lord Bathurst, in 1732, is a direct attack on Walpole's
methods of corruption, and on his financial policy in general;
and the two dialogues (1738) known as the " Epilogue to the
Satires," professedly a defence of satire, form an eloquent
attack on the court. Pope was attached to the prince of Wales's
party, and he did not forget to insinuate, what was indeed the
truth, that the queen had refused the prince her pardon on
her deathbed. The " Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot " contains a de-
scription of his personal attitude towards the scribblers and is
made to serve as a " prologue to the satires." The gross and
unpardonable insults bestowed on Lord Hervey and on Lady
Mary Wortley Montagu in the first satire " to Mr Fortescue "
provoked angry retaliation from both. The description of
Timon's ostentatious villa in Epistle IV., addressed to the earl
of Burlington, was generally taken as a picture of Canons, the
seat of John Brydges, duke of Chandos, one of Pope's patrons,
and caused a great outcry, though in this case Pope seems to
have been innocent of express allusion. Epistle II., addressed
to Martha Blount, contained the picture of Atossa, which
was taken to be a portrait of Sarah Jennings, duchess of
Marlborough. One of the worst imputations on Pope's character
was that he left this passage to be published when he had in
effect received a bribe of 1000 from the duchess of Marl-
borough for its suppression through the agency of Nathanael
Hooke (d. 1763). As the passage eventually stood, it might
be applied to Katherine, duchess of Buckingham, a natural
daughter of James II. Pope may have altered it with the
intention of diverting the satire from the original object.
He was scrupulously honest in money matters, and always in-
dependent in matters of patronage; but there is some evidence
for this discreditable story beyond the gossip of Horace Wal-
pole (Works, ed. P. Cunningham, i. cxliv.), though not suffi-
cient to justify the acceptance it received by some of Pope's
biographers. To appreciate fully the point of his allusions
requires an intimate acquaintance with the political and social
gossip of the time. But apart from their value as a brilliant
strongly-coloured picture of the time Pope's satires have a
permanent value as literature. It is justly remarked by Mark
Pattison ' that " these Imitations are among the most original
of his writings." The vigour and terseness of the diction is
still unsurpassed in English verse. Pope had gained complete
mastery over his medium, the heroic couplet, before he used
it to express his hatred of the political and social evils which
he satirized. The elaborate periphrases and superfluous orna-
ments of his earlier manner, as exemplified in the Pastorals and
the Homer, disappeared; he turned to the uses of verse the
ordinary language of conversation, differing from everyday
speech only in its exceptional brilliance and point. It is in
these satires that his best work must be sought, and by them
that his position among English poets must be fixed. It was
1 In his edition of the Satires and Epistles (1866).
86
POPE, ALEXANDER
the Homer chiefly that Wordsworth and Coleridge had in their
eye when they began the polemic against the " poetic diction "
of the 1 8th century, and struck at Pope as the arch-corrupter.
They were historically unjust to Pope, who did not originate
this diction, but only furnished the most finished examples
of it. At the beginning of the igth century Pope still had
an ardent admirer in Byron, whose first satires are written in
Pope's couplet. The much abused pseudo-poetic diction in
substance consisted in an ambition to " rise above the vulgar
style," to dress nature to advantage a natural ambition when
the arbiters of literature were people of fashion. If one com-
pares Pope's " Messiah " or " Eloisa to Abelard," or an im-
passioned passage from the Iliad, with the originals that he
paraphrased, one gets a more vivid idea of the consistence of
pseudo-poetic diction than could be furnished by pages of an-
alysis. But Pope merely made masterly use of the established
diction of his time, which he eventually forsook for a far more
direct and vigorous style. A passage from the Guardian, in
which Philips was commended as against him, runs: " It is
a nice piece of art to raise a proverb above the vulgar style
and still keep it easy and unaffected. Thus the old wish, ' God
rest his soul,' is very finely turned:
' Then gentle Sidney liv'd, the shepherd's friend,
Eternal blessings on his shade attend ! ' '
Pope would have despised so easy a metamorphosis as this
at any period in his career, and the work of his coadjutors in
the Odyssey may be distinguished by this comparative cheapness
of material. Broome's description of the clothes-washing by
Nausicaa and her maidens in the sixth book may be compared
with the original as a luminous specimen.
Pope's wit had won for him the friendship of many distin-
guished men, and his small fortune enabled him to meet them
on a footing of independence. He paid long visits at many
great houses, especially at Stanton Harcourt, the home of his
friend Lord Chancellor Harcourt; at Oakley, the seat of Lord
Bathurst; and at Prior Park, Bath, where his host was Ralph
Allen. With the last named he had a temporary disagree-
ment owing to some slight shown to Martha Blount, but he
was reconciled to him before his death.
He died on the 3oth of May 1744, and he was buried in the
parish church of Twickenham. He left the income from his
property to Martha Blount till her death, after which it was to
go to his half-sister Magdalen Rackett and her children. His
unpublished MSS. were left at the discretion of Lord Boling-
broke, and his copyrights to Warburton.
If we are to judge Pope, whether as a man or as a poet, with
human fairness, and not merely by comparison with standards
of abstract perfection, there are two features of his times that
must be kept steadily in view the character of political strife
in those days and the political relations of men of letters. As
long as the succession to the Crown was doubtful, and political
failure might mean loss of property, banishment or death,
politicians, playing for higher stakes, played more fiercely and
unscrupulously than in modern days, and there was no con-
trolling force of public opinion to keep them within the bounds
of common honesty. Hence the age of Queen Anne is pre-
eminently an age of intrigue. The government was almost as
unsettled as in the early days of personal monarchy, and there
was this difference that it was policy rather than force upon
which men depended for keeping their position. Secondly,
men of letters were admitted to the inner circles of intrigue as
they had never been before and as they have never been since. A
generation later Walpole defied them, and paid the rougher
instruments that he considered sufficient for his purpose in
solid coin of the realm; but Queen Anne's statesmen, whether
from difference of tastes or difference of policy, paid their prin-
cipal literary champions with social privileges and honourable
public appointments. Hence men of letters were directly in-
fected by the low political morality of the unsettled time. And
the character of their poetry also suffered. The most promi-
nent defects of the age the lack of high and sustained
imagination, the genteel liking for " nature to advantage
dressed," the incessant striving after wit were fostered, if
not generated, by the social atmosphere.
Pope's own ruling passion was the love of fame, and he had
no scruples where this was concerned. His vanity and his
childish love of intrigue are seen at their worst in his petty
manoeuvres to secure the publication of his letters during his
lifetime. These intricate proceedings were unravelled with
great patience and ingenuity by Charles Wentworth Dilkc,
when the false picture of his relations with his contemporaries
which Pope had imposed on the public had been practically
accepted for a century. Elizabeth Thomas, the mistress of
Henry Cromwell, had sold Pope's early letters to Henry
Cromwell to the bookseller Curll for ten guineas. These
were published in Curll's Miscellanea in 1726 (dated 1727), and
had considerable success. This surreptitious publication seems
to have suggested to Pope the desirability of publishing his own
correspondence, which he immediately began to collect from
various friends on the plea of preventing a similar clandestine
transaction. The publication by Wycherley's executors of a
posthumous volume of the dramatist's prose and verse fur-
nished Pope with an excuse for the appearance of his own
correspondence with Wycherley, which was accompanied by a
series of unnecessary deceptions. After manipulating his cor-
respondence so as to place his own character in the best light,
he deposited a copy in the library of Edward, second earl of
Oxford, and then he had it printed. The sheets were offered
to Curll by a person calling himself P.T., who professed a desire
to injure Pope, but was no other than Pope himself. The copy
was delivered to Curll in 1735 after long negotiations by an
agent who called himself R. Smythe, with a few originals to
vouch for their authenticity. P. T. had drawn up an adver-
tisement stating that the book was to contain answers from
various peers. Curll was summoned before the House of Lords
for breach of privilege, but was acquitted, as the letters from
peers were not in fact forthcoming. Difficulties then arose
between Curll and P. T., and Pope induced a bookseller named
Cooper to publish a Narrative of the Method by which Mr
Pope's Private Letters were procured by Edmund Curll, Book-
seller (1735). These preliminaries cleared the way for a show
of indignation against piratical publishers and a " genuine "
edition of the Letters of Mr Alexander Pope (1737, fol. and
4to). Unhappily for Pope's reputation, his friend Caryll, who
died before the publication, had taken a copy of Pope's letters
before returning them. This letter-book came to light in the
middle of the igth century, and showed the freedom which
Pope permitted himself in editing. The correspondence with
Lord Oxford, preserved at Longleat, afforded further evidence
of his tortuous dealings. The methods he employed to secure
his correspondence with Swift were even more discreditable.
The proceedings can only be explained as the measures of a
desperate man whose maladies seem to have engendered a
passion for trickery. They are related in detail by Elwin in
the introduction to vol. i. of Pope's Works. A man who is said
to have " played the politician about cabbages and turnips,"
and who " hardly drank tea without a stratagem," was not
likely to be straightforward in a matter in which his ruling
passion was concerned. Against Pope's petulance and " general
love of secrecy and cunning " have to be set, in any fair judg-
ment of his character, his exemplary conduct as a son, the
affection with which he was regarded in his own circle of
intimates, and many well-authenticated instances of genuine
and continued kindliness to persons in distress.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Various collected editions of Pope's Works
appeared during his lifetime, and in 1751 an edition in nine volumes
was published by a syndicate of booksellers " with the commentaries
of Mr Warburton." Warburton interpreted his editorial rights very
liberally. By his notes he wilfully misrepresented the meaning of
the allusions in the satires, and made them more agreeable to his
friends and to the court, while he made opportunities for the gratifi-
cation of his own spite against various individuals. Joseph Warton's
edition in 1797 added to the mass of commentary without giving
much new elucidation to the allusions of the text, which even Swift,
with his exceptional facilities, had found obscure. In 1769-1807 an
edition was issued which included Owen Ruffhead's Life of Alexander
POPE, A. POPE, SIR T.
Pope (1769), inspired by Warburton. The notes of many com-
nifiitators, with some letters and a memoir, were included in the
v of Alexander Pope, edited by W. L. Bowles (10 vols., 1806).
Hi- Poetical Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1856); by R.
Carruthers (1858) for Bohn's Library; by A. W. Ward (Globe Edition,
<Sv. Materials for a definitive edition were collected by John
U'il-.c'm Croker, and formed the basis of what has become the standard
vi-r-ion, The Works of Alexander Pope (10 vols., 1871-1898), including
unpublished letters and other new material, with introduction and
iiuu-s by W. Elwin and W. J. Courthope. The life of Pope in
\ . was contributed by Professor Courthope. The chief original
authority besides Pope's correspondence and Ruffhead's Life is
h Spence's Anecdotes, published by S. W. Singer in 1820.
id Johnson gives a good estimate of Pope in his Lives of the
Poets. The best modern lives are that by Professor Courthope,
.iln.Kiy mentioned; and Alexander Pope, by Sir L. Stephen, in the
English Men of Letters series (1880). See also George Paston, Mr
Pope: His Life and Times (1909). The first check to the admiration
that prevailed during Pope's lifetime was given by the publication of
Joseph Warton's Essay on the Writings and Genius of Pope (vol. i.,
'757; vo '- >> '782). Warton had a sincere appreciation of Pope's
work, but he began the reaction which culminated with the
romantic writers of the beginning of the igth century, and set the
fashion of an undue disparagement of Pope's genius as a poet with
enduring effects on popular opinion. Thomas Campbell's criticism
in his Specimens of the British Poets provoked a controversy to which
William Hazlitt, Byron and W. L. Bowles contributed. For a
discussion of Pope's position as one of the great men of letters in the
i8th century who emancipated themselves from patronage, see
A. Heljame, Le Public et les hommes de lettres en An^leterre au dix-
huiticme sikcle (1881); a section of Isaac D'lsraeh's Quarrels of
Authors is devoted to Pope's literary animosities; and most impor-
tant contributions to many vexed questions in the biography of
Pope, especially the publication of his letters, were made by C. W.
Dilke in Notes and Queries and the Athenaeum. These articles
were reprinted by his grandson, Sir Charles Dilke, in 1875, as The
Papers of a Critic. (W. M.; M. BR.)
POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835), Irish actor and painter,
was born in Cork, and was educated to follow his father's
profession of miniature painting. He continued to paint
miniatures and exhibit them at the Royal Academy as late as
1821; but at an early date he took the stage, first appearing
in London as Oroonoko in 1785 at Covent Garden. He remained
at this theatre almost continuously for nearly twenty years,
then at the Haymarket until his retirement, playing leading
parts, chiefly tragic. He was particularly esteemed as Othello
and Henry VIII. He died on the 22nd of March 1835. Pope
was thrice married. His first wife, Elizabeth Pope (c. 1744-
1797), a favourite English actress of great versatility, was billed
before her marriage as Miss Younge. His second wife, Maria Ann
Pope (1775-1803), also a popular actress, was a member of an
Irish family named Campion. His third wife, Clara Maria Pope
(d. 1838), was the widow of the artist Francis Wheatley, and
herself a skilful painter of figures and of flowers.
POPE, JANE (1742-1818), English actress, daughter of a
London theatrical wig-maker, who began playing in a Lilli-
putian company for Garrick in 1756. From this she speedily
developed into soubrette roles. She was Mrs Candour in The
School for Scandal at its first presentation (1777), and thereafter
she had many important parts confided to her. She was the
life-long friend of Mrs Clive, and erected the monument at
Twickenham to the latter's memory. She was not only an
admirable actress, but a woman of blameless life, and was
praised by all the literary critics of her day unused to such a
combination. She died on the 3oth of July 1818.
POPE, JOHN (1822-1892), American soldier, was the son of
Nathaniel Pope (1784-1850), U.S. judge for the district of
Illinois, and was born at Louisville, Kentucky, on the i6th of
March 1822. He graduated at the United States Military
Academy in 1842 and was assigned to the engineers. He served
in the Mexican War, receiving the brevets of ist lieutenant and
captain for his conduct at Monterey and Buena Vista. Sub-
sequently he was engaged in engineering and exploring work,
mainly in New Mexico, and in surveying the route for a Pacific
railroad. He was commissioned captain in 1856. He was
actively opposed to the Buchanan administration, and a speech
which he made in connexion with the presidential campaign
of 1860 caused him to be summoned before a court-martial.
Early in the Civil War he was placed, as a brigadier-general
U.S.V., in charge of the district of Missouri, which by vigorous
campaigning against guerrilla bands and severe administration of
the civil population he quickly reduced to order. In 1862, along
with the gunboat flotilla (commanded by Commodore A. H.
Foote) on the Mississippi, Pope obtained a great success by the
capture of the defences of New Madrid and Island No. 10, with
nearly 7000 prisoners. Pope subsequently joined Halleck, and hi
command of the Army of the Mississippi took part in the siege of
Corinth. He was now a major-general U.S.V. The repu-
tation he had thus gained as an energetic leader quickly
placed him in a high command, to which he proved to be quite
unequal. The " Army of Virginia," as - his new forces were
styled, had but a brief career. At the very outset of his Virginian
campaign Pope, by a most ill-advised order, in which he con-
trasted the performances of the Western troops with the failures
of the troops in Virginia, forfeited the confidence of his officers
and men. The feeling of the Army of the Potomac (which was
ordered to his support) was equally hostile, and the short opera-
tions culminated in the disastrous defeat of the second battle of
Bull Run. Pope was still sanguine and ready for another trial of
strength, but he was soon compelled to realize the impossibility
of retrieving his position, and resigned the command. Bitter
controversy arose over these events. Halleck, the general-in-
chief, was by no means free from blame, but the public odium
chiefly fell upon generals McClellan and Fitz-John Porter, against
whom Pope, while admitting his own mistakes, made grave
charges. Pope was not again employed in the Civil War, but in
command of the Department of the North-West he showed his
former skill and vigour in dealing with Indian risings. In 1865
he was made brevet major-general U.S.A. (having become
brigadier-general on his appointment to the Army of Virginia),
and he subsequently was in charge of various military districts
and departments until his retirement in 1886. In 1882 he was
promoted to the full rank of major-general U.S.A. General
Pope died at Sandusky, Ohio, on the 23rd of September 1892.
He was the author of various works and papers, including railway
reports (Pacific Railroad Reports vol. iii.) and The Campaign of
Virginia (Washington, 1865).
POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559), founder of Trinity College,
Oxford, was born at Deddington, near Banbury, Oxfordshire,
probably in 1507, for he was about sixteen years old when his
father, a yeoman farmer, died in 1523. He was educated at
Banbury school and Eton College, and entered the court of
chancery. He there found a friend and patron in the lord-
chancellor Thomas Audley. As clerk of briefs in the star
chamber, warden of the mint (1534-1536), clerk of the Crown in
chancery (1537), and second officer and treasurer of the court
for the settlement of the confiscated property of the smaller
religious foundations, he obtained wealth and influence. In this
last office he was superseded in 1541, but from 1547 to 1553 he
was again employed as fourth officer. He himself won by grant
or purchase a considerable share in the spoils, for nearly thirty
manors, which came sooner or later into his possession, were
originally church property. " He could have rode," said Aubrey,
" in his owne lands from Cogges (by Witney) to Banbury, about
18 miles." In 1537 he was knighted. The religious changes
made by Edward VI. were repugnant to him, but at the beginning
of Mary's reign he became a member of the privy council. In
1556 he was sent to reside as guardian in Elizabeth's house.
As early as 1555 he had begun to arrange for the endowment of a
college at Oxford, for which he bought the site and buildings of
Durham College, the Oxford house of the abbey of Durham, from
Dr George Owen and William Martyn. He received a royal
charter for the establishment and endowment of a college of the
" Holy and Undivided Trinity " on the 8th of March 1556. The
foundation provided for a president, twelve fellows and eight
scholars, with a schoolhouse at Hooknorton. The number of
scholars, was subsequently increased to twelve, the schoolhouse
being given up. On the 28th of March the members of the
college were put in possession of the site, and they were formally
admitted on the 2gth of May 1556. Pope died at Clerkenwell
on the 29th of January 1559, and was buried at St Stephen's,
88
POPE-JOAN POPILIA, VIA
Walbrook; but his remains were subsequently removed to
Trinity College, where his widow erected a semi-Gothic alabaster
monument to his memory. He was three times married, but
left no children. Much of his property was left to charitable
and religious foundations, and the bulk of his Oxfordshire
estates passed to the family of his brother, John Pope of
Wroxton, and his descendants, the viscounts Dillon and the
earls of Guilford and barons North.
The life, by H. E. D. Blakiston, in the Diet. Nat. Biog., corrects
many errors in Thomas Walton's Life of Sir Thomas Pope (1772).
Further notices by the same authority are in his Trinity College
(1898), in the " College Histories " Series, and in the English
Historical Review (April, 1896).
POPE-JOAN, a round game of cards, named after a legendary
female Pope of the gth century. An ordinary pack is used, from
which the eight of diamonds has been removed, and a special
round board in the form of eight compartments, named respec-
tively Pope- Joan, Matrimony, Intrigue, Ace, King, Queen, Knave
and Game (King, Queen and Knave are sometimes omitted).
Each player any number can play contributes a stake, of
which one counter is put into the divisions Ace, King, Queen,
Knave and Game, two into Matrimony and Intrigue, and the
rest into Pope- Joan. This is called " dressing the board." The
cards are dealt round, with an extra hand for " stops," i.e. cards
which stop, by their absence, the completion of a suit; thus the
absence of the nine of spades stops the playing of the ten. The
last card is turned up for trumps. Cards in excess may be dealt
to " stops," or an agreed number may be left for the purpose, so
that all players may have an equal number of cards. If an
honour or " Pope " (nine of diamonds) is turned up, the dealer
takes the counters in the compartment so marked. Sometimes
the turning-up of Pope settles the hand, the dealer taking the
whole pool. The Ace is the lowest card, the King the highest.
The player on the dealer's left plays a card and names it; the
player who has the next highest then plays it, till a stop is played,
i.e. a card of which no one holds the next highest. All Kings are
of course stops, also the seven of diamonds; also the cards next
below the dealt stops, and the cards next below the played cards.
After a stop the played cards are turned over, and the player of
the stop (the card last played) leads again. The player who gets
rid of all his cards first takes the counters in " Game," and
receives a counter from each player for every card left in his
hand, except from the player who may hold Pope but has not
played it. The player of Ace, King, Queen or Knave of trumps
takes the counters from that compartment. If King and Queen
of trumps are in one hand, the holder takes the counters in
" Matrimony "; if a Queen and Knave, those in " Intrigue "; if
all three, those in the two compartments; if they are in different
hands these counters are sometimes divided. Unclaimed stakes
are left for the next pool. Pope is sometimes considered a
universal " stop."
POPERINGHE, an ancient town of West Flanders, 12 m. W. of
Ypres. Pop. (1904), 11,680. It contains a fine church of the
nth century, dedicated to St Betin. In the i4th century it
promised to become one of the principal communes in Flanders;
but having incurred the resentment of Ypres on a matter of trade
rivalry it was attacked and captured by the citizens of that
place, who reduced it to a very subordinate position. There are
extensive hop gardens, bleaching grounds and tanneries in the
neighbourhood of the town.
POPHAM, SIR HOME RIGGS (1762-1820), British admiral,
was the son of Stephen Popham, consul at Tetuan, and was
his mother's twenty-first child. He entered the navy in 1778,
and served with the flag of Rodney till the end of the war. In
1783 he was promoted lieutenant, and was for a time engaged
on survey service on the coast of Africa. Between 1787 and 1793
he was engaged in a curious series of adventures of a commercial
nature in the Eastern Sea sailing first for the Imperial Ostend
Company, and then in a vessel which he purchased and in part
loaded himself. During this time he took several surveys and
rendered some services to the East India Company, which were
officially acknowledged; but in 1793 his ship was seized, partly
on the ground that he was carrying contraband and partly
because he was infringing the East India Company's monopoly.
His loss was put at 70,000, and he was entangled in litigation.
In 1805 he obtained compensation to the amount of 25,000.
The case was a hard one, for he was undoubtedly sailing with the
knowledge of officials in India. While this dispute was going
on Popham had resumed his career as a naval officer. He
served with the army under the duke of York in Flanders as
" superintendent of Inland Navigation " and won his confidence.
The protection of the duke was exercised with so much effect that
Popham was promoted commander in 1794 and post captain in
1795. He was now engaged for years in co-operating in a naval
capacity with the troops of Great Britain and her allies. In the
Red Sea he was engaged in transporting the Indian troops em-
ployed in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. His bills
for the repair of his ship at Calcutta were made the excuse for
an attack on him and for charging him with the amount. It
was just the time of the general reform of the dockyards, and
there was much suspicion in the air. It was also the case that
St Vincent did not like Popham, and that Benjamin Tucker
(1762-1829), secretary to the admiralty, who had been the
admiral's secretary, was his creature and sycophant. Popham
was not the man to be snuffed out without an effort. He
brought his case before Parliament, and was able to prove that
there had been, if not deliberate dishonesty, at least the very
grossest carelessness on the part of his assailants. In 1806 he
co-operated with Sir David Baird in the occupation of the Cape.
He then persuaded the authorities that, as the Spanish Colonies
were discontented, it would be easy to promote a rising in Buenos
Ayres. The attempt was made with Popham's squadron and
1400 soldiers; but the Spanish colonists, though discontented,
were not disposed to accept British help, which would in all
probability have been made an excuse for establishing dominion.
They rose on the soldiers who landed, and took them prisoners.
Popham was recalled, and censured by a court martial for leaving
his station; but the City of London presented him with a sword
of honour for his endeavours to " open new markets," and the
sentence did him no harm. He held other commands in con-
nexion with the movements of troops, was promoted rear admiral
in 1814, and made K.C.B. in 1815. He died at Cheltenham on
the loth of September 1820, leaving a large family. Popham
was one of the most scientific seamen of his time. He did much
useful survey work, and was the author of the code of signals
adopted by the admiralty in 1803 and used for many years.
POPHAM, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English judge, was
born at Huntworth, in Somerset, about 1531. He was educated at
Balliol College, Oxford, and called to the bar at the Middle Temple.
Concerning his early life little is known, but he was probably a
member of the parliament of 1558. He was recorder of Bristol,
and represented that city in parliament in 1571 and from 1572
to 1583. He was elected Speaker in 1580, and in 1581 became
attorney-general, a post which he occupied until his appoint-
ment as lord chief justice in 1592. He presided at the
trials of Sir Walter Raleigh and Guy Fawkes. Towards the end
of his life Popham took a great interest in colonization, and was
instrumental in procuring patents for the London and Plymouth
companies for the colonization of Virginia. Popham was an
advocate, too, of transportation abroad as a means of punishing
rogues and vagabonds. His experiment in that direction, the
Popham colony, an expedition under the leadership of his brother
George (c. 1550-1608), had, however, but a brief career in its
settlement (1607) on the Kennebec river. Popham died on the
loth of June 1607, and was buried at Wellington, Somerset.
See Foss, Lives of the Judges; ]. Winsor, History of America,
vol. iii.
POPILIA (or POPILLIA), VIA, the name of two ancient roads in
Italy, (i) A highroad running from the Via Appia at Capua to
Regium, a distance of 321 m. right along the length of the
peninsula, and the main road through the interior of the country,
not along the coast. It was built in 159 B.C. by the censor M.
Popilius Laenias or in 132 B.C. by the consul P. Popilius. (2) A
POPINJAY POPLAR
89
highroad from Ariminum to Aquileia along the Adriatic coast.
ii no doubt originally came into use when Aquileia was founded
frontier fortress of Italy in 181 B.C., and Polybius gives the
distance correctly as 1 78 m. In 13 2 it was reconstructed (munila)
by the consul P. Popilius, one of whose milestones has been
found near Atria. It ran along the shore strip (Lido) from Ari-
minum to Ravenna (33 m.), where it was usual in imperial times
for travellers to take ship and go by canal to Altinum (?..),
and there resume their journey by road, though we find the
stations right through on the Tabula Peutingeriana, and Narses
marched in 552 from Aquileia to Ravenna. (T. As.)
POPINJAY (O. Fr. papegai, or popingay, onomatopoeic,
original), an old name for a parrot. Except in its transferred
sense of a dressed-up, vain or conceited, empty-headed person,
the word is now only used historically of a representation or
image of a parrot swinging from a high pole and used as a mark
for archery or shooting matches. This snooting at the popinjay
ARCHERY) was formerly a favourite sport. " Popinjay "
is still the proper heraldic term for a parrot as a bearing or
charge.
POPLAR, an eastern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by Hackney, S. by the river Thames, and
W. by Stepney and Bethnal Green, and extending E. to the
boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 168,822.
The river Lea, which the eastern boundary generally follows, is
believed to have been crossed towards the north of the modern
borough by a Roman road, the existence of which is recalled by
the district-name of Old Ford; while Bow (formerly Stratford-
le-Bow or Stratford-atte-Bowe) was so named from the " bow "
or arched bridge which took the place of the ford in the time of
Henry II. South of these districts lies Bromley; in the south-
east the borough includes Blackwall; and a deep southward bend
of the Thames here embraces the Isle of Dogs. Poplar falls
within the great area commonly associated with a poor and
densely crowded population under the name of the " East End."
It is a district of narrow, squalid streets and mean houses, among
which, however, the march of modern improvement may be seen
in the erection of model dwellings, mission houses and churches,
and various public buildings. In the north a part of Victoria
Park is included. In Blackwall and the Isle of Dogs streets
give place to the extensive East and West India Docks (opened
in 1806) and Millwall Dock, with shipbuilding, engineering,
chemical and other works along the river. Blackwall has been
a shipping centre from early times. From the south of the
Isle of Dogs (the portion called Cubitt Town) a tunnel for foot-
passengers (1902) connects with Greenwich on the opposite
shore of the Thames, and lower down the river is the fine Black-
wall tunnel, carrying a wide roadway, completed by the London
County Council in 1897 at a cost, inclusive of incidental expenses,
of 1,383,502. Among institutions the Poplar Accidents Hospital
may be mentioned. Near the East India Docks is the settlement
of St Frideswide, supported by Christ Church, Oxford. In
Canning Town, which continues this district of poverty across
the Lea, and so outside the county of London, are Mansfield
House, founded from Mansfield College, Oxford; and a Women's
Settlement, especially notable for its medical work. The
metropolitan borough of Poplar includes the Bow and Bromley
and the Poplar divisions of the Tower Hamlets parliamentary
borough, each returning one member. The borough council
consists of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area,
2327-7 acres.
POPLAR (Lat. Populus), the name of a small group of catkin-
bearing trees belonging to the order Salicaceae. The catkins
of the poplars differ from those of the nearly allied willows in
the presence of a rudimentary perianth, of obliquely cup-shaped
form, within the toothed bracteal scales; the male flowers
contain from eight to thirty stamens; the fertile bear a one-
celled (nearly divided) ovary, surmounted by the deeply cleft
stigmas; the two-valved capsule contains several seeds, each
furnished with a long tuft of silky or cotton-like hairs. The
leaves are broader than in most willows, and are generally
either deltoid or ovate in shape, often cordate at the base, and
frequently with slender petioles vertically flattened. Many of
the species attain a large size, and all are of very rapid growth.
The poplars are almost entirely confined to the north temperate
zone, but a few approach or even pass its northern limit, and they
are widely distributed within that area; they show, like the
willows, a partiality for moist ground and often line the river-sides
in otherwise treeless districts. There are about twenty species,
but the number cannot be very accurately defined several,
usually regarded as distinct, being probably merely variable
forms of the same type, and the ease with which the trees inter-
cross has led to the appearance of many hybrids. All yield a
soft, easily-worked timber, which, though very perishable when
exposed to weather, possesses sufficient durability when kept
dry to give the trees a certain economic value. Many of the
species are used for paper-making.
Of the European kinds one of the most important and best
marked forms is the white poplar or abele, P. alba, a tree of
large size, with rounded spreading head and curved branches,
which, like the trunk, are covered with a greyish white bark,
becoming much furrowed on old stems. The leaves are ovate
or nearly round in general outline, but with deeply waved,
more or less lobed and indented margins and cordate base;
the upper side is of a dark green tint, but the lower surface is
clothed with a dense white down, which likewise covers the
young shoots giving, with the bark, a hoary aspect to the whole
tree. As in all poplars, the catkins expand in early spring, long
before the leaves unfold; the ovaries bear four linear stigma lobes;
the capsules ripen in May. A nearly related form, which may
be regarded as a sub-species, canescens, the grey poplar of the
nurseryman, is distinguished from the true abele by its smaller,
less deeply cut leaves, which are grey on the upper side, but not
so hoary beneath as those of P. alba; the pistil has eight stigma
lobes. Both trees occasionally attain a height of 90 ft. or more,
but rarely continue to form sound timber beyond the first half-
century of growth, though the trunk will sometimes endure for
a hundred and fifty years. The wood is very white, and, from
its soft and even grain, is employed by turners and toy-makers,
while, being tough and little liable to split, it is also serviceable
for the construction of packing cases, the lining of carts and
waggons, and many similar purposes; when thoroughly seasoned
it makes good flooring planks, but shrinks much in drying,
weighing about 58 Ib per cubic foot when green, but only 33$ Ib
when dry. The white poplar is an ornamental tree, from its
graceful though somewhat irregular growth and its dense
hoary foliage; it has, however, the disadvantage of throwing up
numerous suckers for some yards around the trunk.
The grey and white poplars are usually multiplied by long
cuttings; the growth is so rapid in a moist loamy soil that,
according to Loudon, cuttings 9 ft. in length, planted beside
a stream, formed in twelve years trunks 10 in. in diameter.
Both these allied forms occur throughout central and southern
Europe, but, though now abundant in England, it is doubtful
whether they are there indigenous. P. alba suffers much from
the ravages of wood-eating larvae, and also from fungoid growths,
especially where the branches have been removed by pruning or
accident.
P. nigra, the black poplar, is a tree of large growth, with dark,
deeply-furrowed bark on the trunk, and ash-coloured branches;
the smooth deltoid leaves, serrated regularly on the margin, are
of the deep green tint which has given name to the tree; the
petioles, slightly compressed, are only about half the length of
the leaves. The black poplar is common in central and southern
Europe and in some of the adjacent parts of Asia, but, though
abundantly planted in Britain, is not there indigenous. The
wood is of a yellowish tint. In former days this was the preva-
lent poplar in Britain, and the timber was employed for the
purposes to which that of other species is applied, but has been
superseded by P. monilifera and its varieties; it probably fur-
nished the poplar wood of the Romans, which, from its lightness
and soft tough grain, was in esteem for shield-making; in con-
tinental Europe it is still in some request; the bark, in Russia,
is used for tanning leather, while in Kamchatka it is sometimes
9 o
POPLIN POPOCATEPETL
ground up and mixed with meal; the gum secreted by the buds
was employed by the old herbalists for various medicinal
purposes, but is probably nearly inert; the cotton-like down of
the seed has been converted into a kind of vegetable felt, and
has also been used in paper-making. A closely related form is
the well-known Lombardy poplar, P. fasligiata, remarkable for
its tall, cypress-like shape, caused by the nearly vertical growth
of the branches. Probably a mere variety of the black poplar,
its native land appears to have been Persia or some neighbouring
country; it was unknown in Italy in the days of Pliny, while
from remote times it has been an inhabitant of Kashmir, the
Punjab, and Persia, wheie it is often planted along loadsides
for the purpose of shade; it was probably brought from these
countries to southern Europe, and derives its popular name
from its abundance along the banks of the Po and other rivers
of Lombardy, where it is said now to spring up naturally from
seed, like the indigenous black poplar. It was introduced
into France in 1749, and appears to have been grown in Germany
and Britain soon after the middle of the last century, if not
earlier. The Lombardy poplar is valuable chiefly as an orna-
mental tree, its timber being of very inferior quality; its tall,
erect growth renders it useful to the landscape-gardener as a
relief to the rounded forms of other trees, or in contrast to the
horizontal lines of the lake or river-bank where it delights to
grow. In Lombardy and France tall hedges are sometimes
formed of this poplar for shelter or shade, while in the suburban
parks of Britain it is serviceable as a screen for hiding buildings
or other unsightly objects from view; its growth is extremely
rapid, and it often attains a height of 100 ft. and upwards,
while from 70 to 80 ft. is an ordinary size in favourable situa-
tions.
P. canadensis, the " cotton-wood " of the western prairies, and
its varieties are perhaps the most useful trees of the genus, often
forming almost the only arborescent vegetation on the great
American plains. It is a tree of rather large growth, sometimes
100 ft. high, with rugged grey trunk 7 or 8 ft. in diameter, and with
the shoots or young branches more or less angular; the glossy
deltoid leaves are sharply pointed, somewhat cordate at the base,
and with flattened petioles; the fertile catkins ripen about the middle
of June, when their opening capsules discharge the cottony seeds
which have given the tree its common western name; in New England
it is sometimes called the " river poplar." The cotton-wood
timber, though soft and perishable, is of value in its prairie habitats,
where it is frequently the only available wood either for carpentry
or fuel ; it has been planted to a considerable extent in some parts of
Europe, but in England a form of this species known as P. monilifera
is generally preferred from its larger and more rapid growth. In
this well-known variety the young shoots are but slightly angled,
and the branches in the second year become round; the deltoid
short-pointed leaves are usually straight or even rounded at the base,
but sometimes are slightly cordate; the capsules ripen in Britain
about the middle of May. This tree is of extremely rapid growth,
and has been known to attain a height of 70 ft. in sixteen years;
it succeeds best in deep loamy soil, but will flourish in nearly any
moist but well-drained situation. The timber is much used in some
rural districts for flooring, and is durable for indoor purposes when
protected from dry-rot; it has, like most poplar woods, the property
of resisting fire better than other timber. The native country of
this form has been much disputed ; but, though still known in many
British nurseries as the " black Italian poplar," it is now well ascer-
tained to be an indigenous tree in many parts of Canada and the
States, and is a mere variety of P. canadensis; it seems to have been
first brought to England from Canada in 1772. In America it
seldom attains the large size it often acquires in England, and it is
there of less rapid growth than the prevailing form of the western
plains; the name of " cotton-wood " is locally given to other species.
P. macrpphylla or candicans, commonly known as the Ontario
poplar, is remarkable for its very large heart-shaped leaves, some-
times 10 in. long; it is found in New England and the milder parts
of Canada, and is frequently planted in Britain; its growth is
extremely rapid in moist land ; the buds are covered with a balsamic
secretion. _The true balsam poplar, or tacamahac, P. balsamifera,
abundant in most parts of Canada and the northern States, is a
tree of rather large growth, often of somewhat fastigiate habit, with
round shoots and oblong-ovate sharp-pointed leaves, the base never
cordate, the petioles round, and the disk deep glossy green above
but somewhat downy below. This tree, the " Hard " of the
Canadian voyageur, abounds on many of the river sides of the north-
western plains; it occurs in the neighbourhood of the Great Slave
Lake and along the Mackenzie River, and forms much of the drift-
wood of the Arctic coast. In these northern habitats it attains
a large size; the wood is very soft; the buds yield a gum-like balsam,
from which the common name is derived; considered valuable as an
antiscorbutic, this is said also to have diuretic properties; it was
formerly imported into Europe in small quantities under the name of
" baume focot," being scraped off in the spring and put into shells.
This balsam gives the tree a fragrant odour when the leaves are
unfolding. The tree grows well in Britain, and acquires occasionally
a considerable size. Its fragrant shoots and the fine yellow green
of the young leaves recommend it to the ornamental planter. It is
said by Aiton to have been introduced into Britain about the end
of the 1 7th century.
P. euphratica, believed to be the weeping willow of the Scriptures,
is a large tree remarkable for the variability in the shape of its leaves,
which are linear in young trees and vigorous shoots, and broad and
ovate on older branches. It is a native of North Africa and Western
and Central Asia, including North-West India. With the date
palm it is believed to have furnished the rafters for the buildings of
Nineveh.
POPLIN, or TABINET, a mixed textile fabric consisting of a
silk warp with a weft of worsted yarn. As the weft is in the form
of a stout cord the fabric has a ridged structure, like rep, which
gives depth and softness to the lustre of the silky surface.
Poplins are used for dress purposes, and for rich upholstery
work. The manufacture is of French origin; but it was brought
to England by the Huguenots, and has long been specially
associated with Ireland. The French manufacturers distinguish
between popelines unies or plain poplins and popelines d dis-
positions or cossaises, equivalent to Scotch tartans, in both of
which a large trade is done with the United States from Lyons.
POPOCATEPETL (Aztec popoca " to smoke," tepetl " moun-
tain "), a dormant volcano in Mexico in lat. 18 59' 47" N.,
long. 98 33' i* W., which with the neighbouring Ixtaccihuatl
(Aztec " white woman ") forms the south-eastern limit of the
great basin known as the " Valley of Mexico." As it lies in
the state of Puebla and is the dominating feature in the views
from the city of that name, it is sometimes called the Puebla
volcano. It is the second highest summit in Mexico, its shapely,
snow-covered cone rising to a height of 17,876 ft., or 438 ft.
short of that of Orizaba. This elevation was reported by the
Mexican geological survey in 1895, and as the Mexican Geo-
graphical Society calculated the elevation at 17,888 ft., it may
be accepted as nearly correct. The bulk of the mountain con-
sists of andesite, but porphyry, obsidian, trachyte, basalt, and
other similar rocks are also represented. It has a stratified
cone showing a long period of activity. At the foot of the
eastern slope stretches a vast lava field the " malpays "
(malapais) of Atlachayacatl which, according to Humboldt,
lies 60 to 80 ft. above the plain and extends 18,000 ft. east to
west with a breadth of 6000 ft. Its formation must be of great
antiquity. The ascent of Popocatepetl is made on the north-
eastern slope, where rough roads are kept open by sulphur
carriers and timber cutters. Describing his ascent in 1904,
Hans Gadow states that the forested region begins in the foot-
hills a little above 8000 ft., and continues up the slope to an
elevation of over 13,000 ft. On the lower slopes the forest is
composed in great part of the long-leaved Pinus liophylla,
accompanied by deciduous oaks and a variety of other trees
and shrubs. From about 9500 ft. to 11,500 ft. the Mexican
" oyamel," or fir (Abies religiosa) becomes the principal species,
interspersed with evergreen oak, arbutus and elder. Above this
belt the firs gradually disappear and are succeeded by the short-
leaved Pinus montezumae, or Mexican " ocote " one of the
largest species of pine in the republic. These continue to the
upper tree-line, accompanied by red and purple Pcntslemon and
light blue lupins in the open spaces, some ferns, and occasional
masses of alpine flowers. Above the tree line the vegetation
continues only a comparatively short distance, consisting
chiefly of tussocks of coarse grass, and occasional flowering
plants, the highest noted being a little Draba. At about 14,500 ft.
horses are left behind, though they could be forced farther
up through the loose lava and ashes. On the snow-covered
cone the heat of the sun is intense, though the thermometer
recorded a temperature of 34 in September. The reflection
of light from the snow is blinding. The rim of the crater is
reached at an elevation of about 17,500 ft. Another descrip-
tion places the snow-line at 14,268 ft., and the upper tree-line
POPPER POPPY OIL
9 1
a thousand feet lower. A detailed description of the volcano
published by the Mexican geological survey in 1895 accord-
ing to which the crater is elliptical in form, 2008 by 1312 ft., and
i depth of 1657 ft. below the summit of the highest pinnacle
and 673 ft. below the lowest part of the rim, which is very
irregular in height. The steep, ragged walls of the crater show
a great variety of colours, intensified by the light from the deep
blue sky above. Huge patches of sulphur, some still smouldering,
are everywhere visible, intermingled with the white streaks of
snow and ice that fill the crevices and cover the ledges of the
black rocks. The water from the melted snow forms a small
lake at the bottom of the crater, from which it filters through
fissures to the heated rocks below and thence escapes as steam
or through other fissures to the mineral springs at the moun-
tain's base. The Indian sulphur miners go down by means
'of ladders, or are lowered by rope and windlass, and the mineral
is sent down the mountain side in a chute 2000 to 3000 ft. Some
observers report that steam is to be seen rising from fissures in
the bottom of the crater, and all are united in speaking of the
fumes of burning sulphur that rise from its depths. That
volcanic influences are still present may be inferred from the
circumstance that the snow cap on Popocatepetl disappeared
just before the remarkable series of earthquakes that shook the
whole of central Mexico on the 3oth and 315! of July 1909.
It is believed that Diego de Ordaz was the first European to
reach the summit of Popocatepetl, though no proof of this remains
further than that Cortes sent a party of ten men in 1519 to ascend
a burning mountain. In 1522 Francisco Montano made the
ascent and had himself let down into the crater a depth of 40x3 or
500 ft. No second ascent is recorded until April and November
iS.'7 (see Brantz Mayer, Mexico, vol. ii.). Other ascents were
made in 1834, 1848 and subsequent years, members of the
Mexican geological survey spending two days on the summit in
1895-
POPPER, DAVID (1846- ), Bohemian violoncellist, was
born at Prague, and educated musically at the conservatorium
there, adopting the 'cello as his professional instrument. He was
soon recognized, largely through von Bulow, as one of the
finest soloists of the time, and played on tours throughout the
European capitals. In 1872 he married the pianist Sophi
Menter, from whom he was separated in 1886. In 1896 he
became professor at the Royal Conservatoire at Budapest. He
published various works, mainly compositions for the 'cello,
together with four volumes of studies arranged as a violoncello
school.
POPPO, ERNST FRIEDRICH (1794-1866), German classical
scholar and schoolmaster, was born at Guben in Brandenburg
on the I3th of August, 1794. In 1818 he was appointed director
of the gymnasium at Frankfort -on-the-Oder, where he died on
the 6th of November 1866, having resigned his post three years
before. Poppo was an extremely successful teacher and
organizer, and in a few years doubled the number of pupils
at the gymnasium. He is chiefly known, however, for his
exhaustive and complete edition of Thucydides in four parts
(n vols., 1821-1840), containing (i.) prolegomena on Thucydides
as an historian and on his language and style (Eng. trans, by
G. Burges, 1837), accompanied by historical and geographical
essays; (ii.) text with scholia and critical notes; (iii.) commentary
on the text and scholia; (iv.) indices and appendices. For the
ordinary student a smaller edition (1843-1851) was prepared,
revised after the author's death by J. M. Stahl (1875-1889).
See R. Schwarze in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic and authorities
there referred to.
POPPY, in botany, a genus of plants known botanically as
Papai-er, the type of the family or natural order Papaveraceae.
They are annual and perennial erect herbs containing a milky
juice, with lobed or cut leaves and generally long-stalked regular
showy flowers, which are nodding in the bud stage. The
sepals, very rarely three, which are two in number, fall off as
the flower opens, the four (very rarely five or six) petals, which
are crumpled in the bud stage, also fall readily. The numerous
stamens surround the ovary, which is composed of 4 to 16 carpels
and is surmounted by a flat or convex rayed disk bearing the
stigmas. The ovary is incompletely divided into many chambers
by the ingrowth of the placentas which bear numerous ovules
and form in the fruit a many-seeded short capsule opening by
small valves below the upper edge. The valves are hydroscopic,
responding to increase in the amount of moisture in the atmo-
sphere by closing the apertures. In dry weather the valves
open, and the small seeds are ejected through the pores when
the capsule is shaken by the wind on its long stiff slender stalk.
The flowers contain no honey and are visited by pollen-seeking
insects, which alight on the broad stigmatic surface. The
genus contains about 40 species, mostly natives of central and
south Europe and temperate Asia. Five species are British;
P. Rhoeas is the common scarlet poppy found in cornfields and
waste places. Cultivated forms of this, with exquisite shades
of colour and without any blotch at the base of the petals, are
known as Shirley poppies. P. somniferum, the opium poppy,
with large white or blue-purple flowers, is widely cultivated (see
OPIUM). The Oriental poppy (P. orienlale) and its several
varieties are fine garden plants, having huge bright crimson
flowers with black blotches at the base. Many hybrid forms of
varying shades of colour have been raised of late years. The
Iceland poppy (P. undicaule), is one of the showiest species,
having grey-green pinnate leaves and flowers varying in colour
from pure white to deep orange-yellow, orange-scarlet, &c.
Specially fine varieties with stalks 18-24 i n - high are cultivated
on a large scale by some growers for market. The Welsh poppy
belongs to an allied genus, Meconopsis; it is a perennial herb
with a yellow juice and pale yellow poppy-like flowers. It is
native in the south-west and north of England, and in Wales;
also in Ireland. The prickly poppy (Argemone grandiflora) is
a fine Mexican perennial with large white flowers.
To the same family belongs the horned poppy, Glaucium
luteum, found in sandy sea-shores and characterized by the waxy
bloom of its leaves and large golden-yellow short-stalked
flowers. Another member of the family is Eschscholtzia cali-
fornica, a native of western North America, and well-known
in gardens, with orange-coloured flowers and a long two-valved
fruit pod.
The plume poppy (Bocconia cordate and B. microcarpa) are
ornamental foliage plants of great beauty. The cyclamen
poppy (Eomecon chionantha) is a pretty Chinese perennial,
having roundish slightly lobed leaves and pure white flowers
about 2 in. across. The tree poppy (Dendromecon rigidum) is
a Calif ornian shrub about 3 ft. high, having golden-yellow flowers
about 2 in. across. The Californian poppy (Platystemon cali-
fornicus) is a pretty annual about a foot high, having yellow
flowers with 3 sepals and 6 petals; and the white bush poppy
(Romneya Coulteri) is a very attractive perennial and semi-
shrubby plant 2-8 ft. high, with pinnatind leaves and large
sweet scented white flowers often 6 in. across.
POPPY HEADS, a term, in architecture, given to the finials
or other ornaments which terminate the tops of bench ends,
either to pews or stalls. They are sometimes small human heads,
sometimes richly carved images, knots of foliages or finials, and
sometimes fleurs-de-lis simply cut out of the thickness of the
bench end and chamfered. The term is probably derived
from the French poupee, doll, puppet, used also in this sense,
or from the flower, from a resemblance in shape.
POPPY OIL (Oleum papavcris), a vegetable oil obtained by
pressure from the minute seeds of the garden or opium poppy,
Papaver somniferum. The white-seeded and black-seeded
varieties are both used for oil-pressing; but, when the production
of oil is the principal object of the culture, the black seed is
usually preferred. The qualities of the oil yielded by both
varieties and the proportion they contain (from 50 to 60%) are
the same. By cold pressing seeds of fine quality yield from 30 to
40% of virgin or white oil (huile blanche), a transparent limpid
fluid with a slight yellowish tinge, bland and pleasant to taste,
and with almost no perceptible smell. On second pressure with
the aid of heat an additional 20 to 25% of inferior oil (huile de
fabrique or huile russe) is obtained, reddish in colour, possessed
POPULATION
of a biting taste, and a linseed-like smell. The oil belongs to
the linoleic or drying series, having as its principal constituent
linolein; and it possesses greater drying power than raw linseed
oil. Its specific gravity at 15 C. is 0-925. Poppy oil is a valu-
able and much used medium for artistic oil painting. The fine
qualities are largely used in the north of France (huile d' ceillette)
and in Germany as a salad oil, and are less liable than olive oil
to rancidity. The absence of taste and characteristic smell in
poppy oil also leads to its being much used for adulterating olive
oil. The inferior qualities are principally consumed in soap-
making and varnish-making, and for burning in lamps. The
oil is very extensively used in the valley of the Ganges and
other opium regions for food and domestic purposes. By native
methods in India about 30 % of oil is extracted, and the remain-
ing oleaginous cake is used as food by the poor. Ordinary
poppy-oil cake is a valuable feeding material, rich in nitrogenous
constituents, with an ash showing an unusually large proportion
of phosphoric acid. The seed of the yellow horned poppy,
Glaucium luteum, yields from 30 to 35% of an oil having the
same drying and other properties as poppy oil; and from the
Mexican poppy, Argemone mcxicana, is obtained a non-drying
oil used as a lubricant and for burning.
POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; popular -e, to populate), a
term used in two different significations, (i) for the total number
of human beings existing within certain area at a given time, and
(2) for the " peopling " of the area, or the influence of the
various forces of which that number is the result. The popu-
lation of a country, in the former sense of the word, is ascertained
by means of a census (q.v.), which periodically records the number
of people found in it on a certain date. Where, as is generally
the case, detail of sex, age, conjugal condition and birthplace
is included in the return, the census results can be co-ordinated
with those of the parallel registration of marriages, births, deaths
and migration, thus forming the basis of what are summarily
termed vital statistics, the source of our information regarding
the nature and causes of the process of " peopling," i.e. the
movement of the population between one census and another.
Neither of these two operations has yet reached perfection,
either in scope or accuracy, though the census, being the subject
of special and concentrated effort, is generally found the superior
in the latter respect, and is in many cases taken in countries
where registration has not yet been introduced. The countries
where neither is in force ate still, unfortunately, very
numerous.
The Population of the World, and its Geographical Distribution.
Man is the only animal which has proved able to pass from
dependence upon its environment to a greater or less control
over it. He alone, accordingly, has spread over every quarter
of the globe. The area and population of the world, as a whole,
have been the subject of many estimates in scientific works for
the last three centuries and are still to a considerable extent
matters of rough approximation. Every decade, however,
brings a diminution of the field of conjecture, as some form of
civilized administration is extended over the more backward
tracts, and is followed, in due course, by a survey and a census.
It is not necessary, therefore, to cite the estimates framed before
1882, when a carefully revised summary was published by Boehm
and H. Wagner. Since then the laborious investigations of
P. F. Levasseur and L. Bodio have
been completed in the case of Europe
and America, and, for the rest of the
world, the figures annually brought up
to date in the Statesman's Year Book
may be taken to be the best avail-
able. From these sources the
abstract at foot of page has been
derived.
The principal tracts still un-
measured and unenumerated (in any
strict sense) in the Old World are the
Turkish Empire, Persia, Afghanistan,
China and the Indo-Chinese peninsula
and nearly nine-tenths of Africa. In the same category must be
placed a considerable proportion of central, southern and Polar
America (see CENSUS). There is little of the world which is
entirely uninhabited; still less permanently uninhabitable and
unlikely to be required to support a population in the course of
the expansion of the race beyond its present abodes. Probably
the polar regions alone do not fall within the category of the poten-
tially productive, as even sandy and alkaline desert is rendered
habitable where irrigation can be introduced; and vast tracts
of fertile soil adapted for immediate exploitation, especially
in the temperate zones, both north and south, only remain
unpeopled because they are not yet wanted for colonization.
The geographical distribution of the population of the world
is therefore extremely irregular, and, omitting from consideration
areas but recently colonized, the density is regulated by the
means of subsistence within reach. " La population," says
G. de Molinari, " a tendance de se proportionner a son debouche."
These, in their turn, depend mainly upon the character of the
people who inhabit the country. Even amongst savages there
are few communities, and those but sparse, which subsist entirely
upon what is directly provided by nature. As human intelli-
gence and industry come into play the means of livelihood are
proportionately extended; population multiplies, and with this
multiplication production increases. Thus, the higher densities
are found in the eastern hemisphere, within the zone in which
arose the great civilizations of the world, or, roughly speaking,
between north parallels 25 and 40 towards the east, and 25 and
55 in the west. Here large areas with a mean density of over
500 to the sq. m. may be found either supported by the
food directly produced by themselves, as in the great agricultural
plains of the middle kingdom of China and the Ganges valley and
delta; or else, as in western Europe, relying largely upon food
from abroad, purchased by the products of manufacturing
industry. In the one class the density is mainly rural, in the
other it is chiefly due to the . concentration of the population
into large urban aggregates. It is chiefly from the populations
of the south-west of Europe that the New World is being colo-
nized; but the territories over which the settlers and their recruits
from abroad are able to scatter are so extensive that even the
lower densities of the Old World have not yet been attained,
except in a few tracts along the eastern coasts of Australia and
North America. Details of area and population are given under
the headings of the respective countries, and the only general
point in connexion with the relation between these two facts
which may be mentioned here is the need to bear in mind that the
larger the territory the less likely is its mean density-figure to
be typical or really representative. Even in the case of small
and comparatively homogeneous countries such as Holland,
Belgium or Saxony there is considerable deviation from the
mean in the density of the respective component subdivisions,
a difference which when extended over more numerous aggre-
gates often renders the general mean misleading or of little value.
Distribution of Population by Sex. After geographical dis-
persion, the most general feature amongst the human race is its
division by sex. The number of speculations as to the nature
of this distinction has been, it is said, well-nigh doubled since
Drelincourt, in the i8th century, brought together 262 " ground-
less hypotheses," and propounded on his own part a theory
TABLE I.
Continent.
Sq. m. in
thousands
(1907)-.
Population, in
thousands.
Population
per sq. m.
(1907).
Unascertained
Percentage of :
1882.
1907.
Area un-
surveyed.
Population
Unenumerated.
Europe .
Asia .
Africa . .
America .
Oceania .
3,828*
J5.773
1 1, 507
17,208*
3.448
327.743
795.591
205,823
100,415
4.232
405.759
918,324
126,734
149.944
5,881
io6f
58
II
9t
i-7
2-5*
43-2
90-1
50-0*
5-4
i-3
59-4
77-4
9-1
19-6
Total . .
5L/64
1 ,433,804
1,606,542
3i-7t
50-4*
41-4
Including Polar regions.
t Excluding Polar regions.
POPULATION
93
which has since been held to be the 263rd in the series. It is
not proposed to deal here with incidents appertaining to the
" ante-natal gloom," and we are concerned only with human
beings when once they have been born. In regard to the division
of these into male and female, the first point to be noted is that,
in all communities of western civilization, more boys are born
than girls. The excess ranges from 20 to 60 per thousand.
In Greece and Rumania it is exceptionally high, and in some
Oriental or semi-Oriental countries it is said to give place to a
deficit, though in the latter case the returns are probably not
trustworthy. From the more accurate statistics available it
appears that the excess of male births varies amongst different
races and also at different times in the same community. It
is high in new colonies and amongst the Latin races, with the
exception of the French. These, with the English, show a
much smaller excess of boy-births than the average of western
Europe, and the proportion, moreover, seems to be somewhat
declining in both these countries and in Belgium, from causes
which have not yet been ascertained. As the mortality amongst
boys, especially during the first year, is considerably above that
of the other sex, numerical equilibrium between the two is estab-
lished in early youth, and in most cases girls outnumber boys,
except for a few years between twelve and sixteen. Then follows
the chequered period of the prime of life and middle age, during
which the liability of men to industrial accidents, war and other
causes of special mortality, irrespective of their greater incli-
nation to emigrate, is generally sufficient to outweigh the dangers
of childbirth or premature decay among the women, who tend,
accordingly, to predominate in number at this stage. In old
age, again, their vitality rises superior to that of the men, and
they continue to form the majority of the community. The
general results are an excess of females over males throughout
western Europe: but though the relative proportions vary from
time to time, remaining always in favour of what is conventionally
called the weaker sex, it is impossible, owing to disturbing factors
like war and migration, to ascertain whether there is any general
tendency for the proportion of females to increase or not. In
comparatively new settlements, largely fed by immigration, the
number of males is obviously likely to be greater than that of
females, but in the case of countries in Asia and eastern Europe
in which also a considerable deficiency of the latter sex is indi-
cated by the returns, it is probable that the strict seclusion
imposed by convention on women and the consequent reticence
regarding them on the part of the householders answering
the official inquiry tend towards a short count. On the other
hand, the lower position there assigned to women and the very
considerable amount of hard work exacted from them, may
cause them to wear out earlier than under higher conditions,
though not to the extent implied in the statistics. In the
TABLE II.
Bd
g*
Jj
E.
Country.
\l
?l
Country.
S~*
I B
i-"
'& 8
*a
Is
i 2
Sweden
1 Norway
] Finland
1049
1064
1022
946
944
948
Galicia .
Hungary
Rumania .
1019
1009
964
941
949
902
I Denmark
f England
f Scotland
1 Ireland
1053
1069
1057
1028
95
966
956
946
. Greece .
Servia .
Bulgaria
Russia .
921
946
959
879
945
927
("Holland
I Belgium
1 Germany
L Austria .
(France .
Italy .
1025
1013
1029
1042
1033
IOII
950
956
95
947
960
947
(Europe)
f Russia (Asia)
) Japan .
1 India
I Egypt .
f United States
IOII
893
983
963
967
958
948
Spam
Portugal
1049
"093
938
899
Canada
J Argentine .
952
893
I Cape Colony
977
Australia
906
950
L
New Zealand .
900
following table the latest available information on this head is
given for representative countries of western and eastern Europe,
the East and the New World.
Distribution by Age. Few facts are more uncertain about an
individual than the number of years he will live. Few, on
the contrary, as was pointed out by C. Babbage, are less subject
to fluctuation than the duration of life amongst people taken in
large aggregates. The age-constitution of a community does
indeed vary, and to a considerable extent, in course of time, but
the changes are usually gradual, and often spread over a genera-
tion or more. At the same time, it must be admitted that
those which have recently taken place amongst most of the
communities of western Europe are remarkable for both their
rapidity and their extent; and are probably attributable, in
part at least, to influences which were almost inoperative at the
time when Babbage wrote. The distribution of a population
amongst the different periods of life is regulated, in normal
circumstances, by the birth-rate, and, as the mortality at some
of the periods is far greater than at others, the death-rate falls
indirectly under the same influence. The statistics of age, there-
fore, may be said to form a link between those of the population,
considered as a fixed quantity, as at a census, and those which
record its movement from year to year. To the correct interpre-
tation of the latter, indeed, they are essential, as will appear
below. Unfortunately, the return of age is amongst the less
satisfactory results of a general enumeration, though its inaccu-
racy, when spread over millions of persons, is susceptible of
correction mathematically, to an extent to make it serve its
purpose in the directions above indicated. The error in the
original return generally arises from ignorance. An illiterate
population is very prone to state its age in even multiples of five,
and even where education is widely spread this tendency is not
altogether absent, as may be seen from the examples given in
TABLE III.
Number returned at each age per 10,000 of Population.
United States,
Russia, 1897.
Age.
Germany,
i nfirt
1900.
India,
1 yiAJ.
Native
Asia,
1891
Females.
Whites.
Negroes.
Europe.
Females.
19
I 80
196
204
1 66
112
64
20
182
200
252
223
385
505
21
181
191
204
M3
"3
54
29
130
146
119
92
60
42
3<>
149
170
218
269
456
624
31
145
125
76
74
74
30
49
88
72
62
45
3
12
5"
94
84
156
196
257
386
51
89
61
38
35
34
12
59
62
43
30
25
18
IO
60
70
49
'05
163
179
281
61
60
33
15
22
25
II
Table III. Deliberate mis-statements, too, are not unknown,
especially amongst women. This has been repeatedly illustrated
in the English census reports. Irrespective of the wish of women
between 25 and 40 to return themselves as under 25, there appears
to be the more practical motive of obtaining better terms in
industrial insurance, whilst an overstatement of age often has, it
is said, the object of getting better wages in domestic service, or
better dietary in the workhouse! In all countries, moreover,
there seems to be an inclination to exaggerate longevity after the
three score years and ten have been passed. In order to minimize
the results of such inaccuracy, the return of ages is compiled in
aggregates of five or ten years and then redistributed over single
years by the method of differences. The present purpose being
merely to illustrate the variation of distribution amongst a few
representative countries, it is unnecessary to enter into more
detail than such as will serve to distinguish the proportions of
the population in main divisions of life. Thus it may be said
that in the west of Europe about one-third of the people, roughly
speaking, are under fifteen; about one-half, between that age and
fifty, and the remaining sixth older than fifty. The middle period
94
POPULATION
may conveniently be extended to sixty and subdivided at forty,
as is done in Table IV. The differences between the several
countries in their age-constitution can best be appreciated by
reference to some recognized general standard. The one here
adopted is the result of the co-ordination of a long series
of enumerations taken in Sweden during the last century and
a half, prepared by Dr G. Sundbarg of Stockholm. It is true
that for practical use in connexion with vital statistics for a
given period, the aggregate age-distribution of the countries
concerned would be a more accurate basis of comparison, but
the wide period covered by the Swedish observations has the
advantage of eliminating temporary disturbances of the balance
of ages, and may thus be held to compensate for the compara-
tively narrow geographical extent of the field to which it relates.
TABLE IV.
Country.
Census
Year.
Per 1000 of Population.
Under 15.
15-40.
40-60.
Over 60.
Standard .
336
3S9
192
S3
Sweden .
1900
324
366
191
119
Norway .
M
354
36i
176
109
Finland .
, f
345
386
187
82
Denmark
"
339
376
1 86
99
England .
I9OI
324
423
179
74
Scotland .
,,
334
416
173
77
Ireland .
It
304
407
180
109
Holland . . .
1899
348
384
175
93
Belgium .
1900
3>7
404
184
95
Germany
it
348
395
179
78
Austria .
"
344
402
182
72
France
1901
261
389
226
124
Italy . . .
,,
341
366
196
97
Portugal .
1900
338
375
191
96
Galicia
377
399
178
46
Hungary
,,
356
379
189
76
Servia
,,
419
395
142
44
Bulgaria
,,
414
322
172
92
Greece
1889
393
400
155
52
Russia (Europe)
1897
350
385
1 80
85
India (males)
1891
391
399
163
47
Japan
1898
335
384
>93
88
United States .
1900
334
422
169
75
Canada .
1901
346
409
1 68
77
Australasia .
349
43i
57
63
Cape Colony
1904
4'5
409
129
47
As regards correspondence with the standard distribution, it
will be noted that Finland, the next country to Sweden geo-
graphically, comes after Japan, far detached from northern
Europe by both race and distance, and is followed by Portugal,
where the conditions are also very dissimilar. The other
Scandinavian countries, Norway and Denmark, appear, like
Sweden itself in the present day, to bear in their age-distribution
distinct marks of the emigration of adults, or, at least, the
temporary absence from home of this class at the time of enume-
ration. The same can be said of Italy in its later returns and of
Germany in those before 1895. On the contrary, the effect of
the inflow of adult migrants is very marked, as is to be expected,
in the returns for the new countries, such as the United States,
Canada and Australasia. In the case of the Old World, the
divergence from the standard which most deserves notice is the
remarkable preponderance of the young in all the countries of
eastern Europe, as well as in India, accompanied by an equally
notable deficiency of the older elements in the population.
Again, there are in the west two well-known instances of deficient
reinforcement of the young, France and Ireland, in which
countries the proportion of those under 15 falls respectively
75 and 32 per mille below the standard; throwing those over
60 up to 41 and 26 per mille above it. The table does not in-
clude figures for earlier enumerations, but one general character-
istic in them should be mentioned, viz. the far higher proportion
borne in them of the young, as compared with the mere recent
returns. In England, for instance, those under 15 amounted to
360 per mille in 1841, against 324 sixty years later. In Ireland
the corresponding fall has been still more marked, from 382 to
304. The ratio in France was low throughout the ipth century,
and during the last half fell only from 273 to 261, raising the
proportion of the old above that resulting in northern Europe
and Italy from emigration. It is remarkable that the same
tendency for the proportion of the young to fall off is perceptible
in new countries as well as in the older civilizations, setting aside
the influence of immigration at the prime of life in depressing
the proportion of children. The possible causes of this wide-
spread tendency of the mean age of a western community to
increase appertain to the subject of the movement of the
population, which is dealt with below.
The Movement of Population. " The true greatness of a
State " says Bacon, " consisteth essentially in population and
breed of men "; and an increasing population is one of the most
certain signs of the well-being of a community. Successive
accretions, however, being spread over so long a term as that of
human life, it does not follow that the population at any given
time is necessarily the result of contemporary prosperity. Con-
versely, the traces left by a casual set-back, such as famine, war,
or an epidemic disease, remain long after it has been succeeded
by a period of recuperation, and are to be found in the age-
constitution and the current vital statistics. Population is
continually in a state of motion, and in large aggregates the
direction is invariably towards increase. The forces underlying
the movement may differ from time to time in their respective
intensity, and, in highly exceptional cases, may approach
equilibrium, their natural tendencies being interrupted by special
causes, but the instances of general decline are confined to wild
and comparatively small communities brought into contact
with alien and more civilized races. The factors upon which
the growth of a population depend are internal, operating
within the community, or external, arising out of the relations
of the community with other countries. In the latter case,
population already in existence is transferred from one territory
to another by migration, a subject which will be referred to
later. Far more important is the vegetative, or " natural "
increase, through the excess of births over deaths. The
principal influences upon this, in civilized life, are the number
of the married, the age at which they marry or bear children,
the fertility of marriages and the duration of life, each of which
is in some way or other connected with the others.
Marriage. In every country a small and generally diminish-
ing proportion of the children is born out of wedlock, but the
primary regulator of the native growth of a community is the
institution of marriage. Wherever, it has been said, there is
room for two to live up to the conventional standard of comfort,
a marriage takes place. So close, indeed, up to recent times,
was the connexion held to be between the prosperity of the
country and the number of marriages, that Dr W. Farr used to
call the latter the barometer of the former. The experience
of the present generation, however, both in England and other
countries, seems to justify some relaxation of that view, as will
appear below. The tendency of a community towards matri-
mony, or its " nuptiality," as it is sometimes termed, is usually
indicated by the ratio to the total population of the persons
married each year. For the purpose of comparing the circum-
stances of the same community at successive periods this method
is fairly trustworthy, assuming that there has been no material
shifting of the age-proportions during the intervals. It is not
a safe guide, however, when applied to the comparison of
different communities, the age-composition of which is probably
by no means identical, but in consideration of its familiarity
it has been adopted in the first section of Table V. below, at
three periods for each of the countries selected as representative.
One of the features which is prominent throughout the return
is that in every country except Belgium the rate per mille
attained a maximum in the early seventies, and has since shown
POPULATION
95
a descending tendency, notwithstanding the fact, noted in the
preceding paragraph, that the youthful population, which, of
course, weighs down the rate, has also been relatively decreasing.
Countries of Oriental and semi-Oriental habits have not been
n, owing to the difference in their marriage system from
that of western Europe. It may be mentioned, however, in
passing, that their marriage rate is generally considerably higher
than that here indicated, as may be seen from the example of
Galicia, which is here shown separately from cis-Leithian Austria.
TABLE
years of age and decreases rapidly as that period is left behind.
A Swedish return of 1896-1900 shows that the annual births per
thousand wives of 20-25 are fewer by nearly 17% than those of
wives under 20. Between 25 and 30 the number falls off by
one- fifth, and after 40 by about 44%. In the countries
mentioned in Table V. the average proportion borne by wives
under 30 to the total under 45 is just over one-third. That
proportion is exceeded in southern Europe, where women develop
earlier, and in Galicia. In England and France it stands at
V.
Country.
Per 1000 of Population.
Persons Married Yearly.
Women, 15 to 45 (1900).
Men, 20-50.
1861-1870.
1871-1875.
1895-1904.
Total.
Married.
Unmarried.
Unmarried.
I3-I
13-3
15-5
14-9
16-7
14-0
10-5
16-4
17-0
15-0
16-1
15-6
15-2
19-7
14-0
14-6
17-9
15-9
17-1
14-9
10-7
16-6
18-9
I5-!
177
16-9
15-6
19-7
I2-O
13-2
I4-I
14-6
15-8
14-3
IO-I
14-9
16-4
16-4
15-7
15-2
14-4
17-6
215
218
219
221
250
242
235
218
226
230
227
228
214
225
88
91
I0 3
104
"7
1 02
76
96
114
1 08
106
1 20
116
125
3
1 02
"5
in
127
135
153
118
107
"7
i5
IOO
92
94
83
71
70
81
77
90
125
82
76
85
85
82
71
67
Holland
( irrmany
Austria (W.) ......
Italy
Galicia
In the opposite direction will be noted the case of Ireland,
where the rate is abnormally low; and returns more recent
than those included in the table show that of late the rates in
Sweden and Norway have also fallen to but little above n per
mille. In regard to the necessity of taking into consideration
the factor of age in the return of marriage-rates, an example may
be here given from the data for England. The rate taken upon
the total population was 16-7 per mille in 1870-1871 and 15-3 in
1905; by excluding the population under fifteen the corre-
sponding figures are 57-2 and 46-6 per mille. Thus the decline,
which by the first method is only 8%, becomes, by the second,
19%; and if the age-distribution of 1905 were reduced to that of
the earlier period, the difference would increase to -22%, the
most accurate figure of the three. For the present purpose it
is sufficient to connect the rate of marriage with that of births
by using as a basis for the former the number of women of
conceptive age, or between 15 and 45 years old. The propor-
tion of these is given in the latter portion of the table. Again
taking England as an example, the women of the above ages
bore the proportion to the total population of 23% in
1871 and had risen to 25% in 1901; but at the former time,
49-6% were married, whilst thirty years later, only 46-8 were
thus situated. The table also shows that the proportion of
the women of the ages in question who were married exceeds
half only in Italy, France and Germany, not to mention Galicia.
In other countries the average proportion is about 45%. In
Sweden and Norway it is only 41 and in Ireland less than a
third. In Scandinavia, and perhaps in Italy, the rate may be
affected by the emigration of adult males, but the later columns
of the table indicate that this is not the cause of the low rate in
Ireland, which appears to be mainly due to abstinence from
marriage at the ages specified.
Next to the proportion of the married to the total marriageable
the most important factor connected with the natural increase
of the population is the age at which marriage takes place.
Where the proportion of the married is high, the average age of
the wives is low, and early marriage is conducive to relatively
rapid increase. In the first place, the interval between genera-
tions is shortened, and the elder is contemporaneous with the
younger for a longer period. Then, again, the fecundity of women
amongst western peoples is at its maximum between 18 and 25
36. In Ireland and Sweden it is only 28, and in Denmark,
Holland and Norway, too, it is below the average. The registrar-
general of England has pointed out a marked tendency towards
the postponement of marriage in that country. Between 1876
and 1905, for instance, the proportion of minors married receded
by 43% in the case of men and 32% amongst women. The
mean age of husbands married in 1873 was 25-6 years and of
wives 24-2, whereas thirty years later the corresponding ages
were 28-6 and 26-4. The general results of the decline of the
marriage-rate and the postponement of marriage upon the
natural growth of population will be discussed in connection
with the birth-rate, though the statistics available do not permit
of the accurate measurement of the respective influence of these
factors, and there are others, too, which have to be taken into
consideration, as will appear below.
Births. Apart from the information which the statistics of
birth furnish as to the growth of population, they have, like
those of marriage, and perhaps to even a greater extent, a
special social interest from their bearings upon the moral con-
ditions of the community to which they relate. It is in their
former capacity, however, that they enter into the present sub-
ject. A birth-rate, taken as it usually is upon the total popu-
lation, old and young, is open to the objections made above
respecting the marriage-rate, and with even more force, as the
basis is itself largely the product of the fact which is being
measured by it. The internal variations of the rate in a single
community, however, can be fairly indicated in this way, as is
done in Table VI., which, it is to be noted, refers to those born
alive only and excludes the still-born, statistics regarding whom
are incomplete.
The crude birth-rate, it will be noted, is in general harmony
with that of marriage. In the countries where the former is
high the rate of marriage is also above the average. In eastern
Europe, so far as the figures can be trusted, this is markedly
the case, and the birth-rates range between 39 per mille in
Hungary and 49 in Russia, where the tradition of encouraging
prolificity amongst the peasantry has not been effaced. Among
the lower rates which prevail in western Europe, however,
the connexion is not so direct, and a low birth-rate is some-
times found with a relatively higher marriage rate and vice
versa, a deviation from the natural course of events which will
9 6
POPULATION
be discussed presently. The birth-rate, like the marriage-rate,
seems to have reached its acme in the seventies, except
in the three southern countries, France, Italy and Spain. The
decline since the above period is very marked and exceeds
that noted in the case of the rate of marriage. It is worth
noting, too, that the fall in the crude birth-rate is not confined
to the Old World, but has attracted Special attention in
Australia and New Zealand, where a rate of 40 per mille in
the period 1861-1870 has now given place to one of 26. In
Massachusetts and other of the older settlements of the United
States, moreover, the same feature has been the subject of
investigation.
other than abstinence from marriage, at all events at the princi-
pal reproductive period; and perhaps to a decrease in marriage
or remarriage after middle life, a period of which the weight
in the age-distribution has been increasing of late. On the
other hand, the postponement of marriage in the case of women
of conceptive ages is a tendency which seems to be growing in
other countries as well as in England and undoubtedly has a
depressing effect upon the rate of births. It would conduce,
therefore, to further accuracy in the comparison of the rates of
different countries if the latter were to be correlated with greater
subdivision of the ages amongst wives between 15 and 45.
The proportion of wives below 30 to the total of that group was
TABLE VI.
Country.
(A) Born alive, per 1000 of Total
Population.
(B) Legitimate Births, per
1000 Wives,
15 to 45 years old.
(C) Illegitimate
Births, per 1000
Unmarried and
Widowed Women,
15 to 45.
1841-1850.
1861-1870.
1871-1875.
1900-1905.
1880-1882.
1890-1892.
1900-1902.
1896-1900.
Sweden
3i-i
31-4
30-7
26-7
293
280
269
23-4
Norway
30-7
3-9
30-3
29-7
314
307
303
16-9
Finland
35-5
34-7
37-o
32-2
39
301
18-0
Denmark .
3-5
31-0
30-8
29-7
287
278
259
23-6
England .
34-6
36-0
36-0
29-0
286
264
235
8-8
Scotland .
34-8
35-o
29-7
3ii
296
272
14-1
Ireland
26-1
26-4
23-2
283
288
289
3-9
Holland . . .
33-o
35-3
36-1
32-1
347
339
315
9-0
Belgium .
30-5
31-6
32-4
28-5
313
285
251
18-9
Germany
36-1
37-2
38-9
35-5
310
3'
284
27-7
Austria (W.) .
35-9
35-7
37-2
34-2
281
292
284
41-7
France
27-3
26-3
25-5
21-7
196
173
157
18-1
Italy . . . .
37-5
36-9
33-5
276
283
269
2I-I
Spain . ...
37-8
36-5
34-8
258
264
259
The crude rates which have been discussed above afford no
explanation of this change, nor do they always illustrate its full
extent. It is necessary, therefore, to eliminate the difference
in the age-constitution of the countries in question by excluding
from the field of observation, as before, all except possible
mothers, basing the rate upon the respective numbers of women
of the conceptive age, that is between 15 and 45. The pro-
portion borne by this group to the total population is in most
cases fairly up to that set forth by Dr Sundbarg in his standard.
It is well above it in all three parts of the United Kingdom and
falls materially below it only in Scandinavia and Italy. Indeed,
during the last generation, this proportion has been in most
cases slightly increased, in consequence of the fall of the
birth-rate which set in anterior to this period. The stock, then,
from which wives are drawn is ample. The question remains,
how far advantage is taken of it. According to the Sundbarg
standard the percentage married is 48. As has been shown
in the preceding paragraph, this is surpassed in Italy, France
and Germany, and approached in most of the rest, with the
exception of Sweden, Norway and Scotland, which are six or
seven points below it, and Ireland, where less than a third
are married. The proportion married, moreover, has slightly
increased since 1880, except in the United Kingdom. In
England the marriage-rate (on the age basis) fell off by 4-6%
and in Scotland by 2%, whilst the crude birth-rate declined
by 15 and n % respectively. In Ireland the case was different,
as the marriage-rate declined by 12% and the birth-rate by no
more than 5-7 %. In New South Wales and New Zealand, too,
the marriage-rates fell off in the same period by n and 28%
respectively, whilst the decline in the birth-rates amounted to
35 and 31 %. In the above countries, therefore, abstinence from
matrimony may be said to have been a factor of some importance
in the decline. On the continent of Europe, however, looking
at the divergence in direction between the crude marriage-rate
and that corrected to an age-basis, it is not improbable that
the decline in the former may be attributable to some cause
mentioned in connexion with the marriage-rate, and in the
figures relating to some 30 years back some traces can be found
of a connexion between a high birth-rate and a high proportion
of young wives. In the present day, however, these indications
do not appear, so it would seem that the tendency in question
had been interrupted by some other influence, a point to which
reference will be made below.
If abstinence from marriage and the curtailment of the
reproductive period by postponement of marriage be insufficient
to account for the material change which has taken place in the
birth-rate within the last few decades, it is clear that the latter
must be attributable to the diminished fertility of those who are
married. On this question the figures in the second portion of
Table VI. throws some light. Here the annual number of
legitimate births is shown in its proportion to the mean number
of married women of conceptive age at each of the three latest
enumerations. The rate, it will be seen, has fallen in all the
countries specified, except for a slight increase of 2 % in Ireland
and an almost stationary condition in Austria and Spain. The
decline in Italy and Norway is small, but in France, where for a
long time the fertility of the population has been very much
below that of any other European country, the birth-rate thus
calculated fell by nearly 20%, the same figure being approached
in Belgium, where however, the fertility of married women is
considerably greater. The case of England is remarkable. In
the earlier period its crude birth and marriage-rates were above
the average and its proportion of young wives well up to it.
Its fertility-rate, however, which was by no means high in 1880,
fell by nearly 18% by 1901, and since that date a further fall
is reported by the registrar-general, to 24%, leaving the rate
below that of all the other European countries except France.
The States of Australasia, again, have experienced a decline
even more marked. In 1880-1882 their fertility-rate ranged
from 300 to 338, a low proportion for a new country, but nearly
up to the European standard. By 1900-1902, however,the rate
had fallen in all the larger States by from 23 to 31% and the
POPULATION
97
highest rate recorded, 253 per thousand conceptive wives, was
lower than that of any European country except France and
Belgium. The cessation of assisted immigration early in the
life of the present generation is alleged to have had considerable
influence upon the rate, in Victoria, at least, owing to the curtail-
ment of the supply of adult women of the more conceptive ages
ami the ageing of those who had reached the country at an
earlier date. But neither this nor the diminution of the marriage-
rate amongst women of those ages suffices to account for more
than a fraction of the decline. The same tendency, moreover,
is traceable in the New England States of America, so far as
statistics are available.
It has been held by some that a phenomenon so widely
diffused over the western world must be attributable to physio-
logical causes, such as alcoholism, syphilis, the abuse of narcotics
and so on. Herbert Spencer, again, before the decline in
question set in, put forward the hypothesis that " the ability to
maintain individual life and the ability to multiply vary in-
versely "; in other words, the strain upon the nervous system
involved in the struggle for life under the conditions of modern
civilization, by reacting on the reproductive powers, tends
towards comparative sterility. These theories, however, being
supported, according to the authorities of to-day, by no evidence,
statistical or other, need not be here considered.
Nor, again, can the decline in fertility be connected with
any diminution of material prosperity. On the contrary, the
fertility-rate appears to be best maintained in countries by no
means distinguished for their high standard of living, such as
Spain, Italy, Ireland, and, perhaps, Austria. In this respect
Holland stands by itself; but in the others mentioned, with the
exception of Ireland, both marriage and birth-rates are high
and there has been a comparatively insignificant fall in prolifi-
city. The decline has been greatest where the standard of
comfort is notoriously high, as in the United States, England
and Australasia; also in France, where the general wellbeing
reaches probably a lower depth in the community than in any
other part of Europe. The comparison of the rates in France
with those of Ireland is an instructive illustration of the point
under consideration. In France more than half the women
of conceptive age are married: in Ireland less than a third,
and the proportion of youthful wives in the latter is 28% below
that in France. In both the crude birth-rate is far below that
of any other European country. But the fertility of the Irish
wife exceeded that of her French compeer by 44% in 1880 and
by no less than 84% twenty years later. So steady, indeed,
has been the prolificity of Ireland, that from being ninth on the
list at the earlier period mentioned, it is now inferior only to
Holland and perhaps Finland in this respect.
It need not be assumed, however, that because these rates
cannot be associated with the comparative degree of prosperity
attained by the individual community they are altogether inde-
pendent of the economic factors mainly contributing to that
condition, such as trade, employment and prices. It is difficult,
indeed, if not impracticable, to disentangle the effects which
should be respectively attributed to influences so closely related
to each other; but, of the three, prices alone tend to sufficient
uniformity in their course in different countries to justify a
supposition that they are in some way connected with a phenom-
enon so widely diffused as that of the decline in marriage and
fertility. It is not improbable, therefore, that the fall in whole-
sale prices which, with temporary interruptions, persisted between
1870 and looo, in general harmony with the other movement,
may have conduced to reluctance on the part of those who
have enlarged their notions of the standard of comfort to en-
danger their prospects of enjoying it by incurring the additional
expenses of family life. Matrimony may be postponed, or, when
entered upon, may be rendered a lighter burden upon the bread-
winner. The economic element in the situation, which is
imposed upon the individual by circumstances, is thus modified
voluntarily into a moral or prudential consideration. In this
case diminished prolificity where unaccompanied by a decrease
in the number of marriages at reproductive ages, is attributable
xxn. 4
to the voluntary restriction of child-bearing on the part of the
married. This explanation of the decline is supported by
the almost unanimous opinion of the medical profession in the
countries in question, and substantial evidence can be
found everywhere of the extensive prevalence of the doctrine
and practice of what has been termed, in further derogation of
the repute of the " much misrepresented Malthus," Neomal-
thusianism. Preventive measures of this kind have long
been in use in France, with the result shown in Tables V.
and VI., and from that country they have spread, mostly since
1870, nearly all over western Europe, as well as to the Anglo-
Saxon world beyond the seas; but are scarcely apparent in
countries where the Roman church has a strong hold on the
people. It is generally held that the practice of thus limiting
families usually prevails, in the first instance, among the better-
off classes, and in time niters down, as " the gospel of comfort "
is accepted by those of less resources, until the prolificity of the
whole community is more or less affected by it. The registrar
general for England, indeed, has stated that whilst no more than
about 17% of the decline in the birth-rate can be attributed
to abstinence or postponement of marriage, nearly 70% should
be ascribed to voluntary restriction.
The question of illegitimate births is the last to be here
mentioned. It appears to be connected to a considerable extent
with the subject dealt with above. In nearly every country the
rate of these births has of late years shown a marked fall, which
is by some ascribed to the adoption of the same expedients in
illicit intercourse as are becoming conventional amongst the
married. The rates given at the end of Table VI. are calculated
upon the number of women most likely to produce them, that
is, the spinsters, widows and divorced of conceptive age. In
comparing the different countries, it may be noted that in some
parts of Europe the rate is raised by the inclusion of the off-
spring of marriages not registered as demanded by law, though
duly performed in church. Then, again, the possibility of
legitimization by subsequent marriage tends to raise the rate.
Italy and Scotland may be taken as examples of these two
influences, and in Germany, too, the rates in Saxony and Bavaria,
which are among the highest in Europe, are in part due to the
non-registration of marriages sanctioned by religious ceremony
only. The low rates in Ireland, Holland and England are
especially noticeable, and in the last named, the decrease
between 1870 and 1905 amounted to more than 50%, not,
however, entirely due, it is said, to improved morality.
Deaths. The forces tending towards the natural growth of
population, which have been described above, differ from that
which acts in the opposite direction in two material features.
Marriage and child-bearing, in the first place, are operative
amongst a fraction of the population only those of conceptive
age; whereas to the Urn of Death, as Dr Farr expressed it, all ages
are called upon to contribute in their differing degrees. Then,
again, the former are voluntary acts, entirely under the control
of the individual; but mortality, though not beyond human
regulation, is far less subject to it, and in order to have sub-
stantial results the control must be the outcome of collective
rather than individual co-operation. The course of the marriage
and birth-rates, set forth above, affords evidence that the
control over both has been exercised of recent years to an un-
precedented extent, and it will appear from what is stated
below, that partly owing to this cause, partly, also, to improved
hygienic conditions in western life, there has been an even more
pronounced decline in the rate of mortality. The general
results of both upon the natural increase of population in the
countries selected for illustration of this subject will be found
at the end of this paragraph. For the purpose of showing this,
the crude death-rate, taken, like that of births, upon the whole
population, without distinction of age or sex, will suffice. Where,
however, the tendency to mortality, not its results, is in question,
both the above factors must be taken into account, as they have
been above in distinguishing the rate of fertility from that of
births. The process of correcting the mere numbers of annual
deaths per thousand of population into a form which renders
9 8
POPULATION
the return comparable with those for communities differently
constituted is somewhat complicated, but it is amply justified
by its necessity in adapting the figures to the important services
they perform in actuarial and sanitary science. This subject
can only be dealt with here in outline. In the first place, sex
must be distinguished, because, from infancy upwards, except
between the ages of 10 and 20, the mortality amongst females
is considerably less than amongst the other sex, and appears,
too, to be declining more rapidly. So far as adult life is con-
cerned this superior vitality is no doubt attributable to com-
parative immunity from the risks and hardships to which men
are exposed, as, also, to the weaker inclination of women towards
intemperance of different kinds. Thus, though the generally
higher proportion of females in the community may seldom be
enough to depress more than slightly the death-rate as a whole,
it has a substantial effect upon it at the ages where women are in
more marked numerical predominance, as in later life, and in
places where the number of domestic servants is unusually
great. Age is a factor still more important than sex in a return
intended to serve as an index of mortality. The liability to
death is extremely high amongst infants, decreasing with every
month of life during the first year, but continuing above the
mean rate until about the age of five. From the latter period
until the fifteenth or sixteenth year vitality is at its best.
The death-rate then gradually rises, slowly till 25, more rapidly
later, when, from about 45 onward deterioration asserts itself
more pronouncedly, and by three score years and ten the rate
begins to exceed that of childhood. Thus, all other considera-
tions being set aside, mortality tends to vary inversely with
the proportion of the population at the healthy period 5 to 25.
As the replenishment of this group depends upon the conditions
prevailing at the earlier ages, it is to the mortality in childhood
that most weight, from the standpoint of hygiene, must be
attached. In most European countries not much less than half
the annual deaths take place amongst children below five years
of age, upon the total number of whom the incidence falls to the
extent of from 40 to 1 20 per mille. The greater part of this is
debitable, as just pointed out, to the first year, in which the
mortality, calculated upon the number of births, ranged, in the
decennium 1895-1904, between 70 per mille, in the exceptionally
favourable circumstances of the Australasian States, to nearly
270 in European Russia. It should be remarked, in passing,
that these rates are enormously higher amongst illegitimate
children than amongst those born in wedlock, and that the
proportion of still-born amongst the former is also in excess of
that amongst the latter by some 50%. Infantile mortality is
higher, too, in urban tracts, especially those associated with
manufacturing industries. In Table VII. below, in which the
crude rate alone is dealt with, evidence will be found of the
general decline which has taken place in the mortality, thus
expressed in different countries.
The difference in the rates for the various countries must not
be taken as a measure of difference in mortality, since, as accord-
ing to the table, much of it is ascribable to difference in age-
constitution. At the same time, where the range is very wide,
as between the rates in Scandinavia and Australia, and those in
southern and eastern Europe, the variation, to a great extent,
cannot be accounted for otherwise than by difference in hygienic
conditions, more especially in the light thrown by the figures
of infantile mortality in the second part of the table. The
variations from period to period in the same country are more
instructive. They show that in the 35 years covered the death-
rate has generally declined by over 20%. The exceptional
cases are, first, Ireland and Norway, with their emigrating
tendencies; then Spain, where the returns have probably to be
discounted for improved registration, and France, where the
population is all but stationary. In Finland the death-rate
at the earlier period taken for the comparison was abnormally
swollen by epidemic disease, and if it be set on one side the
decline appears to have been in harmony with that in its Scan-
dinavian neighbours. The decline in mortality has been much
greater than that in the crude birth-rate everywhere except in
France, Australia, and, of course, Ireland; and it is only in the
two former that it has been exceeded by that in the fertility-
rate. The standard mortality of each community is deduced
from a life-table, representing a " generation " of people assumed
to be born at the same moment and followed throughout their
hypothetical lif e, in the light of the distribution by age ascertained
TABLE VII.
(C) Decline per cent.
(A) Death per 1000 of Total
(B) Deaths under one
'Probable
Country.
Population.
year per 1000 Births.
1861-1870 to
1895-1904.
Fertility-
rate.
Lifetime.
1841-1850.
1861-1870.
1895-1904.
1874-1883.
1895-1904.
Death-
rate.
Birth-
rate.
1880-188210
1900-1902.
Years.
Sweden ....
20-6
20-2
15-8
128
98
21-7
15-0
8-2
52-3
Norway ....
18-2
18-0
iS-i
104
90
10-5
3'9
3'5
52-2
Finland . . . .
23-5
32-6
18-7
164
134
42-6 2
7-2
42-8
Denmark
20-5
19-8
15-8
141
127
2O-6
4-2
9-3
47-8
England ....
23-7
24-0
17-2
149
150
28-3
19-4
17-8
45-9
Scotland
21-8
17-3
122
126
2O-6
14-7
12-5
46-2
Ireland . . . .
16-6
18-0
9 6
103
+8-4
ii-i
+2-1
Holland . . . .
26-2
25-4
17-0
2O4
'47
33-o
9-0
9-2
27-8
Belgium .
24-4
23-8
17-8
148
156
25-2
98
19-8
45-1
Germany
26-8
26-9
20-8
208
198 3
22-6
4-6
8-4
40-7
Austria (W) . .
29-8
29-1
24-0
255
224
17-5
4-2
France .
23-2
23-6
20-4
165
153
13-5
17-5
19-8
47-4
Italy
30-9
22'7
208
170
26-5
10-7
2-5
43-o
Spain .
30-6
27-8
182
9-1
8-0
Hungary
33-o
27-4
216
17-0
6-2
40-1
Galicia . . . .
33-5
27-8
17-0
2-3
Servia . . . .
30-9
23-6
154
23-6
9.9
Russia (Eur.)
37-1
31-2
267
268
15-9
2-2
N. S. Wales . .
16-2
n-7
1 08
27-7
32-2
30-7
51-2
Victoria . . . .
16-7
13-3
105
20-4
37-2
24-1
New Zealand
13-2
9-8
"7
79
25-7
35-1
24-5
55-4
1 Mean after lifetime at birth. ! Finland from 1850-1891, decrease 20-4. * Prussia only; Saxony, 284 and 272; Bavaria, 308 257.
POPULATION
99
through the census and the number of deaths at each age
observed for as many years, generally from 10 to 20, as suffice
to furnish a trustworthy average. The population thus dealt
with is supposed to be stationary, that is, the loss by death at
each age is at once made good by the addition of an equal
number of the same age, whilst the survivors pass on to the
age above. Of the many calculations set forth in these valuable
tables there is only room here to refer to the " afterlifetime "
for such countries as it is available, which is quoted in the last
column of Table VII. It shows the average number of years
which persons of a given age, or, as here, of all ages, will live,
on the assumption that they are subject to the calculated
probabilities of survival. It is sometimes known as the
" expectation of life," a term, however, which involves a
mathematical hypothesis now discarded.
The relation between the birth and the death rates has been
the subject of much analysis and controversy. Observation has
demonstrated that the two rates are generally found to move
along parallel lines. A high birth-rate is accompanied by high
mortality; conversely, when one is low, so is the other. A birth-
rate continuously in excess of the death-rate tends to lower the
latter through the supply it affords of people annually reaching
the more healthy ages. If the supply be diminished, the narrower
field open to the risks of infancy has the immediate effect of
further decreasing the mortality. In course of time, however,
TABLE VIII.
Serial order
Per 1000 of Population.
Country.
according
to formula
*
Annual ex-
cess of Births
over Deaths.
Total annual
increase.
Approximate
loss by
emigration.
1895-1904.
1861-
1871.
1895-
1904.
1861-
1871.
1891-
1901.
1861-
1871.
1891-
1901.
Sweden .
7
1 1 -2
10-9
7-7
7-i
3'7
3'7
Norway .
4
12-9
14-6
7'9
n-3
5-1
2-7
Finland .
10
2-1
13-5
1-3
i i i
I-O
2-3
Denmark.
5
II-I
13-9
10-4
"5
-3
1-3
England .
8
13-6
n-8
12-5
"5
i-i
O-2
Scotland .
9
13-0
n-9
9-3
10-6
3-6
1-2
Ireland .
13
9-6
5-2
-6- 9
-5-4
15-0
10-7
Holland . . .
6
9.9
15-1
8-4
12-7
2-O
1-5
Belgium .
ii
7-8
10-7
7'4
9-8
I-I
O-I
Germany .
12
10-3
14-7
7-8
13-2
2'5
0-7
Austria (W.) . .
16
7-9
10-2
5-6
0-8
o-5
France .
18
2-7
1-3
2-8
1-6
+ 0-2
+ 1-0
Italy. . . .
'5
6-5
10-8
6-0
6-2
0-9
4-6
Spam.
19
7-7
7-0
5'i
4-9
2-1
0-4
Russia
20
12-7
17-5
u-7
13-5
0-7
1-6
Hungary .
Servia
18
8-5
13-6
"5
16-5
8-2
9-8
14-4
0-4
0-9
0-6
Galicia
17
10-9
15-6
10-9
10-4
O-I
4-1
New South Wales
2
24-8
1 6- 1
36-9
18-4
+ I2-I
+ 2-3
Victoria .
3
247
12-7
30-8
5' 2
+ 6-1
7-5
New Zealand
i
27-0
16-3
63-0
19-0
+36-0
4- 2-7
under the same influence, those passing from their prime into
the second period of danger acquire a numerical preponderance
which throws its weight upon the general death-rate and tends
to raise it. It is assumed that throughout the above course the
hygienic conditions of life remain unchanged. If, however, they
undergo marked improvement, the duration of life is extended
and both birth and death-rates, being spread over a wider
field of the living, tend to decrease. On the other hand, an
accidental set-back to population, such as that caused by famine
or a disastrous war, leaves room which an increasing birth-rate
hastens to occupy. A similar result follows in a lesser degree
a wave of emigration. Examples of all the above tendencies
may be gleaned from the returns of the countries named in the
table, though space does not admit of their exhibtion. In
both France and Germany, for instance, the process of replenish-
ment after a great war can be traced both early and late in the
i pth century. In England, the decrease in " natality " is in
itself enough to account for the decline in the death-rate, apart
from any considerations of improved hygiene. In France, on
the contrary, the low natality having been so long continued,
has raised the death-rate, by reason of the balance of propor-
tion having been shifted by it from youth and the prime of life
to old age. It may be inferred from the above that a high birth-
rate does not imply a high rate of increase of population, any
more than does a decreasing mortality, but the two rates must
be considered in their relations to each other. The death-rate,
however, is often taken by itself as the measure of the relatively
favourable conditions or otherwise of the different countries;
but it indicates at best the maintaining power of the community,
whereas the increasing power, as manifested in the birth-rate,
has also to be taken into account. Here, again, it is not sufficient
to rely upon the mere rate of natural growth, or the difference
between the two rates, since this may be the same in a community
where both the rates are very high as in one where they are
relatively low, a distinction of considerable importance. It has
been suggested by Dr Rubin of Copenhagen, that if the death
rate (d) be squared and divided by the birth-rate (6), due influence
is allowed to each rate respectively, as well as to the difference
in the height of the rates in different countries (Journ. R.
Statist. Soc., London, 1897, p. 154). The quotient thus obtained
decreases as the conditions are more favourable, and, on the
whole, it seems to form a good index to the merit of
the respective countries from the standpoint of vital
forces. The first column of Table VIII. shows the
order in which the countries mentioned are found to
stand according to the above test.
The three Australasian states head the list in virtue
of their remarkably low death-rate, which outweighs
the relative paucity of their births. The next countries
in order all belong to north-western Europe, and their
index-quotients are all very close to each other.
Sweden falls below its geographical neighbours owing
to its low birth-rate, and Finland because of its higher
mortality. England and Scotland, in spite of their
higher birth-rates, are kept below Scandinavia by the
higher death-rate, but their birth-rate places them
above Belgium. Ireland and France are pulled down
by their low natality. The latter, with the same
mortality as Germany, stands far below it for the
above reason, as Ireland is raised by its lower death-
rate above the prolific countries of eastern Europe.
The rate of natural growth is given in the second part
of the table. In the case of two of the Australasian
states, of Holland, Finland, Spain and Italy, the
order is in accord with that given by the test applied
above, and the difference between the two in Austria,
Ireland and France is not large. The great difference
between the serial rank occupied in the respective lists
by Russia, Servia and Galicia, with remarkably high
rates of natural growth, as well as that found in the
case of most of the other countries in question, shows
that this factor is by no means a trustworthy guide in
the estimate of hygienic balance.
Migration. Passing from the internal factors in the move-
ment of population, the influence has to be taken into account
of the interchange of population between different countries.
The net results of such exchange can be roughly estimated by
comparing the rate of natural growth with that of the total
increase of the community between one census and another,
as set forth in Table VIII., in the last section of which the approxi-
mate loss by emigration, as calculated by Dr Sundbarg, is given.
It will be seen that the only European country which gains by
the exchange is France, and there the accretion is almost insig-
nificant. Between many of the countries there is a good deal
of migration which is only seasonal or temporary, according to
the demand for labour. From Russia, too, there is a stream of
colonization across the Urals into western Siberia, and amongst
the western Mediterranean populations there is constant
IOO
POPULONIUM PORCH
migration to North Africa The greatest drain from Europe,
however, has been across the sea to the United States, Canada
and Australasia, especially to the first-named. Dr Sundbarg's
returns give about 28 millions as the number which left Europe
by sea during the igth century, of whom all but 4 millions
emigrated during the last half of that period. Between 1821
and 1904, about 22 millions landed from Europe in the United
States; about 23 millions in Canada; 2 millions in Australia,
besides a good number in Brazil, the Argentine and South
Africa. The return of birthplace which usually forms part of
the census inquiry, affords supplementary information on the
subject of immigration. In Canada, for instance, those born
abroad numbered 17 % of the population in 1871, and about
13 % thirty years later. In New South Wales, the correspond-
ing figures were 41 and 28 %, and in Victoria 55 and 27. In New
Zealand the consequences of the cessation of special encourage-
ment to emigration were still more marked, the foreign-born
declining in proportion from 63 to 33 %. On the other hand,
in the United States, from 9-7 % in 1850 the proportion rose to
13-7 in 1900, and has since reached still higher figures, as has
been the case recently in Canada also. Up to the early 'nineties
the greater part of the immigrants into America were furnished
by Germany, Ireland and Great Britain, but for the next fifteen
years the place of those countries was taken by Italy and eastern
Europe. The general results of the two movements in Europe
have been thus summarised by Dr Sundbarg:
TABLE IX.
Annual rate per 1000 of population.
1801-1850.
1850-1900.
Births.
Deaths.
Births
above
Deaths.
Census
Increase.
Births.
Deaths.
Births
above
Deaths.
Census
Increase.
Europe, N.W.
S.W.
E. .
Total Europe
35-4
33-6
45-9
26-5
28-3
38-1
8-9
5-3
7-8
8-1
5-2
7-7
34-4
31-4
46-2
23-4
26-3
34-7
II-O
5-i
n-5
8-6
4'3
10-6
38-6
31-2
7-4
7-1
38-0
28-4
9-6
8-2
United States
Canada .
Australasia .
29-9
38-7
85-9
24-0
16-2
48-2
Differences tend to be smoothened out, of course, in dealing
with a population so large and varied as that of a continent,
but the figures suffice to show the contrast between the early
part of the century and the period following the great migratory
movements to the new goldfields. In the countries receiving
the stream of newcomers, the intercensal rate of increase was
obviously very different from those of the older countries, though
it seems to have largely spent itself or been counteracted by
other influences. The latest rates, for instance, were only 18
per mille per annum in Australia; n in Canada and 19 in the
United States.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A very full bibliography up to 1899 is appended
to von Fircke's Bevolkerungslehre und Bevolkerungspolitik. Reference
may also be made to Matthews Duncan, Fecundity, Fertility and
Sterility (ed. 1871); Newsholme, Elements of Vital Statistics (ed.
1899), and his paper on birth-rates, Journ. R. Statist. Soc. (1906);
W. Farr, Vital Statistics (1885) ; Coghlan, Report on Decline in Birth-
rate, New^ South Wales (1903), and report of Royal Commission on
that decline (1904) ; Bonar, Malthus and his Work (1885) ; Bertillon,
Elements^ de demographie; Gamier, Du Principe de population; de
Molinari, Ralentissement du mouvement de la population; Bertheau,
Essai sur les lots de la population; Starkenburg, Die Bevolkerungs-
Wissenschaft; Stieda, Das sexual Verhdltniss der Geborenen; Rubin
and Westergaard, Statistik der Ehen; Westergaard, Die Lehre von der
Mortalilat und Morbilitat, and Die Grundzuge der Theorie der Statistik ;
Gonnard, L' Emigration europeenne. (J. A. B.)
POPULONIUM (Etruscan Pupluna), an ancient seaport town
of Etruria, Italy, at the north end of the peninsular of Monte
Massoncello, at the south end of which is situated the town
of Piombino (q.v.). The place, almost the only Etruscan town
built directly on the sea, was situated on a lofty hill 1 now
crowned by a conspicuous medieval castle and a poor modern
village (Populonia). Considerable remains of its town walls,
of large irregular, roughly rectangular blocks (the form is that
of the natural splitting of the schistose sandstone), still exist,
enclosing a circuit of about 13 m. The remains existing within
them are entirely Roman ra row of vaulted substructions, a
water reservoir and a mosaic with representations of fishes.
Strabo mentions the existence here of a look-out tower for the
shoals of tunny-fish. There are some tombs outside the town,
some of which, ranging from the Villanova period (gth century
B.C.) to the middle of the 3rd century B.C., were explored in
1908. In one, a large circular tomb, were found three sepulchral
couches in stone, carved in imitation of wood, and a fine
statuette in bronze of Ajax committing suicide. Close by was
found a horse collar with 14 bronze bells. The remains of a
temple, devastated in ancient times (possibly by Dionysius
of Syracuse in 384 B.C.), were also discovered, with fragments of
Attic vases of the 5th century B.C., which had served as ex
votos in it. Coins of the town have also been found in silver
and copper. The iron mines of Elba, and the tin and copper
of the mainland, were owned and smelted by the people of
Populonia; hot springs too lay some 6 m. to the E. (Aquae
Populaniae) on the high road Via Aurelia along the coast.
At this point a road branched off to Saena (Siena). According
to Virgil the town sent a contingent to the help of Aeneas, and
it furnished Scipio with iron in 205 B.C. It
offered considerable resistance to Sulla, who
took it by siege; and from this dates its
decline, which Strabo, who describes it well
(v. 2, 6, p. 223), already notes as beginning,
while four centuries later Rutilius describes
it as in ruins. The harbour, however,
continued to be of some importance, and
the place was still an episcopal see in the
time of Gregory the Great.
SeeG. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria
(London, 1883, ii. 212 sqq.); I. Falchi in Notizie
degli Scavi (1903-1904); L. A. Milan!, ibid.
(1908), 199 sqq.
PORBANDAR, a native state of India,
in the Kathiawar political agency, Bombay,
extending along the S.W. coast of the
peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 636 sq. m.;
pop. (1901), 82,640, showing a decrease of 4 % in the decade.
Estimated gross revenue, 65,000; tribute, 3,233. The chief,
whose title is rana, is a Jethwa Rajput. Limestone is largely
exported to Bombay. This limestone is used for buildings in
Porbandar without mortar, and is said to coalesce into a solid
block under the influence of moisture. The town of PORBANDAR
is the maritime terminus of the Kathiawar railway system. Pop.
(1901), 24,620. A large trade is conducted in native boats as far
as the east coast of Africa.
PORCELAIN, the name of that kind of ceramic ware which is
characterized by a translucent body, also loosely used for the
finer kinds of ware generally, popularly known as " china "
(see CERAMICS). The French porcelaine, from which the word
comes into English, is an adaptation of the Italian porcellana,
a cowrie-shell, the beautifully polished surface of which caused
the name to be applied to the ware. The Italian word is generally
taken to be from pqrcella, diminutive of porco, pig, from a sup-
posed resemblance of the shell to a pig's back.
PORCH (through the Fr. porche, from Lat. porticus; the
Ital. equivalent is portico, corresponding to the Gr. vapdri^;
Ger. Vorhalle), a covered erection forming a shelter to the
entrance door of a large building. The earliest known are the
two porches of the Tower of the Winds at Athens; there would
seem to have been one in front of the entrance door of the villa
of Diomede outside the gate at Pompeii; in Rome they were
1 It commands a fine view, and Corsica is sometimes visible, though
not Sardinia, as Strabo (and following him, Lord Macaulay) erro-
neously state.
PORCUPINE PORDENONE, IL
101
probably not allowed, but on either side of the entrance door of
a mansion, porticoes set back behind the line of frontage were
provided, according to F. Mazois, as shelters from sun and rain
for those who paid early visits before the doors were opened.
In front of the early Christian basilicas was a long arcaded porch
called " narthex " (q.v.) In later times porches assume two
forms one the projecting erection covering the entrance at
the west front of cathedrals, and divided into three or more
doorways, &c., and the other a kind of covered chamber open
at the ends, and having small windows at the sides as a protection
from rain. These generally stand on the north or south sides
of churches, though in Kent there are a few instances (as Snodland
and Boxley) where they are at the west ends. Those of the Nor-
man period generally have little projection, and are sometimes
so flat as to be little more than outer dressings and hood-
moulds to the inner door. They are often richly ornamented,
and, as at Southwell in England and Kelso in Scotland, have
rooms over, which have been erroneously called parvises. Early
English porches are much longer, and in larger buildings fre-
quently have rooms above; the gables are generally bold and high
pitched. In larger buildings also, as at Wells, St Albans, &c.,
the interiors are as rich in design as the exteriors. Decorated
and Perpendicular porches partake of much the same character-
istics, the pitch of roof, mouldings, copings, battlements, &c.,
being, of course, influenced by the taste of the time. The later
porches have rooms over them more frequently than in earlier
times; these are often approached from the lower storey by small
winding stairs, and sometimes have fire-places, and are supposed
to have served as vestries; and sometimes there are the remains
of a piscina, and relics of altars, as if they had been used as
chantry chapels. It is probable there were wooden porches at
all periods, particularly in those places where stone was scarce ;
but, as may be expected from their exposed position, the earliest
have decayed. At Cobham, Surrey, there was one that had
ranges of semicircular arches in oak at the sides, of strong
Norman character. It is said there are several in which portions
of Early English work are traceable, as at Chevington in Suffolk.
In the Decorated and later periods, however, wooden porches
are common, some plain, others with rich tracery and large
boards; these frequently stand on a sort of half storey of stone
work or bahut. The entrance porches at the west end of cathe-
drals are generally called portals, and where they assume the
character of separate buildings, are designated galilees; e.g. the
porticoes on the west side of the south transept of Lincoln
Cathedral, and at the west end of the nave of Ely Cathedral, and
the chapel at the west end of Durham Cathedral. The finest
example in England of an open projected porch is that of
Peterborough Cathedral, attached to the Early Norman nave.
The term " porch " is also given to the magnificent portals
of the French cathedrals, where the doors are so deeply recessed
as to become porches, such as those of Reims, Amiens, Chartres,
Troyes, Rouen, Bourges, Paris, and Beauvais cathedrals,
St Ouen, Rouen, and earlier Romanesque churches, as in St
Trophime, Aries and St Gilles. Many, however, have detached
porches in front of the portals, as in Notre Dame at Avigon,
Chartres (north and south), Noyon, Bourges (north and south),
St Vincent at Rouen, Notre Dame de Louviers, the cathedrals
of Albi and Le Puy, and in Germany those of Spires and Regens-
burg, and the churches of St Laurence and St Sebald at
Nuremberg. (R. P. S.)
PORCUPINE (Fr., porc-(pic, "spiny pig"), the name of
the largest European representative of the terrestrial rodent
mammals, distinguished by the spiny covering from which it
takes its name. The European porcupine (Hystrix cristata) is
the typical representative of a family of Old World rodents, the
Hystrkidae, all the members of which have the same protective
covering. These rodents are characterized by the imperfectly
rooted cheek-teeth, imperfect clavicles or collar-bones, cleft
upper lip, rudimentary first front-toes, smooth soles, six teats
and many cranial characters. They range over the south of
Europe, the whole of Africa, India and the Malay Archipelago
as far east as Borneo. They are all stout, heavily-built animals,
with blunt rounded heads, fleshy mobile snouts, and coats of
thick cylindrical or flattened spines, which form the whole
covering of their body, and are not intermingled with ordinary
hairs. Their habits are strictly terrestrial. Of the three genera
Hystrix is characterized by the inflated skull, in which the nasal
chamber is often considerably larger than the brain-case, and
The Porcupine (Hystrix cristata).
the short tail, tipped with numerous slender-stalked open quills,
which make a loud rattling noise whenever the animal moves.
The common porcupine (H. cristata), which occurs throughout
the south of Europe and North and West Africa, is replaced in
South Africa by H. africaeaustralis and in India by the hairy-
nosed porcupine (H . lencura) .
Besides these large crested species, there are several smaller species
without crests in north-east India, and the Malay region from Nepal
to Borneo. The genus Atherura includes the brush-tailed porcupines
which are much smaller animals, with long tails tipped with bundles
of flattened spines. Two species are found in the Malay region and
one in West Africa. Trichys, the last genus, contains two species,
T. fasctculaia of Borneo and T. macrotis of Sumatra, both externally
very like, Atherura, but differing from the members of that genus
in many cranial characteristics. In the New World the porcupines
are represented by the members of the family Erethizontidae, or
Coendidae, which have rooted molars, complete collar-bones, entire
upper lips, tuberculated soles., no trace of a first front-toe, and four
teats. The spines are mixed with long soft hairs. They are less
strictly nocturnal in their habits; and with one exception live
entirely in trees, having in correspondence with this long and power-
ful prehensile tails. They include three genera, of which the first
is represented by the Canadian porcupine (Erethizon dorsatus),
a stout, heavily-built animal, with long hairs almost or quite hiding
its spines, four front- and five hind-toes, and a short, stumpy tail. It
is a native of the greater part of Canada and the United States,
wherever there is any remnant of the original forest left. Synetheres,
or Coendu, contains some eight or ten species, known as tree-porcu-
pines, found throughout tropical South America, with one extending
into Mexico. They are of a lighter build than the ground-porcupines,
with short, close, many-coloured spines, often mixed with hairs,
and prehensile tails. The hind-feet have only four toes, owing to
the suppression of the first, in place of which they have a fleshy
pad on the inner side of the foot, between which and the toes boughs
and other objects can be firmly grasped as with a hand. Chaetomys,
distinguished by the shape of its skull and the greater complexity
of its teeth, contains C. subspinosus, a native of the hottest parts
of Brazil. (W. H. F.; R. L.)
PORDENONE, IL (1483-1539), an eminent painter of the Vene-
tian school, whose correct name was Giovanni Antonio Licinio,
or Licino. He was commonly named D Pordenone from having
been born in 1483 at Corticelli, a village near Pordenone (q.v.)
in Italy. He ultimately dropped the name of Licinio, having
quarrelled with his brothers, one of whom had wounded him in
the hand; he then called himself Regillo, or De Regillo. His
signature runs " Antonius Portunaensis," or " De Portunaonis."
He was created a cavaliere by Charles V.
As a painter Licinio was a scholar of Pellegrino da S. Daniele,
but the leading influence which governed his style was that of
Giorgione; the popular story that he was a fellow-pupil with
Titian under Giovanni Bellini is incorrect. The district
102
PORDENONE PORISM
about Pordenone had been somewhat fertile in capable
painters; but Licinio excelled them all in invention and design,
and more especially in the powers of a vigorous chiaroscurist
and flesh painter. Indeed, so far as mere flesh-painting is
concerned he was barely inferior to Titian in breadth, pulpiness
and tone; and he was for a while the rival of that great painter
in public regard. The two were open enemies, and Licinio
would sometimes affect to wear arms while he was painting.
He excelled Giorgione in light and shade and in the effect of
relief, and was distinguished in perspective and in portraits;
he was equally at home in fresco and in oil-colour. He executed
many works in Pordenone and elsewhere in Friuli, and in Cremona
and Venice; at one time he settled in Piacenza, where is one of
his most celebrated church pictures, " St Catherine disputing with
the Doctors in Alexandria "; the figure of St Paul in connexion
with this picture is his own portrait. He was formally invited
by Duke Hercules II. of Ferrara to that court; here soon after-
wards, in 1539, he died, not without suspicion of poison. His
latest works are comparatively careless and superficial; and
generally he is better in male figures than in female the latter
being somewhat too sturdy and the composition of his subject-
pictures is scarcely on a level with their other merits. Pordenone
appears to have been a vehement self-asserting man, to which
his style as a painter corresponds, and his morals were not
unexceptionable. Three of his principal scholars were Bernar-
dino Licinio, named II Sacchiense, his son-in-law Pomponio
Amalteo, and Giovanni Maria Calderari.
The following may be named among Pordenone's works:
the picture of " S Luigi Giustiniani and other Saints," originally
in S Maria dell' Orto, Venice; a " Madonna and Saints " (both
of these in the Venice academy) ; the " Woman taken in Adul-
tery," in the Berlin museum; the " Annunciation," at Udine,
regarded by Vasari as the artist's masterpiece, now damaged by
restoration. In Hampton Court is a duplicate work, the
" Painter and his Family "; and in Burghley House are two fine
pictures now assigned to Pordenone the " Finding of Moses "
and the " Adoration of the Kings." These used to be attributed
to Titian and to Bassano respectively.
PORDENONE, a town of the province of Udine, Venetia,
Italy, 30 m. W. by S. of Udine on the railway to Treviso. Pop.
(1901), 8425 (town); 12,409 (commune). It was the birthplace
of the painter generally known as II Pordenone (<?.!>.). Paintings
from his brush adorn the cathedral (which has a fine brick
campanile), and others are preserved in the gallery of the town
hall. Cotton industries are active, and silk and pottery are
manufactured.
PORE, a small opening or orifice, particularly used of the open-
ings of the ducts of the sweat-glands in the skin or of the stomata
in the epidermis of plants or those through which the pollen
or seed are discharged from anthers or seed capsules. The
word is an adaptation through the French from Lat. porus,
Gr. iropas, passage. In the sense of to look closely at, to read
with persistent or close attention, " pore " is of obscure origin.
It would seem to be connected with " peer," to look closely
into, and would point to an O. Eng. purian or pyrian. There
is no similar word in Old French.
PORFIRIUS, PUBLILIUS OPTATIANUS, Latin poet, possibly
a native of Africa, flourished during the 4th century A.D. He
has been identified with Publilius Optatianus, who was prae-
fectus urbi (329 and 333), and is by some authorities included
amongst the Christian poets. For some reason he had been
banished, but having addressed a panegyric to the Emperor
Constantine the Great, he was allowed to return. Twenty-
eight poems are extant under his name, of which twenty were
included in the panegyric. They have no value except as
curiosities and specimens of perverted ingenuity. Some of
them are squares (the number of letters in each line being equal),
certain letters being rubricated so as to form a pattern or figure,
and at the same time special verses or maxims; others represent
various objects (a syrinx, an organ, an altar); others have
special peculiarities in each line (number of words or letters) ;
while the 28th poem (the versus anacyclici) may be read back-
wards without any effect upon sense or metre. A complimentar
letter from the emperor and letter of thanks from the author ar
also extant. The best edition of the poem is by L. Muller (1877).
See also O. Seeck, " Das Leben des Dichters Porphyrius "
Rheinisches Museum (1908), Ixiii. 267.
PORISM. The subject of porisms is perplexed by the
multitude of different views which have been held by geometer
as to what a porism really was and is. The treatise which ha
given rise to the controversies on this subject is the Porisms <
Euclid, the author of the Elements. For as much as we knov
of this lost treatise we are indebted to the Collection of Pappu
of Alexandria, who mentions it along with other geometrical
treatises, and gives a number of lemmas necessary for under-
standing it. Pappus states that the porisms of Euclid are
neither theorems nor problems, but are in some sort intermediate,
so that they may be presented either as theorems or as problems;
and they were regarded accordingly by many geometers, who
looked merely at the form of the enunciation, as being actually
theorems or problems, though the definitions given by the
older writers showed that they better understood the distinction
between the three classes of propositions. The older geometers
regarded a theorem as directed to proving what is proposed,
a problem as directed to constructing what is proposed, and
finally a porism as directed to finding what is proposed (eij
iropifffjiov airrov TOV Trportivofnevov) . Pappus goes on to say that
this last definition was changed by certain later geometers, who
defined a porism on the ground of an accidental characteristic
as r6 \elirov mddkati roTruoD Secop^aros, that which falls short
of a locus-theorem by a (or in its) hypothesis.
Proclus points out that the word was used in two senses.
One sense is that of " corollary," as a result unsought, as it were,
but seen to follow from a theorem. On the " porism " in the
other sense he adds nothing to the definition of " the older
geometers " except to say (what does not really help) that
the finding of the center of a circle and the finding of the
greatest common measure are porisms (Proclus, ed. Friedlein,
p. 301).
Pappus gives a complete enunciation of a porism derive
from Euclid, and an extension of it to a more general case.
This porism, expressed in modern language, asserts that given
four straight lines of which three turn about the points in which
they meet the fourth, if two of the points of intersection of these
lines lie each on a fixed straight line, the remaining point of inter-
section will also lie on another straight line. The general enuncia-
tion applies to any number of straight lines, say (n+i), of which
can turn about as many points fixed on the (+ 1 ) th. These :
straight lines cut, two and two, in %n(n-i) points, %n(n-i)
being a triangular number whose side is (n-i). If, then, they
are made to turn about the n fixed points so that any (n-i) of
their \n (-i) points of intersection, chosen subject to a certain
limitation, lie on (n-i) given fixed straight lines, then each of
the remaining points of intersection, % (n-i) (n-i) in number,
describes a straight line. Pappus gives also a complete enuncia-
tion of one porism of the first book of Euclid's treatise. This
may be expressed thus: If about two fixed points P, Q we make
turn two straight lines meeting on a given straight line L, and
if one of them cut off a segment AM from a fixed straight line AX,
given in position, we can determine another fixed straight line
BY, and a point B fixed on it, such that the segment BM' made by
the second moving line on this second fixed line measured from
B has a given ratio X to the first segment AM. The rest of the
enunciations given by Pappus are incomplete, and he merely
says that he gives thirty-eight lemmas for the three books of
porisms; and these include 171 theorems.
The lemmas which Pappus gives in connexion with the
porisms are interesting historically, because he gives (i) the
fundamental theorem that the cross or an harmonic ratio of a
pencil of four straight lines meeting in a point is constant for all
transversals; (2) the proof of the harmonic properties of a com-
plete quadrilateral; (3) the theorem that, if the six vertices of a
hexagon lie three and three on two straight lines, the three points
of concourse of opposite sides lie on a straight line.
POROS PORPHYRY
103
During the last three centuries this subject seems to have had
great fascination for mathematicians, and many geometers have
attempted to restore the lost porisms. Thus Albert Girard says in
his Trade de trigonometrie (1626) that he hopes to publish a restora-
tion. About the same time P. de Format wrote a short work under
the title Porismatum euclidaeorum renovata doctrina et sub forma
isagoges recentioribus geometris exhibita (see Oeuvres de Fermat, \.,
. 1891); but two at least of the five examples of porisms which
ves do not fall within the classes indicated by Pappus. Robert
Simson was the first to throw real light upon the subject. He first
eded in explaining the only three propositions which Pappus
indicates with any completeness. This explanation was published
in the Philosophical Transactions in 1723. Later he investigated
the subject of porisms generally in a work entitled De porismatibus
:!us; quo doctrinam porismatum satis explicatam, et in posterum
ab oblivione tiitam fore sperat auctor, and published after his death
in a volume, Roberti Simson opera quaedam reliqua (Glasgow, 1776).
m's treatise, De porismatibus, begins with definitions of theorem,
problem, datum, ponsm and locus. Respecting the porism Simson
that Pappus's definition is too general, and therefore he will
substitute for it the following: " Porisma est propositio in qua
proponitur demonstrare rem aliquam vel plures datas esse, cui vel
quibus, ut et cuilibet ex rebus innumcris non quidem datis, sed
quae ad ea quae data sunt eandem habent relationem, convenire
Mendum est affectionem quandam communem in propositione
iptam. Porisma etiam in forma problematis enuntiari potest,
si nimirum ex quibus data demonstranda sunt, invenienda proponan-
tur." A locus (says Simson) is a species of porism. Then follows
a Latin translation of Pappus's note on the porisms, and the proposi-
tions which form the bulk of the treatise. These are Pappus's
thirty-eight lemmas relating to the porisms, ten cases of the proposi-
tion concerning four straight lines, twenty-nine porisms, two pro-
blems in illustration and some preliminary lemmas. John Play-
memoir (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1794, vol. Hi.), a sort of sequel
to Simson's treatise, had for its special object the inquiry into the
probable origin of porisms that is, into the steps which led the
ancient geometers to the discovery of them. Playfair remarked that
the careful investigation of all possible particular cases of a proposi-
tion would show that (l) under certain conditions a problem becomes
impossible; (2) under certain other conditions, indeterminate or
capable of an infinite number of solutions. These cases could be
enunciated separately, were in a manner intermediate between
theorems and problems, and were called " porisms." Playfair
accordingly denned a porism thus: " A proposition affirming the
possibility of finding such conditions as will render a certain problem
indeterminate or capable of innumerable solutions." Though this
definition of a porism appears to be most favoured in England,
Simson's view has been most generally accepted abroad, and has
the support of the great authority of Michael Chasles. However,
in Lioui'Me's Journal de mathematiques pures et appliquees (vol. xx.,
July, 1855), P. Breton published Recherches novvelles sur les porismes
d'Euclide, in which he gave a new translation of the text of Pappus,
and sought to base thereon a view of the nature of a porism more
closely conforming to the definitions in Pappus. This was followed
in the same journal and in La Science by a controversy between
Breton and A. J. H. Vincent, who disputed the interpretation given
by the former of the text of Pappus, and declared himself in favour
of the idea of Schooten, put forward in his Mathematicae exercita-
tiones (1657), in which he gives the name of " porism" to one section.
According to F. van Schooten, if the various relations between
straight lines in a figure are written down in the form of equations
or proportions, then the combination of these equations in all possible
ways, and of new equations thus derived from them leads to the
discovery of innumerable new properties of the figure, and here
we have " porisms." The discussions, however, between Breton
and Vincent, in which C. Housel also joined, did not carry forward
the work of restoring Euclid's Porisms, which was left for Chasles.
His work (Les Trois livres de porismes d'Euclide, Paris, 1860) makes
full use of all the material found in Pappus. But we may doubt its
being a successful reproduction of Euclid's actual work. Thus, in
view of the ancillary relation in which Pappus's lemmas generally
stand to the works to which they refer, it seems incredible that the
first seven out of thirty-eight lemmas should be really equivalent
.(as Chasles makes them) to Euclid's first seven Porisms. Again,
Chasles seems to have been wrong in making the ten cases of the
four-line Porism begin the book, instead of the intercept-Porism
fully enunciated by Pappus, to which the " lemma to the first
Porism " relates intelligibly, being a particular case of it. An inter-
esting hypothesis as to the Porisms was put forward by H. G.
Zeuthen (Die Lehre von den Kegelschnitten im Altertum, 1886, ch. viii.).
Observing, e.g., that the intercept-Porism is still true if the two
fixed points are points on a conic, and the straight lines drawn
through them intersect on the conic instead of on a fixed straight
line, Zeuthen conjectures that the Porisms were a by-product of a
fully developed protective geometry of conies. It is a fact that
Lemma 31 (though it makes no mention of a conic) corresponds
exactly to Apollonius's method of determining the foci of a central
conic (Conies, iii. 45-47 with 42).
The three porisms stated by Diophantus in his Arithmetics are
propositions in the theory of numbers which can all be enunciated
in the form " we can find numbers satisfying such and such condi-
tions"; they are sufficiently analogous therelore to the geometrical
porism as defined in Pappus and Proclus.
A valuable chapter on porisms (from a philological standpoint)
is included in J. L. Hciberg's Litterargeschichtliche Studien iiber
Euklid (Leipzig, 1882); and the following books or tracts may also
be mentioned: Aug. Richter, Porismen nach Simson bearbeitet
(Elbing, 1837); M. Cantor, " Ueber die Porismen des Euklid und
deren Divinatoren," in Schlomilch's Zeitsch. f. Math. u. Phy. (1857),
and Literaturzeitung (1861), p. 3 seq. ; Th. Leidenfrost, Die Porismen
des Euklid (Programm der Realschule zu Weimar, 1863); Fr. Buch-
binder, Euclids Porismen und Data (Programm der kgl. Landesschule
Pforta, 1866). (T. L. H.)
POROS, or PORO (" the Ford "), an island off the east coast of
the Morea, separated at its western extremity by only a narrow
channel from the mainland at Troezen, and consisting of a mass
of limestone rock and of a mass of trachyte connected by a slight
sandy isthmus. The town looks down on the beautiful harbour
between the island and the mainland on the south.
The ancient Calauria, with which Poros is identified, was given,
according to the myth, by Apollo to Poseidon in exchange for
Delos; and it became in historic times famous for a temple of the
sea-god, which formed the centre of an amphictyony of seven
maritime states Hermione, Epidaurus, Aegina, Athens, Prasiae,
Nauplia, and Orchomenus. Here Demosthenes took sanctuary
with " gracious Poseidon," and, when this threatened to fail
him, sought death. The building was of Doric architecture and
lay on a ridge of the hill commanding a fine view of Athens and
the Saronic Gulf, near the middle of the limestone part of the
island. The site was excavated in 1894, and traces of a sacred
agora with porticoes and other buildings, as well as the temple,
have been found. In the neighbourhood of Poros-Calauria
are two small islands, the more westerly of which contains the
ruins of a small temple, and is probably the ancient Sphaeria or
Hiera mentioned by Pausanias as the seat of a temple of Athena
Apaturia. The English, French, and Russian plenipotentiaries
met at Poros in 1828 to discuss the basis of the Greek government.
See Chandler, Travels; Leake, Morea; Le Bas, Voyage archi-
ologique; Curtius, Peloponnesos; Pouillon-Boblaye, Recherches;
Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland; Rangabe " Ein Ausflug
nach Poros," in Deutsche Revue (1883) ; and S. Wide, in Mitteilungen
d. deutsch. Inst. Athen. (1895), vol. xx.
PORPHYRIO, POMPONIUS, Latin grammarian and com-
mentator on Horace, possibly a native of Africa, flourished
during the 2nd century A.D. (according to others, much later).
His scholia on Horace, which are still extant, mainly consist of
rhetorical and grammatical explanations. It is not probable
that we possess the original work, which must have suffered
from alterations and interpolations at the hands of the copyists
of the middle ages, but on the whole the scholia form a valuable
aid to the student of Horace.
Ed. W. Meyer (1874) ; A. Holder (1894); see also C - F - Urba >
Meletemataporphyrionea(i&8$);}L. Schweikert, De Porphyrionis . . .
scholiis Horatianis (1865) ; F. Pauly, Quaestiones criticae de . . . Por-
phyrionis commentariis Horatianis (1858).
PORPHYRY (IIop<i>ptos) (A.D. 233-*:. 304), Greek scholar,
historian, and Neoplatonist, was born at Tyre, or Batanaea in
Syria. He studied grammar and rhetoric under Cassius Long-
inus (q.v.). His original name was Malchus (king), which was
changed by his tutor into Porphyrius (clad in purple), a
jesting allusion to the colour of the imperial robes (cf . porphyro-
genitus, born in the purple). In 262 he went to Rome,
attracted by the reputation of Plotinus, and for six years
devoted himself to the study of Neoplatonism. Having injured
his health by overwork, he went to live in Sicily for five years.
On his return to Rome, he lectured on philosophy and endea-
voured to render the obscure doctrines of Plotinus (who had died
in the meantime) intelligible to the ordinary understanding.
His most distinguished pupil was lamblichus. When advanced
in years he married Marcella, a widow with seven children and
an enthusiastic student of philosophy. Nothing more is known
of his life, and the date of his death is uncertain.
Of his numerous works on a great variety of subjects the following
are extant : Life of Plotinus and an exposition of his teaching in the
104
PORPHYRY
irpAj ri J/OIJTO (Sententiae ad intelligibilia ducentes, Aids
to the study of the Intelligibles). The Life of Pythagoras, which is
incomplete, probably formed part of a larger history of philosophy
(<t>i\6ao<t>os iaropla, in four books) down to Plato. His work on
Aristotle is represented by the Introduction (doaywyii) to and
Commentary (ittfyriffis, in the form of questions and answers) on
the Categories. The first, translated into Latin by Boetius, was
extensively used in the middle ages as a compendium of Aristotelian
logic; of the second only fragments have been preserved. His
Xpovucd, a chronological work, extended from the taking of Troy down
to A.D. 270; to it Eusebius is indebted for his list of the Macedonian
kings. The treatise <t>i\6\oyos laropia is called an impdaais
(lecture) by Eusebius, who in his Praeparatio evangelica (x. 3)
has preserved a considerable extract from it, treating of plagiarism
amongst the ancients. Other grammatical and literary works are
'O/zTjpufd fijT^Mura (Quaestiones hornericae); and De antro nymph-
arum, in which the description in the Odyssey (xiii. 102-112) is
explained as an allegory of the universe. The Jltpi diroxfls kti4/i>\wi>
(De abstinentia) , on abstinence from animal food, is especially
valuable as having preserved numerous original statements of the
old philosophers and the substance of Theophrastus's npl fi<re/3as
(On Piety). It also contains a long fragment from the Cretans
of Euripides. The Dpi* MapxiXXoi' is an exhortation to his
wife Marcella to practise virtue and self-restraint and to study
philosophy. The letter to the Egyptian priest Anebo, dealing with
religious questions, was answered by a member of the school of
lamblichus, who called himself Abammon, in the De mysteriis.
It is frequently referred to by Eusebius, Cyril and Augustine.
Eusebius preserved fragments of the EUpi TTJS tic Xo-yiav 4Xocro</>as
(De philosophia ex oraculis haurienda), in which he expressed his
belief in the responses of the oracles of various gods as confirming
his theosophical views. Porphyry is well known as a violent
opponent of Christianity and defender of Paganism; of his KarA
Xpurriai'Sn' (Adversus Christianas) in 15 books, perhaps the most
important of all his works, only fragments remain. Counter-treatises
were written by Eusebius of Caesarea, Apollinarius (or Apollinaris) of
Laodicea, Methodius of Olympus, and Macarius of Magnesia, but all
these are lost. Porphyry's view of the book of Daniel, that it was
the work of a writer in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, is given
by Jerome. There is no proof of the assertion of Socrates, the
ecclesiastical historian, and Augustine, that Porphyry was once a
Christian.
There is no complete edition of the works of Porphyry. Separate
editions : Vita Plotini in R. Volkmann's edition of the Enneades of
Plotinus (1883) ; Sententiae, by B. Mommert (1907) ; Vita Pythagorae,
De antro nympharum, De abstinentia, Ad Marcellam, by A. Nauck
(1885); " Isagoge et in Aristotelis categorias commentarium," by
A. Busse in Commentaria in Aristotelem graeca (1887), iv; I, with the
translation of Boetius (ed. with introd., S. Brandt, 1906) ; fragments
of the Chronica in C. W. Muller, Frag. hist, grace. (1849), iii. 688;
Quaestiones hornericae, by H. Schrader (1880, 1890); Letter to Anebo
in W. Pharthey's edition of lamblichus De mysteriis (1857); De
philosophia ex oraculis haurienda, by G. Wolff (1856); fragments of
the Adversus Christianas by A. Georgiades (Leipzig, 1891); English
trans, of the De abstinentia, De antro nympharum and Sententiae,
by Thomas Taylor (1823) ; of the Sententiae by T. Davidson in the
Journal of Speculative Philosophy, iii. (1869); of the De abstinentia
by S. Hibberd (1857), and of the Ad Marcellam by A. Zimmern
(1896).
On Porphyry and his works generally see Fabricius, Bibliotheca
graeca (ed. Harles), v. 725; Eunapius, Vita philosophorum-, article
in Sui'das; Lucas Holstemus, De vita et scnptis Porphyrii (Cam-
bridge, 1655); J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship (1906), i.
343; W. Christ, Gesch. der griechischen Litleratur (1898), 621 ; M. N.
Bouillet, Porphyre, son role dans I'ecole neoplatonicienne (1864);
A. I. Kleffner, Porphyrius der Neuplatoniker und Christenfeind
(Paderborn, 1896); on his philosophy, T. Whittaker, The Neo-
Platonists (Cambridge, 1901), and NEOPLATONISM.
PORPHYRY (Gr. irop^iipeos, Lat. purpureus, purple), in
petrology, a beautiful red volcanic rock which was much used
by the Romans for ornamental purposes when cut and polished.
The famous red porphyry (porfido rosso antico) came from Egypt,
but its beauty and decorative value were first recognized by the
Romans in the time of the emperor Claudius. It was obtained
on the west coast of the Red Sea, where it forms a dike 80 or
90 ft. thick. For a long time the knowledge of its source was
lost, but the original locality, marked by many ancient quarries,
has been re-discovered at Jebel Dhokani and the stone is again
an article of commerce. In a dark red ground-mass it contains
many small white or rose-red plagioclase felspars, black shining
prisms of hornblende, and small plates of iron oxide. The red
colour of the felspars and of the ground-mass is unusual in rocks
of this group, and arises from the partial conversion of the
plagioclase felspar into thulite and manganese-epidote. These
minerals also occur in thin veins crossing the rock. Many
specimens show effects of crushing and in extreme cases this
produced brecciation. Another famous porphyry, hardly less
beautiful, is the verde antique, porfido verde antico, or marmor
lacedaemonium viride of Pliny, which was obtained between
Lebetsova and Marathonisi in Peloponnesus. It has the same
structure as the red porphyry as it contains large white or green
felspars in a fine ground-mass. The green colour arises from the
abundant formation of chlorite and epidote in the large felspars
and throughout the rock. In ancient times it was much used
as an ornamental stone, these two varieties of porphyry making
a fine contrast with one another. Green porphyries are not
so rare as red. A similar rock is obtained at Lambay Island
near Dublin. They are still used extensively, especially for
small ornaments. Large pieces are difficult to obtain free from
flaws, and marble is preferred for mural work, not only because
of the greater variety of patterns but also because it is much
softer and more easily cut and polished.
Many igneous rocks possess the structure which characterizes
these porphyries (see PETROLOGY, Plate JIL): the presence of
scattered crystals of larger size in a fine-grained ground-mass.
Most lavas, and many of the rocks which occur as dikes and sills,
have porphyritic structure. These may be called porphyries
and this term has consequently been applied to a great variety
of rocks, e.g. diorite-porphyry, granite-porphyry, greenstone-
porphyry, augite-porphyry, liebenerite-porphyry, &c. More
recently the use of the term has been restricted to a series of
rocks which are of intrusive origin and contain much porphyritic
felspar (with or without quartz or nepheline). The porphyritic
intrusive rocks with large crystals of augite, olivine, biotite, and
hornblende are for the most part grouped under the lampro-
phyres; while the term porphyry is rarely now applied to any
of the effusive rocks or lavas. Furthermore, it has become
usual to subdivide the intrusive porphyries into two classes;
in one of these the phenocrysts are mainly orthoclase, in the
other mainly plagioclase felspar. The first series is known as
the " porphyries," while the second group is called " porphy-
rites." There are porphyries which correspond chemically and
mineralogically to granites, syenites, and nepheline-syenites;
while the porphyrites form a parallel series to the diorites,
norites and gabbros. In each case the porphyritic type occurs
generally as dikes and thin sheets which consolidated beneath
the surface but probably at no great depth (hypabyssal rocks);
while granite, gabbro and the other holocrystalline non-por-
phyritic rocks belong to the plutonic or abyssal group which
cooled very slowly at great depths and under enormous pressure.
The principal subdivisions of the group are the granite-porphyries,
the syenite-porphyries and the elaeolite-porphyries. In all of them
porphyritic orthoclase or alkali felspar is the characteristic mineral.
The granite-porphyries and quartz-porphyries (q.v.) consist mainly
of orthoclase, quartz and ferro-magnesian mineral, usually biotite
but sometimes hornblende, augite or enstatite.
Granite-porphyries are exceedingly common in all regions where
acid intrusive rocks occur. Many granite masses are surrounded
by dikes of this kind, and in some cases the chilled margin of a granite
consists of typical porphyry.
The syenite-porphyries, like the syenites, are less common than the
granite-porphyries and granites. They are characterized by an
abundance of orthoclase and a scarcity or absence of quartz. The
phenocrysts are orthoclase (and oligoclase), biotite, hornblende or
augite ; the ground-mass is principally alkali felspar with sometimes
a little quartz. In many specimens the felspars of the second
generation form a mosaic of ill-shaped grains, in others they are
little rectangular crystals which may have a fluxion arrangement
(orthophyric type of ground-mass). Some of the rocks formerly
known as orthoclase-porphyries belong to this group; others are
ancient trachytic lavas (orthophyres). Closely related to the
syenite-porphyries is the rhomben-porphyry of south Norway and
West Africa. In these the large felspars have rhomb-shaped sections
owing to their peculiar crystalline development. Olivine, augite
and biotite occur in these rocks, but there is no quartz or soda-lime
felspar. The porphyritic felspars contain both soda and potash
and belong to anorthoclase. Rhomben-porphyries occur as dikes
connected with the syenites (laurvikites of southern Norway), and
many ice-borne boulders of these rocks have been found among the
drift deposits of the east of England.
Elaeolite- and leucite- (syenite) porphyries form apophyses and
dikes around nepheline- and leucite-syenite intrusions. The former
contain porphyritic nepheline which is often weathered to soft,
PORPOISE
105
finely crystalline aggregates of white mica and other secondary
products as in the well-known liebenerite-porphyry of Tirol and
nic-.c<:kite-porphyry of Greenland. The felspars of these rocks
.in- albite, ortnoclase and anorthoclase, and they often con-
i.iiu soda-augite and amphiboles. Elaeojite-porphyries occur
.ilc.MK with nepheline-syenites in such districts as the Serra de
Monchique, south Norway, Kola, Montreal. Allied to them are
the tinguaites (so called from the Serra de Tingua, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil), which are pale green rocks with abundant alkali felspar
nepheline, needles of green aegirine, and sometimes biotite and
cancrinite. As a rule, however, these are not porphyritic. Some
authors group the tinguaites with the aplites rather than the por-
phyries. Grorudites are quartz-tinguaites free from nepheline,
.nid snlvsbergites are tinguaitic rocks in which neither quartz nor
.line occur. The two last varieties have been described from
the Christiania district in Norway, but tinguaites are known with
nepheline-syenites in many parts of the world, e.g. Norway, Brazil,
: cigal, Canada, Sweden, Greenland.
The following analyses of porphyries of different types will show
hemical composition of a few selected examples:
I., Elvan or granite porphyry (with pinite after cordierite) Prah
sands, Cornwall. II., Granophyre Armboth, Cumberland. III.,
Granophyre Carrock Fell, Cumberland. IV., Rhomben-porphyry
Tonsterg, Norway. V., Elaeolite porphyry Beemerville, New
Jersey. VI., Tinguaite Kola. VII., Grorudite Assynt, Scotland.
Porphyrites. The porphyrites as above mentioned are
intrusive or hypabyssal rocks of porphyritic texture, with
phenocrysts of plagioclase felspar and hornblende, biotite
or augite (sometimes also quartz) in a fine ground-mass. The
name has not always been used in this sense, but formerly
signified rather decomposed andesitic and basaltic lavas of
Carboniferous age and older. Both the red porphyry and the
green porphyry of the ancients are more properly classified in
this group than with the granite-porphyries, as their dominant
felspar is plagioclase and they contain little or no primary
quartz. Porphyrites occur as dikes which accompany masses
of diorite, and are often called diorite-porphyrites; they differ
from diorites in few respects except their porphyritic structure.
The phenocrysts are plagioclase, often much zoned with central
kernels of bytownite or labradorite and margins of oligoclase
or even orthoclase. In a special group there are corroded blebs
or porphyritic quartz: these rocks are called quartz-porphyrites,
and are distinguished from the granite-porphyries by the scarcity
or absence of orthoclase. The hornblende of the porphyrites
is often green but sometimes brown, resembling that of the
lamprophyres, a group from which the porphyrites are separated
by their containing phenocrysts of felspar, which do not occur
in normal lamprophyres. Augite, when present, is nearly
always pale green; it is not so abundant as hornblende. Dark
brown biotite is very common in large hexagonal plates.
Muscovite and olivine are not represented in these rocks. The
ground-mass is usually a crystalline aggregate of granular
felspar in which plagioclase dominates, though orthoclase is
rarely absent. The Alpine dike rocks known as ortlerites and
suldenites are porphyrites containing much green or brown
hornblende and augite; these, however, hardly require a dis-
tinctive designation. Diorite-porphyrites have almost as wide
a distribution as granite-porphyries, and occur in all parts of
the world where intrusions of granite and diorite have been
injocted; they are in fact among the commonest hypabyssal
rocks.
To gabbros and norites certain types of porphyrite correspond
which have the same mineral and chemical composition as the
parent rocks but with a porphyritic instead of granitic structure.
Gabbro-porphyrites are not numerous; or rather most of these
rocks are described as porphyritic basalts and dolcrites. The
beerbachites are finely granular dike rocks resembling gabbros
SiO,
AI,0,
Fe.0,
FeO
CaO
MgO
K.O
Na,0
H,O
I.
II.
III.
64-94
61-58
5<>AS
I7-50
18-84
16-70
0-69
4-68
5-9=
3-94
7'3
2-59
6-59
5-97
2-83
2-04
3-25
3-"
1-49
1-91
3-44
4-27
2-78
1-36
o-54
SiO,
A1 2 0,
Fe,O,
FeO
MgO
CaO
K,O
Na 2 O
H,O
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
72-51
67-18
71-60
58-82
45-18
54-46
75-20
13-31
16-65
13-60
21-06
23-31
19-96
12-65
tr.
o-55
2-40
3-26
3-87
2-15
0-70
1-50
1-54
0-21
1-38
1-45
O-6i
0-26
O-6o
2-35
2-30
3-03
4-62
2-12
O-6O
6-65
2-91
3-53
3-70
11-16
8-68
4-14
o-43
4-03
5-55
6-83
5-94
2-76
5-67
0-60
o-75
0-70
1-26
1-14
5-20
O-I2
6-II
2-34 1 3-33
1-53 | 0-28
in all respects except in their being less coarsely crystalline.
Norite-porphyrites have porphyritic plagioclase (labradorite
usually) with hypersthene or bronzite, often altered to bastite.
They accompany norite masses in Nahe (Prussia) and Tirol.
They have vitreous forms which are described as andesitic-
pitchstones or hypersthene-andesites.
I , Quartz-porphyrite Lippenhof, Schwarzwald. II., Porphyrite
Esterel, France. III., Norite-porohyrite Klausen, Tirol.
(J. S. F.)
PORPOISE (sometimes spelled Porpus and Porpesse), a name
derived from the O. Fr. porpeis, for porc-peis, i.e. pig-fish, Lat.
porcus, pig, and piscis, fish; the mod. Fr. marsouin is borrowed
from the Ger. meerscfrwein, although the word is commonly
used by sailors to designate all the smaller cetaceans, especially
those numerous species which naturalists call "dolphins,"
it is properly restricted to the common porpoise of the British
seas (Phocaena communis, or P, phocaena).
The porpoise, when full grown, attains a length of 5 ft. or
more; the dimensions of an adult female specimen from the
FIG. i. The Common Porpoise (Phocaena communis).
English Channel being: length from nose to notch between the
flukes of the tail, 62 J in.; from the nose to the front edge
of the dorsal fin, 29 in.; height of dorsal fin, 4^ in.;
length of base of dorsal fin, 8 in.; length of pectoral fin, 9} in.;
breadth of pectoral fin, 3^ in.; breadth of tail flukes,
13 in. The head is rounded in front, and differs from that
of dolphins in not having the snout produced into a distinct
" beak " separated from the forehead by a groove. The under
jaw projects about half an inch beyond the upper. The mouth
is wide, bounded by stiff immobile lips, and curves slightly
upwards at the hinder end. The eye is small, and the external
ear represented by a minute aperture, scarcely larger than would
be made by a pin, about 2 in. behind the eye. The dorsal
fin, near the middle of the back, is low and triangular. The
flippers are of moderate size, and slightly sickle-shaped. The
upper-parts are dark grey or nearly black according to the light
in which they are viewed and the state of moisture or otherwise
of the skin; the under-parts pure white. The line of demarca-
tion between these colours is not distinct, washes or splashes of
grey encroaching upon the white on the sides, and varies some-
what in different individuals. Usually it passes from the throat
(the anterior part of which, with the whole of the under jaw,
is dark) above the origin of the flipper, along the middle of the
flank, and descends again to the middle line before reaching the
tail. Both sides of the flippers and flukes are black. The an-
terior edge of the dorsal fin is furnished with a row of small rounded
horny spines or, rather, tubercles, of variable number. One of
io6
PORPORA PORSON
the most characteristic anatomical distinctions between the
porpoise and other members of the Delphinidae is the form of the
teeth (numbering twenty-three to twenty-six on each side of
each jaw), which have expanded, flattened, spade-like crowns,
with more or less marked vertical grooves, giving a tendency to
a bilobed or often trilobed form (fig. 2).
The porpoise, which is sociable and gregarious, is usually seen
in small herds, and frequents coasts, bays and estuaries rather
FIG. 2. Teeth of Porpoise. (Twice natural size.)
than the open ocean. It is the commonest cetacean in the
seas round the British Isles, and not infrequently ascends the
Thames, having been seen as high as Richmond; it has also been
observed in the Seine at Neuilly, near Paris. It frequents the
Scandinavian coasts, entering the Baltic in the summer; and is
found as far north as Baffin's Bay and as far west as the coasts
of the United States. Southward its range is more limited
than that of the dolphin, as, though common on the Atlantic
coasts of France, it is not known to enter the Mediterranean.
It feeds on mackerel, pilchards and herrings and, following
the shoals, is often caught by fishermen in the nets along with
its prey. In former times it was a common article of food in
England and France, but is now rarely if ever eaten, being
valuable only for the oil obtained from its blubber. Its skin is
sometimes used for leather and boot-thongs, but the so-called
" porpoise-hides " are generally obtained from the beluga.
The Black Sea porpoise (P. relicta) is a distinct species. A third
species, from the American coast of the North Pacific, has been
described under the name of Phocaena vomerina, and another
from the mouth of the Rio de la Plata as P. spinipennis. Nearly
allied is Neophocaena phocaenoides, a small species from the Indian
Ocean and Japan, with teeth of the same form as those of the por-
poise, but fewer in number (eighteen to twenty on each side), of
larger size, and more distinctly notched or lobed on the free edge.
It is distinguished from the common porpoise externally by
its black hue and the absence of a dorsal fin. (See CETACEA.)
(R. L.*)
PORPORA, NICCOLA [or NICCOLO] ANTONIO (1686-1767),
Italian operatic composer and teacher of singing, was born in
Naples on the igth of August 1686. He was educated at the
Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto. His first opera,
Basilio, was produced at Naples; his second, Berenice, at Rome.
Both were successful, and he followed them up by innumerable
compositions of like character; but his fame rests chiefly upon
his unequalled power of teaching singing. At the Conservatorio
di Sant' Onofrio and the Poveri di Gesu Cristo he trained
Farinelli, Caffarelli, Mingotti, Salimbeni, and other celebrated
vocalists. Still his numerous engagements did not tempt him
to forsake composition. In 1725 he visited Vienna, but the
Emperor Charles VI. disliked his florid style, especially his con-
stant use of the trillo, and refused to patronize him. After this
rebuff he settled in Venice, teaching regularly in the schools of
La Pieta and the Incurabili. In 1729 he was invited to London
as a rival to Handel; but his visit was unfortunate. Little less
disastrous was his second visit to England in 1734, when even
the presence of his pupil, the great Farinelli, failed to save the
dramatic company of Lincoln's Inn Fields theatre, known as the
" Opera of the Nobility," from ruin. The sequence of dates
and visits in Porpora's life are variously stated by different
biographers. The electoral prince of Saxony and king of Poland
had invited him to Dresden to become the singing master of the
electoral princess, Maria Antonia, and in 1748 he is supposed
to have been made Kapellmeister to the prince. Difficult
relations, however, with Hasse and his wife resulted in his
departure, of which the date is not known. From Dresden he
is said to have gone to Vienna, where he gave lessons to Joseph
Haydn (?..), and then to have returned in 1759 to Naples. '
From this time Porpora's career was a series of misfortunes.
His last opera, Camilla, failed; and he became so poor that the
expenses of his funeral were paid by subscription. Yet at the
moment of his death in 1767 Farinelli and Caffarelli were living
in splendour on fortunes for which they were largely indebted
to the excellence of the old maestro's teaching. In George
Sand's Consuelo much use is made of a romantic version of the life
of young Haydn and his relations with the heroine, Porpora's
pupil, and with Porpora himself. A good linguist and a man of
considerable literary culture, Porpora was also celebrated for
his power of repartee. His operas are, on the whole, tedious and
conventional; but he produced some good work in the form of
instrumental music and chamber-cantatas. A series of six
Latin duets on the Passion (accessible in a modern edition
published by Breitkopf and Haertel) is remarkable for dignity
and beauty.
PORRIDGE (an altered form of " pottage," Fr. potage,
soup, that which is cooked in a pot), a food made by stirring
meal, especially oatmeal, in boiling water and cooking it slowly
until the whole becomes soft. The dish and its name are
particularly identified with Scotland; in Ireland it is commonly
known as " stir-about." The former application to a broth
made of vegetables or of meat and vegetables thickened with
barley or other meal is obsolete, and the earlier " pottage "
is the usual word employed. The form " porridge " apparently
dates from the i6th century. In " porringer," a porridge-bowl,
the n is inserted as in " passenger," " messenger."
PORSENA (or PORSENNA), LARS, king of Clusium in Etruria.
He is said to have undertaken an expedition against Rome
in order to restore the banished Tarquinius Superbus to the
throne. He gained possession of the Janiculum, and was
prevented from entering Rome only by the bravery of Horatius
Codes (q.v.). Porsena then laid siege to the city, but was so
struck by the courage of Mucius Scaevola that he made peace
on condition that the Romans restored the land they had taken
from Veii and gave him twenty hostages. He subsequently
returned both the land and the hostages (Livy, ii. 0-15; Dion.
Halic., v. 21-34; Plutarch, Poplicola, p. 16-19). This story is
probably an attempt to conceal a great disaster and to soothe
the vanity of the Romans by accounts of legendary exploits.
According to other authorities, the Romans were obliged to
surrender the city, to acknowledge Porsena's supremacy by
sending him a sceptre, a royal robe, and an ivory chair, to
abandon their territory north of the Tiber, to give up their
arms, and in future to use iron for agricultural purposes only.
It is curious that, in spite of his military success, Porsena made
no attempt to restore the Tarquinian dynasty. Hence it is
suggested that the attack on Rome was merely an incident of
the march of the Etruscans, driven southward by the invasion
of upper Italy by the Celts, through Latium on their way to
Campania. This would account for its transitory effects, and
the speedy recovery of the Romans from the blow. With the
departure of Porsena all traces of Etruscan sovereignty disappear
and Rome is soon vigorously engaged in the prosecution of
various wars (see Tacitus, Hist. iii. 72; Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxiv.
39 [14]; Dion. Halic. v. 35, 36, vii. 5). The tomb at Chiusi
described by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 19) as that of Porsena
cannot have been his burial-place (see CLUSIUM).
For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, Romische
Geschichte, bk. xxi. 18; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of Early
Roman History, ch. xii. 5 ; W. Ihne, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. ; E. Pais,
Storia di Roma, i. ch. iv. (1898). Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome
gives a dramatic version of the story.
PORSON, RICHARD (1750-1808), English classical scholar,
was born on Christmas Day 1759 at East Ruston, near North
Walsham, in Norfolk, the eldest son of Huggin Person, parish
clerk. His mother was the daughter of a shoemaker named
Palmer, of the neighbouring village of Bacton. He was sent
first to the village school at Bacton, kept by John Woodrow,
and afterwards to that of Happisburgh kept by Mr Summers.
PORSON
107
Here his extraordinary powers of memory and aptitude for
arithmetic were soon discovered; his skill in penmanship, which
attended him through life, was due to the care of Summers,
who became early impressed with his abilities, and long after-
wards stated that during fifty years of scholastic life he had
never come across boys so clever as Person and his two brothers.
He was well grounded in Latin by Summers, remaining with him
for three years. His father also took pains with his education,
making him repeat at night the lessons he had learned in the day.
Hi- would frequently repeat without making a mistake a lesson
which he had learned one or two years before and had never seen
in the interval. For books he had only what his father's cottage
supplied a book or two of arithmetic, Greenwood's England,
Jewell's Apology, and an odd volume of Chamber's Cyclopaedia
picked up from a wrecked coaster, and eight or ten volumes of
the Universal Magazine.
When Person was eleven years old the Rev. T. Hewitt,
the curate of East Ruston and two neighbouring villages,
took charge of his education. Mr Hewitt taught him with
his own boys, taking him through the ordinary Latin
authors, Caesar, Terence, Ovid and Virgil; before this he had
made such progress in mathematics as to be able to solve ques-
tions out of the Ladies' Diary. In addition to this Hewitt
brought him under the notice of Mr Norris of Witton Park, who
sent him to Cambridge and had him examined by Professor
Lambert, the two tutors of Trinity, Postlethwaite and Collier,
and the well-known mathematician Atwood, then assistant
tutor; the result was so favourable a report of his knowledge
and abilities that Mr Norris determined to provide for his educa-
tion so as to fit him for the university. This was in 1773. It
was found impossible to get him into Charterhouse, and he was
entered on the foundation of Eton in August 1774.
Of his Eton life Person had no very pleasant recollections,
but he was popular among his schoolfellows; and two dramas
he wrote for performance in the Long Chamber were remembered
many years later. His marvellous memory was of course
noticed; but at first he seems to have somewhat disappointed
the expectations of his friends, as his composition was weak,
and his ignorance of quantity kept him behind several of his
inferiors. He went to Eton too late to have any chance of
succeeding to a scholarship at King's College. In 1777 he
suffered a great loss from the death of his patron Mr Norris;
but contributions from Etonians to aid in the funds for his
maintenance at the university were rapidly supplied, and he
found a successor to Norris in Sir George Baker, the physician, at
that time president of the college of physicians. Chiefly through
his means Person was entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, as
a pensioner on the 28th of March 1778, matriculating in April. It
is said that what first biassed his mind towards critical researches
was the gift of a copy of Toup's Longinus by Dr Davies, the
head master of Eton, for a good exercise; but it was Bentley
and Richard Dawes to whom he looked as his immediate masters.
His critical career was begun systematically while an under-
graduate. He became a scholar of Trinity in 1780, won the
Craven university scholarship in 1781, and took his degree of
B.A. in 1782, as third senior aptime, obtaining soon afterwards
the first chancellor's medal for classical studies. The same
year he was elected Fellow of Trinity, a very unusual thing for a
junior bachelor of arts, as the junior bachelors were rarely
allowed to be candidates for fellowships, a regulation which lasted
from 1667 when Isaac Newton was elected till 1818 when Connop
Thirlwall became a fellow. Person graduated M.A. in 1785.
Having thus early secured his independence, he turned his
thoughts to publication. The first occasion of his appearing
in print was in a short notice of Schutz's Aeschylus in Maty's
Review, written in 1783. This review contains several other
essays by his hand; especially may be mentioned the reviews
of R. F. Brunck's Aristophanes (containing an able summary
of the poet's chief excellencies and defects), Weston's Hermes-
iaiMx, and Huntingford's Apology for the Monostrophics. But
it was to the tragedians, and especially to Aeschylus, that his
mind was then chiefly directed. He began a correspondence
with David Ruhnken, the veteran scholar of Leiden, requesting
to be favoured with any fragments of Aeschylus that Ruhnken
had come across in his collection of inedited lexicons and gram-
marians, and sending him, as a proof that he was not under-
taking a task for which he was unequal, some specimens of his
critical powers, and especially of his restoration of a very corrupt
passage in theSupplices (673-677) by the help of a nearly equally
corrupt passage of Plutarch's Eroticus. As the syndics of the
Cambridge press were proposing to re-edit Thomas Stanley's
Aeschylus, the editorship was offered to Person; but he declined
to undertake it on the conditions laid down, namely, of reprint-
ing Stanley's corrupt text and incorporating all the variorum
notes, however worthless. He was especially anxious that the
Medicean MS. at Florence should be collated for the new edition,
and offered to undertake the collation at an expense not greater
than it would have cost if done by a person on the spot ; but the
syndics refused the offer, the vice-chancellor (Mr Torkington,
master of Clare Hall) observing that Person might collect his
MSS. at home.
In 1786, a new edition of Hutchinson's Anabasis of Xenophon
being called for, Person was requested by the publisher to supply
a few notes, which he did in conjunction with the Rev. W.
Whiter, editor of the Etymologicon universale. These give the
first specimen of that neat and terse style of Latin notes in which
he was afterwards without a rival. They also show his intimate
acquaintance with his two favourite authors, Plato and
Athenaeus, and a familiarity with Eustathius's commentary
on Homer.
In 1787 the Notae breves ad Toupii emendaliones in Suidatn
were written, though they did not appear till 1790 in the new
edition of Toup's book published at Oxford. These first made
Person's name known as a scholar of the first rank, and carried
his fame beyond England. The letters he received from
Christian G. Heyne and G. Hermann preserved in the library of
Trinity College, and written before his Euripides was published,
afford proof of this. In his notes he points out the errors of
Toup and others; at the same time he speaks of Toup's book as
" opus illud aureum," and states that his writing the notes at
all is due to the admiration he had for it. They contain some
brilliant emendations of various authors; but the necessity of
having Toup's own notes with them has prevented their ever
being reprinted in a separate form.
During this year, in the Gentleman's Magazine, he wrote
the three letters on Hawkins's Life of Johnson which have
been reprinted by Mr Kidd in his Tracts and Criticisms of Parson,
and in a volume of Person's Correspondence. They are admirable
specimens of the dry humour so characteristic of the writer, and
prove his intimate acquaintance with Shakespeare and the other
English dramatists and poets. In the same periodical, in the
course of 1788 and 1789, appeared the Letters to Archdeacon
Travis, on the spurious verse I John v. 7 (collected in 1 790 into
a volume), which must be considered to have settled the question.
Gibbon's verdict on the book, that it was " the most acute and
accurate piece of criticism since the days of Bentley," may be
considered as somewhat partial, as it was in defence of him that
Porson had entered the field against Travis. But in the masterly
sketch of Gibbon's work and style in the preface Porson does not
write in a merely flattering tone. It is to be wished that on
such a subject the tone of levity had been modified. But
Porson says in his preface that he could treat the subject in no
other manner, if he treated it at all: " To peruse such a mass of
falsehood and sophistry and to write remarks upon it, without
sometimes giving way to laughter and sometimes to indignation,
was, to me at least, impossible." Travis has no mercy shown
him, but he certainly deserved none. One is equally struck with
the thorough grasp Porson displays of his subject, the amount
of his miscellaneous learning, and the humour that pervades the
whole. But it was then the unpopular side: the publisher is
said to have lost money by the book; and one of his early friends,
Mrs Turner of Norwich, cut down a legacy she had left Porson
to 30 on being told that he had written what was described to
her as a book against Christianity.
io8
PORSON
During the years that followed he continued to contribute
to the leading reviews, writing in the Monthly Review the articles
on Robertson's Parian Chronicle, Edwards's Plutarch, and
R. Payne Knight's Essay on the Greek Alphabet. He gave
assistance to William Beloe in one or two articles in the British
Critick, and probably wrote also in the Analytical Review and
the Critical Review.
In 1792 his fellowship was no longer tenable by a layman;
and, rather than undertake duties for which he felt himself
unfit, and which involved subscription to the Articles (though
he had no difficulty as to signing a statement as to his conformity
with the liturgy of the Church of England when elected Greek
professor), he determined not to take holy orders, which
would have enabled him to remain a fellow, and thus deprived
himself of his only means of subsistence. He might have been
retained in the society by being appointed to a lay fellowship,
one of the two permanent lay fellowships which the statutes
then permitted falling vacant just in time. It is said that this
had been promised him, and it was certainly the custom in the
college always to appoint the senior among the existing laymen,
who otherwise would vacate his fellowship. But the master
(Dr PostlethwaiteJ, who had the nomination, used his privilege
to nominate a younger man (John Heys), a nephew of his own,
and thus Person was turned adrift without any means of support.
A subscription was, however, got up among his friends to provide
an annuity to keep him from actual want; Cracherode, Cleaver
Banks, Burney and Parr took the lead, and enough was collected
to produce about 100 a year. He accepted it only on the
condition that he should receive the interest during his lifetime,
and that the principal, placed in the hands of trustees, should
be returned to the donors at his death. When this occurred they
or their survivors refused to receive the money, and it was with
part of this sum that, in 1816, the Person prize was founded to
perpetuate his name at Cambridge. The remainder was devoted
to the foundation of the Porson scholarship in the same univer-
sity. This scholarship was first awarded in 1855.
After the loss of his fellowship he continued chiefly to reside
in London, having chambers in Essex Court, Temple occasion-
ally visiting his friends, such as Dr Goodall at Eton and Dr
Samuel Parr at Hatton. It was at Dr Goodall's house that
the Letters to Travis were written, and at one period of his life he
spent a great deal of time at Hatton. While there he would
generally spend his mornings in the library, and for the most
part in silence; but in the evenings, especially if Parr were
away, he would collect the young men of the house about him,
and pour forth from memory torrents of every kind of literature.
The charms of his society are described as being then irresistible.
In 1792 the Greek professorship at Cambridge became vacant
by the resignation of Mr Cooke. To this Porson was elected
without opposition, and he continued to hold it till his death.
The duties then consisted in taking a part in the examinations
for the university scholarships and classical medals. It was
said he wished to give lectures; but lecturing was not in fashion
in those days, and he did far more to advance the knowledge
and study of the Greek language by his publications than he
could have done by any amount of lecturing. It must be re-
membered that the emoluments of the professorship were only
40 a year. The authors on which his time was chiefly spent
were the tragedians, Aristophanes, Athenaeus, and the lexicons
of Suidas, Hesychius and Photius. This last he twice tran-
scribed (the first transcript having been destroyed by a fire at
Perry's house, -which deprived the world of much valuable matter
that he had written on the margins of his books) from the original
among the Gale MSS. in the library of Trinity College. Of the
brilliancy and accuracy of his emendations on Aristophanes,
the fragments of the other comic poets, and the lexicographers
he had a pleasing proof on one occasion when he found how often
in Aristophanes he had been anticipated by Bentley, and on
another when Schow's collation of the unique MS. of Hesychius
appeared and proved him right in " an incredible number " of
instances.
In 1795 there appeared from Foulis's press at Glasgow an
edition of Aeschylus in folio, printed with the same types as the
Glasgow Homer, without a word of preface or anything to give
a clue to the editor. Many new readings were inserted in the
text with an asterisk affixed, while an obelus was used to mark
many others as corrupt. It was at once recognized as Person's
work; he had superintended the printing of a small edition in
two vols. 8vo, but this was kept back by the printer and not
issued till 1806, still without the editor's name. There are
corrections of many more passages in this edition than in the
folio; and, though the text cannot be considered as what would
have gone forth if with his name and sanction, yet more is done
for the text of Aeschylus than had been accomplished by any
preceding editor. It has formed the substratum for all subse-
quent editions. It was printed from a copy of Pauw's edition
corrected, which is preserved in the library of Trinity College.
Soon after this, in 1797, appeared the first instalment of what
was intended to be a complete edition of Euripides an edition
of the Hecuba.
In the preface he pointed out the correct method of writing
several words previously incorrectly written, and gave some
specimens of his powers on the subject of Greek metres. The
notes are very short, almost entirely critical; but so great a
range of learning, combined with such felicity of emendation
whenever a corrupt passage was encountered, is displayed that
there was never any doubt as to the quarter whence the new
edition had proceeded. He avoided the office of interpreter in
his notes, which may well be wondered at on recollecting how
admirably he did translate when he condescended to that branch
of an editor's duties.
His work, however, did not escape attack; Gilbert Wakefield
had already published a Tragoediarum delectus; and, conceiving
himself to be slighted, as there was no mention of his labours in
the new Hecuba, he wrote a " diatribe extemporalis " against it,
a tract which for bad taste, bad Latin and bad criticism it would
not be easy to match. Gottfried Hermann of Leipzig, then a
very young man, who had also written a work on Greek metres,
which Dr Elmsley has styled " a book of which too much ill
cannot easily be said," issued an edition of the Hecuba, in which
Person's theories were openly attacked. Porson at first took
no notice of either, but went on quietly with his Euripides,
publishing the Orestes in 1798, the Phoenissae in 1799 and the
Medea in i8oi,the last printed at the Cambridge press, and with
the editor's name on the title-page. But there are many allu-
sions to his antagonists in the notes on such points as the final
v, the use of accents, &c.; and on v. 675 of the Medea he holds up
Hermann by name to scorn in caustic and taunting language.
And it is more than probable that to Hermann's attack we owe
the most perfect of his works, the supplement to the preface to
the Hecuba, prefixed to the second edition published at
Cambridge in 1802. The metrical laws promulgated are laid
down clearly, illustrated with an ample number of examples, and
those that militate against them brought together and corrected,
so that what had been beyond the reach of the ablest scholars of
preceding times is made clear to the tyro. The laws of the
iambic metre are fully explained, and the theory of the pause
stated and proved, which had been only alluded to in the first
edition. A third edition of the Hecuba appeared in 1808, and
he left corrected copies of the other plays, of which new editions
appeared soon after his death ; but these four plays were all that
was accomplished of the projected edition of the poet. Porson
lived six years after the second edition of the Hecuba was
published, but his natural indolence and procrastination led
him to put off the work. He found time, however, to execute
his collation of the Harleian MS. of the Odyssey, published in
the Grenville Homer in 1801, and to present to the Society of
Antiquaries his wonderful conjectural restoration of the Rosetta
stone.
In 1806, when the London Institution was founded (then
in the Old Jewry, since removed to Finsbury Circus), he was
appointed principal librarian with a salary of 200 a year and
a suite of rooms; and thus his latter years were made easy as
far as money was concerned.
PORT PORTADOWN
109
Among his most intimate friends was Perry, the editor of
the Morning Chronicle; and this friendship was cemented by
his marriage with Perry's sister, Mrs Lunan, in November 1796.
The marriage was a happy one for the short time it lasted, as
Person became more attentive to times and seasons, and would
have been weaned from his habits of drinking; but she sank in
a decline a few months after her marriage (April 12, 1797), and
he returned to his chambers in the Temple and his old habits.
Perry's friendship was of great value to him in many ways; but
it induced him to spend too much of his time in writing for the
Morning Chronicle; indeed he was even accused of " giving up
to Perry what was meant for mankind," and the existence of
some of the papers he wrote there can be only deplored.
For some months before his death he had appeared to be
failing: his memory was not what it had been, and he had some
symptoms of intermittent fever; but on the igth of September
1808 he was seized in the street with a fit of apoplexy, and after
partially recovering sank in the 2Sth of that month at the age
of forty-nine. He was buried in Trinity College, close to the
statue of Newton, at the opposite end of the chapel to where
rest the remains of Bentley.
In learning Person was superior to Valckenaer, in accuracy to
Bentley. It must be remembered that in his day the science of
comparative philology had scarcely any existence; even the com-
parative value of MSS. was scarcely considered in editing an ancient
author. With many editors MSS. were treated as of much the same
value, whether they were really from the hand of a trustworthy
scribe, or what Bentley calls " scrub manuscripts," or " scoundrel
copies." Thus, if we are to find fault with Person's way of editing,
it is that he does not make sufficient difference between the MSS.
he uses, or point out the relative value of the early copies whether
in MS. or print. Thus he collates minutely Lascans's edition of the
Medea, mentioning even misprints in the text, rather from its rarity
and costliness than from its intrinsic value. And his wonderful
quickness at emendation has sometimes led him into error, which
greater investigation into MSS. would have avoided; thus, in his
note on Eur., Phoem. 1373 an error, perhaps a misprint ( for M)I
in the first edition of the scholiast on Sophocles has led him into
an emendation of v. 339 of the Trackiniae which clearly will not
stand. But his most brilliant emendations, such as some of those
on Athenaeus, on the Supplices of Aeschylus, or, to take one single
instance, that on Eur. Helen. 751 (oW "EXevos for obbkv ye ; see
Maltby's Thesaurus, p. 299), are such as convince the reader of their
absolute certainty; and this power was possessed by Person to a
degree no one else has ever attained. No doubt his mathematical
training had something to do with this; frequently the process may
be seen by which the truth has been reached.
A few words are called for on his general character. No one ever
more loved truth for its own sake; few have sacrificed more rather
than violate their consciences, and this at a time when a high
standard in this respect was not common. In spite of his failings,
few have had warmer friends; no one more willingly communicated
his knowledge and gave help to others; scarcely a book appeared
in his time or for some years after his death on the subjects to
which he devoted his life without acknowledging assistance from
him. And, if it be remembered that his life was a continued struggle
against poverty and slight and ill-health, rather than complain that
he did little, we should wonder how he accomplished so much.
His library was divided into two parts, one of which was sold by
auction; the other, containing the transcript of the Gale Photius,
his books' with MS. notes, and some letters from foreign scholars,
was bought by Trinity College for 1000 guineas. His notebooks
were found to contain, in the words of Bishop Blomfield, " a rich
treasure of criticism in every branch of classical literature ^every-
thing carefully and correctly written and sometimes rewritten
quite fit to meet the public eye, without any diminution or addition."
They have been carefully rearranged, and illustrate amongother things
his extraordinary penmanship and power of minute and accurate
writing. Much remains unpublished. J. H. Monk, his successor as
Greek professor, and C. J. Blomfield (both afterwards bishops)
edited the Adversaria, consisting of the notes on Athenaeus and the
Greek poets, and his prelection on Euripides; P. P. Dobree, after-
wards Greek professor, the notes on Aristophanes and the lexicon
of Photius. Besides these, from other sources, Professor T. Gaisford
edited his notes on Pausanias and Suidas, and Mr Kidd collected
his scattered reviews. And, when Bishop Burgess attacked his
literary character on the score of his Letters to Trains, Professor
Turton (afterwards Bishop of Ely) came forward with a vindication.
The chief sources for Person's life will be found in the memoirs in
the Gentleman's Magazine for September and October 1808, and
other periodicals of the time (mostly reprinted in Barker's Porson-
iana; London, 1852) ; Dr Young's memoir in former editions of
the Ency. Brit, (reprinted ibid, and in his works); Weston's
(utterly worthless) Short Account of the late Mr Richard Parson
(London, 1808; reissued with a new preface and title-page in 1814);
Dr Clarke's narrative of his last illness and death (London, 1808;
reprinted in the Classical Journal) ; Kidd's " Imperfect Outline of the
Life of R.P.," prefixed to his collection of the Tracts and Criticisms;
Beloe's Sexagenarian (not trustworthy), vol. i. (London, 1817);
Barker's Parriana, vol. ii. (London, 1829); Maltby's " Porsoniana,"
published by Dyce in the volume of Recollections of the Table-Talk
of Samuel Rogers (London, 1856) ; a life in the Cambridge Essays
for 1857 by H. R. Luard; and a lengthy life by J. S. Watson (London,
1861). See also R. C. jebb in Diet. Nat. Biog., and J. E. Sandys,
History of Classical Scholarship, ii. 424-430 (with copy of portrait
by Hoppner; 1908).
The dates of Person's published works are as follows: Nolae
in Xenophontis anabasin (1786); Appendix to Toup (1790); Letters
to Travis (1790); Aeschylus (1795, 1806); Euripides (1797-1802);
collation of the Harleian MS. of the Odyssey (1801); Adversaria
(Monk and Blomfield, 1812); Tracts and Criticisms (Kidd, 1815);
Aristophanica (Dobree, 1820); Notae in Pausaniam (Gaisford,
1820); Photii lexicon (Dobree, 1822); Notae in Suidam (Gaisford,
1834) ; Correspondence (Luard, edited for the Cambridge Antiquarian
Society, 1867). Dr. Turton's vindication appeared in 1827.
(H. R.L.;J. E. S.*)
PORT, (i) (From the Lat. portus, harbour), a place to which
ships may resort for the unloading or taking in of cargo, or for
shelter, a harbour, also a town possessing such a harbour, a
" seaport," or " seaport town," especially one where custom-
house officers are stationed. As the name of a dark red Portu-
guese wine, the word is a shortened form of Oporto, i.e. the port,
the chief centre of the wine-shipping trade of Portugal (see
WINE). (2) (Through the Fr. porte, from Lat. porta, gate),
an entrance or opening, not often used in the sense of gate,
except in such compounds as " sallyport," cf. " portcullis,"
and in the derivative " porter," a keeper of a door or gate,
especially of a public building, hotel, college, &c. The most
general use of the word is for an opening for the admission of
light and air in a ship's side, and formerly in ships of war for
an embrasure for cannon, a " port-hole." For the application
of the word to the left side of a ship, taking the place of the
earlier " larboard," and its disputed origin, see STARBOARD AND
LARBOARD. (3) (Through the Fr. porter, from Lat. portare,
to carry, bear), properly outward bearing or deportment,
whence " portly," originally of dignified or majestic bearing,
now chiefly used in the sense of stout or corpulent. The verb
" to port " is only used as a military term " to port arms,"
i.e. to hold the rifle across and close to the body, the barrel
being placed opposite to the left shoulder. Derivatives are
" port-fire " (Fr. porte-feu), a fuse for firing rockets, &c.,
and formerly for the discharge of artillery, and " porter," i.e.
one who carries a burden, particularly a servant of a railway
company, hotel, &c., who carries passengers' luggage to and
from a station, &c. The term " porter " has been applied,
since the i8th century, to a particular form of beer, dark brown
or almost black in colour (see BEER and BREWING). The finer
kinds of this beer are generally now known as " stout." The
name is almost certainly due to the fact that it was from the
first a favourite drink among the London " porters," the street
carriers of goods, luggage, &c., and in early uses the drink is
called porter's ale, porter's beer, or porter-beer.
PORT ADELAIDE, a port of Adelaide county, South Australia,
7^ m. by rail N.W. of Adelaide. Pop. of the town and suburbs
(1901), 20,089. It is situated on an estuary 9 m. from St Vincent
Gulf and is the principal shipping port of South Australia. Its
wharves, equipped with steam and travelling cranes, and tram-
ways, are 2\ m. in extent; it has docks and a number of patent
slips capable of taking up vessels of 300 to 1500 tons. There
are also piers at Semaphore and Larg's Bay, on the other side of
Lefevre's Peninsula some 2 m. distant, which are connected
with Port Adelaide by rail. The industries comprise silver and
copper smelting, brewing, sawmilling, ropemaking, flourmilling,
sugar-refining and yacht-building. The harbour is protected
by two forts known as the Fort Glanville batteries. The suburbs,
which are connected with the town by tramways, are Alberton,
Queenstown, Yatala, Rosewater and Kingston-on-the-Hill.
PORTADOWN, a market town of county Armagh, Ireland,
on the river Bann and the Great Northern railway, 25 m.
W.S.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901), 10,092. It is a junction of
I IO
PORTAELS PORTALIS
lines from Dublin, Clones and Omagh. The Bann, which is
connected with the Newry Canal and falls into Lough Neagh
5 m. north of the town, is navigable for vessels of 90 tons burden.
It is crossed at Portadown by a stone bridge of seven arches,
originally built in 1764, but since then re-erected. The manu-
facture of linen and cotton is carried on, and there is a con-
siderable trade in pork, grain and farm produce. In the reign
of Charles I. the manor was bestowed on John Obyns, who erected
a mansion and a few houses, which were the beginning of the
town. A grain-market was established in 1780. The town is
governed by an urban district council.
PORTAELS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1818-1895), Belgian painter,
was born at Vilvorde (Brabant), 'in Belgium, on the 3oth of
April 1818. His father, a rich brewer, sent him to study in the
Brussels Academy, and the director, Francois Navez, ere long
received him as a pupil in his own studio. About 1841 Portaels
went to Paris, where he was kindly received by Paul Delaroche.
Having returned to Belgium, he carried off the Grand Prix de
Rome in 1842. He then travelled through Italy, Greece,
Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, the Lebanon, Judaea, Spain, Hungary
and Norway. On his return to Belgium in 1847 Portaels
succeeded H. Vanderhaert as director of the academy at Ghent.
In 1849 he married the daughter of his first master, Navez,
and in 1850 settled at Brussels; but as he failed in obtaining the
post of director of the academy there, and wished, nevertheless,
to carry on the educational work begun by his father-in-law,
he opened a private studio-school, which became of great
importance in the development of Belgian art. He again
made several journeys, spending some time in Morocco; he came
back to Brussels in 1874, and in 1878 obtained the directorship
of the academy which had so long been the object of his ambition.
Portaels executed a vast number of works. Decorative paint-
ings in the church of St Jacques-sur-Caudenberg; biblical
scenes, such as " The Daughter of Sion Reviled " (in the Brussels
Gallery), " The Death of Judas," " The Magi travelling to
Bethlehem," " Judith's Prayer," and " The Drought in Judaea ";
genre pictures, among which are " A Box in the Theatre at
Budapest" (Brussels Gallery), portraits of officials and of the
fashionable world, Oriental scenes and, above all, pictures of
fancy female figures and of exotic life. " His works are in general
full of a facile grace, of which he is perhaps too lavish," wrote
Theophile Gautier. Yet his pleasing and abundant productions
as a painter do not constitute Portaels's crowning merit. The
high place his name will fill in the history of contemporary
Belgian art is due to his influence as a learned and clear-sighted
instructor, who formed, among many others, the painters E.
Wauters and E. Agneesens, the sculptor Ch. van der Stappen,
and the architect Licot. He died at Brussels on the 8th of
February 1895.
See E. L. de Taeye, Peintres beiges contempora ins ; J. du Jardin,
L'Artflamand. (F. K.*)
PORTAGE, a city and the county-seat of Columbia county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Wisconsin river, about 85 m. N.W. of
Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 5143; (1900) 5459, of whom 1184
were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 5440. It is served by
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Minneapolis, St Paul
6 Sault Ste Marie railways. The city is situated at the west
end of the government ship canal connecting the Fox and
Wisconsin rivers, and river steamboats ply during the open
season between Portage and Green Bay and intermediate points
in the Fox River Valley, Portage being the head of navigation
on the Fox. Portage is in the midst of a fertile farming region,
and has a trade in farm and dairy products and tobacco. Its
manufactures include brick, tile, lumber, flour, pickles, knit
goods, steel tanks and marine engines and launches, and there
are several tobacco warehouses and grain elevators. As the
Fox and Wisconsin rivers are here only 2 m. apart, these rivers
were the early means of communication between Lake Michigan
and the Mississippi river. The first Europeans known to have
visited the site of the city were Radisson and Groseilliers, who
crossed the portage in 1655. The portage was used by Mar-
quette and Joliet on their way to the Mississippi in 1673, and a
red granite monument commemorates their passage. About
1712 the Fox Indians disputed the passage of the portage,
precipitating hostilities which continued intermittently until
1743. The first settler was Lawrence Earth, who engaged in
the carrying trade here in 1793. Jacques Vieau established
a trading post here in 1797, and by 1820 it was a thriving depot
of the fur trade. During the Red Bird uprising (1827) a tem-
porary military post was established by Major William Whistler
of the U.S. army. Fort Winnebago was begun in the following
year, was remodelled and completed by Lieut. Jefferson Davis
in 1832, and was subsequently abandoned. It was from
there in the same year that the final and successful cam-
paign against Black Hawk was begun. After several failures
the Fox- Wisconsin canal was completed in 1856, and in June
of that year the " Aquila," a stern-wheeler, passed through
the canal on its way from Pittsburg to Green Bay. The
shifting channel of the Wisconsin has retarded navigation,
and the canal has never been as important commercially as
was expected.
PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE, a port of entry and the chief town
of Portage la Prairie county, Manitoba, Canada, situated 50 m.
W. of Winnipeg, on the Canadian Pacific and Canadian Northern
railways, at an altitude of 854 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901),
3901. It is in the midst of a fine agricultural district, into which
several branch railways extend, and carries on a large export
trade in grain and other farm produce.
PORTALEGRE, an episcopal city, capital of the district of
Portalegre, Portugal; 8 m. N. of Portalegre station, on the
Lisbon-Badajoz-Madrid railway. Pop. (1900), 11,820. Portal-
egre is the Roman Amaea or Ammaia, and numerous Roman and
prehistoric remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood.
The principal buildings are the cathedral, the ruined Moorish
citadel and two more modern forts. The administrative
district of Portalegre, in which the rearing of swine, the pro-
duction of grain, wine and oil, and the manufacture of woollen
and cotton goods and corks are the principal industries, coincides
with the northern part of the ancient province of Alemtejo
(q.v.). Pop. (1900), 124,443; area, 2405 sq. m.
PORTALIS, JEAN ETIENNE MARIE (1746-1807), French
jurist, came of a bourgeois family, and was born at Bausset in
Provence on the ist of April 1746. He was educated by the
Oratorians at their schools in Toulon and Marseilles, and then
went to the university of Aix; while a student there he published
his first two works, Observations sur Emile in 1763 and Des
Prejuges in 1764. In 1765 he became an miocat at the parlement
of Aix, and soon obtained so great a reputation that he was in-
structed by the due de Choiseul in 1770 to draw up the decree
authorizing the marriage of Protestants. From 1778 to 1781
he was one of the four assessors or administrators of Provence.
In November 1793, after the republic had been proclaimed, he
came to Paris and was thrown into prison, being the brother-
in-law of Joseph Jerome Simeon, the leader of the Federalists
in Provence. He was soon removed through the influence of
B. de V. Barere to a maison de sante, where he remained till the
fall of Robespierre. On being released he practised as a lawyer
in Paris; and in 1795 he was elected by the capital to the Con-
seil des Anciens, becoming a leader of the moderate party
opposed to the directory. As a leader of the moderates he was
proscribed at the coup d'etat of Fructidor, but, unlike General
Charles Pichegru and the marquis de Barbe'-Marbois, he managed
to escape to Switzerland, and did not return till Bonaparte
became First Consul. Bonaparte made him a conseiller d'etat
in 1800, and then charged him, with F, D. Tronchet, Bigot de
Preameneu, and Jacques de Maleville, to draw up the Code
Civil. Of this commission he was the most industrious member,
and many of the most important titles, notably those on mar-
riage and heirship, are his work. In 1801 he was placed in
charge of the department of cultes or public worship, and in
that capacity had the chief share in drawing up the provisions
of the Concordat. In 1803 he became a member of the Institute,
in 1804 minister of public worship, and in 1805 a knight grand
cross of the Legion of Honour. He soon after became totally
PORTARLINGTON PORT AUGUSTA
in
blind; and after an operation he died at Paris on the 2Sth of
August 1807.
1 he work of Portalis appears in the Code Napoleon, but see
also Frederick Portalis's Documents, rapports, et travaux inidils
sur le Code Civil (1844) and Sur le Concordat (1845); for his life,
see the biography in the edition of his Oeuvres by F. Portalis
(1823) and Rene Lavolee, Portalis, sa vie et ses ceuwes, (Paris,
i86q).
His son, JOSEPH MARIE PORTALIS (1778-1858), entered the
diplomatic service, and obtaining the favour of Louis XVIII.
tilled many important offices. He was under-secretary of state
for the ministry of justice, first president of the court of cassa-
tion, minister for foreign affairs, and in 1851 a member of the
senate.
PORTARLINGTON, a market town situated partly in King's
county but chiefly in Queen's county, Ireland, on both banks of
the river Barrow, here the county boundary. Pop. (1901), 1943.
The railway station, a mile south of the town, is an important
junction, 42 m. west by south from Dublin, of the Great Southern
& Western system, where the branch line to Athlone leaves
the main line. Monthly fairs are held, and there is considerable
local trade. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes a
colony of French refugees was established here in the reign of
William III., and the beautiful church of St Paul (rebuilt in
1857) was devoted to their use, services being conducted in the
French language, for which reason the church is still spoken of as
the " French Church." The former name of the town was
Cooltetoodera, but on the property passing into the hands of
Lord Arlington in the reign of Charles II. the name was changed.
Emo Park, 5 m. south of the town, is the fine demesne of the earls
of Portarlington, a title granted to the family of Dawson in 1785.
An obelisk on Spire Hill near the town is one of the many famine
relief works in Ireland. On the river, close to the town, there
are picturesque remains of Lea Castle, originally built c. 1260.
Portarlington was incorporated in 1667, and was a parliamentary
borough both before the Union and after, its representation in
the imperial parliament (by one member) being merged in
that of the county by the Redistribution Act of 1885.
PORT ARTHUR (formerly Prince Arthur's Landing), a
town and harbour in Thunder Bay District, Ontario, Canada,
on Lake Superior, and the Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk
Pacific, and Canadian Northern railways, and the lake terminus
of the two latter. Pop. (1901), 3214. The lake terminus of
the Canadian Pacific, originally here, has been moved to Fort
William, 4 m. distant. Lumber and minerals are shipped from
the surrounding district, and vast quantities of grain from the
farther west.
PORT ARTHUR (Chinese, Lu-shun-k'ou), a fortress situated
at the extreme south of the peninsula of Liao-tung in the Chinese
principality of Manchuria. It was formerly a Chinese naval
arsenal and fortress, but was captured by the Japanese in 1894,
who destroyed most of the defensive works. In 1898 it was
leased to Russia with the neighbouring port of Talienwan, and
was gradually converted into a Russian stronghold. In 1905
the lease was transferred to Japan. The port or harbour is
a natural one, entirely landlocked except to the south. The
basin inside is of limited extent. Barren and rocky hills rise
from the water's edge all round. A railway 270 m. long connects
the port with Mukden and the trans-Siberian line; there is also
railway connexion with Pekin. The harbour is ice-free all
the year round, a feature in which it contrasts favourably with
Vladivostok.
The Liao-tung peninsula, separated from Korea by the Bay
of Korea, and from the Chinese mainland by the Gulf of Liao-tung,
runs in a south-westerly direction from the mainland of Manchuria,
and is continued by a group of small islands which reach another
peninsula projecting from the mainland of China in a north-easterly
direction, and having at its north-eastern extremity the port of
Wei-hai-wei. The Liao-tung peninsula is indented by several bays,
two of which nearly meet, making an isthmus less than 2 m. wide,
beyond which the peninsula slightly widens again, this part of it
having the name of Kan-tun (regent's sword). Two wide bays
open on the eastern shore of the latter: Lu-shun-k'ou (Port Arthur)
and Talienwan. Both were leased to Russia. Lu-shun-k'ou Bay
is nearly 4 m. long and 1} m. wide, the entrance being only 350 yds.
wide. The Chinese deepened the bay artificially and erected quays.
The roadstead is exposed to south-easterly winds, and in this respect
the wider Bay of Talienwan is safer. Coal is found near to the port.
The climate is very mild, and similar to that of south Crimea, only
moister.
While in occupation by the Russians Port Arthur became
Europeanized. The military port, Tairen, is a few miles to the
north. During the Russo-Japanese war the Japanese assailed
Port Arthur both by land and sea and, after repeated assaults,
on the ist of January 1905, General Stoessel surrendered the
citadel into the hands of the Japanese.
PORTAS, or PORTUARY, a breviary (q.v.) of such convenient
size that it could be carried on the person, whence its Latin
name portiforium (portare, to carry, foris, out of doors, abroad).
The English word was adapted from the Old French portehors,
and took a large number of forms, e.g. porthors, porteous, portes,
&c. In Scots law, the " porteous-roll " was the name given
formerly to a list of criminals drawn up by the justice-clerk on
information given by the local authorities, together with the
names of witnesses, and charges made.
PORTATIVE ORGAN, a small medieval organ carried by the
performer, who manipulated the bellows with one hand and
fingered the keys with the other. This small instrument was
necessarily made as simple as possible. On a small rectangular
wind chest or reservoir, fed by means of a single bellows placed
at the back, in front, or at the right side, were arranged the pipes
one, two or three to a note supported by more or less orna-
mental uprights and an oblique bar. The most primitive style
of keyboard consisted merely of sliders pushed in to make the
note sound and restored to their normal position by a horn spring;
the reverse action was also in use, the keys being furnished with
knobs or handles.
Towards the middle of the I3th century the portatives repre-
sented in the miniatures of illuminated MSS. first show signs of a real
keyboard with balanced keys, as in the I3th century Spanish MS.,
known as the Cantigas de Santa Maria, 1 containing four full pages
of miniatures of instrumentalists, fifty-one in number. From
the position of the performer's thumb it is evident that the keys are
pressed down to make the notes sound. There are nine pipes and
the same number of keys, sufficient for the diatonic octave of C
major with the B flat added. The pipes put into these small organs
were flue pipes, their intonation must have been very unstable
owing to the irregularity of the wind supply fed by a single bellows,
the pressure being at the mercy of the performer's hand. Increased
pressure in pipes with fixed mouthpieces, such as organ pipes,
produces a rise in pitch. These medieval portative organs, so exten-
sively used during the I4th and isth centuries, were revivals of
those used by the Romans, of which a specimen excavated at Pompeii
in 1876 is preserved in the Museum at Naples. The case measures
14 J in. by 9 J in. and contains nine pipes, of which the longest measures
but 9} in. ; six of the pipes have oblong holes at a snort distance
from the top similar to those made in eamba pipes of modern organs
to give them their reedy quality, and also to those cut in the bamboo
pipes of the Chinese Cheng, which is a primitive organ furnished
with free reeds. From the description of these remains by C. F.
Abdy Williams,* it would seem that a bronze plate ni in. by 2\ in.
having 1 8 rectangular slits arranged in three rows to form Vandykes
was found inside the case, with three little plates of bronze just wide
enough to pass through the slits lying by it ; this plate possibly formed
part of the mechanism for the sliders of the keys. The small
instrument often taken for a syrinx on a contorniate of Sallust
in the Cabinet Imperial de France in Paris may be meant for a
miniature portative. (K. S.)
PORT AUGUSTA, a seaport of Frome county, South Australia,
on the east shore of Spencer Gulf, 259 m. by rail N.X.W. of
Adelaide. Pop. about 2400. It has a fine natural deep and
landlocked harbour, and the government wharves have berthing
for large vessels. The chief exports are wool, wheat, flour,
copper, hides and tallow. Port Augusta is the seat of a Roman
Catholic bishop and has a cathedral, while its town-hall is the
finest in the state, that of Adelaide excepted. It is also the start-
ing point of the Great Northern railway. The largest ostrich
farm in Australia lies 8 m. from the town. The neighbourhood
is rich in minerals, copper, silver, iron and coal have been found,
1 For a reproduction see J. F. Riano, Studies of Early Spanish
Music, pp. 110-127 (London, 1887).
* Quarterly Musical Renew (August, 1893).
112
PORT AU PRINCE PORT ELIZABETH
and in 1900 valuable gold quartz reefs were discovered at
Tarcoola.
PORT AU PRINCE (originally L'HSpUal, and for brief periods
Port Henri and Port Republicain) , the capital of the republic of
Haiti, West Indies, situated at the apex of the triangular bay
which strikes inland for about 100 m. between the two great
peninsulas of the west coast, with its upper recesses protected by
the beautiful island of Gonaives (30 m. long by 2 broad). The
city is admirably situated on ground that soon begins to rise
rapidly towards the hills. It was originally laid out by the
French on a regular plan with streets of good width running
north and south and intersected by others at right angles.
Everything has been allowed to fall into disorder and disrepair,
and to this its public buildings form no exception. Every few
years whole quarters of the town are burned down, but the
people go on building the same slight wooden houses, with only
here and there a more substantial warehouse in brick. In spite
of the old French aqueduct the water-supply is defective.
From June to September the heat is excessive, reaching 95 to 99
F. in the shade. The population, mostly negroes and mulat-
toes, is estimated at 61,000. Port au Prince was first laid out
by M. de la Cuza in 1749. In 1751, and again in 1770, it was
destroyed by earthquakes.
PORT BLAIR, the chief place in the convict settlement of
the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, situated on the
south-east shore of the South Andaman Island, in 11 42' N.,
93 E. It derives its name from Lieut. Blair, R.N., who first
occupied it in 1789, as a station for the suppression of piracy
and the protection of shipwrecked crews. Abandoned on
account of sickness in 1796, it was not again occupied until 1856.
It possesses one of the best harbours in Asia, while its central
position in the Bay of Bengal gives it immense advantage as a
place of naval rendezvous. (See ANDAMAN ISLANDS.)
PORT CHESTER, a village of Westchester county, New York,
U.S.A., in the south-east part of the state, on Long Island Sound,
and about 10 m. N.E. of New York City (26 m. from the Grand
Central Station). Pop. (1900), 7440, of whom 2110 were
foreign-born; (1910 census), 12,809. It i s served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and by daily steamers
to and from New York City. The village is a summer resort as
well as a suburban residential district for New York City.
Among its public institutions are a library, a park and a hospital.
The village has various manufactures, including bolts and nuts,
motors for racing boats and automobiles; there are also large
planing and wood-moulding mills. The earliest mention of
Port Chester in any extant record is in the year 1732. Until
1837 it was known as Saw Pit, on account of a portion of
the village, it is said, being used as a place for building boats.
During the War of Independence the village was frequently
occupied by detachments of American troops. Port Chester
was incorporated as a village in 1868.
PORTCULLIS (from the Fr. porte-coulisse, porte, a gate,
Lat. poria, and coulisse, a groove, used adjectivally for " sliding,"
from colder, to slide or glide, Lat. colare; the Fr. equivalents
are herse, a harrow, and coulisse; Ger. Fallgatler; Ital.
saracinesca) , a strong-framed grating of oak, the lower points
shod with iron, and sometimes entirely made of metal, hung so
as to slide up and down in grooves with counterbalances, and
intended to protect the gateways of castles, &c. The defenders
having opened the gates and lowered the [portcullis, could send
arrows and darts through the gratings. A portcullis was in
existence until modern times in a gateway at York. The Romans
used the portcullis in the defence of gateways. It was called
cataracta from the Gr. KaTappdicrrjs, a waterfall (Karappriyvvadai.,
to fall down). Vegetius (De re milit. iv. 4) speaks of it as an old
means of defence, and it has been suggested that in Psalm xxiv.
7, 9, " Lift up your heads, oh ye gates," &c., there is an allusion
to a similar contrivance. Remains of a cataracta are clearly
seen in the gateway of Pompeii. The Italian name saracinesca
originates from the crusades. (See GATE.)
PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab, babi-'ali, the high gate,
through the French translation la sublime porte), in Turkey, the
official name for the government, derived from the high gate
giving access to the building where the offices of the principal
state departments are situated.
PORT ELIZABETH, a seaport of the Cape province, South
Africa, in Algoa Bay, by which name the port is often designated.
It lies in 35 57' S., 25 37' E. on the east side of Cape Recife,
being by sea 436 m. from Cape Town and 384 m. from Durban.
In size and importance it is second only to Cape Town among the
towns of the province. It is built partly along the seashore and
partly on the slopes and top of the hills that rise some 200 ft.
above the bay. The Baaken's River, usually a small stream,
but subject (as in 1908) to disastrous floods, runs through the
town, which consists of four divisions; the harbour and busi-
ness quarter at the foot of the cliffs, the upper part, a flat
table-land known as " The Hill "; " The Valley " formed by the
Baaken's River; and " South Hill," east of the river.
The Town. Jetty Street leads from the north jetty to the market
square, in or around which are grouped the chief public buildings
the town-hall, court-house, post office, market buildings, public
library, St Mary's church (Anglican) and St Augustine's (Roman
Catholic). Several of these buildings are of considerable architec'
tural merit and fine elevation. The library, of Elizabethan design,
contains some 45,000 volumes. The market buildings, at the
south-east corner of the square, and partly excavated from the sides
of the cliff, contain large halls for the fruit, wool and feather markets
and the museum. Feather-Market Hall, where are held the sales
of ostrich feathers, seats 5000 persons. The museum has valuable
ethnographical and zoological collections. Other public buildings
include a synagogue and a Hindu temple. Leading west from Market
Square is Main Street, in which are the principal business houses.
Between Main Street and the sea is Strand Street, also a busy
commercial thoroughfare. Behind the lower town streets rise in
terraces to " The Hill," a residential district. Here is an open plot
of ground, Donkin Reserve, containing the lighthouse and a stone
pyramid with an inscription in memory of Elizabeth, wife of Sir
Rufane Donkin, described as " one of the most perfect of human
beings, who has given her name to the town below." A fountain,
surmounted by the statue of a war-horse, erected by public sub-
scription in 1905 commemorates " the services of the gallant animals
which perished in the Anglo- Boer war, 1899-1902." Farther west
is a large hospital, one of the finest institutions of its kind in
South Africa. At the southern end of The Hill is St George's Park,
which has some fine trees, in marked contrast to the general treeless,
barren aspect of the town. Port Elizabeth indeed possesses few
natural amenities, but its golf links are reputed the finest in
South Africa. The town, apart from its transit trade and the
industries connected therewith, has some manufactures jam and
confectionery works; oil, candle and explosive works; saw and flour
mills; tanneries, &c. It has an excellent water supply.
The Harbour. There is no enclosed basin, but the roadstead has
excellent holding ground, protected from all winds except the south-
east, the prevailing wind being westerly. No harbour or light dues
are charged to vessels of any flag. The port has three jetties of
wrought iron, respectively 1162, 1152 and 1462 ft. in length, extend-
ing to the four fathoms line. These jetties are provided with
hydraulic cranes, &c., and railways connect them with the main
line, so that goods can be sent direct from the jetties to every part
of South Africa. In favourable weather vessels drawing up to 21 ft.
can discharge cargo alongside the jetties. In unfavourable condi-
tions and for larger steamers tugs and lighters are employed. Rough
weather prevents discharge of cargo by lighters, on an average, seven
days in the year. The customs-house and principal railway station
are close to the north jetty. The port is state owned, and is under
the administration of the harbour and railway board of the Union.
Trade. Port Elizabeth has a large import trade, chiefly in textiles,
machinery, hardware, apparel and provisions, supplying to a con-
siderable extent the markets of Kimberley, Rhodesia, the Orange
Free State and the Transvaal. The exports are mainly the pro-
ducts of the eastern part of the Cape province, the most important
being ostrich feathers, wool and mohair. Skins, hides and maize
are also exported. In 1855 the value of the imports was 376,000;
in 1883 2,364,000; in 1898 6,248,000; in 1903 10,137,000.
Depression in trade brought down the imports in 1904 to 6,855,000.
In 1906 they were 6,564,000 and in 1907 6,004,000. The export
trade has been of slower but more steady growth. It was valued
at 584,000 in 1855, at 2,341,000 in 1883, 2,103,000 in 1898,
2,010,000 in 1903. Indicative of the fact that the agricultural
community was little affected by the trade depression are the export
figures for 1904 and 1906, which were 2,044,000 and 2,627,000
respectively. In 1907 goods valued at 3,150,000 were exported.
Population. The population within the municipal area was at the
1904 census 32,959; that within the district of Port Elizabeth 46,626,
of whom 23,782 were whites. Many of the inhabitants are of German
origin and the Deutsche Liedertafel is one of the most popular clubs
in the town.
PORTEOUS PORTER, D. D.
History. Algoa Bay was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in
1488, and was by him named Bahia da Roca, probably with
reference to the rocky islet in the bay, on which he is stated to
have erected a cross (St Croix Island). After the middle of the
i6th century the bay was called by the Portuguese Bahia da
Lagoa, whence its modern designation. In 1754 the Dutch
settlements at the Cape were extended eastwards as far as
Algoa Bay. The convenience of reaching the eastern district
by boat was then recognized and advantage taken of the road-
stead sheltered by Cape Recife. In 1799, during the first
occupation of Cape Colony by the British, Colonel (afterwards
General Sir John) Vandeleur, to guard the roadstead, built a small
fort on the hill west of the Baaken's River. It was named Fort
Frederick in honour of the then duke of York, and is still preserved.
A few houses grew up round the fort, and in 1820 besides the
military there was a civilian population at Fort Frederick of
about 35 persons. In April of that year arrived in the bay the
first of some 4000 British immigrants, who settled in the eastern
district of the colony (See CAPE COLONY: History). Under the
supervision of Sir Rufane Donkin, acting governor of the Cape, a
town was laid out at the base of the hills. In 1836 it was made a
free warehousing port, and in 1837 the capital of a small adjacent
district. To overcome the difficulty of landing from the road-
stead a breakwater was built at the mouth of the Baakens River
in 1856, but it had to be removed in 1869, as it caused a serious
accumulation of sand. The prosperity which followed the
construction of railways to the interior earned for the port the
designation of " the Liverpool of South Africa." Railway
work was begun in 1873 and Port Elizabeth is now in direct
communication with all other parts of South Africa. At the
same period (1873) the building of the existing jetties was
undertaken. Port Elizabeth has possessed municipal govern-
ment since 1836. Its predominant British character is shown
by the fact that not until 1909 was the foundation stone laid
of the first Dutch Reformed Church in the town.
PORTEOUS, JOHN (d. 1736), captain of the city guard of
Edinburgh, whose name is associated with the celebrated riots
of 1 736, was the son of Stephen Porteous, an Edinburgh tailor.
Having served in the army, he was employed in 1715 to drill the
city guard for the defence of Edinburgh in anticipation of a
Jacobite rising, and was promoted later to the command of the
force. In 1736 a smuggler named Wilson, who had won popu-
larity by helping a companion to escape from the Tolbooth
prison, was hanged; and, some slight disturbance occurring at the
execution, the city guard fired on the mob, killing a few and
wounding a considerable number of persons. Porteous, who was
said to have fired at the people with his own hand, was brought
to trial and sentenced to death. The granting of a reprieve was
hotly resented by the people of Edinburgh, and on the night of
the jth of September 1736 an armed body of men in disguise
broke into the prison, seized Porteous, and hanged him on a
signpost in the street. It was said tKat persons of high position
were concerned in the crime; but although the government
offered rewards for the apprehension of the perpetrators, and
although General Moyle wrote to the duke of Newcastle that the
criminals were " well-known by many of the inhabitants of the
town," no one was ever convicted of participation in the murder.
The sympathies of the people, and even, it is said, of the clergy,
throughout Scotland, were so unmistakably on the side of the
rioters that the original stringency of the bill introduced into
parliament for the punishment of the city of Edinburgh had to
be reduced to the levying of a fine of 2000 for Porteous's
widow, and the disqualification of the provost for holding any
public office. The incident of the Porteous riots was used by Sir
Walter Scott in The Heart of Midlothian.
See Sir Daniel Wilson, Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time
2 vols. Edinburgh, 1848): State Trials, vol. xvii.; William Coxe,
Memoirs of the Life of Sir R. Walpole (4 vols. London, 1816); Alex-
ander Carlyle, Autobiography (Edinburgh, 1860), which gives the
. . --_. i.iii \.\j my, ouuj^v*. | . i . 11*
cky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 324, note
(7 vols., London, 1892). See also Scott's notes to The Heart of
Midlothian.
PORTER, BENJAMIN CURTIS (1843- ), American artist,
was born at Melrose, Massachusetts, on the 27th of August 1843.
He was a pupil of A. H. Bicknell and of the Paris schools, and
was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design,
New York, in 1878, and a full academician in 1880. He is best
known as a painter of portraits.
PORTER, DAVID (1780-1843), American naval officer, was
born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the ist of February 1780.
His father, David, and his uncie, Samuel, commanded American
ships in the War of Independence. In 1796 he accompanied
his father to the West Indies; on a second and on a third voyage
he was impressed on British vessels, from which, however, he
escaped. He became a midshipman in the United States Navy
in April 1798; served on the " Constellation " (Captain Thomas
Truxton) and was midshipman of the foretop when the " Constel-
lation " defeated the " Insurgente "; was promoted lieutenant
in October 1799, and was in four successful actions with French
ships in this year. In 1803, during the war with Tripoli, he was
first lieutenant of the " Philadelphia " when that vessel grounded,
was taken prisoner, and was not released until June 1805. He
was commissioned master commandant in April 1806; in 1807-
1810 served about New Orleans 1 , where -he captured several
French privateers, and in 1812 was promoted' captain. He
commanded the frigate " Essex " in her famous voyage in 1812-
1814. In the Atlantic he captured seven brigs, one ship, on the
i3th of August 1812, the sloop "Alert," the first British war
vessel taken in the War of 1812. Without orders from his
superiors he then (February 1813) rounded Cape Horn, the
harbours of the east coast of South America being closed to
him. In the South Pacific he captured many British whalers
(the British losses were estimated at 500,000), and on his own
authority took formal possession (November 1813) of Nuka-
hivah, the largest of the Marquesas Islands; the United States,
however, never asserted any claim to the island, which in 1842,
with the other Marquesas, was annexed by France. During
most of February and March 1814 he was blockaded by the
British frigates " Cherub " and " Phoebe " in the harbour of
Valparaiso, and on the 28th of March was defeated by these
vessels, which seem to have violated the neutrality of the port.
He was released on parole, and sailed for New York on the " Essex,
Jr.," a small vessel which he had captured from the British,
and which accompanied the " Essex." At Sandy Hook he was
detained by the captain of the British ship-of-war " Saturn "
(who declared that Porter's parole was no longer effective), but
escaped in a small boat. He was a member of the new board of
naval commissioners from 1815 until 1823, when he commanded
a squadron sent to the West Indies to suppress piracy. One
of his officers, who landed at Fajardo (or Foxardo), Porto Rico,
in pursuit of a pirate, was imprisoned by the Spanish authorities
on the charge of piracy. Porter, without reporting the incident
or awaiting instructions, forced the authorities to apologize.
He was recalled (December 1824), was court-martialled, and was
suspended for six months. In August 1826 he resigned his
commission, and until 1829 was commander-in-chief of the
Mexican navy, then fighting Spain ; in payment for his services
he received government land in Tehuantepec, where he hoped to
promote an inter-oceanic canal. President Andrew Jackson
appointed him consul-general to Algiers in 1830, and in 1831
created for him the post of charge d'affaires at Constantinople,
where in 1841 he became minister. He died in Pera on the 3rd of
March 1843.
He wrote a Journal of a Cruise made to the Pacific Ocean in the
U.S. Frigate "Essex " in 1812-13-14 (2 vols., 1815; 2nd ed., 1822),
and Constantinople and its Environs (2 vols., 1835), a valuable
;uide-book. See the Memoir of Commodore David Porter (Albany,
New York, 1875), by his son, Admiral David D. Porter.
PORTER, DAVID DIXON (1813-1891), American naval
officer, son of Captain David Porter, was born in Chester, Pennsyl-
vania, on the 8th of June 1813. His first voyage, with his father
1 While he was in New Orleans he adopted David Farragut, who
ater served with "him on the " Essex."
PORTER, E.
in West Indian waters in 1823-1824, was terminated by the
Fajardo affair (see PORTER, DAVID). In April 1826 he entered
the Mexican navy, of which his father was commander-in-chief,
and which he left in 1828, after the capture by the Spanish of the
" Guerrero," on which he was serving under his cousin, David H.
Porter (1804-1828), who was killed before the ship's surrender.
He became a midshipman in the United States navy in 1829,
and was in the coast survey in 1836-1842. In 1839 he married
the daughter of Captain Daniel Tod Patterson (1786-1839), then
commandant of the Washington navy-yard. Porter became a
lieutenant in February 1841; served at the naval observatory
in 1845-1846; in 1846 he was sent to the Dominican Republic to
report on conditions there. During the Mexican War he served,
from February to June 1847, as lieutenant and then as command-
ing officer of the " Spitfire," a paddle vessel built for use on the
rivers, and took part in the bombardment of Vera Cruz and in
the other naval operations under Commander M. C. Perry. From
the close of the Mexican War to the beginning of the Civil War
he had little but detail duty; in 1855 and again in 1856 he made
trips to the Mediterranean to bring to the United States camels
for army use in the south-west. In April 1861 he was assigned
to the " Powhatan," and was sent under secret orders from the
president for the relief of Fort Pickens, Pensacola, an expedition
which he had urged. Porter was promoted commander on the
22nd of April, and on the 3oth of May was sent to blockade the
South- West Pass of the Mississippi. In August he left the gulf in
a fruitless search for the Confederate cruiser " Sumter." Upon
his return to New York in November he urged an expedition
against New Orleans (q.v.), and recommended the appointment
of Commander D. G. Farragut (<?.f.), his foster-brother, to the
chief command. In the expedition Porter himself commanded
the mortar flotilla, which, when Farragut's fleet passed the forts
on the early morning of the 24th of April 1862, covered its
passage by a terrific bombardment that neutralized the fire of
Fort Jackson. At Vicksburg Porter's bombardment assisted
Farragut to run past the forts (June 28). On the 9th of July
Porter was ordered, with ten mortar boats, to the James river,
where McClellan's army was concentrated. On the isth of
October he took command of the gun-vessels which had been
built on the upper waters of the Mississippi, and to which he
made important additions at an improvised navy-yard at
Mound City, Illinois. With this he took part in the capture
of Arkansas Post on the nth of January 1863. In the opera-
tions for the capture of Vicksburg in 1863 unsuccessful attempts
were made in February and March by Porter's vessels to
penetrate through connecting streams and bayous to the
Yazoo river and reach the right rear of the Confederate
defences on the bluffs. But in May the fleet ran past the
Vicksburg batteries, mastered the Confederate forts at Grand
' Gulf, and made it possible for Grant's army to undertake the
brilliant campaign which led to the fall of the place (see
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR and VICKSBURG). Porter received the
thanks of Congress for " opening the Mississippi River " and was
promoted rear-admiral. He co-operated with Major-General
N. P. Banks in the Red River expeditions in March-May 1864,
in which his gun-boats, held above Alexandria by shallow water
and rapids, narrowly escaped isolation, being enabled to return
only by the help qf a dam built by Lieut. -Colonel (Brigadier-
General) Joseph Bailey (1827-1867). On the i2th of October
1864 he assumed command of the North Atlantic blockading
squadron, then about to engage in a combined military and naval
expedition against Fort Fisher, North Carolina. Porter claimed
that his guns silenced Fort Fisher, but Major-General B. F. Butler,
in command of the land forces, refused to assault, asserting that
the fort was practically intact. After Butler's removal, Porter,
co-operating with Major-General Alfred H. Terry, and com-
manding the largest fleet assembled at any one point during
the war, took the fort on the isth of January 1865; for this he
again received the thanks of Congress. From 1865 to 1869 he
was superintendent of the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis,
which he greatly improved ; his most notable change being the
introduction of athletics. On the 25th of July he became
vice-admiral. From the 9th of March to the 25th of June
1869, while Adolph E. Borie (1809-1880), of Pennsylvania, was
secretary of the navy in President Grant's cabinet, Porter was
virtually in charge of the navy department. In 1870 he
succeeded Farragut in the grade of admiral, which lapsed
after Porter's death until 1899, when it was re-established to
reward Rear-Admiral George Dewey for his victory at Manila.
Porter urged the reconstruction of the navy, which he saw
begun in 1882. He died in Washington, D.C., on the I3th of
February 1891.
Porter wrote a Life of Commodore David Porter (1875), gossipy
Incidents and Anecdotes of the Civil War (1885), a none too accurate
History of the Navy during the War of the Rebellion (1887), two novels,
Allan Dare and Robert le Diable (1885; dramatized, 1887) and Harry
Marline (1886), and a short " Romance of Gettysburg," published in
The Criterion in 1903. See J. R. Soley, Admiral Porter (New York,
1903) in the " Great Commanders " Series.
Admiral Porter's three brothers were in the service of the
United States: WILLIAM DAVID PORTER (1809-1864) entered
the navy in 1823, commanded the " Essex " on the Tennessee
and the Mississippi in the Civil War, and became commodore in
July i862;THEODORicHENRY PORTER (1817-1846) was the first
officer of the American army killed in the Mexican War; and
HENRY OGDEN PORTER (1823-1872) resigned from the United
States navy in 1847, after seven years' service, fought under
William Walker in Central America, returned to the American
navy, was executive officer of the " Hatteras " when she was
sunk by the " Alabama," and received wounds in the action from
the effects of which he died several years later.
PORTER, ENDYMION (1587-1649), English royalist, de-
scended from Sir William Porter, sergeant-at-arms to Henry VII.,
and son of Edmund Porter, of Aston-sub-Edge in Gloucester-
shire, by his cousin Angela, daughter of Giles Porter of Mickleton,
in the same county, was brought up in Spain where he had
relatives as page in the household of Olivares. He afterwards
entered successively the service of Edward Villiers and of Buck-
ingham, and through the latter's recommendation became groom
of the bedchamber to Charles I. In October 1622 he was sent
to negotiate concerning the affairs of the Palatinate and the
marriage with the Infanta. He accompanied Charles and
Buckingham on their foolhardy expedition in 1623, acted as
their interpreter, and was included in the consequent attack
made by Lord Bristol on Buckingham in 1626. In 1628 he was
employed as envoy to Spain to negotiate for peace, and in 1634
on a mission to the Netherlands to the Infante Ferdinand.
During the Civil War Porter remained a constant and faithful
servant of the king. He was with him during the two Scottish
campaigns, attended him again on the visit to Scotland in August
1641, and followed Charles on his last departure from London
in 1642, receiving the nominal command of a regiment, and sitting
in the Royalist parliament at Oxford in 1643. He had, however,
little faith in the king's measures. " His Majesty's businesses,"
he writes in 1641, " run in their wonted channel subtle designs
of gaining the popular opinion and weak executions for the up-
holding of monarchy." His fidelity to Charles was of a personal,
not of a political nature. " My duty and loyalty have taught
me to follow my king," he declares, " and by the grace of God
nothing shall divert me from it." This devotion to the king,
the fact that he was the agent and protege of Buckingham, and
that his wife Olivia, daughter of John, Lord Boteler of Bramfield,
and niece of Buckingham, was a zealous Roman Catholic, drew
upon him the hostility of the opposite faction. As member of
the Long Parliament, in which he sat as member for Droitwich,
he was one of the minority of 59 who voted against Strafford's
attainder, and was in consequence proclaimed a " betrayer of
his country." On the isth of February 1642 he was voted
one of the dangerous counsellors, and specially excepted from
pardon on the 4th of October and in the treaties of peace
negotiated subsequently, while on the icth of March 1643 he
was excluded from parliament. Porter was also implicated in
the army plot; he assisted Glamorgan in illegally putting the
great seal to the commission to negotiate with the Irish in 1644;
and was charged with having in the same manner affixed the
PORTER, FITZ-JOHN PORTER, HENRY
great seal of Scotland, then temporarily in his keeping, to that of
O'Neill in 1641, and of having incurred some responsibility for
the Irish rebellion. Towards the end of 1645, when the king's
cause was finally lost, Porter abandoned England, and resided
successively in France, Brussels, where he was reduced to great
poverty, and the Netherlands. The property which he had
accumulated during the tenure of his various appointments, by
successful commercial undertakings and by favours of the court,
was now for the most part either confiscated or encumbered.
He returned to England in 1649, after the king's death, and was
allowed to compound for what remained of it. He died shortly
afterwards, and was buried on the 2oth of August 1649 at St
Martin's-in-the-Fields, leaving as a special charge in his will to
his sons and descendants to " observe and respect the family of
my Lord Duke of Buckingham, deceased, to whom I owe all the
happiness I had in the world." He left five sons, who all played
conspicuous, if not all creditable, parts in the history of the time.
According to Wood, Porter was " beloved by two kings: James I.
for his admirable wit and Charles I. for his general bearing,
brave style, sweet temper, great experience, travels and modern
languages." During the period of his prosperity Porter had
gained a great reputation in the world of art and letters. He
wrote verses, was a generous patron of Davenant, who especially
sings his praises, of Dekker, Warmstrey, May, Herrick and
Robert Dover, and was included among the 84 " essentials "
in Bolton's " Academy Royal." He was a judicious collector
of pictures, and as the friend of Rubens, Van Dyck, Mytens and
other painters, and as agent for Charles in his purchases abroad
he had a considerable share in forming the king's magnificent
collection. He was also instrumental in procuring the Arundel
pictures from Spain. The authorship of Eixav TTIOTI), 1649, a
vindication of the Elxuv /SaffiXtxi), has been attributed with some
reason to Porter.
AUTHORITIES. Life and Letters of Endymion Porter, by D.Towns-
hend (1897); article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog., by C. H. Firth and
authorities there cited ; Memoires, by D. Lloyd (1668), p.6s7 ; Burton's
Hist, of Scotland (1873), vi. 346-347; Eng. Hist. Rev. ii. 531, 692;
Gardiner's Hist, of England; Lives of the Lords Strangford (1877), by
E. B. de Fonblanque (Life and Letters); Wood, Athenae Oxonienses;
Clarendon's History of the Rebellion; State Papers and Calendar of
State Papers ; Calendar of State Papers: Dont. and of Committee for
Compounding; The Chesters of Chichele, by Waters, i. 144-149; Eikon
Bastlike, by Ed. Almack, p. 94. There are also various references,
&c., to Endymion Porter in Additional Charters, British Museum,
6223, 1633, 6225; Add. MSS. 15,858; 33, 374; and Egerton 2550,
2533 ; in the Hist. MSS. Comm. Series; MSS. of Duke of Portland,
&c., and in Notes and Queries; also Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus.,
E 118 (13).
PORTER, FITZ-JOHN (1822-1001), American soldier, was
born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 3ist of August
1822. He was the son of a naval officer, and nephew of
David Porter of the frigate " Essex." He graduated at the
United States Military Academy in 1845 and was assigned
to the artillery. In the Mexican War he won two brevets
for gallantry that of captain for Molino del Rey and that of
major for Chapultepec. He served at West Point as instructor
and adjutant (1840-1855), and he took part in the Utah
expedition. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he
was employed on staff duties in the eastern states, and
rendered great assistance in the organization of Pennsylvanian
volunteers. In the absence of higher authority Porter sanctioned
on his own responsibility the request of Missouri Unionists for
permission to raise troops, a step which had an important
influence upon the struggle for the possession of the state.
He became colonel of a new regiment of regulars on the I4th
of May, and soon afterwards brigadier-general of volunteers.
Under McClellan he commanded a division of infantry in the
Peninsular campaign, and directed the Union siege operations
against Yorktown, and he was soon afterwards placed in com-
mand of the V. army corps. When the Seven Days' battle (q.v.)
began Porter's corps had to sustain alone the full weight of the
Confederate attack, and though defeated in the desperately
fought battle of Gaines's Mill (June 27, 1862) the steadiness
of his defence was so conspicuous that he was immediately
promoted major-general of volunteers and brevet brigadier-
general U.S.A. His corps, moreover, had the greatest share in
the successful battles of Glendale and Malvern Hill. Soon after-
wards, with other units of the Army of the Potomac, the V. corps
was sent to reinforce Pope in central Virginia. Its inaction on
the first day of the disastrous second battle of Bull Run (q.v.)
led to the general's subsequent disgrace; but it made a splendid
fight on the second day to save the army from complete rout,
and subsequently shared in the Antietam campaign. On the
same day on which McClellan was relieved from his command,
Porter, his warm friend and supporter, was suspended. A few
days later he was tried by court-martial on charges brought
against him by Pope, and on the aist of January 1863 was
sentenced to be cashiered " and for ever disqualified from holding
any office of trust under the government of the United States."
After many years Porter's friends succeeded (1878) in procuring
a revision of the case by a board of distinguished general officers.
This board reported strongly in Porter's favour, but at the
time the remission of the disqualifying penalty was all that was
obtained in the way of redress. General Grant had now taken
Porter's part, and wrote an article in vol. 135 of the North
American Review entitled " An Undeserved Stigma." Against
much opposition, partly political (1879-1886) andavetoon a legal
point from President Arthur, a relief bill finally passed Congress,
and Porter was on the 5th of August 1886 restored to the United
States army as colonel and placed on the retired list, no provision,
however, being made for compensation. After the Civil War
General Porter was engaged in business in New York, and later
held successively many important municipal offices. In 1869
he declined the offer made by the khedive of the chief command
of the Egyptian army. He died on the aist of May 1001, at
Morristown, New Jersey.
See, besides General Grant's article, Cox, The Second Battle
of Bull Run as connected with the Porter Case (Cincinnati, 1882);
Lord, A Summary of the Case of F. J. Porter (1883), and papers in
vol. ii. of the publications of the Military Historical Society of
Massachusetts.
PORTER, HENRY (fl. 1596-1599), English dramatist, author
of The Two A ngry Women of A bingdon, may probably be identified
with the Henry Porter who matriculated at Brasenose College,
Oxford, on the igth of June 1589, and is described as aged
sixteen and the son of a gentleman of London. From 1596 to
1599 he was engaged in writing plays for Henslowe for the
admiral's men, and his closest associate seems to have been
Henry Chettle. The earlier entries in Henslowe's Diary are
respectful in tone, and the considerable sums paid to " Mr Porter "
prove that his plays were popular. Henslowe secured in February
1599 the sole rights of any play in which Porter had a hand,
the consideration being an advance of forty shillings. As time
goes on he is familiarly referred to as " Harry Porter "; his
borrowings become more frequent, and the sums less, until on
the 1 6th of April 1599 he obtained a loan of twelve pence in
exchange for a bond to pay all he owed to Henslowe twenty-
five shillings on pain of forfeiting ten pounds. Whether he
paid or not does not appear, but his last loan is recorded on the
26th of May 1599, after which nothing further is known of him.
It seems in the highest degree unlikely that he is the Henry
Porter who took his degree as Mus. Bac. at Christ Church in 1600
after twelve years' study, and whose skill in sacred music is cele-
brated in an epigram by John Weever. The entries in Henslowe's
Diary indicate that he wrote a play called Love Prevented (1598),
Hoi Anger soon Cold, with Chettle and Ben Jonson (1598), the
second part of The Two Angry Women of Abingdon (1598), The
Four Merry Women of A bingdon ( 1 599) , and The Spencers ( 1 599) ,
with Chettle. None of these are extant, unless, as has been
suggested, Love Prevented is another name for The Pleasant
History of the two angry women of Abingdon. With the humorous
mirth of Dick Coomes and Nicholas Proverbes, two serving men
(1599), the importance of which is well described by Professor
Gayley: " As a comedy of unadulterated native flavour, breath-
ing rural life and manners and the modern spirit, constructed
with knowledge of the stage, and without affectation or
n6
PORTER, HORACE PORTER, N.
constraint, it has no foregoing analogue except perhaps The
Pinner of Wakefield. No play preceding or contemporary yields
an easier conversational prose, not even the Merry Wives."
Alexander Dyce edited the Angry Women for the Percy Society
in 1841 ; and it is included in W. C. Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley'o
Old Plays (187,1). It was edited by Havelock Ellis in Nero and other
plays (1888, Mermaid Series, ) and in Representative English
Comedies (1903) , with an introduction by the general editor, Professor
C. M. Gayley.
PORTER, HORACE (1837- ), American diplomatist and
soldier, was born in Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, on the isth of
April 1837; son of David Rittenhouse Porter (1788-1867),
governor of Pennsylvania in 1830-1845, and grandson of Andrew
Porter (1743-1813), an officer in the Continental Army during
the War of Independence, and surveyor-general of Pennsylvania
from 1809 until his death. Horace Porter studied for a year
(1854) at the Lawrence scientific school of Harvard University,
and then entered the United States Military Academy, where
he graduated in 1860, third in his class. During the Civil War he
was chief of ordnance at the capture of Fort Pulaski; then served
in the Army of the Potomac un til after An tietam; was transferred
to the west, where he took part in the battles of Chickamauga
(for gallantry in which he received a congressional medal of
honour in June 1902) and Chattanooga; and in April 1864
became aide-de-camp to General Grant, in which position he
served until March 1869. He earned the brevet of captain at Fort
Pulaski, that of major at the battle of the Wilderness, and that
of lieutenant-colonel at New Market Heights, and in March 1865
was breveted colonel and brigadier-general. From August 1867
to January 1868, while General Grant was secretary of war ad
interim, Porter was an assistant secretary, and from March 1869 to
January 1873, when Grant was president, Porter was his executive
secretary. He resigned from the army in December 1873, when
he became vice-president of the Pullman Palace Car Company
and held other business positions. From March 1897 to May 1905
he was United States ambassador to France. At his personal
expense he conducted (1899-1905) a successful search for the
body of John Paul Jones, 1 who had died in Paris in 1792. For
this he received (May 9, 1906) a unanimous vote of thanks of
both Houses of Congress, and the privileges of the floor for life.
In 1907 he was a member of the American delegation to the
Hague Peace Conference. General Porter became well-known
as a public speaker, and delivered orations at the dedication of
General Grant's tomb in New York, at the centennial of the
founding of West Point, and at the re-interment of the body of
John Paul Jones at Annapolis. His publications include West
Point Life (1866) and Campaigning with Grant (1897). .
PORTER, JANE (1776-1850), British novelist, daughter of
an army surgeon, was born at Durham in 1776. Her life and
reputation are closely linked with those of her sister, ANNA MARIA
PORTER (1780-1832), novelist, and her brother, SIR ROBERT KER
PORTER (1775-1842), painter and traveller. After their father's
death, in 1779, the mother removed from Durham, their birth-
place, to Edinburgh, where the children's love of romance was
stimulated by their association with Flora Macdonald and the
young Walter Scott. . Mrs Porter moved to London, so that her
son might study art, and the sisters subsequently resided at
Thames Ditton and at Esher with their mother until her death
in 1831. Anna Maria Porter published Artless Tales in 1793-
1795, the first of along series of works of which the more note-
worthy are Walsh Colville (1797), Octavia (1798), The Lake of
Killarney ( 1 804) , A Sailor's Friendship and a Soldier's Love ( 1 805) ,
The Hungarian Brothers (1807), Don Sebastian (1809), Ballads,
Romances and other Poems (1811), The Recluse of Norway (1814),
The Knight of St John (1817), The Fast of St Magdalen (1818),
The Village of Mariendorpt (1821), Roche Blanche (1822), Honor
O'Hara (1826) and Barony (1830). Jane Porter whose intel-
lectual power, though slower in development and in expression,
was greater than her sister's had in the meantime gained imme-
diate popularity by her first work, Thaddeus of Warsaw (1803),
1 See JONES, JOHN PAUL, and an article by General Porter, " The
Recovery of the Body of John Paul Jones," in the Century Magazine,
(1905), Ixx. 927 sqq.
le
;
which was translated into several languages and procured
election as canoness of the Teutonic order of St Joachim. I:
1810, four years before the appearance of Wa-oerley, she attempted
national romance in her Scottish Chiefs. The story of Wallace
had been a favourite one in her childhood, and she was probably
well acquainted with the poem of Blind Harry (Henry the
Minstrel). Although the book lacked historical accuracy, and
the figure of Wallace is a sentimental conception of the least
convincing kind, the picturesque power of narration displayed
by Miss Porter has saved the story from the oblivion which has
overtaken the works of most of Scott's predecessors in historical
fiction. Her later works included The Pastor's Fireside (1815),
Duke Christian of Luneburg (1824), Coming Out (1828) and The
Field of Forty Footsteps (1828). In conjunction with her sister
she published in 1826 the Tales round a Winter Hearth. She
also wiote some plays, and frequent contributions to current
periodical literature. Sir Edward Seaward's Diary (1831) was
asserted by Miss Porter to be founded on documents placed in
her hands by the author's family, but is generally regarded as
pure fiction. The claim of her eldest brother, Dr William Ogilvie
Porter, to its authorship rests on a memorial inscription in
Bristol Cathedral, written by Jane. On the 2ist of Septembei
1832 Anna Maria died, and for the next ten years Jane becami
" a wanderer " amongst her relations and friends.
Robert Ker Porter had in his own way been scarcely less
successful than his sisters. After two years of study at the
Royal Academy he had gained reputation as a painter of altar-
pieces and battle-scenes of imposing magnitude. He went to
Russia as historical painter to the emperor in 1804, travelled
in Finland and Sweden, where he received knighthood from
Gustavus IV. in 1806, and accompanied Sir John Moore to
Spain in 1808. In 1811 he returned to Russia and married a
Russian princess. He was knighted by the Prince Regent hi
1813. In 1817 he travelled to Persia by way of St Petersburg
and the Caucasus, returning through Bagdad and westen
Asia Minor. He examined the ruins of Persepolis, making many
valuable drawings and copying cuneiform inscriptions. In
1826 he became British consul in Venezuela. His services there
were recognized by a knight commandership of the Order of
Hanover. Accounts of his wanderings are to be found in his
Travelling Sketches in Russia and Sweden (1808), Letters from
Portugal and Spain (1809), Narrative of the late Campaign in
Russia (1813), and Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient
Babylonia &c., during the years 1817-1820 (1821-1822). After
leaving Venezuela (1841) he again visited St Petersburg, and died
there suddenly on the 4th of May 1842. Jane Porter, who had
joined him in Russia, then returned to England and took up
her residence with her eldest brother at Bristol, where she died
on the 24th of May 1850.
PORTER, MARY (d. 1765), English actress, was brought to
the attention of Betterton by Mrs Barry, who had seen her play
the Fairy Queen at Bartholomew Fair. In his company she
made her first appearance in 1699, in tragedy, in which she was
at her best, although she also played a long list of comedy parts.
When her friends, Mrs Barry, Mrs Bracegirdle and Mrs Oldfield,
had retired from the stage, she was left its undisputed queen.
She died on the 24th of February 1765.
PORTER, NOAH (1811-1892), American educationalist and
philosophical writer, was born in Farmington, Connecticut, on
the I4th of December 1811. He graduated at Yale College,
1831, and laboured as a Congregational minister in Connecticut
and Massachusetts, 1836-1846. He was elected professor of
moral philosophy and metaphysics at Yale in 1846, and from
1871 to 1886 he was president of the college. He edited several
editions of Noah Webster's English dictionary, and wrote on
education, &c. His best-known work is The Human Intellect,
with an Introduction upon Psychology and the Human Soul (1868),
comprehending a general history of philosophy, and following
in part the " common-sense " philosophy of the Scottish school,
while accepting the Kantian doctrine of intuition, and declaring
the notion of design to be a priori. He died in New Haven on
the 4th of March 1892.
PORTEUS PORT HURON
117
PORTEUS, BEILBY (1731-1808), bishop of London, was born
at York and educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he
became fellow in 1752. He was ordained in 1757, and in 1762 was
appointed domestic chaplain to the archbishop of Canterbury.
In 1767 he became rector of Lambeth, and took his D.D. degree
at Cambridge, preaching on that occasion a sermon which in-
duced John Norris (1734-1777) to found the Norrisian professor-
ship of divinity. About two years later he was appointed
chaplain to the king and master of the hospital of St Cross,
Winchester. In 1776 he became bishop of Chester, and in
1787 he was translated to London. He was a supporter of the
Church Missionary and the British and Foreign Bible societies,
and laboured for the abolition of slavery.
Of his published works the Review of the Life and Character of
Archbishop Seeker (London, 1770), and the Summary of the principal
Evidences for the Truth and Divine Origin of the Christian Revelation
(London, 1800), have passed through numerous editions.
PORTFOLIO (shortened form of porto folio, adapted from the
Ital. porlafogli, portare, to carry, and fogli, sheets or leaves of
paper, Lat. folium, leaf), a case for keeping papers, documents,
prints, maps, &c., usually a leather book-cover with a flexible
back. As the official documents of a state department are in
the hands of the minister of that department, the word " port-
folio " is frequently used figuratively of the office itself, par-
ticularly on the continent of Europe, where the " portfolio " is
the symbol of office, as, in English usage, the " seals " are for the
secretaryships of state. The phrase " minister without port-
folio " is applied to a member of a ministry to whom no special
department is assigned.
PORT GLASGOW, a municipal and police burgh and seaport
of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of
Clyde, 2oJ m. W.N.W. of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway.
Pop. (1901), 16,857. The ground behind the town rises to a
height of 700 ft. and is partly occupied by villas. Amongst the
principal buildings are the town house (1815), with a tower and
spire; the town hall (1873); the library (1887) founded by James
Moffat, a merchant of the burgh, and the Carnegie Park Orphan-
age, also provided from the same bequest. Birkmyre Park was
opened in 1894. The industries include shipbuilding and allied
trades, engineering works, and iron and brass foundries. The
area of the port (which has wet and graving docks) amounts to
16 acres, and there are 2000 yds. of quayage. The harbours
are accessible at all stages of the tide. The district originally
formed part of the parish of Kilmalcolm, the nucleus of the town
being the village of Newark attached to the barony of that name.
In 1668 it was purchased from Sir Patrick Maxwell of Newark
by the Glasgow magistrates, who here constructed a harbour.
In 1695 it was erected into a separate parish under the name of
New Port Glasgow. In 1710 it became the chief custom-house
port for the Clyde, until superseded by Greenock. The graving
dock made in 1762 was the first dock of the kind in Scotland.
In 1775 Port Glasgow was created a burgh of barony and since
1832 has formed one of the Kilmarnock parliamentary burghs
(with Kilmarnock, Dumbarton, Renfrew and Rutherglen). It
is governed by a council with provost and bailies. Adjoining
the town on the east are the picturesque ruins of Newark Castle,
a quadrangular building dating from the end of the i6th century.
Formerly the property of the Dennistouns, it now belongs *.o
the Shaw-Stewarts.
PORTHCAWL, a seaport and urban district in tht tnid-
parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales 30 m.
by rail W. of Cardiff and 22 m. S.E. of Swansea. Pop (1901)
1872. The urban district (formed in 1893) is con* ^rminous
with the civil parish of Newton Nottage, which, ir Addition to
Porthcawl proper, built on the sea-front, comprise- the ancient
village of Nottage, i m. N., and the more modern v llage of New-
ton, i m. N.E. of Porthcawl. The natural harb-.ur of Newton
(as it used to be called) was improved by a brea> water, and was
connected by a tramway with Maesteg, whence coal and iron
were brought for shipment. The tramway WHS converted into
a railway, and in 1865 opened for passenger traffic. In 1866 a
dock (7^ acres) and tidal basin (2$ acres^ were constructed, but
since about 1902 they have fallen into disuse and the coal is
diverged to other ports, chiefly Port Talbot. Porthcawl, however,
has grown in popularity as a watering-place. Situated on a
slightly elevated headland facing Swansea Bay and the Bristol
Channel, it has fine sands, rocks and breezy commons, on one of
which, near golf links resorted to from all parts of Glamorgan, is
" The Rest," a convalescent home for the working classes,
completed in 1891, with accommodation for eighty persons.
The climate of Porthcawl is bracing, and the rainfall (averaging
25 in.) is about the lowest on the South Wales coast. The district
is described by R. D. Blackmore in his tale The Maid of Sker
(1872), based on a legend associated with Sker House, a
fine Elizabethan building in the adjoining parish of Sker, which
was formerly extra-parochial. The parish church (dedicated to
St John the Baptist) has a pre-Reformation stone altar and an
ancient carved stone pulpit, said to be the only relic of an earlier
church now covered by the sea.
PORT HOPE, a town and port of entry of Durham county,
Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, 63 m. N.E.
of Toronto by the Grand Trunk railway, and connected with
Charlotte, the port for Rochester, New York, by a daily steamboat
service. The population, 5585 in 1881, shrunk in 1001 to 4188,
but is increasing owing to the popularity of the town as a summer
resort. It is picturesquely situated on the side and at the foot
of hills overlooking the lake; and Smith's Creek, by which it is
traversed, supplies abundant water-power. Trade is carried on
in lumber, grain and flour. Trinity College School, a residential
school under Anglican control, has a long and creditable history.
PORT HUDSON, a village in East Baton Rouge Parish,
Louisiana, U.S.A., on the left bank of the Mississippi, about
135 m. above New Orleans. At the sharp turn of the Missis-
sippi here the Confederates in 1862 built on the commanding
bluffs powerful batteries covering a stretch of about 3 m., their
strongest fortifications along the Mississippi between New Orleans
and Vicksburg. On the night of the I4th of March 1863 Admiral
Farragut, with seven vessels, attempted to run past the batteries,
commanded by Brigadier-General William M. Gardner, but four
of his vessels were disabled and forced to turn back, one, the
" Mississippi " was destroyed, and only two, the " Hartford " and
the " Albatros.* " got past. General N. P. Banks's land attack,
on the 27th of May, was unsuccessful, the Union loss, nearly
2000, being six times that of the Confederates. A second attack
on the i4th of June, entailed a further Union loss of about
1800 men. But on the 9th of July, two days after the news
of the surrender of Vicksburg, after a siege of 45 days, General
Gardner surrendered the position to General Banks with about
6400 men, 50 guns, 5000 small arms and ammunition, and two
river steamers. The Union losses during the siege were probably
more than 4000; the Confederate losses about 800. The capture
of Vicksburg and Port Hudson secured to the Union the
control of the Mississippi.
PORT HURON, a city and the county-seat of Saint Clair
county, Michigan, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Saint Clair
and Black rivers, and at the lower end of Lake Huron, about
60 m. N.N.E. of Detroit. Pop. (1000), 19,158 of whom7i42 were
foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 18,863. It is served by the Grand
Trunk and other railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago
and other ports. A railway tunnel, 6025 ft. long, under the Saint
Clair, connects the city with Sarnia, Canada. The tunnel, which
has an inside diameter of 20 ft., was constructed by the Grand
Trunk railway in 1889-1891 at a cost of about $2,700,000, and
was designed by Joseph Hobson (b. 1834). Port Huron is laid
out with wide streets, on both sides of the Black river and along
the shore of Lake Huron; it has attractive parks and mineral
water springs, and is a summer resort. Among its buildings are
the court house, the city hall, and a Modern Maccabee Temple-
Port Huron being the headquarters of the Knights of the Modern
Maccabees (1881), a fraternal society which, in 1910, had a mem-
bership of 107,737. Until 1008 Port Huron was the headquarters
of the Knights of the Maccabees of the World (founded in 1883;
283,998 members in 1910). Port Huron has large shipping
interests, and since 1866 has been the port of entry of the Huron
n8
PORTICI PORTLAND, EARL OF
customs district. In 1908 its exports were valued at $16,958,080
and its imports at $4,859,120. The city has shipyards, dry
docks, large shops of the Grand Trunk railway, publishing
houses, and manufactories of agricultural implements, steel ships,
automobiles, foundry products, paper and pulp, and toys. In
1904 the city's factory products were valued at $4,789,589.
In 1686 the French established Fort St Joseph, a fortified trading
post, which came into the possession of the British in 1761 and was
occupied by _ American troops in 1814. The fort was renamed
Fort Gratiot in honour of General Charles Gratiot (1788-1855), who
was chief -engineer in General W. H. Harrison's army in 1813-1814,
and was chief-engineer of the U.S. Army in 1 828-1838. The settlement
which grew up round the fort, and was organized as a village in 1840,
was also known as Fort Gratiot, and was annexed to Port Huron
in 1893. The fort was abandoned during 1837-1848, during 1852-
1866, and, permanently, in 1879. The earliest permanent settlement,
in what later became Port Huron, was made in 1790 by several French
families. This settlement, distinct from that at the fort, was first
called La Riviere De Lude, and, after 1828, Desmond. It was platted
in 1835, incorporated as a village in 1840 (under its present name),
and chartered as a city in 1857.
PORTICI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples,
5 m. S.E. of Naples by rail, on the shores of the bay, and at the
foot of Vesuvius. Pop. (1901), 14,239. The palace, erected in
1738, is traversed by the high road. It once contained the
antiquities from Herculaneum, now removed to Naples, and since
1882 it has been a government school of agriculture. There is a
small harbour. Just beyond Portici, on the south east, is Resina
(pop, in 1901, 20,182), on the site of the ancient Herculaneum,
with several fine modern villas. The inhabitants are engaged
in fishing, silk-growing and silk-weaving. The town was com-
pletely destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in 1631.
PORTICO (Ital. for " porch," Lat. porlicus), a term in
architecture for the covered entrance porch to a building, which
is carried by columns, and either constitutes the whole front of
the building, as in the Greek and Roman temples, or forms an
important feature, as the portico of the Pantheon at Rome
attached to the rotunda. A circular projecting portico, such
as those to the north and south transepts of St Paul's Cathedral,
and that which forms the west entrance of St Mary le Strand, is
known as cyclostyle. The term porticus is used to distinguish
the entrance portico in an amphiprostylar or peripteral temple
from that behind which is called the poslicum.
PORTIERE, a hanging placed over a door, as its French name
implies, or over the doorless entrance to a room. From the
East, where doors are still rare, it came to Europe at a remote
date it is known to have been in use in the West in the I4th
century, and was probably introduced much earlier. Like so
many other domestic plenishings, it reached England by way of
France, where it appears to have been originally called rideau
de porle. It is still extensively used either as an ornament or as
a means of mitigating draughts. It is usually of some heavy
material, such as velvet, brocade, or plush, and is often fixed
upon a brass arm, moving in a socket with the opening and closing
of the door.
PORT JACKSON, or SYDNEY HARBOUR, a harbour of New
South Wales, Australia. It is one of the safest and most
beautiful harbours in the world; its area, including all its bays,
is about 15 sq. m., with a shore line of 165 m.; it has deep water
in every part, and is landlocked and secure in all weathers.
The entrance, between two rocky promontories known as North
and South Heads, is 2j m. wide between the outer heads, and
narrows down to i m. 256 yds. The port is flanked on both
sides by promontories, so that, in addition to a broad and deep
central channel, there is a series of sheltered bays with good
anchorage. Sydney lies on the southern shore about 4 m. from
the Heads. Port Jackson is the chief naval depdt of Australasia,
the headquarters of the admiral's station, and is strongly fortified.
The harbour has a number of islands, most of which are used for
naval or government purposes Shark Island is the quarantine
station, Garden Island has naval foundries, hospital and stores,
Goat Island is occupied by a powder magazine, Spectacle Island
is used to store explosives, and on Cockatoo Island are important
government docks. Port Jackson was discovered by Captain
Phillip in 1788, though in 1770 Captain Cook, when coasting
north, noticed what looked like an inlet, and named it after Sir
George Jackson, one of the secretaries to the Admiralty. Captain
Cook passed the harbour without recognizing its capacity; but
the cliffs which guard the entrance are 300 ft. high, and no view
of the basin can be seen from the masthead. Middle Head,
which is opposite the entrance, closes it in, and it is necessary
to enter, turn to the south, and then to the west before the best
part of the harbour discloses itself.
PORT JERVIS, a city of Orange county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the Delaware river, at its junction with the Neversink, 88 m.
N.W. of New York city by rail, and at the intersection of the
boundary lines of the states of New York, New Jersey and Penn-
sylvania. Pop. (1900), 9385, of whom 895 were' foreign-born;
(1910 census), 9564. It is served by the Erie and the New
York, Ontario & Western railways. The beauty of the scenery
in its vicinity has made the city a summer resort. At Port
Jervis are situated the extensive shops of the Erie railway.
Among the manufactures are wearing apparel, silk, glass, and
silver ware. The value of the factory products increased from
$1,009,081 in 1900 to $1,635,215 in 1905, or 62%. Port
Jervis was laid out in 1826, soon after work began on the Dela-
ware & Hudson Canal; it owes its origin to that waterway (now
abandoned), and was named in honour of John Bloomfield Jervis
(1795-1885), the engineer who constructed the canal, who, in
1836, was in charge of the construction of the Croton Aqueduct,
and wrote Railway Property (1859) and The Construction aiid
Management of Railways (1861). Port Jervis was incorporated
as a village in 1853, and was chartered as a city in 1907.
PORTLAND, EARL OF, an English title held by the family
of Weston from 1633 to 1688, and by the family of Bentinck
from 1689 to 1716, when it was merged in that of duke of Port-
land. Sir Richard Weston (1577-1635), according to Clarendon
" a gentleman of very ancient extraction by father and mother,"
was the son and heir of Sir Jerome Weston (c. 1550-1603) of
Skreens, in Roxwell, Essex, his grandfather being Richard
Weston (d. 1572) justice of the common pleas. A member of
parliament during the reigns of James I. and Charles I., Sir
Richard was sent abroad by James on two occasions to negotiate
on behalf of the elector palatine Frederick V.; after the murder
of the duke of Buckingham, he became the principal counsellor
of Charles I. In 1628 he was created Baron Weston of Neyland
and in 1633 earl of Portland. Having in 1625 and 1626 had
experience in the difficult task of obtaining money for the royal
needs from the House of Commons, Weston was made lord high
treasurer in 1628. His own inclinations and the obstacles in
the way of raising money made him an advocate of a policy of
peace and neutrality. His conduct was frequently attacked in
parliament, but he retained both his office and the confidence
of the king until his death on the I3th of March 1635. His son
Jerome, the 2nd earl (1605-1663), was imprisoned for plotting
in the interests of Charles I. in 1643, and was nominally president
of Munster from 1644 to 1660. He sat in the convention
parliament of 1660. He was succeeded by his son Charles
(1630-1665), who was killed in a sea-fight with the Dutch off the
Texel, and then by his brother Thomas (1609-1688), who died
in poverty at Louvain, when the title became extinct. In 1689
it was revived by William III., who bestowed it upon his favourite
William Bentinck (see below.)
Sir Richard Weston must be distinguished from a contemporary
and namesake, Sir Richard Weston (c. 1570-1652), baron of
the exchequer. Another Sir Richard Weston (c. 1466-1542)
was a courtier and a diplomatist under Henry VIII. ; his son was
Sir Francis Weston (c. 1511-1536), who was beheaded for his
alleged adultery with Anne Boleyn. This Sir Richard had a
brother, Sir William Weston (d. 1540), who distinguished himself
at the defence of Rhodes in 1522, and was afterwards prior of the
Knights of St John in England. A third Sir Richard Weston
(1591-1652), was mainly reponsible for introducing locks on the
Wey and thus making this river navigable.
Another family of Weston produced Robert Weston (c. 1515-
I 573), lord chancellor of Ireland from 1566 until his death on the
PORTLAND, EARL OF PORTLAND
119
aoth of May 1 573. Other famous Westons were Stephen Weston
(1665-1742) bishop of Exeter from 1724 until his death, and his
son Edward Weston (1703-1 7 7) tne writer.
Much of the earl of Portland's correspondence is in the Public
Kt-Vord Office, London. For his political career see S. R. Gardiner,
Hilary of England (1883-1884), and L. von Ranke, Enghsche
Geschichte (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1875).
PORTLAND, WILLIAM BENTINCK, EARL or (c. 1645-1709),
English statesman, was born, according to the Dutch historian,
Groen van Prinsterer, in 1645, although most of the other
authorities give the date as 1649. The son of Henry Bentinck
of Diepenheim, he was descended from an ancient and noble
family of Gelderland. He became page of honour and then
gentleman of the bedchamber to William, prince of Orange.
When, in 1675, the prince was attacked by small-pox, Bentinck
nursed him assiduously, and this devotion secured for him the
special and enduring friendship of William; henceforward, by
his prudence and ability, he fully justified the confidence placed
in him. In 1677 he was sent to England to solicit for the prince
of Orange, the hand of Mary, daughter of James duke of York,
afterwards James II., and he was again in England in 1683 and
in 1685. When, in 1688, William was preparing for his invasion
Bentinck went to some of the German princes to secure their
support, or at least their neutrality, and he was also a medium
of communication between his master and his English friends.
He superintended the arrangements for the expedition and sailed
to England with the prince.
The revolution accomplished, Bentinck was made groom of the
stole, first gentleman of the bedchamber, and a privy councillor;
and in April 1689 he was created Baron Cirencester, Viscount
Woodstock and earl of Portland. He commanded some cavalry
at the battle of the Boyne in 1690, and was present at the bat tie
of Landen, where he was wounded, and at the siege of Namur.
But his main work was of a diplomatic nature. Having thwarted
the plot to murder the king in 1696, he helped to arrange the
peace of Ryswick in 1697; in 1698 he was ambassador to Paris,
where he opened negotiations with Louis XIV. for a partition of
the Spanish monarchy, and as William's representative, he signed
the two partition treaties. Portland had, however, become very
jealous of the rising influence of Arnold van Keppel, earl of
Albemarle, and, in 1699, he resigned all his offices in the royal
household. But he did not forfeit the esteem of the king, who
continued to trust and employ him. Portland had been loaded
with gifts, and this, together with the jealousy felt for him as a
foreigner, made him very unpopular in England. He received
135,000 acres of land in Ireland, and only the strong opposition
of a united House of Commons prevented him obtaining a large
gift of crown lands in North Wales. For his share in drawing
up the partition treaties he was impeached in 1701, but the case
against him was not proceeded with. He was occasionally
employed on public business under Anne until his death at his
residence, Bulstrode in Buckinghamshire, on the 23rd of Novem-
ber 1709. Portland's eldest son Henry (1680-1724) succeeded
as 2nd earl. He was created marquess of Titchfield and duke of
Portland in 1716.
See G. Burnet, History of My Own Time (Oxford, 1833); Lord
Macaulay, History of England (1854); L. von Ranke, Englische
Geschichte (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1875); and especially Onno Klopp,
Der Fall des Hauses Stuart (Vienna, 1875-1888). See also Dr A. W.
Ward's article in vol. iv. of the Diet. Nat. Biog.
PORTLAND, WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH BENTINCK,
3rd DUKE OF (1738-1809), prime minister of England, son of
William, 2nd duke (1709-1762), and grandson of the ist duke.
His mother, Margaret, granddaughter and heiress of John
Holies, duke of Newcastle, brought to her husband Welbeck
Abbey and other estates in Nottinghamshire. He was born on
the uth of April 1738, and was educated at Oxford, where he
graduated M.A. in 1757. In 1761, as marquess of Titchfield, he
became M.P. for the borough of Weobly (Hereford), but in May
1762 he was called to the upper house on the death of his
father. Under the marquess of Rockingham he was, from July
1765 to December 1766, lord chamberlain, and on the return of
Rockingham to power in April 1782 he was made lord-lieutenant
of Ireland. After the short ministry of Shelburne, succeeding
the death of Rockingham, the duke of Portland was selected by
Fox and North as a " convenient cipher " to become the head of
the coalition ministry, to the formation of which the king was
with great reluctance compelled to give his assent. The duke
held the premiership from the 5th of April 1783 until the defeat of
the bill for " the just and efficient government of British India "
caused his dismissal from office on the 1 7th of December following.
Under Pitt he was, from 1794 to 1801, secretary of state for the
home department, after which he was, from 1801 to 1805,
president of the council. In 1807 he was appointed a second
time prime minister and first lord of the treasury. Ill health
caused him to resign in October 1809, and he died on the 3oth of
that month. He owed his political influence chiefly to his rank,
his mild disposition, and his personal integrity, for his talents
were in no sense brilliant, and he was deficient in practical energy
as well as in intellectual grasp.
He married in 1766 Lady Dorothy Cavendish (1750-1704),
daughter of the 4th duke of Devonshire, and was succeeded as
4th duke by his son WILLIAM HENRY (1768-1854), who married
a daughter of the famous gambler, General John Scott, and was
brother-in-law to Canning. His son, the sth duke, WILLIAM
JOHN CAVENDISH BENTINCK-SCOTT (1800-1879) died unmarried.
He is notable for having constructed the underground halls at
Welbeck Abbey, and for his retiring habits of life, which gave
occasion for some singular stories. 1 He was succeeded by his
cousin WILLIAM JOHN ARTHUR CHARLES JAMES CAVENDISH-
BENTINCK (b. 1857) as 6th duke.
PORTLAND, a seaport of Normanby county, Victoria,
Australia, 250 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1001),
2185. It stands on the western shore of a magnificent bay,
24 m. long and 12 m. broad, and is the outlet for a rich agri-
cultural and pastoral tract.
PORTLAND, the largest city of Maine, U.S.A., the county-
seat of Cumberland county, and a port of entry, on Casco Bay,
about 115 m. by rail N.N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 36,425;
(1900), 50,145, of whom 34,918 were born in Maine, 3125 in
the other New England states, 4476 in Canada, and 3273 in
Ireland, and 291 were negroes; (1910 census) 58,571. Port-
land is served by the Maine Central, the Boston & Maine,
and the Grand Trunk railways; by steamboat lines to New
York, Boston, Bar Harbor, Saint John, N.B., and other coast
ports, and, during the winter season, by the Allan and Dominion
transatlantic lines. It is connected by ferry with South
Portland.
1 Public interest centred for some years round the allegation that
he lived a double life and was identical with Mr T. C. Druce, an
upholsterer of Baker Street, London, who, in 1851, married Annie
May. The " Druce case," involving a claim to the title and estates,
by Mrs Druce (widow of W. T. Druce, son of T. C. Druce by Annie
May) on behalf of her son, aroused much attention from 1897 to 1908.
The duke of Portland was undoubtedly buried in Kensal Green
cemetery in 1879. " Druce," on the other hand, was supposed to
have died in 1864 and been interred in Highgate cemetery, his will
bequeathing over 70,000 in personal estate. Mrs Druce's claims
had two aspects, both as involving the revocation of probate of
T. C. Druce's will, and also as identifying Druce with the duke of
Portland. But her application to have the grave in Highgate opened
(with the object of showing that the coffin there was empty), though
granted by Dr Tristram, chancellor of the diocese of London, was
thwarted by a caveat being entered on the part of the executor of
T. C. Druce's will; and the case became the subject of constant
proceedings in the law-courts without result. Meanwhile it was
discovered that children of T. C. Druce by a former wife were living
in Australia, and Mrs Druce's claims fell into the background, the
case being taken up independently by Mr G. H. Druce as the repre-
sentative of this family, from 1903 onwards. A company to finance
his case was formed in 1905, and in the autumn of 1907 he instituted
a charge of perjury against Mr Herbert Druce, T. C. Druce's younger
son and executor, for having sworn that he had seen his father die
in 1864. Sensational evidence of a mock burial was given by an
American witness named Caldwell, and others; but eventually it
was agreed that the grave at Highgate should be opened. This was
done on December the 3Oth, and the body of Mr T. C. Druce was
then found in the coffin. The charge of perjury at once collapsed
and was withdrawn on January 6th, the opening of the grave
definitely putting an end to the story of an identity between the
two men.
I2O
PORTLAND
The hilly peninsula, to which Portland was confined until
the annexation of the town of Deering in 1899, is nearly 3 m. in
length by about \ m. in average width ; at its east end is Munjoy
Hill, 1 60 ft. above the sea, and its west end Bramhall Hill, 15 ft.
higher. Portland's total land area is about 215 sq. m. The
scenery in and about the city is noted for its picturesqueness,
and this, with its delightful summer climate and historic interest,
attracts a large number of visitors during the summer season.
Munjoy Hill commands a fine view of Casco Bay, which is over-
looked by other wooded heights. There is excellent yachting
in the bay, which contains many beautiful islands, such as
Peaks and Cushing's islands. Bramhall Hill commands an
extensive view west and north-west of the bay, the mainland,
and the White Mountains some 80 m. distant.
The city's park system includes the Western Promenade, on
Bramhall Hill; the Eastern Promenade, on Munjoy Hill; Fort Allen
Park, at the south extremity of the latter promenade ; Foit Sumner,
another small park farther west, on the same hill; Lincoln Park,
containing 2$ acres of beautiful grounds near the centre of the city;
Deering's Oaks (made famous by Longfellow), the principal park
(50 acres) on the peninsula, with many fine old trees, pleasant drives,
and an artificial pond used for boating; and Monument Square
and Boothby Square. There are many pleasant drives along the
shore of the bay or the banks of rivers, and some of these lead to
popular resorts, such as Riverton Park, on the Presumpscot; Cape
Cottage Park, at the mouth of the harbour; and Falmouth Foreside,
bordering the inner bay.
The streets of Portland are generally well paved, are unusually
clean, and, in the residence districts, where the fire of 1866 did not
extend, they are profusely shaded by elms and other large trees
Portland has been called the " Forest City." Congress Street, the
principal thoroughfare, extends along the middle of the peninsula
north-east and south-west and from one end of it to the other, passing
in the middle of its course through the shopping district.
In Portland's architecture, both public and private, there is much
that is excellent ; and there are a number of buildings of historic
interest. The Post Office, at the corner of Exchange and Middle
streets, is of white Vermont marble and has a Corinthian portico.
The granite Customs House, extending from Fore Street to Commer-
cial Street, is large and massive. The Public Library building
is Romanesque and elaborately ornamented; the building was
C resented to the city by James P. Baxter; in the library is the statue,
y Benjamin Paul Akers (1825-1861), of the dead pearl-diver, well
known from Hawthorne's description in The Marble Faun. The
Cumberland County Court House, of white Maine granite, occupies
the block bounded by Federal, Pearl, Church and Newbury streets ;
immediately opposite (to the south-west) is the Federal Court build-
ing, also of Maine granite. The Portland Observatory, on Munjoy
Hill, erected in 1807 to detect approaching vessels, rises 222 ft. above
tide-water. In Monument Square, the site of a battery in 1775
is a soldiers' and sailors' monument (1889), a tall granite pedestal
surmounted by a bronze female figure, by Franklin Simmons;
at the corner of State Street is a statue of Henry W. Longfellow by
the same sculptor; and where Congress Street crosses the Eastern
Promenade, a monument to the first settlers, George Cleeve and
Richard Tucker. On the Western Promenade there is a monument
to Thomas Brackett Reed, who was a native and a resident of Port-
land. On Congress Street, below the Observatory, is the Eastern
Cemetery, the oldest burying ground of the city ; in it are the graves
of Commodore Edward Preble, and of Captain Samuel Blythe
(1784-1813) and Captain William Burroughs (1785-1813), who were
killed in the engagement between the British brig " Boxer " and the
American brig " Enterprise," their respective ships, off this coast
on the 5th of September 1813. The cemetery also contains monu-
ments to Alonzo P. Stinson, the first soldier from Portland killed
in the Civil War, to the Portland soldiers in the War of Independence,
and to Rear-Admiral James Alden (1810-1877), of the U.S. Navy, a
native of Portland. Among the churches are the Cathedral of the
Immaculate Conception (Roman Catholic), with a spire 236 ft. high,
and St Luke's (Protestant Episcopal) Cathedral. In the Williston
Church (Congregational), in Thomas Street, the Young People's
Society of Christian Endeavor was founded in 1881 by the Rev.
Francis E. Clark, then pastor of the church. The finest residence
district is on Bramhall Hill. Many houses, especially in State,
_Danforth and Congress streets, are simple in style and old-fashioned
in architecture. Of special interest to visitors is the Wadsworth-
Longfellow House the early home of Henry W. Longfellow
which was built in 1785-1786 by General Peleg Wadsworth (1748-
1829), a soldier of the War of Independence, a representative in
Congress from 1793 to 1807, and the grandfather of the poet; was
given by Longfellow's sister, Mrs Anne Longfellow Pierce (1810-1901)
to the Maine Historical Society; and contains interesting relics of
the Wadsworth and Longfellow families, and especially of the poet
himself. Behind the " Home " is the Library of the Maine
Historical Society. The birthplace of Longfellow is now a tenement
house at the corner of Fore and Hancock streets, near the Gratld
Trunk railway station.
In Portland, as in Bangor, the Maine Music Festival (begun in
1897) is held every year in October, three concerts being given by a
chorus composed of local choruses trained in different cities of the
state for the festival.
Among the institutions are: The Medical School of Maine, the
medical department of Bowdoin College instruction being given
here during the last two years of the course; Westbrook Seminary
(chartered in 1831, and empowered to grant degrees in 1863); the
Public Library, containing (1910) 65,000 vols. ; the Library of the
Maine Historical Society (30,000 vols.) ; the Mechanics' Library,
the Greenleaf Law Library, the Maine General Hospital, and the
United States Marine Hospital. The Portland Society of Natural
History, founded in 1843 and incorporated in 1850, has a building
(1880) containing a library and natural history collections. The
city is supplied with good water from Lake Sebago, 17 m. distant.
The harbour has an artificial breakwater and extensive modern
fortifications (Fort Preble, on the Cape Shore; Fort Levett, on
Cushing's Island; Fort Williams, at Portland Head; and Fort
McKinley, on Great Diamond Island) among the best equipped in
the United States. For a long period the city was noted for its
commerce with the West Indies, which began to decline about 1876,
but the coast trade and commerce with Great Britain are still con-
siderable, especially in the winter, when Portland is the outlet of
much of the trade from the Great Lakes that in the other seasons
passes through Montreal. The principal exports are grain, live-
stock and fruit. In 1908 the exports were valued at $11,353,339
and the imports at $1,189,964. The Grand Trunk Railroad
Company has here two of the largest grain warehouses on the Atlantic
Coast. In 1905 Portland was the first manufacturing city of the
state, with a factory product valued at $9,132,801 (as against
$8,527,649 for Lewiston, which outranked Portland in 1900) ; here
are foundries and machine-shops, planing-mills, car and railway
repair shops, packing and canning establishments probably the
first Indian corn canned in the United States was canned near
Portland in 1840 potteries, and factories for making boots, shoes,
clothing, matches, screens, sleighs, carriages, cosmetics, &c. Ship-
bujlding and fishing are important industries.
The first permanent settlement on the peninsula was
established by George Cleeve and Richard Tucker at the foot
of Munjoy Hill in 1633 immediately after they had been ejected
from land which they had claimed at the mouth of the Spurwink.
Soon the hill at the east end became the property of George
Munjoy and that at the west end the property of George Bram-
hall. The Indian name of the peninsula was Machegonne, and the
new settlement was during the next few years known by various
names, such as Casco, Casco Neck, Cleeve's Neck, and Munjoy's
Neck. In 1658 Massachusetts extended its jurisdiction over this
part of Maine. The peninsula, with considerable neighbouring
territory and Cape Elizabeth, was organized as a town in 1718 and
was named Falmouth. The town suffered so severely from the
Indians in 1676 that it was deserted until 1678. It was attacked
in 1689, and in 1690 it was utterly destroyed by the French and
Indians, and remained desolate until after the Treaty of Utrecht
in 1713. When the port of Boston was closed by Great Britain
in 1774 the bell of the old First Parish Church (Unitarian) of
Portland (built 1740; the present building dates from 1825)
was muffled and rung from morning till night, and in other ways
the town showed its sympathy for the patriot cause. As a
punishment, on the i8th of October 1775, the town was bombarded
and burned by a British fleet. The peninsula portion of
Falmouth was incorporated as a distinct town in 1786 and was
named Portland. Portland was the capital of the state from
1820 to 1832 and in the latter year was chartered as a city.
In 1886 a large central portion of the city, about 200 acres,
was destroyed by a fire resulting from a Fourth of July
celebration. Portland was the birthplace of Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow, Thomas Brackett Reed, Edward Preble and his
nephew George Henry Preble, Mrs Parton (" Fanny Fern "),
Nathaniel Parker Willis, Seargent Smith Prentiss and Neal
Dow, and it was the home of William Pitt Fessenden, Theophilus
Parsons and Simon Greenleaf.
See W. Willis, The History of Portland (Portland, 1865), and
William Goold, Portland in the Past (Portland, 1886).
PORTLAND, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of
Multnomah county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the Willamette river,
near its confluence with the Columbia, about 120 m. by water
from the Pacific, 186 m. by rail S.S.W. of Seattle and about
PORTLAND, ISLE OF PORTLANDIAN
121
772 m. N. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890), 46,385; (1900),
90,426, of whom 25,876 were foreign-born (6943 Chinese);
(1010 census) 207,214. Portland is served by the Northern
Pacific, the Southern Pacific, the Canadian Pacific, the Great
Northern and other railways, by transpacific vessels to Hong-
Kong and Yokohama, by coast-wise vessels to San Francisco, to
ports on Puget Sound, in British Columbia, and in Alaska, and
by river boats sailing 100 m. farther up the Willamette and up
the Columbia and the Clearwater to Lewiston, Idaho. The city
is built on both sides of the river (which is crossed by five bridges),
and covers about 44 sq. m. On the western side the ground
rises gradually for a distance of J to i\ m., and then rises abruptly
500-1000 ft. to " Portland Heights " and " Council Crest,"
md the much-broken surface of which rises the Coast range;
on the eastern side a slightly rolling surface extends to the foot-
hills of the Cascade Mountains. From " Portland Heights " there
are fine views of the Columbia and Willamette valleys, and, par-
ticularly, of the snow-clad summits of Mt Hood, Mt Jefferson, Mt
M Helen's, Mt Adams and Mt Rainier (or Tacoma). In the
residence districts (King's Hill, Nob Hill, Portland Heights,
Willamette Heights, Hawthorne Avenue, &c.) are pleasantly
shaded streets, and grounds decorated with shrubs, especially
roses, which sometimes bloom as late as January an
annual " Rose Festival " is held here in June. The city has
205 acres in parks and numerous beautiful drives. It has a fine
climate, the mean temperature during the winter months from
1874 to 1903 was 41 F.; the mean summer temperature for the
same period 65 F. For the year ending the 3ist of May 1900
the death-rate was reported to be only 9 per 1000, and in 1907
to be only 8-28 per 1000. The city's water is brought through
a pipe 30 m. in length from Bull Run river, which is fed by
Bull Run Lake at an elevation of more than 3000 ft. in the
Cascade Mountains.
Among the prominent buildings are the Court House; the City
Hall, containing the rooms of the Oregon Historical Society; the
Customs House; the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral; the Public
Library (with 75,000 volumes in 1908) ; several tall office buildings
with frames of steel; and the Art Museum (1905). There are large
Krain elevators and miles of wharfs and docks. Among educational
institutions are the law and medical departments of the University
of Oregon, Hill Military Academy (1901) and Columbia University
(Roman Catholic, iqoi). The Oregonian, which was established
here in 1850, is one of the most influential newspapers on the Pacific
Slope.
The harbour is accessible for vessels of 26 ft. draught and the city's
leading industry is the shipment by water and by rail of fish
nally salmon) and of the products (largely lumber, wheat and
fruits) of the rich Willamette and Columbia valleys. It is also an
important jobbing centre. The value of the exports in 1908
amounted to $16,652,850 and the value of the imports to $2,937,513 ;
the foreign trade is chiefly with Great Britain and its possessions,
and with the Orient, where wheat and flour are exchanged for raw
silk, tea and manila and other fibres. Portland is the principal
manufacturing city of the state. The total value of its factory pro-
duct in 1905 was $28,651,321. The principal manufactures were
lumber and timber products ($3,577,465) and flour and grist mill pro-
ducts ($2,712,735); other important manufactures were packed
meat, planing-mill products, foundry and machine-shop products,
railway cars (repaired), cordage and twine, and canned and preserved
fish (salmon), oysters and fruits and vegetables.
Portland, named after Portland, Maine, was founded in
1845 by two real-estate men from New England, and was char-
tered as a city in ^851. Its early growth was promoted by the
demand for provisions from California soon after the discovery
of gold there, and although a considerable portion was swept
by tire in 1873 the city had a population of nearly 20,000 before
railway communication with the East was established by the
Northern Pacific in 1883. East Portland and Albina were
annexed to the city in July 1891. The Lewis and Clark Cen-
tennial and American Pacific Exposition and Oriental Fair was
held in Portland in 1905 in commemoration of the expedition
of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to this region in 1805.
The forestry building, 205 ft. long by 108 ft. wide and built of
logs of Oregon fir 6 ft. or more in diameter and 54 ft. long, and
a building devoted entirely to the subject of irrigation, were of
unusual interest. The forestry building is now maintained as
a museum chiefly for timber and timber products.
PORTLAND, ISLE OP, properly a peninsula of the coast
of Dorsetshire, England, as a prolongation of a narrow ridge
of shingle, Chesil Bank (q.v.), connects it with the mainland.
Pop. (1901), 15,262. It is 4 m. long and nearly 1} in extreme
breadth, with an area of about 4} sq. m. The shores are wild
and precipitous, and Portland is inaccessible from the sea except
towards the south. The highest point, close upon 500 ft.,
is the Verne hill in the north. Wave action is seen in the
numerous caverns, and south-east of Portland Bill, the southern
extremity of the isle, is a bank called the Shambles, ^between
which and the land there flows a dangerous current called the
Race of Portland. A raised beach is seen at Portland Bill.
The substratum of the island is Kimeridge Clay, above which
rests beds of sand and strata of Oolitic limestone, widely famed as
a building stone. Extensive quarries, which are Crown property,
have supplied the materials for St Paul's Cathedral and many
other important public buildings. In the " dirt-bed " resting
upon the Oolitic strata numerous specimens of petrified wood
are found, some of great size. The soil, though shallow, is
fertile, and mutton fed on the grass has a peculiar rich flavour.
Quarrying, fishing and agriculture are the chief industries.
Several curious local customs are retained by the inhabitants.
A joint railway of the Great Western and London & South
Western companies runs south from Weymouth to Portland
(4! m.) and Easton (8^ m.) on the isle. The isle contains a
convict prison with accommodation for about 1 500 prisoners.
Portland Castle, built by Henry VIII. in 1520, is generally
occupied by the commander of the engineers or of the regiment
stationed on the island. On a rock en the eastern side are
remains of a more ancient fortress, Bow and Arrow Castle,
ascribed to William Rufus.
A harbour of refuge, begun in 1847 under the direction of the
Admiralty, was completed some fifteen years later. A breakwater
stretching in a northerly direction from the north-east corner of the
island partially enclosed a large area of water naturally sheltered on
the south and west. An inner arm ran nearly east from the island
and terminated in a masonry head and fort, and an outer detached
arm bent to the north and terminated in a circular fort, a narrow
entrance for shipping being left between the two. It was formed
of a rubble mound quarried; by convict labour at the summit of the
island, and was lowered by a wire-rope incline to the sea. The
harbour thus made was open on the north to Weymouth and the
Channel, but the necessity for greater protection from torpedo
attack made it advisable to complete the enclosure. Accordingly
the Naval Works Acts of 1895 and subsequent years sanctioned
works for closing the gap about 2 m. long between the end
of the outer breakwater and the Bincleaves rocks near Weymouth,
by two new breakwaters. One of these runs nearly east from the
Bincleaves shore and is about 4642 ft. long, while from its extremity
the other, about 4465 ft. long, stretches in a south-east direction
towards the old outer breakwater, passages for navigation about
700 ft. wide separating it from its neighbours at each end. These
new structures also consist of rubble mounds. The defensive
harbour thus completely enclosed has an area of 2200 acres to the
one-fathom line, of which 1500 acres have a depth of not less than
30 ft. at low water. There is no dockyard at Portland, but the
watering and coaling arrangements for the supply of the fleet are of
considerable importance. There is a coaling jetty and camber for the
storage of both sea-borne and land-borne coal, with hydraulic
appliances for handling it. The harbour and island are strongly
fortified.
The isle of Portland is not mentioned in the time of the
Romans. In 837 it was the scene of an action against the Danes,
and in 1052 it was plundered by Earl Godwine. In 1643 the
parliamentary party made themselves masters of the island and
castle, but shortly afterwards these were regained by the
Royalists through a clever stratagem, and not recovered again
by the forces of the parliament till 1646.
PORTLANDIAN, in geology, a subdivision of the Upper
Jurassic system that includes the strata lying between the
Kimeridge Clay and the Purbeck beds. These rocks are well
exposed on the isle of Portland, Dorsetshire, where they have
been quarried for more than 200 years. J. Mitchell appears
to have been the first to use the term " Portland lime " in
geological literature (1788); T. Webster spoke of the " Portland
Oolite " in 1812. In England the strata are very variable; the
upper part consists principally of limestones, shelly, oolitic or
122
PORTLOCK PORTMANTEAU
compact, or in places very closely resembling chalk (Upway,
Portisham, Brill, Chilmark). Nodules and layers of chert are
well developed in some of the limestones of Dorsetshire and
elsewhere; and a silicified oolite occurs near St Alban's Head.
About Swindon, beds of sand are common in the Upper Portland
beds with layers of calcareous sandstone (Swindon stone).
Marly and sandy beds occur also at Shotover Hill. The lower
portion is usually sandy and shows a gradual passage into the
underlying Kimeridge Clay. W. H. Fitton in 1827 gave the
name " Portland Sand" to this division. The Upper Port-
landian in Dorsetshire is 130-170 ft. thick ; the Lower Portlandian
in the same district is 100-120 ft. These rocks crop out from
South Dorsetshire into Wiltshire, Oxfordshire and Buckingham-
shire, and possibly extend beneath younger rocks into Bedford-
shire and Cambridgeshire. They have been proved by borings
in Sussex and Kent, and in Yorkshire they are represented
by part of the Speeton Clays, and in Lincolnshire by part of
the Spilsby Sand. At Swindon and Aylesbury a conglomeratic
layer with small pebbles of lydite and phosphatized fossils lies
at the base of the Portland Stone.
The Upper Portlandian of England is characterized by the
ammonite Perisphincles giganleus, along with Cytheria (Cyrena)
rugosa, Trigonia gibbosa, Perisphincles boloniensis and Trigonia
incurva as subzonal forms. Olcostephanus gigas is the zonal
ammonite in the Lower Portlandian, associated with Trigonia
Pellati, Cyprina Brongniarti, Exogyra brantrutana and Astarle
Saemanni as subzonal indices. Other characteristic fossils
are Cerithium portlandicum, the casts of which form the familiar
" Portland screw," Isastraea oblonga,the Chelonian Stegochelys;
the remains of saurians Pliosaurus and Cimoliosaurus and others
are found; Mesodon, Ischyodus and other fishes occur in this
formation. The Portland limestones have been much in
demand for building purposes; at Portland the " Top Roach,"
the " Whit Bed" or top freestone, and the " Best Bed" (or
Base Bed) are the best known. In the Vale of Wardour the
lower Portlandian has been largely quarried; the stone from
this neighbourhood is often described as Wardour, Tisbury or
Chilmark stone. Swindon stone is a calcareous sandstone that
occurs in the sands of the Upper Portland beds near Swindon.
Rocks of Portlandian age are well developed on the continent of
Europe, but the grouping of the strata is different in some respects
from that adopted by English geologists. In France the " Port-
landian " is -usually taken to include the Purbeckian as well as the
equivalents of the English Portland beds, and some authors, e.g.
E. Renevier, have included more or less of the Kimeridgian in this
division. The Portlandian of north-west Germany includes the
Eimbeckhauser Plattenkalk and the Lower Portland Kalk. Oppel's
" Tithonjan " (tithonic) division, embracing Upper Kimeridge beds,
Portlandian and Purbeckian beds in the Alpine district, is now
recognized as a deeper water deposit of this time with many points
of resemblance to the Russian development to which the name
" Volgian " has been applied by S. Nikitin. The Portlandian beds
of Yorkshire are more nearly related to the Volgian phase than to
the beds of the same age in the south of England. The term Bono-
nian ( = Bolonian) was suggested by J. F. Blake in 1881 for a part of
the Portlandian series, from their occurrence at Boulogne (Bononia)
where they are similar to the beds of Dorset. He limited the name
Portlandian to the Purbeckian and Upper Portlandian (Portland
stone), while he placed the Portland Sands and upper part of the
Kimeridge Clay in his Bolonian division: this scheme has not been
accepted in England. See JURASSIC.
PORTLOCK, JOSEPH ELLISON (1794-1864), British geologist
and soldier, the only son of Nathaniel Portlock, captain in the
Royal Navy, was born at Gosport on the 3oth of September
1794. Educated at the Royal Military Academy he entered
the Royal Engineers in 1813. In 1814 he took part in the
frontier operations in Canada. In 1824 he was selected by
Colonel (afterwards Major-General) T. F. Colby (1784-1852)
to take part in Ordnance Survey of Ireland. He was engaged
for several years in the trigonometrical branch, and subse-
quently compiled information on the physical aspects, geology
and economic products of Ireland. In 1837 he formed at Belfast
a geological and statistical office, a museum for geological
and zoological specimens, and a laboratory for the examina-
tion of soils. The work was then carried on by Portlock as
the geological branch of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, and
the chief results were embodied in his Report on the Geology of
the County of Londonderry and of parts of Tyrone and Fermanagh
(1843), an elaborate and well-illustrated volume in which he was
assisted by Thomas Oldham. After serving in Corfu and at
Portsmouth he was, in 1849, appointed Commanding Royal
Engineer at Cork, and from 1851-1856 he was Inspector of
Studies at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. For a
short time commanding officer at Dover, when the Council of
Military Education was formed in 1857 he was selected as a
member.
During these years of active service he contributed num-
erous geological papers to the scientific societies of Dublin
and to the British Association. He published in 1848 a useful
treatise on geology in Weale's " Rudimentary Series" (3rd. td.,
1853). He was president of the geological section of the British
Association at Belfast (1852), and of the Geological Society of
London (1856-1858). He wrote a Memoir of the late Major-
General Colby, with a Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the
Trigonometrical Survey (reprinted in 1869 from Papers on
Subjects connected with the Royal Engineers, vols. iii.-v.).
He also contributed several articles on military subjects to
the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1837. He died in
Dublin on the i4th of February 1864.
PORT MAHON, or MAHON (Spanish Puerto Mahdn), the
capital and principal seaport of Minorca, in the Spanish
province of the Balearic Islands. Pop. (1900), 17,144. Port
Mahon is situated on the east coast, at the head of a deep inlet
which extends inland for 35 m. It is an important harbour
(see MINORCA). The city occupies a conspicuous hill, and
presents a fine appearance from the sea; it is solidly built of
excellent stone. Many of the houses date from the British
occupation, which has also left curious traces in the customs
and speech of the people. The King's Island (Isla del Rey,
so called as the landing-place of Alphonso III. of Aragon in
1287) contains a hospital built by the admiral of the British
squadron in 1722; farther south-east on the shore is the village
of Villa Carlos or George Town, with ruins of extensive British
barracks; and at the mouth of the port, on the same side, are
the remains of Forte San Felipe, originally erected by Charles V.
and twice the scene of the capitulation of British troops. Oppo-
site San Felipe is the easily defended peninsula of La Mola
(256 ft. high), which is occupied by extensive Spanish fortifi-
cations. Mahon is one of the principal quarantine stations of
Spain; the lazaretto, erected between 1798 and 1803, stands on
a long tongue of land, separated from La Mola by the inlet of
Cala Taulera. The principal modern buildings are the military
and naval hospitals, the theatre, museum, library and schools.
There are an arsenal and extensive quays. From its position
on the route of vessels plying between Algeria and the south of
France, the harbour is much frequented by French cargo-
steamers; it is also a Spanish naval station. The principal
exports are grain, live stock and fruit; cement, coal, iron,
machinery, flour, raw cotton and hides are imported. Shoes
and cotton and woollen goods are manufactured. About 250
vessels enter the port every year, and the annual value of the
foreign trade is, approximately, 200,000 to 250,000.
Mahon is the ancient Portus Magonis, which under the Romans
was a municipium (Mun. flavium magontanum), probably including
the whole island under its authority. As the name suggests, it had
previously been a Carthaginian settlement. The Moors, who
occupied Minorca in the 8th century, were expelled by James I.
of Aragon in 1232. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa besieged and captured
the city in 1535; and in 1558 it was sacked by a corsair called Piali.
The British, who under James Stanhope, afterwards Earl Stanhope,
seized the island in 1708, made Mahon a flourishing city, and in
1718 declared it a free port. In 1756 it fell into the hands of the
French through the failure of Admiral Byng to relieve the garrison
of St Philip's (San Felipe). Restored to the British in 1762, it was
in 1782 heroically but unsuccessfully defended by General Murray.
In 1802 it was finally ceded to Spain by the treaty of Amiens.
PORTMANTEAU, a leather case or trunk for carrying articles
of personal use when travelling. The typical portmanteau of
PORTO ALEGRE PORTO MAURIZIO
123
the present day has two compartments which, fastened at the
back by hinges, close together like a book. The original port-
manteau (adopted from Fr. portemanleau, porter, to carry,
manteau, cloak, mantle) was a flexible round leather case to hold
a cloak or other garment and of such a shape as could conveni-
ently be carried on a rider's saddle. In French the word was
applied to a bracket or set of pegs on which to hang clothes.
( L. Dodgson (" Lewis Carroll ") in Through the Looking Glass
(" The Song of the Jabberwock ") used the expression " port-
manteau word " of an invented word composed of two words
run together and supposed to convey humorously the combined
meaning: thus " slithy " conveys slimy and lithe; " mimsy,"
flimsy and miserable.
PORTO ALEGRE, a city and port of Brazil, capital of the
slate of Rio Grande do Sul, at the northern extremity of Lag6a
dos Patos on the eastern shore of an estuary called Rio Guahyba,
about 1 60 m. from the port of Rio Grande do Sul at the entrance
to the lake. The population which contains a large foreign
element, chiefly German and Italian, was returned as 73,574
by the census of 1900, including some outlying districts not
within urban limits. The municipio (commune), which has
an area of 931 sq. m., had a population of nearly 100,000, in-
cluding a large number of prosperous colonists. The railway
from Porto Alegre to Novo Hamburgo and Taquara (55 m.)
affords an outlet for some of the older German colonies. The
railway from Porto Alegre to Uruguayana is completed from
Margem da Taquary to Cacequy, 232 m. Its starting point,
Margem da Taquary, is about 80 m. from the city, with which
it is connected by river steamers. An extension of the railway
is projected from Margem da Taquary to Neustadt on the Novo
Hamburgo line, and will give the city direct railway connexion
with the principal cities of western and southern Rio Grande
do Sul. The Rio Guahyba, which is not a river, was once called
" Yiatnao " because its outline is roughly that of the human
hand, the rivers entering the estuary at its head corresponding
to the fingers. The lower channels of these rivers (the Gravaty,
Sinos, Cahy, Jacuhy and Taquary) are all navigable and bring
considerable trade to the port. Its foreign trade is limited to
light-draught steamers able to cross the bar at the entrance to
the lake.
The city occupies a tongue of land projecting into the estuary,
and extends along its shores and back to a low wooded hill. Its
site, as seen from the water, is attractive, though its larger part
is an almost level plain. There are pleasant suburbs along the shore
and farther ^ inland (Floresta, Gloria, Moinhos de Vento, i.e.
" Windmills," Navigantes and Partenon). The climate is sub-
tropical, cool and bracing in winter but insufferably hot in summer.
The mean annual temperature is slightly under 69 F., the average
maximum being a little over 82 and the average minimum 59.
The annual rainfall is about joj in. The city is regularly laid out
with broad, straight, well-paved streets, in great part lined with
shady trees. The waterside streets, however, follow the curve of
the beach. There are several public squares and gardens, the more
important being the Prac,a Harmoma, the Praga d'Alfandega,
Pra<;a da Independencia and the Parque, where an exposition was
held in 1901. The public water supply is drawn from a range of
hills 6 m. distant and is considered good. Porto Alegre, like
many Brazilian cities, is in a transition stage, and handsome new
structures of French and Italian styles rise from among the low,
heavy and plain old buildings of Portuguese origin. Brick and
broken stone are chiefly used m the walls, which are plastered out-
side and tinted. Tiles are used for roofing, and on modern edifices
stucco ornamentation is lavishly employed. The most noteworthy
public buildings are the Cathedral (Porto Alegre being the see of a
Roman Catholic bishop), the handsome church of Nossa Senhora
Dores, the municipal palace, school of engineering, government
palace, legislative halls, school of medicine, athenaeum, normal
school and public library and military barracks. One of the hos-
pitals that of Caridade is the largest in the state. The city is the
chief commercial centre of the state and has shipyards for the con-
traction of river and lake vessels. It manufactures cotton fabrics,
ts and shoes, iron safes and stoves, carriages, furniture, butter and
aeese, macaroni, preserves, candles, soap and paper.
Porto Alegre was founded in 1743 by immigrants from the
Azores and was at first known as Porto dos Cazaes. Owing to
the occupation of the southern part of the captaincy by the
Spaniards, Governor Jose Marcellino de Figuereido selected this
village in 17 70 as his official residence and gave to it the name it
now bears. It was made a villa in 1803, and in 1807, when Rio
Grande do Sul was made a captaincy-general, the transfer of
the capital from Rio Grande to Porto Alegre was officially
recognized. In 1822 it was raised to the rank of a city, and in
1841, as a reward for its loyalty in revolutionary wars of that
province, it was distinguished by the title of leal e valorosa
(loyal and valorous). The first German immigrants to settle
near Porto Alegre arrived in 1825, and much of its prosperity and
commercial standing is due to the German element.
PORTOCARRERO, LUIS MANUEL FERNANDEZ DE
(1635-1709), cardinal archbishop of Toledo, was a younger son
of the marquis of Almenara and was born on the 8th of January
1635. He became dean of Toledo early, and was made cardinal
on the 5th of August 1669. Till 1677 he lived at Rome as
cardinal protector of the Spanish nation. In 1677 he was ap-
pointed interim viceroy of Sicily, counsellor of state and arch-
bishop of Toledo. He ceased to be viceroy of Sicily in 1678.
As archbishop of Toledo he exerted himself to protect the clergy
from the obligation to pay the excises or octroi duties known as
" the millions " and thereby helped to perpetuate the financial
embarrassments of the government. His position rather than
any personal qualities enabled him to play an important part in
a great crisis of European politics. The decrepit King Charles II.
was childless, and the disposal of his inheritance became a
question of great interest to the European powers. Porto-
carrero was induced to become a supporter of the French party,
which desired that the crown should be left to one of the family
of Louis XIV., and not to a member of the king's own family,
the Habsburgs. The great authority of Portocarrero as cardinal
and primate of Spain was used to persuade, or rather to terrify
the unhappy king into making a will in favour of the duke of
Anjou, Philip V. He acted as regent till the new king reached
Spain and hoped to be powerful under his rule. But the king's
French advisers were aware that Spain required a thorough
financial and administrative reform. Portocarrero could not
see, and indeed had not either the intelligence or the honesty
to see, the necessity. He was incapable, obstinate and per-
fectly selfish. The new rulers soon found that he Unust be
removed and he was ordered to return to his diocese. When
in 1706 the Austrian party appeared likely to gain the upper
hand, Portocarrero was led by spite and vexation to go over to
them. When fortune changed he returned to his allegiance to
Philip V., and as the government was unwilling to offend the
Church he escaped banishment. In 1709 when Louis XIV.
made a pretence of withdrawing from the support of his grand-
son, the cardinal made a great display of loyalty. He died on
the i4th of September and by his orders the words Hie jacet
pulvis, cinis, et nihU were put on his tomb.
See Lord Stanhope, History of the War of Succession in Spain
(London, 1832).
PORTO FARINA, a town of Tunisia about 20 m. E. of Bizerta,
on the Ghar-el-Mela, a lagoon, also known as the Lake of Porto
Farina, at the mouth of the Mejerda (the ancient Bagradas).
Porto Farina was the naval arsenal of the piratical beys of
Tunis and was bombarded by the English under Admiral Blake
in 1655. The lagoon has become very shallow in consequence
of the silt brought down by the Mejerda. The town has ceased
to be important, and its inhabitants have dwindled to about
1500. The ruins 10 m. to the south-west, near the village of
Bu Shater, are identified with the ancient Utica (q.v.).
PORTO MAURIZIO, a city of Liguria, Italy, the capital of
the province of Porto Maurizio, on the coast of the Ligurian
Sea, 46 m. by rail E. of Nice and 70 m. S.W. of Genoa, 115 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1001), 7207. It consists of a picturesque
old town on the heights and a modern town of villas on the lower
slopes. The principal church, designed by Gaetano Cantone,
is a large structure of 1780 with a dome rebuilt in 1821. A few
remains of the old city walls may be seen. About 2 m. north-
east of Porto Maurizio is the town of Oneglia, with a fine church,
S. Giovanni Battista, designed by Gaetano Amoretti, a hospital
(1785) and a large prison. It suffered considerably from the
earthquake of 1887. Maurizio and Oneglia lie on the same bay
124
PORTO NOVO PORTO RICO
and both have small but safe harbours, both are frequented
for sea-bathing, and both are embowered amid olive groves;
and the district is famous for the quality of its oil. The two
towns together form one commune, called imperia, which had
a population of 15,459 in 1907.
Porto Maurizio appears as Portus Maurici in the Maritime Itiner-
ary. After being subject to the marquises of Turin (nth century)
and of Clavesana, it was sold by Boniface of Clavesana in 1288 to
Genoa in return for a yearly payment; in 1354 it became the seat
of the Genoese vicar of the western Riviera, and remained in the
possession of the republic till it was merged in the kingdom of
Sardinia. Oneglia, formerly situated inland at the place called
Castelvecchio (old castle), has occupied its present site Irom about
935- The bishops of Albenga sold it in 1298 to the Dorias of Genoa,
who in their turn disposed of it in 1576 to Emanuel Philibert of Savoy.
In the wars of the house of Savoy Oneglia often changed hands.
In 1614 and 1649 the Spaniards and in 1623 and 1672 the Genoese
obtained possession; in 1692 it had to repulse an attack by a French
squadron; in 1744-1745 it was again occupied by the Spaniards,
and in 1792 bombarded and burned by the French. Pellegrino
Amoretti, assistant secretary to Charles V., and Andrea Doria, the
famous admiral, were natives of Oneglia.
See G. Donaudi, Storia di Porto Maurizio (1889).
PORTO NOVO, a town of British India, on the Coromandel
coast in the South Arcot district of Madras. Pop. (1901),
13,712. The English began trading here in 1683, when they
found both the Danes and the Portuguese already established.
The place is chiefly famous for the battle in July 1781, in which
Sir Eyre Coote with 8000 men defeated Hyder Ali with 60,000
and saved the Madras presidency. In 1830 an attempt, finally
unsuccessful mainly owing to the lack of fuel, was made to
smelt iron from the ores found in the vicinity.
PORTO-RICHE, GEORGES DE (1840- ), French dramatist,
was born at Bordeaux. When he was twenty his pieces in verse
began to be produced at the Parisian theatres; he also wrote
some books of verse which met with a favourable reception,
but these early works were not reprinted. In 1898 he published
Theatre d'amour, which contained four of his best pieces, La
Chance de Franqoise, L'Infidele, Amoureuse, Le Passf. The
title given to this collection indicates the difference between
the plays of Porto-Riche and the political or sociological pieces
of many of his contemporaries. In Germaine, the passionate
and exacting heroine of Amoureuse, Mme Rejane found one of
her best parts. In Les MalejMtres (Odeon, 1904), also a drama
of passion, the characters are drawn from the working classes.
PORTO RICO, or PUERTO Rico (" Rich Harbour "), an
island of the United States of America, the most easterly and
the fourth in size of the Greater Antilles, situated between
17 50' and 18 30' N., and between 65 30' and 67 15' W.,
about 70 m. E. of Haiti, and 500 m. E. by S. of Cuba. It is
about 100 m. long from east to west, 40 m. wide near the west
end, and somewhat narrower towards the east end, and has an
area of 3435 sq. m.
Physical Features. A range of mountains, varying in height
from 2000 ft. to about 3750 ft. on El Yunque Peak in the north-
east corner, traverses the island from west to east and descends
abruptly to the sea at each end. The south slope rises precipi-
tously from the foothills; the north slope is more gradual, but it is
much broken by rugged spurs and deep gorges. On the north there
is little coastal plain except at the mouths of rivers, but on the
south coast there is a plain of considerable extent broken only by
the remains ot eroded foothills. The water parting is about twice
as far from the north coast as it is from the south coast, the rain-
fall is greater on the north slope, and the principal rivers Rio
Loiza, Rio de la Plata, Rio Manati and Rio Arecibo are on the north
side. There are eight other rivers on the same side, seventeen
on the south side, six at the east end and four at the west end,
besides more than 1200 smaller streams, and the deep valleys
cut by the streams add to the broken surface of the country. None
of the rivers is navigable for more than a mile or two from the coast.
The coast-line has few indentations sufficient to afford safe harbour-
age. Under the same jurisdiction as Porto Rico are the fertile
island of Vieques (21 m. long and 6 m. wide) and the smaller and
nearly barren island of Culebra off the east coast, the island of
Mona, covered with deposits of guano, off the west coast, and
numerous islets.
Fauna. The native fauna is scanty. The agouti and the
armadillo are practically extinct and the only other mammals
are ground squirrels, rats, a few other small rodents, and some bats.
A huge land-turtle is peculiar to the island. Reptiles are scarce,
and venomous reptiles unknown. Noxious insects are less numerous
than is usual in tropical countries. There are no large game birds,
but song birds and doves are numerous on the mountains, and
flamingoes and other water-birds frequent the coast. There are a
few species of fresh-water fish, but food-fishes are scarce both in
the rivers and along the coast.
Flora. The flora is beautiful and varied. The more rugged
districts and higher elevations are clad with such tropical forest
trees as ebony, Spanish cedar, sandalwood, rosewood and mahogany.
There are several species of palms, flowering trees, trees with
beautifully coloured foliage, tree ferns, resinous trees and trees
bearing tropical fruits. There are about thirty species of medicinal
plants, twelve used for condiments, and twelve for dyes and tanning.
In the semi-arid districts on the south slope of the mountains
the flora consists chiefly of dry grasses, acacias, yuccas and cactuses.
Climate. The climate is somewhat more healthy than that of
the other West Indies. The temperature is moderated by the
north-east trade winds, which, somewhat modified by local con-
ditions, blow throughout the year, briskly during the day and more
mildly during the night. It rarely reaches 100 F. or falls below
50, and the mean annual temperature is about 80 (75-2 in
January, 80-4 in August). The mean daily variation at San Juan
is 11-5 ; on the mountains the mean daily variation is 23. The
average annual rainfall on the north-east coast, at the foot of
rriiie
j
jflk* r&.tf&
El Yunque Mountain, is 120 in. or more, while other districts are
semi-arid or subject to severe droughts. At San Juan the average
annual rainfall is about 55 in.; nearly two-thirds of this falls from
June to November inclusive. Most of the rain is in showers,
frequently heavy; and on the windward slope showers are an
almost daily occurrence. The island is^visited occasionally by
hurricanes.
Soil. Close to the coast the soil is for the most part a coral
sand. Farther inland in the level districts and river bottoms it
varies from a sandy to a clay loam containing much alluvium.
On the foothills and in the less rugged mountain districts there
is a thin but rich clay soil derived from coral limestone.
Industries. A little more than one-fourth of the land is under
cultivation and in 1899 more than three-fifths of the working popu-
lation were engaged m agriculture. There were over 39,000 farms,
nearly all of them small, and the average number of acres cultivated
on each was not more than fifteen. Sugar on the lowlands, coffee
on the upper, and tobacco on the lower mountain slopes are the
principal crops. In 1909 there were 185,927 acres of sugar, yielding
244,257 tons for exportation, and valued at $18,432,446. The
coffee plantations were greatly injured by a severe hurricane
which visited the island on the 8th of August 1899, but the yield
for export increased from 12,157,240 ft in 1901 to 38,756,750 ft,
valued at $4,693,004, in 1907. The acreage, however, decreased
from 178,155 acres in 1906 to 155,778 acres in 1909, and in the latter
year the crop fell to 28,489,263 ID. Java coffee has been grown
with success in Porto Rico. Tobacco of a superior quality is grown
extensively on the lower northern slopes and much tobacco is now
grown under cloth. The total acreage of tobacco increased from
12,871 acres in 1906 to 27,596 acres in 1909; the total value of the
exported tobacco products increased from $681,642 in 1901 to
$5,634,130 in 1909. Cotton, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, yams
and rice are small crops. The culture of citrus fruits, principally
oranges and grape-fruit, and of pineapples and coco-nuts has been
rapidly extended. About 13,000 head of cattle were exported
annually from 1901 to 1905, but much of the best grazing land
has since been devoted to the cultivation of sugar-cane. A project
for irrigating the district south of the mountains between Ponce
and Patillas was adopted by the Porto Rican government in 1909.
The Federal government has an agricultural experiment station
at Mayaguez.
PORTO RICO
The mineral resources are very limited. Brick clay and lime-
stone are abundant, and there are on the south coast a sand marl
rich in phosphates and productive salt deposits. Iron ore, lignite,
r, mercury, molybdenite, nickel, platinum and other minerals
h.ivc been found, but the quantity of each is too small, or the
quality too poor, for them to be of commercial value. There are
important mineral and thermal springs in various parts of flic
islanil.
The only manufacturing industries of much importance are the
puration of sugar, coffee and tobacco for market, and the
nufacture of cigars, cigarettes, straw hats, soap, matches,
.-micflli, sash, doors, ice, distilled liquors and some machinery.
Transport facilities are inadequate. The American Railroad
of I'orto Rico, about 190 m. long, connects the principal cities
along the north and west coasts and those as far east as Ponce
on the south coast; a railway between Ponce and Guayama,
farther cast, was virtually completed in 1910, and the Vega Alta
railroad connects Vega Alta with Dorado on the north coast;
but there are no inland railways and most of the products of the
interior are carried to the coast in carts drawn by bullocks or on
the backs of mules. The mileage of wagon roads was increased
from about 170 m. in 1898 to 612 m. in 1909. The principal har-
bours are San Juan on the north and Ponce on the south coast;
the former is accessible to vessels of about 30 ft. draught, and the
latter has a natural channel which admits vessels of 25 ft. draught.
lines of steamboats afford regular communication between San
Juan and New York; one of them runs to Venezuelan ports and one
t n N i- w Orleans ; and there are lines to Cuba and direct to Spain.
The commerce of Porto Rico is principally with the United
States. The value of its exports to the United States increased
from $5,581,288 in the fiscal year ending on the 3Oth of June
KJOI to $26,998,542 in 1909, and the value of its imports from the
United States increased during this period from $7,413,502 to
$25,163,678. In the meantime the value of its exports to foreign
countries increased only from $3,002,679 to $4,565,598, and the
value of its imports from foreign countries only from $1,952,728
to $3,054,318.
Population. The population increased from 583,308 in 1860
to 798,565 in 1887, and to 953,243, or 277-5 P" sq. m., in 1899.
Of the total population in 1899, 589,426, or 6i-8%were whites,
304,352 were of mixed blood, 59,390 were negroes and 75
were Chinese. In 1910 the census returned the population as
1,118,012. The proportion of whites is greater at the west
end than at the east end, greater on the north side than on
the south side, and greater in the interior than along the coast.
Only 13,872, or about 1-5% of the total population of 1899,
were foreign-born, and of these more than one-half were born
in Spain. The married portion of the population was only
16.6% in 1899. The principal towns, with the population of
each in 1910, are: San Juan, 48,716; Ponce, 35,027; Mayaguez,
16,591 ; Arecibo, 961 2. The Roman Catholic is the predominant
church and the bishopric of Porto Rico (1512) is one of the
oldest in the New World.
Government. The constitution of Porto Rico is contained in
an act of the Congress of the United States (the Foraker Act)
which came into operation in May IQOO. The governor is
appointed by the president of the United States with the advice
and consent of the Senate for a term of four years, and associated
with the governor is an executive council consisting of the
secretary, treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, commissioner
of the interior, commissioner of education, and five other
members, all appointed in the same manner and for the same
term as the governor. The constitution requires that at least
five of the eleven members of the Executive Council shall be
native inhabitants of Porto Rico; in practice the six members
who are also heads of the administrative departments have been
Americans while the other five have been Porto Ricans. The
insular government, however, has created a seventh administra-
tive department that of health, charities and corrections and
requires that the head of this shall be chosen by the governor
from among the five members of the Executive Council who
are not heads of the other departments.
The Executive Council constitutes one branch of the legislative
assembly; the House of Delegates the other. The House of Dele-
gates consists of 35 members elected biennially, five from each of
seven districts. The right to determine the electoral franchise is
vested in the legislature itself and that body has conferred it upon
practically all adult males. The governor has the right to veto
any bill, and for passing a bill over his veto an affirmative vote
of two-thirds of the members of each house is required. All laws
enacted by the insular legislature must also be submitted to the
Congress of the United States, which reserves the right to annul
them. Railway, street railway, telegraph and telephone franchises
can be granted only by the Executive Council with the approval
of the governor, and none can be operative until it has been approved
by the President of the United States. The governor and Executive
Council have the exclusive right to grant all other franchises of a
public or quasi-public nature and Congress reserves the right to
annul or modify any such grant. ,
The administration of justice is vested in a United States district
court and a supreme court, district courts, municipal courts and
justice of the peace courts of Porto Rico. The judge of the United
States district court and the chief justice and associate justices
of the supreme court are appointed by the President with the
consent of the Senate, and the judges of the district courts by the
governor with the consent of the Executive Council.
The principal local government is that of the municipalities or
municipal districts, but for the Spanish municipal government the
insular legislature has substituted one resembling that of small
towns in the United States, and it has reduced the number of dis-
tricts from 66 to <J7. Each municipal district elects biennially a
mayor and a municipal council, the membership of which varies from
five to nine according to the population of the district. The mayor
appoints practically all municipal employe's and may veto any
ordinance of the council; his veto, however, may be overridden by
two-thirds of the council. The police force of each municipality,
or rather of each of 66 police districts, is maintained and controlled
by the insular government; justice in each municipality is also
administered by the insular government; the building, maintenance
and repair of public roads are under the management of a board of
three road supervisors in each of the seven insular election districts;
and matters pertaining to education are for the most part under
the insular commissioner of education and a school board of three
members elected biennially in each municipality; nearly all other
local affairs are within the jurisdiction of the mayor and municipal
council.
Education. In 1899 more than three-fourths of the inhabitants
ten years of age or over were unable to read or write, and when
in the following year the present system of government was estab-
lished large powers were given to the commissioner of education.
He controls the expenditure of public money for school purposes,
the examination and the appointment of teachers, whose nomina-
tions by the municipal school boards are referred to the commis-
sioner. The school system comprises preparatory schools, rural
schools, graded schools, three high schools and the university of
Porto Rico. The university at Rio Piedras was established by
act of the insular legislature in 1903, but in 1910 only two depart-
ments had been organized the insular normal school and the
department of agriculture. Numerous scholarships have been
established at government expense in Porto Rican schools and in
colleges or universities of the United States. The average daily
attendance in the public schools increased from 47,277 in 1906-
1907 to 74,522 in 1908-1909. Each municipality is required to
pay to its school board 25% of its receipts from the general
property tax.
Finance. Trade between Porto Rico and the United States
is free, but upon imports to Porto Rico from foreign countries
the Federal government collects custom duties and pays the net
proceeds to the insular government. Other principal sources of
income are excise taxes, a general property tax, an inheritance
tax and a tax on insurance premiums. For the fiscal year ending
June 1909 the net income of the insular government was
$3,180,111-75 and the net bonded indebtedness was $3,759,231-22.
History. On his second voyage Columbus sighted the island,
to which he gave the name San Juan Bautista, and remained
in its vicinity from the i7th to the 22nd of November 1493.
In 1508 Nicolas de Ovando, governor of Hispaniola (Haiti)
rewarded the services of Juan Ponce de Leon, one of Columbus's
companions in 1493, by permitting him to explore the island,
then called by the natives " Borinquen," and search for its
reputed deposits of gold. Ponce's hospitable reception by the
native chief, Aquebana or Guaybana, and his fairly profitable
search for the precious metal led King Ferdinand in 1509 to give
him an appointment as temporary governor of the island, where
his companions had already established the settlement of
Caparra (Pueblo Viejo, near the present San Juan). In 1510
the king through Ovando's influence made this commission
permanent. Meanwhile Ferdinand had also restored to Diego
Columbus, son of the discoverer, the privileges of his father,
including the control of the islands of Haiti and Porto Rico.
The new admiral removed Ponce and appointed Juan Cer6n
to administer the affairs of Porto Rico. The quarrels between
these two leaders disturbed the affairs of the island for the next
126
PORTO RICO
two years, but in the end Ponce was forced to yield the political
control to the representatives of Columbus. While Ponce was
exploring Florida in 1513 the conquerors of Porto Rico had
established their domination in the upper western portion of
the island by a series of settlements. The ruthless methods by
which the Spaniards forced the natives to labour for them caused
a change in the attitude of the erstwhile friendly Borinquenos.
Both Ponce and his rivals had introduced the system of repar-
timientos established by Columbus in Haiti. A preliminary
distribution of 1060 natives in 1500-1510 was the direct pre-
cursor of the rebellion of the natives in 1511. For a time the
Borinquenos, aided by Caribs from the neighbouring islands,
threatened to destroy all vestiges of white occupation in Porto
Rico, but in the end the Spaniards prevailed. Immediately
after this rebellion a second distribution of more than 4000
natives foreshadowed the rapid disappearance of those un-
fortunates, despite the well-meaning regulations of the Council
of the Indies. For some decades the inevitable extermination
was postponed by the fact that the Spaniards were not numerous
enough to occupy the southern and eastern portions of the
island. Here a remnant of the Borinquenos, assisted by the
Caribs, maintained a severe struggle with the conquerors, but in
the end their Indian allies were subdued by English and French
corsairs, and the unfortunate natives of Porto Rico were left
alone to experience the full effect of forced labour, disastrous
hurricanes, natural plagues and new diseases introduced by the
conquerors. By 1520 philanthropic churchmen directed their
attention to the miserable conditions of the natives; but remedial
legislation was largely nullified by the rapacity of subordinate
officials, and before the end of the i6th century the natives
disappeared as a distinct race.
To replace the natives as a labour element and also to preserve
them from extermination African slavery was early permitted,
and by 1530 there were over 1500 negro slaves in Porto Rico.
Although the extravagant prices paid at first almost ruined the
planters, the traffic continued to flourish in hands of foreign
concessionaires until 1820, when through English influence it
was abandoned. At this period negroes were an important
element of the population, but by no means the most
numerous one.
At no period of its history has Porto Rico enjoyed great
prosperity. Besides the causes already indicated the evil
character of many of the white settlers conspired to retard its
development. In 1515 its European population may have
been 400. Until 1782 the island was divided into the eastern
district of Puerto Rico and the western one of San German.
In 1513 the arrival of its first bishop, who later also exercised
the function of general inquisitor, added one more to the dis-
cordant elements ruling the island. About 1520 Caparra was
abandoned for a more healthy site, and the city of San Juan
de Puerto Rico was founded as the capital of the eastern district.
In time Puerto Rico became the name of the whole island. In
1536 legislation for changing the method of general government
and regulating common pasturages and public property caused
extreme dissatisfaction, but for many years thereafter the
form of control alternated between alcaldes selected by the
inhabitants and annual governors appointed by the Council of
the Indies.
To the difficulties caused by disaster, depopulation and mal-
administration there was added the danger of foreign invasion
when war broke out in Europe between Francis I. of France
and the emperor Charles V. In 1528 San German was plun-
dered by a French corsair and twenty-six years later utterly
destroyed. In 1533 the fortaleza, now the governor's palace,
was begun at San Juan, and in 1530-1584 Morro Castle
was erected at the entrance of the harbour. Possibly these
slight fortifications preserved the capital from the destruction
which overwhelmed all the other settlements; but these
measures for defence were due more to the loyalty of the
inhabitants than to the efforts of the home government, which
at this time remained indifferent to appeals for help from the
island.
In 1595 San Juan was unsuccessfully attacked by an English
fleet under Sir Francis Drake; two years later another English
force, led by Sir George Cumberland, occupied the city for some
weeks. The city was attacked in 1625 by a Dutch fleet, which
was easily repulsed. The buccaneers or filibusters, who during
the i yth century were drawn to the West Indies by the prospect
of plundering the possessions of decadent Spain, often invaded
Porto Rico, but that island escaped the conquest which Haiti
experienced. The English attacked the island in 1678, 1702,
1703 and 1743; and in 1797 an English force attempted to reduce
San Juan, but was repulsed by the strong fortifications vigorously
manned by resident volunteers. After this event the city was
permitted to add the words " very noble and very loyal " to
its coat of arms.
Porto Rico was comparatively unaffected by the great Spanish-
American uprising of the early igth century. During the
struggle of Spain against Napoleon, the island, in common with
the other American dominions, was represented in the Spanish
Cortes and had its first legislative assembly. Trade with the
United States was permitted in 1815, although only in Spanish
ships. The island suffered from the reactionary policy of
Ferdinand VII., but the few sporadic attempts at revolution
between 1815 and 1820 were readily suppressed. Columbian
insurgents made ineffectual attempts to invade the island
during 1819-29. Governor Miguel de la Torre, who ruled the
island with vice-regal powers during the second period of Ferdi-
nand's absolutism, sternly repressed all attempts at liberalism,
and made the island the resort for loyal refugees from the Spanish
mainland. This policy, coupled with certain administrative
and revenue reforms, and some private attempts in behalf of
public education, made the last seven years of his rule, from
1827 to 1834, the most prosperous in the Spanish regime. The
unsettled political condition of Spain during the next forty
years was reflected in the disturbed political conditions of Porto
Rico and Cuba. The suffrage was restricted, the Press was placed
under a strict censorship, and the right of public assemblage
was unknown. Economically the island in 1868 was in a
much worse condition than thirty years before. The Revolu-
tion of 1868 in Spain promised such salutary changes for the
Antilles as the introduction of political parties, the restoration
of representation in the Spanish Cortes, and the enfranchise-
ment of the slaves; but the imprudent " Insurrection of Lares,"
and other outbreaks of 1867-68, delayed these anticipated
reforms. The reactionaries feared separation from the mother
country. Under the short-lived republican government in
Spain Porto Rico was in 1870-1874 a province with a provincial
deputation, and in 1873 slavery was abolished. After the
restoration of the monarchy under Alphonso XII. there was
some improvement in the commerce of the island, but politically
it displayed all the evils of an obsolete system of administration
disturbed by a premature liberalism. In 1877 the provincial
deputation was re-established, but it was not until 1895 that
the home government attempted, far too late, to enact a series
of adequate reform measures, and in November 1897 followed
this by a grant of autonomy.
When in April 1898 war broke out between Spain and the
United States the former strongly garrisoned the island, but
the fortifications of the capital were largely of the massive stone
construction that had repelled Abercrombie a century before,
most of the artillery was of an obsolete pattern and the few
cruisers in the harbour were antiquated in type. The American
invasion of the island occurred in July. On the 25th of that
month, while a few vessels made a demonstration before San
Juan, the main American fleet was landing some 3400 troops
under General Nelson A. Miles at Guanica, a small town on the
southern shore, some 15 m. west of Ponce. Three days later
the latter town surrendered, amid demonstrations of joy on
the part of the inhabitants. The people seemed to regard the
American flag as the harbinger of a new era. General Miles's
policy in affording employment for the natives likewise served
to make the new American regime acceptable.
Meanwhile the Spanish governor-general, Manuel Macias y
PORTO TORRES PORT PIRIE
127
Casado, had ordered the forces under his command in the south-
ern part of the island to fall back towards the ridge of mountains
intersecting it from east to west, just north of the town of
Coamo. Reinforcements were also brought up from San Juan
and preparations made to resist an attack by the Americans,
despite the current rumours of approaching peace. On their
part the American forces, now numbering about 10,000 men,
prepared to advance by separate routes across the island in
four columns. Guayama, Mayagiiezand Coamo were occupied ;
one portion of the army was within 20 m. of the northern coast
and another had advanced along the main military road nearly
to Aibonito, when the signing of the peace protocol on the rath
:igust caused an immediate suspension of hostilities. The
advance of the Americans had been rapid and decisive, with a
small loss of life three killed and forty wounded due to the
skill with which the military manoeuvres were planned and
executed and the cordial welcome given the invaders by the
inhabitants. By November the Spaniards had evacuated the
greater part of the island; after Captain General Macias em-
barked for Spain, General Ricardo Ortega was governor from
the 1 6th to the i8th of October, when the island was turned over
to the American forces. In the work of policing the island,
in the accompanying tasks of sanitation, construction of high-
ways and other public works, accounting for the expenditure
of public funds, and in establishing a system of public education,
the military control, which under the successive direction of
Generals John R. Brooke, Guy V. Henry and George W. Davis,
lasted until the ist of May 1900, proved most effective in bridg-
ing over the period of transfer from the repressive control of
Spain to the semi-paternal system under the American civil
government. But it was hardly adapted to teach a people
utterly without political experience the essential elements of
self-government. To meet this problem the Congress of the
United States passed the " Foraker Act, " under which civil
government was instituted, and which, with certain modifica-
tions is still in force (see ADMINISTRATION). Under this act the
American element has exercised the controlling power, and this
has proved distasteful to certain Porto Rican politicians.
On the 8th of August 1899 the island was visited by the
most destructive cyclone in its history, causing a loss of about
3500 lives and a property damage amounting to 36,000,000
pesos, the coffee industry suffering most. This calamity
afforded the American people an opportunity to display their
generosity toward their new colony. Charles H. Allen became
the first civil governor in May 1900; he was succeeded in August
1901 by William H. Hunt, who served until July 1904; Beekman
Winthrop was governor in 1904-1907 and Regis H. Post from
April 1907 until November 1909, when he was succeeded by
George R. Colton. The island now has free trade with the
United States, and receives into its general revenue fund all
customs duties and internal taxes collected in the island. Its
political leaders in the House of Delegates are restive under the
control exercised by the Executive Council, but an attempt to
hold up necessary appropriations resulted in the passage in
July 1909 of an act continuing the appropriations of the previous
year, whenever for any cause the lower house fails to pass
the necessary financial legislation. In 1910 the coffee industry
had not yet recovered from the effect of the cyclone of 1899
and the unfortunate mortgage system that prevailed under the
Spanish rdgime. The fact that its product is shut out of its
natural markets, without gaining that of the United States,
is also a great handicap. The civic status of the people is still
unsettled, but there has been under American rule a notable
advance in the well-being of the island.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The main source for the history under the
Spanish is Fray Inigo Abbad, Historia geografica ctvil y natural
de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico (Madrid, 1788; a new edition
with notes by Jose J. Acosta was published in Porto Rico in 1866).
Abbad makes extensive quotations from early historians of Spanish
America. The best modern critical account in Spanish is Salvador
Brau, Puerto Rico y su historia (Valencia, 1894). Probably the
best account in English, although one leaving much to be desired,
is R. A. Van Middeldyk, The History of Puerto Rico (New York,
1903). R. H. Davis, The Cuban and Porto Rican Campaigns
(New York, 1898), is a sketch of the invasion of the island in 1898.
L. S. Rowe, The United States and Porto Rico (ibid., 1900) treats
clearly and briefly of the problems arising from American control,
and a like characterization may be made of W. F. Willouehby,
Territories and Dependencies of the United States (New York,
!95)- Van Middeldyk gives a brief bibliography of historical
works, and a more extensive list is given in General George W.
Davis's Report on the Military Government of Porto Rico. See also
Annual Reports of the Governor of Porto Rico (Washington, 1901
sqq.); H. M. Wilson, " Porto Rico: Its Topography ana Aspects,"
in the Bulletin Amer. Geogr. Soc. New York, vol. xxxii. (New
York, 1900); W. A. Alexander, "Porto Rico: Its Climate and
Resources," in the same, vol. xxxiv. (ibid., 1902); Report on the
Census of Porto Rico (Washington, 1900); W. F. Willoughby,
Insular and Municipal Finances in Porto Rico for the Fiscal Year
ICJOZ-IQOJ, issued by the Bureau of the United States Census
(ibid., 1905); R. T. Hill, Cuba and Porto Rico (New York, 1898).
PORTO TORRES (anc. Turris Libisonis, q.v.), a seaport on
the north coast of Sardinia, u\ m. N.W. of Sassari by rail. Pop.
(1901), 3762 (town); 4225 (commune). It is only 10 ft. above
sea-level, and is malarious, but is a seaport of some importance,
having regular steam communication with Ajaccio, Leghorn
and Cagliari, and with the north and west coasts of Sardinia.
The church of S. Gavino, formerly the cathedral, probably
dates from the nth century. It is a Romanesque basilica
with a nave and two aisles, divided by ancient columns; at
each end of the nave is an apse. It has a 14th-century portal
and two smaller doors at the sides added later in the Aragonese
style. See D. Scano, Sloria dell' arte in Sardegna dal XI. al
XIV. secolo (Cagliari-Sassari, 1907), 91 sqq. To the N.N.W.
is the island of Asniara, the principal quarantine station of
Italy. Porto Torres was the seat of the giudici of the north-west
portion of the island (the district was called Torres or Logudoro) ;
it was plundered by the Genoese in 1166, but remained the seat
of the giudici until 1272, when it was divided between various
Genoese families, the Doria, Malaspina, &c., and the giudici of
Arborea. It was also the seat of a bishopric until 1441, when
the see was transferred to Sassari, Porto Torres being practically
deserted, owing to its unhealthiness. It did not become an
independent commune again until 1842.
PORTOVENERE (anc. Portus Veneris), a town and summer
resort of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, at the
southern extremity of the peninsula which protects the Gulf
of Spezia on the west, 7 m. S. of Spezia by road. Pop.
(1001), 1553 (town); 5754 (commune). The fortress and waUs
with which it was provided by the Genoese in the 9th or loth
century have been destroyed for military reasons. The restored
church of St Peter, of black and white marble (1118; destroyed
by the Aragonese in 1494), is reputed to occupy the site of a
temple of Venus. The parish church dates from 1098. Yellow-
veined black marble, known as Portoro, and building-stone are
quarried here and in the fortified island of Palmaria to the
east of Portovenere. In the Grotta dei Colombi objects of the
Palaeolithic age have been found.
PORT PHILLIP, the harbour of Melbourne, Victoria, Aus-
tralia. An almost circular, landlocked sheet of water, it is 31 m.
long, 20 m. at its widest, with an area of 800 sq. m. A narrow
channel flanked by bold cliffs forms its entrance, and when the
tide recedes through it a strong current is encountered outside.
The broken and somewhat dangerous sea thus caused is called
" the Rip. " Within the port on the eastern side are suburbs
of Melbourne, such as Sorrento, Mornington, Frankston, Carrum,
Mordialloc, Redcliff, Brighton and St Rilda. The wharves
of Port Melbourne and Williamstown stand at the head of the
port on an arm known as Hobson's Bay. On the western side
the port of Geelong and the port and watering-place of Queens-
cliff are the only towns of importance. Port Phillip is well
fortified with strong batteries at its entrance. The harbour
was discovered in 1802 by Lieut. Murray, who named it in
honour of Captain Phillip, first governor of New South Wales.
The colony of Victoria was originally called the district of Port
Phillip.
PORT PIRIE, a town of Victoria county. South Australia, on
Germein Bay, an arm of Spencer Gulf, i68j m. by rail N. by W.
128
PORTRAITURE
of Adelaide. It is a prosperous and well-equipped port, from
which enormous quantities of wheat are annually shipped.
Pop. (1901), 7983-
PORTRAITURE. The earliest attempts at individual por-
traiture (see also PAINTING) are found in the eidolon and
mummy-cases of the ancient Egyptians; but their painting
never went beyond conventional representation mere outlines
filled in with a flat tint of colour. In Greece portraiture probably
had its origin in skiagraphy or shadow-painting. The story of
the Greek maiden tracing the shadow of her departing lover
on the wall points to this. The art developed rapidly. In
463 B.C., Polygnotus, one of the first Greek painters of distinc-
tion, introduced individual portraiture in the decoration of public
buildings, and Apelles nearly a century later showed so much
genius in rendering character and expression, that Alexander
the Great appointed him "portrait painter in ordinary," and
issued an edict forbidding any one else to produce pictorial
representations of his majesty. Similar edicts were issued in
favour of the sculptor Lysippus and Pyrgoteles the gem en-
graver. No works of the Greek painters survive, but the
fate of two portraits by Apelles, which were in the possession
of the emperor Claudius (A.D. 41-54), is known, the heads
having been painted out to make room for the features of the
divine Augustus!
After the time of Alexander (300 B.C.) Greek art rapidly
deteriorated. There is, perhaps, nothing in the history of human
intelligence to compare with the dazzling swiftness of its
development or the rapidity of its decline. War was followed
by pillage and devastation, and victorious Roman generals,
mere depredators and plunderers, crowded Rome with the
stolen treasures of Greece, with the result that Greek art and
Greek influence soon made themselves felt in the imperial city,
and for generations its artists were almost exclusively Greeks,
chiefly portrait painters and decorators. The Romans pos-
sessed no innate aptitude for art, and rather despised it as a
pursuit little becoming the dignity of a citizen. Although lack-
ing in appreciation of the higher conditions of art, they had
from early times decorated their atria with effigies originally
wax moulds of the countenances of their ancestors. These
primitive " wax-works " ultimately developed into portrait
busts, often vivid and faithful, the only branch of art in which
Rome achieved excellence.
With the invasion of the Northern barbarians and the fall
of the empire Graeco-Roman art ended. In the following
centuries Christianity gradually became the dominant religion,
but its ascetic temper could not find expression in the old artistic
forms. Instead of joy in the ideals of bodily perfection, came a
loathing of the body and its beauty, and artists were classed
among " persons of iniquitous occupations. " Before the 5th
century these prejudices had relaxed, and images and pictures
again came into general favour for religious uses. In the 8th
and gth centuries, the iconoclasts commenced their systematic
destruction, and it was not till the Renaissance in the I3th
century that art began again to live. The great revival brought
with it a closer observation of the facts of nature and a growing
sense of beauty, and the works of Cimabue and Giotto prepared
the way for those of Benozzo Gozzoli, Ghirlandaio and the
long line of masters who raised Italian art to such a height in
the 1 5th and i6th centuries. Although the works of the early
painters of the Renaissance were mostly devoted to the expres-
sion of the dogmas of the Church, the growing love and study of
nature led them, as opportunity afforded, to introduce portraits
of living contemporaries into their sacred pictures. Gozzoli
(1420-1498) and Ghirlandaio (1449-1494) began the practice,
followed by nearly all the old and great painters, of introducing
portraiture into their works; Ghirlandaio especially filling some
of his great fresco compositions with the forms and features of
the living men and women of Florence, members of the Torna-
buoni, Medici and other great families. Acuteness of observa-
tion was innate in the race. By degrees it manifested itself
in a marvellous subtlety in the rendering of individual character,
in the portrayal of individual men and women, and a school of
|
it
th
I
portraiture was developed of which Titian became the crowning
glory. This great Venetian painter, by universal consent
reckoned one of the masters of portraiture, has handed down to
us the features of many of the greatest historical and literary
personages of his time emperor, pope, king, doge all sat
by turn to him and loaded him with honours. The names of
Bellini, Raffaelle, Tintoret, Veronese and Moroni of Bergamo
occur among those of the great Italian portrait painters of the
15th and i6th centuries. The last-named, some of whose finest
works are now in England, was highly praised by Titian.
A love of ugliness characterizes the artists of the early German
and Flemish schools, and most of the portraits produced by
them previous to Holbein's time suffer from this cause. Schon-
gauer, Dtirer and Lucas Cranach are never agreeable or pleasant,
however interesting in other respects. Dtirer, the typical
German artist, the dreamer of dreams, the theorist, the thinker,
the writer, was less fitted by. nature for a portrait painter than
Holbein, who, with a keen sense of nature's subtle beauty, was
a far greater painter although a less powerful personality. He
produced many fine works in other branches, but it is as a
portrait painter that Holbein is chiefly known, and his highest
claims to fame will rest on his marvellous achievements in that
branch of art. He first came to England in 1526, bringing with
him letters of introduction from Erasmus. Sir Thomas More
received him as his guest, and during his stay he painted More's
and Archbishop Warham's portraits. In 1532 he was again
in London, where till his death in 1543 he spent much of his
time. He was largely employed by the German merchants
of the Steelyard and many Englishmen of note, and afterwards
by Henry VIII., by whom he was taken into permanent service
with a pension. As a portrait painter Holbein is remarkable not
only for his keen insight into the character of his sitters, but for
the beauty and delicacy of his drawing. As colourist he may be
judged by an admirable example of his work, " The Ambas-
sadors," in the National Gallery in London. Many of his
drawings appear to have been made as preliminary studies for
his portraits.
In Flanders Jan van Eyck (1390-1440), his brother Hubert,
Quintin Matsys, Memlinc and other artists of the i5th century
occasionally practised portraiture. The picture of Jean Arnol-
fini and his wife, in the National Gallery, London, is a remarkable
sample of the first-named artist, and the small half-length of
young Martin van Nieumenhoven, in the hospital of St John
at Bruges, of the last-named. Nearly a century later the names
of Antony Mor (or Moro) , Rubens and Van Dyck appear. Rubens,
although not primarily a painter of portraits, achieved no small
distinction in that way, being much employed by royalty
(Maria de Medici, Philip IV. and the English Charles I. among
the number). His services were also in request as ambassador
or diplomatist, and thrice at least he was sent on missions
of that nature. His personal energy and industry were enor-
mous, but a large proportion of the work attributed to him was
painted by pupils, of whom Van Dyck was one of the most
celebrated. Van Dyck (1599-1641) early acquired a high repu-
tation as a portrait painter. In 1632 he was invited to England
by Charles I., and settled there for the remainder of his life.
He was knighted by Charles, and granted a pension of 200 a
year, with the title of painter to his majesty. Many of Van
Dyck's portraits, especially those of the early and middle
periods, are unsurpassed in their freshness, force and vigour of
handling. He is a master among masters. England possesses
many of his works, especially of his later period. To Van
Dyck we owe much of our knowledge of what Charles I. and
those about him were like. A routine practice, luxurious
living, failing health, and the employment of assistants told
upon his work, which latterly lost much of its early charm.
In Holland in the i7th century portraiture reached a high
standard. A reaction had set in against Italian influence, and
extreme faithfulness and literal resemblance became the pre-
vailing fashion. The large portrait pictures of the members of
gilds and corporations, so frequently met with in Holland, are
characteristically Dutch. The earliest works of the kind are
PORTRAITURE
129
generally rows of portraits ranged in double or single lines,
without much attempt at grouping or composition. Later,
in the hands of painters like Rembrandt, Frans Hals and Van
der Heist, these pictures of civic guards, hospital regents and
masters of gilds assumed a very different character, and are
among the very finest works produced by the Dutch portrait
painters of the i7th century. They may be termed " subscrip-
tion portraits " each member of the gild who desired a place
on the canvas agreeing, before the commission was given, to
pay, according to a graduated scale, his share of the cost.
Among the most famous examples of this class of portraits
' The Anatomy Lesson, " " The March-out of Captain
Banning Kock and his Company " (erroneously called " The
Night Watch "), and " The Five Syndics of the Cloth-Workers'
Guild, " by Rembrandt. The magnificent portrait groups at
Haarlem by Hals the next greatest portrait painter of Holland
after Rembrandt and the " Schuttersmaaltyd " by Van der
Heist in the Amsterdam Museum, which Reynolds considered
" perhaps the first picture of portraits in the world, " must also
be mentioned.
Of the pictorial art of Spain previous to the isth century,
little, if any, survives. Flemish example was long paramount
and Flemish painters were patronized in high places. In the
i6th century the names of native Spanish artists began to
appear Morales, Ribera, Zurbaran, a great though not a pro-
fessed portrait painter; and in the last year of the century
Velasquez was born, the greatest of Spain's artists, and one of
the great portrait painters of the world. None, perhaps,
has ever equalled him in keen insight into character, or in the
swift magic of his brush. Philip IV., Olivarez and InnocenJ. X.
live for us on his canvases. His constantly varying, though
generally extremely simple, methods, explain to some extent
the interest and charm his works possess for artists. Depth
of feeling and poetic imagination were, however, lacking, as
may be seen in his prosaic treatment of such subjects as the
" Coronation of the Virgin," the " Mars " and other kindred
works in the Madrid Gallery. Velasquez must be classed with
those whose career has been prematurely cut short. His works
often show signs of haste and of the scanty leisure which the
duties of his office of " Aposentador Mayor " left him duties
which ended in the fatal journey to the Isle of Rhe.
In France the most distinguished portrait painters of the i6th
and 1 7th centuries were the Clouets, Cousin, Vouet, Philippe
de Champaigne, Rigaud and Vanloo. French portraiture,
long inflated and artificial, reached the height of pomposity
in the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV., the epoch of which the
towering wig is the symbol. In the i8th and early part of the
igth centuries occur the names of Boucher, Greuze, David,
Gerard and Ingres; but somehow the portraits of the French
masters seldom attract and captivate in the same way as those
of the Dutch and Italian painters.
Foreign artists were engaged for almost every important
work in painting in England down to the days of Sir Joshua
Reynolds and Gainsborough. Henry VIII. employed Holbein;
Queen Mary, Sir Antonio Moro; Elizabeth, Zucchero and Lucas
!e Heere; James I. van Somer, Cornelius Janssens and Daniel
Mytens; Charles I. Rubens, Van Dyck, Mytens, Petitot, Hon-
thorst and others; and Charles II., Lely and Kneller, although
there were native artists of merit, among them Dobson, Walker
and Jamesone, a Scottish painter. Puritan England and Presby-
terian Scotland did little to encourage the portrait painter.
The attitude of the latter towards it may be inferred from an
entry in the diary of Sir Thomas Hope, the Scottish Lord Advo-
cate in 1638. " This day, Friday, William Jamesone, painter
(at the earnest desyr of my sone Mr Alexander) was sufferit to
draw my pictur." He does not even give the painter's name
correctly, although Jamesone at the time was a man of some
note in Scotland. At the commencement of the reign of
George I. art in England had sunk to about the lowest ebb.
With the appearance of William Hogarth (1697-1764) the English
school of painting may be said to have commenced, and in
Reynolds and Gainsborough it produced two portrait painters
xxii. 5
whose works hold their own with those of the masters of the
i6th and I7th centuries. Both Sir Joshua and Gainsborough
are seen at their best in portraits of women and children.
George Romney (1734-1802) shared with Reynolds and
Gainsborough the patronage of the wealthy and fashionable
of his day. Many of his female portraits are of great beauty.
For some unknown reason he never exhibited his works in the
Royal Academy.
Sir Henry Raeburn (1756-1823) was a native of Edinburgh,
and spent most of his life there. His portraits are broad and
effective in treatment, masterly and swift in execution and often
fine in colour. He painted nearly all the distinguished Scotsmen
of his time Walter Scott, Adam Smith, Braxfield, Robertson
the historian, Dugald Stewart, Boswell, Jeffrey, Professor
Wilson and many of the leading noblemen, lairds, clergy and
their wives and daughters. For a considerable period his
portraits were little known out of Scotland, but they are now
much sought after, and fine examples appearing in London
sale-rooms bring remarkable prices. Raeburn's immediate
successor in Scotland, J. Watson Gordon (1788-1864), also
painted many excellent portraits, chiefly of men. A very
characteristic example of his art at its best may be seen in his
" Provost of Peterhead " in the Scottish National Gallery.
Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) was the favourite English
portrait painter of his time, and had an almost unrivalled career.
He had an immense practice, and between the years 1787 and
1 830 exhibited upwards of three hundred portraits in the Royal
Academy alone. The Waterloo Gallery at Windsor contains
some of his best work, chiefly painted in 1818-1819, including his
portraits of the emperor Francis, Pope Pius VII. and Cardinal
Gonsalvi. He was loaded -with honours, and died President
of the Royal Academy.
Sir J. E. Millais (1829-1896), although most widely known as
a painter of figure subjects, achieved some of his greatest suc-
cesses in portraiture, and no artist in recent years has approached
him as a painter of children. His portraits of Gladstone,
Sir James Paget, Sir Gilbert Greenall, Simon Fraser, J. C. Hook
and Mrs. Bischoffsheim, to name only a few, are alone sufficient
to give him a high place among British portrait painters.
Frank Holl (1843-1888) first came into note as a portrait
painter in 1878, and during the subsequent nine years of his
life he painted upwards of one hundred and ninety-eight portraits,
an average of over twenty-two a year. The strain, however,
proved too great for a naturally delicate constitution, and he
died at the age of forty-three another instance of a brilliant
career prematurely cut short. To G. F. Watts (1820-1904) we
are indebted for admirable portraits of many of the leading
men of the Victorian era in politics, science, literature, theology
and art. Among more recent artists, Sir W. Q. Orchardson
(1835-1910), like Millais more widely known as a painter of
figure subjects, but also admirable as a portrait painter; John
Sargent (1856- ), whose brilliant and vigorous characteri-
zation of his sitters leaves him without a rival; as well as
Ouless, Shannon, Fildes, Herkomer and others, have worthily
carried on the best traditions of the art.
In France contemporary portraiture is ably represented in the
works of Carolus-Duran, Bonnat and Benjamin Constant,
and in Germany by Lenbach, who has handed down to posterity
with uncompromising faithfulness the form and features of
Prince Bismarck.
Of portraiture in its other developments little need be said.
Miniature painting, which grew out of the work of the illumina-
tor, appears to have been always successfully practised in
England. The works of Hilliard, Isaac and Peter Oliver,
Samuel Cooper, Hoskins, Engleheart, Plimer and Cosway hold
their own with the best of the kind; but this beautiful art,
like that of the engraver, has been largely superseded by photo-
graphy and the " processes " now in use.
It is unnecessary to refer to the many uses of portraiture,
but one of its chiefest has been to transmit to posterity the
form and features of those who have played a part, worthy or
otherwise, in the past history of our race. Of its value to the
130
PORT RICHMOND PORT ROYAL
biographer and historian, Carlyle, in a letter written in 1854,
says, " In all my poor historical investigations it is one of the
most primary wants to procure a bodily likeness of the personage
inquired after; a good portrait, if such exists; failing that,
even an indifferent, if sincere one; in short, any representation,
made by a faithful human creature, of that face and figure
which he saw with his eyes and which I can never see with mine.
Often I have found the portrait superior in real instruction to
half-a-dozen written biographies, or rather, I have found the
portrait was as a small lighted candle, by which the biographies
could for the first time be read, and some human interpretation
be made of them." (G. RE.)
PORT RICHMOND, a part of the borough of Richmond in the
city of New York, U.S.A., on the N. shore of Staten Island and
on the Kill van Kull Channel. Before 1898 it was a separate
village of Richmond county, New York, containing 6290
inhabitants in 1890. It is served by the Staten Island Rapid
Transit railway, and by a ferry to Bergen Point, New Jersey,
and has steam and electric railway connexions with the municipal
ferry at St George, which furnishes easy access to the business
districts on Manhattan Island. Among its places of historic
interest are the Dutch Reformed Church, which is the direct
successor of the church established on Staten Island in 1664
or 1665 by Waldenses and Huguenots; and the Banner Hotel,
built soen after the War of Independence on the site of a tem-
porary fort that had been erected by British troops, and used as
a private dwelling until 1820. In this house Aaron Burr spent
the last years of his life, dying there on the I4th of September
1836. Among the industrial establishments are a shipyard,
dry dock and manufactories of flour, lumber, lead paint and
builders' supplies. On the first of January 1898, when the act
creating Greater New York came into effect, the village became
a part of the third ward of Richmond borough.
PORT ROYAL, a celebrated Cistercian abbey, occupied a low
and marshy site in the thickly wooded valley of the Yvette, at
what is now known as Les Hameaux near Marly, a few miles
south-west of Paris. It was founded in 1204 by Mahaut de
Garlande, wife of Mathieu de Montmorenci-Marli in 1204; the
church was built in 1229 from the designs of Robert de Luzarches.
During its early years the convent received a number of papal
privileges; the most important of these, granted by Honorius
III. in 1223, authorized it to offer a retreat to women anxious
to withdraw from the world without binding themselves by
perpetual vows. Little is known of its history during the three
succeeding centuries, except that its discipline became relaxed;
reform was only attempted when Angelique Arnauld (q.v.)
was appointed coadjutor to the elderly and invalid abbess in
1598. Angelique's reforming energy soon brought her into
contact with Jean Duvergier (q.v.) abbot of Saint Cyran, and
chief apostle in France of the Jansenist revival, and the later
history of her convent is indissolubly connected with this
movement.
In 1626 constant visitations of ague drove the nuns to Paris;
they settled at Port Royal de Paris, at the end of the Faubourg
Saint Jacques. The deserted buildings of Port Royal des Champs
were presently occupied by " hermits," laymen, mostly relatives
of the abbess, who wished for a semi-monastic existence, though
without taking formal vows. In 1648, however, some of the nuns
returned to the country, and the hermits retreated to buildings at
a short distance, from the abbey. Here they set up a "little
school " for the sons of Jansenist parents; and here Jean Racine,
the future poet, received his education. But in 1653 Innocent X.
condemned the doctrines of Jansen. Three years later " the
hermitage " and school were broken up, and the nuns were for-
bidden to receive new members into their community. These
rigours were much increased when Louis XIV. took up the reins
of government in 1660; between 1664 and 1669 the archbishop of
Paris laid under an interdict those of the nuns who refused to
subscribe the papal censure on Jansen. In 1669, however, came
the so-called " Peace of Clement IX.," when the Jansenists gener-
ally were admitted to grace, and the interdict was removed from
Port Royal, though the authorities broke up the convent into two
distinct communities. The conformist nuns were gathered to-
gether at Port Royal de Paris, under an independent abbess; their
Jansenist sisters were united at the original building in the country.
Thereupon followed ten years of peace, for the nuns had a powerful
protector in the king's cousin, Mme de Longueville. But in
awntf
1679 she died, and Louis at once ordered the nuns to send away
their novices and boarders and to receive no others. Finally,
in 1705, he got from Clement XI. a new condemnation of the
Jansenists, which the few remaining nuns, all of whom were over
sixty, refused to sign; and on the agth of October 1709 they
were forcibly removed from Port Royal by the police, and dis-
tributed among various conformist cenvents. In the following
spring the buildings were pulled down; even the cemetery was
not spared. The land on which the convent had stood was made
over to Mme de Maintenon's college of St Cyr; in 1825 it wa
bought by some descendants of Jansenist families, who have don.
their best to restore the grounds to their original appearance, and
have built a museum rich in Jansenist relics. Port Royal de Paris
was secularized at the French Revolution, and is now a maternity
hospital.
For a classified list of the chief books, ancient and moder.
dealing with Port Royal, see the Abrege de Vhistoire de Port Roya
by Jean Racine, ed. E. Gazier (Paris, 1908). See also C. A. Sainte
Beuve, Port Royal (6 vols. and index, Paris, 1882); Charles Beard,
Port Royal (2 vols., London, 1861); H. Reuchlin, Geschichte von
Port Royal (2 vols., Hamburg, 1839-1844), and the books recom-
mended under the articles ARNAULD, JANSENISM and PASCAL.
PORT ROYAL, an island in Beaufort county, South Carolina,
U.S.A., at the head of Port Royal Sound, about 16 m. from the
Atlantic coast, and about 50 m. S.W. of Charleston. It is about
13 m. long (north and south) by about 7 m. wide. The surface
is generally flat, and there is much marshland in its souther
part, and along its north-eastern shore. The principal settle-
ment is Beaufort, a port of entry, and the county-seat of Beaufort
county, on the Beaufort river (here navigable for vessels drawing
18 ft.), about ii m. from its mouth, and about ism. from the
ocean. Pop. (1900) 4110 (3220 negroes); (1910) 2486. It is
served by the Charleston & Western Carolina railway, has inland
water communication with Savannah, Georgia, and its harbour,
Port Royal Sound (between Bay Point on the north-east and
Hilton Head on the south-west), is one of the largest and
best on the coast of South Carolina. Beaufort's beautiful
situation and delightful climate make it a winter resort.
In the vicinity Sea Island cotton, rice, potatoes and other
vegetables are raised the truck industry having become
very important; and there are groves of yellow pine and
cypress. Large quantities of phosphate rock were formerly
shipped from here. Among the manufactures are cotton goods,
canned oysters, lumber and fertilizer. About 5 m. south of Beau-
fort is the town of Port Royal (pop. in 1910, 363), a terminus
of the Charleston & Western Carolina railway. On the Beau-
fort River (eastern) shore of Paris Island, about 6 m. north of
Bay Point, is a United States naval station, with a dry dock and
repair shop.
Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), leading an expedition sent out
by Admiral Gaspard de Coligny (1517-1572) tofounda Huguenot
colony in New France, sailed into the harbour, which he named
Port Royal, on the 27th of May 1562, took possession of the
region in the name of Charles IX., and established the first
settlement (Fort Charles), probably on Paris Island. In June he
sailed for France, leaving 26 volunteers under Captain Albert de
la Pierria. Soon afterward the garrison killed Pierria (probably
because of the severity of his discipline), and put to sea in an
insufficiently equipped vessel, from which, after much suffering,
they were rescued by an English ship, and taken to England. In
1670, a company under Colonel William Sayle (d. 1671) landed
on Port Royal Island, but probably because this site exposed
them to Spanish attacks, proceeded along the coast and founded
the original Charles Town (see CHARLESTON). In 1683, several
families, chiefly Scotch, led by Henry Erskine, third Lord Card-
ross (1650-1693), established on the island a settlement named
Stuart's Town (probably in honour of Cardross's family); but
three years later most of the settlers were murdered by Spaniards
from Florida and the remainder fled to Charleston. In 1710,
after the lords proprietors had issued directions for " the
building of a town to be called Beaufort Town," in honour
of Henry Somerset, duke of Beaufo.c (1629-170x3), the first
permanent settlement was established on the island. The
town was incorporated in 1803. In January 1779 about 200
British soldiers occupied the island by order of Colonel Augus-
tine Prevost, but they were dislodged (Feb. 3) by about 300
PORTRUSH PORTSMOUTH, DUCHESS OF
Americans, mostly militiamen, under General William Moultrie.
At the beginning of the Civil War the Confederates erected Fort
\V;ilker on Hilton Head, and Fort Beauregard on Bay Point.
Min (afterwards Admiral) Samuel F. Du Pont and General
Thomas W. Sherman organized an expedition against these
fortifications, which were reduced by a naval bombardment
and were evacuated by the Confederates under General Thomas
!'. Drayton (d. 1891) on the 7th of November 1861. During
the remainder of the war Port Royal Harbour was used as a
coaling, repair and supply station by the Federal blockading
squadron. Early in 1862 Port Royal Island and the neigh-
bouring region became the scene of the so-called " Port Royal
i-riment " the successful effort of a group of northern
people, chiefly from Boston, New York and Philadelphia, among
whom Edward S. Philbrick (d. 1889) of Massachusetts was
conspicuous, to take charge of the cotton plantations, deserted
upon the occupation of the island by Union troops, and to employ
the negroes under a system of paid labour. The volunteers
organized as the Educational Commission for Freedmen (after-
ward the New England Freedmen's Aid Society), and the
government granted them transportation, subsistence and
quarters, and paid them small salaries.
Sec Edward McCrady's History of South Carolina (New York,
1897-1901); and, for an account of the Port Royal Experiment,
Letters from Port Royal (Boston, 1906), edited by Elizabeth W.
Pearson.
PORTRUSH, a seaport and the most popular seaside resort
of Co. Antrim, Ireland; the terminus of a branch of the
Northern Counties (Midland) railway. Pop. (1901), 1941. It
is very picturesquely situated on the basaltic peninsula of
Ramore Head, with a deep bay on either side, and a harbour
protected by the natural breakwater known as the Skerries.
A fine hotel, owned by the railway company, and an excellent
golf course are the chief features, together with a town-hall
with public reading room, and the place is much frequented for
golf and sea-bathing. It is also the centre for visitors to the
Giants' Causeway, with which it is connected by an electric
railway. Dunluce Castle, between Portrush and Bushmills,
stands on a rock separated from the mainland by a chasm which
is spanned by a bridge. The ruins, which are extensive, are of
unknown date. Portrush has a thriving trade in salmon. It
>verned by an urban district council.
PORT SAID, a seaport of Egypt, at the northern entrance of
the Suez Canal, in 31 15' 35' N., 32 19' 20* E., and 145 m. by
rail N.E. of Cairo. Pop. (1907), 49,884. It lies on the western
side of the canal on the low, narrow, treeless and desolate strip
of land which separates the Mediterranean from Lake Menzala,
the land at this point being raised and its area increased by the
draining of part of the lake and by the excavation of the inner
harbour. The outer harbour is formed by two breakwaters
which protect the entrance to the canal; altogether the harbour
covers about 570 acres and accommodates ships drawing 28 ft.
Originally besides the central basin of the inner harbour there
wore three docks; between 1903 and 1909 the harbour accommo-
dation was doubled by the construction of new docks on the
eastern side of the canal and by enlarging the western docks.
The port possesses a floating dock 295 ft. long, 85 ft. broad and
18 ft. deep, capable of lifting 3500 tons, and a patent slip taking
300 tons and ships drawing 9 ft. 9 in. of water. On the western
breakwater is a colossal statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps by E.
Fremiet, unveiled in 1899, and a lighthouse 174 ft. high. Among
the few buildings of note in the town are the offices of the Suez
Canal Company and the British barracks, the last named having
been built by Prince Henry of the Netherlands (d. 1879) as a
dep6t for Dutch trade.
Port Said dates from 1859 and its situation was determined by
the desire of the engineers of the Suez Canal to start the canal at
the point on the Mediterranean coast of the isthmus of Suez nearest
to deep water, and off the spot where Port Said now stands there
was found a depth_of 26 ft. at about 2 m. from the shore. For
many years after its foundation it depended entirely upon the
traffic of the canal, being the chief coaling station of all ships
passing through and becoming the largest coaling station in the
world. The population was of a very heterogeneous character, but
mainly of an undesirable class of Levantines; this with the damp
heat and the dirt and noise of the incessant coaling operations
gave the town an unenviable reputation. In 1902, however, a
new industry was added in the export of cotton from the eastern
provinces of the Delta, the cotton being brought from Malaria by
boat across Lake Menzala. In 1904 the opening of a standard
gauge railway to Cairo placed Port Said in a position to compete
with Alexandria for the external trade of Egypt generally, besides
making it a tourist route to the capital from Europe. The result
was to attract to the town a considerable commercial community
and to raise its social status. A new suburb was created by re-
claiming land on the north foreshore, and another suburb was
created on the eastern side of the canal. The average annual
value of the trade of the port for the five years 1902-1906 was
2,410,000. This figure includes the value of the coal used by
vessels passing through the Suez Canal.
PORTSMOUTH, EARLS OF. In 1743 John Wallop (1690-
1762) of Farley Wallop in Hampshire was created earl of
Portsmouth. He belonged to an old Hampshire family and
had been a lord of the treasury from 1717 to 1720, when he was
created Baron Wallop. The earldom has since been held by
his descendants, one of whom, Newton Wallop (b. 1856),
became the 6th earl in 1891. This earl was a member of
parliament from 1880 to 1891 and was under secretary of state
for war from 1905 to 1908.
PORTSMOUTH, LOUISE DE KEROUALLE, DUCHESS OF
(1649-1734), mistress of the English king Charles II., was the
daughter of Guillaume de Penancourt and his wife Marie de
Plaeuc de Timeur. The name of Keroualle was derived from an
heiress whom her ancestor Francois de Penhoet had married in
1330. The family were nobles in Brittany, and their name was
so spelt by themselves. But the form Querouailles was com-
monly used in England, where it was corrupted into Carwell or
Carewell, perhaps with an ironic reference to the care which the
duchess took to fill her pocket. In France it was variously
spelt Queroul, Keroual and Keroel. The exact date of her birth
is apparently unknown. Louise was placed early in life in the
household of Henriette, duchess of Orleans, sister of Charles II.
Saint-Simon asserts that her family threw her in the way of
Louis XIV. in the hope that she would be promoted to the place
of royal mistress. In 1670 she accompanied the duchess of
Orleans on a visit to Charles II. at Dover. The sudden death
of the duchess, attributed on dubious evidence to poison, left
her unprovided for, but the king placed her among the ladies in
waiting of his own queen. It was said in after times that she
had been selected by the French court to fascinate the king of
England, but for this there seems to be no evidence. Yet when
there appeared a prospect that the king would show her favour,
the intrigue was vigorously pushed by the French ambassador,
Colbert de Croissy, aided by the secretary of state, Lord Arling-
ton, and his wife. Louise, who concealed great cleverness and
a strong will under an appearance of languor and a rather
childish beauty (Evelyn the diarist speaks of her " baby face "),
yielded only when she had already established a strong hold on
the king's affections and character. Her son, ancestor of the
dukes of Richmond, was born in 1672.
The support she received from the French envoy was given on
the understanding that she should serve the interests of her native
sovereign. The bargain was confirmed by gifts and honours
from Louis XIV. and was loyally carried out by Louise. The
hatred openly avowed for her in England was due as much to her
own activity in the interest of France as to her notorious rapacity.
The titles of Baroness Petersfield, countess of Fareham and duchess
of Portsmouth were granted her for life on the igth of August
1673. Her pensions and money allowances of various kinds were
enormous. In 1677 alone she received 27,300. The French
court gave her frequent presents, and in December 1673 conferred
upon her the ducal fief of Aubigny at the request of Charles II.
Her thorough understanding of the king's character enabled her
to retain her hold on him to the end. She contrived to escape
uninjured during the crisis of the Popish Plot in 1678. She was
strong enough to maintain her position during a long illness in
1677, and a visit to France in 1682. In February 1685 she took
measures_to see that the king, who was secretly a Roman Catholic,
did not die without confession and absolution. Soon after the king's
death she retired to France, where, except for one short visit
to England during the reign of James II., she remained. Her pen-
sions and an outrageous grant on the Irish revenue given her by
132
PORTSMOUTH
Charles II. were lost either in the reign of James II. or at the Revolu-
tion of 1688. During her last years she lived at Aubigny, and was
harassed by debt. The French king, Louis XIV., and after his
death the regent Orleans, gave her a pension, and protected her
against her creditors. She died at Paris on the I4th of November
1734-
See H. Forneron, Louise de Keroualle (Paris, 1886); and Mrs
Colquhoun Grant, From Brittany to Whitehall (London, 1909).
PORTSMOUTH, a municipal, county and parliamentary
borough, and seaport of Hampshire, England, 74 m. S.W. from
London, on the London & South-Western and the London,
Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1891), 159,278;
(1901), 188,133. This great naval station and arsenal is an
3h n .,.
PORTSMpUTH
and Environs
Scale, 1:138.000
English Miles
"Hi a
aggregate of four towns, Portsmouth, Portsea, Landport and
Southsea, and occupies the south-western part of Portsea
Island, which lies between Portsmouth Harbour and Langstone
Harbour, two inlets of the English Channel. Portsmouth
Harbour opens into Spithead, one of the arms of the Channel
separating the Isle of Wight from the mainland. The harbour
widens inwards in bottle form, Portsmouth lying on the east
shore of the neck, with Gosport opposite to it on the west side.
Portsmouth proper may be distinguished as the garrison town;
Portsea as the naval station with the dockyards; Landport is
occupied chiefly by the houses of artisans; and Southsea is a
residential quarter and a favourite watering-place. Besides a
number of handsome modern churches, among which is a Roman
Catholic cathedral, Portsmouth possesses, in the church of St
Thomas a Becket, a fine cruciform building dating from the
second half of the I2th century, in which the chancel and
transepts are original, but the nave and tower date from 1698,
and the whole was extensively restored in 1904. The garrison
chapel originally belonged to the hospital of St Nicholas, a
foundation of the i3th century. Among other buildings worthy
of mention (apart from those having naval or military connexion)
the principal is the town-hall (1890), a fine classic building
standing alone in a square, and surmounted by a handsome
clock tower. Among educational institutions there are a large
grammar school (1879), on a foundation of 1732, Roman Catholic
schools adjoining the cathedral, schools for engineering students
and dockyard apprentices, and seamen and marines' orphan
school. Aria College in Portsea was opened in 1874 for the
training of Jewish ministers. Victoria Park, in the heart of the
town, contains a monument to Admiral Napier. There are
recreation grounds for the naval and military forces in the
vicinity. There is a railway station (Portsmouth Harbour) on
the Hard, from which passenger steamers serve Ryde in the
Isle of Wight. A ferry and a floating bridge connect with
Gosport. The port has a considerable trade in coal, timber,
fruits and agricultural produce. The parliamentary borough
returns two members. The county borough was created in
1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 14 aldermen
and 42 councillors. Area, 5010 acres.
The dockyard seems to have been regularly established about
1540, but long before that date the town was of importance as
a naval station and was used for the accommodation of the king's
ships. In 1540 it covered 8 acres of ground, abutting on the harbour
near the " King's Stairs." Cromwell added 2 acres in 1658, and
Charles II. added 8 in 1663 and 10 more in 1667. By 1710 30 acres
more had been reclaimed or bought, and by the end of the l8th
century the total area was 90 acres. In 1848 a steam basin, cover-
ing 7 acres, and four new docks were opened, the dockyard ground
being extended to 115 acres in all. In 1865 large extension works
were decided upon, increasing the area to 293 acres. These included
a tidal basin and, opening out of it, a deep dock and two locks
in themselves serving as large docks, which lead to three basin
and four docks. An entrance was also formed between the ne\
tidal basin and the steam basin of 1848, and large additions wer
made to the wharfage accommodation as well as to th
storehouses and factories. Subsequent improvements
included the formation of two new dry docks (1896)
with a floor-length of 557 ft. and a depth of 33^ ft. over
the sill at high water of spring tides; the construction
of new jetties at the entrance to the tidal basin and at
the north wall; the establishment of a coal wharf with
hydraulic appliances; a torpedo range in the harbour;
the erection of various buildings such as torpedo and
gun-mounting stores, electrical shops and numerous
subsidiary works; and extensive dredging of the harbour
to increase the berthing accommodation for the fleet.
Altogether the dockyard comprises 15 dry docks, 60
acres of enclosed basins, 18,400 ft. of wharfage and
about 10 m. of railway. There is a gunnery establish-
ment in the harbour on Whale Island, the area of which
has been increased to nearly 90 acres by the accretion
of material excavated from the dockyard extension
works, and various barracks including those of the
royal marine artillery at Eastney, beyond Southsea.
Portsmouth (Portsmue, Portesmuth) owes its origin
to the retreat of the sea from Porchester, and its
importance to its favourable position for a naval
station. Though probably the site had long been
recognized as a convenient landing-place, no town
existed there until the I2th century, when the strategical adva
tage it offered induced Richard I. to build one. He granted
a charter in 1194 declaring that he retained the borough in
hand, and granting a yearly fair and weekly market, freedon
from certain tolls, from shire and hundred court and sheriffs'
aids. In October 1200 King John repeated the grants, and
Henry III. in 1229 gave the " men of Portsmouth " the toy
in fee farm and granted a merchant gild. Confirmations were
made by successive kings, and a charter of incorporation was
given by Elizabeth in 1599-1600. A new and enlarged charter
was granted by Charles I. in 1627, by which the borough is now
governed subject to changes by the municipal acts of the igth
century. Portsmouth has returned two members to parliament
since 1295. A fair on the ist of August and fourteen following
days was granted by Richard I. The first day was afterwards
changed to the 2gth of June and later to the nth of July. It
was important as a trading fair for cutlery, earthenware, cloth
and Dutch metal, and was abolished in 1846. The market,
dating from 1194 and originally held on Thursday only, is now
held on Tuesday and Saturday in addition. Portsmouth was
important in the middle ages not only as a naval station but a
trading centre. There was a considerable trade in wool and
wine, and the building of the dockyards by Henry VII. further
increased its prosperity.
See Victoria County History: Hampshire, iii. 172 seq.; R. East,
Extracts from the Portsmouth Records.
PORTSMOUTH, a city, port of entry and one of the county-
seats of Rockingham county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the
Piscataqua river, about 3 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, about
45 m. E.S.E. of Concord, and about 54 m. N.N.E. of Boston.
Pop. (1910 U.S. census) 11,269. Area, 17 sq. m. Portsmouth is
served by the Boston & Maine railway, by electric lines to
neighbouring towns, and in summer by a steamboat daily to
the Isles of Shoals. The city is pleasantly "situated, mainly on a
peninsula, and has three public parks. Portsmouth attracts
many visitors during the summer season. In Portsmouth are
an Athenaeum (1817), with a valuable library; a public library
(i88i);a city hall; a county court house; a United States
customs-house; a soldiers' and sailors' monument; an equestrian
PORTSMOUTH PORT SUDAN
133
monument by James Edward Kelly to General Fitz John Porter;
a cottage hospital (1886); a United States naval hospital (1891);
a home for aged and indigent women (1877) ; and the Chase home
for children (1877).
A United States navy yard, officially known as the Portsmouth
Navy Yard, is on an island of the Piscataqua but within the
township of Kittery, Maine. In 1800 Fernald's Island was
purchased by the Federal government for a navy yard; it was
the scene of considerable activity during the War of 1812, but
<>f much greater importance during the Civil War, when the
famous " Kearsarge " and several other war vessels were built
here.' In 1866 the yard was enlarged by connecting Seavey's
Island with Fernald's; late in the igth century it was equipped
for building and repairing steel vessels. It now has a large
dry dock. On Seavey's Island Admiral Cervera and other
ash officers and sailors captured during the Spanish-
American War were held prisoners in July September 1898.
Subsequently a large naval prison was erected. In 1905 the
treaty ending the war between Japan and Russia was negotiated
in what is known as the Peace Building in this yard.
In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $2,602,056.
During the summer season there is an important trade with the
neighbouring watering-places; there is also a large transit trade
in imported coal, but the foreign commerce, consisting wholly of
imports, is small.
Portsmouth and Dover are the oldest permanent settlements
in the state. David Thomson with a small company from
Plymouth, England, in the spring or early summer of 1623
built and fortified a house at Little Harbor (now Odiorne's
Point in the township of Rye) as a fishing and trading station.
In 1630 there arrived another band of settlers sent over by the
Laconia Company. They occupied Thomson's house and
Great Island (New Castle) and built the "Great House" on
what is now Water Street, Portsmouth. This settlement, with
jurisdiction over all the territory now included in Portsmouth,
New Castle and Greenland, and most of that in Rye, was
known as " Strawberry Banke " until 1653, when it was incor-
porated (by the government of Massachusetts) under the name
of Portsmouth. There was from the first much trouble between
its Anglican settlers sent over by Mason and the Puritans from
Massachusetts, and in 1641 Massachusetts extended her juris-
diction over this region. In 1679, however, New Hampshire
was constituted a separate province, and Portsmouth was the
capital until 1775. In 1693 New Castle (pop. 1900, 581), then
including the greater part of the present township of Rye, was
set apart from Portsmouth, and in 1703 Greenland (pop. 1000,
607) was likewise set apart. One of the first military exploits
of the War of Independence occurred at New Castle, where there
was then a fort called William and Mary. In December 1774 a
copy of the order prohibiting the exportation of military stores
to America was brought from Boston to Portsmouth by Paul
Revere, whereupon the Portsmouth Committee of Safety
organized militia companies, and captured the fort (Dec. 14).
In 1849 Portsmouth was chartered as a city.
Portsmouth was the birthplace of Governor Benning Wentworth
(1696-1770) and his nephew Governor John Wentworth (17.37-
1820); of Governor John Langdon (1739-1810); of Tobias Lear
(1762-1816), the private secretary of General Washington from
17*5 until Washington's death, consul-general at Santo Domingo
in 1802-1804, ar| d negotiator of a treaty with Tripoli in 1805; of
Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber (1814-1890), humorist, who is
best known by his Life and Sayings of Mrs Parlington (1854);
of James T. Fields, of Thomas Bailey Aldrich and of General
Fitz John Porter. From 1807 to 1816 Portsmouth was the home
of Daniel Webster.
PORTSMOUTH, a city and the county-seat of Scioto county,
Ohio, U.S.A., picturesquely situated at the confluence of the
Scioto and Ohio rivers, 95 m. S. of Columbus. Pop. (1910
U.S. census) 23,481. Portsmouth is served by the Baltimore &
1 See Captain G. H. Preble, " Vessels of War built at Portsmouth,
N. H. 1690-1868," in New England Historical and Genealogical
Register, vol. xxii. (Boston, 1868); and W. E. Fentress, Centennial
History of the U.S. Navy Yard at Portsmouth, N. H. (Portsmouth,
1876).
Ohio South-Western, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk
& Western railways, also by passenger and freight boats to
Pittsburg, Cincinnati and intermediate ports. The city has a
Carnegie library, a municipal hospital, an aged women's home
and a children's home. Extending along the Ohio for 8 m. and
arranged in three groups are works of the " Mound Builders."
There are two small city parks, and a privately owned resort,
Millbrook Park. The surrounding country is a fine farming
region, which also abounds in coal, fire-clay and building stone.
Natural gas is used for light, heat and power. In 1905 the city's
factory products were valued at $7,970,674, of which $4,258,855
was the value of boots and shoes. The Norfolk & Western has
division terminals here.
The first permanent settlement in the immediate vicinity
was made in 1796. In 1799 Thomas Parker, of Alexandria,
Virginia, laid out a village (which was named Alexandria) below
the mouth of the Scioto, but as the ground was frequently flooded
the village did not thrive, and about 1810 the inhabitants
removed to Portsmouth. Portsmouth was laid out in 1803,
incorporated as a town in 1815, and chartered as a city in 1851.
The Ohio and Erie canal was opened from Cleveland to
Portsmouth in 1832.
PORTSMOUTH, a city of Norfolk county, Virginia, U.S.A.,
on the Elizabeth river opposite Norfolk. Pop. (1910, census),
33,190. Portsmouth is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the
Seaboafti Air Line, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the New York,
Philadelphia & Norfolk (Pennsylvania system), the Southern,
and the Norfolk & Western railways, by steamboat lines to
Washington, Baltimore, New York, Providence and Boston, by
ferries to Norfolk, and by electric lines to numerous suburbs.
There is a 30-ft. channel to the ocean. Portsmouth is situated
on level ground only a few feet above the sea; it has about i\ m.
of water-front, and adjoins one of the richest trucking districts
in the Southern States. Among the principal buildings are the
county court house, city hall, commercial building, United
States naval hospital, post office building, high school and
the Portsmouth orphan asylum, King's Daughters' hospital
and the old Trinity Church (1762). In the southern part of the
city is a United States navy yard and station, officially the
Norfolk Yard (the second largest in the country), of about 450
acres, with three immense dry docks, machine shops, ware-
houses, travelling and water cranes, a training station, torpedo-
boat headquarters, a powder plant (20 acres), a naval magazine,
a naval hospital and the distribution headquarters of the United
State Marine Corps. The total value of the city's factory
products in 1905 was only $145,439. The city is a centre of the
Virginia oyster " fisheries." Portsmouth and Norfolk form a
customs district, Norfolk being the port of entry, whose exports
in 1908 were valued at $11,326,817, and imports at $1,150,044.
Portsmouth was established by act of the Virginia assembly
in 1 752, incorporated as a town in 1852 and chartered as a city
in 1858. Though situated in Norfolk county, the city has been
since its incorporation administratively independent of it.
Shortly before the War of Independence the British established
a marine yard where the navy yard now is, but during the war
it was confiscated by Virginia and in 1801 was sold to the United
States. In April 1861 it was burned and abandoned by the
Federals, and for a year aftenvards was the chief navy yard
of the Confederates. Here was constructed the iron-clad
" Virginia " (the old " Merrimac "), which on the 9th of March
1862 fought in Hampton Roads (q.v.) the famous engagement
with the " Monitor." Two months later, on the gth of May,
the Confederates abandoned the navy yard and evacuated
Norfolk and Portsmouth, and the " Virginia " was destroyed
by her commander, Josiah Tattnall.
PORT SUDAN, a town and harbour on the west coast of the
Red Sea, in 19 37' N. 37 12' E., 700 m. by boat S. of Suez and
495 m. by rail N.E. of Khartum. Pop. (1906), 4289. It is the
principal port of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the headquar-
ters of the customs administration. The coral reefs fringing
the coast are here broken by a straight channel with deep water
giving access to the harbour, which consists of a series of natural
134
PORT TOWNSEND PORTUGAL
channels and basins. The largest basin is 900 yds. long by 500
broad and has a minimum depth of 6 fathoms. On the north
side of the inlet are quays (completed 1909), fitted with electric
cranes, &c. Here are the customs-house, coal sheds and goods
station. The town proper lies on the south side of the inlet,
connected with the quays by a railway bridge. Besides govern-
ment offices the public buildings include hospitals, and a branch
of the Gordon College of Khartum. Beyond the bridge in the
upper waters of the inlet is a dry dock. The climate of Port
Sudan is very hot and damp and fever is common. Adjacent
to the town is an arid plain without vegetation other than
mimosa thorns. Some 10 m. west is a line of hills parallel to
the coast.
The port dates from 1905. It owes its existence to the desire
of the Sudan administration to find a harbour more suitable
than Suakin (q.v.) for the commerce of the country. Such a place
was found in Mersa Sheikh Barghut (or Barud), 36 m. north
of Suakin, a harbour so named from a saint whose tomb is promi-
nent on the northern point of the entrance. When the building
of the railway between the Nile and the Red Sea was begun, it
was determined to create a port at this harbour which was
renamed Port Sudan (Bander es-Sudan). Up to the end of
1909 the total expenditure by the government alone on the
town and harbour-works was 914,320. The railway (which
has termini both at Port Sudan and Suakin) was opened in
January 1906 and the customs-house in the May following.
Port Sudan immediately attracted a large trade, the value of
goods passing through it in 1906 exceeding 470,000. In 1908
the imports and exports were valued at about 730,000. It is a
regular port of call of British, German and Italian steamers.
The imports are largely cotton goods, provisions, timber and
cement; the exports gum, raw cotton, ivory, sesame, durra,
senna, coffee (from Abyssinia), goat skins, &c. Forty miles
north of Port Sudan is Mahommed Gul, the port for the mines
of Gebet, worked by an English company.
The Foreign Office Report, Trade of Port Sudan for the Year 1906,
by T. B. Hohler, gives a valuable account of the beginnings of the
port. A chart of the harbour was issued by the British Admiralty
m 1908. See also SUDAN : Anglo-Egyptian.
PORT TOWNSEND, a city, port of entry and the county-seat
of Jefferson county, Washington, U.S.A., on Quimper Peninsula,
at the entrance to Puget Sound, about 40 m. N.N.W. of Seattle.
Pop. (1905), 5300; (1910), 4181. The city is served by the Port
Townsend Southern railway (controlled by the Northern Pacific,
but operated independently) and by steamship lines to Victoria
(British Columbia), San Francisco, Alaska and Oriental ports.
The harbour is 75 m. long and 35 m. wide, and is deep, well
sheltered and protected by three forts, of which Fort Worden is
an excellently equipped modern fortification ranking with the
forts at Portland (Maine), San Francisco, Boston and New York.
The United States government has at Port Townsend a customs-
house, a revenue cutter service, a marine hospital, a quarantine
station and an immigration bureau. Port Townsend is the port of
entry for the Puget Sound customs district. In 1908 its exports
were valued at $37,547,553, much more than those of any other
American port of entry on the Pacific; its imports were valued
in 1908 at $21,876,361, being exceeded among the Pacific ports
by those of San Francisco only. The city has a considerable
trade in grain, lumber, fish, livestock, dairy products and oil;
its manufactures include boilers, machinery and canned and
pickled fish, especially salmon and herring. Port Townsend was
settled in 1854, incorporated as a town in 1860 and chartered
as a city in 1890.
PORTUGAL, a republic of western Europe, forming part of
the Iberian Peninsula, and bounded on the N. and E. by Spain,
and on the S. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900),
5,016.267; area, 34,254 sq. m. These totals do not include the
inhabitants and area of the Azores and Madeira Islands, which
are officially regarded as parts of continental Portugal. In shape
the country resembles a roughly drawn parallelogram, with
its greatest length (362 m.) from N. to S., and its greatest
breadth (140 m.) from E. to W. For map, see SPAIN. The
land frontiers are to some extent defined by the course of i
four principal rivers, the Minho and Douro in the north, th
Tagus and Guadiana in the south; elsewhere, and
especially in the north, they are marked by moun-
tain ranges; but in most parts their delimitation was
originally based on political considerations. In no sense
the boundary-line be called either natural or scientific, ap;
from the fact that the adjacent districts on either side are poo:
sparsely peopled, and therefore little liable to become a subji
of dispute. The Portuguese seaboard is nearly 500 m. long, an
of the six ancient provinces all are maritime except Traz
Montes. From the extreme north to Cape Mondego and then
onward to Cape Carvoeiro the outline of the coast is a long an
gradual curve; farther south is the prominent mass of rock an
mountain terminating westward in Capes Roca and Espichel
south of this, again, there is another wide curve, broken by the
headland of Sines, and extending to Cape St Vincent, the south-
eastern extremity of the country. The only other conspicuous
promontory is Cape Santa Maria, on the south coast. The only
deep indentations of the Portuguese littoral are the lagoon
Aveiro (q.v.) and the estuaries of the Minho, Douro, Monde^
Tagus, Sado and Guadiana, in which are the principal harbou:
The only islands off the coast are the dangerous Farilhoes an
Berlings (Portuguese Berlengas) off Cape Carvoeiro.
Physical Features. Few small countries contain so great
variety of scenery as Portugal. The bleak and desolate heights
of the Serra da Estrella and the ranges of the northern frontier
are almost alpine in character, although they nowhere reach
the limit of perpetual snow. At a lower level there are wide
tracts of moorland, covered in many cases with sweet-scented
cistus and other wild flowers. The lagoon of Aveiro, the estuary
of the Sado and the broad inland lake formed by the Tagus above
Lisbon (q.v.), recall the waterways of Holland. The sand-dunes
of the western coast and the Pinhal de Leiria (q.v.) resemble thi
French Landes. The Algarve and parts of Alemtejo might
long to North- West Africa rather than to Europe. The Paiz
Vinho, on the Douro, and the Tagus near Abrantes, with their
terraced bush-vines grown up the steep banks of the rivers, are
often compared with the Rhine and the Elbe. The harbours
of Lisbon and Oporto are hardly inferior in beauty to those of
Naples and Constantinople. Apart from this variety, and from
the historic interest of such places as Braga, Bussaco, Cintra,
Coimbra, or Torres Vedras, the attractiveness of the country is
due to its colouring, and not to grandeur of form. Its landscapes
are on a small scale; it has no vast plains, no inland seas, no
mountain as high as 7000 ft. But its flora is the richest in
Europe, and combines with the brilliant sunshine, the vivid but
harmonious costumes of the peasantry, and the white or pale-
tinted houses to compensate for any such deficiency. This
wealth of colour gives to the scenery of Portugal a quite distinc-
tive character and is the one feature common to all its varieties.
The orography of Portugal cannot be scientifically studied except
in relation to that of Spain, for there is no dividing line between
the principal Portuguese ranges and the highlands of Galicia,
Leon and Spanish Estremadura. Three so-called Portuguese
systems are sometimes distinguished: (l) the Transmontane,
stretching between the Douro and the Minho; (2) the Beirene,
between the Douro and the Tagus; (3) the Transtagine, south of
the Tagus. The following ranges belong to the Transmontane
system, which is the southern extension of the mountains of
Galicia: Peneda (4728 ft.), forming the watershed between the
river Lima and the lower Minho; the Serra do Gerez (4817 ft.),
which rises like a gigantic wall between the Lima and the Homem,
and sends off a spur known as the Amarella, Oural and Nora,
south-westward between the Homem and the Cavado; La Raya
Seca, a continuation of Gerez, which culminates in Larouco (4390 ft.)
and contains the sources of the Cavado; Cabreira (4196 ft.),
which contains the sources of the river Ave and separates the
basin of the Tamega from that of the Cavado; Marao (4642 ft.),
Villarelho .(3547 ft.) and Padrella (3763 ft.), forming together a
large massif between the rivers Tamega, Tua and Douro; and
Nogueira (4331 ft.) and Bornes (3944 ft.), which divide the valley of
the Tua from that of the Sabor. The Beirene system comprises
two quite distinct mountain regions. North of the Mondago it
includes Mpntemuro (4534 ft.), separating the Douro from the upper
waters of its left-hand tributary the Paiva; Gralheira (3681 ft.)
between the Paiva and the Vouga; the Serra do Caran.ullo
PHYSICAL FEATURES]
PORTUGAL
135
(3511 ft.), between the Vouga and the Dao; and the Serra da
i s ft.), which gives rise to the Paiva, Tavora, Vouga and
Dao. ^Hith of these ranges, but nominally included in the same
MI, is the Serra da Estrella, the loftiest ridge in Portugal
(6532 ft.). The Estrella Mountains, which enclose the headwaters of
the Mondego in ' deep ravine, stretch from north-east to south-west
ami are continued in the same direction by the Serra de Lousa
(3944 ft.). They form the last link in the chain of mountain ranges,
known to Spanish geographers as the Carpetano-Vetonica, which
ioss the centre of the Peninsula from east to west. The
r | art of the Serra da Estrella constitutes the watershed
.11 tlu- Moiulcgo and Zezere. Lesser ranges, which are
included in the Beirene system and vary in height from 2000 to
It., are the Mesas, between the rivers C6a and Zezere; the
lunha and Moradal, separating the Zezere from the Ponsul
L, tributaries of the Tagus; the Serra do Aire, and various
which stretch south-westward as far as the mountains of
i (</.r.). The Transtagine Mountains cannot rightly .be
I.eil as a single system, as they consist for the most part of
d ranges or massifs. The Serra da Arrabida (1637 ft.)
l/ei ween Ca|)c Espichel and Setubal. Sao Mamede (3363 ft.),
i In- |iarallel and lower Serra de Portalegre, extends along part
of the frontier of northern Alemtejo. Ossa (2129 ft.), Caixeiro
it.), Monfurado (1378 ft.) and Mendro (1332 ft.) form the high
ground between the rivers Sado, Sorraia and Guadiana. East of
.uadi.ina the outliers of the Spanish Sierra Morena enter
Portuguese territory. The Serra Grandola and Monte Cereal,
twn low ranges stretching from north to south, skirt the coast of
M rn Estremadura. In the extreme south the ranges are
mure closely massed together. They include Monchique, with
the peak of I ny.i or Foia (2963 ft.), and various lower ranges.
There ,ire numerous large expanses of level country, the most
notable of these being the plains (campos) of the Tagus valley, and
, iz or Benavilla, Bcja and Ourique, in Alemtejo; the high
LUX (cimas) of Mogadouro in Traz-os-Montes and Ourem
between the Tagus and the upper Sorraia; the highly cultivated
lowlands (veigas) of Chaves and Valenca do Minho in the extreme
north; and the marshy flats (baixas) along the coast of Alemtejo
and the southern shore of the lower Tagus.
The three principal rivers which flow through Portugal to the
the Douro, Tagus and Guadiana are described in separate
articles. The chief Portuguese tributaries of the Douro are the
Tamega, Tua and Sabor on the north, the Agueda, C6a and Paiva
on the south; of the Tagus, the Ocreza, Ponsul and Zezere on the
north, the Niza and Sorraia on the south, while into the Guadiana,
on its right or Portuguese bank, flow the Caia, Degebe, Cobres,
Oeiras and Vascao. The whole country drains into the Atlantic,
to which all the main rivers flow in a westerly direction except
the (iuadiana, which turns south by east in the lower part of Us
course. The Minho (Spanish Mifto) is the most northerly river of
Portugal, and in size and importance is only inferior to the three
waterways already mentioned. It rises in the highlands of
i, and, after forming for some distance the boundary between
that province and Entre-Minho-e-Douro, falls into the sea below
the port of Caminha. Its length is 170 m. Small coasters can
nl the river as far as Salvatierra in Galicia (20 m.), but larger
excluded by a sandy bar at the mouth. Between the
Minho and Douro the chief rivers are the Lima (Spanish Limia or
Antela), which also rises in Galicia, and reaches the sea at Vianna
do Castello; the Cavado, which receives the Homem on the right,
and forms the port of Espozende in its estuary ; and the Ave, which
in the Serra da Cabreira and issues at the port of Villa do
Conde. Between the Douro and Tagus the Vouga rises in the Serra
da Lapa and reaches the sea through the lagoon of Aveiro; the
Mondego flows north-east through a long ravine in the Serra da
la, and then bends back so as to flow west-south-west. Its
.ry contains the important harbour of Figueira da Foz; its
duel tributaries are the Dao on the right, and the Alva, Ceira and
Arunca on the left; its length is 125 m. of which 52 m. are navigable
by small coasters. Several comparatively unimportant streams,
chief among which are the Liz and Sizandro, enter the Atlantic
between the mouths of the Mondego and Tagus. Between the
- and Cape St Vincent the principal rivers are the Sado,
which is formed by the junction of several lesser streams and flows
north-west to the port of Setubal; and the Mira, which takes a
similar direction from its headwaters south of Monte Vigia to the
port of Villa Nova de Milfontes. On the south coast the united
waters of the Odelouca and Silves form the harbour of Villa Nova
: Portimao, and the Algoz, Algibre or Quarteira, and the Asseca
flow into the sea farther east. Portugal abounds in hot and
medicinal springs, such as those of Caldas de Monchique, Caldas
da Rainha and Vidago.
Geology. By far the greater part of Portugal is occupied by
ancient rocks of Archean and Palaeozoic age, and by eruptive
sses which probably belong to various periods. All the higher
mountains are formed of these rocks, and it is only near the coast
and in the plain of the Tagus that later deposits are found. The
j 80 .? " 3 beds form an irregular triangle extending from Lisbon
Torres Novas on the south to Oporto on the north. There are
also a narrow strip along the southern shores of the Algarve and a
few smaller patches along the western coast. The Tertiary deposits
cover the plain of the Tagus and are found in other low-lying
?reas near the coast. Of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks the Ordovician
: spears to be the most widely-spread. Large areas have been
n r erred to the Cambrian, but it is only at Villa Boim, about 6 m.
VV S.W. of Elvas, that Cambrian fossils have been found. The
Or lovician beds have yielded fossils in several places, Vallongo
anc Bussaco being amongst the best-known localities. The suc-
cess on is similar to that of Brittany and Spain. Supposed Silurian
beds have been described at Portalegre, and in the same neigh-
bour -ood Devonian fossils have been found. The Lower Carboni-
ferou. . which belongs to the " Culm " facics so widely spread in
centra" Europe, occupies a wide area in southern Portugal; but the
Upper Carboniferous is very restricted in extent, and occurs in
small I asins like those of the Central Plateau of France, resting
unconfi.rmably upon the rocks below. The deposits in these basins
consist argely of coarse sandstones and conglomerates, amongst
which Hi seams of coal. It is possible that some of these deposits
may belong to the Permian or at least to the Perma-Carboniferous.
Of the Mesozoic systems the Jurassic is the most widely-spread.
Supposed Triassic beds are found, but they are confined chiefly to
the eastern margin of the Mesozoic area north of Lisbon. The
Jurassic deposits are partly marine and partly fresh-water or
terrestrial, including beds of lignite. On the whole, excepting in
eastern Algarve, the Upper Jurassic beds indicate the neighbourhood
of a shore-line. The Cretaceous system is very limited in extent.
Its most interesting feature is the occurrence near its summit,
north of Cape Mondego, of sands and gravels containing plant
remains. Here both Cretaceous and Tertiary forms are found,
and the Mondego beds seem to represent the passage between the
two systems. At the close of the Cretaceous period great eruptions
of basalt and basaltic tuff took place, especially in the Lisbon area.
The volcanic rocks then formed are followed by marine deposits
of Oligocene and Miocene age. Towards the north these are
associated with fresh-water limestones, indicating the presence of
land in that direction. Marine Pliocene beds occur at the mouth
of the Tagus. The contemporaneous beds inland are of fresh-
water origin. Eruptive masses of various age are found in many
localities. The Cintra granite sends veins into the base of the Upper
Jurassic, and is very probably of Tertiary age. The Serra de
Monchique is petrographically of great interest. It consists chiefly
of elaeolite-syenite and other rocks derived from the same igneous
magma.
Climate. The climate of Portugal is equable and temperate.
Lisbon, Coimbra, Evora and Oporto have mean temperatures
between 60 and 01-5 F., and the daily variation nowhere exceeds
23. This equability of temperature is partly caused by the very
heavy rainfall precipitated on Portugal as one of the westernmost
countries of Europe and the one most exposed to the Atlantic.
The rainfall has been as heavy as 16 ft. in a year, and sometimes,
as in the winter of 1909-1910, great damage is wrought by floods.
Heavy fogs are also common along the coast, rendering it dangerous
to ships. The rainfall is heaviest in the north and on the Serra
da Estrella; it is least in Algarve. A fine climate and equability
of temperature are not universal in Portugal ; they are to be enjoyed
mainly in Beira and Estremadura, especially at Cintra and Coimbra,
and in the northern provinces. In the deep valleys where the
mountains keep off the cool winds, it is excessively hot in summer;
while on the summits of the mountains snow lies for many months.
The meteorological station on the Serra da Estrella, with a mean
annual temperature of 44-7 F., is the coldest spot in Portugal
in which systematic observations are taken. Montalegre has a
mean of 48-3 and Guarda of 50-3. Even in Lisbon the yearly
variation is not less than 50. In Alemtejo the climate is very
unfavourable, and, though the heat is not so great as in Algarve
(where Lagos has a mean of 63), the country has a more deserted
appearance; while in winter when the Tagus overflows, un-
healthy swamps are left. Notwithstanding that Algarve is hotter
than Alemtejo, a profuse vegetation takes away much of the tropical
effect. Portugal is very rarely visited by thunderstorms; but
shocks of earthquake are frequently felt, and recall the great earth-
quake of Lisbon (q.v.) in 1755.
Fauna, and Flora. An account of the fauna of the Iberian
Peninsula as a whole is given under SPAIN. Wolves are found
in the wilder parts of the Serra da Estrella, and wild boars are
preserved in some districts. As far as the constituents of its flora
are concerned Portugal is not very dissimilar from Spain, but their
distribution is peculiar. The vegetation of Spain is distributed
in clearly marked zones; but over the whole of Portugal, except
the hottest parts of Algarve and Alemtejo, the plants of northern
Europe flourish side by side with cacti, palms, aloes and tree-ferns
(see CINTRA). This is largely due to the fact that the moisture-
laden winds from the Atlantic penetrate almost as far inland as
the Portuguese frontier, but do not reach the interior of Spain.
The soil is fertile, and the indigenous flora has been greatly enriched
by the importation of such plants as the agave, the Mexican opuntia,
the American maple, the Australian eucalyptus, the Scotch fir and
the so-called Portuguese cypress (Cupressus lusitaniea) from the
Azores. There are many fine tracts of forest, among which may
be mentioned the famous convent-wood of Bussaco (q.v.); cork
136
PORTUGAL
[INHABITANTS
trees are extensively cultivated, Barbary oaks (Quercus ballota,
Port, azinheira) furnish edible acorns and excellent timber (or
charcoal, and carob-trees (Ceratonia siliqua, Port, alfarrobeira) also
produce edible seed-pods somewhat resembling beans. Elms,
limes and poplars are common north of the Tagus, ilexes, arau-
carias, myrtles, magnolias and a great variety of conifers in all
parts. The Serra da Estrella has a rich alpine flora, and the lagoon
of Aveiro contains a great number of aquatic plants.
Inhabitants. The population of Portugal numbered 4,550,699
in 1878, 5,049,729 in 1890 and 5,423,132 in 1900. These totals
include the inhabitants of the Azores and Madeira, which
together amounted to 406,865 in 1900. Few immigrants enter
the country, but the birth-rate is about 30 per 1000, while the
mortality is only about 20 per 1000. Large bodies of emigrants,
chiefly recruited from the sober, hardy and industrious peasantry
of the northern provinces, annually leave Portugal to seek
fortune in America. A few go to the Portuguese colonies, the
great majority to Brazil. Many of these emigrants return with
considerable savings and settle on the land. The mortality
is highest among male children, and the normal excess of females
is in the proportion of 109 to 100. Six-sevenths of the popula-
tion of continental Portugal inhabit the provinces north of the
Tagus. The ' density of population is greatest in Madeira
(479-5 per sq. m. in 1900), Entre-Minho-e-Douro (419-5) and the
Azores (277-9), nowhere else does it reach 200 per sq. m. In
Alemtejo ^the percentage sinks to 45-1, and for the whole
country, including the islands, it amounts only to 152-8.
The Portuguese people is composed of many racial elements.
Its earliest known ancestors were the Iberians (?..). The peas-
antry, especially in the north, are closely akin to the Galician and
Asturian Spaniards in character, physique and dialect; and these
three ethnical groups Portuguese of the north, Galicians, Astu-
rians may perhaps be regarded as the purest representatives of
the Spanish stock. The first settlers with whom they inter-
married were probably Carthaginians, who were followed in
smaller numbers by Greeks; but the attempts which have some-
times been made to ascribe certain attributes of the Portuguese
to the influence of these races are altogether fanciful. The
Romans, whose supremacy was not seriously threatened for
some six centuries after the Punic Wars, gave to Portugal its
language and the foundation of its civilization; there is, however,
no evidence that they seriously modified the physical type or
character of its people. In these respects the Suevic and
Visigothic conquests left a more permanent impression, especially
in the northern provinces. After 711 came the long period of
Moorish (i.e. Arab and Berber) predominance. The influence of
the Moors was greatest south of the Tagus. In Alemtejo, and
still more in Algarve, Arab and Berber types are common; and
the influence of these races can everywhere be discerned in the
architecture, handicrafts and speech of the peasantry. So
complete was the intellectual triumph of the Moors that an
intermediate " Mozarabic " population arose, Portuguese in
blood, Christian in religion, but Arab in language and manners.
Many of the Mozarabs even adopted the characteristic Mahom-
medan rite of circumcision. Under the tolerant rule of Islam
the Portuguese Jews rose to a height of wealth and culture
unparalleled in Europe; they intermarried with the Christians
both at this period and after their forced conversion by King
Emanuel I. (1495-1521). After 1450 yet another ethnical
element was introduced into the nation, through the importation
of African slaves in vast numbers. Negroid types are common
throughout central and southern Portugal. No European race
confronted with the problem of an immense coloured population
has solved it more successfully than the Portuguese and their
kinsmen in Brazil; in both countries intermarriage was freely
resorted to, and the offspring of these mixed unions are superior
in character and intelligence to most half-breeds.
National Characteristics. The normal type evolved from
this fusion of many races is dark-haired, sallow-skinned, brown-
eyed and of low stature. The poorer classes, above all the fisher-
men and small farmers, are physically much finer than the well-
to-do, who are prone to excessive stoutness owing to their more
sedentary habits. The staple diet of the labouring classes and
iNTS
small farmers is fish, especially the dried codfish called bacalhdo,
rice, beans, maize bread and meal, olive oil, fruit and vegetables.
Meat is rarely eaten except on festivals. In Alemtejo chestnuts
and figs are important articles of diet. Drunkenness is extremely
rare. There is no single national dress, but a great variety of
picturesque costumes are worn. The sashes, broad-brimme
hats and copper-tipped quarterstaves of the men, and the bril-
liant cotton dresses and gold or silver filigree ornaments worn on
holidays by the women are common throughout the country;
but many classes have their own costumes, varying in deta
according to the district or province. These costumes may
seen at their best at bull-fights and at such popular festiva
as the romarias or pilgrimages, which combine religion with the
attractions of a fair. The national sport of bull-fighting (q.v.)
is conducted as humanely as possible, for the Portuguese
lovers of animals. The artistic sense of the nation is perhaps
greatest among the peasantry, although Portugal has the most
illiterate peasantry in western Europe. It is manifested in
their poetry and music even more than in their admirable
costumes and in the good taste which has preserved the Roman
or Moorish forms of their domestic pottery. Even the men and
women who till the soil are capable of improvizing verse of re
merit, and sometimes excel in the ancient and difficult art
composing extempore amoebean rhymes. In this way, although
the ancient ballads are not forgotten, new words are also fitted
to the plaintive folk-tunes (Jados) which every farm-hand knows
and sings, accompanied sometimes by a rude clarinet or bag-
pipes, but more frequently by the so-called Portuguese guitar
an instrument which resembles a mandolin rather than the
guitars of Italy and Spain. The native dances, slow but not
ungraceful, and more restrained than those of Andalusia or the
south of France, are obviously Moorish in origin, and depend for
their main effects on the movement of the arms and body. Many
curious superstitions survive in the country districts, including
the beliefs in witches (feitic,eiras, bruxas) and werewolves (lobis-
homens) ; in sirens (sereias) which haunt the dangerous coast and
lure fishermen to destruction; in fairies (fadas) and in many
kinds of enchantment. It will be observed that the nomen-
clature of Portuguese folk-lore suggests that the popular supersti-
tions are of the most diverse origin Latin, Greek, Arabic,
native: lobishomem is the Latin lupus homo, wolf-man, sereia
is the Greek fftiprjv, bruxa is Arabic, feitic,eira undfada Portuguese.
Other beliefs can be traced to Jewish and African sources.
Chief Towns. The chief towns of Portugal are Lisbon (pop.
1900, 356,009), the capital and principal seaport; Oporto
(167,955), the capital of the northern provinces and, after Lisbon,
the most important centre of trade; the seaports of Setubal
(22,074), Ilhavo (12,617), Povoa de Varzim (12,623), Tavira
(12,175), Faro (11,789), Ovar (io,462),Olhao (10,009) Vianna do
Castello (10,000), Aveiro (9975), Lagos (8291), Leixoes (7690)
and Figueira da Foz (6221); and the inland cities or towns of
Braga (24,202), Louie (22,478), Coimbra (18,144), Evora (16,020),
Covilha (15,469), Elvas (13,981), Portalegre (11,820), Palmella
(11,478), Torres Novas (10,746), Silves (9687), Lamego (9471).
Guimaraes (9104), Beja (8885), Santarem (8628), Vizeu (8057),
Estremoz (7920), Monchique (7345), Castello Branco (7288),
Abrantes (7255), Torres Vedras (6900), Thomar (6888), Villa
Real (6716), Chaves (6388), Guarda (6124), Cintra (59H),
Braganza (5535), Mafra (4769), Leiria (4459), Batalha (3858),
Almeida (2330), Alcobaca (2309), Bussaco (1661). All these i
described in separate articles.
Communications. Up to 1851 there was practically no good
carriage road in the country except the highway between Lisbon
and Cintra. In 1853 the work of constructing a proper system of
roads was undertaken, and by the end of the century all the larger
towns were linked together by the main or " royal " highways
to which the " district " and " municipal " roads were subsidiary.
Each class of road was named after the authority responsible for it
construction and upkeep. In some of the remoter rural districts
there are only bridle-paths, or rough tracks,_which become almost
impassable in wet seasons, and are never suitable for vehicles less
solid than the Portuguese ox-carts. The first railway was opened
in 1853 to connect Lisbon with Badajoz. In 1910 1758 m. were
completed, of which 672 m. were state lines. The Portuguese
J / 7
! are
AGRICULTURE: COMMERCE]
PORTUGAL
137
II" U
K
railways meet the Spanish at Valeria do Minho on the northern
frontier, at Barca d'Alva, at Villar Formoso, near Valencia de
und near Badajoz on the eastern frontier. In some of
the i hirl towns there are electric tramways. The most important
internal waterways are the lower Tagus and the Douro between
Upoiioand the Paizdo Vinho. In 1908, 11,045 vessels of 19,354,967
entered Portuguese seaports, but a very large majority of
ships were foreign, and especially British. The postal and
iphic services are adequate; telephone systems are installed
linn. Oporto and other large towns; and the Eastern Telegraph
in important cable station at Carcavellos near Lisbon (q.v.).
nd Tenure. Four modes of land tenure are common in
Portugal. The poor and thinly-peopled region of Alemtejo is
I..! into l.ir^c estates, ami cultivated by tenant farmers.
ites in various provinces are held on the metayage
,'..). In the north, where the land is much subdivided,
nit proprietorship and a kind of emphyteusis (see ROMAN
t lie most usual tenures. The Portuguese form of emphy-
tllrd aforamento; the landlord parts with the user of his
in exchange for a quit-rent (foro or canon). He may
i his tenant should the rent be in arrear for five years, and
.it any time distrain if it be overdue ; but he cannot otherwise
interim- with the holding, which the tenant may improve or
ect. Should the tenant sell or exchange his interest in the
property, the right of pre-emption is vested in the landlord, and
i responding right is enjoyed by the tenant should the quit-
rent be for sale. As this tenure- is very ancient, though modified
in 1832 and 1867, the value of such holdings has been greatly
enhanced with the improvement of the land and the decline in
the purchasing power of currency.
'{culture. Many of the instruments and processes of Portu-
e agriculture and viticulture were introduced by the Romans,
and are such as Columella described in the 1st century A.D. The
tcteristic springless ox-cart which is used for heavy loads
may be seen represented on Roman frescoes of even earlier date.
One form of plough still used consists of a crooked bough, with an
iron share attached. Oxen are employed for all field-work; those
of the commonest breed are tawny, of great muscular power, very
docile, and with horns measuring 5 or 6 ft. from tip to tip. The
ox-yokes are often elaborately carved in a traditional pattern in
which Gothic and Moorish designs are blended. The Moors intro-
duced many improvements, especially in the system of irrigation;
the characteristic Portuguese wells with their perpetual chains or
buckets are of Moorish invention, and retain their Moorish name of
nonis. In all, rather more than 45 % of the country is uncultivated,
ehietly in Alemtejo, Traz-os-Montes and the Serra da Estrella.
The principal grain-crops are maize, wheat and rye; rice is grown
among the marshes of the coast. Gourds, pumpkins, cabbages
and other vegetables are cultivated amongj the cereals.. The
large onions sold in Great Britain as Spanish are extensiyely pro-
duced in the northern provinces. Every district has its vine-
yards, the finest of which are in the Paiz do Vinho (see OPORTO
and WINE). The bush vines of this region are more exposed to
the attacks of Oidium Tuckeri, which invaded the country in 1851,
and of Phylloxera vastatrix, which followed in 1863, than the more
deeply-rooted vines trained on trellises or trees. Both these pests
have been successfully combated, largely by the use of sulphur and
by grafting immune American vines upon native stocks. In
addition to grapes the commoner fruits include quinces, apples,
pears, cherries, limes, lemons and loquats (Port, nespras) ; Condeixa
is famous for oranges, Amarante /or peaches, Elvas for plums,
the southern provinces for carobs and figs. Large quantities of
olive oil are manufactured south of the Douro. Almost all cattle,
except fighting-bulls, are stall-fed. The fighting-bulls are chiefly
reared in the marshes and alluvial valleys; they are bred for strength
and swiftness rather than size, and a good specimen should be
sufficiently agile to leap over the inner barrier of the arena (about
68 in. high). Large herds of swine are fed in the oak and chestnut
woods of Alemtejo ; sheep and goats are reared in the mountains,
where excellent cheeses are made from goats' milk.
Fisheries. About 50,000 Portuguese are classed as hunters and
fishermen. The majority of these are employed in the sardine,
and tunny fisheries. This industry is carried on in a fleet of more
than 10,000 small vessels, including the whalers of the Azores and
the cod-boats which operate outside Portuguese waters. The
fishermen and fisherwomen form a quite distinct class of the people ;
both sexes are noted for their bodily strength, and the men for
their bold and skilful seamanship. Tunny and sardines are cured
and exported in large quantities, oysters are also exported, and
many other sea fish, such as hake, sea-bream, whiting, conger
and various flat-fish are consumed in the country. In the early
years of the zoth century the competition of foreign steam trawlers
inflicted much hardship on the fishermen. The average yearly
value of the fish landed in Portugal (exclusive of cured fish from
foreign countries) is about 800,000. Salmon, lampreys and eels
are caught in some of the larger rivers; trout abound in the streams
f the northern provinces; but many fresh-water fish common
elsewhere in Europe, including pike, perch, tench and chub, are
not found.
Mines. It is usually stated that Portugal is rich in minerals,
especially copper, but that want of capital and, especially in the
south, of transport and labour, has retarded their exploitation.
The mineral deposits of the country are very varied, but their
extent is probably exaggerated. The average yearly output from
1901 to 1005 was worth less than 300,000. Copper is mined in
southern Portugal. Common salt (chiefly from Alcaccr do Sal
near_Setubal), gypsum, lime and marble are exported; marble and
granite of fine quality abound in the southern provinces. Iron is
obtained near Beja and Evora, tin in the district of Braganza.
Lead, wolfram, antimony and auriferous quartz exist in the dis-
tricts of Coimbra, Evora, Beja and Faro. Lignite occurs at many
points around Coimbra, Leiria and Santarem; asphalt abounds
near Alcobaca; phosphorite, asbestos and sulphur are common
south of the Tagus. Petroleum has been found near Torres Vedras;
pitchblende, arsenic, anthracite and zinc are also mined. Gold
was washed from some of the Portuguese rivers before the Christian
era, and among the Romans the auriferous sands of the Tagus
were proverbially famous; it is, however, extremely improbable
that large quantities of gold were ever obtained in this region,
although small deposits of alluvial gold may still be found in the
valleys of the Tagus and Mondego.
Manufactures. The Methuen Treaty of 1703 prevented the
establishment of some manufacturing industries in Portugal by
securing a monopoly for British textiles, and it was only after 1892
that Portuguese cotton-spinning and weaving were fostered by
heavy protective duties. In 20 years these industries became the
most important in the country after agriculture, the wine and
cork trades and the fisheries. In connexion with the wine trade
there are many large cooperages; cork products are extensively
manufactured for export. Lisbon is the headquarters of the
ship-building trade. Here, and in other cities, tanning, distilling,
various metallurgical industries, and manufactures of soap, flour,
tobacco, &c., are carried on; the entire output is sold in Portugal
or its colonies. There is a steady trade in natural mineral waters,
which occur in many parts of continental Portugal and the Azores.
From the l6th century to the i8th many artistic handicrafts were
practised by the Portuguese in imitation of the fine pottery, cabinet-
work, embroideries, &c., which they imported from India and Persia.
Portuguese cabinet-work deteriorated in the io.th century; the glass-
works and potteries of the Ayeiro and Leiria districts have lost
much of their ancient reputation; and even the exquisite lace of
Peniche and Vianna do Castello is strangely neglected abroad.
The finest Caldas da Rainha china-ware, with its fantastic repre-
sentations of birds, beasts and fishes, still commands a fair price
in foreign markets; but the blue and white ware originally copied
from Delft and later modified under the influence of Persian pottery
is now only manufactured in small quantities, of inferior quality.
Skilful copies of Moorish metal- work may be purchased in the gold-
smiths' and silversmiths' shops of Lisbon and Oporto; conspicuous
among these are the filigree ornaments which are bought by the
peasant women as investments and by foreign visitors as curiosities.
In 1900 the total industrial population of Portugal was 455,296.
Commerce. The annual value of the foreign trade of Portugal
amounts approximately to 19,000,000. The following table shows
the value for five years of the exports, and of all imports not re-
exported (exclusive of coin and bullion) :
Years.
Exports.
Imports.
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
6,284,800
6,318,888
6,800,710
6,824,692
6,460,000
12,849,622
12,354,800
13,068,000
13,801,622
13,486,666
In 1910 the principal exports, in order of value, were wine (chiefly
port, common wines and Madeira), raw and manufactured cork,
preserved fish, fruits and vegetables, cottons and yarn, copper ore,
timber, olive oil, skins, gram and flour, tobacco and wool. The
imports _ were raw and manufactured cotton, wool and silk, wheat
and maize, coal, iron and machinery, dried codfish, sugar, rice,
hides and skins, oils. The United Kingdom, which annually
purchases wine to the value of about 900,000 and cork to the
value of about 500,000, is the chief consumer of Portuguese goods,
and the chief exporter to Portugal. Germany and the United
States rank respectively second and third among the countries
which export to Portugal; Spain, which buys bullocks and pigs,
Brazil, which buys wine, and the Portuguese colonies, which buy
textiles, are among the chief purchasers of Portuguese products.
In addition to its direct foreign commerce Portugal derives much
benefit from its share in the trade between South America and
Europe. Large liners from Liverpool, Southampton, London,
Hamburg, Havre and Antwerp call regularly for passengers or
cargo at Leixoes or Lisbon, or both ports, on their way to and
from South America (especially Brazil). In connexion with this
trade an important tourist traffic, chiefly from Great Britain and
Germany, was developed towards the end of the igth century.
Banks and Money. In 1910 the Bank of Portugal, to which the
138
PORTUGAL
[CONSTITUTION
treasury was deeply indebted, had a capital of 1,500,000, and a
monopoly of note issue in continental Portugal, but the notes of the
Ultramarine Bank circulated in the colonies. The notes of the Bank
of Portugal in circulation amounted in value to about 14,000,000.
For an account of the Monte Pio Geral, which is a combined bank,
pawnbroking establishment and benefit society, see PAWNBROKING;
the deposits in the Monte Pio and the State Savings Bank amounted
in 1910 to some 5,228,000. There are also many private banks,
including savings banks. Gold is the standard of value, but the
actual currency is chiefly Bank of Portugal notes. The values of
coin and notes are expressed in multiples of the real (plural re-is"),
a monetary unit which does not actually exist. The milreis, 1000
reis of the par value of 45. 5d. (or 4-5 milreis to the pound sterling) and
the conto of reis (1000 milreis) are used for the calculation of large
sums. Gold pieces of 10, 5, 2 and I milreis were coined up to
1891 ; 10, 5, and 2 testoon (tesldo) pieces, worth respectively 1000,
500 and 200 reis, are coined in silver; testoons of 100 reis and half
testoons of 50 reis, in nickel; pieces of 20, 10 and 5 reis in bronze.
The milreis fluctuates widely in value, the balance of exchange
being usually adverse to Portugal; for the purposes of this article
the milreis has been taken at par. The British sovereign is legal
tender for 4500 reis, but in practice usually commands a premium.
The metric system of weights and measures has been officially
adopted, but many older standards are used, such as the libra
(1-012 Ib avoirdupois), alqueire (0-36 imperial bushel), moio (2-78
imp. bushels), almude of Lisbon (3-7 imp. gallons) and almude of
Oporto (5-6 imp. gallons).
Finance. For the five financial years, 1901-1902 to 1905-1906,
the average revenue of Portugal was about 13,300,000 and the
average expenditure 13,466,000. The chief sources of revenue
were customs duties, taxes on land and industries, duties on tobacco
and breadstuffs, the Lisbon octroi, receipts from national property,
registration and stamps, &c. The heaviest expenditure (nearly
5,000,000) was incurred for the service of the consolidated debt;
payments for the civil list, cortes, pensions, &c., amounted to more
than 2,000,000, and the cost of public works to nearly as large
a sum. The ministries of war and marine together spent about
2,500,000 each year. The practice of meeting deficits by loans,
together with the great expenditure, after 1853, on public works,
especially roads and railways, explains the rapid growth of the
national debt in modern times. In 1853 the total public debt,
internal and external, amounted to 2,082,680. It exceeded
90,000,000 in 1890, and in 1891-1892 the finances of the kingdom
reached a crisis, from which there was no escape except by arrang-
ing for a reduction in the amount payable as interest (see History,
below). By the law of the 26th of February 1892 30% was de-
ducted from the internal debt payable in currency; by the law of
the 2Oth of April 1893 66f % was deducted from the interest on
the external debt, due in gold. A law of the 9th of August 1902
provided for the conversion of certain gold debts into three
series of consolidated debt, at reduced interest. In 1909 the total
outstanding debt amounted to 161,837,430, made up as
follows: new external 3% converted in three series, 34,223,465;
4i% tobacco loan 7,267,480; internal 3% (guoted in London)
113,132,979. Internal debt at 3, 4 and 4J% was also outstanding
to the amount of 7,213,506.
Constitution. Up to October 1910 the government was an
hereditary and constitutional monarchy, based on the constitu-
tional charter which was granted by King Pedro IV. on the 2gth of
April 1826, and was afterwards several times modified; the most
important changes were those effected by the acts of the sth of
July 1852, the 24th of July 1885, and the 28th of March and 25th
of September 1895. The revolution of the sth of October 1910
brought the monarchy to an end and substituted republican
government for it. The monarchical constitution recognized four
powers in the state the executive, moderating, legislative and
judicial. The two first of these were vested in the sovereign, who
might be a woman, and who shared the legislative power with
two chambers, the Camara dos Pares or House of Peers, and
the Camara dos Deputados or House of Commons; these were
collectively styled the Cortes Geraes, or more briefly the Cortes.
The royal veto could not be imposed on legislation passed
twice by both houses. The annual session lasted four months,
and a general election was necessary at the end of every four
years, or immediately after a dissolution. A committee repre-
senting both houses adjudicated upon all cases of conflict
between Peers and Commons; should it fail to reach a decision,
the dispute was referred to the sovereign, whose award was
final. Up to 1885 some members sat in the House of Peers by
hereditary right, while others were nominated for life. It was
then decided that such rights should cease, except in the case
of princes of royal blood and members then sitting, and that
when all the hereditary peerages had lapsed the house should
be composed of the princes of the royal blood, the archbishops
and bishops of the continental dioceses, a hundred legislative
peers appointed by the king for life, and fifty elected every new
parliament by the Commons. In 1895 the number of nominated
life peers was reduced to ninety and the elective branch was
abolished. Subject to certain limitations and to a property
qualification, any person over 40 years of age was eligible
to a peerage. The titles and social position of the Portuguese
aristocracy were not affected when its political privileges were
abolished. In the nomination of life peers, and in certain
administrative matters the sovereign was advised by a council of
state, whose twelve members were nominated for life and were
principally past or present ministers. The sovereign exercised
his executive power through a cabinet which was responsible to
the cortes, and consisted of seven members, representing the
ministries of (i) the interior, (2) foreign affairs, (3) finance,
(4) justice and worship, (5) war, (6) marine and colonies, (7)
public works, industry and commerce. The House of Commons
was composed of 148 members, representing the 26 electoral
divisions of Portugal, the Azores and Madeira, which returned
113 elected members and 35 representatives of minorities, and
of 7 members representing the colonies. Peers, naturalized
foreigners and certain employees of the state were unable to sit in
the House of Commons; members were required to be graduates
of one of the highest, secondary or professional schools, or to
possess an income of not less than 400 milreis (88). All
members might, in connexion with their official duties, travel free
on railways and ships owned by the state; but since 1892 none
had received any salary except the colonial members, who were
paid 100 milreis (22) per month during the session, and 50
milreis (11) per month during the remainder of the year. All
male citizens 21 years old who could read and write, or who paid
taxes amounting to 500 reis yearly, had the parliamentary
franchise, except convicts, beggars, undischarged bankrupts,
domestic servants, workmen permanently employed by the state
and soldiers or sailors below the rank of commissioned officer.
(For changes made under republican rule, see History, 8.)
Local Government. Continental Portugal was formerly divided
for administrative purposes into six provinces which corresponded
to a great extent with the natural geographical divisions of the
country and are described in separate articles; the names of these,
which are still commonly used, are Entre-Minho-e-Douro (also
called Entre-Douro-e-Minho or Minho), Traz-os-Montes, Beira,
Estremadura, Alemtejo and Algarve. The province of Douro,
another administrative division of less antiquity, comprised the
present districts of Aveiro and Oporto, or part of Beira and Entre-
Minho-e-Douro. The six ancient provinces were subdivided on
the 28th of June 1833 into districts, each named after its chief
town, as follows: Entre-Minho-e-Douro into Vianna do Castello,
Braga, Oporto; Traz-os-Montes, into Villa Real, Braganza; Beira,
into Aveiro, Vizeu, Coimbra, Guarda, Castello Branco; Estremadura,
into Leiria, Santarem, Lisbon; Alemtejo, into Portalegre, Evora,
Beja ; Algarve was renamed Faro. In 1910 the Azores comprised three
districts and Madeira formed one. Each district was governed by a
commission composed of (i) the civil governor, who was nominated
by the central authority and presided over the commission; (2) the
administrative auditor; and (3) three members chosen by indirect
suffrage. The districts were divided into communes (concelhos).
each administered by an elected council, and a mayor nominated
by the central authority. The mayor could not preside over the
council, which appointed one of its own members to preside and to
give effect to its decisions. The communes were subdivided into
parishes (Jreguesias), which were administered by the elected council
(junta de parochia) over which the parish priest (presbitero) pre-
sided, and by the regedor, an official who represented the mayor of
the commune and was nominated by the civil governor. The central
authority had almost complete control over local administration
through its representatives, the civil governor, mayors and regedores.
Justice. In 1910 Portugal was divided into 193 judicial districts
(comarcas), in each of which there was a court of first instance. The
three courts of appeal (tribunaes de relafao) sat at Lisbon, Oporto and
Ponta Delgada (Azores), and there was a Supreme Court in Lisbon.
Colonies. At the beginning of the ipth century Portugal
possessed a larger colonial empire than any European power
except Great Britain and Spain. At the beginning of the 2Oth
century its transmarine possessions had been greatly reduced in
size by the loss of Brazil, but were still only surpassed in extent
HISTORY]
PORTUGAL
by those of three powers Great Britain, France and Germany.
Their total area was about 803,000 sq. m., of which 794,000 sq. m.
are in Africa. They comprised, in Africa, the Cape Verde
Is, St Thomas and Prince's Islands, Portuguese Guinea,
Angola and Portuguese East Africa, or Mozambique; in India,
Damaun and Diu; in China, Macao; and in the Malay
Archipelago part of Timor. All these are described in separate
art ides. In all the white population is in a minority; in most
the climate is unsuitable for European colonization, nor is the
mercial value of the colonies commensurate with their
it. Viewed as a whole, Portuguese administration has been
carried on under difficulties which have rendered it costly and
i ient, the home government being compelled to contribute
a large annual subsidy towards its maintenance. The amount
paid in subsidies from 1870 to 1900 was about 15,000,000.
Religion. Roman Catholicism was the state religion until 1910,
but other creeds were tolerated, and the Church lost its temporal
authority in 1834, when the monasteries were suppressed and their
proper! y confiscated for the first time. There are three ecclesiastical
provinces Braga, Lisbon and Evora, each under an archbishop.
The archbishop of Braga, whose see is the most ancient, has the
title of Primate; the archbishop of Lisbon has the honorary title of
1'airi.in h, and is usually elected a cardinal. His province includes
Madeira, the Azores and the West African colonies. There are four-
teen dioceses, of which Oporto is the most important. The annual
revenues of the upper hierarchy of the Church amounted, up to 1910,
to about 65,000. In some of the larger towns the foreign residents
have their own places of worship. (See further under History.)
Education. Primary education is regulated by a law of 1844,
under which children between the ages of 7 and 15 are bound to
attend a school, should there be one within a mile, under penalty
to the parents of a fine and deprivation of civil rights. This law
has not been strictly enforced; primary education was never
properly organized; and, according to census returns, the pro-
portion of the population (including children) unable to read was
82-4 % in 1878, 79-2 in 1890 and 78-6 in 1900. There were in 1910
5250 public and 1750 private primary schools. In the chief towns
there are training schools for teachers. The system of secondary
education was reorganized in 1894. In 1905 there were state
lyceums in each district capital and in Guimaraes, Lamego and
Amarante; 5 municipal lyceums, at Celorico de Basto, Chaves,
Ponte de Lima, Povoa de Varzim and Setubal; military and naval
colleges; a secondary school for girls in Lisbon; numerous private
secondary schools and ecclesiastical seminaries; industrial, com-
mercial and technical schools; and pilot schools at Lisbon, Oporto,
Faro and Ponta Delgada (Azores). Other important educational
institutions are described under LISBON and OPORTO. The national
university is at Coimbra (q.v.).
Defence. Under the monarchy, the army was maintained at its
normal strength partly by voluntary enlistment and conscription,
the chief law regulating it being that of 1887, as variously modified
in subsequent years. The cortes fixed the number of conscripts to
be enrolled in each year: in 1905, 15,000 men for the army, 1000
for the navy, 500 for the municipal guards and 400 for the fiscal
guards. The organization of the army was based on the acts of the
7th of September 1899 and the 24th of December 1901. With cer-
tain exceptions all men over 21 years of age were liable for service
J years in the regular army, 5 years in the first reserve and 7 years
in the second reserve; but exemption could always be purchased.
In time of war, the municipal guards, numbering about 2200, and
the fiscal guards, numbering about 5200, might be incorporated in
the army. The total effective force of the active army on a peace
footing was 1787 officers, 31,281 men, 6479 horses and mules and 100
guns. The total effective force on a war footing, inclusive of re-
servists, municipal guards and fiscal guards, was 4221 officers, 178,603
men, 19,600 horses and mules and 336 guns. Lisbon, Elyas and
Angra in the Azores, were considered first-class fortresses, but only
.isbon had modern defences. The Portuguese navy in 1910 con-
i of i armoured vessel, 5 protected cruisers, 2 third-class
cruisers, 19 gunboats, i torpedo gunboat, 4 torpedo boats, 16
river gunboats, 4 transports and 3 training ships. Twelve other
scls, including 2 submarines, were under construction. The
whole fleet was manned by about 5000 men.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Numerous official reports, chiefly statistical,
are published^ periodically in Lisbon; a few are written in French,
the majority in Portuguese. Read in conjunction with the British
insular and diplomatic reports, they afford a comprehensive
survey of the movement of population, the progress of trade, &c.
The following state papers deserve special notice: Caminhos de
ftrro (1877, c-)i Commercio e navigafao (annual, issued by the
Ministry of Marine), Le Portugal vintcole (1900), Le Portugal ....
agruole (1900), Notas sobre Portugal (2 vols., 1908). For geology,
see the section of Le Portugal .... agricole written by P. Choffat
and entitled " Apercu de la geologic de Portugal," also " The Work
the Portuguese Geological Survey," by Philip Lake, in Science
Progress (1896) v. 439-453; both these summaries refer to the most
important original papers. Two illustrated volumes by Oswald Craw-
ford, Portugal Old and New (London, 1880) and Round the Calendar
in Portugal (London, 1890) contain much valuable information
on agriculture, viticulture and peasant life in the northern pro-
vinces. Through Portugal, by Major Martin Hume (London, 1907)
and Lisbon and Cintra, by A. A. Inchbold (London, 1908), describe
the towns, &c., most frequently visited by tourists, and are illus-
trated in colours. Le Portugal (Paris, 1899), by 18 writers, is
a brief but encyclopaedic description of continental Portugal.
See also Portugal: its Land and People, by W. H. Koebel (London,
1909), and Portuguese Architecture, by W. C. Watson (London,
1908). The following books deal comprehensively with the
Portuguese colonies; As Colonias portuguezas, by E. J. de Vascon-
cellos (2nd ed., Lisbon, 1903), Les Colonies portugaises, by A. de
(K. 6. J.)
Almada Negreiros (Paris, 1908).
HISTORY
Throughout the centuries which witnessed the destruction
of Carthaginian power by Rome, the establishment and decline
of Latin civilization, the invasion by Alani, Suevi and other
barbarian races, the resettlement under Visigothic rule and the
overthrow of the Visigoths by Arab and Berber tribes from
Africa, Portugal remained an undifferentiated part of Hispania,
without sign of national consciousness. The Iberian Peninsula
was one: and its common history is related under SPAIN. It is
true that some Portuguese writers have sought to identify
their race with the ancient Lusitani, and have claimed for it a
separate and continuous existence dating from -the and century
B.C. The revolt of Lusitania against the Romans has been
regarded as an early manifestation of Portuguese love of liberty,
Viriathus as a national hero. But this theory, which originated
in the isth century and was perpetuated in the title of The
Lusiads, has no historical foundation. In 1095 Portugal was an
obscure border fief of the kingdom of Leon. Its territories, far
from the centres of European civilization and consisting largely
of mountain, moorland and forest, were bounded on the north
by the Minho, on the south by the Mondego. Its name (Porlu-
calia, Terra portucalensis) was derived from the little seaport of
Portus Cale or Villa Nova de Gaia, now a suburb of Oporto, at
the mouth of the Douro. Its inhabitants, surrounded by
Moorish or Spanish enemies and distracted by civil war, derived
such rudiments of civilization as they possessed from Arabic or
Leonese sources. But from these obscure beginnings Portugal
rose in four centuries to be the greatest maritime, commercial
and colonial power in Europe.
The history of the nation comprises eight periods, (i) Be-
tween 1095 and 1279 a Portuguese kingdom was established and
extended until it reached its present continental limits. (2)
Between 1279 and 1415 the monarchy was gradually consolidated
in spite of resistance from the Church, the nobles and the rival
kingdom of Castile. (3) In 1415 began a period of crusades and
discoveries, culminating in the discovery of an ocean-route to
India (1497-1499). (4) From 1499 to 1580 Portugal acquired
an empire stretching from Brazil eastward to the Moluccas,
reached the zenith of its prosperity and entered upon a period
of swift decline. (5) Spanish kings ruled over Portugal from
1581 to 1640. (6) The chief event of the years 1640 to 1755 was
the restoration of the Portuguese monarchy. (7) Between 1755
and 1826 the reforms of Pombal and the Peninsular War prepared
the country for a change from absolutism to constitutional
monarchy. (8) In 1826 the era of constitutional government
began.
i. The Establishment of the Monarchy. The origin of Portugal,
as a separate state, was an incident in the Christian reconquest
of Spain. Towards the close of the nth century
crusading knights came from every part of Europe HB^
to aid the kings of northern and central Spain in
driving out the Moors. Among these adventurers was Count
Henry of Burgundy, an ambitious warrior who, in 1095, married
Theresa, natural daughter of Alphonso VI., king of Leon. The
county of Portugal, which had already been won back from the
Moors (1055-1064), was included in Theresa's dowry. Count
Henry ruled as a vassal of Alphonso VI., whose Galician marches
were thus secured against any sudden Moorish raid. But in
PORTUGAL
[HISTORY
1109 Alphonso VI. died, bequeathing all his territories to his
legitimate daughter Urraca, and Count Henry at once invaded
Leon, hoping to add to his own dominions at the expense of his
suzerain. After three years of war against Urraca and other
rival claimants to the throne of Leon, Count Henry himself died
in ni2. He left Theresa to govern Portugal north of the
Mondego during the minority of her infant son Affonso Henriques
(Alphonso I.): south of the Mondego the Moors were still
supreme.
Theresa renewed the struggle against her half-sister and
suzerain Urraca in 1116-1117, and again in 1120; in 1121 she
was besieged in Lanhoso and captured. But a
H12-1128 P 6306 was negotiated by the archbishops Diogo
Gelmires of Santiago de Compostela and Burdino of
Braga, rival churchmen whose wealth and military resources
enabled them to dictate terms. Bitter jealousy existed between
the two prelates, each claiming to be primate of " all the Spains,"
and their antagonism had some historical importance in so far
as it fostered the growth of separatist tendencies among the
Portuguese. But the quarrel was temporarily suspended
because both Gelmires and Burdino had reason to dread the
extension of Urraca's authority. It was arranged that Theresa
should be liberated and should continue to hold the county of
Portugal as a fief (honor) of Leon. During the next five years
she lavished wealth and titles upon her lover Fernando Peres,
count of Trava, thus estranging her son, the archbishop of Braga
and the nobles, most of whom were foreign crusaders. In 1128,
after her power had been crushed in another unsuccessful conflict
with Leon and Castile, she was deposed by her own rebellious
subjects and exiled in company with Peres. She died in 1130.
Alphonso, who became count of Portugal in 1 1 28, was one of
the warrior heroes of medieval romance; his exploits were sung
by troubadours throughout south-western Europe, and even in
Africa " ibn Errik " the son of Henry was known and
feared. The annals of his reign have been encum-
//2*-//&5. "tered with a mass of legends, among which must be
included the account of a cortes held at Lamego in
1143; probably also the description of the Valdevez tournament,
in which the Portuguese knights are said to have vanquished the
champions of Leon and Castile. Alphonso was occupied in
almost incessant border fighting against his Christian or Moorish
neighbours. Twelve years of campaigning on the Galician
frontier were concluded in 1 143 by the peace of Zamora, in which
Alphonso was recognized as independent of any Spanish sover-
eign, although he promised to be a faithful vassal of the pope
and to pay him a yearly tribute of four ounces of gold. In 1167,
however, the war was renewed. Alphonso succeeded in con-
quering part of Galicia, but in attempting to capture the frontier
fortress of Badajoz he was wounded and forced to surrender to
Ferdinand II. of Leon (1169). Ferdinand was his son-in-law,
and was probably disposed to leniency by the imminence of a
Moorish invasion in which Portugal could render useful assistance.
Alphonso was therefore released under promise to abandon all
his conquests in Galicia.
He had already won many victories over the Moors. At
the beginning of his reign the religious fervour which had
sustained the Almoravide dynasty was rapidly subsiding; in
Portugal independent Moorish chiefs ruled over cities and petty
states, ignoring the central government; in Africa the Almohades
were destroying the remnants of the Almoravide power.
Alphonso took advantage of these dissensions to invade Alemtejo,
reinforced by the Templars and Hospitallers, whose respective
headquarters were at Soure and Thomar. On the 25th of July
1139 he defeated the combined forces of the Moors on the plains
of Ourique, in Alemtejo. Legend has magnified the victory
into the rout of 200,000 Moslems under five kings; but so far was
the battle from being decisive that in 1140 the Moors were able
to seize the fortress of Leiria, built by Alphonso in 1135 as an
outpost for the defence of Coimbra, his capital. In 1144 they
defeated the Templars at Soure. But on the isth of March
1147 Alphonso stormed the fortress of Santarem, and about the
same time a band of crusaders on their way to Palestine landed
at Oporto and volunteered for the impending siege of Lisbon.
Among them were many Englishmen, Germans and Flemings,
who were afterwards induced to settle in Portugal. Aided by
these powerful allies, Alphonso captured Lisbon on the 24th of
October 1147. This was the greatest military achievement of
his reign. The Moorish garrisons of Palmella, Cintra and Almada
soon capitulated, and in 1158 Alcacer do Sal, one of the chief
centres of Moorish commerce, was taken by storm. At this
time, however, the Almohades had triumphed in Africa and
invaded the Peninsula, where they were able to check the
Portuguese reconquest, although isolated bands of crusading
adventurers succeeded in establishing themselves in various
cities of Alemtejo. The most famous of these free-lances was
Giraldo Sempavor (" Gerald the Fearless "), whe captured
Evora in 1166. In 1171 Alphonso concluded a seven years'
truce with the Moors; weakened by his wound and by old age, he
could no longer take the field, and when the war broke out afresh
he delegated the chief command to his son Sancho. Between
1179 and 1184 the Moors retrieved many of their losses in Alem-
tejo, but were unable to retake Santarem and Lisbon. Alphonso
died OB the 6th of December 1185. He had secured for Portugal
the status though not the name of an independent kingdom, and
had extended its frontier southwards from the Mondego to the
Tagus. He had laid the foundation of its navy and had strength-
ened, if he did not inaugurate, that system of co-operation
between the Crown and the military orders which afterwards
proved of incalculable service in the maritime and colonial
development of the nation.
Sancho I. continued the war against the Moors with varying
fortune. In 1189 he won Silves, then the capital of Algarve;
in 1192 he lost not only Algarve but the greater part
of Alemtejo, including Alcacer do Sal. A peace was
then arranged, and for the next eight years Sancho
was engaged in hostilities against Alphonso IX. of Leon. The
motives and course of this indecisive struggle are equally
obscure. It ended in 1201, and the last decade of Sancho's
reign was a period of peaceful reform which earned for the king
his popular name of o Powador, the " maker of towns." He
granted fresh charters to many cities, legalizing the system of
self-government which the Romans had bequeathed to the
Visigoths and the Moors had retained or improved. Lisbon had
already (1179) received a charter from Alphonso I. Sancho also
endeavoured to foster immigration and agriculture, by granting
estates to the military orders and municipalities on condition
that the occupiers should cultivate or colonize their lands.
Towards the close of his reign he became embroiled in a dispute
with Pope Innocent III. He had insisted that priests should
accompany their flocks in battle, had made them amenable to
secular jurisdiction, had withheld the tribute due to Rome and
had even claimed the right of disposing of ecclesiastical domains.
Finally he had quarrelled with Martinho Rodrigues, the unpopu-
lar bishop of Oporto, who was besieged for five months in his
palace and then forced to seek redress in Rome (1209). As
Sancho was hi weak health and had no means of resisting Papal
pressure, he made full submission (1210); and after bestowing
large estates on his sons and daughters, he retired into the monas-
tery of Alcobaca (<?..), where he died in 1211.
The reign of Alphonso II. (" the Fat ") is noteworthy for
the first meeting of the Portuguese cortes, to which the upper
hierarchy of the Church and the nobles (fidalgos and Alphonso
ricos homens) were summoned by royal writ. The //., I2it-
king was no warrior, but in 1212 a Portuguese con- a23 '
tingent aided the Castilians to defeat the Moors at Las Navas
de Tolosa, and in 1217 the ministers, bishops and captains of
the realm, reinforced by foreign crusaders, retook Alcacer do Sal.
Alfonso II. repudiated the will of his father, refused to surren-
der the estates left to his brothers, who went into exile, and only
gave up the property bequeathed to his sisters after a prolonged
civil war in which Alphonso IX. of Leon took part against them.
Even then he compelled the heiresses to take the veil. His
attempts to strengthen the monarchy and fill the treasury at
the expense of the Church resulted in his excommunication by
HISTORY]
PORTUGAL
141
Pope Honorius III., and Portugal remained under interdict until
Alphonso II. died in 1223.
Sancho II. succeeded at the age of thirteen. To secure the
removal of the interdict the leading statesmen who were identified
with the policy of his father Goncalo Mendes the
s" chancellor, Pedro Annes the lord chamberlain
(mordomo-m6r) and Vicente, dean of Lisbon
resigned their offices. Estevao Scares, archbishop of Braga,
placed himself at the head of the nobles and churchmen who
threatened to usurp the royal power during Sancho II. 's minority,
and negotiated an alliance with Alphonso IX., by which it was
arranged that the Portuguese should attack Elvas, the Spaniards
Badajoz. Elvas was taken from the Moors in 1226, and in 1227
Sancho assumed control of the kingdom. He reinstated Pedro
Annes, made Vicente chancellor, and appointed Martim Annes
chief standard-bearer (alferes m6r). He continued the crusade
against the Moors, who were driven from their last strongholds
in Alemtejo, and in 1230-1244, after a dispute with Rome
which was once more ended by the imposition of an interdict
and the submission of the Portuguese ruler, he won many
successes in the Algarve. But his career of conquest was cut
short by a revolution (1245), for which his marriage to a Castilian
lady, D. Mecia Lopez de Haro, furnished a pretext. The legiti-
macy of the union has been questioned, on grounds which appear
insufficient; but of its unpopularity there can be no doubt.
The bishops, resenting the favour shown by Sancho to his father's
anti-clerical ministers, took advantage of this unpopularity to
organize the rebellion. They found a leader in Sancho's brother
Alphonso, count of Boulogne, who owed his title to a marriage
with Matilda, countess of Boulogne. The pope issued a bull of
deposition in favour of Alphonso, who reached Lisbon in 1246;
and after a civil war lasting two years Sancho II. retired to
Toledo, where he died in January 1248.
One of the first acts of the usurper, and one of the most
important, was to abandon the semi-ecclesiastical titles of visitor
Alphonso (visitador) or defender (curador) of the realm, and to
III., 1248- proclaim himself king (rei). Hitherto the position
of the monarchy had been precarious; as in Aragon
the nobles and the church had exercised a large measure of con-
trol over their nominal head, and though it would be pedantry
to over-emphasize the importance of the royal title, its assump-
tion by Alphonso III. does mark a definite stage in the evolution
of a national monarchy and a centralized government. A
second stage was reached shortly afterwards by the conquest
of Algarve, the last remaining stronghold of the Moors. This
drew down upon Portugal the anger of Alphonso X. of Leon
and Castile, surnamed the Wise, who claimed suzerainty over
Algarve. The war which followed was ended by Alphonso III.
consenting to wed Donna Beatriz de Guzman, illegitimate
daughter of Alphonso X., and to hold Algarve as a fief of Castile.
The celebration of this marriage, while Matilda, countess of
Boulogne and first wife of Alphonso III., was still alive, entailed
the imposition of an interdict upon the kingdom. In 1254
Alphonso III. summoned a cortes at Leiria, in which the chief
cities were represented, as well as the nobles and clergy. Forti-
fied by their support the king refused to submit to Rome. At
the cortes of Coimbra (1261), he further strengthened his position
by conciliating the representatives of the cities, who denounced
the issue of a debased coinage, and by recognizing that taxation
could not be imposed without consent of the cortes. The clergy
suffered more than the laity under a prolonged interdict, and in
1262 Pope Urban VI. legalized the disputed marriage and
legitimized Dom Diniz, the king's eldest son. Thus ended the con-
test for supremacy between Church and Crown. The monarchy
owed its triumph to its championship of national interests, to
the support of the municipalities and military orders, and to the
prestige gained by the royal armies in the Moorish and Castilian
wars. In 1263 Alphonso X. renounced his claim to suzerainty
over Algarve, and thus the kingdom of Portugal simultaneously
reached its present European limits and attained its complete
independence. Lisbon was henceforth recognized as the capital.
Alphonso III. continued to reign until his death in 1279, but the
peace of his later years was broken by the rebellion (1277-1279)
of D. Diniz, 1 the heir-apparent.
2. The Consolidation of the Monarchy: 1279-1415. The
chief problems now confronting the monarchy were no longer
military, but social, economic and constitutional. It is true
that the reign of Diniz was not a period of uninterrupted peace.
At the outset his legitimacy was disputed by his brother
Alphonso, and a brief civil war ensued. Hostilities between
Portugal and the reunited kingdoms of Leon and Castile were
terminated in 1297 by a treaty of alliance, in accordance with
which Ferdinand IV. of Leon and Castile married Constance,
daughter of Diniz, while Alphonso, son of Diniz, married Beatrice
of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand. A further outbreak of civil
war, between the king and the heir-apparent, was averted in
1 293 by the queen-consort Isabella of Portugal, who had married
Diniz in 1281, and was canonized for her many virtues in the
i6th century. She rode between the hostile camps, and
succeeded in arranging an honourable peace between her
husband and her son.
These wars were too brief to interfere seriously with the
social reconstruction to which the king devoted himself. At
his accession the Portuguese people was far from
homogeneous; it would be long before its component
races Moors and Mozarabs of the south, Galicians
of the north, Jews and foreign crusaders could be fused into
one nationality. There were also urgent economic problems
to be solved. The Moors had made Alemtejo the granary of
Portugal, but war had undone their work, and large tracts of
land were now barren and depopulated. Commerce and educa-
tion had similarly been subordinated to the struggle for national
existence. The machinery of administration was out of date
and complicated by the authority of feudal and ecclesiastical
courts. The supremacy of the Crown, though recognized, was
still unstable. It was Diniz who initiated the needful reforms.
He earned his title of thereilavrador or "farmer king " by intro-
ducing improved methods of cultivation and founding agricul-
tural schools. He encouraged maritime trade by negotiating
a commercial treaty with England (1294) and forming a royal
navy (1317) under the command of a Genoese admiral named
Emmanuele di Pezagna (Manoel Pessanha). In 1290 he founded
the university of Coimbra (q.v.). He was a poet and a patron
of literature and music (see Literature, below). His chief
administrative reforms were designed to secure centralized
government and to limit the jurisdiction of feudal courts. He
encouraged and nationalized the military orders. In 1290 the
Portuguese knights of Sao Thiago (Santiago) were definitely
separated from the parent Spanish order. The orders of Crato
and of St Benedict of Aviz had already been established, the
traditional dates of their incorporation being 1113 and 1162.
After the condemnation of the Templars by Pope Clement V.
(1312) an ecclesiastical commission investigated the charges
against the Portuguese branch of the order, and found in its
favour. As the Templars were rich, influential and loyal,
Diniz took advantage of the death of Clement V. to maintain
the order under a new name; the Order of Christ, as it was
henceforth called, received the benediction of the pope in 1319
and subsequently played an important part in the colonial
expansion of Portugal.
Alphonso IV. adhered to the matrimonial policy initiated
by Diniz. He arranged that his daughter Maria should wed
Alphonso XI. of Castile (1328), but the marriage x/pftonso
precipitated the war it was intended to avert, and iv., 132S-
peace was only restored (1330) after Queen Isabella I3S7 -
had again intervened. Pedro, the crown prince, afterwards
married Constance, daughter of the duke of Penafiel (near
Valladolid), and Alphonso IV. brought a strong Portuguese
army to aid the Castilians against the Moors of Granada and their
African allies. In the victory won by the Christians on the banks
of the river Salado, near Tarifa, he earned his title of Alphonso
the Brave (1340). In 1347^ he married his daughter Leonora
"Throughout this article the abbreviation D. is used for the
Portuguese title Dom and for its feminine form Dona (see DOMINUS).
PORTUGAL
(HISTORY
(Lenor) to Pedro IV. of Aragon. The later years of his reign
were darkened by the tragedy of Inez de Castro (q.v.). He died
in 1357, and the first act of his successor, Pedro the Severe,
p. j was to take vengeance on the murderers of Inez.
13S7-1367. Throughout his reign he strengthened the central
government at the expense of the aristocracy and
the Church, by a stern enforcement of law and order. In 1361,
at the cortes of Elvas, it was enacted that the privileges of the
clergy should only be deemed valid in so far as they did not
conflict with the royal prerogative. Pedro maintained friendly
relations with England, where in 1352 Edward III. issued a
proclamation in favour of Portuguese traders, and in 1353 the
Portuguese envoy Affonso Martins Alho signed a covenant with
the merchants of London, guaranteeing mutual good faith in all
commercial dealings.
The foreign policy of Diniz, Alphonso IV. and Pedro I. had
been, as a rule, successful in its main object, the preservation
of peace with the Christian kingdoms of Spain; in consequence,
the Portuguese had advanced in prosperity and culture. They
had supported the monarchy because it was a national institu-
tion, hostile to the tyranny of nobles and clergy. During the
reign of Ferdinand (1367-1383) and under the regency of Leonora
the ruling dynasty ceased to represent the national will; the
Portuguese people therefore made an end of the dynasty and
chose its own ruler. The complex events which brought about
this crisis may be briefly summarized.
Ferdinand, a weak but ambitious and unscrupulous king,
claimed the thrones of Castile and Leon, left vacant by the
Ferdinand death of Pedro I. of Castile (1369); he based his
ana Leonora, claim on the fact that his grandmother Beatrice
1367-1385. belonged to the legitimate line of Castile. When
the majority of the Castilian nobles refused to accept a
Portuguese sovereign, and welcomed Henry of Trastamara
(see SPAIN: History), as Henry II. of Castile, Ferdinand allied
himself with the Moors and Aragonese; but in 1371 Pope Gregory
XI. intervened, and it was decided that Ferdinand should
renounce his claim and marry Leonora, the daughter of his
successful rival. Ferdinand, however, preferred his Portuguese
mistress, Leonora Telles de Menezes, whom he eventually
married. To avenge this slight, Henry of Castile invaded
Portugal and besieged Lisbon. Ferdinand appealed to John
of Gaunt, who also claimed the throne of Castile, on behalf of
his wife Constance, daughter of Pedro I. of Castile. An alliance
between Portugal and England was concluded; and although
Ferdinand made peace with Castile in 1374, he renewed his
claim in 1380, after the death of Henry of Castile, and sent Joao
Fernandes Andeiro, count of Ourem, to secure English aid.
In 1381 Richard II. of England despatched a powerful force to
Lisbon, and betrothed his cousin Prince Edward to Beatrice, only
child of Ferdinand, who had been recognized as heiress to the
throne by the cortes of Leiria (1376). In 1383, however,
Ferdinand made peace with John I. of Castile at Salvaterra,
deserting his English allies, who retaliated by ravaging part of
his territory. By the treaty of Salvaterra it was agreed that
Beatrice should marry John I. Six months later Ferdinand
died, and in accordance with the terms of the treaty Leonora
became regent until .the eldest son of John I. and Beatrice should
be of age.
Leonora had long carried on an intrigue with the count of
Ourem, whose influence was resented by the leaders of the
The aristocracy, while her tyrannical rule also aroused
Rebellion ol bitter opposition. The malcontents chose D.John,
1383. grand-master of the knights of Aviz and illegitimate
son of Pedro the Severe, as their leader, organized a revolt
in Lisbon, and assassinated the count of Ourem within the
royal palace (Dec. 6, 1383). Leonora fled to Santarem and
summoned aid from Castile, while D. John was proclaimed
defender of Portugal. In 1384 a Castilian army invested Lisbon,
but encountered a heroic resistance, and after five months an
outbreak of plague compelled them- to raise the siege. John I.
of Castile, discovering or alleging that Leonora had plotted to
poison him, imprisoned her in a convent at Tordesillas, where
she died in 1386. Before this, Nuno Alvares Pereira, con-
stable of Portugal, had gained his popular title of " The Holy
Constable " by twice defeating the invaders, at Atoleiro and
Trancoso in the district of Guarda.
On the i6th of April 1385 the cortes assembled at Coimbra
declared the crown of Portugal elective, and at the instance of
Joao das Regras, the chancellor, D. John was
chosen king. No event in the early constitutional ?f /c f 0/
history of Portugal is more important than this
election, which definitely affirmed the national character of
the monarchy. The choice of the grand-master of Aviz ratified
the old alliance between the Crown and the military orders;
his election by the whole cortes not only ratified the alliance
between the Crown and the commons, but also included the
nobles and the Church. The nation was unanimous.
Ferdinand had been the last legitimate descendant of C/>unt
Henry of Burgundy. With John I. began the rule of a new
dynasty, the House of Aviz. The most urgent
matter which confronted the king or the group
of statesmen, led by Joao das Regras and the
" Holy Constable " who inspired his policy was the menace of
Castilian aggression. But on the I4th of August 1385 the Por-
tuguese army, aided by 500 English archers, utterly defeated
the Castilians at Aljubarrota. By this victory the Portuguese
showed themselves equal in military power to their strongest
rivals in the Peninsula. In October the " Holy Constable "
won another victory at Valverde; early in 1386 5000 English
soldiers, under John of Gaunt, reinforced the Portuguese; and
by the treaty of Windsor (May 9, 1386), the alliance between
Portugal and England was confirmed and extended. Against
such a combination the Castilians were powerless; a truce
was arranged in 1387 and renewed at intervals until 1411,
when peace was concluded. D. Diniz, eldest son of Inez de
Castro, claimed the throne and invaded Portugal in 1398,
but his supporters were easily crushed. The domestic and
foreign policy pursued by John I. until his death in 1433 may
be briefly described. At home he endeavoured to reform
administration, to encourage agriculture and commerce, and
to secure the loyalty of the nobles by grants of land and
privileges so extensive that, towards the end of his reign, many
nobles who exercised their full feudal rights had become
almost independent princes. Abroad, he aimed at peace with
Castile and close friendship with England. In 1387 he had
married Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt;
Richard II. sent troops to aid in the expulsion of D. Diniz;
Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI. of England successively
ratified the treaty of Windsor; Henry IV. made his ally a knight
of the Garter in 1400. The convent of Batalha (q.v.), founded
to commemorate the victory of Aljubarrota, is architecturally
a monument of the English influence prevalent at this time
throughout Portugal.
The cortes of Coimbra, the battle of Aljubarrota and the
treaty of Windsor mark the three final stages in the consoli-
dation of the monarchy. A period of expansion oversea began
in the same reign, with the capture of Ceuta in Morocco. The
three eldest sons of King John and Queen Philippa Edward,
Pedro and Henry, afterwards celebrated as Prince Henry the
Navigator desired to win knighthood by service against the
Moors, the historic enemies of their country and creed. In
1415 a Portuguese fleet, commanded by the king and the three
princes, set sail for Ceuta. English men-at-arms were sent
by Henry V. to take part in the expedition, which proved suc-
cessful. The town was captured and garrisoned, and thus the
first Portuguese outpost was established on the mainland of
Africa.
3. The Period of Discoveries: 1415-1490. Before describing
in outline the course of the discoveries which were soon to render
Portugal the foremost colonizing power in Europe it is necessary
to indicate the main causes which contributed to that result.
As the south-westernmost of the free peoples of Eiffope, the
Portuguese were the natural inheritors of that work of ex-
ploration which had been carried on during the middle ages.
HISTORY]
PORTUGAL
chiefly by the Arabs. They began where the Arabs left off
by penetrating far into the Atlantic. The long littoral of their
country, with its fine harbours and rivers flowing westward to
the ocean, had been the training-ground of a race of adven
turous seamen. It was impossible, moreover, to expand or
reach new markets except by sea: the interposition of Castile
and Aragon, so often hostile, completely prevented any
intercourse by land between Portugal and other European
countries. Consequently the Portuguese merchants sent their
goods by sea to England, Flanders, or the Hanse towns. The
whole history of the nation had also inspired a desire for fresh
conquests among its leaders. Portugal had won and now held
its independence by the sword. The long struggle to expel the
Moors, with the influence of foreign Crusaders and the military
orders, had given a religious sanction to the desire for martial
fame. Nowhere was the ancient crusading spirit so active a
political force. To make war upon Islam seemed to the Portu-
guese their natural destiny and their duty as Christians.
It was the genius of Prince Henry the Navigator (q.v.) that
co-ordinated and utilized all these tendencies towards ex-
PHace pansion. Prince Henry placed at, the disposal of
Henry the his captains the vast resources of the Order of
Navigator, Christ, the best information and the most accurate
instruments and maps whicji could be obtained. He
sought to effect a junction with the half-fabulous Christian
Empire of " Prester John " by way of the " Western Nile,"
i.e. the Senegal, and, in alliance with that potentate, to crush
the Turks and liberate Palestine. The conception of an ocean
route to India appears to have originated after his death. On
land he again defeated the Moors, who attempted to re-take
Ceuta in 1418; but in an expedition to Tangier, undertaken
in 1436 by King Edward (1433-1438), the Portuguese army was
defeated, and could only escape destruction by surrendering
as a hostage Prince Ferdinand, the king's youngest brother.
Ferdinand, known as " the Constant," from the fortitude with
which he endured captivity, died unransomed in 1443. By
sea Prince Henry's captains continued their exploration of
Africa and the Atlantic. In 1433 Cape Bojador was doubled; in
1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon; and
slave trading soon became one of the most profitable branches
of Portuguese commerce. The Senegal was reached in 1445,
Cape Verde was passed in the same year, and in 1446 Alvaro
Fernandes pushed on almost as far as Sierra Leone. This was
probably the farthest point reached before the Navigator died
(1460). Meanwhile colonization progressed in the Azores and
Madeira, where sugar and wine were produced; above all, the
gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial
energy of the Portuguese. It had become clear that, apart
from their religious and scientific aspects, these voyages of dis-
covery were highly profitable. Under Alphonso V., surnamed
the African (1443-1481), the Gulf of Guinea was explored as far
as Cape St Catherine, and three expeditions (1458, 1461, 1471)
were sent to Morocco; in 1471 Arzila (Asila) and Tangier were
captured from the Moors. Under John II. (1481-1495) the fort-
ress of Sao Jorge da Mina, the modern Elmina (q.v.), was founded
Exploration ^ or tne protection of the Guinea trade in 1481-1482;
under Diogo Cam (q.v.), or Cao, discovered the Congo in
Aiphoosov. I4 82 and reached Cape Cross in 1486; Bartholomeu
'"Diaz (q.v.) doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1488,
thus proving that the Indian Ocean was accessible by sea.
After 1492 the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus ren-
dered desirable a delimitation of the Spanish and Portuguese
spheres of exploration. This was accomplished by the treaty
of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494) which modified the delimitation
authorized by Pope Alexander VI. in two bulls issued on the
4th of May, 1493. The treaty gave to Portugal all lands which
might be discovered east of a straight line drawn from the
Arctic Pole to the Antarctic, at a distance of 370 leagues west
of Cape Verde. Spain received the lands discovered west of
this line. As, however, the known means of measuring lon-
gitude were so inexact that the line of demarcation could not
in practice be determined (see J. de Andrade Cprvo in Journal
das Sciencias Malhematicas, xxxi. 147-176, Lisbon, 1881), the
treaty was subject to very diverse interpretations. On its
provisions were based both the Portuguese claim to Brazil and
the Spanish claim to the Moluccas (see MALAY ARCHIPELAGO:
History). The treaty was chiefly valuable to the Portuguese
as a recognition of the prestige they had acquired. That prestige
was enormously enhanced when, in 1497-1499, Vasco da Gama
(q.v.) completed the voyage to India.
While the Crown was thus acquiring new possessions, its
authority in Portugal was temporarily overshadowed by the
growth of aristocratic privilege. At the cortes Tlle
of Evora (1433) King Edward had obtained the Monarchy
enactment of a law 1 declaring that the estates and the
granted by John I. to bis adherents could only be NoU '-
inherited by the direct male descendants of the grantees, and
failing such descendants, should revert to the Crown. After
the death of Edward further attempts to curb the power of the
nobles weie made by his brother, D. Pedro, duke of Coimbra,
who acted as regent during the minority of Alphonso V. (1438-
1447). The head of the aristocratic opposition was the duke of
Braganza, who contrived to secure the sympathy of the king
and the dismissal of the regent. The quarrel led to civil war,
and in May 1449 D. Pedro was defeated and killed. Thence-
forward the grants made by John I. were renewed, and ex-
tended on so lavish a scale that the Braganza estates alone
comprised about a third of the whole kingdom. An unwise
foreign policy simultaneously injured the royal prestige, for
Alphonso married his own niece, Joanna, daughter of Henry IV.
of Castile, and claimed that kingdom in her name. At the
battle of Toro, in 1476, he was defeated by Ferdinand and
Isabella, and in 1478 he was compelled to sign the treaty of
Alcantara, by which Joanna was relegated to a convent. His
successor, John II. (1481-1495) reverted to the policy of matri-
monial alliances with Castile and friendship with England.
Finding, as he said, that the liberality of former kings had left
the Crown " no estates except the high roads of Portugal,"
he determined to crush the feudal nobility and seize its
territories. A cortes held at Evora (1481) empowered
judges nominated by the Crown to administer justice
in all feudal domains. The nobles resisted this infringement
of their rights; but their leader, Ferdinand, duke of Braganza,
was beheaded for high treason in 1483; in 1484 the king stabbed
to death his own brother-in-law, Ferdinand, duke of Vizeu; and
80 other members of the aristocracy were afterwards executed.
Thus John " the Perfect," as he was called, assured the supre-
macy of the Crown. He was succeeded in 1495 by Emanuel
(Manoel) I., who was named " the Great " or " the Fortunate,"
because in his reign the sea route to India was discovered and
a Portuguese Empire founded.
4. The Portuguese Empire: 1499-1580. In 1500 King
Emanuel assumed the title " Lord of the conquest, navigation
and commerce of India, Ethiopia, Arabia and Persia," which
was confirmed by Pope Alexander VI. in 1502. It was now
upon schemes of conquest that the energy of the nation was to
be concentrated, although the motives which called forth that
energy were unchanged. " We come to seek Christians and
spices," said the first of Vasco da Gama's sailors who landed
in India: and the combination of missionary ardour with
commercial enterprise which had led to the exploration of the
Atlantic led also to the establishment of a Portuguese Empire.
This expansion of national interests proceeded rapidly in almost
every quarter of the known world. In the North Atlantic
Saspar and Miguel Corte-Real penetrated as far as Green-
land (their "Labrador ") in 1500-1501; but these voyages were
jolitically and commercially unimportant. Equally barren was
the intermittent fighting in Morocco, which was regarded as a
crusade against the Moors. In the South Atlantic, however,
:he African coast was further explored, new settlements were
bunded, and a remarkable development of Portuguese-African
civilization took place in the kingdom of Kongo (see ANGOLA).
1 Known as the lei mental, because it was supposed to fulfil the
ntention which John I. had in mind when the grants were made.
PORTUGAL
[HISTORY
Pedro Alvares Cabral, sailing to India, but steering far westward
to avoid the winds and currents of the Guinea coast, reached
Brazil (1500) and claimed it for his sovereign. Joao da Nova
discovered Ascension (1501) and St Helena (1502); Tristao
da Cunha was the first to sight the archipelago still known by
his name (1506). In East Africa the small Mahommedan
states along the coast Sofala, Mozambique, Kilwa, Brava,
Mombasa, Malindi either were destroyed or became subjects
or allies of Portugal. Pedro de Covilham had reached Abys-
sinia (q.v.) as early as 1490; in 1520 a Portuguese embassy
arrived at the court of " Prester John," and in 1541 a military
force was sent to aid him in repelling a Mahommedan invasion.
In the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, one of Cabral's ships
discovered Madagascar (1501), which was partly explored by
Tristao da Cunha (1507); Mauritius was discovered in 1507,
Socotra occupied in 1506, and in the same year D. Lourenco
d'Almeida visited Ceylon. In the Red Sea Massawa was the
most northerly point frequented by the Portuguese until 154.1,
when a fleet under Estevao da Gama penetrated as far as Suez.
Hormuz, in the Persian Gulf, was seized by Alphonso d'Albu-
querque (1515), who also entered into diplomatic relations
with Persia. On the Asiatic mainland the first trading-stations
were established by Cabral at Cochin and Calicut (1501); more
important, however, were the conquest of Goa (1510) and Ma-
lacca (1511) by Albuquerque, and the acquisition of Diu (1535)
by Martim Affonso de Sousa. East of Malacca, Albuquerque
sent Duarte Fernandes as envoy to Siam (1511), and despatched
to the Moluccas two expeditions (1512, 1514), which founded
the Portuguese dominion in the Malay Archipelago (q.v.).
Fernao Fires de Andrade visited Canton in 1517 and opened up
trade with China, where in 1557 the Portuguese were permitted
to occupy Macao. Japan, accidentally discovered by three
Portuguese traders in 1542, soon attracted large numbers of
merchants and missionaries (see JAPAN, viii.). In 1522 one of
the ships of Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) a Portuguese sailor,
though in the Spanish service completed the first voyage
round the world.
Up to 1505 the Portuguese voyages to the East were little
more than trading ventures or plundering raids, although a
Almeida few " factories " for the exchange of goods were
andAibu- founded in Malabar. In theory, the objects of
querque. King Emanuel's policy were the establishment of
friendly commercial relations with the Hindus (who were at
first mistaken for Christians " not yet confirmed in the faith,"
as the king wrote to Alexander VI.) and the prosecution of a cru-
sade against Islam. But Hindu and Mahommedan interests were
found to be so closely interwoven that this policy became imprac-
ticable, and it was superseded when D. Francisco d'Almeida
(q.v.) went to India as first Portuguese viceroy in 1505. Almeida
sought to subordinate all else to sea power and commerce,
to concentrate the whole naval and military force of the
kingdom on the maintenance of maritime ascendancy; to annex
no territory, to avoid risking troops ashore, and to leave the
defence of such factories as might be necessary to friendly native
powers, which would receive in return the support of the Portu-
guese fleet. Almeida's statesmanship was to a great extent
sound. The Portuguese could never penetrate far inland;
throughout the i6th century their settlements were confined
to the coasts of Asia, Africa or America, and the area they were
able effectively to occupy was far less than the area of their
empire in the 2oth century. A Chinese critic, quoted by Faria
y Sousa, said of them that they were like fishes, " remove them
from the water and they straightway die." It is thus absurd
to speak of a " Portuguese conquest of India "; in a land
campaign they would have been outnumbered and destroyed
by the armies of any one of the greater Indian states. But
their artillery and superior maritime science made them almost
invulnerable at sea, and their principal military achievements
consisted in the capture or defence of positions accessible from
the sea, e.g. the defence of Cochin by Duarte Pacheco Pereira
in 1504, the defence of Diu (q.v.) in 1538 and 1546.
Alphonso d' Albuquerque (<?.), who succeeded Almeida in
1509, found it necessary to modify the policy formulated by
his predecessor. Command of the sea could not be maintained
least of all in the monsoon months while the Portuguese
fleets were based on Lisbon, which could only be reached after a
six months' voyage; and experience had proved that almost
every Portuguese factory required a fortress -for its defence
when the fleets were absent. Portugal, like every great maritime
trading community from Carthage to Venice, discovered that
the ideal of " sea power and commerce " led directly to empire.
In 1510 Albuquerque seized Goa, primarily as a naval base,
and in so doing recognized the fact that his country was com-
mitted to a policy of territorial aggrandisement. Other sea-
ports and islands were conquered or colonized in rapid succession,
and by 1540 Portugal had acquired a line of scattered maritime
possessions extending along the coasts of Brazil, East and West
Africa, Malabar, Ceylon, Persia, Indo-China and the Malay
Archipelago. The most important settlements in the East were
Goa, Malacca and Hormuz.
To a superficial observer the prosperity of Portugal might
well seem to have culminated during this period of expansion.
Vast profits were derived from the import trade in the innumer-
able products of the tropics, of which Portugal was the sole
purveyor in Europe. This influx of wealth furnished the
economic basis for a sudden development of literary and artistic
activity, inspired by contrast with the new world of the tropics.
The 1 6th century was the golden age of Portuguese literature;
humanists, such as Damiao de Goes (q.v.), and scientists, such
as the astronomer Pedro Nunes (Nonius), played conspicuous
parts in the great intellectual movements of the time; a dis-
tinctive school of painters arose, chief among them being the
so-called " Grao Vasco " (Vasco Fernandes of Vizeu); in
architecture the name of King Emanuel was given to a new
and composite style (the Manoeline or Manoellian), in which
decorative forms from India and Africa were harmonized with
Gothic and Renaissance designs; palaces, fortresses, cathedrals,
monasteries, were built on a scale never before attempted in
Portugal; and even in the minor arts and handicrafts in gold-
smith's work, for example, or in pottery the influence of the
East made itself felt. Oriental splendour and Renaissance
culture combined to render social life in Lisbon hardly less
brilliant than in Rome or Venice.
In order to understand the apparently sudden collapse of
Portuguese power in 1578-1580 it is necessary to examine
certain facts and tendencies which from the first rendered a
catastrophe inevitable. Chief among these were the extent of
the empire and its organization, the financial and commercial
policy of its rulers, the hostility, often wantonly provoked,
of the chief Oriental states, the depopulation of Portugal and
the slave trade, the expulsion of the Jews, the growth of
ecclesiastical influence in secular affairs, and the decadence
of the monarchy.
It is necessary to exclude Brazil from any survey of the Portu-
guese imperial system, because the colonization of Brazil (q.v.)
was effected on distinctive lines. Otherwise the imperial
whole empire was governed on a more or less uniform Organlza-
system, although it included communities of the most a "-
diverse nature protectorates such as Hormuz and Ternate in the
Moluccas, colonies such as Goa and Madeira, captaincies under
military rule such as Malacca, tributary states such as Kilwa,
fortified factories as at Colombo and Cochin. West of the Cape
the settlements in Africa and the Atlantic were governed, as a
rule, by officials directly nominated by the king. East of the
Cape the royal power was delegated to a viceroy or governor
the distinction was purely titular whose legislative and execu-
tive authority was almost unlimited during his term of office.
The viceroyalty was created in 1505, and from 1511 the Indian
capital was Goa. Between 1505 and 1580 only four holders
of the office Almeida (1505-1509), Albuquerque (1509-1515),
D. Vasco da Gama (1524) and D. Joao de Castro (1545-1548)
were men of marked ability and high character. All officials,
including the viceroy and naval and military officers, were usually
appointed for no more than three years. Although few large
HISTORY]
PORTUGAL
Finance.
salaries were paid, the perquisites attached to official positions
were enormous; at the beginning of the i 7th century, for example,
the captain of Malacca received not quite 300 yearly as his
pay, but his annual profits from other sources were estimated at
20,000. Even judges were expected to live on their perquisites,
in the shape of bribes. The competition for appointments was
naturally very keen; Couto mentions the case of one grantee
who received the reversion of a post to which 30 applicants had
a prior claim. 1 Such reversions could be sold, bequeathed, or
included in the dowries of married women; the right of trading
with China might be part of the endowment of a school; a
monastery or a hospital might purchase the command of a
fortress. In 1538 the viceroy, D. Garcia de Noronha, publicly
sold by auction every vacant appointment in Portuguese India
an example followed in 1614 by the king. Hardly less disas-
trous than the system by which officials were chosen and paid
was the influence exercised by the Church. Simao Botelho, an
able revenue officer, was denied absolution in 1543 because he
had reorganized the Malacca customs-house without previously
consulting the Dominicans in that city. In 1560 a supposed
tooth of Buddha was brought to Goa; the raja of Pegu offered
100,000 for the relic, and as Portuguese India was virtually
bankrupt the government wished to accept the offer; but the
archbishop intervened and the relic was destroyed.
The empire in the East was rarely solvent. Almeida and
Albuquerque had hoped to meet the expense of administration
mainly out of the fees extorted for safe-conducts
at sea and trading-licences, with the tribute wrung
from native states and the revenue from Crown lands in India.
But the growth of expenditure chiefly of an unremunerative
kind, such as the cost of war and missions soon rendered these
resources inadequate; and after 1515 the empire became ever
more dependent on the spoils of hostile states and on subsidies
from the royal treasury in Lisbon. Systematic debasement of
the coinage was practised both in India, where the monetary
system was extremely complex, 2 and in Portugal; and owing
to the bullionist policy adopted by Portuguese financiers little
permanent benefit accrued to the mother country from its im-
mense trade. Seeking for commercial profit, not in the exchange
of commodities, but solely in the acquisition of actual gold and
silver, and realizing that the home market could not absorb a
tithe of the merchandise imported, the Lisbon capitalists sent
their ships to discharge in Antwerp (where a Portuguese staple
was established in 1503), or in some other port near the central
markets of Europe. The raw materials purchased by Flemish,
German or English traders were used in the establishment of
productive industries, while Portugal received a vast influx of
bullion, most of which was squandered on war, luxuries or
the Church.
In theory the most lucrative branches of commerce, such
as the pepper trade, were monopolies vested in the Crown;
Commercial the chartered companies and associations of merchant
adventurers, which afterwards became the pioneers
of British and Dutch colonial development, had no counterpart
in Portuguese history, except in the few cases in which trading
concessions were granted to military or monastic orders. But
the Crown frequently farmed out its monopolies to individual
merchants, or granted trading-licences by way of pension or
reward. These were often of great value; e.g. in 1612 the right
of sending a merchant ship to China was valued at 25,000.
Great loss was necessarily inflicted on native traders by the
monopolist system, which pressed most hardly on the Mahom-
medans, who had been the chief carriers in Indian waters. Two
great powers, Egypt and Turkey, challenged the naval and
commercial supremacy of the Portuguese, but an Egyptian
armada was destroyed by Almeida in 1509, and though Ottoman
fleets were on several occasions (as in 1517 and 1521) despatched
from Suez or Basra, they failed to achieve any success, and the
Portuguese were able to close the two principal trade routes
1 Decodes, XII. i. 10.
* See R. S. Whiteway, Rise of the Portuguese Power, &c. (London,
1898), pp. 67-72.
between India and Europe. One of these trade routes passed
up the Persian Gulf to Basra, and thence overland to Tripoli,
for Mediterranean ports, and to Trebizond, for Constantinople.
The other passed up the Red Sea to Suez, and thence to
Alexandria, for Venice, Genoa and Ragusa. But by occupying
Hormuz the Portuguese gained command of the Gulf route;
and though they thrice failed to capture Aden (1513, 1517,
1547), and so entirely to close the Red Sea, they almost destroyed
the traffic between India and Suez by occupying Socotra and
sending fleets to cruise in the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb. In
Malacca they possessed the connecting link between the trade-
routes of the Far and Middle East, and thus they controlled
the three sea-gates of the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea the
Straits of Hormuz, Bab el-Mandeb and Malacca and diverted
the maritime trade with Europe to the Cape route.
During the critical period in which their empire was being
established (c. 1505-1550) the Portuguese were fortunate in
escaping conflict with any Oriental power of the first ^^^gg
rank except Egypt and Turkey; for the Bahmani W HI,
sultanate of the Deccan had been already disinte- Oriental
grated before 1498, and the Mughals and Mahrattas state *-
were still far off. A coalition of the minor Mahommedan states
was prevented by the great Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, which
comprised the southern half of the Indian Peninsula. Vijaya-
nagar gave the militant Mahommedanism of Northern India no
opportunity for a combined attack on the Portuguese settle-
ments. After 1565, when the power of Vijayanagar was broken
at the battle of Talikot, a Mussulman coalition was at last
formed, and the Portuguese were confronted by a line of hostile
states stretching from Gujarat to Achin; but by this time they
were strong enough to hold their own. It is characteristic of
their native policy that they had not only refrained from aiding
Vijayanagar in 1565, but had even been willing to despoil their
Hindu allies. In 1543 Martim Affonso de Sousa, governor of
India, organized an expedition to sack the Hindu temples at
Conjeveram in Vijayanagar itself, and similar incidents are
common in Indo-Portuguese history. Albuquerque was almost
the only Portuguese statesman who strove to deal justly with
both Hindus and Mahommedans, to respect native customs, and
to establish friendly relations with the great powers of the East.
Apart from the rigorous restrictions imposed by his successors
upon trade, the sympathies of the natives were estranged by the
harshness and venality of Portuguese administration, by such
barbarities as the wholesale mutilation of non-combatants in
war-time, and by religious persecution. After the arrival of the
Franciscan missionaries, in 1517, Goa gradually became the
headquarters of an immense proselytizing organization, which
by 1561 had extended to East Africa, China, Japan and the
Malay Archipelago (see GOA: Ecclesiastical History). Wherever
the Portuguese were supreme they endeavoured to obtain con-
verts by force. The widespread resentment thus aroused was a
frequent cause of insurrection, and between 1515 and 1580 not a
single year passed without war between the Portuguese and at
least one African or Asiatic people.
Centuries of fighting against the Moors and Castilians had
already left Portugal thinly populated; large tracts of land
were uncultivated, especially in Alemtejo, and wolves Depopo-
were still common throughout the kingdom. It was teUon.
impossible, from the first, to garrison the empire with trained
men. As early as 1 505 one of Almeida's ships contained a crew
of rustics unable to distinguish between port and starboard;
soon afterwards it became necessary to recruit convicts and
slaves, and in 1538 a royal pardon was granted to all prisoners
who would serve in India, except criminals under sentence for
treason and canonical offences. Linschoten estimates that of all
those who went to the East not one in ten returned. The heaviest
losses were due to war, shipwreck and tropical diseases, but large
numbers of the underpaid or unpaid soldiers deserted to the
armies of native states. It is impossible to give more than
approximately accurate statistics of the resultant depopulation
of Portugal; but it seems probable that the inhabitants of the
kingdom decreased from about 1,800,000 or 2,000,000 in 1500 to
146
PORTUGAL
[HISTORY
about 1,080,000 in 1586. The process of decay was hastened
by frequent outbreaks of plague, sometimes followed by famine;
a contemporary manuscript estimates that no fewer than 500
persons died daily in Lisbon alone during July, August and
September 1569, and in some other years the joint effects of
plague and famine were little less disastrous.
While the country was being drained of its best citizens,
hordes of slaves were imported to fill the vacancies, especially
into the southern provinces. 1 Manual labour was
Trade *** thus discredited; the peasants sold their farms and
emigrated or flocked to the towns; and small hold-
ings were merged into vast estates, unscientifically cultivated
by slaves and comparable with the latifundio. which caused so
many agrarian evils during the last two centuries of the Roman
republic. The decadence of agriculture partly explains the
prevalence of famine at a time when Portuguese maritime
commerce was most prosperous. The Portuguese intermarried
freely with their slaves, and this infusion of alien blood profoundly
modified the character and physique of the nation. It may be
said without exaggeration that the Portuguese of the " age of
discoveries " and the Portuguese of the iyth and later centuries
were two different races. Albuquerque, foreseeing the dangers
that would arise from a shortage of population in his colonies,
had encouraged his soldiers to marry captive Brahman and
Mahommedan women, and to settle in India as farmers, shop-
keepers or artisans. Under his rule the experiment was fairly
successful, but the married colonists afterwards became a privi-
leged caste, subsisting upon the labour of their slaves, and often
disloyal to their rulers. Intermarriage led to the adoption, even
by the rich, and especially by women (see GOA), of Asiatic dress,
manners and modes of thought. Thus in the East, as in Europe,
slavery reacted upon every class of the Portuguese.
The banishment, or forcible conversion, of the Jews deprived
Portugal of its middle class and of its most scientific traders and
The Perse- financiers. Though the Jews had always been
cutioaof compelled to reside in separate quarters called
the Jews. Ju^, er las, or Jewries, they had been protected by
the earlier Portuguese kings. Before 1223 their courts had
received autonomy in civil and criminal jurisdiction; their chief
rabbi was appointed by the king and entitled to use the royal
arms on his seal. Alphonso V. even permitted his Jewish subjects
to live outside the Juderias, relieved them from the obligation
to wear a distinctive costume (enforced in 1325), and nominated
a Jew, Isaac Abrabanel (q.v.), as his minister of finance. In
culture the Portuguese Jews surpassed their rulers. Many of
them were well versed in Aristotelian and Arabic philosophy, in
astronomy, mathematics, and especially in medicine. Three
Hebrew printing-presses were established between 1487 and 1495;
both John II. and Emanuel I. employed Jewish physicians; it
was a Jew Abraham Zacuto ben Samuel who supplied Vasco
da Gama with nautical instruments; and Jews were employed
in the overland journeys by which the Portuguese court first
endeavoured to obtain information on Far Eastern affairs.
The Jews paid taxes on practically every business transaction,
besides a special poll-tax of 30 dinheiros in memory of the 30
pieces of .silver paid to Judas Iscariot ; and for this reason they
were protected by the Crown. For centuries they were also
tolerated by the commons; but the other orders ecclesiastics
and nobles resented their religious exclusiveness or envied their
wealth, and gradually fostered the growth of popular prejudice
against them. In 1449 the Lisbon Juderias were stormed and
sacked, and between 1450 and 1481 the cortes four times
petitioned the Crown to enforce the anti- Jewish provisions of
the canon law. John II. gave asylum to 90,000 Jewish refugees
from Castile, in return for a heavy poll-tax and on condition
that they should leave the country within eight months, in ships
furnished by himself. These ships were not provided in time,
and the Jews who were thus unable to depart were enslaved,
1 In the north, which had been relatively immune from wars
agriculture was more prosperous and the peasants more tenacious
of their land; hence the continuance of peasant proprietorship
and the rarity of African types between the Douro and the Minho.
while their children were deported to the island of St Thomas,
and there left to survive as best they might. In 1496 Emanuel I.
desired to wed Isabella, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, but
found that he was first required to purify his kingdom of the
Jews, who were accordingly commanded to leave Portugal before
the end of October 1497. But in order to avoid the economic
dangers threatened by such an exodus, every Jew and Jewess
between the ages of 4 and 24 was seized and forcibly baptized
(igth March): "Christians" were not required to emigrate.
In October 20,000 adults were treated in the same way. These
" New Christians " or " Maranos," as they were called, were
forbidden to leave the country between 1498 and 1507. In
April 1506 most of those who resided in Lisbon were massacred
during a riot, but throughout the rest of Emanuel's reign they
were immune from violence, and were again permitted to
emigrate an opportunity of which the majority took advantage.
Large numbers settled in Holland, where their commercial talent
afterwards greatly assisted the Dutch in their rivalry with the
Portuguese.
The Reformation never reached Portugal, but even here the
critical tendencies which elsewhere preceded Reform, were
already at work. Their origin is to be sought not The
so much in the Revival of Learning as in the fact that inquisition
the Portuguese had learned, on their voyages of ni " fte
discovery, to see and think for themselves. The Jes
true scientific spirit may be traced throughout the Roteiros of
D. Joao de Castro (q.v.) and the Colloquies of Garcia de Orta
men who deserted books for experiment and manifested a new
interest in the physical world. But orthodox churchmen feared
that even in Portugal this appeal from authority to experience
would lead to an attack upon religious doctrines previously
regarded as beyond criticism. To check this dangerous move-
ment of ideas, they demanded the introduction of the Inquisition
into Portugal. The agents of the " New Christians " in Rome
long contrived, by lavish bribery and with the support of many
enlightened Portuguese, to delay the preliminary negotiations;
but in 1536 the Holy Office was established in Lisbon, where the
first auto-da-fS was held in 1540, and in 1560 its operations were
extended to India. It seems probable that the influence of the
tribunal upon Portuguese life and thought has been exaggerated.
Autos-da-}6 were rare events; their victims were not as a rule
serious thinkers, but persons accused of sorcery or Judaizing,
nor were they more numerous than the victims of the English
laws relating to witchcraft and heresy. But the worst vices
of the Inquisition were the widespread system of delation it
encouraged by paying informers out of the property of the con-
demned, and its action as a trading and landholding association.
Quite as serious, in their effects upon national life, were the
severe censorship to which all printed matter was liable before
publication and the control of education by the Jesuits. Poetry
and imaginative literature usually escaped censure; but histories
were mutilated and all original scientific and philosophical work
was banned. Portuguese education centred in the national
university of Coimbra, which had long shown itself ready to
assimilate new ideas; between 1537 and 1547 John III. persuaded
many eminent foreign teachers among them the Scottish
humanist George Buchanan (q.v.) and the French mathematician
Elie Vinet to lecture in its schools. But the discipline of the
university needed reform, and the task was entrusted to the
Jesuits. By 1555 they had secured control over Coimbra a
control which lasted for two centuries and extended to the whole
educational system of the country. The effects of this change
upon the national character were serious and permanent.
Portugal sank back into the middle ages. The old initiative
and self-reliance of the nation, already shaken by years of disaster,
were now completely undermined, and the people submitted
without show of resistance to a theocracy disguised as absolute
monarchy.
Emanuel I. had been a fearless despot, such as Portugal
needed if its scattered dependencies were to remain subject to
the central government. During his reign (1495-1521) the
Church was never permitted to encroach upon the royal
HISTORY]
PORTUGAL
prerogative. He even sent ambassadors to Rome to protest against
ecclesiastical corruption, as well as to checkmate the Venetian
Decadence diplomatists who threatened Europe with Ottoman
of the vengeance if the Portuguese commercial monopoly
Monarchy. were not re ] axe( j - The Oriental magnificence of these
embassies, notably that of 1314, and the fact that a king of
Portugal dared openly to criticize the morals of the Vatican,
temporarily enhanced the prestige of the monarchy. But
Emanuel I. was the last great king of the Aviz dynasty. He had
pursued the traditional policy of intermarriage with the royal
families of Castile and Aragon, hoping to weld together the
Spanish and Portuguese dominions into a single world-wide
" Sebastianism " became a religion; its' votaries were numbyed
by thousands, and four impostors arose in succession, each
claiming to be the rei encuberto, or " hidden king," whose advent
was so ardently desired (see SEBASTIAN).
There was no surviving prince of the Aviz dynasty except the
aged, feeble and almost insane Cardinal Prince Henry, who, as a
younger son of Emanuel I., now became king. Henry died on
the 3ist of January 1580, and the throne was thus left vacant.
There were five principal claimants Philip II. of Spain; Phili-
bert, duke of Savoy; Antonio, prior of Crato; Catherine, duchess
of Braganza; and Ranuccio, duke of Parma whose relationship
to Emanuel I. is shown in the following table:
Emanuel.
1
John III., Isa
b. 1502, d. 1557, b. 1503,
m. Catherine of Austria. m. Cha
John, Philip
>el, Beatrix,
d. 1539, b. 1504, d. 1538, b
rles V. m. Charles III. of
Savoy.
//. of Pkililicrt Emmanuel,
Louis, Ferdinand,
1506, d. 1545, b. isoj, d. 1534,
duke of Beja. duke of Guarda.
Antonio,
Alphonso,
b. 1500, d. 1540,
cardinal and
archbishop of
Lisbon.
Henry,
b. 1512, d. 1580,
cardinal and
king.
Edward,
b. 1515. d. 1545,
duke of Guimarles,
m. Isabel of Braganza.
Catherine,
Maria,
b. IJ37, d. 1554.
m. Joanna of Spain.
Sebastian,
b. 1554, d. 1578.
Spain.
duke of Savoy. prior of Crato.
(illegitimate).
empire ruled by the house of Aviz. His ambition narrowly
missed fulfilment, for Prince Miguel, his eldest son, was recognized
(1498) as heir to the Spanish thrones. But Miguel died in infancy,
and his inheritance passed to the Habsburgs. Frequent inter-
marriage, often so far within the prohibited degress as to require
a papal dispensation, rfay possibly explain the weakened vitality
of the Portuguese royal family, which was now subject to epilepsy,
insanity and premature decay. The decadence of the monarchy
as a national institution was reflected in the decadence of the
cortes, which was rarely summoned between 1521 and 1580.
John III. (1521-1557) was a ruler of fair ability, who became in
his later years wholly subservient to his ecclesiastical advisers.
He was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian (1557-1578), aged
three years. Until the king came of age (1568), his grandmother,
Queen Catherine, a fanatical daughter of Isabella the Catholic, and
his great-uncle, Prince Henry, cardinal and inquisitor-general,
governed as joint regents. Both were dominated by their Jesuit
confessors, and a Jesuit, D. Luiz Goncalves da Camara, became
the tutor and, after 1568, the principal adviser of Sebastian.
The king was a strong-willed and weak-minded ascetic, who
entrusted his empire to the Jesuits, refused to marry, although
The the dynasty was threatened with extinction, and
Disaster of spent years in preparing for a crusade against the
AlKasr. Moors. The wisest act of John III. had been his
withdrawal of all the Portuguese garrisons in Morocco except
those at Ceuta, Arzila and Tangier. Sebastian reversed tfcis
policy. His first expedition to Africa (1574) was a mere recon-
naissance, but four years later a favourable opportunity for
invasion arrived. A dethroned sultan of Morocco, named
Mulai Ahmad (Mahommed XI.), offered to acknowledge Portu-
guese suzerainty if he were restored to the throne by Portuguese
arms, and Sebastian eagerly accepted these terms. The flower
of his army was in Asia and his treasury was empty; but he
contrived to extort funds from the " New Christians," and col-
lected a force of some 18,000 men, chiefly untrained lads, worn-
out veterans, and foreign free-lances. At Arzila, where he landed,
he was joined by Mulai Ahmad, who could only muster 800
soldiers. Thence Sebastian sought to proceed overland to the
seaport of El Araish, despite the advice of his ally and of others
who knew the country. After a long desert march under an
August sun, he took up an indefensible position in a valley near
Al Kasr al Kebir (q.v.). On the morrow (Aug. 4, 1578) they
were surrounded by the superior forces of Abd el Malek, the
reigning sultan, and after a brave resistance Sebastian was killed
and his army almost annihilated. So overwhelming was the
disaster that the Portuguese people refused to believe the truth.
It was rumoured that Sebastian still lived, and would sooner or
later return and restore the past greatness of his country.
m. duke of Braganza. m. duke of Parma,
Ranuccio,
duke of Parma.
Tentative and hardly serious claims were also put forward by
Pope Gregory XIII., as ex officio heir-general to a cardinal, and by
Catherine de' MeMici, as a descendant of Alphonso III. and
Matilda of Boulogne.
5. The " Sixty Years' Captivity ": 1581-1640. The university
of Coimbra declared in favour of Catherine, duchess of Braganza,
but the prior of Crato was the only rival who offered any serious
resistance to Philip II. D. Antonio proclaimed himself king and
occupied Lisbon. The advocates of union with Spain, however,
were numerous, influential, and ably led by their spokesmen in the
cortes, Christovao de Moura and Antonio Pinheiro, bishop of
Leiria. The duke of Braganza was won over to their side, chiefly
by the promise that he should be king of Brazil if Philip II.
became king of Portugal a promise never fulfilled. Above all,
the Church, including the Society of Jesus, naturally favoured
the Habsburg claimant, who represented its two foremost
champions, Spain and Austria. In 1581 a Spanish army, led
by the duke of Alva, entered Portugal and easily defeated the
levies of D. Antonio at Alcantara. The prior escaped to Paris
and appealed to France and England for assistance. In 1582 a
French fleet attempted to seize the Azores in his interest, but
was defeated. In 1 589 an English fleet was sent to aid the prior
in a projected invasion of Portugal, but owing to a quarrel
between its commanders, Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris,
the expedition was abandoned. D. Antonio returned to Paris,
where he died in 1594,
Meanwhile the victory of Alcantara left Philip II. supreme
in Portugal, where he was soon afterwards crowned king. His
constitutional position was defined at the Cortes of Thomar
(1581). Portugal was not to be regarded as a conquered or
annexed province, but as a separate kingdom, joined to Spain
solely by a personal union similar to the union between Castile
and Aragon under Ferdinand and Isabella. At Thomar Philip
II. promised to maintain the rights and liberties conceded by his
predecessors on the Portuguese throne, to summon the Cortes at
frequent intervals, and to create a Portuguese privy council
which should accompany the king everywhere and be consulted
on all matters affecting Portuguese interests. Brazil and the
settlements in Africa and Asia were still to belong to Portugal,
not to Spain, and neither in Portugal nor in its colonies was any
alien to be given lands, public office, or jurisdiction. On these
terms the political union of the Iberian Peninsula was accom-
plished. It was the final stage in a process of accretion dating
back to the beginnings of the Christian reconquest in the 8th
century. Asturias had been united with Leon, Leon with Castile,
Castile with Aragon. All these precedents seemed to indicate
that Spain and Portugal would ultimately form. one state; and
despite the strong nationalism which their separate language and
148
PORTUGAL
[HISTORY
history had inspired among the Portuguese, the union of 1581
might have endured if the terms of the Thomar compact had
been observed. But few of the promises made in 1581 were
kept by the three Spanish kings who ruled over Portugal
Philip II. (1581-1598), Philip III. (i598-!62i) and Philip IV.
(I62I-I640). 1 The cortes was only once summoned (1619),
and the government of Portugal was entrusted by Philip III.
chiefly to Francis duke of Lerma, by Philip IV. chiefly to OUvares
(q.v.). The kingdom and its dependencies were also involved in
the naval disasters which overtook Spain. Faro in Algarve was
sacked in 1595 by the English, who ravaged the Azores in 1596;
and. in many parts of the world English, French and Dutch
combined to harass Portuguese trade and seize Portuguese
possessions. (See especially BRAZIL; INDIA; MALAY ARCHI-
PELAGO.) Union with Spain had exposed Portugal to the
hostility of the strongest naval powers of western Europe,
and had deprived it of the power to conclude an independent
peace.
Insurrections in Lisbon (1634) and Evora (1637) bore witness
to the general discontent, but until 1640 the Spanish ascendancy
The was never seriously endangered. In 1640 war with
Rebellion France and a revolution in Catalonia had taxed the
at 1640. military resources of Spain to the utmost. The
royal authority in Portugal was delegated to Margaret of Savoy,
duchess of Mantua, whose train of Spanish and Italian courtiers
aroused the jealousy of the Portuguese nobles, while the harsh
rule of her secretary of state, Miguel de Vasconcellos de Brito,
provoked the resentment of all classes. Even the Jesuits, whose
influence in Portugal had steadily increased since 1555, were
now prepared to act in the interests of Cardinal Richelieu, and
therefore against Philip IV. A leader was found in John, 8th duke
of Braganza, who as a grandson of the duchess Catherine was
descended from Emanuel I. The duke, however, was naturally
indolent, and it was with difficulty that his ambitious and energetic
Castilian wife, D. Luiza de Guzman, obtained his assent to the
proposed revolution. He refused to take any active part in it;
but D. Luiza and her confidential adviser, Joao Pinto Ribeiro,
recruited a powerful band of conspirators among the disaffected
nobles. Then- plans were carefully elaborated, and on the ist of
December 1640 various strategic points were seized, the few
partisans of Spain who attempted resistance were overpowered,
and a provisional government was formed under D. Rodrigo da
Cunha, archbishop of Lisbon, who was appointed lieutenant-
general of Portugal.
6. The Restoration: 1640-1755. On the I3th of December
1640 the duke of Braganza was crowned as John IV., and on the
I9th of January 1641 the cortes formally accepted him as king.
The whole country had already declared in his favour and expelled
the Spanish garrisons, an example followed by all the Portuguese
dependencies. Thus the " Sixty Years' Captivity " came to an
end and the throne passed to the house of Braganza. But the
Portuguese were well aware that they could hardly maintain
their independence without foreign assistance, and ambassadors
were at once sent to Great Britain, the Netherlands and France.
The struggle between the Crown and the parliament prevented
Charles I. from offering aid, but he immediately recognized
John IV. as king. Richelieu and the states-general of the Nether-
lands despatched fleets to the Tagus; but commercial rivalry
in Brazil and the East led soon afterwards to a colonial war
with the Dutch, and Portugal was left without any ally except
France.
The Portuguese armies were at first successful. D. Matheus
d'Albuquerque defeated the Spaniards under the baron of
war with Molingen at Monti jo (May 26, 1644), and through-
s-pa/n, out the reign of John IV. (1640-1656) they suffered
1649-1668, no serious reverse. But great anxiety was caused
by a plot to restore Spanish rule, in which the duke of Caminha
and the archbishop of Braga were implicated; and especially
by the action of Mazarin, who had assumed control of French
foreign policy in 1642. At the congress of Miinster (1643) he
refused to make the independence of Portugal a condition of
1 Philip I., II. and III. of Portugal.
peace between France and Spain; and in a letter dated the
4th of October 1647 he even offered the Portuguese Crown
to the duke of Longueville an offer which illustrates the
weakness of John IV. and the dependence of Portugal upon
France.
John IV. was succeeded by his second son, Alphonso VI.
(1656-1683), who was then aged thirteen. During the king's
minority the queen-mother, D. Luiza, acted as regent. She
prosecuted the war with vigour, and on the i4th of January 1659
a Portuguese army commanded by D. Antonio Luiz de Menezes,
count of Cantanhede, defeated the Spaniards under D. Luiz de
Haro at Elvas. In March 1659, however, the war between
France and Spain was ended by the treaty of the Pyrenees; and
D. Luiz de Haro, acting as the Spanish plenipotentiary, obtained
the inclusion in the treaty of a secret article by which France
undertook to give no further aid to Portugal. Neither Louis
XIV. nor Mazarin desired the aggrandisement of Spain at the
expense of their own ally; they therefore evaded the secret article
by sending Marshal Schomberg to reorganize the Portuguese
army (1660), and by helping forward a marriage between
Charles II. of England and Catherine of Braganza, the sister
of Alphonso VI. This project had been already mooted by
D. Luiza, who had foreseen the restoration of the Stuart
monarchy, and had in 1650 welcomed the exiled princes
Rupert and Maurice at the court of John IV. The dowry to
be paid by Portugal was fixed at 500,000 and the cession to
Great Britain of Bombay and Tangier. In May 1663 the
marriage was celebrated, and thus Great Britain took the
place of France as the active ally of Portugal.
Meanwhile, on the 2oth of June 1662, the regency had been
terminated by a palace revolution. Alphonso VI. declared
himself of age and seized the royal authority; D. scbomberg
Luiza retired to a convent. The king was feeble ana CasteUo
and vicious, but \ had wit enough to leave the Meibor.
conduct of affairs to stronger hands. D. Luiz de Sousa e
Vasconcellos, count of Castello Melhor, directed the policy of the
nation while Schomberg took charge of its defence. The army,
reinforced by British troops under the earl of Inchiquin and by
French and German volunteers or mercenaries, was led in the
field by Portuguese generals, who successfully carried out the
plans of Schomberg. On the 8th of June 1663 the count of
Villa Flor utterly defeated D. John of Austria, and retook Evora,
which had been captured by the invaders; on the 7th of July
1664 Pedro de Magalha.es defeated the duke of Osuna at Ciudad
Rodrigo; on the i7th of June 1665 the marquess of Marialva
destroyed a Spanish army led by the marquess of Carracena at
the battle of Monies Claros, and Christovao de Brito Pereira
followed up this victory with another at Villa Vicosa. The
Spaniards failed to gain any compensating advantage, and on
tne I3th of February 1668 peace was concluded at Lisbon, Spain
at last consenting to recognize the independence of the Portuguese
kingdom.
The signature of the treaty of Lisbon had been preceded by
another palace revolution. Castello Melhor, hoping to secure
further French support for his country, had arranged a marriage
between Alphonso VI. and Marie Francoise Elisabeth, daughter of
Charles Amadeus of Nemours, and grand-daughter of Henry IV.
of France. The marriage, celebrated in 1666, caused the down-
fall both of Castello Melhor and of the king. Queen Marie
detested Alphonso and fell in love with his brother D. Pedro;
and after four months of a hated union she left the palace and
applied to the chapter of Lisbon cathedral to annul her marriage
on the ground of non-consummation. D. Pedro imprisoned
the king and assumed the regency; on the ist of January 1668
his authority was recognized by the cortes; on the 24th of March
the annulment of the queen's marriage was pronounced and
confirmed by the pope; on the 2nd of April she married the
regent. Castello Melhor was permitted to escape to France, while
Alphonso VI. was banished to Terceira in the Azores. A
conspiracy to restore him to the throne was discovered in 1674,
and he was removed to Cintra, where he died in 1683.
Pedro II., who had acted as regent for fifteen years, now
HISTORY]
PORTUGAL
149
became king. His reign (1683-1706) is a period of supreme
importance in the economic and constitutional history of Por-
The Cortes tugal. The goldfields of Minas Geraes in Brazil,
and the discovered about 1693, brought a vast revenue in
Methuea royalties to the Crown, which was thus enabled to
** y ' govern without summoning the cortes to vote supply.
In 1697 the cortes met for the last time before the era of con-
stitutional government. Even more important was the change
effected when the Whig ministry of Great Britain sent John
Methuen to Lisbon to negotiate a commercial agreement. The
Methuen Treaty, signed on the 27th of December 1703, detached
Portugal from the French alliance, and made her for more than
150 years a commercial and political satellite of Great Britain.
Its most far-reaching provisions were those which admitted
Portuguese wines to the British market at a lower rate of duty
than was imposed upon French and German wines, in return
for a corresponding preference to English textiles. The demand
for " Port " and " Madeira " was thus artificially stimulated
to such an extent that almost the whole productive energy of
Portugal was concentrated upon the wine and cork trades.
Other industries, including agriculture, were neglected, and
even food-stuffs were imported from ' Great Britain. The
disastrous economic results of the treaty were temporarily
concealed by the influx of gold from Brazil, the check upon
emigration from the wine-growing northern provinces, and the
military advantages of alliance with Great Britain. Nor was
the virtual abolition of the cortes seriously felt at first, owing
to the excellent internal administration of Pedro II. and his
minister the duke of Cadaval.
Pedro II. had at first wished to remain neutral in the impend-
ing struggle between Philip V. and the archduke Charles, rival
Warotthe claimants for the throne of Spain. But Queen
Spanish Marie had died in 1683, and in 1687 Cadaval had
Succession. i n d uce d the king to marry Maria Sophia de Neuberg,
daughter of the elector-palatine. Louis XIV. of France, who
had hoped through the influence of Queen Marie to secure
Portuguese support for his own grandson Philip V., realized that
this second marriage might thwart his policy, and strove to
redress the balance by creating a strong party at the court of
Lisbon. He so far succeeded that in 1700 Pedro II. recognized
Philip V. as king of Spain and in 1701 protected a French fleet
in the Tagus against the British. It was this incident that caused
the despatch of the Methuen mission and the renewal of the
Anglo-Portuguese alliance in 1703. On the 7th of March 1704 a
British fleet under Sir George Rooke reached Lisbon, convoying
the archduke Charles and 10,000 British troops, who were
joined by a Portuguese army under D. Joao de Sousa, marquess
das Minas, and at once invaded Spain. (For the campaigns of
1704-13, see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.) In 1705
Pedro II. was compelled by failing health to appoint a regent,
and chose his sister, Catherine of Braganza, queen-do wager of
England. On the death of the king (Dec. 9, 1706) Cadaval
arranged a marriage between his successor John V. (1706-
1750) and the archduchess Marianna, sister of the archduke
Charles, thus binding Portugal more closely to the Anglo-
Austrian cause. The strain of the war was acutely felt in
Portugal, especially in 1711, when the French admiral Duguay-
Trouin sacked Rio de Janeiro and cut off the Brazilian treasure-
ships. At last, on the 6th of February 1715, nearly two years
after the treaty of Utrecht, peace between Spain and Portugal
was concluded at Madrid.
Never was the Portuguese Crown richer than in the years
1715-1755; rarely had the kingdom prospered less. The
The Moo- commercial and financial evils rife under the last
archyand kings of the Aviz dynasty were now repeated.
**-More gold had been discovered in Matto Grosso,
diamonds in Minas Geraes. As in the i6th century immense
quantities of bullion were imported by the treasury, and were
lavished upon war, luxury and the Church, while agriculture
and manufactures continued to decline, and the countryside was
depopulated by emigration to Brazil. John V. was a spendthrift
and a bigot. He gave and lent enormous sums to successive
popes, and at the bidding of Clement XI. he joined a " crusade "
against the Turks in which his ships helped to win a naval
action off Cape Matapan (1717). For these services he received
the title of Fidelissimus, "Most Faithful"; "Majesty" had
already been adopted by John IV. instead of the medieval
" Highness," and the new style was intended to place the king of
Portugal on an equality with his Most Christian Majesty of
France and his Most Catholic Majesty of Spain. John V. was
also empowered to create a multitude of new ecclesiastical
dignities, and the archbishop of Lisbon was granted the rank and
style of Patriarch ex officio. To the patriarchate was appended
a Sacred College of 24 prelates, who were privileged to officiate
in the scarlet robes of cardinals, while the patriarch wore the
vestments of a second pope. Though regiments were disbanded,
fleets put out of commission and fortresses dismantled to save
the cost of their upkeep, the Crown paid nearly 100,000 yearly
for the maintenance of this new hierarchy, and squandered
untold wealth on the erection of churches and monasteries. In
the church of Sao Roque in Lisbon, the decoration of a single
chapel measuring 17 ft. by 12 ft. cost 225,000; the expenditure
on the convent-palace of Mafra (q.v.) exceeded 4,000,000.
John V. was succeeded by his son Joseph (1750-1777). Five
years afterwards Portugal was overtaken by the tremendous
disaster of the Lisbon earthquake (see LISBON), which, as Oliveira
Martins justly observes, was " more than a cataclysm of nature;
it was a moral revolution." It brought the Restoration period
to an end (1755). Throughout that period the monarchy had
occupied a precarious position, dependent until 1668 for its
very existence, and after 1668 for its stability, on foreign support.
Its policy had been moulded to suit France or Great Britain,
while its internal administration had normally been directed
by the Church. The cortes had grown obsolete; the feudal
aristocracy were become courtiers. Once more, as in 1580,
Portugal was governed by ecclesiastics in the name of an absolute
monarch; once more, as in 1580, the chief strength of the ecclesi-
astical party was the Society of Jesus, which still controlled the
conscience and mind of the nation and of its nominal rulers,
through the confessional and the schools.
7. The Reform of the Monarchy: 1755-1826. The unity of
Portuguese history is hard to perceive in the years which
witnessed the rise and fall of the Pombaline regime, the reign of
the mad queen Maria, the Peninsular War and the subsequent
chaos of revolutionary intrigue. At first sight it seems absurd
to characterize this period of despotism ending in war, ruin and
anarchy as a period of reform. Nevertheless, it is possible
to trace through the apparent chaos an uninterrupted move-
ment from absolutism to representative institutions. Pombal
liberated the monarchy from clerical domination, and thus
unwittingly opened the door to those " French principles,"
or democratic ideas, which spread rapidly after his downfall in
1777. The destruction of an obsolete political system, begun
by Pombal, was completed by the Peninsular War; while French
invaders and British governors together quickened among the
Portuguese a new consciousness of their nationality, and a new
desire for political rights, which rendered inevitable the change
to constitutional monarchy.
Two days after the accession of King Joseph, Sebastiao Jos6 de
Carvalho e Mello, better known as the marquess of Pombal
was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs
and war. In a few months he gained an ascendancy
over the king's mind which lasted until the end of the
reign, and was strengthened by the courage and wisdom shown
by Pombal at the time of the great earthquake. His policy
was to strengthen the monarchy and to use it for the furtherance
of a comprehensive scheme of reform. Beginning with finance
and commerce, he reversed the bullionist policy of his predeces-
sors and reorganized the entire system of taxation. He sought
to undo the worst consequences of the Methuen treaty by the
creation of national industries, establishing a gunpowder factory
and a sugar refinery in 1751, a silk industry in 1752, wool, paper
and glass factories after 1759. Colonial development was
fostered, and the commercial dependence of Portugal upon
I 5
PORTUGAL
[HISTORY
Great Britain was reduced, by the formation of chartered
companies, the first of which (1753) was given control of the
Algarve sardine and tunny fisheries. The Oldembourg Company
(1754) received a monopoly of trade with the Portuguese colonies
in the East; extensive monopolist rights were also conceded to
the Para and Maranhao Company (1755) and the Pernambuco
and Parahyba Company (1759). In Lisbon a chamber of com-
merce (Junta do commercio) was organized in 1756 to replace an
older association of merchants, the Meza dos homens de negocio,
which had attacked the Para Company; and in the same year the
Alto Douro Company was formed to control the port-wine trade
and to break the monopoly enjoyed by a syndicate of British
wine merchants. This company met with strong opposition,
culminating in a rising at Oporto (February 1757), which was
savagely suppressed.
Both his commercial policy and his desire to strengthen the
Crown brought Pombal into conflict with the Church and the
aristocracy. In 1751 he had made all sentences passed by the
Inquisition subject to revision by the Crown. The liberation
of all slaves in Para and Maranhao except negroes (1755), and the
creation of the Para Company, were prejudicial to the interests
of the Jesuits, whose administrative authority over the Indians
of Brazil was also curtailed. Various charges were brought
against the Society by Pombal, and in September 1759, after
five years of heated controversy (see JESUITS), he published a
decree of expulsion against all its members in the Portuguese
dominions. His power at court had previously been strengthened
by the so-called Tavora plot. The marquess and marchioness
of Tavora and their two sons, with the duke of Aveiro, the count
of Atouguia and other noblemen, were accused of complicity
in an attempt upon the life of King Joseph (September 1758).
Pombal appointed a special tribunal to judge the case; many of
the accused, including those already mentioned, were found
guilty and executed; and an attempt was made to implicate
the Jesuits. Pombal's enemies declared that he himself had
organized the attack upon the king, in such a manner as to throw
suspicion upon his political opponents and to gain credit for
himself. This accusation was not proved, but the history of the
Tavora plot remains extremely obscure. The expulsion of the
Jesuits involved Portugal in a dispute with Pope Clement XIII.;
in June 1760 the papal nuncio was ordered to leave Lisbon, and
diplomatic relations with the Vatican were only resumed after the
condemnation of the Jesuits by Clement XIV., in July 1773.
His victory over the Jesuits left Pombal free to develop his
plans for reform. He devoted himself especially to education
and defence. A school of commerce was founded in 1759; in
1760 the censorship of books was transferred from an ecclesi-
astical to a lay tribunal; in 1761 the former Jesuit college in
Lisbon was converted into a college for the sons of noblemen;
in 1768 a royal printing-press was established; in 1772 Pombal
provided for a complete system of primary and secondary educa-
tion, entailing the foundation of 837 schools. He founded a
college of art in Mafra; he became visitor of Coimbra University,
recast its statutes and introduced the teaching of natural science.
Funds for these reforms were to a great extent provided out of
the sequestrated property of the Jesuits; Pombal also effected
great economies in internal administration. He abolished the
distinction between Old and New Christians, and made all
Portuguese subjects eligible to any office in the state. Far-
reaching reforms were at the same time carried out in the army,
navy and mercantile marine. In 1760 Admiral Boscawen had
violated Portuguese neutrality by burning four French ships off
Lagos; Pombal protested and the British government apologized,
but not before the military weakness of Portugal had been
demonstrated. Two years later, when the Family Compact
involved Portugal in a war with Spain, Pombal called in Count
William of Lippe-Buckeburg to reorganize the army, which was
reinforced by a British contingent under Brigadier-General John
Burgoyne, and was increased from 5000 to 50,000 men. The
Spaniards were at first successful, and captured Braganza and
Almeida; but they were subsequently defeated at Villa Velha
and Valencia de Alcantara, and the Portuguese fully held their
own up to the signature of peace at Fontainebleau, in February
1763. Towards the close of the reign, a long-standing contro-
versy with Spain as to the frontier between Brazil and the
Spanish colonies threatened a renewal of the war; but in this
crisis Pombal was deprived of power by the death of King
Joseph (Feb. 20, 1777) and the accession of his daughter Maria I.
The queen was manied to her uncle, who became king consort
as Pedro III. Pombal's dismissal, brought about by the
influence of the queen-mother Mariana Victoria, Maria I..
did not involve an immediate reversal of his policy. Pedro ill.
The controversy with Spain was amicably settled and D. John.
by the treaty of San Ildefonso (1777); and further industrial
and educational reforms were inaugurated, chief among them
being the foundation, in 1780, of the Royal Academy of Sciences.
Queen Maria, who had previously shown signs of religious mania,
became wholly insane after 1788, owing to the deaths of Pedro
III. (May 1786), of the crown prince D. Joseph, and of her con-
fessor, the inquisitor-general D. Ignacio de San Caetano. Her
second son, D. John, assumed the conduct of affairs in 1792,
although he did not take the title of regent until 1799. Mean-
while a two-fold reaction on one side clericalist, on the other
democratic had set in against the reforms of Pombal. D.John
told William Beckford in 1786 that " the kingdom belonged to
the monks," and his consort Carlota Joaquina, daughter of
Charles IV. of Spain, exercised a powerful influence in favour of
the Church. But new ideas had been introduced with the new
system of education, and the inevitable revolt against absolutism
had resulted in the formation of a Radical party, which sympa-
thized with the Revolution in France and carried on an active
propaganda through the numerous masonic lodges which were in
fact political clubs. D. John became alarmed, and the intendant
of police in Lisbon, D. Diogo Ignacio de Pina Manique, organized
an elaborate system of espionage which led to the imprisonment
or exile of many harmless enthusiasts.
From similar motives, a treaty of alliance with Spain was
signed at Aranjuez in March 1793; 5000 Portuguese troops were
sent to assist in a Spanish invasion of France; a p / //
Portuguese squadron joined the British Mediterranean with s pa ia,
fleet. But in July 1795 Spain concluded a peace France and
with the French republic from which Portugal, as Oreat
the ally of Great Britain, was deliberately excluded. *??gf!^Ln 6
In 1796 Spain declared war upon Great Britain, and in
1797 a secret convention for the partition of Portugal was signed
by the French ambassador in Madrid, General Perignon, and by
the Spanish minister Godoy. D. John appealed for help to
Great Britain, which sent him 6000 men, under Sir Charles Stuart,
and a subsidy of 200,000. Though Spain, through the influence
of D. John's father-in-law Charles IV., still remained neutral,
a state of war between Portugal and France existed until 1799.
D. John then reopened negotiations with Napoleon, and Lucien
Bonaparte was sent to dictate terms in Madrid. But D. John
dared not consent to close the harbours of Portugal against
British ships. England was the chief market for Portuguese
wine and grain; and the long Portuguese littoral was at the mercy
of the British navy. Compelled to choose between fighting on
land and fighting at sea, D. John rejected the demands of Lucien
Bonaparte, and on the loth of February 1801 declared war
upon Spain. His territories were at once invaded by a Franco-
Spanish army, and on the 6th of June 1801 he was forced to
conclude the peace of Badajoz, by which he ceded the frontier
fortress of Olivenza to Spain, and undertook to pay 20,000,000
francs to Napoleon and to exclude British ships from Portuguese
ports. Napoleon was dissatisfied with these terms, and although
he ultimately ratified the treaty, he sent General Lannes to
Lisbon as his ambassador, instructing him to humiliate the
Portuguese and if possible to goad them into a renewal of the
war. The same policy was continued by General Junot, who
succeeded Lannes in 1804. Junot required D. John to declare
war upon Great Britain, but this demand was not immediately
pressed owing to the preoccupation of Napoleon with greater
affairs, and in October 1805 Junot left Portugal.
By his Berlin decree of the 2ist of November 1806 Napoleon
HISTORY]
PORTUGAL
required all continental states to close their ports to British
ships. As Portugal again refused to obey, another secret Franco-
is Spanish treaty was signed at Fontainebleau on the
Peninsular zyth of October 1807, providing for the partition
War - of Portugal. Entre-Minho-e-Douro was to be given
to Louis II. of Etruria in exchange for his Italian kingdom;
Algarve and Alemtejo were to form a separate principality for
Godoy ; the remaining provinces were to be garrisoned by French
troops until a general peace should be concluded. To give effect
to these terms, General Junot hastened westward across Spain,
at the head of 30,000 French soldiers and a large body of
Spanish auxiliaries. So rapid were his movements that there
was no time to organize effective resistance. On the zgth of
November D. John, acting on the advice of Sir Sidney Smith,
British naval commander in the Tagus, appointed a council of
regency and sailed for Brazil, convoyed by Sir Sidney Smith's
squadron. For a detailed account of the subsequent military
operations, see PENINSULAR WAR.
Junot, who was everywhere well received by the Portuguese
democrats, entered Lisbon at the end of November 1807. He
assumed command of the Portuguese army, divided
Invasion bv .1. \ \
Junot, the kingdom into military governments, and, on the
November ist of February 1808 announced that the Braganza
1807- dynasty had forfeited its right to the throne. He him-
se ^ hoped to succeed D. John, and sought to conciliate
the Portuguese by reducing the requisition demanded
by Napoleon from 40,000,000 francs to 20,000,000. But the
action of the French troops in occupying the fortresses of northern
Spain provoked in May 1808 a general rising in that country,
which soon spread to Portugal. The Spanish garrison in Oporto
expelled the French governor and declared for the Braganzas,
compelling Junot to march towards the north. He left Lisbon
under the control of a regency, headed by the bishop of Oporto,
who applied to Great Britain for help, promoted an insurrection
against the French, and organized juntas (committees) of
government in the larger towns. On the ist of August 1808
Sir Arthur Wellesley, with 9000 British troops, landed at
Figueira da Foz. He defeated a French division at Rolica
(" Roleia ") on the lyth, and on the 2ist won a victory over
Junot at Vimeiro ("Vimiera")- Fearing an attack by Portu-
guese auxiliaries and the arrival of British reinforcements under
Sir John Moore, Junot signed the convention of Cintra by which,
on the 3oth of August 1808, he agreed to evacuate Portugal
(see WELLINGTON). The regency appointed by D. John was
now reconstituted and in October Sir John Moore assumed
command of all the allied troops in Portugal. From Lisbon
Moore marched north-eastward with about 32,000 men to assist
the Spanish armies against Napoleon; his subsequent retreat
to join Sir David Baird in Galicia, in January 1809, diverted
the pursuing army under Napoleon to the north-west, and
temporarily saved Portugal from attack.
In February Major-General William Carr Beresford was
given command of the Portuguese army. Organized and
Invasion by disciplined by British officers, the native troops played
Souft, a gallant part in the subsequent campaigns. In
Marco-May March 1809 the second invasion of Portugal began;
Soult crossed the Galician frontier and captured
Oporto, while an auxiliary force under General Lapisse advanced
from Salamanca. On the 2 2nd of April, however, Wellesley,
who had been recalled after the convention of Cintra, landed in
Lisbon. On the I2th of May he forced the passage of the
Douro, subsequently retaking Oporto and pursuing Soult into
Spain. Valuable assistance had been rendered by the Portu-
guese generals Antonio da Silveira and Manoel de Brito
Mousinho the first a leader, the second an organizer.
After the battle of Wagram (July 6, 1809) the French
armies in the Peninsula received large reinforcements, and
. Marshal MassSna, with 120,000 men, was ordered
to operate against Portugal. He crossed the frontier
June isio- j n June 1810 and besieged Almeida, which capitu-
Apnitsn. lated Qn the 27th of August Wellesley, who had
now become Viscount Wellington, opposed his march south-
wards, and won a victory at Bussaco on the 27th of September;
but Massena subsequently turned the position of the allied army
on the Serra de Bussaco, and caused Wellington to fall back
upon the fortified lines which he had already constructed at
Torres Vedras. Here he stood upon the defensive until the
invaders should be defeated by starvation. The Portuguese
troops cut Massena's communications; the peasants, under
instructions from Wellington, had already laid waste their own
farms, destroyed the roads and bridges by which Massena might
retreat, and burned their boats on the Tagus. On the sth of
March 1811, after a winter of terrible sufferings, MassSna's
retreat began; he was harassed by the allied troops all the way
to Sabugal, where the last rearguard action in Portugal took
place on the 3rd of April. The invaders retired with a loss of
nearly 30,000 men; Almeida was retaken on the 6th; and the
remainder 'of the war was fought out on Spanish and French
soil. The Portuguese troops remained under Wellington's
command until 1814, and distinguished themselves in many
actions, notably at Salamanca and on the Nivelle.
At the congressof Vienna (1814-1815) Portugal was represented
by three plenipotentiaries, who were instructed to press for the
retrocession of Olivenza and to oppose the restora-
tion of French Guiana, which the Brazilians had the"\^ir
conquered in 1809. Neither object was attained;
and this failure, which was attributed to the lack of British
support, hastened the reaction against British influence
which had already begun. Since 1808 Portugal had theoretic-
ally been governed by the regency representing D. John.
But as the regency was corrupt and unable to co-operate with
Wellington and Beresford, the British government had demanded
that Sir Charles Stuart (son of the Sir Charles Stuart mentioned
above) should be appointed one of its members. The real
control of affairs soon afterwards passed into the strong hands of
Stuart and Beresford; and while the war lasted the Portuguese
acquiesced in what was in fact an autocracy exercised by
foreigners. In 1815, however, they desired to resume their
independence. A further cause of dissatisfaction was the mutual
jealousy of Portugal and Brazil. The colony claimed as high
a political status as the mother-country, and by a decree dated
the 1 6th of January 1815 it was raised to the rank of a separate
kingdom. Thenceforward, until 1822, the Portuguese sover-
eignty was styled the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and
the Algarves. The importance of this change became apparent
when Queen Maria I. died (March 1816) and D. John succeeded
to the united thrones as John VI. The king refused to leave
Brazil, partly owing to the intrigues of Carlota Joaquina, who
hoped to become queen of an independent Brazilian kingdom.
Thus Portugal, which had been almost ruined by the war, was
now humiliated by the failure of her diplomacy at Vienna and
by her continued dependence upon Great Britain and Brazil.
The resultant discontent found expression in the cry of " Por-
tugal for the Portuguese " and in the demand for a constitution.
In 1817 a military revolt (pronunciamento) in Lisbon was
crushed by Beresford, and the leader, General Gomes Freire de
Andrade, was executed; but on the i6th of August The Coo-
1820, after Beresford had sailed to Brazil to secure stitutionai
the return of John VI., a second rising took place Movement,
in Oporto. It soon spread southward. A new I8M - 1826 -
council of regency was established in Lisbon, the British officers
were expelled from the army; Beresford, on his return from
Brazil, was not permitted to land; a constituent assembly was
summoned. This body suppressed the Inquisition and drew
up a highly democratic constitution, by which all citizens were
declared equal before the law and eligible to any office; all class
privileges were abolished, the liberty of the Press was guaranteed,
and the government of the country was vested in a single
chamber, subject only to the suspensive veto of the Crown.
So extreme a change was disliked by most of the powers and
by many Portuguese, especially those of the clerical party.
Great Britain insisted on the return of John VI., who entrusted
the government of Brazil to his elder son D. Pedro and landed
in Portugal on the 3rd of July 1821. In 1822, on the advice of
152
PORTUGAL
[HISTORY
D. Pedro, he swore to obey the constitution (thenceforward
known as the " constitution of 1822 "). But his younger son,
D. Miguel, and the queen, Carlota Joaquina, refused to take the
oath; and in December 1822 sentence of banishment was pro-
nounced against them, though not enforced. They had many
supporters at home and abroad. French troops had invaded
Spain in the interests of Ferdinand VII. (1823), and the French
government was prepared to countenance the absolutist
party in Portugal in order to check British influence there.
Another military revolt broke out in Traz-os- Monies on the 3rd
of February 1823, its leader being the count of Amarante, who
was opposed to the constitution. D. Miguel appealed to the
army to " restore liberty to their king," and the army, incensed
by the loss of Brazil (1822), gave him almost unanimous support.
At this juncture John VI., vainly seeking for a compromise,
abrogated the constitution of 1822, but appointed as his minister
D. Pedro de Sousa Holstein, count (afterwards duke) of Palmella
and leader of the " English " or constitutional party. These
half-measures did not satisfy D. Miguel, whose soldiers seized
the royal palace in Lisbon on the 3oth of April 1824. Palmella
was arrested, and John VI. forced to take refuge on the British
flagship in the Tagus. But the united action of the foreign
ministers restored the king and reinstated Palmella; the insur-
rection was crushed; D. Miguel submitted and went into exile
(June 1824).
In Brazil also a revolution had taken place. The Brazilians
demanded complete independence, and D. Pedro sided with
them. The Portuguese garrison of Rio de Janeiro was over-
powered; on the 7th of September 1822 D. Pedro declared the
country independent, and on the I2th of October he was pro-
claimed constitutional emperor. He took no notice of the
constituent assembly in Lisbon, which on the ipth of September
had ordered him to return to Portugal on pain of forfeiting
his right to inherit the Portuguese Crown. By the end of 1823
all Portuguese resistance to the new regime in Brazil had been
overcome.
John VI. died on the loth of March 1826, leaving (by will)
his daughter D. Isabel Maria as regent for Pedro I. of Brazil,
who now became Pedro IV. of Portugal. A crisis was evidently
imminent, for Portugal would not tolerate an absentee sovereign
who was far more Brazilian than Portuguese. The unsatisfied
ambition of Carlota Joaquina and the hostility between abso-
lutists and constitutionalists might at any moment precipitate
a civil war. To conciliate the Portuguese, Pedro IV. drew up
a charter (known as the " charter of 1826 ") which provided
for moderate parliamentary government on the British model.
To conciliate the Brazilians, he undertook (by decree dated May
2nd 1826) to surrender the Portuguese Crown to his daughter D.
Maria da Gloria (then aged seven) ; but this abdication was made
contingent upon her marriage with her uncle D. Miguel, who was
first required to swear fidelity to the charter.
8. Constitutional Government. The charter of 1826 forms the
basis of the present Portuguese constitution and the starting-
point of modern Portuguese history. That history comprises
four periods: (a) From 1826 to 1834 the clerical and absolutist
parties led by D. Miguel united every reactionary element
throughout the kingdom in a last unsuccessful stand against
constitutional government; (b) From 1834 to 1853 the main
problem for Portuguese statesmen was whether the constitution,
now accepted as inevitable, should embody the radical ideas of
1822 or the moderate ideas of 1826; (c) From 1853 to 1889
there was a period of transition marked by the rise of three new
parties Progressive, Regenerator, Republican; (d) From 1889
to 1908 the Progressives and Regenerators monopolized the
control of public affairs, but the strength of Republicanism was
not to be gauged by its representation in the cortes. At the
beginning of the 2oth century the question whether the monarchy
should be replaced by a republic had become a living political
issue, which was decided by the revolution of October 5, 1910.
The charter was brought to Lisbon by Sir Charles Stuart
in July 1826. The absolutists had hoped that D. Pedro would
abdicate unconditionally in favour of D. Miguel, and the council
of regency at first refused to publish the charter. They were
forced to do so (July 12) by a pronunciamento issued by D.
Joao Carlos de Saldanha de Oliveira e Daun, count The
of Saldanha and commander of the army in Oporto. Absolutist
Saldanha, a prominent constitutionalist, threatened Reactloa -
to march on Lisbon if the regency did not swear obedience to'
the charter by the 3ist of July. Amid wild enthusiasm the
charter was proclaimed on that day, and on the 3rd of August
Saldanha became head of a Liberal ministry. An absolutist
counter-revolution at once broke out in the north. It was
organized by the marquess of Chaves, and supported openly by
the Church and the Miguelite majority of the army; secret
assistance was also given by Spain. As civil war appeared
imminent, Canning despatched 5000 British troops under Sir
William Clinton to restore order, and to disband the troops
under Chaves. By March 1827 Clinton and Saldanha had
secured the acceptance of the charter throughout Portugal.
In October 1826 D. Miguel also swore to obey the charter
and was betrothed to his niece D. Maria da Gloria (Maria II.).
Pedro IV. appointed him regent in July 1827 and in February
1828 he landed in Lisbon, where he was received with cries of
" Viva D. Miguel I., rei absolute! " In March he dissolved the
parliament which had met in accordance with the charter. In
April the Tory ministry under Wellington withdrew Clinton's
division, which was the mainstay of the charter. In May D.
Miguel summoned a cortes of the ancient type, which offered him
the Crown; and on the 7th of July 1828 he took the oath as king.
Saldanha, Palmella, the count of Villa Flor (afterwards duke of
Terceira), and the other constitutionalist leaders were driven
into exile, while scores of their adherents were executed and thou-
sands imprisoned. Austria and Spain supported D. Miguel,
who was able to dispose of the vast wealth of Carlota Joaquina;
Great Britain and France remained neutral. Only the emperor
D. Pedro and a handful of exiles upheld the cause of Maria II.,
who returned to Brazil in 1829.
The Azores, although the majority of their inhabitants
favoured absolutism, now became a centre of resistance to
D. Miguel. In 1828 the garrison of Angra declared The
for Maria II., endured a siege lasting four months, Miguelite
and finally took refuge in the island of Terceira, Wars -
where it was reinforced by volunteers from Brazil and constitu-
tionalist refugees from England and France. In March 1829
Palmella established a regency on the island, on behalf of
Maria II.; and D. Miguel's fleet was defeated in Praia Bay on
the 1 2th of August. Fortune played into the hands of Palmella,
Saldanha, Villa Flor and their followers in Terceira. In 1830
a Whig ministry came into office in Great Britain; the " July
revolution " placed Louis Philippe on the throne of France;
Carlota Joaquina, the power behind D. Miguel's throne, died on
the 7th of January. The fanaticism of the clerical and abso-
lutist parties in Portugal (collectively termed apostolicos) was
enhanced by recrudescence of Sebastianism. Men saw in the
brutal boor D. Miguel (<?..) a personification of the hero-king
Sebastian, whose second advent had been expected for two
and a half centuries. In the orgy of persecution, outrages were
committed on British and French subjects: and a French squad-
ron retaliated by seizing D. Miguel's fleet in the Tagus (July
1831). In Brazil, D. Pedro abdicated (April 1831); he deter-
mined to return to Europe and conduct in person a campaign
for the restoration of Maria II. He was received with enthusiasm
by Louis Philippe. In Great Britain Palmella raised a loan of
2,000,000 and purchased a small fleet, of which Captain Sartor-
ius, a retired British naval officer, was appointed admiral. In
February 1832 the " Liberators," as they were styled, sailed
from Belleisle to the Azores, with D. Pedro aboard the flagship.
In July they reached Portugal and occupied Oporto, but the
expected constitutionalist rising did not take place. The
country was almost unanimous in its loyalty to D. Miguel, who
had 80,000 troops against the 6500 (including 500 French and
300 British) of D. Pedro. But the Miguelites had no navy,
and no competent general. They besieged D. Pedro in Oporto
from July 1832 to July 1833, when the duke of Terceira and
HISTORY]
PORTUGAL
153
Captain Charles Napier, who had succeeded Sartorius, effected
a daring and successful diversion which resulted in the capture
of Lisbon.. (July 24, 1833). Maria II. arrived from France in
September. The war went in her favour, largely owing to the
brilliant generalship of Saldanha and the financial straits to
which D. Miguel was reduced. In April 1834 a Quadruple
Alliance was concluded between France, Spain, Great Britain
and the government of Maria II. The allied army defeated the
Miguelites at Asseiceira on the i6th of May, and D. Miguel
surrendered at Evora-Monte on the 24th. By the convention
of Evora-Monte he was condemned to perpetual banishment
from the Peninsula. On the 24th of September D. Pedro died.
During the few months in which he acted as regent for his
daughter, he had transformed Portugal from a semi-feudal into
a modern state. Tithes, many hereditary privileges and all
monopolies were abolished; every convent was closed and its
property nationalized; the Jesuits, who had returned after the
death of Pombal, were again expelled; the charter of 1826 was
restored.
Maria II. was fifteen years old at her accession. She was
twice married in December 1834 to Augustus, duke of Leuch-
tenberg, who died four months afterwards; and in
April 1836 to Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, who received
the title of king consort in September 1837. Both
the queen and the king consort were strangers to Portugal,
and could exercise little control over the turbulent factions
whose intrigues and pronunciamentos made orderly govern-
ment impossible. There were three political parties: the
Miguelites, who were still strong enough to cause trouble;
the Chartists, who advocated the principles of 1826; the
Septembrists, who advocated those of 1822 and took their name
from the successful coup d'etat of the Qth-nth of September
1836. By this coup d'itat the constitution of 1822 was sub-
stituted for the charter of 1826; and a Septembrist ministry
under the Viscount Sa da Bandeira replaced the Chartist
ministry under Saldanha, Terceira and Palmella. A counter-
revolution, planned in the royal palace at Belem and hence
known as the Belemzada, was frustrated in November 1836;
and in 1837 a Chartist insurrection was crushed after severe
fighting. This was known as the " War of the Marshals, " from
the rank of the two Chartist leaders, Saldanha and Terceira.
In 1839 a moderate ministry took office, with Antonio Bermudo
da Costa Cabral as its real, though not its ostensible, head. A
pronunciamento by Costa Cabral led to the restoration of the
charter on the loth of February 1842, and a Cabral government
was formed under the nominal leadership of Terceira. Costa
Cabral, who became count of Thomar in 1845, ruled despotically,
despite many insurrections, until May 1846, when a coalition
of Miguelites, Septembrists and Chartist malcontents drove
him into exile. On this occasion the rebellion known as the
" War of Maria da Fonte " proved formidable. Oporto was
held by a revolutionary junta, and Saldanha, who had become
prime minister, persuaded the Quadruple Alliance to intervene.
In June 1847 the Oporto junta surrendered, under promise of an
amnesty, to a combined British and Spanish force, and the
convention of Gramido (July 24, 1847) ended the war. Saldanha
was rewarded with a dukedom, and retained office until June
1849. The dictatorial rule of his successor the returned
exile, Thomar provoked another successful rising on the 7th
of April 1851. Thomar again fled from the country; Saldanha
again became prime minister, but at the head of a moderate
coalition. He remained in power during five years of unbroken
peace (1851-1856), and carried many useful reforms. The
most important of these was the so-called Additional Act of the
5th of July 1852, which amended the charter of 1826 by pro-
viding for the direct election of deputies, the decentralization
of the executive, the creation of representative municipal
councils, and the abolition of capital punishment for political
offences. Maria II. died on the I3th of November 1853, and was
succeeded by her eldest son D. Pedro, during whose ministry
the king consort D. Ferdinand acted as regent.
Under the brothers Pedro V. (1853-1861) and Luiz (1861-
1889) Portugal obtained a respite from civil strife. Both
monarchs delegated the conduct of affairs to their ministers,
who constructed new railways, reformed the edu-
cational system, and gradually improved the economic
condition of the kingdom and its colonies. Pedro V.
came of age and assumed the government on the i6th of
November 1855, in 1857 he married Princess Stephanie of
Hohenzollern. The only political disturbance which marred
the peace of his reign arose out of the seizure of the "Charles
et Georges," a French slave-trader which was captured off
Mozambique. Napoleon III. sent a fleet to the Tagus and
demanded an indemnity, which Portugal was compelled to pay.
In 1860-1861 cholera ravaged the whole kingdom, and especially
the capital. The king died of this disease on the nth of
November 1861, and two of his brothers, D. Ferdinand and
D. John, died shortly afterwards. D. Luiz was absent at the
time, and his father D. Ferdinand again became regent until
his return, soon after which (1862) the new king married Maria
Pia, daughter of Victor Emanuel II. of Italy. In 1869 slavery
was abolished in every Portuguese colony. In 1870 the duke
of Saldanha, the last survivor of the turbulent statesmen of
Queen Maria's reign, threatened an appeal to arms if the king
would not dismiss his minister, the duke of Louie, an advanced
Radical and freemason, whose influence, dating from the reign
of Pedro V., was viewed with disfavour by Saldanha, as well
as by more conservative politicians. The king yielded; and
Saldanha himself became prime minister, retaining office until
1874, when, a); the age of 80, he was sent as ambassador to
London. He had been by far the most influential man in
Portugal, and his death in 1876 was followed by a regrouping
of political parties.
The party of the Regenerators (Regener adores) , formed in
1852 out of a coalition of Septembrists and Chartists, had
already been disintegrated. Its more radical ele-
ments, known at first as the Historic Left, were in
1877 reorganized as the Progressives (Progressistas).
Its more conservative elements carried on the tradition
and retained the name of the original Regenerators. Besides
these two monarchist parties the Regenerators or Conser-
vative right and the Progressives or Constitutional left a
strong Republican party was formed in 1881. There were
also the Miguelites, active but impotent intriguers; and the
advocates of Iberian union, who became prominent in 1867,
1869, 1874, and especially in July 1872, when many well-
known politicians were implicated in a fantastic conspiracy
for the establishment of an Iberian republic. Portuguese
nationalism was too strong for these advocates of union
with Spain, whose propaganda was discredited as soon as
any national interest was seriously endangered. This was
the case in 1872, when Great Britain claimed the southern
part of Delagoa Bay. The claim was submitted to the arbitra-
tion of M. Thiers, the French president, whose successor,
Marshal Macmahon, delivered an award in favour of Portugal
on the igth of April 1875 (see DELAGOA BAY).
King Luiz died on the igth of October 1889, and was succeeded
by his son D. Carlos (q.v.). Colonial affairs had for some time
received close attention. In 1885 Portugal recog- cof aaM
nized the Congo Free State, and admitted its Attain:
sovereignty over the north bank of the Lower Relation*
Congo, although, in an unratified treaty of 1884, wlth Orea<
Great Britain had recognized both banks of the BrtMn -
river as Portuguese territory. In 1886 Germany, France and
Portugal defined by treaty the limits of their adjacent spheres
of influence, and on the 26th of March 1887 Macao, hitherto
leased to Portugal, was formally ceded by the Chinese
government. In 1889 a resolution unanimously adopted by
both chambers invited the ministry, of which Jos6 de Castro
was president and Barros Gomes foreign minister, to press
forward the territorial claims of Portugal in East and Central
Africa. Shortly after the accession of King Carlos this active
policy led to a dispute with Great Britain (see AFRICA, 5). A
Portuguese force under Major Serpa Pinto had invaded the
154
PORTUGAL
[HISTORY
Shire highlands in order to forestall their annexation by the
British, and the British government demanded satisfaction.
Public opinion rendered compliance difficult until a British
squadron was despatched to the mouth of the Tagus, and the
British minister presented an ultimatum (Jan. n, 1890), requiring
the withdrawal of all Portuguese forces from the Shire. Barros
Gomes was then able to yield under protest; but disturbances
at once broke out in Lisbon and Oporto, and the ministry
resigned. A coalition government took office on the i4th of
January, with Serpa Pimentel as prime minister and J. Hintze-
Ribeiro as foreign minister. The king, in a letter to Queen
Victoria, declined for the time being to receive the Order of the
Garter, which had just been offered him, and on the 6th of
February the government addressed a circular letter to the
powers, proposing to submit the issues in dispute to a European
conference. Meanwhile a Republican rising was suppressed in
Lisbon, and many suspected officers were degraded. On the
2oth of August an Anglo- Portuguese agreement was negotiated
in London, but the cortes refused to ratify it. The ministry
therefore resigned, and on the I4th of October Abreu e Sousa
fomed a new cabinet, which arranged with Great Britain a
modus vivendi for six months, pending the conclusion of another
agreement. The British government was ready to make con-
cessions, but more than one collision took place between Portu-
guese troops in Manica and the forces of the British South Africa
Company. The defeat of the Portuguese was the chief cause of
a serious military rising in Oporto, which broke out on the 3oth
of January 1891. The suppression of this rising so far enhanced
the prestige of the cabinet that the cortes forthwith approved
the convention with Great Britain; and the definitive treaty,
by which Portugal abandoned all claim to a trans-African
dominion, was ratified by the cortes on the 28th of May. Rela-
tions with Great Britain, however, remained far from cordial
until the celebration of the fourth centenary of Vasco da Gama's
voyage to India afforded the opportunity for a rapprochement
in 1898.
The extravagant management of the railways guaranteed by
the state had entailed such heavy deficits that the payment of
Financial the coupon of the railway state loan, due on the
Crisis ot 2nd of January 1892 had to be suspended. Thus
1892. arose a serious financial crisis, involving three changes
of ministry. In May the Portuguese government committed
a formal act of bankruptcy by issuing a decree reducing
the amount then due to foreign bondholders by two-thirds.
The bondholders' committees, supported by some of the
powers concerned, protested against this illegal action. A
compromise was at last arranged by Hintze-Ribeiro, who
assumed office in February 1893 as head of a Progressive
government. His cabinet promised only slightly better terms
to the foreign bondholders, but it relieved the financial tension
in some degree; and by coming to an agreement with Germany
in East Africa and with Great Britain in South Africa as to
the delimitation of frontiers, he minimized the risks of conflict
with either country.
Portugal observed neutrality on the outbreak of the Anglo-
Boer War, but the permission it conceded to the British consul at
Lourenco Marques to search for contraband of war among goods
imported there, and the free passage accorded to an armed
force under General Carrington from Beira through Portu-
guese territory to Rhodesia, were vehemently attacked in the
Press and at public meetings. The award of the Swiss arbi-
trators in the matter of the Delagoa Bay railway was given in
1900 (see LouRENfo MARQUES). Portugal was condemned to
pay 15,314,000 francs compensation; and this sum (less
than was expected) was immediately raised by loan from the
Portuguese Tobacco Company.
A law of the 8th of August 1901 regulated the conditions of
election to the lower house, thus ending a long series of parlia-
mentary reforms. The most important of these had provided
for the gradual extinction of the right of hereditary peers to sit
in the upper house (July 24, 1885), had reduced the number of
deputies and fixed the qualifications required for the exercise of
the franchise (March 28, 1895); and had abolished the elective
branch in the upper house (Sept. 25, 1895). These changes
left untouched the most serious evil in Portuguese c^gfi.
public life. The two great parties, Progressives and tutioaal
Regenerators, were largely composed of professional Changes,
politicians whose votes were determined by their I8SS ~'
private interests. Skilful manipulation of the electoral returns
enabled these two parties to hold office in fairly regular rota-
tion; hence arose the popular nickname of rotalivos, applied
to Progressives and Regenerators alike. The same methods
enabled them to obstruct the election of Republican and
Independent candidates.
Under such a system of government it was natural that
economic issues should still dominate Portuguese politics at
the beginning of the 2oth century. Year by year Rcpubi/can-
the budget showed a deficit, and the indebtedness Ism and
of the state increased. A large proportion of the tbe Arm y-
expenditure was unproductive, corruption was rife in the public
services, and the poverty of the overtaxed peasant and artisan
classes gave rise to sporadic outbreaks of violence. In 1902 the
students at Coimbra and Oporto organized an agitation against
the proposed conversion of the gold debt; and anti-clerical
riots, followed by a strike, rendered necessary the proclamation
of martial law in Aveiro. In January 1903 an insurrection of
peasants armed with scythes took place at Fundao; the imposi-
tion of a new market tax provoked riots at Coimbra in March;
a serious strike of weavers took place at Oporto in June. In
the same year the general distress was intensified by the failure
of the Rural and Mortgage Bank of Brazil. In these circum-
stances Republicanism rapidly gained ground. Its real strength
was masked by the system which enabled any ministry in power
to control the election of candidates to the cortes. In April
1806, for example, only one Republican deputy was returned,
although it was notorious that the Republican party could
command a majority in many constituencies. Though the army
as a whole was monarchist, certain regiments had become
imbued with revolutionary ideals, which were fortified by the
unwise employment of soldiers and sailors for the suppression
of industrial disputes. During the weavers' strike the cruiser
" Rainha. D. Amelia " was converted into a temporary prison,
and at Fundao, Aveiro and elsewhere troops had been ordered
to fire on men with whom they sympathized. In November
1902, while King Carlos was in England, a military rising was
organized in Oporto, but never took place. On the 23rd of
April 1903 a body of cavalry and artillery mutinied in Lisbon
and proclaimed a republic; but they were overpowered and
ultimately transported to Mozambique. Such incidents, unim-
portant in themselves, were symptoms of a dangerous state of
public opinion, which was debarred from expression in the
cortes.
The constitution empowered the sovereign to veto any bill,
to dissolve or prorogue the cortes, and to govern by means of
ministerial decrees. The use of these extraordinary TheDk-
powers would be a breach of constitutional practice, tatorship,
but not of law. King Carlos had already been 1906-1908.
criticized for alleged excessive interferences in politics. An
experiment in government by decree had been made in May
October 1894; it was repeated in September 1905, when the
king consented to prorogue the cortes until January 1906 in
order to postpone discussion of the terms upon which the
tobacco monopoly was to be allocated. A general election,
in February 1906, was followed by three changes of ministry,
the last of which, on the igthof May, inaugurated the regime
known in Portugal as the dictodura or dictatorship. Joao
Franco, the new prime minister, was conspicuous among
Portuguese politicians for his integrity, energy and courage; he
intended to reform the national finances and administration
by constitutional means, if possible. The cortes, opened on the
6th of June 1906, was dissolved on the i4th; another election
took place, preceded by an official announcement that on this
occasion all votes would be fairly counted; and the Franquistas
or " New Regenerators " obtained a majority. When the
LITERATURE]
PORTUGAL
155
cortes met, on the zgth of September, the opposition accused
King Carlos of complicity in grave financial scandals. It was
admitted that he had borrowed largely from the treasury, on
the security of his civil list, and the Republican deputies
accused him of endeavouring to assign the tobacco monopoly
to one of his own foreign creditors, in settlement of the debt.
Franco organized a coalition in defence of the Crown, but in
January 1907 business in the cortes was brought to a standstill
and many sittings ended in uproar. The attacks on the king
were repeated at the trial of the poet Guerra Junqueiro, who was
indicted for lese-majesti. All parties believed that the ministry
would fall, and the relatives prepared once more to divide the
spoils of office, when, on the 2nd of May 1907, Joao Franco
reconstructed his cabinet, secured the dissolution of the cortes
and announced that certain bills still under discussion would
receive the force of law. His partisans in the press hailed
the advent of a second Pombal, and their enthusiasm was
shared by many enlightened Portuguese, who had previously
held aloof from politics but now rallied to the support of an
honest dictator. Backed by these forces, as well as by the king
and the army, Franco effected some useful reforms. But his
opponents included not only the Republicans, the professional
politicians and those officials who feared inquiry, but also the
magistracy, the district and municipal councils, and the large
body of citizens who still believed in parliamentary government.
The existing debt owed by D. Carlos to the nation was assessed
at 154,000. This sum was ostensibly paid by the transference
to the treasury of the royal yacht " Amelia " and certain palaces;
but the cost and upkeep of the " Amelia " had been paid with
public money, while the palaces had long been maintained as state
property. These transactions, though perhaps necessary to
save the credit of the sovereign at the least possible cost,
infuriated the opposition. Newspapers and politicians openly
advocated rebellion; Franco had recourse to coercion. Sedi-
tious journals were suppressed ; gaols and fortresses were crowded
with prisoners; the upper house, which was hostile to the
dictator, was deprived of its judicial powers and reconstituted
on a less democratic basis (as in 1826); the district and muni-
cipal councils were dissolved and replaced by administrative
commissions nominated by the Crown (Jan. i, 1908).
The ministerial press from time to time announced the dis-
covery of sensational plots against the king and the dictator.
. . It is, however, uncertain whether the assassination
Assasslna- . '
tioaofKlugol King Carlos and the crown prince (see CARLOS I.),
Carlos. on the ist of February 1908, was part of a widely
Accession or g an i zec i conspiracy; or whether it was the act of
ot Manoel. i it . j -.,.
an isolated band of fanatics, unconnected with any
political party. The republican press applauded the murder;
the professional politicians benefited by it. But the regicide
Buica and his associates probably acted on their own initiative.
The immediate results were the accession of Prince Manoel or
Manuel (Emanuel II.) to the throne and the resignation of
Franco, who sailed for Genoa. A coalition ministry, representing
all the monarchist parties, was formed under the presidency of
Admiral Ferreira do Amaral. The administrative commissions
appointed by Franco were dissolved; the civil list was reduced;
the upper house was reconstituted. A general election took
place; in April the cortes met and the balance of power between
Progressives and Regenerators was restored. On the 6th of
May 1908 D. Manoel swore to uphold the constitution and was
acclaimed king by the cortes. His uncle D. Affonso (b. 1865)
took a similar oath as crown prince on the 22nd of March 1910.
The failure of the dictatorship and the inability of the
monarchists to agree upon any common policy had discredited
The Revo- the existing regime, and at the general election of
lut/oaof August 1910 the Republican candidates in Lisbon
and Oporto were returned by large majorities. On
the 3rd of October the murder of a distinguished Republican
physician, Dr Miguel Bombarda, precipitated the revolution
which had been organized to take place in Lisbon ten days
later. The Republican soldiers in Lisbon, aided by armed
civilians and by the warships in the Tagus, attacked the loyal
garrison and municipal guards, shelled the Necessidades Palace,
and after severe street-fighting (Oct. 4th-6th) became masters
of the capital. The king escaped to Ericeira, and thence, with
the other members of the royal family, to Gibraltar. Soon
afterwards they travelled undisturbed to England, where
the king was received by the duke of Orleans. Through-
out Portugal the proclamation of a republic was either
welcomed or accepted without further resistance. A provi-
sional government was formed under the presidency of Dr
Theophilo Braga (b. 1843), a native of the Azores, who had
since 1865 been prominent among Portuguese men of letters
(see Literature, below). The new government undertook to
carry out part of the Republican programme before summon-
ing a constituent assembly to remodel the constitution. Among
its most important acts were the expulsion of the religious con-
gregations which had returned after 1834, the nationalization
of their property, and the abolition, by decree, of the council
of state, the upper house and all hereditary titles or privileges.
The Republican programme also included the separation of
Church and State, and the concession of local autonomy (on
federal lines, if possible) to the provinces and colonies of Portugal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Sources. There are separate articles on the
Portuguese I5th- and 16th-century chroniclers, G. E. de Azurara,
J. de Barros, D. de Goes, F. Lopes, J. Osorio da Fonseca, R. de
Pina, G. de Resende and L. de Sousa, and on the 19th-century
historians, A. Herculano and J. P. Oliveira Martins. The most
important collections of documents are CollecQao dos livros in-
editos, &c., ed. J. F. Correa da Serra (n vols., Lisbon, 1790-1804);
Quadra elementar das relates political e diplomaticas de Portugal,
ed. first by the Viscount de Santarem (1856-1861) and afterwards,
under the title of Corpo diplomalico portuguez, by L. A. Rebello da
Silva (vols. i.-iv.), J. J. da Silva Mendes Leal (v.-ix.)'and J. C. de
Freitas Moniz (x., &c.). The Collec$ao de tratados, &c. (30 vols.,
Lisbon, 1856-1879), was ed. successively by Viscount J. F. Borges
de Castro and J. Judice Biker; it was continued by the Royal
Academy as the Nova collecc,do de tratados (2 vols., Lisbon, 1890-
1891). See also Portuealiae monumenta historica, ed. A. Herculano
and J. J. da Silva Mendes Leal (12 parts, Lisbon, 1856-1897);
Diogo Barbosa Machado, Bibliotheca lusitana (4 vols., Lisbon,
1741-1759); Innocencio da' Silva and (after vol. x.) P. W. de Brito
Aranha, Diccionario bibliographico^ portuguez (Lisbon, 1858, &c.).
Periodicals containing valuable historical matter are the Archive
historico portuguez (Lisbon, 1903, &c.), the Bolelim of the Lisbon
Geographical Society (1873, &c.), and Portugalia (Oporto, 1898, &c.).
2. General Histories. The Historia de Portugal, by J. P. Oliveira
Martins (2 vols., 4th ed., Lisbon, 1901), is a series of brilliant im-
pressionist studies. There is a popular illustrated Historia de
Portugal, by A. Ennes, M. Pinheiro Chagas and others, in 37 parts
(Lisbon, 1877-1883). See also H. Morse Stephens, Portugal, 4th
ed., with additional chapter on the reign of D. Carlos, by Martin
Hume (London, 1908) ; E. MacMurdo, History of Portugal (2 vols.,
London, 1888-1889) ; H. Schaefer, Ceschichte von Portugal (5 vols.,
2nd ed., Hamburg, 1874).
3. Special Periods. A. Herculano's classic Historia de Portugal
(4 vols., Lisbon, 1846-1853) covers the period up to 1279. H. da
Gama Barros, Historia da administrafdo publica em Portugal nss
seculos XII. a XV. (2 vols., Lisbon, 1895-1896) is a scientific study
of the highest value. For the periods 1415-1460 and 1750-1777,
see the authorities quoted under HENRY THE NAVIGATOR, and
POMBAL. A critical bibliography for the period 1460-1580 is given
by K. G. Jayne, in Vasco da Gama, &c. (London, 1910). For
later history, see L. A. Rebello da Silya, Historia de Portugal nos
seculos XVII. e XVIII. (5 vols., Lisbon, 1860-1871); J. M. Latino
Coelho, Historia de Portugal desde os fins do XVIII. seculo ate
1814 (3 vols., Lisbon, 1874-1891); the authorities cited under
PENINSULAR WAR; S. J. da Luz Soriano, Historia da guerraem
Portugal (19 vols., Lisbon, 1866-1890); J. P. Oliveira Martins,
Portugal contemporaneo (1826-1868), (2 vols., 4th ed., Lisbon, 1906);
J. L. Freire de Carvalho, Memorias . . . para . . . a usurpa(So
de D. Miguel (4 vols., Lisbon, 1841-1849) ; Sir C. Napier, An Account
of the War .... between D. Pedro ana, D. Miguel (2 vols., London,
1835) ; W. Bollaert, The Wars of Succession of Portugal and Spain,
from 1821 to 1840 (2 vols., London, 1870). (K. G. J.)
LITERATURE
The Portuguese language can be most conveniently described
in relation to the other languages of the Peninsula (see SPAIN:
Language). Portuguese literature is distinguished by the
wealth and variety of its lyric poetry, by its primacy in bucolic
verse and prose, by the number of its epics and historical books,
by the relative slightness of the epistolary element, and by the
almost complete absence of the memoir. Rich as its romanceiro
is, its volume is far less than the Spanish, but the cancioneiros
i 5 6
PORTUGAL
[LITERATURE
remain to prove that the early love songs of the whole Peninsula
were written in Portuguese, while the primitive prose redaction
of Amadis, the prototype of all romances of chivalry, was
almost certainly made in Portugal, and a native of the same
country produced in the Diana of Montem6r (Montemayor)
the masterpiece of the pastoral novel. The Lusiads may be
called at once the most successful epic cast in the classical
mould, and the most national of poems, and the great historical
monuments and books of travel of the i6th and I7th centuries
are worthy of a nation of explorers who carried the banner of
the Quinas to the ends of the earth. On the other hand Portugal
gave birth to no considerable dramatist from the time of Gil
Vicente, in the i6th century, until that of Garrett in the igth,
and it has failed to develop a national drama.
Its geographical position and history have rendered Portugal
very dependent for intellectual stimulus and literary culture
on foreign countries, and writers on Portuguese literature are
wont to divide their subjects into periods corresponding to the
literary currents from abroad which have modified its evolution.
To summarize, the first literary activity of Portugal was derived
from Provence, and Provencal taste ruled for more than a
century; the poets of the isth century imitated the Castilians,
and the i6th saw the triumph of Italian or classical influence.
Spain again imposed its literary standards and models in
the 1 7th century, France in the i8th, while the Romantic
movement reached Portugal by way of England and France; and
those countries, and in less degree Germany, have done much
to shape the literature of the igth century. Yet as regards the
Peninsula, the literatures of Portugal and Castile act and react
on one another and if the latter gave much, she also received
much, for nearly every Portuguese author of renown from 1450
until the i8th century, except Antonio Ferreira, wrote in Spanish,
and some, like Jorge de Montemor and Manoel de Mello, pro-
duced masterpieces in that language and are numbered as
Spanish classics. Again, in no country was the victory of the
Italian Renaissance and the classical revival so complete, so
enduring.
But notwithstanding all its dependence on classical and
foreign authors; Portuguese literature has a distinct individuality
which appears in the romanceiro, in the songs named cantares
de amigo of the cancioneiros, in the Chronicles of Fernao Lopes,
in the Historia tragico-maritima, in the plays of Gil Vicente,
in the bucolic verse and prose of the early i6th century, in the
Letters of Marianna Alcoforado and, above all, in The Lusiads.
Early Period. Though no literary documents belonging to
the first century of Portuguese history have survived, there is
p^. evidence that an indigenous popular poetry both
sacred and profane existed, and while Provencal
influences moulded the manifestations of poetical talent for
nearly two hundred years, they did not originate them. The
close relations that prevailed between the reigning houses of
Portugal, Provence and Aragon, cemented by intermarriages,
introduced a knowledge of the gay science, but it reached Portugal
by many other ways by the crusaders who came to help in
fighting the Moors, by the foreign prelates who occupied Penin-
sular sees, by the monastic and military orders who founded
establishments in Portugal, by the visits of individual singers
to court and baronial houses, but chiefly perhaps by the pilgrims
who streamed from every country along the Frankish way to
the far-famed shrine of Santiago de Compostela. Already by
the end of the 1 2th century the lyric poetry of the troubadours
had found cultivators in Portugal, and a few compositions which
have come down to us bear a date slightly anterior to the year
1200. One of the earliest singers was D. Gil Sanches, an ille-
gitimate son of Sancho I., and we possess a cantar de amigo in
Galician-Portuguese, the first literary vehicle of the whole
Peninsula, which appears to be the work of Sancho himself,
and addressed to his concubine, A. Ribeirinha. The pre-
Alphonsine period to which these men belong runs from 1200 to
1245 and produced little of moment, but in 1248 the accession
of King Alphonso III., who had lived thirteen years in France,
inaugurated a time of active and rich production which is
illustrated in the Cancioneiro da Ajuda, the oldest collection of
Peninsular verse. The apogee of palace poetry dates from
1275 to 1280, when young King Diniz displayed his exceptional
talents in a circle formed by the best troubadours of his father
Alphonso III. and the veterans of his grandfather Alphonso II.,
whose song-book, Cantigas de S. Maria, contains the choicest
religious verse of the age. Diniz, who had been educated
by Amyeric of Cahors, proved himself the most fecund poet-
king of his day, though the pleiad of fidalgos forming his court,
and the jograes who flocked there from all parts, were fewer
in number, less productive, and lacked the originality, vigour
and brilliance of the singers who versified round Alphonso III.
The principal names of the Dionysian period (1284-1325)
which is illustrated in the Cancioneiro da Vaticana are the king
himself and his bastards D. Alphonso Sanches and D. Pedro,
count of Barcellos. Of the two last, the former sings of love well
and sincerely, while the latter is represented by love songs replete
with false sentiment and by some rather gross songs of maldizer, a
form which, if it rarely contains much poetical feeling or literary
value, throws considerable light on the society of the time.
The verses of Diniz, essentially a love poet, are conventional
in tone and form, but he can write pretty ballads and pastorals
when he allows himself to be natural. The Portuguese trouba-
dours belonged to all social classes, and even included a few
priests, and though love was their favourite topic they used
every kind of verse, and in satire they hold the palm. In other
respects they are inferior to their Provencal masters. Speaking
generally, the cancioneiros form monotonous reading owing
to their poverty of ideas and conventionality of metrical forms
and expression, but here and there men of talent who were poets
by profession and better acquainted with Provencal literature
endeavoured to lend their work variety by the use of difficult
processes like the lexaprem and by introducing new forms like
the pastorela and the descort. It is curious to note that no heroic
songs are met with in the cancioneiros; they are all with one
exception purely lyrical in form and tone. The death of King
Diniz proved a severe blow to troubadour verse, and the reign
of his successor Alphonso IV. witnessed a profound decadence
of court poetry, while there is not a single poem by a Portuguese
author in the last half of the I4th century, and only the names
of a few authors have survived, among them the Galicians
Vasco Pires de Camoens, an ancestor of Luiz de Camoens, and the
typical lover Macias. The romanceiro, comprising romances of
adventures, war and chivalry, together with religious and sea
songs, forms a rich collection of ballad poetry which continued in
process of elaboration throughout the whole of the middle ages,
but unfortunately the oldest specimens have perished and scarcely
any of those existing bear a date anterior to the isth century.
Epic poetry in Portugal developed much later than lyric,
but the signal victory of the united Christian hosts over the
Moors at the battle of the Salado in 1340 gave occasion to an
epic by Alphonso Giraldes of which some fragments remain.
The first frankly literary prose documents appear in the I4th
century, and consist of chronicles, lives of saints and genealogical
treatises. The more important are the Chronica
breve do archivo nacional, the Chronicas de S. Cruz
de Coimbra, the Chronica da conquista do Algaroe and the
Livros dos Linhagens, aristocratic registers, portions of which,
like the story of King Arthur, have considerable literary interest.
All the above may be found in the Portugaliae monumenta
historica, scriptores, while the Life of St Elizabeth of Portugal
is included in the Monarchia lusitana; Romania has printed
the following hagiographical texts belonging to the same century
the Vida de Eufrosina, the Vida de Maria Egypcia and the
Vida de Sancto Amaro; the Vida de Santo Eloy has appeared
in the Institute and the Vida dos Santos Barlaao e Josajate has
been issued by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences.
Romances of chivalry belonging to the various cycles must
have penetrated into Portugal at an early date, and the Nobili-
ario of the Conde D. Pedro contains the genealogy of Arthur
and the adventures of Lear and Merlin. There exists a mid-
i4th-century Historia do Santo Graal, and an unprinted Josep
LITERATURE]
PORTUGAL
157
Prose.
ab Aramadia, while, though the MS. is lost, we have abundant
evidence of the existence of- a primitive Portuguese prose
redaction of Amadis de Gaula anterior to the present Spanish
text. Furthermore, the Livro de Esopo published by Dr Leite
de Vasconcellos also belongs to the period, and there are other
works in MS.
The isth Century. In the reign of John I. the court
became an important literary centre, the king himself composed
a Livro de Montana, so far unedited, and his sons are
rightly described as Camoens as " inclyta gera^ao,
altos Infantes." King Edward (Duarte) collected a precious library
composed of the ancient classics, some translated by his order,
as well as medieval poems and histories, and he wrote a moral
treatise Leal comselheiro, and hints on horsemanship, or Livro
da ensinanqa de bent cavalgar toda sella. His brother D. Pedro
also wrote a moral treatise Da virtuosa Bemfeitoria, and caused
Vegetius's De re militari and Cicero's De ofliciis to be turned into
Portuguese. This travelled prince brought back from Venice a
MS. of Marco Polo, the gift of the Senate, and is still remembered
by the people through the story Livro das viagens do Infante
D. Pedro o qual andou as sete partidas do mundo, reprinted almost
yearly, of which he is the hero. All the monarchs of the isth
century were highly educated men and patrons of letters; indeed,
even that typical medieval knight Alphonso V. confesses, in his
correspondence with Azurara, that the sword avails nothing
without the pen. The age is noted for its chronicles, beginning
with the anonymous life of the Portuguese Cid, the Holy Con-
stable Nuno Alvares Pereira, told in charming infantile prose,
the translated Chronica dafundi$ao do moesteyro de Sam Vicente,
and the Vida de D. Tello. Fernao Lopes (q.v.), the father of
Portuguese history and author of chronicles of King Pedro,
King Ferdinand and King John I., has been called by Southey
the best chronicler of any age or nation. Gomes Eannes de
Azurara completed Lopes's chronicle ef King John by describing
the capture of Ceuta, and wrote a chronicle of D. Pedro de
Menezes, governor of the town down to 1437, and a chronicle of
D. Duarte de Menezes, captain of Alcacer, but his capital work
is the chronicle of the conquest of Guinea (see AZURARA).
Though not a great chronicler or an artist like Lopes, Ruy de
Pina (q.v.) is free from the rhetorical defects of Azurara, and his
chronicles of King Edward and King Alphonso V. are character-
ized by unusual frankness, and meritorious both as history and
literature. All these three writers combined the posts of keeper
of the archives and royal chronicler, and were, in fact, the king's
men, though Lopes at least seems rather the historian of a
people than the oracle of a monarch. Garcia de Resende (q.v.)
appropriated Pina's chronicle of King John II., and after adding
a wealth of anecdote and gossip and casting the glamour of poetry
over a somewhat dry record, he reissued it under his own name.
The taste for romances of chivalry continued throughout the
1 5th century, but of all that were produced the only one that has
come down to us is the Estorea do Imperador Vespasiano, an
introduction to the Graal Cycle, based on the apocryphal gospel of
Nicodemus.
The Constable D. Pedro of Portugal, son of the prince of that
name already referred to, has left some verses marked by
elevation of thought and deep feeling, the Salyra de
{dice e infelice vida, and the death of his sister
inspired his Tragedia de la reina Isabel; but he is best remem-
bered by his Coplas del contempto del mundo in the Cancioneiro
Geral. Though he actually drafted the first in his native tongue,
all these poems are in Castilian, and D. Pedro is one of the first
representatives of those Spanish influences which set aside the
Provencal manner and in its place adopted a taste for allegory
and a reverence for classical antiquity, both imported from Italy.
It was to the constable that the marquis de Santillana addressed
his historic letter dealing with the origins of Peninsular verse.
The court, poetry of the reigns of King Alphonso V. and King
John II., so far as it survives, is contained in the lyrical collection
known as the Cancioneiro Geral, compiled by Garcia de Resende
and printed in 1516. Nearly three hundred authors are there
represented by pieces in Portuguese and Castilian, and they
Verse.
include D. Joao Manuel, D. Joao de Menezes, Joao Rodrigues de
Sa e Menezes, Diogo Brandao, Duarte de Brito and Fernao da
Silveira. The literary progenitors of the Cancioneiro were the
Spanish poets Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, Garci-Sanchez
de Badajos and Rodriguez del Padron, and its main subjects
are love, satire and epigram. The epic achievements of the
Portuguese in that century, the discoveries and the wars in
Africa, hardly find an echo, even in the verses of those who had
taken part in them. Instead, an atmosphere of artificiality
surrounds these productions, and the verses that reveal genuine
poetical feeling are very few. They include a lament of Garcia
de Resende on the death of Ignez de Castro which probably
inspired the inimitable stanzas dedicated to the same subject
in The Lusiads, the Fingimento de Amores by Diogo Brandao, the
Coplas of D. Pedro already referred to, and a number of minor
pieces. However, some names appeared in the Cancioneiro Gerale
which were to be among the foremost in Portuguese literature,
e.g. Bernardim Ribeiro, Christovam Falcao, Gil Vicente, and
Sa de Miranda, who represent the transition between the Spanish
school of the isth and the Italian school of the i6th centjiry,
the members of which are called Os Quinhenlislas. Ribeiro and
Falcao, the introducers of the bucolic style, put new life into
the old forms, and by their eclogues in redondilhas, breathing
the deepest and most genuine feeling in verses of perfect harmony,
they gave models which subsequent writers worked by but could
never equal.
The Drama. The history of the modern drama begins with
religious plays, followed at a later period by moralities, and
thence, by an easy transition, by the farce. This transition from
the presentment of traditional types to the modern play can be
traced in the works of Gil Vicente, the father of the Portuguese
theatre. His first efforts belonged to the religious drama, and
some of the more notable had edification for their object, e.g.
the Barca do Inferno, but even in this class he soon introduces
the comic element by way of relief, and in course of time he
arrives at pure comedy and develops the study of character.
For a detailed description and criticism of his work, see VICENTE.
In the various towns where he stayed and produced his plays,
writers for the stage sprang up, and these formed the Eschola
Velha or school of Gil Vicente. To name the best ail Vicente
known, Evora, the city of culture, produced Affonso and the
Alvarez, author of religious pieces, Antonio Ribeiro, Eschola
nicknamed "the Chiado," an unfrocked friar with VeUw -
a strong satirical vein who wrote farces in the Bazochian style,
and his brother Jeronimo Ribeiro. In Santarem appeared
Antonio Prestes, a magistrate who drew from his judicial
experience but evinced more knowledge of folk-lore than
dramatic talent, while Camoens himself was so far influenced
by Gil Vicente, whose plays he had perhaps seen performed in
Lisbon, that in spite of his Coimbra training he never exchanged
the old forms for those of the classical comedy. His Amphi-
tryons is a free imitation of the Latin, yet thoroughly national in
spirit and cast in the popular redondilha; the dialogue is spirited,
the situations comic. King Seleucus derives from Plutarch and
has a prose prologue of real interest for the history of the stage,
while FUodemo is a clever tragi-comedy in verse with prose
dialogues interspersed. Another poet of the sAie school is
Balthazar Dias, the blind poet, whose simple religious autos
are still performed in the villages, and are continually reprinted,
the best liked being the Auto of St Alexis, and the Auto of St
Catherine. He is purely medieval in subject and spirit, his
lyrics are perfect in form and expression, his diction thoroughly
popular. One of the last dramatists of the i6th century
belonging to the old school was Simao Machado, who wrote the
Comedy of Diu and the Enchantments of Alfea, two long plays
almost entirely in Spanish, and full of digressions only made
tolerable by the beauty of their lyrics.
Except Camoens, all these men, though disciples of Gil Vicente,
are decidedly inferior to him in dramatic invention, fecundity
and power of expression, and .they were generally of humble
social position. Moreover the favour of the court was with-
drawn on the death of Gil Vicente, and this meant much, for
i 5 8
PORTUGAL
[LITERATURE
there existed no educated middle class to support a national
theatre. At the same time the old dramatists had to face the
opposition of the classical school, which appealed to the cultured,
and the hostility of the Inquisition, which early declared war
on the popular plays on account of their grossness, and after-
wards through the index prohibited altogether even the religious
autos, as it had condemned the Italian comedies. The way was
thus clear for the Jesuits, who, with their Latin tragi-comedies or
dramatized allegories written to commemorate saints or for
scholastic festivals, succeeded for a time in supplanting both
the popular pieces of the old school and the plays modelled on
the masterpieces of Greece and Rome. The old dramatists
came to write for the lower classes only, and though the school
lingered on, its productions were performed solely by travelling
companies at country fairs. Though we know that much has
perished, the four Indexes of the i6th century give some idea of
the rich repertory of the popular theatre, and of the efforts
necessary to destroy it; moreover, the Spanish Index of 1559,
by forbidding autos of Gil Vicente and other Portuguese authors,
is interesting evidence of the extent to which they were appreci-
ated' in the neighbouring country.
The Renaissance. The movement commonly called the
Renaissance reached Portugal both indirectly through Spain
and directly from Italy, with which last country it maintained
close literary relations throughout the isth century. King
Alphonso V. had been the pupil of Matthew of Pisa and sum-
moned Justus Balduinus to his court to write the national
history in Latin, while later King John II. corresponded with
Politian, and early in his reign the first printing-press got to
work. In the next century many famous humanists took up
their abode in Portugal. Nicholas Cleynarts taught the Infant
Henry, afterwards cardinal and king, and lectured on the classics
at Braga and Evora, Vasaeus directed a school of Latin at Braga,
and George Buchanan accompanied other foreign professors
to Coimbra when King John III. reformed the university. Many
distinguished Portuguese teachers returned from abroad to
assist 'the king at the same time, among them Ayres Barbosa
from Salamanca, Andre de Gouveia of the Parisian college of St
Barbe, whom Montaigne dubbed " the greatest principal of
France," Achilles Estaco and Diogo de Teive.
At home Portugal produced Andre de Resende (q.v.), author
of the Historia da antiguidade da cidade de Evora and De
anliquitatibus Lusitaniae, and Francisco de Hollanda, painter,
architect, and author of, inter alia, the Quatro dialogos da
pintura antiga. Moreover, women took a share in the intel-
lectual movement of the time, and the sisters Luisa and Angela
Sigea, Joanna Vaz and Paula Vicente, daughter of Gil Vicente,
constituted an informal female academy under the presidency
of the Infanta D. Maria, daughter of King Manoel. Luisa Sigea
was both an orientalist and a Latin poetess, while Publia
Hortensia de Castro, after a course of humanities, philosophy and
theology, defended theses at Evora in her eighteenth year.
The Italian school was founded by Sa de Miranda (q.v.), a
man of noble character who, on his return in 1526 from a six
The Italian vears> sta y m Italy, where he had foregathered with
SchooiorOs the leading writers of the day, initiated a reform of
Portuguese literature which amounted to a revolu-
tion. He introduced and practised the forms of the
sonnet, canzon, ode, epistle in oitava rima and in tercets, and the
epigram, and raised the whole tone of poetry. At the same time
he gave fresh life to the national redondilha metre (medida velha)
by his Cartas or Satiras which with his Eclogues, some in Portu-
guese, others in Castilian, are his most successful compositions.
His chief disciple, Antonio Ferreira (q.v.), a convinced classicist,
went further, and dropping the use of Castilian, wrote sonnets
much superior in form and style, though they lack the rustic
atmosphere of those of his master, while his odes and epistles
are too obviously reminiscent of Horace. D. Manoel de Portugal,
Pero de Andrade Caminha, Diogo Bernardes, Frei Agostinho da
Cruz and Andre Falcao de Resende continued the erudite
school, which, after considerable opposition, definitely triumphed
in the person of Luiz de Camoens. The Lima of Bernardes
contains some beautiful eclogues as well as carlas in the bucolic
style, while the odes, sonnets, and eclogues of Frei Agostinho
are full of mystic charm. Camoens (q.v.) is, as Schlegel remarked,
an entire literature in himself, and some critics rate him even
higher as a lyric than as an epic poet. He unites and fuses the
best elements of the Italian and the popular muse, using the
forms of the one to express the spirit and traditions of the other,
and when he employs the medida velha, it becomes in his hands
a vehicle for thought, whereas before it had usually served
merely to express emotions.
His Lusiads, cast in the Virgilian mould, celebrates the
combination of faith and patriotism which led to the discoveries
and conquests of the Portuguese, and though the .
voyage of Vasco da Gama occasioned its composition
and formed the skeleton round which it grew, its true subject
is the peito illuslre lusilano. Immediately on its appearance
The Lusiads took rank as the national poem par excellence, and
its success moved many writers to follow in the same path; of
these the most successful was Jeronymo Corte Real (q.v.).
All these poems, like the Elegiada of Luis Pereira Brandao
on the disaster of Al Kasr, the Primeiro ctrco de Diu of the
chronicler Francisco de Andrade, and even the Ajfonso Africano
of Quevedo, for all its futile allegory, contain striking episodes
and vigorous and well-coloured descriptive passages, but they
cannot compare with The Lusiads in artistic value.
The return of Sa de Miranda from Italy operated to transform
the drama as well as lyric poetry. He found the stage occupied
mainly by religious plays in which there appeared The
no trace of the Greek or Roman theatre, and, classical
admiring what he had seen in Italy, he and his Comedy and
followers protested against the name auto, restored Tra z ea y-
that of comedy, and substituted prose for verse. They generally
chose the plays of Terence as models, yet their life is conventional
and their types are not Portuguese but Roman-Italian. The
revived classical comedy was thus so bound down by respect
for authority as to have little chance of development, while
its language consisted of a latinized prose from which the
emotions were almost absent. Though it secured the favour
of the humanists and the nobility, and banished the old popular
plays from both court and university soon after Gil Vicente's
death, its victory was shortlived. Jorge Ferreira de Vascon-
cellos, who produced in the Eufrosina the first prose play,
really belongs to the Spanish school, yet, though he wrote
under the influence of the Celestina, which had a great vogue in
Portugal, and of Roman models, his types, language and general
characteristics are deeply national. However, even if they had
stage, qualities, the very length of this and his other plays,
the Ulisipo and the Aulegraphia, would prevent their perform-
ance, but in fact they are novels in dialogue containing a trea-
sury of popular lore and wise and witty sayings with a moral
object. So decisive was the success of Jorge Ferreira's new
invention, notwithstanding its anonymity, that it decided Sa
de Miranda to attempt the prose comedy. He modelled himself
on the Roman theatre as reflected by the plays of Ariosto, and he
avowedly wrote the Estrangeiros to combat the school of Gil
Vicente, while in it, as in Os Vilhalpandos, the action takes
place in Italy. Antonio Ferreira, the chief dramatist of the
classical school, knew both Greek and Latin as well as Miranda,
but far surpassed him in style. He attempted both comedy
and tragedy, and his success in the latter branch is due to the
fact that he was not content to seek inspiration from Seneca,
as were most of the tragedians of the i6th century, but went
straight to the fountain heads, Sophocles and Euripides. His
Bristo is but a youthful essay, but his second piece, O Cioso, is
almost a comedy of character, though both are Italian even in
the names of the personages. Ferreira's real claim to distinc-
tion, however, rests on Ignez de Castro (see FERREIRA).
The principal form taken by prose writing in the i6th century
was historical, and a pleiad of distinguished writers arose to
narrate the discoveries and conquests in Asia, Africa and the
ocean. Many of them saw the achievements they relate and
were inspired by patriotism to record them, so that their writings
LITERATURE]
PORTUGAL
lack that serene atmosphere of critical appreciation which is
looked for if history is to take its place as a science. In the four
I6th- decades of his Asia, Jo5o de Barros, the Livy
Century of his country, tells in simple vigorous language
Prose-' the "deeds achieved by the Portuguese in the dis-
Hiitory. covery and conquest of the seas and lands of the
Orient." His first decade undoubtedly influenced Camoens, and
together the two men fixed the Portuguese written tongue, the
one by his prose, the other by his verse. The decades, which
were continued by Diogo do Couto, a more critical writer and
a clear and correct stylist, must be considered the noblest
historical monument of the century (see BARROS). Couto
is also responsible for some acute observations on the causes of
Portuguese decadence in the East, entitled Soldado practice.
The word encyclopaedist fits Damiao de Goes, a diplomatist,
traveller, humanist and bosom friend of Erasmus. One of the
most critical spirits of the age, his chronicle of King Manoel,
the Fortunate Monarch, which he introduced by one of Prince
John, afterwards King John II., is worthy of the subject and
the reign in which Portugal attained the apogee of its greatness.
Goes (g.v.) wrote a number of other historical and descriptive
works in Portuguese and Latin, some of which were printed
during his residence in the Low Countries and contributed to
his deserved fame. After twenty years of investigation at
Goa, Fernao Lopes de Castanheda issued his Historia do de-
scobrimento e conquista da India pelos Portugueses (Lisbon, 1552-
1554 and 1561), a book that ranks besides those of Barros and
Couto. Antonio Galvao, who, after governing the Moluccas
with rare success and integrity, had been offered the native
throne of Ternate, went home in 1540, and died a pauper in a
hospital, his famous treatise only appearing posthumously.
The Tratado dos diversos . . . caminhos par onde a pimenta e
especiaria veyo da India . . . e assim de todos os descubrimentos
. . . que sao feitos em a era de 1560 has been universally recog-
nized as of unique historical value. Like the preceding writers,
Caspar Correia or Correa lived long years in India and embodied
his intimate knowledge of its manners and customs in the
picturesque prose of the Lendas da India, which embraces the
events of the years 1497 to 1550. Among other historical
works dealing with the East are the Commentaries de Afonso
d' Albuquerque, an account of the life of the great captain and
administrator, by his natural son, and the Tratado das cousas
da China e de Ormuz, by Frei Caspar da Cruz.
Coming back to strictly Portuguese history, we have the
uncritical Chronica de D. Joao III. by Francisco de Andrade,
and the Chronica de D. Sebastiao by Frei Bernardo da Cruz,
who was with the king at Al Kasr al Kebir, while Miguel Leitao
de Andrade, who was taken prisoner in that battle, related his
experiences and preserved many popular traditions and customs
in his Miscellanea. Bishop Osorio (q.v.), a scholar of European
reputation, wrote chiefly in Latin, and his capital work, a
chronicle of King Manoel, is in that tongue.
The books of travel of this century are unusually important
because their authors were often the first Europeans to visit
or at least to study the countries they refer to. They include,
to quote the more noteworthy, the Descobrimento de Frolida,
the Itincrario of Antonio Tenreiro, the Verdadeira informacao
das terras do Preste Joao by Francisco Alvares /and the Ethiopia
oriental by Frei Joao dos Santos, both dealing with Abyssinia,
the Itinerario da terra santa by Frei Pantaleao de Aveiro, and
that much-translated classic, the Historia da vida do padre
Francisco Xaiiier by Padre Joao de Lucena. Fernao Cardim
in his Narrativa epislolar records a journey through Brazil, and
Pedro Teixcira relates his experiences in Persia. But the work
that holds the palm in its class is the Peregrinafao which Fernao
Mendes Pinto (q.v.), the famous adventurer, composed in his
old age for his children's reading. While Mendes Pinto and his
book are typically Portuguese of that age, the Historia tragico-
maritima, sometimes designated the prose epic of saudade, is
equally characteristic of the race of seamen which produced it.
This collection of twelve stories of notable wrecks which befell
Portuguese ships between 1552 and 1604 contains that of the
galleon " St John " on the Natal coast, an event which inspired
Corte-Real's epic poem as well as some poignant stanzas in
The Lusiads, and the tales form a model of simple spontaneous
popular writing.
The romance took many forms, and in two of them at least
works appeared which exercised very considerable influence
abroad. The Mcnina e moc.a of Bernardim Ribeiro,
a tender pastoral story inspired by saudade for his
lady-love, probably moved Montem6r or Montemayor
(q.v.) to write his Diana, and may some fifty years later have
suggested the Lusitania transformada to Fernao Alvares do
Oriente, who, however, like Ribeiro, owes some debt to San-
nazaro's Arcadia. To name the Palmeirim d'Inglaterra of
Moraes (q.v.) is to mention a famous book from which, we are
told, Burke quoted in the House of Commons, while Cervantes
had long previously declared that it ought to bd guarded as
carefully as the works of Homer. Like most successful ro-
mances of chivalry, it had a numerous progeny, but its sequels,
D. Duardos by Diogo Fernandes, and D. Clarisel de Bretanha
by Goncalves Lobato, are quite inferior. The historian Barros
tried his youthful pen in a romance of chivalry, the Chronica
do Imperador Clarimundo, while in another branch, and a popular
one in Portugal, the Arthurian cycle, the dramatist Ferreira
de Vasconcellos wrote Sagramor or Memorial das proesas da
segunda Tavola Redonda. A book of quite a different order is
the Cantos de proveito e exemplo by Fernandes Trancoso, con-
taining a series of twenty-nine tales derived from tradition
or imitated from Boccaccio and others, which enjoyed deserved
favour for more than a century.
Samuel Usque, a Lisbon Jew, deserves a place to himself
for his Consolafam ds tributaries de Israel, where he exposes
the persecutions endured by his countrymen in every age down to
his time; the book takes the dialogue form, and its diction is
elegant and pure. The important part taken by Portuguese
prelates and theologians at the Council of Trent stimulated
religious writing, most of it in Latin, but Frei Bartholomeu dos
Martyres, archbishop of Braga, wrote a Cathecismo da doutrina
Christa, Frei Luiz de Granada a Compendia de Doutrina Christa
and Sermoes, all in Portuguese, and other notable pulpit orators
include Diogo de Paiva de Andrade, Padre Luiz Alvares, Dom
Antonio Pinheiro and Frei Miguel dos Santos, who preached at
the obsequies of King Sebastian.
Among the moralists of the time three at least deserve the
title of masters of prose style, Heitor Pinto for his Imogens da
vida Christa, Bishop Arraez for his Dialogos, and Frei Thome 1 de
Jesus for his noble devotional treatise Trabalhos de Jesus, while
the maxims of Joanna da Gama, entitled Ditos da Freira,
though lacking depth, form a curious psychological document.
The ranks of scientists include the cosmographer Pedro Nunes
(Nonius), a famous mathematician, and the botanist Garcia da
Orta, whose Colloquios dos simples e drogas was the first book to
be printed in the East (1563), while the form of Aristotelian
scholastic philosophy known as Philosophia conimbricensis
had a succession of learned exponents. As, however, their
vehicle was Latin, a mere mention must suffice, and for the
same reason only the title of a notable book by Francisco Sanches
can be given, the De nobili et prima universali scientia quod
nihil scitur.
In 1536 FernJo de Oliveira published the first Portuguese
grammar, and three years later the historian Barros brought out
his Cartinha para aprender a ler, and in 1540 his Grammatica.
Magalhaes Gandavo printed some rules on orthography in 1574.
Nunes de Leao also produced a treatise on orthography in 1576
and a work on the origins of the language in 1605, and Jeronymo
Cardoso gave his countrymen a Latin and Portuguese dictionary.
The i^th Century. The gigantic efforts put forth in every
department of activity during the i6th century led to the
inevitable reaction. Energy was worn out, patriotic osSeiscea-
ardour declined into blind nationalist vanity, and tlstas.
rhetoric conquered style. From a literary as from L y Hc
a political point of view the I7th century found Poetry '
Portugal in a lamentable state of decadence which dated from
i6o
PORTUGAL
[LITERATURE
the preceding age. In 1536 the Inquisition began its work,
while between 1552 and 1555 the control of higher education
passed into the hands of the Jesuits. Following the Inquisition
and the Jesuits came two other obstacles to the cultivation of
letters, the censorship of books and the Indexes, and, as if these
plagues were not enough, the Spanish domination followed.
Next the taint of Gongorism appeared, and the extent to which
it affected the literature of Portugal may be seen in the five
volumes of the Fenix renascida, where the very titles of the
poems suffice to show the futilities which occupied the attention
of some of the best talents. The prevailing European fashion
of literary academies was not long in reaching Portugal, and
1647 saw the foundation of the Academia dos Generosos which
included in its ranks the men most illustrious by learning and
social position, and in 1663 the Academia dos Singulares came
into being 1 ; but with all their pedantry, extravagances and bad
taste, it must be confessed that these and similar corporations
tended to promote the pursuit of good literature. In bucolics
there arose a worthy disciple of Ribeiro in Francisco Rodrigues
Lobo (q.v.), author of the lengthy pastoral romances Corte na
aldia and Primavera, the songs in which, with his eclogues,
earned him the name of the Portuguese Theocritus. The fore-
most literary figure of the time was the encyclopaedic Francisco
Manoel de Mello (q.v.), who, though himself a Spanish classic,
strove hard and successfully to free himself from subservience
to Spanish forms and style. Most of the remaining lyricists of
the period were steeped in Gongorism or, writing in Spanish,
have no place here. It suffices to mention Soror Violente do Ceo,
an exalted mystic called " the tenth muse," Bernarda Ferreira
de Lacerda, author of the Soledades de Bussaco, the Laura do
Anfrizo of Manoel Tagarro, the Sylvia de Lizardo of Frei Bernardo
de Brito, and the poems of Frei Agostinho das Chagas, who,
however, is better represented by his Cartas espwituaes. Satiri-
cal verse had two notable cultivators in D. Thomas de Noronha
and Antonio Serrao de Castro, the first a natural and facile writer,
the second the author of Os Ratos da Inquisifao, a facetious
poem composed during his incarceration in the dungeons of the
Inquisition, while Diogo de Sousa Camacho showed abundant
wit at the expense of the slaves of Gongorism and Marinism.
The gallery of epic poets is a large one, but most of
their productions are little more than rhymed chronicles and
have almost passed into oblivion. The Ulyssea of
Gabriel Pereira de Castro describes the foundation
of Lisbon by Ulysses, but, notwithstanding its
plagiarism of The Lusiads and faults of taste, these ten cantos
contain some masterly descriptive passages, and the ottava
rima shows a harmony and flexibility to which even Camoens
rarely attained; but this praise cannot be extended to the
tiresome Ulyssipo of Sousa de Macedo. The Malaca conquistada
of Francisco de SI de Menezes, having Alphonso d'Albuquerque
for its hero, is prosaic in form, if correct in design. Rodriguez
Lobo's twenty cantos in honour of the Holy Constable do him
no credit, but the Viriato tragico by that travelled soldier
Garcia de Mascarenhas has some vigorous descriptions, and
critics reckon it the best epic of the second class.
In point of style the historians of the period are laboured
and rhetorical; they were mostly credulous friars who wrote in
History. their cells, and no longer, as in the i6th century,
travellers and men of action who described what
they had seen.
Frei Bernardo de Brito began his ponderous Monarchia
Lusitana with the creation of man and ended it where he should
have begun, with the coming of Count Henry to the Peninsula.
His contribution is a mass of legends destitute of foundation or
critical sense, but both here and in the Chronica de Cister he
writes a good prose. Of the four continuers of Brito's work,
three are no better than their master, but Frei Antonio Brandao,
who dealt with the period from King Alphonso Henriques to
King John II., proved himself a man of high intelligence and a
learned, conscientious historian.
Frei Luiz de Sousa, a typical monastic chronicler, although he
had begun life as a soldier, worked up the materials collected by
fipfc
Poetry
Oratory.
others, and after much labor limae produced the panegyrical
Vida de D. Frei Bartholemeu dos martyres, the Historia de S.
Domingos, and the Annaes d'el rei D. Joao III. His style is
lucid and vivid, but he lacks the critical sense, and the speeches
he puts into the mouths of his characters are imaginary. Manoel
de Faria y Sousa (q.v.), a voluminous writer on Portuguese
history and the arch-commentator of Camoens, wrote, by an
irony of fate, in Spanish, and Mello's classic account of the
Catalonian War is also in that language, while, by a still greater
irony, Jacinto Freire de Andrade thought to picture and exalt
the Cato-like viceroy of India by his grandiloquent Vida de D.
Joao de Castro.
Other historical books of the period are the valuable Discursos
of Severim de Faria, the Portugal restaurado of D. Luis de
Menezes, conde de Ericeira, the ecclesiastical histories of Arch-
bishop Rodrigo da Cunha, the Agiologio lusitano of Jorge Cardoso
and the Chronica da Companhia de Jesus by Padre Balthazar
Telles. The las*t also wrote an Historia da Ethiopia, and, though
the travel literature of this century compares badly with that of
the preceding, mention may be made of the Itinerario da India
par terra ate a Uha de Chipre of Frei Caspar de S. Bernardino,
and the Relaqao do novo caminho atraves da Arabia e Syria of
Padre Manoel Godinho.
In the lyth century the religious orders and especially the
Jesuits absorbed even more of the activities and counted for
more in the public affairs of Portugal than in the
preceding age. The pulpit discharged some of the
functions of the modern press, and men who combined the gifts
of oratory and writing filled it and distinguished themselves,
their order and their country. The Jesuit Antonio Vieira (q.v.),
missionary, diplomat and voluminous writer, repeated the
triumphs he had gained in Bahia and Lisbon in Rome, which
proclaimed him the prince of Catholic orators. His 200 sermons
are a mine of learning and experience, and they stand out from
all others by their imaginative power, originality of view,
variety of treatment and audacity of expression. His letters
are in a simple conversational style, but they lack the popular
locutions, humour and individuality of those of Mello. Vieira
was a man of action, while the oratorian Manoel Bernardes lived
as a recluse, hence his sermons and devotional works, especially
Luz e Color and the Nova Floresta, breathe a calm and sweetness
alien to the other, while they are even richer treasures of pure
Portuguese. Perhaps the truest and most feeling human
documents of the century are the five epistles written by
Marianna Alcoforado (q.v.) known to history as the Letters of a
Portuguese Nun. Padre Ferreira de Almeida's translation of the
Bible has considerable linguistic importance, and philological
studies had an able exponent in Amaro de Roboredo.
The popular theatre lived on in the Comedias de Cordel,
mostly anonymous and never printed its existence would
hardly be known were it not for the pieces which fi, e o rama
were placed on the Index. The popular autos that
have survived are mainly religious, and show the abuse of
metaphor and the conceits which derive from Gongora. All
through this century Portuguese dramatists, who aspired to be
heard, wrote, like Jacintho Cordeiro and Mattos Fragoso, in
Castilian, though a brilliant exception appeared in the person of
Francisco Manoel de Mello (q.v.), whose witty Auto do fidalgo
aprendiz in redondilhas is eminently national in language,
subject and treatment. Until the Restoration of 1640 the stage
remained spellbound by the Spaniards, and when a court once
more came to Lisbon it preferred Italian opera, French plays,
and zarzuelas to dramatic performances in the vernacular, with
the result that both Portuguese authors and actors of repute
disappeared.
The 1 8th Century. The first part of the i8th century
differs little from the preceding age except that both affectation
and bad taste tended to increase, but gradually signs appeared
of a literary revolution, which preceded the political and
developed into the Romantic movement. Men of liberal ideas
went abroad, chiefly to France, to escape the stupid tyranny that
ruled in Church and state, and to their exhortation and example
LITERATURE]
PORTUGAL
161
are largely due the reforms which were by degrees inaugurated
in every branch of letters. Their names were among others
Alexandre de Gusmao, the Cavalhciro de Oliveira, Ribeiro
Sanches, Correa da Serra, Brotero and Nascimento. They had
a forerunner in Luiz Antonio Verney, who poured sarcasm on
the prevailing methods of education, and exposed to good effect
the extraordinary literary and scientific decadence of Portugal
in an epoch-making work, the Verdadeiro methodo de esludar.
From time to time literary societies, variously called academies
or arcadias, arose to co-operate in the work of reform. In
1720 King John V., an imitator of Louis XIV.,
^ e ro/ established the academy of history. The fifteen
volumes of its Memorias, published from 1721 to
1756, show the excellent work done by its members, among
whom were Caetano de Sousa, author of the colossal Historia
da Casa Real porlugueza, Barbosa Machado, compiler of the
invaluable Bibliotheca Lusilana, and Scares da Silva, chronicler
of the reign of King John I.
The Royal Academy of Sciences founded in 1 780 by the 2nd
duke of Lafoes, uncle of Queen Maria I., still exists, though its
Royal output and influence are small. Its chief contribu-
Academy ol tions to knowledge were the Dicdonario da lingua
Sciences. portugueza, still unfinished, and the Memorias (1788-
1795), and it included in its ranks nearly all the learned men of
the last part of the i8th century. Among them were the ecclesi-
astical historian Frei Manoel do Cenaculo, bishop of Beja, the
polygraph Ribeiro dos Santos, Caetano do Amaral, a patient
investigator of the origins of Portugal, Joao Pedro Riberio,
the founder of modern historical studies, D. Francisco Alexandre
Lobo, bishop of Vizeu, whose essays on Camoens and other
authors show sound critical sense and a correct style, Cardinal
Saraiva, an expert on ancient and modern history and the
voyages of his countrymen, and Frei Fortunate de S. Boaven-
tura, a historical and literary critic.
In 1756 Cruz e Silva (q.v.), with the aid of friends, established
the Arcadia Ulysiponense, " to form a school of good sayings
and good examples in eloquence and poetry." The most
Arcadias, considered poets of the day joined the Arcadia and
Lyric individually wrote much excellent verse, but they
Poetry, Ac. a n lacked creative power. The principal Greek and
Latin authors were the models they chose, and Garcao, the most
prominent Arcadian, composed the Cantata de Dido, a gem of
ancient art, as well as some charming sonnets to friends and
elegant odes and epistles. The bucolic verse of Quita, a hair-
dresser, has a tenderness and simplicity which challenge com-
parison with Bernardim Ribeiro, and the Marilia of Gonzaga
contains a celebrated collection of bucolic-erotic verse. Their
conventionality sets the lyrics of Cruz e Silva on a lower plane,
but in the Hyssope he improves on the Lutrin of Boileau. After
a chequered existence, internal dissensions caused the dissolution
of the Arcadia in 1774. It had only gained a partial success
because the despotic rule of Pombal, like the Inquisition before
him, hindered freedom of fancy and discussion, and drove the
Arcadians to waste themselves on flattering the powerful.
In 1790 a New Arcadia came into being. Its two most distin-
guished members were the rival poets Bocage (q.v.) and Agostinho
de Macedo (q.v.). The only other poet of the New Arcadia
who ranks high is Curvo Semedo; but the Dissidents, a name
bestowed on those who stood outside the Arcadias, included
two distinguished men now to be cited, the second of whom
became the herald of a poetical revolution. No Portuguese
satirist possessed such a complete equipment for his office as
Nicolao Tolentino, and though a dependent position depressed
his muse, he painted the customs and follies of the time with
almost photographic accuracy, and distributed his attacks or
begged for favours in sparkling verse. The task of purifying
and enriching the language and restoring the cult of the Quin-
hentistas was perseveringly carried out by Francisco Manoel de
Nascimento (q.v.) in numerous compositions in prose and verse,
both original and translated. Shortly before his death in Paris
he became a convert to the Romantic movement, and he
prepared the way for its definite triumph in the person of
xxii. 6
Almeida Garrett, who belonged to the Filinlistas, or followers
of Nascimento, in opposition to the Elmanistas, or disciples of
Bocage.
Early in the i8th century the spirit of revolt against despot ism
led to an attempt at the restoration of the drama by authors
sprung from the people, who wrote for spectators
as coarse as they were ignorant of letters. Its
centres were the theatres of the Bairro Alto and Mouraria, and
the numerous pieces staged there belong to low comedy. The
Operas portuguezas of Antonio Jos6 da Silva (q.v.), produced
between 1733 and 1741, owe their name to the fact that arias,
minuets and modinhas were interspersed with the prose dialogue,
and if neither the plots, style, nor language are remarkable,
they have a real comic force and a certain originality. Silva
is the legitimate representative in the i8th century of the popular
theatre inaugurated by Gil Vicente, and though born in Brazil,
whence he brought the modinha, he is essentially a national writer.
Like Silva's operas, the comedies of Nicolao Luiz contain a
faithful picture of contemporary society and enjoyed consider-
able popularity. Luiz divided his attention between heroic
comedies and comedies de capa y espada, but of the fifty-one
ascribed to him, all in verse, only one bears his name, the rest
appeared anonymously. His method was to choose some Spanish
or Italian play, cut out the parts he disliked, and substitute
scenes with dialogues in his own way, but he has neither ideals,
taste nor education; and, except in Os Maridos Per alias, his
characters are lifeless and their conventional passions are
expressed in inflated language. Notwithstanding their de-
merits, however, his comedies held the stage from 1760 until
the end of the century.
Meanwhile the Arcadia also took up the task of raising the
tone of the stage, but though the ancients and the classic writers
of the 1 6th century were its ideals, it drew immediate inspiration
from the contemporary French theatre. All its efforts failed,
however, because its members lacked dramatic talents and,
being out of touch with the people, could not create a national
drama.
Garcao (q.v.) led the way with the Theatro Novo, a bright
little comedy in blank verse, and followed it up with another,
AssembUa ou paflida; but he did not persevere. Figueiredo
felt he had a mission to restore the drama, and wrote thirteen
volumes of plays in prose and verse, but, though he chose national
subjects, and could invent plots and draw characters, he could
not make them live. Finally, the bucolic poet Quita produced
the tragedies Segunda Castro, Hermione and two others, but
these imitations from the French, for all the taste they show,
were stillborn, and in the absence of court patronage, which
was exclusively bestowed on the Lisbon opera, then the best
equipped in Europe, Portugal remained without a drama of its
own.
Sacred eloquence is represented by Fr. Alexandre Palhares,
a student of Vieira, whose outspoken attack on vice in high
places in a sermon preached before Queen Maria led to his exile
from court. The art of letter- writing had cultivators in Abbade
Costa, Ribeiro Sanches, physician of Catherine II. of Russia,
Alexandre de Gusmao, and the celebrated Cavalheiro de Oli-
veira, also author of Memorias politicas e literarias, published at
the Hague, whither he had fled to escape the Inquisition.
Philological studies were pursued with ardour and many valuable
publications have to be recorded, among them Bluteau's Voca-
btdario Portuguez, the Reflexoes sobre a lingoa portugueza and
an Arte poetica by Francisco Jos6 Freire, the Exercicios and
Espirito da lingoa e eloquencia of Pereira de Figueiredo, trans-
lator of the Vulgate, and Viterbo's Elucidario, a dictionary of
old terms and phrases which has not been superseded. Finally
the best literary critic and one of the most correct prose writers
of the period is Francisco Dias Gomes. .
The igth Century and After. The igth century witnessed a
general revival of letters, beginning with the Romantic move-
ment, of which the chief exponents were Garrett (q.v.) and
Herculano (q.v.), both of whom had to leave Portugal on account
of their political liberalism, and it was inaugurated in the
PORTUGAL
[LITERATURE
field of poetry. Garrett read the masterpieces of contemporary
foreign literature during his exiles in England and France, and,
The imbued with the national spirit, he produced in 1825
Romantic the poem Camoes, wherein he broke with the estab-
t: Hshed rules of composition in verse and destroyed
the authority of the Arcadian rhymers. His poetry
like that of his fellow emigre, the austere Herculano, is eminently
sincere and natural, but while his short lyrics are personal in
subject and his longer poems historical, the verse of Herculano
is generally subjective and the motives religious or patriotic.
The movement not only lost much of its virility and genuineness,
but became ultra-Romantic with A. F. de Castilho (q.v.), whose
most conspicuous followers were Joao de Lemos and the poets
of the collection entitled O Trovador; Scares de Passos, a
singer for the sad; the melodious Thomas Ribeiro, who drew
his inspiration from Zorilla and voiced the opposition to a
political union with Spain in the patriotic poem D. Jayme.
Mendes Leal, a king in the heroic style, Gomes de Amorim
and Bulhao Pato, belong more or less to the same school.
On the other hand Jose Simoes Bias broke with the Romantic
tradition in which he had been educated, and successfully
sought inspiration from popular sources, as his Peninsulares
proves.
In 1865 there arose a serious and lengthy strife in the Por-
tuguese Parnassus, which came to be known as the Coimbra
The question, from its origin in the university city.
Coimbra Its immediate cause was the preface which Castilho
Question, contributed to the poem Moyda.de of Pinheiro
Chagas, and it proclaimed the alliance of poetry with philosophy.
The younger men of letters regarded Castilho as the self-elected
pontiff of a mutual-praise school, who, ignorant of the literary
movement abroad, claimed to direct them in the old paths, and
would not tolerate criticism. The revolt against his primacy
took the form of a fierce war of pamphlets, and led ultimately
to the dethronement of the blind bard. The leaders in the
movement were Anthero de Quental (q.v.) and Dr Theophilo
Braga, the first a student of German philosophy and poetry,
the second a disciple of Comte and author of an epic of humanity,
Visao dos tempos, whose immense work in the spheres of poetry,
criticism and literary history, marred by contradictions, but
abounding in life, cannot be judged at present. In the issue
literature gained considerably, and especially poetry, which
entered on a period of active and rich production, still un-
checked, in the persons of Joao de Deus (q.v.) and the Coim-
brans and their disciples. The Campo de flares contains some
of the most splendid short poems ever written in Portuguese,
and an Italian critic has ventured to call Joao de Deus, to whom
God and women were twin sources of inspiration, the greatest
love poet of the igth century. Simplicity, spontaneity and
harmony distinguished his earlier verses, which are also his
best, and their author belongs to no school but stands alone.
A preponderance of reflection and foreign influences distinguish
the poets now to be mentioned. Anthero de Quental, the chief
of the Coimbrans, enshrined his metaphysical neo-Buddhistic
ideas overshadowed by extreme pessimism, and marked the
stages of his mental evolution, in a sequence of finely-wrought
sonnets. These place him in the sacred circle near to Heine
and Leopardi, and, though strongly individualistic, it is curious
to note in them the influence of Germanism on the mind of a
southerner and a descendant of the Catholic navigators of the
i6th century. Odes modernas, written in youth, show " Santo
Anthero," as his friends called him, in revolutionary, free-
thinking and combative mood, and are ordinary enough, but
the prose of his essays, e.g. Considerations on the Philosophy
of Portuguese Literary History, has that peculiar refinement,
clearness and conciseness which stamped the later work of
this sensitive thinker. A subtle irony pervades the Rimas of
Joao Penha, who links the Coimbrans with Guerra Junqueiro and
the younger poets. Partly philosophical, partly
naturalistic, Junqueiro began with the ironical com-
position, A Morte de D. Joao; in Patria he evoked
in a series of dramatic scenes and lashed with satire the kings of
the Braganza dynasty, and in Os Simples he interprets in
sonorous stanzas the life of country-folk by the light of his
powerful imagination and pantheistic tendencies. The Clari-
dad.es de Sul of Gomes Leal, a militant anti-Christian, at times
recall Baudelaire, and flashes of genius run through Anti-
Christo, which is alive with the instinct of revolt. The S6
of the invalidish Antonio Nobre is intensely Portuguese in
subjects, atmosphere and rhythmic sweetness, and had a deep
influence. Cesario Verde* sought to interpret universal nature
and human sorrow, and the Parnassian Goncalves Crespo may
be termed a deeper, richer Coppee. His Miniaturas and Noc-
turnos have been re-edited by his widow, D. Maria Amalia Vaz de
Carvalho, a highly gifted critic and essayist whose personality
and cercle call to mind the 18th-century poetess, the Marqueza
de Alorna. The French symbolists found an enthusiastic
adept in Eugenio de Castro. Antonio Feijo and Jose de Sousa
Monteiro have written verse remarkable by its form, while
perhaps the most considered of the later poets are Antonio
Correa de Oliveira and Lopes Vieira. Many other genuine
bards might be mentioned, because the Portuguese race can
boast of an unceasing flow of lyric poetry.
Garrett took in hand the reform of the stage, moved by a
desire to exile the translations on which the playhouses had long
subsisted. He chose his subjects from the national
history, and began with the Auto de Gil Vicente, in
which he resuscitated the founder of the theatre, and followed
this up with other prose plays, among which the Alfageme
de Santarem takes the palm; finally he crowned his labours
by Frei Luiz de Sousa, a tragedy of fatality and pathos and one
of the really notable pieces of the century. The historical bent
thus given to the drama was continued by the versatile Mendes
Leal, by Gomes da Amorim and by Pinheiro Chagas, who all
however succumbed more or less to the atmosphere and machi-
nery of ultra-Romanticism, while the plays of Antonio Ennes
deal with questions of the day in a spirit of combative liberalism.
In the social drama, Ernesto Biester, and in comedy Fernando
Caldeira, also no mean lyric poet, are two of the principal names,
and the latter's pieces, A Mantilha da Renda and A Madrugada,
have a delicacy and vivacity which justifies their success. The
comedies of Gervasio Lobato are marked by an easy dialogue
and a sparkling wit, and some of the most popular of them were
written in collaboration with D. Joao de Camara, the leading
dramatist of the day, one of whose pieces, Os Velhos, has been
translated and staged abroad. To Henrique Lopes de Men-
donga, scholar, critic and poet, we owe some strong historical
plays as well as the piece Ze Palonso, written with Lobato,
which made a big hit. The playwrights also include Julio
Dantas, and Dr Marcellino Mesquita, author of Leonor Telles
and other historical dramas, as well as of a powerful piece,
Dor suprema.
Herculano led the way in the historical romance by his Lendas
e narrativas and O Monasticvn, two somewhat laboured pro-
ductions, whose progenitor was Walter Scott; they
still find readers for their impeccable style. Their
most popular successors have been A Moqidade de D. Joao V.
and A ultima corrida de touros reaes em Salvaterra by Rebello
da Silva, and Urn Anno na Corte by the statesman, Andrade
Corvo, the first and the last superior books. The novel shares
with poetry the predominant place in the modern literature of
Portugal, and Camillo Castello Branco (q.v.), Gomes Coelho and
Eca de Queiroz are names which would stand very high in any
country. The first, a wonderful impressionist though not per-
haps a great novelist, describes to perfection the domestic and
social life of Portugal in the early part of the igth century.
His remarkable works include Amor de Perdic.a.0, Amor de Sal-
va$ao, Retrato de Ricardina, and the series entitled Novellas do
Minho; moreover some of his essays in history and literary
criticism, such as Bohemia do Espirito, rank only next to his
romances. Gomes Coelho, better known as Julio Diniz, records
his experiences of English society in Oporto in A Familia
ingleza, and for his romantic idealism he has been dubbed
British; Portuguese critics have accused him of imitating Dickens.
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
163
His stories, particularly As Pupillas do Snr. Reitor, depict
country life and scenery with loving sympathy, and hold the
reader by the charm of the characters, but Diniz is a rather
subjective monotonous writer who lacks the power to analyse,
and he is no psychologist. Eca de Queiroz (q.v.) founded the
Naturalist school in Portugal by a powerful book written in
1871, but only published in 1875, under the title The Crime of
Father Amaro; and two of his great romances, Cousin Basil
and Os Maias, were written during his occupancy of consular
posts in England. The Relic conveys the impressions of a
journey in Palestine and in parts suggests his indebtedness to
Flaubert, but its mysticism is entirely new and individual;
while the versatility of his talent further appears in The Cor-
respondence of Fradique Mendes, where acute observation is
combined with brilliant satire or rich humour. The later por-
tion of The City and the Mountains, for the truth and beauty of
its descriptive passages, is highly praised, and many pages are
already quoted as classic examples of Portuguese prose. Among
other novelists are Oliveira Marreca, Pinheiro Chagas, Arnaldo
Gama, Luis de Magalhaes and Teixeira de Queiroz, the last of
whom is almost as distinctly national a writer as Castello Branco
himself.
Years of persevering toil in archives and editions of old
chronicles prepared Herculano for his magnum opus, the Historia
de Portugal. The Historia da Origem e Estabele-
ory ' cimento da Inquisifao em Portugal followed and
confirmed the position of its author as the leading modern
historian of the Peninsula, and he further initiated and edited
I he important series Portugaliae Monumenta historica. The
Visconde de Santarem, and Judice Biker in geography and
diplomatics, produced standard works; Luz Soriano com-
piled painstaking histories of the reign of King Joseph and
of the Peninsular War; Silvestre Ribeiro printed a learned
account of the scientific, literary and artistic establishments of
Portugal, and Lieut. -Colonel Christovam Ayres was the author
of a history of the Portuguese army. Rebello da Silva and the
voluminous and brilliant publicists, Latino Coelho and Pin-
heiro Chagas, wrote at second hand and rank higher as stylists
than as historians. Gama Barros and Costa Lobo followed
closely in the footsteps of Herculano, the first by a Historia
da Adminislra^ao publica em Portugal nos Seculos XII. a X V.,
positively packed with learning, the second by a Historia da
Sociedade em Portugal no Seculo XV. Though he had no time
for original research, Oliveira Martins (q.v.) possessed psycho-
logical imagination, a rare capacity for general ideas and the
gift of picturesque narration; and in his philosophic Historia
de Portugal, his sensational Portugal contemporaneo, Os Filhos
de D. Jodo and Vida de Nun' Alvarez, he painted an admirable
series of portraits and, following his master Michelet, made the
past live again. Furthermore the interesting volumes of his
Bibliolheca das Sciencias Sociaes show extensive knowledge,
freshness of views and critical independence and they have
greatly contributed to the education of his countrymen.
Ramalho Ortigao, the art critic, will be remembered prin-
cipally for the Farpas, a series of satirical and humorous sketches
of Portuguese society which he wrote in collabora-
tion with Queiroz. Julio Cesar Machado and Fialho
de Almeida made their mark by many humorous publications,
and, in the domain of pure literary criticism, mention must be
made of Antonio Pedro Lopes de Mendonca, Rebello da Silva,
Dr Joaquim de Vasconcellos, Mme Michaelis de Vascon-
cellos, Silva Pinto, the favourite disciple of Castello Branco,
and of Luciano Cordeiro, founder of the Lisbon Geographical
Society, whose able monograph, Soror Marianna, vindicated
the authenticity of the Letters of a Portuguese Nun and showed
Marianna Alcoforado to be their authoress. Excellent critical
work was also done by Moniz Barreto, whose early, death was a
serious loss to letters.
In scientific literature hardly a single department lacks a name
of repute even outside Portugal. The press has accompanied
the general progress, and ever since Herculano founded and
wrote in the Panorama, the leading writers have almost without
exception made both name and livelihood by writing for the
papers, but as pure journalists none has excelled Antonio
Rodriguez Sarnpaio, Antonio Augusto Teixeira de Vasconcellos
and Emygdio Navarro.
The leading Portuguese orators of the ipth century, with the
exception of Malhao, were not churchmen, as in the past, but
politicians. The early days of parliamentary rule
produced Manoel Fernandes Thomas and Manoel Omtor y-
Borges Carneiro, but the most brilliant period was that of the
first twenty-five years of constitutional government after 1834,
and the historic names are those of Garrett, Manoel da Silva
Passos, and the great tribune and apostle of liberty, Jose
Estevao Coelho de Magalhaes. The ill-fated Vieira de Castro
excited the greatest admiration by his impassioned speeches
in the Chamber of Deputies during the 'sixties; the nearest
modern counterpart to these distinguished men is the orator
Antonio Candido Ribeiro da Costa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The corner-stones are the Bibliolheca Lusilana
of Barbosa Machado and the Diccionario bibliographico portuguez,
by Innocencio da Silva, with Brito Aranha's supplement ; while the
Bibliotheca Hispana Nova of Nicolao Antonio (1783-1788) may also
be referred to. Subsidiary to these are the Manual bibliographico
portuguez of Dr Pinto de Mattos, the admirable Catalogo razonado
de los Autores Portugueses que escribieron en Castellano, compiled
by Garcia Peres (1890), and such publications as Figamere's
Catalogo dos Manuscriptos Portugueses no Museu Britannico (1853).
The only full general history of the literature comes from the prolific
pen of Dr Theophilo Braga (second and revised edition in 32 vols.).
The volumes positively bulge with information and contain much
acute criticism, but their value is diminished by frequent and need-
less digressions and by the fantastic theorizings of their author, a
militant Positivist. Of one-volume books on the same subject,
Dr Braga's Curso da Historia da Litteratura portugueza and his
Theoria da Historia da Litteratura portugueza (3rd ed., 1881) may be
recommended, though the plainer Historia da Litteratura portu-
gueza, by Dr Mendes dos Remedies (3rd ed., 1908) has the consider-
able advantage for foreign students of including a large number
of selected passages from the authors named. See also the Chresto-
mathia archaica of J. J. Nunes (1905). Among foreign studies
the palm must be given to the " Geschichte der portugiesischen
Litteratur " by the eminent scholar, Mme Michaelis de Vasconcellos,
in the Grundnss der rom. Philologie of Grober (1893-1894). Among
general critical studies are Costa e Silva's Ensaio biographica-critico
and the masterly work of Menendez y Pelayo, Historia de las ideas
estaticas en Espana.
Coming to special periods, the student may consult, for the
cancioneiros, Mme Michaelis de Vasconcellos, op. cit., and her
great edition of the Cancioneiro da Ajuda (1904); also H. R. Lang,
Das Liederbuch der Konigs Denis von Portugal (1894). Lopes de
Mendonca treats of the literature of the i6th and i?th centuries
in articles in the Annaes das sciencias e letras; and the Memorias de
litteratura portugueza printed by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences
(1792-1814) contain essays on the drama and the Arcadia, but the
igth century has naturally received most attention. For that
period, see Lopes de Mendonca, Memoiras da litteratura contem-
poranea (1855); Romero Ortiz, La Liieratura portugueza en el siglo
XIX. (1869), containing much undigested information; and Maxime
Formont, Le Mouvement poetique contemporain en Portugal, an able
sketch; but the soundest review is due to Moniz Barreto, whose
" Litteratura portugueza contemporanea " came out in the Revista
de Portugal for July 1889. Students of the modern novel in Portugal
should refer to the essays of J. Pereira de Sampaio (" Bruno ")
A Gera^ao Nova (1886).
Portugal still lacks a collection equivalent to Rivadeneyra's
Biblioteca de autores espanoles, contenting itself with the Par-
nasso lusitano (6 vols., 1826) and a Corpus ittustrium poetarum
lusitanorum qui latine scripserunt (1745-1748), and though much
has been accomplished to make the classics more available, even yet
no correct, not to say critical, texts of many notable writers exist.
The Cancioneiro de Ajuda by Mme Vasconcellos, is the perfection
of editing, and there are diplomatic editions of other cancioneiros,
e.g. II _ Canzoniere portoghese delta Bibliotheca Vaticana, by E.
Monaci (1875), of which Dr Braga hurriedly prepared a critical edi-
tion; // Canzoniere portoghese Colocci-Brancuti by E. Molteni (1880),
and the Cancioneiro Geral (1846). The Romanceiro portuguez of
V. E. Hardung is incomplete. (E. PR.)
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA, or MOZAMBIQUE. This Por-
tuguese possession, bounded E. by the Indian Ocean, N. by
German East Africa, W. by the Nyasaland Protectorate, Rho-
desia and the Transvaal, S. by Tongaland (Natal), has an area
of 293,500 sq. m. It is divided in two by the river Zambezi.
The northern portion, between the ocean and Lake Nyasa and
the Shir6 river, is a compact block of territory, squarish in
164
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
shape, being about 400 m. long by 360 m. broad. South of the
Zambezi the province consists of a strip of land along the
coast varying from 50 to 200 m. in depth. Along the Zambezi
itself Portuguese territory extends west as far as the Loangwa
confluence, some 600 m. by river.
Physical Features. The coast-line extends from 26 52' S. to 10
40' S., and from south to north makes a double curve with a general
trend outward, i.e. to the east. It has a length of 1430 m. Some
40 m. north of the Natal (Tongoland) frontier is the deep indentation
of Delagoa Bay (q.v.). The land then turns outward to Cape Cor-
rientes, a little north of which is Inhambane Bay. Bending westward
again and passing several small islands, of which the chief is Bazaruto,
Sofala Bay is reached. Northward the Zambezi with a wide delta
pours its waters into the ocean. From this point onward the coast
is studded with small islands, mainly of coral formation. On one
of these islands is Mozambique, and immediately north of that port
is Conducia Bay. Somewhat farther north are two large bays
Fernao Veloso and Memba. There is a great difference in the charac-
ter of the coast north and south of Mozambique. To the north the
coast is much indented, abounds in rocky headlands and rugged
cliffs while, as already stated, there is an almost continuous fringe
of islands. South of Mozambique the coast-line is low, sandy
and lined with mangrove swamps. Harbours are few and poor.
The difference in character of these two regions arises from the fact
that in the northern half the ocean current which flows south between
Madagascar and the mainland is close to the coast, and scours out
all the softer material, while at the same time the coral animalcules
are building in deep waters. But south of Mozambique the ocean
current forsakes the coast, allowing the accumulation of sand
and alluvial matter. North of Fernao Veloso and Memba the largest
bays are Pemba (where there is commodious anchorage for heavy
draught vessels), Montepuesi and Tunghi, the last named having
for its northern arm Cape Delgado, the limit of Portuguese territory.
Orographically the backbone of the province is the mountain
chain which forms the eastern escarpment of the continental plateau.
It does not present a uniformly abrupt descent to the plains, but in
places as in the lower Zambezi district slopes gradually to the
coast. The Lebombo Mountains, behind Delagoa Bay, nowhere
exceed 2070 ft. in height; the Manica plateau, farther north,
is higher. Mt Doe rises to 7875 ft. and Mt Panga to 7610 ft.
The Gorongoza massif with Mt Miranga (6550 ft.), Enhatete
(6050 ft.), and Gogogo (5900 ft.) lies north-east of the Manica plateau,
and is, like it, of granitic formation. Gorongoza, rising isolated
with precipitous outer slopes, has been likened in its aspect to a
frowning citadel. The chief mountain range, however, lies north
of the Zambezi, and east of Lake Chilwa, namely, the Namuli
Mountains, in which Namuli Peak rises to 8860 ft., and Molisani,
Mruli and Mresi attain altitudes of 6500 to 8000 ft. These moun-
tains are covered with magnificent forests. Farther north the river
basins are divided by well-marked ranges with heights of 3000 ft.
and over. Near the south-east shore of Nyasa there is a high range
(5000 to 6000 ft.) with an abrupt descent to the lake ^some 3000 ft.
in six miles. The country between Nyasa and Ibo is remarkable
for the number of fantastically shaped granite peaks which rise
from the plateau. The plateau lands west of the escarpment are
of moderate elevation perhaps averaging 2000 to 2500 ft. It
is, however, only along the Zambezi and north of that river that
Portuguese territory reaches to the continental plateau.
Besides the Zambezi (q.v.) the most considerable river in Portu-
guese East Africa is the Limpopo (q.v.) which enters the Indian
Ocean about 100 m. north of Delagoa Bay. The Komati (q.v.),
Sabi, Busi and Pungwe south of the Zambezi ; the Lukugu, Lurio,
Montepuesi (Mtepwesi) and Msalu, with the Rovuma (q.v.) and its
affluent the Lujenda, to the north of it, are the other rivers of the
province with considerable drainage areas. The Sabi rises in
Mashonaland at an altitude of over 3000 ft., and after flowing south
for over 200 m. turns east and pierces the mountains some 170 m.
from the coast, being joined near the Anglo-Portuguese frontier
by the Lundi. Cataracts entirely prevent navigation above this
point. Below the Lundi confluence the bed of the Sabi becomes
considerably broader, varying from half a mile to two miles. In the
rainy season the Sabi is a large stream and even in the " dries " it
can be navigated from its mouth by shallow draught steamers for
over 150 m. Its general direction through Portuguese territory
is east by north. At its mouth it forms a delta 60 m. in extent.
The Busi (220 m.) and Pungwe (180 m.) are streams north of and
similar in character to the Sabi. They both rise in the Manica
plateau and enter the ocean in Pungwe Bay, their mouths but a
mile or two apart. The lower reaches of both streams are navigable,
the Busi for 25 m., the Pungwe for about 100 m. At the mouth of
the Pungwe is the port of Beira. Of the north-Zambezi streams
the Lukugu, rising in the hills south-east of Lake Chilwa, flowssputh
and enters the ocean not far north of Quilimane. The Lurio, rising
in the Namuli Mountains, flows north-east, having a course of
some 200 m. The Montepuesi and the Msalu drain the country
between the Lurio and Rovuma basins. Their banks are in general
well denned and the wet season rise seems fairly constant.
Geology. The central plateau consists of gneisses, granites and
schists of the usual East African type which in part or in whole are
to be referred to the Archaean system. The next oldest rocks belong
to the Karroo period. Their principal occurrence is in the Zambezi
basin, where at Tete they contain workable seams of coal, and have
yielded plant remains indicating a Lower Karroo or Upper Carboni-
ferous age. Sandstones and shales, possibly of Upper Karroo age,
form a narrow belt at the edge of the foot-plateau. Upper Cretaceous
rocks crop out from beneath the superficial deposits along the coast
belt between Delagoa Bay and Mozambique. The Cenomanian
period is represented in Conducia by the beds with Puzosia and
Acanthoceras, and in Sofala and Busi by the beds with Alectryonia
ungulata and Exogyra columba. The highest Cretaceous strata
occur in Conducia, where they contain the huge ammonite f 'achy-
discus conduciensis. The Eocene formation is well represented in
Gazaland by the nummuiitic limestones which have been found to
extend for a considerable distance inland. Basalts occur at several
localities in the Zambezi basin. On the flanks of Mount Milanje
there are two volcanic cones which would appear to be of compara-
tively recent date; but the most interesting igneous rocks are the
rhyolitic lavas of the Lebombo range.
Climate. The climate is unhealthy on the coast and along the
banks of the Zambezi, where malaria is endemic. With moderate
care, however, Europeans are able to enjoy tolerably good health.
On the uplands and the plateaus the climate is temperate and
healthy. At Tete, on the lower Zambezi, the annual mean tempera-
ture is 77-9 F., the hottest month being November, 83-3, and
the coldest J[uly, 72-5. At Quilimane, on the coast, the mean
temperature is 85- 1 , maximum 106-7 and minimum 49-1. The
cool season is from April to August. The rainy season lasts from
December to March, and the dry season from May to the end of
September. November is a month of light rains. During the mon-
soons the districts bordering the Mozambique Channel enjoy a
fairly even mean temperature of 76-1, maximum mean 88-7, and
minimum mean 65-3.
Fauna. The fauna is rich, game in immense variety being
plentiful in most districts. The carnivora include the lion, both
of the yellow and black-maned varieties, leopard, spotted hyena,
jackal, serval, civet cat, genet, hunting dog (Lycaon piclus) in the
Mozambique district, mongoose and spotted otter, the last-named
rare. Of ungulata the elephant is plentiful, though large tuskers are
not often shot. The black rhinoceros is also common, and south of
the Zambezi are a few specimens of white rhinoceros (R. simus).
The rivers and marshes are the home of numerous hippopotami,
which have, however, deserted the lower Zambezi. The wart-hog
and the smaller red hog are common. A species of zebra is plentiful,
and herds of buffalo (Bos caffer) are numerous in the plains and in
open woods. Of antelopes the finest are the eland and sable antelope.
The kudu is rare. Waterbuck, hartebeeste (Bubalislichtensteini),
brindled gnu and tsesebe (south of the Zambezi, replaced north of
that river by the lechwe and puku), reedbuck, bushbuck, impala,
duiker, klipspringer and oribi are all common. The giraffe is not
found within the province. Of edentata the scaly ant-eater and
porcupine are numerous. Among rodentia hares and rabbits are
abundant. There are several kinds of monkeys and lemuroids,
but the anthropoids are absent. Crocodiles, lizards, chameleons,
land and river tortoises are all very numerous, as are pythons
(some 18 ft. long), cobras, puff-adders and vipers. Centipedes and
scorpions and insects are innumerable. Among insects mosquitos,
locusts, the tsetse fly, the hippo-fly, cockroaches, phylloxera, ter-
mites, soldier ants and flying ants are common plagues. As has been
indicated, the Zambezi forms a dividing line not crossed by
certain animals, so that the fauna north of that river presents some
marked contrasts with that to the south.
Bird-life is abundant. Among the larger birds flamingoes are
especially common in the Mozambique district. Cranes, herons,
storks, pelicans and ibises are numerous, including the beautiful
crested crane and the saddle-billed stork (Mycleria senegalensis),
the last-named comparatively rare. The eagle, vulture, kite,
buzzard and crow are well represented, though the crested eagle is
not found. Of game birds the guinea fowl, partridge, bustard,
quail, wild goose, teal, widgeon, mallard and other kinds o_f duck
are all common. Other birds numerously represented are parrots
(chiefly a smallish green bird the grey parrot is not found), ravens,
hornbills, buntings, finches, doves, a variety of cuckoo, small wag-
tails, a starling with a beautiful burnished bronze-green plumage,
spur-winged plovers, stilt birds, ruffs and kingfishers.
Flora. The flora is varied and abundant, though the custom of
the natives to burn the grass during the dry season gives to large
areas for nearly half the year a blackened, desolate appearance.
Six varieties of palms are found the coco-nut, raphia, wild date,
borassus (or fan palm), hyphaene and Phoenix spinosa. The coco-
nut is common in the coast regions and often attains 100 ft. ; the date
palm, found mostly in marshy ground and by the banks of small
rivers, is seldom more than 20 ft. in height. Of the many timber
trees a kind of cedar is found in the lower forests; ironwood and
ebony are common, and other trees resemble satin and rosewood.
The Khaya senegalensis, a very large tree found in ravines and by
river banks, affords durable and easily-worked timber; there are
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
165
several varieties of vitex and of ficus, notably the sycamore, -which
bears an edible fruit. Excellent hardwood is obtained from a
species of grewia. Other characteristic trees are the mangrove
(along the sea shore), sandal-wood, gum copal, baobab and
bombax, and, in the lower plain, dracaenas (dragon trees),
candalabra euphorbia, and many species of creepers and flowering
shrubs. The thorny smilax and many other prickly creepers and
shrubs are abundant. Acacias are numerous, including the gum-
yielding variety, while landolphia rubber vines grow freely in the
forests. Among plants of economic value the coffee, cotton,
indigo and tobacco plants are found, as well as the castor oil and other
oleaginous plants. Bananas, mangoes and pineapples grow in
great profusion. Among flowers crinum lilies, lotus, gentians,
gladioli, lobelias, violets (scentless), red and yellow immortelles
(confined to the higher elevations) and yellow and blue amomums
are common. Of grasses the bamboo is common. Phragmites
communis, spear grass, with its waving, snowy plumes, grows 12 to
14 ft. and is abundant along the river banks and along the edges of
the marshes. (For the flora of the Nyasa region see B RITISH CENTRAL
AFRICA.)
Inhabitants. Portuguese East Africa is sparsely inhabited,
the estimated population (1909) being 3,120,0x30; 90%
of the inhabitants belong to various Bantu tribes, from whose
ranks most of the natives employed in the Transvaal gold
mines are recruited. The most important in the northern half
of the province are the Yaos (q.v.) and the Ma Kua (Makwa).
The Makwa, notwithstanding the presence of Arabs, Banyans
(Hindus) and Battias in all the coast districts, have preserved
in a remarkable degree their purity of race, although their
language has undergone considerable change (see BANTU
LANGUAGES). Most of the country between the Rovuma and
the Zambezi is populated by branches of this race, governed
by numerous petty chiefs. The Makwa are divided into four
families or groups the Low Makwa, the Lomwe or Upper
Makwa, the Maua and the Medo. Yao possess the country
between the Msalu river and Nyasa. The dominant race be-
tween the Zambezi and the Mazoe are the Tavala, other tribes
in the same region being the Maravi, Senga, Muzimba and
Muzuzuro. They are mainly of Zulu origin. Between the Zambezi
and the Pungwe are the Barue, Batoka, &c. In the district
south of the Pungwe river, known as Gazaland, the ruling tribes
are of Zulu origin, all other tribes of different stock being known
as Tongas. For the most part these Tongas resemble the
Basutos. They are of peaceful disposition. They occupy
themselves with stock-raising and agriculture. The white
inhabitants numbered about 9000 in 1909. They are chiefly
Portuguese and British and nearly a half live in Lourenco
Marques. There are many Portuguese half-castes.
Chief Towns. The chief towns are Lourenco Marques,
Mozambique, Quilimane, Inhambane, Beira, Chinde and Sofala,
all separately noticed. The other European settlements are
Chingune (see SOFALA), Angoxa and Ibo on the coast, and Sena,
Tete and Zutnbo on the Zambezi. Angoxa lies midway between
Quilimane and Mozambique, dates from the i?th century, and
is a small and little frequented port. Ibo, founded by the Portu-
guese at the beginning of the xyth century, is built on an
island, likewise called Ibo, in 12 20' S., 40 38' E. off the northern
arm of Montepuesi Bay, and 180 m. north of Mozambique. Ibo
Island is one of a group known as the Querimba archipelago.
The harbour is sheltered but shallow. The town attained
considerable dimensions in the I7th century and was made the
headquarters of the Cape Delgado district in the i8th century.
The most prominent buildings are two forts, one disused. The
other, called San Joao, is star-shaped and was built, according to
an inscription over the gateway, in 1791. The Zambezi towns
(Sena, Tete and Zumbo) mark the limits of penetration made
by the Portuguese inland. Comparatively important places
in the iyth and early part of the i8th centuries, with the
decline of Portuguese power they fell into a ruinous condition.
The opening up of Rhodesia and British Central Africa in the
last quarter of the igth century gave them renewed life. Sena,
some 150 m. by river from Chinde, is built at the foot of a
hill on the southern side of the Zambezi, from which it is
now distant 2 m., though in the middle of the i6th century
the river flowed by it. Sena possesses an 18th-century fort, a
modern government house and a church dedicated to St
Ma real.
Tete, founded about the same time as Sena, is also on the
south bank of the Zambezi. It is about 140 m. by the river
above Sena. Since 1894 there has been a regular service of
steamers between Tete and Chinde. Of the ancient town little
remains save the strongly-built fort and the church. The new
town dates from about 1860, when there was a revival of the
trade in gold dust and ivory. This trade, however, became practi-
cally extinct by 1903; the gold dust traffic through exhaustion
of supplies, and the ivory trade through diversion to other
routes. A transit trade to British possessions north and south
of Tete has been developed, and in 1906 some gold mines in the
neighbourhood began crushing ore. Zumbo is picturesquely
situated just below the Loangwe confluence and commands large
stretches of navigable water on the Loangwe and middle Zambezi.
The 17th-century town was deserted in consequence of the
hostility of the natives. In 1859 David Livingstone found
on its site nothing but the ruins of a few houses. Since then
a new settlement has been made, and Zumbo has acquired some
Irani it trade with Rhodesia.
On the line of railway from Beira to Rhodesia the most
important town is Massi Kessi (Portuguese Macequece) in the
centre of the Manica goldfields. It lies 2500 ft. above the sea,
194 m. north-west of Beira by rail, and is close to the British
frontier. Along the railway from Lourenco Marques to the
Transvaal frontier are stations marking the position of small
settlements. The last Portuguese station is named Ressano
Garcia; the first Transvaal station Komati Poort.
Communications. The Zambezi is navigable by light draught
steamers throughout its course in Portuguese territory with one
break at the Kebrassa Rapids 400 m. fram its mouth. By means
of the Shire affluent of the Zambezi there is direct steamer and rail-
way connexion with British Central Africa. The navigability of the
other rivers of the province has been indicated. From Lourenjo
Marques railways run to Swaziland and the Transvaal, and from
Beira there is a railway to Rhodesia. These lines, built to foster
trade with countries beyond Portuguese territory, link the ports
named to the British railway systems in South and Central Africa.
The route for a railway to connect Beira with Sena was surveyed
in 1906-1907, a route from Quilimane to the Zambezi being also
surveyed. A light railway (50 m. long) goes inland from Matamba,
on Inhambane Bay, serving northern Gazaland. Native caravan
routes traverse every part of the country, but these are mere tracks,
and in general communication is difficult and slow.
Lourengo Marques, Beira, Mozambique and other ports are in
telegraphic communication with Europe via South Africa and
Zanzibar, and a cable connects Mozambique with Madagascar.
Inland telegraph lines connect the ports with the adjacent British
possessions. British, German and Portuguese steamship lines
maintain regular communication between Lourencp Marques and
other ports and Europe and India. In 1908 some 1700 vessels of
3,400,000 tons visited the ports of the province.
Agriculture and Other Industries. The country from the Rovuma
to the Zambezi is of great fertility, the richest portion being that
between Angoxa and Quilimane. In -the basin of the Zambezi the
soil is fertilized by the inundations of the river. The low coast
land of the Gaza country is almost equally fruitful. A great part
of the country is suitable for the growth of the sugar-cane, rice,
ground-nuts, coffee and tobacco. The two last named plants, as
also cotton, vanilla, tea and cloves, are not a success in the Quili-
mane region, where coco-nuts and ground-nuts are the chief crops.
Rubber vines are largely grown in the Mozambique district and the
M.ozambique Company has large plantations of coffee and sugar.
There are numerous sugar factories and rice plantations in the Zam-
bezi district. The natives devote their attention to the raising of
oleaginous crops and of maize, cassava, beans, &c. Wheat and other
cereals are grown in the valley of the Zambezi. Large herds of
cattle are raised. The system prevails in many districts of dividing
the land into prazos (large agricultural estates) in which the natives
cultivate various crops for the benefit of the European leaseholder,
who is also tax-collector for his district and can claim the tax either
in labour or produce.
Fish are plentiful along the coast, and pearls are obtained off the
Bazaruto Isles. Turtles are caught in the Querimba archipelago.
Spirits, sugar, fibres and pottery are practically the only commodi-
ties manufactured. The hunting of game for ivory and skins affords
employment to large numbers of people.
Mineral Resources. There are immense deposits of coal in the
neighbourhood of Tete and near Delag^oa Bay, and adjoining the
coalfields ironstone of the best quality is plentiful. Malachite and
copper are found in the interior, north-west of Mozambique. The
i66
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
whole of the region north of Delagoa Bay to the Zambezi and inland
to and beyond the Portuguese frontier is auriferous, and ancient gold
workings abound. Many writers have sought to identify this region
with the land of Ophir. In Manica several gold mines are worked.
In 19061907 a rich formation similar to the American " placer "
deposits was discovered in the Manica goldfields. Gold mines are
also worked at Missale and Chifumbaze, to the north of Tete. The
Missale mines are just south of the frontier of British Central Africa.
Petroleum is found near Inhambane, as is also a curious elastic-
like substance named inhangellite, resembling bitumen, chiefly de-
rived from masses of a gelatinous alga (see Kew Bulletin, No. 5,
1907).
Commerce. The chief exports are rubber, sugar, coal (from the
Transvaal), beeswax, coco-nuts, copra and mangrove bark, ivory
(including hippopotamus teeth and rhinoceros horns), skins and
hides, ground-nuts, and oilseeds, monkey-nuts, mealies, cattle (to
Madagascar), cotton, tobacco, gold and other minerals. The prin-
cipal imports for consumption in the province are cotton goods,
hardware and foodstuffs. The " Kaffir " trade is largely in cheap
wines of a highly deleterious character, blankets, hats and shoes,
brass wire and Venetian beads. Immense quantities of cheap wine
are bought by the natives. There is at Lourenco Marques and at
Beira a large transit trade to and from the Transvaal and Rhodesia
respectively. The average annual value of the external trade of
the province for the five years 1901-1905 was about 5,500.000.
In 1909 the total trade of the province including re-exports and
goods in transit exceeded 10,000,000. Fully 50% of this trade
was in transit to or from the Transvaal. (See further LOURENC.O
MARQUES; BEIRA, &c.) The trade of the province is chiefly with
Great Britain, India, Germany and Portugal. The retail trade both
at the seaports and in the settlements inland is largely in the hands
of British Indians Banyans, Battias and Parsees.
On the coast there are several native ports of call, between which
and Madagascar a large surreptitious trade in slaves was carried on
until 1877. With this island, and also with Zanzibar, there is a
large general coasting trade.
Administration, Revenue, &c. Formerly called Mozambique,
the province since 1891 bears the official title of State of East Africa.
It is under a governor-general, appointed for three years, and for
administrative purposes is divided into several districts. There is
a government council, instituted in 1907, composed partly of officials
and partly of elected representatives of the commercial, industrial
and agricultural communities. There is also a provincial coun-
cil " with the attributions of an administrative and account
tribunal." In each district is a subsidiary council. The
governor-general resides at Lourengo Marques and has under his
immediate direction the Delagoa Bay district. Gazaland (q.v.)
and the district of Inhambane are also governed directly by Portu-
guese officials. The greater part of the country between the Sabi
River and the Zambezi, including the Manica and Sofala regions,
is administered, under a charter granting sovereign rights for 50 years
from 1891, by the Companhia de Mozambique, which has its head-
quarters at Beira. The Quilimane, Chinde and Zambezi regions
are administered by representatives of the governor-general, with
headquarters at Mozambique. The Zambezi Company has large
trading concessions over this district. North of the Quilimane
district the coast region and adjacent islands go under the name of
Angoxa. The territory between the Lurio and Rovuma rivers and
Lake Nyasa is governed by the Companhia do Nyasa under a royal
charter. Revenue is obtained largely from customs and a hut
tax on natives. The annual revenue of the province is about
1,000,000. A military force, about 4000 strong, is maintained,
including 1200 to 1400 Europeans. Education is chiefly in the
hands of Roman Catholic missionaries.
History. It is uncertain at what period the east coast of
Africa south of Somaliland was first visited by the maritime
races of the east. There is, however, no reason to doubt that
by the loth century A.D. the Arabs had occupied the 'seaboard
as far south as Sofala, and that they carried on an active trade
between East Africa and Arabia, the Persian Gulf and India.
The Arabs built fine towns and exercised control over the coast
peoples, but do not appear to have pushed their conquests
far inland. They had extensive commercial dealings, chiefly
in gold, ivory and slaves, with the Bantu potentates who ruled
over the middle Zambezi valley and the country now known
as Mashonaland. Until the close of the isth century the Arab
supremacy was unchallenged. But in 1498 Vasco da Gama
entered the mouth of a river which he called Rio dos Bons
Sinaes (River of Good Tokens), as there he first found himself
in contact with the civilization of the East. This stream was
the Quilimane River, taken by the Portuguese a little later to
be the main mouth of the Zambezi. From this river da Gama
continued his voyage, putting in at Mozambique and Mombasa
on his way to India. Hostilities between the Arabs and Portu-
guese'broke out almost immediately; da Gama, indeed, in his
first voyage had some trouble with the sultan of Mozambique.
In 1502 da Gama paid a visit to Sofala to make inquiries
concerning the trade in gold carried on at that place, and the
reports as to its wealth which reached Portugal led to the
despatch in 1505 of a fleet of six ships under Pedro da Nhaya
with instructions to establish Portuguese influence at Sofala. Da
Nhaya was allowed to build a fort close to the Arab town. The
fort, built in three months, was shortly afterwards attacked by
a band of Bantus, who acted on the instigation of the Arabs.
The attackers were driven off and the Arabs forced to acknow-
ledge Portuguese rule. In 1 509 a captain of Sofala and a factor,
or chief trader, were sent out, and from this time the trade of
the port fell to the Portuguese. Sofala, however, was not a
suitable harbour for the refitting and provisioning of ships on
the way to India, and to obtain such a port Mozambique was
seized and fortified in 1507-. By 1510 the Portuguese were
masters of all the former Arab sultanates on the East African coast.
The northern half of this region, from Kilwa to Mukdishu, has
passed out of their possession; here it is only necessary to out-
line the history of the country still under the Portuguese Crown.
For forty years Sofala was their only station south of the
Zambezi. Thence they traded with the monomotapa or chief
of the " Mocaranga " (i.e. the Makalanga or Karanga) in whose
territory were the mines whence the gold exported from Sofala
was obtained. At that time this chief was a powerful potentate
exercising authority over a wide area (see MONOMOTAPA). The
efforts made by the Portuguese from Sofala to reach him were
unsuccessful. It was probably the desire to penetrate to the
"land of gold" by an easier route that led, in 1544, to the
establishment of a station on the River of Good Tokens, a station
from which grew the town of Quilimane. About the same
time the Portuguese penetrated inland along the Zambezi,
known then as the River of Sena, and founded the trading
ports of Sena and Tete, or, perhaps, annexed already existing
Arab towns of those names. It was at this period also that
Lourenco Marques and a companion, sent out by the captain
of Mozambique, entered Delagoa Bay and opened up trade
with the natives. This was the most southerly point occupied
by the Portuguese. For three centuries however the fine har-
bour was little used, and its ultimate development was due
to the discovery of another " land of gold " the Witwaters-
rand beyond Portuguese territory. In the i6th century the
Portuguese turned their energies towards the Zambezi valley.
In 1569 their East African dominions, hitherto dependent on
the viceroyalty of India, were made a separate government
with headquarters at Mozambique.
Francisco Barreto, a former viceroy of India, appointed
governor of the newly formed province, was instructed by King
Sebastian to conquer the country of the gold mines. The route
via the Zambezi, and not that by Sofala, was chosen by Bar-
reto in opposition to the desires of his council, but in accord
with the advice of a Dominican friar named De Monclares.
This advice proved fatal owing to the deadly climate of the
Zambezi valley. Barreto's expedition, including over 1000
Europeans, started in November 1569, and from Sena marched
south, an arrangement having been come to with the monomo-
tapa by which the Portuguese were granted a right of way to
the gold mines on condition of their attacking a rebel vassal of
that chieftain. Barreto attacked and defeated this rebel, but
received no help from the monomotapa, and his force was so
greatly weakened by deaths and disease that he was obliged to
return to Sena, whence he went to Mozambique to put down
disorder among the Portuguese there. He returned to Sena
in 1570, only to die a few days after his arrival. His successor
Vasco Fernandes Homem, got together another expedition and
made his way inland from Sofala to a region where he saw the
ground being worked for gold. The comparative poorness of
the mine filled him, it is stated, with disappointment, and he
returned to Sofala. Thus these, the most important efforts
made by the Portuguese to obtain possession of the interior,
ended in failure.
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
167
Towards the end of the i6th century the Portuguese posts
on the Zambezi were attacked by hordes of savages known as
Muzimba, and Tete and Sena were destroyed. The captain-
general of Mozambique the province had been again attached
to the Indian viceroyalty was only able to make peace on
promise not to interfere with matters which concerned only the
native tribes. Thereafter the Portuguese often had to defend
even the coast towns from attacks by the Bantus. Still they
held one or two posts in the interior besides those on the Zam-
bezi. Of these the chief appears to have been Masapa, on the
river Mansovo, i.e. Mazoe, in what is now Mashonaland, and
about 150 m. by road from Tete. Near Masapa dwelt the
monomotapa, an insignificant chieftain, the power of the Maka-
langa having been broken by revolts of once subject tribes and
by dissensions among the Makalanga themselves. In 1629 a
treaty was concluded with a claimant to the chieftainship who
embraced Christianity. This man, known as the Monomotapa
Filippe, declared himself a vassal of Portugal, and with the help
of Dominican friars and a number of half-breeds established
his authority.
The Portuguese, however, failed to make any effective use
of their East African possessions. Among the causes of their
non-success in the years immediately following the period of con-
quest must be reckoned the " Sixty Years' Captivity " (1580-
1640), when the Spanish and Portuguese crowns were united,
and the neglect of Africa for the richer possessions in India and
the Far East. A more important and permanent reason for the
non-development of Mozambique province was its unhealthy
and enervating climate, which prevented European colonization.
The few thousands of Portuguese who went out were chiefly
officials, and they and the small body of planters led in general
a life of indolence and debauchery. Commerce too was ham-
pered and good government rendered impossible through the
system of farming out the administration to officials who were
in return granted a monopoly of trade, and even when this
system was abandoned trade was confined to Portuguese sub-
jects. 1 But for many years the Jesuits and Dominicans were
unceasing in their endeavours to win the native races to
Christianity, the friars being the most energetic section of the
white community. The first Jesuit missionaries began work in
the province in the neighbourhood of Inhambane in 1560; in the
same year another Jesuit, Goncalo da Silveira, made his way to
the Zimbabwe (chief kraal) of the monomotapa, by whose orders
he and his converts were strangled (March 16, 1561). Mission
work was soon afterwards begun by the Dominicans and the
two orders between them had agents spread over the greater
part of the country from Mozambique southward. They gained
thousands of at least nominal converts, notably the heir of one
of the monomotapas, who was baptized in 1652 and who,
renouncing his heirship, became vicar of the convent of Santa
Barbara in Goa. But during the i8th century the zeal of
the missionaries declined; in 1759 the Jesuits were expelled,
and two years later the Dominicans were sent to Goa. At that
time they had been, together with a few white, Goanese and
half-caste traders, for fully a century practically the only re-
presentatives of Portugal in the interior (the towns on the Zam-
bezi excepted). Portugal's influence was confined to helping
one tribe in its quarrel with another, in return for favours re-
ceived. The Portuguese were quite unable to take advantage
of the disunion of the natives to establish their own supremacy.
The exhaustion and enfeeblement of Portugal had, in short, its
natural effect in Africa. In the early years of the i8th century
the Arabs wrested from the Portuguese their African possessions
'north of Cape Delgado; the Dutch, French and British had been
for some time menacing their trade and possessions in the south.
In 1604, 1607 and again in 1662 the Dutch unsuccessfully
attacked Mozambique, which was also attacked by the Arabs in
1670. The merchants of Sofala and Mozambique had, since
the middle of the I7th century, found a new source of wealth
in the export of slaves to Brazil, a trade due directly to the
capture of the ports of Angola by the Dutch (1640-1648), but
1 Until 1853, when commerce was made free to all nations.
continued until nearly the middle of the igth century. 2 Other
trade declined steadily, the continual state of warfare among
the tribes of the inland plateaus greatly reducing the production
of gold.
In 1752 the government of the East African possessions
was again separated from that of Goa, and twenty years later
Francisco Jose Maria de Lacerda e Almeida, a man of high
attainments, made governor of the province at his own request,
endeavoured to reform the administration. Lacerda is chiefly
remembered for his journey to the heart of Central Africa, where
he died in October 1798. Lacerda had conceived the idea of
establishing a chain of Portuguese posts across the continent
from Mozambique to Angola, and his statesmanlike prescience
was shown by his prediction that the seizure of Cape Town by
the British would lead to the extension of British rule over
Central Africa, thus isolating the Portuguese provinces on the
east and west coasts. After Lacerda's death a state of apathy
and decay was again manifest throughout Portuguese East
Africa. During the greater part of the igth century the country
south of the Zambezi was devastated by hordes of savages of
Zulu origin (see GAZALAND).
The discoveries of David Livingstone in the Zambezi basin
in the period 1850-1865 attracted the attention of the British to
those regions and led to the establishment of British settle-
ments at the southern end of Lake Nyasa and in the Shire high-
lands. These events aroused anxiety in Lisbon, which was
increased when the British obtained a prepondering influence
in Matabele, Mashona and Manica lands the lands of the
earlier monomotapas. With sudden energy the Portuguese
engaged in the " scramble for Africa," and though the result
was disappointing to the patriotic feelings of the people they
secured from their powerful neighbours Great Britain and
Germany much better terms than might have been antici-
pated, having regard to the extremely limited area over which
they exercised any sort of jurisdiction. The story of the par-
tition is set forth fully in AFRICA, 5. Before the "scramble"
began, Portugal had been fortunate in securing, in 1875, as the
result of arbitration, complete possession of the fine harbour
of Delagoa Bay, the southern half of which had been claimed
by Great Britain in virtue of acts of annexation in 1823 and
later years.
The pressure of political events and the commercial activity
of her rivals induced Portugal to take steps to develop the
agricultural and mineral resources of the territory secured to
her by international agreements. Imitating the policy of Great
Britain, charters conveying sovereign powers were granted to
the Mozambique Company in 1891, and to the Nyasa Company
in 1893. Both these companies, as well as the Zambezi Company
(which lacks a charter), undertook to open up the territory com-
mitted to their care. In all of them British capital is largely
engaged. The total decay of Sofala, the removal of the seat of
government from Mozambique to Lourenco Marques, the rise
of the last named port and of Beira (both largely dependent on
the transit trade with British possessions), all served to mark
the changed condition of affairs. An agreement concluded in
1909 between the Transvaal and Portugal gave Delagoa Bay
from 50 to 55% of the import trade with the Transvaal, the
Portuguese agreeing further to facilitate the recruitment of
natives in the province for work on the Rand mines. The
development, in the early years of the 2oth century, of rubber,
rice, sugar and other plantations also gave a new impetus to
commerce.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. de Vasconcellos, As Colonies portugueza:,
pp. 212-299 ( 2n d ed., Lisbon, 1903) and A. Negreiros, La Mozambique
(Paris, 1904). The last named, somewhat untrustworthy in the
historical sketch, is valuable for its flora and fauna sections. For the
regions south of the Zambezi see R. C. F. Maugham, Portuguese
East Africa (London, 1906) and Zambesia (London, 1909) ; O Temtorio
de Manica e Sofala . . . 1892-1900 (Lisbon, 1902), a monograph
prepared by the Mozambique Company; Commandant Smits,
" La Compaenie a charte de Mozambique " in Le Momement %to-
graphique of Brussels (1906). For the districts north of the Zambezi
* Slavery was not abolished until 1878.
i68
PORTUGUESE GUINEA
see W. B. Worsfold, Portuguese Nyassaland (London, 1899); Major
J. Stevenson-Hamilton's paper in Geog. Journ. (Nov. 1909) ; V. A.
d'Ega, " Esboco geographico-historico dos territorios Portugueses
entreo IndicoeoNyassa " inBol. soc. geo. Lisboa (1901). Forgeology
consult A. A. F. de Andraada, " A Geological Reconnaissance of the
Portuguese Territories between Lorenzo Marques and the Zambezi
River," review in Ceol. Mag. (1897); R. B. Newton, " Note on the
Occurrence of Nummulitic Limestone in South-eastern Africa,"
Geol. Mag. (1896) ; Paul Choffat, Cretacique de conducia, com. d.
service geol. du Portugal (1903). Ethnology and philology have
received considerable attention. See M. M. Feio, Indigenes de
Mozambique (Lisbon, 1900) ; J. V. do Sacramento, " Apontames
sobre a lingua maciia " in Bol. soc. geo. Lisboa, 22nd and 23rd series
(1904 and 1905); H. A. Junod, Les Chants et les contes des Ba-Ronga
de la baie de Delagoa (Lausanne, 1897). For history see G. M'C.
Theal's Records of South- Eastern Africa (9 vols., London, 1898-1903),
containing texts of original documents and MSS., with translations
in English ; History and Ethnography of South Africa to 1795 (3 vols.,
London, 1907-1910) ; and The Portuguese in South Africa (London,
1896); Pere Courtois, Notes chronologiques sur les anciennes missions
catholiques au Zambezi (Lisbon, 1889); Joao dos Santos, Ethiopia
oriental . . . (Lisbon, 1609), an account of the travels of one of the
early missionaries in Mozambique. A reprint, edited by M. D'Aze-
vendo, was published at Lisbon in 1891. Valuable records of the
state of the country in the last half of the igth century are contained
in the reports to the foreign office of the British consuls at Mozam-
bique, notably those of Lieut. H. E. O'Neill, R.N., and Lyons
McLeod. See also O'Neill's The Mozambique and Nyassa Slave
Trade (London, 1885); McLeod's Travels in Eastern Africa, with
the Narrative of a Residence in Mozambique (London, 1860); and
Travels . . . [in] Eastern and Central Africa (London, 1879) from the
journals of Captain J. F. Elton (consul at Mozambique), compiled by
H. B. Cotterill. See further D. and C. Livingstone, Narrative of an
Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries, &c. (London, 1865),
and the works cited under DELAGOA BAY and ZIMBABWE. Reference
may also be made to the bibliography under BRITISH CENTRAL
AFRICA. (F. R. C.)
PORTUGUESE GUINEA, a Portuguese colony in West
Africa, extending along the Guinea coast from Cape Roxo in
12 19' N. to the Cogon estuary in 10 50' N. Inland it reaches
to 13 40' W., being enclosed landward by French territory, the
Casamance district of Senegal to the N., and French Guinea
E. and S. (For map, see FRENCH WEST AFRICA.) The colony
has an area of about 14,000 sq. m., and a population variously
estimated at from 200,000 to 800,000. It consists largely of a
low-lying deltaic region, together with an adjacent archipelago
of small islands called the Bissagos.
The coast-line is deeply indented by estuaries into which flow
numerous rivers whose sources are in the elevated region on the
eastern border of the colony. The largest estuary, the Geba, receives
the river of the same name, the Mancoa, a northern affluent, and the
Rio Grande or Comba; the last a large stream rising in the highlands
of Futa Jallon. North of the Geba estuary is the Rio Cacheo,
while.in the south is the Rio Cassini, in reality an arm of the sea.
These rivers and estuaries are connected with one another and
with many smaller rivers by a network of lagoons ; and the Bissagos
Islands, which lie off the Geba estuary, formed at one time part of
the mainland. The Bissagos, protected seaward by dangerous
breakers, consist of over thirty islands, besides many small reefs.
The largest island, Orango, is the most southerly of the group and
some 30 m. from the coast. Bulama and Bissao, islands of more
importance, lie close to the mainland. The larger rivers can be
ascended by vessels of considerable size for distances of 40 to 150 m.,
but navigation is rendered difficult by strong currents and the shift-
ing nature of the channels as well as by hidden rocks and the great
difference between high and low water. The climate is unhealthy,
with a mean temperature of about 78 F. The rainfall is heavy,
thunderstorms being frequent in the wet season, which lasts from
May to October.
Flora and Fauna. Large forest regions extend behind the man-
grove-lined lagoons. Their characteristic trees are the oil and date
palms, the baobab, the shea-butter tree, ebony, mahogany and
calabash trees, and the acacia. Rubber vines are fairly abundant.
Besides the forests, densest along the river valleys, there are exten-
sive tracts of grassland and park-like country. Fruit trees include
the papaw, with fruit the size of ostrich eggs, the guava, custard
apple, mango, the banana, the orange and the citron. The tobacco,
indigo and cotton plants grow wild, and the coffee plant is also found.
Ground-nuts and kola nuts are cultivated, and rice and millet are
the chief crops grown.
The elephant is found in the district between the Geba and Grande
rivers, and hippopotamus are numerous. Other animals include
the panther, wild boar, various antelopes, baboons, chimpanzees
and large snakes. Crocodiles and sharks abound in the rivers.
Birds include the pelican, heron, marabout, the trumpet bird and
innumerable yellow parrots. Partridges and woodcock are also
found. The hills of the termites are a notable feature in many
parts of the country.
Inhabitants. The people of the interior are mostly Mandingo
(q.v .) and Fula (g.f.). The coast regions and the islands are inhabited
by negro tribes which live side by side without mixing, each pre-
serving their own customs, dress, language and type. They exhibit
great attachment to the soil and are profoundly religious, being
noted specially for their respect for family life and ancestral worship.
Neither Christianity nor Mahommedanism has made much headway
among them. Going from south to north the chief tribes are the
Nalu, who dwell by the Cassini and are keen traders and lovers of
peace; the Biafare or Biaffade, who occupy the region between the
sea and the Rio Grande and jealously guard their country from
strangers; the Bulam (Mankaie), living in the island of Bulama, and
much given to adorning their bodies by long cuts formed into
patterns; the Balanta, a piratical folk inhabiting the banks of the
Geba; the Papel of the island of Bissao, formerly cannibals, an
industrious agricultural tribe which furnishes the majority of the
educated Africans employed by the Portuguese; the Manjak or
Mandiago, and a branch of the Felup peoples, these last living near
the Rio Cacheo in savage isolation and much given to waylaying
and pillaging strangers. The Manjak inhabit the country between
the Mancoa and the Cacheo, and the neighbouring islands. They
are a hospitable and clever people, very adaptable, do not object
to leaving their tribal lands, and are said to keep their word.
Excellent seamen, good artisans and sharp traders, they maintain
a sort of feudal system. Their houses are surrounded by walls,
which are pierced with loopholes and provided with towers at the
angles. The rooms are built round a courtyard. They examine the
entrails of fowl to foretell good or evil events. The burial customs
are elaborate. The body is smoked and, the skin having been
removed, it is sewn up in a number of pagns (native cloths) and placed
in a coffin fastened by gilded nails. Bright tissues are wrapped
round the coffin, on which are hung little bells of copper and small
brass mirrors. The seaward islands of the Bissagos are inhabited
by an independent and warlike tribe of fishers and pirates called
Bidiogos. Their women wear a short skirt made of palm leaves.
The natives who adopt Portuguese names and who form the
bulk of the townsmen in the European settlements are called
Gurmettes. They furnish the levies with which the authorities
occasionally make war on the native tribes. The chief centres of
trade are Bissao, on the island of the same name, which is sur-
rounded by old fortifications; Cacheo, on the Rio Cacheo, also
fortified; and Bulama (Boulam) on Bulama Island, the seat of the
government. The European population consists of a few Portu-
guese officials, soldiers, traders and convicts, and a few traders of
other nationalities.
History. Bulama Island was discovered by Portuguese
navigators in 1446, but was not formally claimed by Portugal
until 1752, about which. time she founded a station at Bissao,
while in 1669 a post had been established on the Rio Grande.
In 1870 a claim made by Great Britain to Bulama and a part of
the mainland was disallowed by the arbitrator appointed (Presi-
dent Grant of the U.S.A.). The inland limits of the Portuguese
sphere were fixed by a convention concluded with France in
1886, and the frontier was delimited during 1900-1903. Though
so long settled in the district the only part of the Guinea
coast west of the Gabun left in her possession Portugal
has done little towards its development. With a fertile and
well-watered soil, exceedingly rich in natural products, there
is not much commerce, and such trade as exists, chiefly in non-
Portuguese hands, is hampered by excessive customs duties
and vexatious regulations. In 1905 the external trade of the
colony was not more than 160,000 and was less than it had
been twenty years previously. Ground-nuts, rubber, wax and
ivory are the principal exports. Revenue and expenditure are
about 50,000 a year. Portuguese authority does not in fact
extend much beyond the few stations maintained, nor has the
local government won the confidence of the natives. In 1908
Bissao and some European settlements on the mainland were
besieged by the Papel and other tribes and troops had to be sent
from Portugal before order could be restored. If however
agriculture and commerce suffer, the ethnologist and zoologist
find in this easily accessible little enclave a rich field for investi-
gation, the almost nominal sovereignty of Portugal having
left the country, practically uninfluenced by European culture,
in much the same condition that it was in the i6th and i?th
centuries.
See J. E. Giraud, " La Guinee portugaise " in Bull. soc. geog.
Marseille (1905), vol. xxix. ; A. L. de Fonseca, " Guin6 " in Bull,
soc. geog. Lisboa (1905), vol. xxiii. ; R. Wagner, " Portugiesisch
PORTUNUS POSEIDON
169
Guinea: Land und Leute," in Deutsche Rundschau. (1905), vol.
xxvii. ; E. de Vasconcelles, As Colonias Portugueses (Lisbon, 1896-
1897); and J. Machat, Les Rivieres du sud (Paris, 1906), in which
are cited many papers dealing with Portuguese Guinea.
PORTUNUS, or PORTUMNUS, in Roman mythology, originally
the god of gates and doors (Lat. porta), and as such identified
with Janus and represented with a key in his hand. Gradually
he came to be recognized as a separate deity, who protected
the harbours (portus) and ensured a safe return to seafarers.
(Cicero, Nat. dear. ii. 26; Virgil, Aen. v. 241). With the in-
troduction of the Greek gods, he became merged in Palaemon-
Melicertes. He had a special priest (flamen portunalis) and
temples on the Tiber near the Aemilian bridge and near Ostia,
where a festival was celebrated in his honour on the iyth of
August. Mommsen unhesitatingly identifies Portunus with
the river-god Tiberinus, from the fact that the festival is also
called Tiberinalia in the fasti of Philocalus; Marquardt regards
him rather as the tutelary deity of warehouses.
See J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung (1885), iii. 327,
note 10.
PORTUS, an ancient harbour of Latium, Italy, on the right
bank of the Tiber, at its mouth. For its origin see OSTIA.
Claudius constructed the first harbour here, 25 m. north of Ostia,
enclosing an area of 170 acres, with two long curving moles
projecting into the sea, and an artificial island, bearing a light-
house, in the centre of the space between them; the harbour thus
opened directly to the sea on the north-west and communicated
with the Tiber by a channel on the south-east. The object was to
obtain protection from the prevalent south-west wind, to which
the river mouth was exposed. Though Claudius, in the in-
scription which he caused to be erected in A.D. 46, boasted
that he had freed the city of Rome from the danger of inundation,
his work was only partially successful. Nero gave the harbour
the name of Portus Augusti. It was probably Claudius who
constructed hither the direct road from Rome, the Via Portuensis
(15 m.) which ran over the hills as far as the modern Ponte
Galera, and then straight across the plain. An older road, the
Via Campana, ran along the foot of the hills, following the right
bank of the Tiber, and passing the grove of the Arval Brothers
at the sixth mile, to the Campus salinarum romanarum, the
saltmarsh on the right bank from which indeed it derived its
name (see Nolizie degli Scan, 1888, p. 228).
The site can still be fairly clearly traced in the low ground to the
east of Fiumicino, and the lighthouse is represented m bas-reliefs.
The harbour is generally supposed to have been protected by two
moles with a breakwater in front, on which stood the lighthouse,
with an entrance on each side of it. Trial soundings made in 1907
showed that the course of the right-hand mole is represented by a
low sandhill, while the central breakwater was only some 190 yds.
long, and probably divided from each of the two moles by a channel
some 125 yds. wide. The existence of two entrances is, indeed,
in accordance with the evidence of coins and literary tradition,
though the position of that on the left is not certain, and it may have
been closed in later times. The whole course of the left-hand mole
has not yet been traced, but it seems to have protected not only
the south-west but a considerable portion of the north-west side
of the harbour. In A.D. 103 Trajan constructed another harbour
farther inland a hexagonal basin enclosing an area of 97 acres,
and communicating by canals with the harbour of Claudius, with
the Tiber direct, and with the sea, the last now forming the navig-
able arm of the Tiber (reopened for traffic by Gregory XIII. and
again by Paul V.), and bearing the name Fossa trajana, though its
origin is undoubtedly due to Claudius. The basin itself is still
preserved, and is now a reedy lagoon. It was surrounded by exten-
sive warehouses, remains of which may still be seen : the fineness of
the brickwork of which they are built is remarkable. Farther to
the east is a circular building in brick with niches; it is called the
temple of Portumnus. To the east again is the so-called Arco di
Nostra Donna, a gateway (possibly originally built by Trajan) in
the fortifications which surround the port and are attributed to the
time of Constantino. Many other remains of buildings exist; they
were more easily traceable in the i6th century when Pirro Ligorio
and Antonio Labacco made plans of the harbour. Considerable
excavations were carried on in 1868, but unfortunately with the
idea of recovering works of art and antiquities; and the plan and
description given by R. Lanciani (Annali del institute, 1868, 144 sqq.)
were made under unfavourable circumstances. By means of these
works Portus captured the main share of the harbour traffic of Rome,
and though the importance of Ostia did not at once decrease we
find Portus already an episcopal see in Constantine's time not very
long (if at all) after Ostia, and as the only harbour in the time of the
Gothic wars. Its abandonment dates from the partial silting up of the
right arm of the Tiber in the middle ages, which restored to Ostia what
little traffic was left. To the west of the harbour is the cathedral of
S. Rufina (loth century, but modernized except for the campanile)
and the episcopal palace, fortified in the middle ages, and containing
a number of ancient inscriptions from the site. On the island
(I sola Sacra) just opposite is the church of S. Ippolito, built on the
s>te of a Roman building, with a picturesque medieval campanile
(i3th century ?) ; 2 m. to the west is the modern village of Fiumicino
at the mouth of the right arm of the Tiber, which is 21 m. west-
south-west by rail from Rome. It is a frazione, or portion of the
commune of Rome. Three miles to the north is the pumping;
station by which the lowland (formerly called Stagno di Maccarese,
now reclaimed and traversed by many drainage canals) between here
and Maccarese is kept drained (Bonifica di Maccarese) (see TIBER).
See H. Dessau in Corp. inscr. latin, xiv. i sqq. (Berlin, 1887);
J. Carcopino in Notizie degli Scavi (1907), p. 734. (T. As.)
PORT-VENDRES, a seaport of south-western France, in the
department of Pyrenees-Orientales, in an inlet of the Medi-
terranean Sea, 19^ m. S.S.E. of Perpignan by rail. Pop. (1906),
2525. Port-Vendres, the ancient Portus Veneris, is fourth
in importance of the French Mediterranean ports, and forms
a good harbour of refuge. Its trade, which is with Spain, Greece
and Algeria, is in cork, carobs, grain and wine, &c.
PORUS (4th century B.C.), an Indian prince, ruler of the
country between the rivers Hydaspes and Acesines at the time of
the invasion of Alexander the Great. In the battle on the banks
of the Hydaspes he offered a desperate resistance, and Alexander,
struck by his independent spirit, allowed him to retain his
kingdom, which he increased by the addition of territory. From
this time Porus was * loyal supporter of Alexander. He still
held the position of a Macedonian satrap when assassinated
some time between 321 and 315 B.C.
See Arrian v. 18, 19; Plutarch, Alexander, 60; Quintus Curtius
viii. 14.
PORZIO, CAMILLO (1526-1580?), Italian historian, belonged
to a wealthy and noble Neapolitan family, and was the son of
the philosopher, Simone Porzio. He studied law, first at Bologna
and later at Pisa, and after graduating in utroquejure, practised
as a lawyer in Naples. He died in 1580. His chief literary
work is La Congiura dei baroni, a history of the unsuccessful
conspiracy of the Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand I.
of Naples in 1485; it is based on the authentic records of the
state trials, but is prejudiced in favour of the royal power. It
was first published by Manutius in Rome in 1565. Of Porzio's
other works, the Storia d'ltalia (from 1547 to 1552), of which
only the first two books have survived, is the most important.
The best edition of these two works is that edited ty C. Monzani
(Florence, 1855).
PORZIO, SIMONE (1497-1554), Italian philosopher, was
born and died at Naples. Like his greater contemporary,
Pomponazzi, he was a lecturer on medicine at Pisa (1546-1552),
and in later life gave up purely scientific study for speculation
on the nature of man. His philosophic theory was identical
with that of Pomponazzi, whose De immortalitate animi he
defended and amplified in a treatise De mente humana. There
is told of him a story which illustrates the temper of the early
humanistic revival in Italy. When he was beginning his first
lecture at Pisa he opened the meteorological treatises of Aris-
totle. The audience, composed of students and townspeople,
interrupted him with the cry Quid de anima ? (We would
hear about the soul), and Porzio was constrained to change
the subject of his lecture. He professed the most open
materialism, denied immortality in all forms and taught that
the soul of man is homogeneous with the soul of animals and
plants, material in origin and incapable of separate existence.
POSEIDON, in Greek mythology, god of the sea and of water
generally, son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother of Zeus and
Pluto. The connexion of his name with 7r6<ns, vdvras, wora/i6s,
is generally accepted. When the three brothers deposed their
father Cronus the kingdom of the sea fell by lot to Poseidon.
His home was in a golden palace in the depths of the sea near
Aegae in Achaea. In his hand he bore a trident, wherewith he
lashed the sea into fury, split the rocks, and caused horses and
IJO
POSEN
fountains to spring from them. But, while he caused storms
and shipwrecks, he could also send favouring winds; hence he
was known as Soter, " the preserver." Another of his titles was
Gaeeochos, " the supporter of earth," the sea being supposed
to support the earth and keep it firmly in its place. He was the
god of navigation and his temples stood especially on headlands
and isthmuses. Every occupation connected with the sea was
under his protection, and seafaring people, especially the lonians,
regarded themselves as his descendants. As god of the sea he
disputed with other deities for the possession of the land.
Earthquakes were thought to be produced by Poseidon shaking
the earth hence his epithet of Enosichthon, " Earth-shaker "-
and hence he was worshipped even in inland places which had
. suffered from earthquakes. The seismic wave was also his
work; the destruction of Helice in Achaea by such a wave
(373 B.C.) was attributed to his wrath (Strabo viii. 384). The
island of Delos was thought to have been raised by him, and
about 198, when a new island appeared between Thera and
Therasia, the Rhodians founded a temple of Poseidon on it
(Strabo i. 57). Thessaly was said to have been a lake until he
opened a way for the waters through the Vale of Tempe (Hero-
dotus vii. 129). Poseidon was also the god of springs, which
he produced by striking the rock with his trident, as he did on
the acropolis of Athens when disputing with Athena for the
sovereignty of Athens (Herodotus viii. 55; Apollodorus iii. 14).
As such he was called Nymphagetes, the leader of the nymphs of
springs and fountains, a god of fresh water, probably his original
character, and in this connexion was <urdX/xios (phytalmius) , a
god of vegetation, frequently associated with Demeter. In
regard to the contest with Athena, it is probable that Poseidon
is really Erechtheus, a local deity ousted by Athena and trans-
formedinto an agricultural hero. Dr Farnell, however, holds that
Erechtheus and Poseidon were originally independent figures,
and that both Erechtheus and Athena were prior to Poseidon,
As he gave, so he could withhold, springs of water; thus the
waterless neighbourhood of Argos was supposed to be the result
of his anger. Black bulls, symbolical of the stormy sea, were
sacrificed to him, and often thrown alive into rivers; in Ionia
and Thessaly bull-fights took place in his honour; at a festival
of his at Ephesus the cupbearers were called " bulls," and the
god himself was surnamed " Bull Poseidon." The horse was
especially associated with his worship; he was said to have
produced the first horse by striking the ground in Thessaly
with his trident (Virgil, Georgics, i. 12). At the fountain of
Dine in Argolis horses bitted and bridled were sacrificed to him
by being drowned (Pausanias viii. 7, 2), and similarly Sextus
Pompeius sought to propitiate him by throwing horses into the
sea (Dio Cassius xlviii. 48). He bore the surname of " Horse
Neptune " (HofftiSuv turrtos), and was regarded as the tamer
as well as the creator of the steed. In the deme of Colonus he
was worshipped with Athena, the reputed inventor of the bridle.
Various explanations of the title IViuos have been given: (i) that
the horse represented the corn-spirit; (2) the resemblance of
the crested waves to horses; (3) the impression of horses' hoofs
near the god's sacred springs, and the shaking of the earth by
them when galloping (see Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, iv. 20).
Poseidon plays a considerable part in Greek legend. In the
Trojan War he takes the side of the Greeks, because he had been
cheated of his reward by Laomedon, king of Troy, for whom he
had built the walls of the city. The binding of his son Poly-
phemus by Odysseus brings upon the hero the wrath of Poseidon,
from which he is only protected by the united influence of the
rest of the gods. He is famous for his numerous amours,
especially with the nymphs of springs and fountains; his offspring
were mostly wild and cruel, like the sea the Laestrygones,
Polyphemus, Antaeus, Procrustes and the like. He was wor-
shipped as a national god by the lonians, who took his worship
over with them from Peloponnesus to Asia Minor. His chief
sanctuary was at Mycale, where the Panionia, the national
festival of the lonians, was held. Other seats of his worship
were in Thessaly, Boeotia and Peloponnesus. At Taenarum
in Laconia he had a famous cave-like temple, with an asylum,
and on the island of Tenos he was worshipped as the physician,
probably in reference to the health-giving properties of the sea
air. By far the most famous of his festivals was that celebrated
every alternate year on the isthmus of Corinth, at which the
" Isthmian games " were held. Here a colossal statue of him
was set up in bronze by the Greeks after their victory over the
Persians. The horse, the dolphin (the symbol of the calm sea)
and the pine-tree, with wreaths of which the Isthmian victors
were crowned, were sacred to him. Horses and black bulls,
boars and rams were offered to him, sometimes human beings.
His attributes are the trident and the dolphin (sometimes the
tunny fish.)
As represented in art Poseidon resembles Zeus, but possesses less
of his majestic calm, his muscles are more emphasized, and his hair
is thicker and somewhat dishevelled. He is generally naked; his
right leg rests on a rock or the prow of a ship ; he carries a trident
in his hand, and is gazing in front of him, apparently out to sea;
sometimes he is standing on the water, swinging his trident, or riding
in his chariot over the waves, accompanied by his wife Amphitrite,
the Nereids and other inhabitants of the sea. It is in keeping with
his restless character that he is rarely found sitting. He sometimes
wears a long robe, sometimes a light scarf. Scopas, in a famous
group, represented him surrounded by the denizens of the sea, escort-
ing Achilles to the islands of the blest. In modern Greece St Nicholas
has taken the place of Poseidon as patron of sailors. But the
Zacynthians have a special seagod, half man, half fish, who dwells
under the sea, rides on dolphins or in a car drawn by dolphins, and
wields a trident. By the Romans Poseidon was identified with
Neptune (q.v.).
See E. Gerhard, Uber Ursprung, Wesen und Geltung des Poseidon
(1851), with references to authorities in conveniently arranged
notes; Preller- Robert, Griechische Mythologie (1894); O. Gruppe,
Griechische Mythologie (1906), vol. ii.; and especially L. R. Farnell,
Cults of the Greek States (1907), vol. iv., where special attention is
drawn to the ethnological aspect of the cult of Poseidon.
POSEN, an eastern province of the kingdom of Prussia, in
the German Empire, bounded N. by the Prussian province of
West Prussia, E. by Russian Poland and S. and W. respectively
by the Prussian provinces of Silesia and Brandenburg. Its
area is 11,186 sq. m. and the population shows a density of
177-5 inhabitants to the square mile. Posen belongs to the
north German plain, and consists of a low plateau intersected by
the beds of the Netze, the Warthe and the Obra. These three
rivers drain into the Oder, but part of the province falls within
the basin of the Vistula, which forms the frontier for a short
distance on the north-east. By means of the Bromberger canal
the Netze is joined with the Brake and then through this river
with the Vistula. The surface is dotted with small lakes and
ponds, and there are many broad fens and marshes. The soil is
light and sandy, but much of the land reclaimed in the boggy
districts is very fertile. Upwards of 61% of the area is under
tillage, 13% is occupied by pasture and meadows and 20% by
forests, mostly fir. The principal crops are rye, the chief cereal
grown, wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, beets and hops. The vine
is cultivated to some extent in the south-west corner, and tobacco
is also grown. The marshy tracts often afford excellent pasture
and support large numbers of cattle, sheep and goats. The
mineral resources of the province are practically restricted to
lignite and salt. Besides brewing and distilling, the chief pro-
ducts are machinery, sugar, cloth, tobacco and bricks. Trade
in timber and agricultural produce is facilitated by the network
of railways, navigable rivers and canals, but both industry and
trade are somewhat cramped by the duties imposed at the
Russian frontier. The population of the province in 1905 was
1,986,637, including 1,347,958 Roman Catholics, 605,312
Protestants and 30,433 Jews. The Roman Catholics are mainly
Poles, of whom there are upwards of 1,000,000 in Posen, while
the great bulk of the 900,000 Germans are Protestants. About
57% of the population was returned in 1905 as "rural," in
spite of the large number of so-called " towns," only five of
which, however, have more than 20,000 inhabitants Posen,
Bromberg, Hohensalza, Gnesen and Schneidemiihl. The pro-
vince of Posen was long the worst-educated part of the German
dominions, but of recent years this blemish has been removed.
Thus while in 1882-1883 the ratio of illiterate recruits
amounted to 9-75%, in 1901 less than one quarter per cent of
POSEN
171
the military drafts were without schooling. The province returns
1 5 members to the Reichstag, 29 to the Prussian Lower House
of the Prussian Diet, and is represented in the Upper House by
19 members. It is divided into two districts, those of Bromberg
and Posen.
History. The history of Posen, comprehending some part of
the old kingdom of Poland, including its most ancient capital,
Gnesen, falls within the scope of the article POLAND. Its political
connexion with Prussia began in 1772, when the districts to the north
of the Netze fell to the share of that power in the first partition of
Poland. The rest followed in 1793, and was united with the Netze
district to form the province of South Prussia. In 1807, after the
peace of Tilsit, Posen was incorporated with the grand duchy of
Warsaw, but in 1815 it reverted to Prussia under the style of the
grand duchy of Posen. In 1848 the Polish inhabitants of the
province revolted and had to be put down by force, and, in spite of
the efforts of the Prussian government, they remain in language and
culture separated from their German compatriots.
The tide of German immigration into Posen began at an early
period and flowed strongly in the I3th and following centuries.
The industrious German settlers were welcomed by the Polish
nobles and were the founders of most of the towns, in which they
lived after their own customs and were governed by their own laws.
They established manufactures, introduced the cultivation of hops,
reclaimed the waste soil, and did much to improve agriculture.
In the i6th century Protestantism was widely diffused by their
means. A strong reaction set in in the following century, and per-
secution of the Protestants went hand in hand with the ravages of
war in hastening the political, intellectual and agricultural decline
of the district. By the i8th century the burghers had sunk to the
level of " stadtische Bauern," or peasants with municipal privileges,
and poverty and misery were widely spread.
In the latter part of the igth century, however, this state of things
began to be greatly modified owing to the strong Polish national move-
ment which threatened to drive back the boundaries of Germanism
in the eastern provinces of Prussia, as they had already been driven
back in Bohemia. Hitherto the most important class in Posen had
been the Polish nobles, of whom many were very poor; but the
economic development of the country and the break-up of the large
estates into peasant holdings, which created a comparatively wealthy
Polish middle class, threatened German ascendancy more seriously
than had the traditional nationalism of the nobles. To combat this
the Prussian government entered on a policy of the compulsory
Germanization of the Polish population. In 1872 an administrative
ordinance made German the medium of instruction in the schools
" wherever possible," and the police commissaries who attended
public meetings were instructed to close any meeting at which
speeches were delivered in Polish. In April 1888 the Prussian par-
liament passed a law establishing a commission for the purpose of
buying the land of the Poles in Posen and West Prussia, and letting
it out to German colonists. The sum of 100,000,000 marks
(5,000,000) was voted for this work, to which in 1898 a like sum was
added. In fifteen years an area of nearly 600 sq. m. of land was
bought from the Poles, over one-half in Posen, and on this over 4000
families were settled. In spite of this policy, however, the Polish
element continued to gain, this being partly due to immigration over
the eastern border, partly to the repressive policy of the Prussian
government, which converted what had been an aristocratic opposi-
tion into one that is popular and radical. In 1902 much scandal
was caused by the revelation made in the Prussian parliament of
the methods used in the attempt to Germanize the Poles ; and Count
Biilow had to confess that "corporal punishment was out of place
in religious instruction " ; Polish children having been beaten for
refusing to say the Lord's Prayer in German (see Ann. Reg., 1901,
p. 278). In his speech of the I3th of January 1903, in which he made
the above admission, Count Biilow also had to admit the failure of
the Prussian policy. Fresh legislation was passed in May, devoting
another 250,000,000 marks (12,500,000) to the policy of German
colonization, and forbidding the German colonists to sell their land
to Poles. * The laws forbidding the use of the Polish language in
the schools were retained, in spite of an agitation in Germany itself
for their repeal. _ Yet, three years later, Baron von Rheinbaben,
the Prussian minister of finance, complained that in fifteen years the
German population of East Prussia had diminished by 630,000,
while Polish immigrants had in five years numbered 300,000; at the
same time he confessed that the Poles were vastly increasing their
economic resources at the expense of the German element. As
a result of this report a further sum of 100,000 was voted for
" provincial colonization " and to prevent German emigration.
In 1906 the Prussian government was made somewhat ridiculous
by the strike of some 100,000 Polish school children, who objected
to being whipped for refusing to answer questions in German. The
petition of the archbishop of Posen that the children should be
allowed to receive religious instruction in Polish having been re-
jected by the Prussian minister of education, he issued on the I7th
of October a pastoral allowing parents to confine religious instruction
1 Annual Register (1902), p. 280 seq.
to home or priestly teaching. As a result parents were fined or
imprisoned for withdrawing their children from religious instruction.
The repressive efforts of the government, however, culminated
in the bill, introduced in the session of 1907 by Prince Biilow, pro-
viding for the compulsory expropriation of Polish landowners in
favour of Germans. This bill, which applied to " the districts in
which the safety of the endangered German element could only be
ensured by additional allotments to German settlers " '.. Po&en
and West Prussia was passed, in spite of the strenuous opposition
of some of the most conspicuous nobles in Prussia, in the session of
1908. At the same time under the Public Meetings Bill, introduced
in 1907 and now passed, no language save German was to be used at
any public meetings other than international congresses, &c. save
during actual parliamentary elections (Ann. Reg., 1908, p. 290).
How opposed to the general sentiment of Germany the Prussian
policy in Posen was, was shown in February 1909, when it was
condemned, though without effect, by a resolution of the German
imperial parliament. In January 1910 the Prussian policy was
again arraigned in the German parliament in connexion with the
" Kattowitz incident," Herr von Delbruck justifying the removal
of a number of minor officials, for voting for Polish candidates at
a municipal election, on the ground that the officials of the empire
deserted the ground on which the constitution of the empire rested
if they failed to support Prussia in her struggle (The Times,
January 13, 1910, 5 d.). Herr von Bethmann Hollweg expressed
himself later in the Prussian parliament to the same effect (ibid.
January 20 and 22).
For the history of Posen see Wuttke, Stddtebuch des Landes
Posen (Leipzig, 1864) ; C. Meyer, Geschichte des Landes Posen (Posen,
1887), and Geschichte der Provinz Posen (Gotha, 1891); Knoop,
SagenundErzahlungenaus der Provinz Posen (Posen, 1894); E. von
Bergmann, Zur Geschichte der Entwickelung deutscher, polnischer und
jildischer Bevolkerung in der Provinz Posen seit 1824 (Tubingen, 1 883) ;
E. Schmidt, Geschichte des Deutschtums im Lande Posen unter
polnischer Herrsckaft (Bromberg, 1904) ; Stumpfe, Polenfrage und
Ansiedelungskommission. Darstellung der staatlichen Kolonisation
in Posen (Berlin, 1902); Wegener, Der vnrtschaftliche Kampf der
Deutschen mil den Polen urn die Provinz Posen (Posen, 1903); the
Handbuch fur die Provinz Posen, Nachiaeisung der Behorden, An-
stalten, Institute und Vereine (Posen, 1905) ; and the publications of
the Historische Gesellschaft fur die Provinz Posen (Posen, 1882 seq.).
See further the official work Zwanzig Jahre deutscher Kulturarbeit
1886-1906 (Berlin, 1907). A good account of the Prussian policy
in Posen, from an outside point of view, will be found in the Annual
Register, passim.
POSEN (Polish Poznan), a city, archiepiscopal see and fortress
of Germany, capital of the province of Posen, situated in a wide
and sandy plain at the confluence of the Cybina and the Warthe,
150 m. E. from Berlin and 103 m. from Breslau. Pop. (1885),
68,315; (1895), 73,239; (1905), 136,808, of whom nearly one-half
are Germans and about one-tenth Jews. Posen lies at the
centre of a network of railways connecting it with Berlin, Breslau,
Thorn, Kreuzburg, and Schneidemuhl. The inner line of fortifi-
cations was removed in 1902 and the city has been completely
modernized. The principal part of Posen, on the left bank of
the Warthe, comprises the old town (Alstadt) and the modern
quarter created by the Prussians after 1793. On the right bank
lie Wallischei (a district inhabited by Poles) and some other
suburbs. Posen has fifteen Roman Catholic and three Evangelical
churches and several synagogues. The cathedral contains
many interesting objects of art, but, with the exception of the
Gothic Marienkirche of the isth century, none of the churches
is notable. The old town-hall is a quaint Slavonic adaptation
of Romanesque forms. The royal castle, begun in 1905 and
completed in 1910 at a cost of 250,0x30, is a pretentious build-
ing in what is officially called Romanesque style. It was
intended as an effort to conciliate the Poles, and was opened
by the emperor William II., with imposing ceremonies, on the
2oth of August 1910. Posen possesses an " Emperor William "
library with 200,000 volumes, and the Raczynski library with
50,000. Other principal buildings are the two theatres, the
Emperor Frederick museum, founded in 1894, the Polish museum
and the various public offices. Industries include the manu-
facture of agricultural machinery, spirits, furniture and sugar,
also milling and brewing. There is an active trade, both
by rail and river, in corn, cattle, wood, wool and potatoes.
Posen is the headquarters of the V. army corps, and has a
garrison of 6000 men.
Posen, one of the oldest towns in Poland and the residence
of some of the early Polish princes, including Boleslaus I.,
172
POSIDIPPUS POSITIVISM
became the seat of a Christian bishopric about the middle of the
loth century. The original settlement was on the right bank
of the Warthe, but the new town, established on the opposite
bank by German settlers about 1250, soon became the more
important part of the double city. Posen became a great depot
for the trade between Germany and western Europe on the one
hand and Poland and Russia on the other. Many foreign
merchants made the city their residence, and these included a
colony of Scots, who exported produce to Edinburgh. The
city attained the climax of its prosperity in the i6th century,
when its population, according to one estimate, reached 80,000.
The intolerance shown to the Protestants, the troubles of the
Thirty Years' War, the plague and other causes, soon conspired
to change this state of affairs, and in the i8th century the
population sank to 12,000. New life was infused into the city,
after its annexation by Prussia at the second partition of Poland
in 1793, and since this date its growth has been rapid.
See Lukaszewicz, Historisch-statistisches Bild der Stadt Posen
968-1793 (Ger. trans., Posen, 1881); Ohlenschlager, Kurzgefasste
Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Posen (Posen, 1886) ; War-
schauer, Stadtbuch von Posen (Posen, 1892) ; and Fiihrer durch Posen
(Posen, 1895).
POSIDIPPUS (3rd cent. B.C.), Greek dramatist, of Cassandrea
in Macedonia, the last and one of the most distinguished of the
writers of the new comedy. He began to write for the stage
in 289 B.C., and, according to Suidas, wrote 40 plays, of which
17 titles and some fragments have been preserved. He appears
to have gone somewhat out of the beaten track in his choice of
subjects, and it is evident that cooks held an important position
in his list of characters. His comedies were frequently imitated
by the Romans (Aulus Gellius ii. 23), and it is considered very
probable that the Menaechmi (a comedy of errors) of Plautus is
an adaptation either from the "0/iotot, or from some unknown
comedy of Posidippus, called AtSu/xoi, or perhaps MepeuxMoi.
His statue in the Vatican is considered a masterpiece of ancient
art.
Fragments in A. Meineke, Poetarum comicorum graecorum
fragmenta (1855).
i POSIDIPPUS is also the name of a writer of epigrams (c. 270 B.C.),
of which about 30 are preserved in the Greek Anthology.
See W. Christ, Griechische Litteraturgeschichte (1898).
POSIDONIUS (c. 130-50 B.C.), nicknamed " the Athlete,"
Stoic philosopher, the most learned man of his time (so Strabo
rSiv Kofi' was <t>(.\o<r6<txijv TroXujuaSeoraTos, Galen tTrtffTT/^ow/ccoraTos)
and perhaps of all the school. A native of Apamea in Syria and
a pupil of Panaetius, he spent after his teacher's death many
years in travel and scientific researches in Spain (particularly
at Gades), Africa, Italy, Gaul, Liguria, Sicily and on the eastern
shores of the Adriatic. When he settled as a teacher at Rhodes
(hence his surname " the Rhodian ") his fame attracted numer-
ous scholars; next to Panaetius he did most, by writings and
personal intercourse, to spread Stoicism in the Roman world,
and he became well known to many leading men, such as Marius,
Rutilius Rufus, Pompey and Cicero. The last-named studied
under him (78-77 B.C.), and speaks as his admirer and friend.
He visited Rome, e.g. on an embassy in 86 B.C., but probably
did not settle there as a teacher.
His works, now lost, were written in an attractive style and proved
a mine of information to later writers. The titles and subjects of
more than twenty of them are known. In common with other
Stoics of the middle period, he displayed eclectic tendencies, follow-
ing the older Stoics, Panaetius, Plato and Aristotle. His admiration
for Plato led him to write a commentary on the Timaeus; in another
way it is shown by important modifications which he made in
psychological doctrine. Unquestionably more of a polymath than a
philosopher, he appears uncritical and superficial. But at the time
his spirit of inquiry provoked Strabo's criticism as something alien
to the school (T& aino^oyiKov nal T& ipurrorfaifov, Srfp itui\'u>ovat.v ol
illuTtpoi). In natural science, geography, natural history, mathematics
and astronomy he took a genuine interest. He sought to determine
the distance and magnitude of the sun, to calculate the diameter of
the earth and the influence of the moon on the tides. His history
of the period from 146 to 88 B.C., in fifty-two books, must have been
a valuable storehouse of facts. Cicero, who submitted to his criti-
cism the memoirs which he had written in Greek of his consulship,
made use of writings of Posidonius in De natura deorwm.bk. ii., and
De divinatione, bk. i., and the author of the pseudo- Aristotelian
treatise De mundo also borrowed from him.
See Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen, iii. I, 570-584 (in Eng. trans.,
Eclecticism, 56-70) ; C. Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum,
iii. 245296; J. Bake, Posidonii Rhodii reliquiae (Leiden, 1810),
a valuable monograph; R. Scheppig, De Posidonio rerum gentium
terrarum scriptore (Berlin, 1869); R. Hirzel, Untersuchungen zu
Ciceros phtiosophischen Schriften, i. 191 seq., ii. 257 seq., 325 seq.,
477-535. 756-789, iii- 342-378 (Leipzig, 1877) ; Thiaucourt, Essai sui-
tes traites philosophiques de Ciceron (Paris, 1885); Schmekel, Die
Philosophie der mittlern Stoa (1892); Arnold, Untersuchungen uber
Theophanes von Mytilene und Posidonius von Apamea (1882). (See
also STOICS.)
POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN, a medieval chamber organ
which could be carried from place to place without being taken
to pieces, and when played was placed on a table or stool and
required a blower for the bellows, as well as a performer. It was
larger and more cumbersome than the portative (<?..), with
which it has often been confounded. The positive had usually
but one kind of pipe, the open diapason of 2 ft. tone, and in the
1 6th century the best types had three registers by means of
which each note could be sounded with its fifth and octave, or
each by itself, or again in combinations of twos. The positive
differed from the regal in having flue pipes, whereas the latter
had beating reeds in tiny pipes, one or two inches long, concealed
behind the keyboard. During the early middle ages most of the
pneumatic organs belonged to this type.
A well-known instance of an early positive or portable organ of
the 4th, century occurs on the obelisk erected to the memory of
Theodosius the Great, on his death in A.D. 395. Among the illumi-
nated manuscripts of the British Museum miniatures abound repre-
senting interesting varieties of the portable organ of the middle ages;
such as Add. MS. 29902 (fol. 6) and Add. MS. 27&95b (tol. 13), Cotton
MS. Tiberius A VII. fol. lO4d., all of the I4th century, Add. MS.
28962, Add. MS. 17280, both of the isth century. These little
organs were to be found at every kind of function, civil and religious;
they were used in the dwellings and chapels of the rich ; at banquets
and court functions; in choirs and music schools; and in the small
orchestras of Peri and Monteverdi at the dawn of the musical
drama or opera. (K. S.)
POSITIVISM (derived from ponere, whence positus, that
which is laid down, certain), a philosophical term, applied some-
what loosely to any system which confines itself to the data of
experience and declines to recognize a priori or metaphysical
speculations. In this sense the term may be applied to empirical
philosophers in general. Thus Hume is a positivist in the sense
that he specifically restricts philosophy to the sphere of observa-
tion, and regards the causal relation as being nothing more
than what we have been accustomed to expect. Similarly Mill,
Spencer and physical scientists generally view the universe
from the positivist standpoint. . In its commonest acceptation,
however, positivism is both narrower and wider than this. The
term is specifically used of the philosophy of Auguste Comte,
who applied the term to his system according to which knowledge
is based exclusively on the methods and discoveries of the
physical "or " positive " sciences. According to Comte human
thought passes through three stages theological, metaphysical
and positive. The final stage, positivism, is the understanding
of the universe not as composed of a multitude of individuals
each with volition, but as an ordered organism governed by
necessary laws (see further COMTE). The outcome of this
positivism is the substitution for revealed religion of a religion
of humanity according to Huxley " Catholicism minus
Christianity " in which God is replaced by Humanity. This
religion was to have its special priesthood, ritual and organiza-
tion.
Positivism has, therefore, two distinct sides, the philosophical and
the religious or mystical. Philosophical positivism has had dis-
tinguished representatives in France, Germany and England, and
in the wider sense indicated above may be regarded as one of the
two or three chief influences on modern philosophical development.
Though the details of Comte's philosophic structure, e.g. the classi-
fication of the sciences, are without important significance, the posi-
tivistic tendency is prominent in all systems of thought which deny
the supernatural and the metaphysical. Agnosticism, Phenomenal-
ism, Rationalism, Materialism 'all manifest the positivist spirit,
denying what may be succinctly described as the metempirical.
POSSE COMITATUS POSSESSION
173
In France the Comtian tradition was maintained with important
reservations and the abandonment of the religious aspect by Littre
(q.v.), Taine and others. In Germany many ofthe followers of Kant
have in greater or less degree maintained the view that all true
knowledge depends upon the observation of objective phenomena.
The distinctly religious aspect has been comparatively unimportant,
except in so far as modern social evolutionist ethics may be regarded
as religious in character. In England, however, a number of pro-
minent Positivists have carried out Comte's original ideal of a Church
of Humanity with ritual and organization. The chief building (in
Chapel Street, Lamb's Conduit Street, London) is adorned with
busts of the saints of humanity, and regular services are held.
Positivist hymns are sung and addresses delivered. Among the
leaders of this movement have been Frederic Harrison, Richard
Congreve, E. S. Beesly and J. H. Bridges (d. 1906). Services are
also held weekly in Essex Hall, London, and there are a few other
centres in the provinces, including a prosperous church in Liverpool.
POSSE COMITATUS (Lat. " power of a county "), a summons
to every male in the county, between the ages of fifteen and
twenty, to be ready and apparelled, at the command of the
sheriff and the cry of the county, to maintain peace and pursue
felons. Ecclesiastical persons, peers and such as laboured under
any infirmity were not compellable to attend. Owing to the
establishment of county police, the sheriff does not now pursue
felons, but by the Sheriffs Act (1887, sec. 8, sub-sec. 2) the calling
out of the posse comitatus is expressly authorized if the sheriff
finds any resistance in the execution of a writ. In view of the
sheriff's duty to raise, if necessary, the posse comitatus it is no
answer by him, for non-execution of a writ, to say that he was
resisted.
See P. E. Mather, Sheriff Law.
POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess), in law, a
term derived from Roman law. The Roman conception of
possession has been generally adopted, but not the Roman deduc-
tions from the conception. The subject of possession has become
more difficult owing to the various senses in which the term has
been interpreted. Thus it has been said to be either a right or a
fact conferring a right, or both together. The latter is the view
of Savigny, the leading authority upon the subject (Recht des
Besitzes, translated by Sir Erskine Perry, 1848). Further, there
is a want of agreement among legal writers as to the amount
of right or rights that it confers. All that can be said with
safety is that possession stands in a position intermediate
between simple detention and absolute ownership, and that it
implies two elements, physical detention and mental intention
to hold the thing possessed as one's own. These difficulties
being borne in mind, the definition of W. A. Hunter may be
accepted: " Possession is the occupation of anything with the
intention of exercising the rights of ownership in respect of it "
(Roman Law, p. 209). Possession is inchoate or incomplete
ownership; it is on its way to become ownership. In the case
of the public domain of Rome (ager publicus) the possession was
really the important matter, the dominium being practically of
no value. Possession in Roman law was either natural or civil.
The former was mere occupation, the latter such occupation as
ripened by prescription into ownership. Possession exclusive
against the world (including the true owner) was called " adverse
possession." A servitude, such as a right of way, could not be
held in true possession, but was said to be in " quasi-possession."
The quasi-possessor, however, had possessory remedies. In
Roman law a broad distinction was drawn between possession
and ownership (dominium). 1 They were protected by different
remedies possession by interdict, ownership by action. This
difference can only be explained by history. Here again,
unfortunately, authorities differ. According to Savigny, a
Roman citizen who had become a tenant of part of the ager
publicus could not by any length of holding obtain more than a
quasi-ownership, but one of which it would have been morally
unjust to have deprived him. " The only legal remedies of
which the tenants could avail themselves, if ejected or threatened
with disturbance, were the possessory interdicts, summary
processes of Roman law which were either expressly devised by
1 The distinction is very important, as it affects the contract of
sale. The contract was not to transfer ownership, as in English
law, but only vacua possessio.
the praetor for their protection, or else, according to another
theory, had in older times been employed for the provisional
maintenance of possessions pending the settlement of questions
of legal right " (Maine, Ancient Law, ch. viii.). Savigny regards
the protection of possession as an extension of the protection
of the person. The same view was taken by the English court
of exchequer in Rogers v. Spence, 13 M. & W. R. p. 581.
According to Hunter (Roman Law, pp. 206, 221), Savigny
overlooked the needs of aliens. It was the needs of aliens,
incapable of the full proprietary rights of Roman citizens,
that led to the invention by the praetor of a means of giving
them equitable rights in the land, and protecting them in
the enjoyment of these rights. Savigny attributes only two
rights to possession in Roman law acquisition of ownership
by possession for a given time (usucapio, longi temporis possessio)
and protection of possession from disturbance (interdictum).
Others have included further rights inter alia, the right to use
force in defence of possession, and the right to have the burden
of proof, in a contest as to the title, thrown upon the adversary:
" In pan causa possessor potior haberi debet." The position
of the possessor in Roman law was very strong. If a bona fide
possessor, he could bring an action for furtum even against the
owner, if a mala fide possessor of land, he was so far protected
that he could not be ejected by force, A mala fide possessor of
movables could, however, acquire no rights. 2
It has been already stated that there is both a physical
and a mental element in the conception of possession. This
does not necessarily mean that corporal contact is in all cases
requisite, or that the intention to hold the thing possessed as
one's own may not be abandoned for a time. The control may
be potential as well as actual. An estate may be possessed
without the possessor going upon the land at all, and the
possession of goods may be given by delivering the key of the
warehouse in which they are stored. In international law
the possession of part as giving a title to the whole has been of
great importance (see INTERNATIONAL LAW). Where goods are
pledged or bailed for a specific purpose the intention of the
pledger or bailor to hold them as his own is suspended during the
existence of the limited right of the pledgee or bailee, to whom
a fragment of the possession has passed. In Roman law the
pledger had possessio ad usucapionem, the pledgee possessio ad
interdicta. The possession of the pledgee or bailee has been
called " derivative possession." Possession may be exercised
through another (" animo nostro, corpore alieno "), as through a
servant, who has not true possession.* Possession so exercised
has been called " representative possession." As soon as the
representative determines to assume control on his own behalf
or to submit to the control of another, the possession of the
principal is gone. Possession may be transferred or lost. It is
lost when either the corpus or the animus (to use the terms of
Roman law) ceases to exist. It may be lost by the representa-
tives in cases where the principal might have lost it.
In both Roman and English law the possessory tended to
supersede the proprietary remedies from their greater con-
venience that is to say, the plaintiff based his daim or the
defendant his right upon possession rather than property. The
English possessory action may have been directly suggested
by the interdict. Bracton (lojb) identifies the assise of novel
disseisin, the most common form of possessory action, with the
interdict unde vi. In England ejectment had practically
superseded other real actions before the latter were (with the
exception of dower, writ of dower and quare impedit) expressly
abolished by the Real Property Limitation Act 1833, s. 36.
The action for the recovery of land, introduced by the Judicature
Acts, is the modern representative of the action of ejectment.
1 This does not agree with English law, where in certain cases a
thief can give a good title to stolen goods, though he has no title
himself.
1 Much of the law of master and servant is based upon the Roman
law of master and slave. The servant, like the slave, has not posses-
sion of his master's goods even though they are in his custody, unless,
indeed, the circumstances are such that he ceases to be a servant
and becomes a bailee.
POSSESSION
The right of a party to recover possession is enforced by a writ
of possession.
Possession gives in English law, speaking generally, much the
same rights as in Roman law. Thus it serves to found a title
(see LIMITATION, STATUTES OF; PRESCRIPTION), and to throw the
onus of proof upon the claimant. In an action for the recovery
of land the defendant need only allege that he is in possession
by himself or by his tenant, and (where such an allegation is
necessary) that he had no notice to quit. The chief differences
between Roman and English law, arising to some extent from
the differences in the history of the two systems, are that the
former did not give to derivative possessors (except in the case
of pledge) the remedies of possessors, as does English law,
and that Roman law is stricter than. English in requiring that
possession to found usucapio should (except in the case of
jus aquae ducendae ) be exjusto titulo, or under colour of right
(see PRESCRIPTION). There is one case of constructive
possession which is peculiar to English law that is, where
possession is said to be given by a deed operating under the
Statute of Uses (see " Orme's Case," L. R. 8, C. P. p. 281).
In English law the doctrine of possession becomes practically
important in the following cases. (l) Possession serves as a con-
venient means of division of estates (see REAL PROPERTY). One of
the divisions of estates is into estates in possession and estates in
reversion or remainder. It also serves as a division of personal
property (g.t*.). A close in action is said to be reduced into pos-
session when the right of recovery by legal proceedings has become
a right of enjoyment. (2) Possession gives a title against a wrong-
doer. In the case of real property it is regarded as prima facie
evidence of seisin. 1 In the case of personal property the mere
possession of a finder is sufficient to enable him to maintain an
action of trover against one who deprives him of the chattel 2 (see
the leading case of Armory v. Delamirie, l Str. 504). (3) What
is called " unity of possession " is one of the means whereby an
easement is extinguished. Thus the owner of close A may nave
had a right of way over close B, while the latter belonged to a
different owner. If the two closes come to be owned by the same
person, the right of way is extinguished, but may under certain
circumstances revive on the separation of the ownership. (4)
Possession is very important as an element in determining the
title to goods under 13 Eliz. c. 5, the Bills of Sale Act 1878 and
the Bankruptcy Acts 1883 to 1890. It may be said that as a
general rule retention of possession by the transferor or an absolute
assignment or a colourable delivery of possession to the transferee
is strong prima facie evidence of fraud. (5) Possession of goods
or documents of title to goods is generally sufficient to enable
agents and others to give a good title under the Factors' Acts
(see FACTOR). (6) In criminal law the question of possession is
important in founding the distinction between larceny and embezzle-
ment. If the goods are in the possession of the master and he
gives them to the custody of his servant for a specific purpose and
the servant steals them, it is larceny; if they have never come into
the master's possession, as if a clerk receives money on his master's
behalf, it is embezzlement. Recent possession of stolen goods is
always regarded as a presumption that the person in whose pos-
session they are stole them or received them knowing them to
have been stolen. In the case of a charge of receiving stolen goods
evidence may be given that there was found in the possession of
the accused other property stolen within the preceding period of
twelve months, 34 & 35 Viet. c. 1 12, s. 19. (For possession in
criminaj law, see Stephen, Digest of the Criminal Law, note xi.)
(7) Actions of possession of ships fall within the jurisdiction of the
admiralty division. This jurisdiction in the case of British vessels
depends upon the Admiralty Court Act 1861 (24 Viet. c..io, s. 8),
in the case of foreign vessels (in which the jurisdiction is rarely exer-
cised) upon the general powers of the court as a maritime court.
The doctrines of adverse possession (in the old English sense,
which was not identical with the Roman law, for the real owner must
have actually or by fiction been disseised) and of possessio fratris
are now of only antiquarian interest. The Statutes of Limitation
have superseded the first. The only question now is, not whether
possession has been adverse or not, but whether twelve years have
elapsed since the right accrued. The maxim " possessio fratris
de feodo simplici sororem facit esse haeredem " (Coke upon Littleton,
1 " Seisin " and " possession " are used sometimes as synonyms,
as generally by Bracton; at other times they are distinguished : thus
there can be possession of a term of years, but no seisin (Noy, Maxims,
p. 2). It seems doifbtful, however, how far in English law a tenant
for years has true possession, for he is in law only a bailiff or servant
of the landlord. But he certainly has possessory remedies, like the
quasi-possessor in Roman law.
1 Compare the Cede Napoleon, art. 2279: " En fait de meubles la
possession vaut titre."
I4b) has been altered by the rule of descent introduced by the
Inheritance Act 1833, under which descent is traced from the
purchaser. At one time possessory suits were occasionally main-
tained in England, and more frequently in Ireland, for the quieting
of possession after proof of three years' possession before the filing
of the bill. But such suits are now obsolete (see Nettl \. Duke of
Devonshire, 8 A. C. 146). There was one characteristic case in old
English law in which possession was maintained by means of what
was called " continual claim," made yearly in due form, where the
person having the right was prevented by force or fear from
exercising it (Coke upon Littleton, 253b). Continual claim was
abolished: by the Real Property Limitation Act 1833, s. II.
Scotland. In Scotland possessory actions still exist eo nomine.
Actions of molestation, of removing, and of maills (payments) and
duties are examples. A possessory judgment is one which entitles
a person who has been in possession under a written title for seven
Jears to continue his possession (Watson, Law Diet., s.v. " Possessory
udgment ").
United States. Here the law in general agrees with that of
England. Possessory rights are taxed in some of the states.
Louisiana follows Roman law closely. Possession of incorporeal
rights (to use the unscientific language of the Code) is called quasi-
possession, and the division of possession into natural and civil is
maintained (Civil Code, ss. 3389-3419).
In addition to the authorities cited may be mentioned Smith,
Diet, of Antiquities, s.v. " Possessio "; Markby, Elements of Law;
Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence; Holmes, The Common Law
(lect. vi.) ; Pollock and Wright, Possession in the Common Law.
a- w.)
POSSESSION, the term given to the supposed control of a
human body and mind by an alien spirit, human or non-human;
or the occupation by an alien spirit of some portion of a human
body, causing sickness, pain, &c. The term obsession (Lat. for
siege) is sometimes used as equivalent to possession; some-
times it denotes spirit control exercised from without, or it may
mean no more than a maniacal monoideism. From an anthro-
pological point of view possession may be conveniently classed
as (a) inspirational, (6) demoniacal, (c) pathological, according
to the view taken of the reason for or effect of the spiritual
invasion of the possessed person.
a. In inspirational possession the oracle spirit is held to have
entered the person in order to foretell the future or to proclaim
the will of a god; the god himself may be regarded as speaking
through the mouth of his devotee; among peoples in the lower
stages of culture possession by spirits of the dead is inspirational,
especially where there is any kind of ancestor worship in vogue.
This kind of possession, so far as is known, does not appear among
some of the lowest peoples, e.g. the Australians; but it is common
in Africa, Polynesia and Asia, where European influence has not
led to its decay. Many of the classical oracles were regarded as
due to divine inspiration. The manifestations are often voluntarily
induced and are provoked in many different ways; in classical
times the eating of laurel leaves, the inhaling of fumes which ascended
from a cleft in the rocks of Delphi, the drinking of intoxicating
liquors, or of a more widely found means of inducing the phenomena
blood were all in use. In the Malay Peninsula the medicine-
man inhales incense which rises in clouds from a censer and hangs
like a mist round his head; similar hypnotic effects are produced
in Egypt in the case of divining boys by means of drugs. In Fiji
the priest sat before a dish of scented oil and anointed himself with
it, till in a few minutes he began to tremble and was finally strongly
convulsed. In parts of India, draughts of blood from the neck
of the newly decapitated victim were the means of rousing the
priest to frenzy ; while in Siberia, America and many parts of Africa
drumming, contortions and orgiastic dancing are more commonly
found. According to another account, the Fijian priest provoked
the onset of the trance by a method in use in ordinary hypnotic
practice; he sat amid dead silence before a whale's tooth, at which
he gazed steadfastly.
The symptons of supposed possession by a god differ as widely
as do those of the hypnotic trance. In Hawaii the god Oro gave
his oracles by inspiring the priest, who ceased to speak or act as
a voluntary agent, his frenzied utterances being interpreted by the
attendant priests. In the Malay Peninsula the pawang, after
censing himself, lies down on his back, with his head shrouded,
and awaits the moment of inspiration. The tiger spirit which is
the familiar of all Malay pawangs manifests its presence by a low
lifelike growl and the pawang scratches at the mat, gives a series
of catlike leaps and licks up from the floor the handfuls of rice
scattered there. But his state seems to be far removed from the
ecstasy of the Hawaiian priest, though it must be remembered that
no test of bona fides is possible in either case. We meet with
another stage in Tahiti in the lofty declamation of the possessed
priests, who thus afford a parallel to the utterances of many modern
mediums. Finally in Africa, where the frenzied form of possession
is also common, we find at Sofala the manifestations of possession
POSSNECK POST
75
were confined to the simple dramatic imitation of the voice of the
dead king, whose soul was believed to give counsel in this manner
to his successor.
b. Demoniacal possession is a widely spread explanation of such
psychopathological conditions as epilepsy, somnambulism, hysteria,
Ctc. ; especially in the East Indian field lycanthropy (?.r.)and magical
power (for evil) are commonly attributed to possession. Much
of the evidence is that of native witnesses, and where European
observers have succeeded in examining a case for themselves they
have generally been guiltless of all knowledge of psychopathology
and of the possibilities of suggestion; their statements are therefore
to be accepted only with reserve. Demoniacal possession is familiar
to us from the New Testament narratives; there seems to be no
reason to suppose that the cases there recorded were due to
anything but disease; but the view is still occasionally maintained
by Christian apologists that real demon possession existed in
Judaea. Demoniacs in the New Testament are stated to live among
the tombs, to be deaf and dumb, or blind, to be possessed by a
multitude of evil spirits or to suffer from high fever as a result of
possession ; the demons are said to pass into the bodies of animals
or to reside in waterless places. No facts are recorded which are
not explicable either as the ordinary symptoms of mental disease
or as the result of suggestion (q.v.).
c. In the lower stages of culture all diseases are explained as
due to the invasion of the body by disease spirits (see ANIMISM),
but the effects are supposed to be physiological, not psychical as in
demoniacal possession. The infringement of a totemic tabu, the
wrath of an ancestor or other dead person or the malice of a disease
spirit, such as the Malay hantus, or of any non-human spirit, may
set up pathological conditions, according to animistic philosophy.
Such cases, as well as those of demoniacal possession, which may
be distinguished from the inspirational form by their invariably
involuntary character, are dealt with by a variety of means such as
spells, purifications, sacrifices to the possessing spirit, or coercion
of various sorts (see EXORCISM).
We have few data as to the distribution of the phenomena
here classified. Cases of inspirational or demoniacal possession
were known in classical times; but the demon of Socrates must
rather be classed as a case of sensory automatism. In our own
day they are reported from the greater part of Asia, Africa and
Polynesia, and they seem to occur in America, though our
information is scanty. On the other hand in New Guinea and
Australia they are practically unknown, though automatisms
are put down to the agency of the dead.
From the psychological point of view the classification is
again threefold: (a) as noted above, the majority of cases of
so-called possession are simply psychopathological; (b) another
class, the existence of which has only been recognized within
recent times are the cases of secondary or multiple personality;
the apparent independence and occasional conflict of primary
and secondary selves has been explained by the theory of
possession; but it has been possible in one of the most severe
cases on record to unify the two personalities and memories
after what the patient described as a struggle between them for
supremacy, which would inevitably have suggested, possession
as the explanation, had not the issue of the case been the amalga-
mation of the two streams of consciousness, (c) The problem
of the third class of cases, which may be termed mediumistic, is
still unsolved. The medium (q.v.) or sensitive appears to have
at command in the trance state a store of memories connected
with the lives of deceased friends of a sitter (.. a person present
at the seance), such memories being dealt with from the stand-
point of the deceased person (who is termed the communicator) ;
sometimes the memories are connected with the friends of a
person not actually present or with articles placed in the hands
of the medium, the owners being absent or dead. Mediumistic
cases have undergone elaborate investigation at the hands of
the Society for Psychical Research, and no serious attempt has
been made to invalidate the facts set forward by the investi-
gators; but so far no satisfactory explanation has been suggested.
On the one hand thought transference or telepathy (q.v.) appears
to be insufficient, unless we assume that the powers of a medium
far transcend anything demonstrable in ordinary telepathic
experiments; for the facts stated by or through the medium
about the communicator seem in many cases to be known in
their entirety to no single living person. If thought transference
is the explanation, we must admit that the medium can (i)
ransack all living brains for facts, (2) select those which are
pertinent (i.e. known to the communicator) and (3) combine
them in such a way as to suggest that the source of the informa-
tion is the dead person. On the other hand, although, as we
have seen, the communications show knowledge homologous
to that of the deceased, they demonstrably do not include the
whole of his knowledge; more than one attempt has been made
to obtain from communicators the contents of sealed letters,
written during their lifetime and kept from the knowledge of all
other human beings till the seal was broken; but such attempts
have so far failed, and the failure seems to form conclusive
evidence both against possession and against other explanations
based on the supposition that the dead are communicating.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For anthropological data see Bastian, Dcr
Mensch ; Contemporary Review, xxvii. 369 ; Ellis, Tshi-speaking Peoples ;
Naevius, Demon Possession; Radloff, Das Schamanentum; Skeat,
Malay Magic; Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus; Tylor, Primitive
Culture; Verdun, Le Diable dans les missions; Maury, La Magic,
p. 258 seq. ; Chamberlain, Things Japanese, s.v. " Fox." For discussion
of New Testament facts see W. M. Alexander, Demoniacal Pos-
session in the New Testament; Conybeare, in Jewish Quarterly
Review, yiii. 576, ix. 59, 444, 581; Herzog's Realencyclopadie, s.v.
" Damonische." For patristic literature see Bingham, Antiquities, iii.
For mediumistic possession see Myers, Human Personality; and
the same author on " Pseudopossession " in Proc. S.P.R. xv. 384;
Prpc. S.P.R. vi. 436-450, viii. 1-167, xiii. 284-582, xvi. 1-536,
xvii. 61-244, &c. For medical and psychological observations
see Griesinger, Mental Pathology; James, Principles of Psychology;
Janet, Nevroses et idees fixes; Kraft-Ebbing, Psychiatrte; Sidis and
5. P. Goodhart, Multiple Personality. (N. W. T.)
POSSNECK, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-
Meiningen, 21 m. by rail S. of Jena, on the Kotschau. Pop.
(1905), 12,702. It has a Gothic Evangelical church built about
1390, and a Gothic town-hall erected during the succeeding cen-
tury. Its chief industries are the making of flannel, porcelain,
furniture, machines, musical instruments and chocolate. The
town has also tanneries, breweries, dyeworks and brickworks.
Possneck, which is of Slavonic origin, passed about 1300 to the
landgrave of Thuringia. Later it belonged to Saxony and later
still to the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, passing to Saxe-
Meiningen in 1826.
See E. Koch, Aus Possnecks Vergangenheit (P6ssneck, 1894-1895);
the same writer, Beitrage zur urkundlichen Geschichte der Stadt
Possneck (Possneck, 1896-1900); and the Geschichte der Stadt
Possneck, published by the Possnecker Zeitung (Possneck, 1902).
POST. i. (An adaptation in O. Eng. of the Lat. posits,
from ponere, to place), a stock, stake or stump, particularly an
upright timber used as a support in building, as part of the
framework of a door, as a boundary mark, &c., and formerly
as a convenient object to which to attach public notices, &c.,
whence the verb " to post," to publish a notice, advertisement,
&c., by affixing it in a conspicuous position, hence to make a
statement with regard to an event or person, e.g. the " posting "
of a defaulter, or of a ship as overdue or missing at Lloyd's.
2. (An adaptation of the Fr. paste, station, position, Ital.
posla or posto, formed from the past participle positus, of Lat.
ponere, to place), position, station, a position occupied by a
soldier or body of soldiers, especially one specifically allotted to a
soldier, such as the round of a sentry, hence a place of employ-
ment, an office. The sense of station has developed into the
particular application of the word and its various derivatives,
" postal," " postage," &c., to the service connected with the
delivery of letters (see POST AND POSTAL SERVICE). From the
earliest times as we see from the afyaptia of the Persian kings
(Herod, viii. 98), the speedy despatch of messages, letters, &c.,
was attained by relays of men and horses stationed at regular
intervals. This is paralleled by the disposili equites of Roman
times and by the elaborate system of the Great Khan which
Marco Polo describes on the roads of China. The New English
Dictionary finds the earliest use of the O. Fr. poeste and the Ital.
posta for these stations of men and horses in Marco Polo's
account. The Medieval Latin expression for the couriers was
caballarii postarum, riders of the posts. From the stations or
relays of horses the word was early applied to the riders them-
selves, and later to the mail carried by means of the " posts,"
and thence to the whole service. At the first establishment of
176
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
regular posts in the i6th century in England, they served two
purposes, the carrying of the king's letters and the exclusive
supply of horses for his couriers and for other travellers, the first
being called the " posts of the pacquet," the second " the
thorough posts." When, in 1780, the monopoly of supplying
post-horses was taken away from the " postmasters," the term
was retained for the " posting " establishments for travellers
throughout the country, as well as in such words as " post-boy "
and " post-chaise." The expression " post-haste," generally
used adverbially in the sense of " with the utmost speed," was
originally a superscription, " haste, post, haste," on letters that
needed the greatest despatch, and was a command addressed
to the " post," the bearer of the message. The peculiar use of
" postmaster " as the name of the " scholars " of Merton
College, Oxford, has not been explained. It occurs in the
college records first as the name of a building (Postmasters'
Hall) outside the college, in which the scholars (called porcion-
istae or portionistae) lived until about 1575. The suggestion
that " postmaster " is a corruption of portionista is far-fetched,
and there is nothing to support the theory that the scholars,
as servitors to the masters, stood behind them at table and were
thus called post-magistri.
POST, and POSTAL SERVICE. The germ of modern postal
systems is to be looked for in the earliest organized establishment
of a staff of government couriers. In the postal system of Spain
and the German empire there is express record of permission to
government couriers to carry letters for individuals in April 1544;
and within fifteen or sixteen years that permission had grown
into a legalized and regulated monopoly, whence the counts
of Taxis drew part of their profits as postmasters-general. In
Great Britain existing private letters of the isth century some,
perhaps, of the I4th bear endorsements which show that they
were conveyed by relays of men and horses maintained under
the control of the government, and primarily intended for its
special service. In several states on the continent of Europe
the universities had inland postal establishments of a rudimen-
tary sort at an early date. The university of Paris organized
a postal service almost at the beginning of the I3th century,
and it lasted in a measure until 1719. In various parts of
Europe mercantile gilds and brotherhoods were licensed to
establish posts for commercial purposes. But everywhere as
far as the accessible evidence extends foreign posts were under
state control.
GREAT BRITAIN
Early History (c. 1533-1836).
As early as the middle of the i3th century entries occur in
the wardrobe accounts of the kings of England of payments to
royal messengers for the conveyance of letters. In
Century ^ e supervision of these royal messengers lies the
germ of the office of postmaster-general. The first
English postmaster of whom a distinct account can be given is
Sir Brian Tuke, who is described (1533) in the records as " Magis-
ter Nunciorum, Cursorum, sive Postarum," " both in England
and in other parts of the king's dominions beyond the seas."
But long subsequent to this appointment of a postmaster-
general the details of the service were frequently regulated by
proclamations and by orders in council. Thus, among the
royal proclamations in the library of the Society of Antiquaries,
there is one of Philip and Mary (undated, but apparently of 1555)
which regulates the supply of horses for the conveyance of letters
to Dover. Again, in July 1556 the lords of the council ordered
" that the postes betweene this and the Northe should eche of
them keepe a booke, and make entrye of every lettre that he
shall receive, the tyme of the deliverie thereof unto his hands,
with the parties names that shall bring it unto him." Much of
the business of the foreign postal service to and from England
during the earlier years of Queen Elizabeth was managed by the
incorporated " merchant strangers," who appointed a special
postmaster. When that office fell vacant in 1568 they quarrelled
about a successor; and the quarrel cost them their privilege. 1
1 F. Windebank to Sir W. Cecil: " All the Italians were unwilling
The accession of James I. to the English throne, by neces-
sitating a more frequent communication between London and
Scotland, led to improvements in the postal service.
Special posts had already been established by the
magistrates of certain Scottish towns to convey their
despatches to and from the court. Thus in 1590 a messenger
was appointed by the magistrates of Aberdeen with the title of
"council-post." 2 The new royal orders of 1603 directed (i) that
the postmasters at the various stages should enjoy the privilege of
letting horses to " those riding in post (that is to say) with horn
and guide," by commission or otherwise, and to that end they
were charged to keep or have in readiness a sufficient number
of post-horses; (2) that the lawful charge for the hire of each
horse should be, for public messengers, at the rate of 2|d. a mile,
" besides the guides' groats," private travellers being left to make
their own agreements. Finally, it was directed that every post-
master should keep at least two horses for the express conveyance
of government letters, and should forward such letters within a
quarter of an hour of their receipt, and that the posts should
travel at the rate of not less than 7 m. an hour in summer and
5 m. in winter. 3
In 1607 the king granted to John Stanhope, first Baron
Stanhope of Harrington, and to his son Charles Stanhope, after-
wards second Lord Stanhope, jointly and to the survivor of
them, the postmastership of England under the title of " Master
of the Posts and Messengers," with a fee of 100 marks a
year, together with all " avails and profits " belonging to the
office. In 1619 a separate office of " postmaster-general of
England for foreign parts " was created in favour of
Matthew de Quester 4 and Matthew de Quester the
younger. The new office was regarded by the exist-
ing postmaster-general, Charles, Lord Stanhope, as
an infringement of his own patent. A long dispute ensued in
the king's bench and before the lords of the council. 5 In 1626
by an order in council liberty was granted to all companies of
merchants, including the merchant adventurers, to send their
letters and despatches by messengers of their own choosing. A
year afterwards this liberty was revoked, except for the Company
of Merchant Adventurers. Lord Stanhope, however, continued
to carry letters abroad by his agents, and obtained a warrant
prohibiting De Quester from interfering. It shows strikingly
the confusion of postal affairs at this period to find a statement
addressed to the privy council by the postmasters of England
to the effect that they had received no payments " ever since
the last day of November 1621 till this present time, June 1628 "
the arrears amounting to 22,626.
The rights of the postmasters were also infringed by private
individuals, as by one Samuel Jude in 1629 in the west
of England. 6 In 1632 the foreign postmastership was assigned
by De Quester, who had lost his son, to William Frizell and
Thomas Witherings. Letters-patent were granted to them
to give their voices to Raphael, . . . but inclined to favour Godfrey "
(Dom. Cor. Eliz. xlviii. 65, State Paper Dept., Rolls Office).
Raphael was a German, Godfrey an Englishman.
2 Kennedy, Annals of Aberdeen, i. 262.
3 Book of Proclamations, p. 67 (S. P. O. ; now in Rolls House) ;
Report from the Secret Committee on the Post Office, (1844) appendix,
pp. 38-40.
4 Or " De 1'Equester," as he is called in Latch's Reports of King's
Bench Cases, p. 87.
6 These disputes were much embittered by the growing jealousies
of English against foreign merchants. The proofs of this in the
state correspondence of Elizabeth's day are abundant, but there
were many statesmen who took larger views. See, e.g. John John-
son's " Brief Declaration for the . . . erecting and maintaining
of the Staple ... in England " (June 1582), Dom. Corresp. Eliz.
cliv. No. 30; and compare the same writer's " Discourse for the
repairing the decayed State of the Merchants," &c. (July 22, 1577),
ibid. cxiy. No. 39, with Leake's " Discourse," &c., of the same year
(ibid. cxi. I seq.), and with John Hales's " Letter to Sir W. Cecil "
(March 20, 1559), ibid, iii., where he describes the merchant strangers
as being " spies for foreign princes," and with Cecil's " Reasons to
move a Forbearing of the Restitution of the Intercourse to Antwerp "
(1564), ibid. xxxv. No. 33 (in Rolls House).
6 See Analytical Index to the Remembrancia, p. 418, as quoted by
H. B. Wheatley in the Academy of the 27th of December 1879,
p. 464.
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
Withering*.
jointly, the isth of March 1633.' Witherings took the labouring
oar, and ranks as the first of many conspicuous postal reformers.
Under him one Richard Poole obtained a special
" postmastership for the service of the court. Among
the earliest measures of improvement taken under the new
patent was an acceleration of the continental mail service.
For this purpose the patentees made a contract with the
count of Thurn and Taxis, hereditary postmaster of the
Empire and of Spain. At this time there was still but one
mail weekly between London, Antwerp and Brussels, and the
transit occupied from four to five days. By a subsequent
contract with Count Thurn two mails weekly were secured and
the transit made ordinarily in two days. 1 In June 1635 Wither-
ings submitted to the king a proposal " for settling of staff ets
or pacquet-posts betwixt London and all parts of His Majesty's
dominions, for the carrying and re-carrying of his subjects'
letters," which contains curious notices of the state of internal
communications. The net charge to the Crown of the existing
posts is stated to be 3400 per annum. Letters, it is said,
" being now carried by carriers or footposts 16 or 18 m. a day, it
is full two months before any answer can be received from Scot-
land or Ireland to London. If any of His Majesty's subjects
shall write to Madrid in Spain, he shall receive answer sooner
and surer than he shall out of Scotland or Ireland." By the new
plan it was proposed that all letters for the northern road should
be put into one " portmantle," and directed to Edinburgh,
with separate bags directed to such postmasters as lived upon
the road near to any city or town corporate. The journey from
London to Edinburgh was to be performed within three days.
The scheme was approved on the 3ist of July 1635, the procla-
mation establishing eight main postal lines namely, the great
northern road, to Ireland by Holyhead, to Ireland by Bristol,
to the marches of Wales by Shrewsbury, to Plymouth, to Dover,
to Harwich and to Yarmouth. The postage of a single letter
was fixed at ad. if under 80 m., 4d. if between 80 and 140 m.,
6d. if above 140 m., 8d. if to Scotland. It was provided that no
other messengers or footposts should carry letters to any places
so provided, except common known carriers, or a particular
messenger " sent on purpose with a letter by any man for
his own occasions," or a letter by a friend, on pain of exem-
plary punishment. 3 In February 1638 another royal procla-
mation ratified an agreement between Witherings and De
Noveau, postmaster to the French king, for the conveyance of
the mails into France by Calais, Boulogne, Abbeville and
Amiens. 4
But in 1640 the active postmaster was accused of divers
abuses and misdemeanours, and his office sequestrated into
the hands of Philip Burlamachi of London, merchant, who was
to execute the same under the inspection of the principal
secretary of state. 5 Witherings then assigned his patent to
Robert Rich, earl of Warwick, and a long contest ensued in
both houses of parliament. The sequestration was declared
by a vote in parliament in 1642 to be illegal. Nevertheless
the dispute gave repeated occupation to both houses during the
period from 1641 to 1647, and was diversified by several affrays,
in which violent hands were laid upon the mails. In 1643 the
post office yielded only 5000 a year. In 1644 the Lords and
Commons by a joint ordinance appointed Edmund Prideaux
" to be master of the posts, messengers and couriers." In 1646
the opinion of the judges was taken on the validity of Wither-
ings's patent (assigned to Lord Warwick), and they pronounced
that " the clauses of restraint in the said patent are void and not
good in law: that, notwithstanding these clauses be void, the
patent is good for the rest." 6 It is evident, therefore, that any
1 Minute in " House of Lords' Papers " (1633), Fourth Report of
Hist. MSS. Commission (118/4), app. The papers there calendared
contain many proofs of Witherings s activity and ability. See also
appendix to Fifth Report (1875), and " A proclamation concerning
the Postmaster of England for Forraigne Parts " (July 19, 1632),
in Rymer's Foedera, xix. 385.
1 Egerton MS. (Brit. Mus.), No. 2543, fol. 5 seq.
3 Rymer, Foedera, xix. 649. 4 Ibid. xx. 192. ' Ibid. xx. 429.
Journals of the House of Commons, ii. 81, 82, 95, 470, 493, 500,
prohibition to carry letters must be by act of parliament to
have force of law.
In 1650 an attempt was made by the common council of
London to organize a new postal system on the great roads, to
run twice a week. This scheme they temporarily
carried into effect as respects Scotland. But Mr cromwea.
Attorney-General Prideaux urged on the council
of state that, if the new enterprise were permitted, besides
intrenching on the rights of the parliament, some other means
Would have to be devised for payment of the postmasters. Both
houses resolved (i) that the offices of postmasters, inland and
foreign, were, and ought to be, in the -sole power and disposal of
the parliament, and (2) that it should be referred to the council
of state to take into consideration all existing claims in relation
thereto. Of these there were five under the various patents
which had been granted. Thereupon the Protector was advised
that the management of the post office should be entrusted to
John Thurloe by patent upon the expiration of John Manley's
existing contract. Thurloe was to give security for payment
of the existing rent of 10,000 a year. Ultimately the posts,
both inland and foreign, were farmed to John Manley for 10,000
a year, by an agreement made in 1653. Meanwhile an attorney
at York, named John Hill, placed relays of post-
horses between that city and London, and undertook
the conveyance of letters and parcels at half the
former rates. He also formed local and limited partnerships
in various parts of the kingdom for the extension of his plan,
which aimed to establish eventually a general penny postage
for England, a twopenny postage for Scotland and a fourpenny
postage for Ireland. But the post office was looked upon by
the government of the day as, first, a means of revenue, and
secondly, a means of political espionage.' The new letter-
carriers were " trampled down " by Cromwell's soldiery. The
inventor had a narrow escape from severe punishment. He
lived to publish (1659) the details of his plan, at the eve of the
Restoration, in a pamphlet entitled A Penny Post: or a Vindica-
tion of the Liberty and Birthright of every Englishman in carrying
Merchants and other Man's letters, against any Restraint of
Farmers, &c. It is probable that this publication 8 helped to
prepare the way for those measures of partial but far-reaching
reform which were effected during the reign of Charles II. The
rates of postage and the rights and duties of postmasters were
settled under the Protectorate by an act of parliament of 1657,
c. 30. In 1659 the item, " by postage of letters in farm, 14,000,"
appears in a report on the public revenue."
The government of the Restoration continued to farm the
post office upon conditions similar to those imposed by the act
of 1657, but for a larger sum. Henry Bishop, the
first postmaster-general in the reign of Charles II., cbaiiesli.
contracted to pay a yearly rent of 21,500, these new
arrangements being embodied in the Act 12 Charles II. c. 35
(1660), entitled " An Act for Erecting and Establishing a Post
Office." A clause proposing to frank all letters addressed to
or sent by members of parliament during the session was
501, 658 seq. ; Journals of the House of Lords, v. 343, 387, 450, 469-
473, 500 seq.; Repert from Secret Committee on the Post Office,
Appendix, pp. 60-69.
7 Illustrations of this may be seen (in the state-paper department
of the general record office) among, the correspondence between
Sir John Coke and Lord Conway, and also in many other state
letters, as well after the outbreak of the great rebellion as before
it. There is in the Bodleian Library (MS. Rawlinson, A. 477) a
minute account of the methods alleged to have been pursued in
the systematic and periodical examination of letters entrusted to
the post office. The paper is not authenticated by any signature,
and is undated. But it is an original document of the time of
Charles II., addressed to Mr. Bridgman, clerk of the council, and
drawn up to recommend the adoption of a like practice, but with
greater dexterity than that used by Dr Dorislaus and Samuel
Morland, who, according to this narrative, formed the Cromwellian
board of examiners for post-office letters, and who read all that were
addressed to foreign parts.
8 There is a copy in the library of the British Museum, from which
H. B. Wheatley has given the abstract quoted above.
9 Journals of the House of Commons, vti. 627.
i 7 8
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
rejected by the Lords. But the indenture enrolled with the
letters-patent contained a proviso for the free carriage of all
letters to or from the king, the great officers of state and also the
single inland letters only of the members of that present parlia-
ment during that session. It also provided that the lessee
should permit the secretaries of state, or either of them, to have
the survey and inspection of all letters at their discretion.
Bishop was succeeded by Daniel O'Neill 1 in 1662, on similar
terms. In the consequent proclamation, issued on the 25th of
May 1663, it was commanded that " no postmasters or othe'r
officers that shall be employed in the conveying of letters, or
distributing of the same, or any other person or persons, . .
except by the immediate warrant of our principal secretaries of
slate, shall presume to open any letters or pacquets not directed
unto themselves." In 1677 the general post office comprised
in the chief office, under Henry Bennet, earl of Arlington, as
postmaster-general, seventy-five persons, and its profits were
farmed for 43,0x30 a year. There were then throughout England
and Scotland 182 deputy postmasters, and in Ireland 18 officers
at the Dublin office and 45 country postmasters. " The number
of letters missive," says a writer of the same year, " is now
prodigiously great. ... A letter comprising one whole sheet of
paper is conveyed 80 m. for twopence. Every twenty-four
hours the post goes 120 m., and in five days an answer may be
had from a place 30x3 m. distant." 2 By an act of the isth
Charles II. (" An Act for Settling the Profits of the Post Office
on the duke of York, and his Heirs-Male "), and by a subsequent
proclamation issued in August 1683, it was directed that the
postmaster-general should " take effectual care for the convey-
ance of all bye-letters, by establishing correspondences ... in
all considerable market-towns with the next adjacent post-
stage," and the rights of the postmasters as to hiring horses
were again emphasized.
During the possession of the post-office profits by the duke of
York a London penny post was established by the joint enter-
Dockwra's prise of William Dockwra, a searcher at the customs-
London house, and of Robert Murray, a clerk in the excise
PeanyPost. office The wor ki ng . out o f t h e plan fell to the first-
named, and in his hands it gave in April 1680 although
but for a short time far more extensive postal facilities to
the Londoners than even those afforded 160 years later by
the plans of Sir Rowland Hill. Dockwra carried, registered
and insured, for a penny, both letters and parcels up to a
pound in weight and 10 in value. He took what had been
the mansion of Sir Robert Abdy in Lime Street as a chief office,
established seven sorting and district offices, and between 400
and 500 receiving-houses and wall-boxes. He established
hourly collections, with a maximum of ten deliveries daily for
the central part of the city, and a minimum of six for the suburbs.
Outlying villages, such as Hackney and Islington, had four daily
deliveries; and his letter-carriers collected for each despatch of
the general post office throughout the whole of the city and
suburbs. Suits were laid against him in the court of king's
bench for infringing on the duke of York's patent, and the
jealousies of the farmers eventually prevailed. The penny post
was made a branch of the general post. Dockwra, after the
Revolution of 1688, obtained a pension of 500 a year (for a
limited term) in compensation of his losses. In 1697 he was
made comptroller of the London office. Eleven years later his
improvements were outvied by Charles Povey, the author of
schemes for improving coinage, and also of a curious volume,
often wrongly ascribed to Defoe, entitled The Visions of Sir
Heister Ryley. Povey took upon himself to set up a foot-post
under the name of the " halfpenny carriage," appointed
receiving-houses, and employed several persons to collect and
deliver letters for hire within the cities of London and West-
minster and borough of Southwark, " to the great prejudice of
1 The trusted friend but not always the trusted adviser of the
duke of Ormonde. O'Neill's correspondence exists among the
duke's papers, in part at Kilkenny Castle, in part (extensively)
among the Carte MSS. in the Bodleian ; and it abounds in incidental
illustrations of postal administration in both England and Ireland.
2 Quoted in Gent. Mag. (1815), xxxv. 309, 310.
Postal
System.
the revenue," as was represented by the postmaster-general to
the lords of the treasury. Povey was compelled to desist.
At this period the postal system of Scotland was distinct from
that of England. It had been reorganized early in the reign of
Charles II.. who in September 1662 had appointed
Patrick Grahame of Inchbrakie to be postmaster- Early
general of Scotland for life at a salary of 500 Scots. Scottish
But it would seem from the proceedings of the Scottish
privy council that the rights and duties of the office
were ill defined ; for immediately after the appointment of Grahame
the council commissioned Robert Mein, merchant and keeper of the
letter-office in Edinburgh, to establish posts between Scotland and
Ireland, ordained that Linlithgow, Kilsyth, Glasgow, Kilmarnock,
Dumboag, Ballantrae and Portpatrick should be stages on the route,
and granted him the sum of 200 sterling to build a packet-boat
to carry the mail from Portpatrick to Donaghadee. 3
Perhaps the earliest official notice of the colonial post is to be
seen in the following paragraph from the records of the general
court of Massachusetts in 1639. " It is ordered that
notice be given that Richard Fairbanks his house in
Boston is the place appointed for all letters which are S ,
brought from beyond the seas, or are to be sent thither
to be left with him; and he is to take care that they are to be delivered
or sent according to the directions; and he is allowed for every letter
a penny, and must answer all miscarriages through his own neglect
in this kind." The court in 1667 was petitioned to make better
postal arrangements, the petitioners alleging the frequent " loss
of letters whereby merchants, especially with their friends and
employers in foreign parts, are greatly damnified; many times the
letters are imputed (?) and thrown upon the exchange, so that those
who will may take them up, no person, without some satisfaction,
being willing to trouble their houses therewith." In Virginia the
postal system was yet more primitive. The colonial law of 1657
required every planter to provide a messenger to convey the
despatches as they arrived to the next plantation, and so on, on pain
of forfeiting a hogshead of tobacco in default. The government
of New York in 1672 established " a post to goe monthly from
New York to Boston," advertising " those that bee disposed to
send letters, to bring them to the secretary's office, where, in a
lockt box, they shall be preserved till the messenger calls for them,
all persons paying the post before the bagg be sealed up." 4 Thirty
years later this monthly post had become a fortnightly one. The
office of postmaster-general for America had been created in 1692.
The act of the pth of Queen Anne which consolidated the
posts of the empire into one establishment, and, as to organiza-
tion, continued to be the great charter of the post
office until the reforms of 1838-1850 mainly intro-
duced by Sir Rowland Hill. The act of Anne
largely increased the powers of the postmaster-general. It
reorganized the chief letter-offices of Edinburgh, Dublin
and New York, and settled new offices in the West Indies
and elsewhere. It established three rates of single postage,
viz. English, 3d. if under 80 m. and 4d. if above, and 6d.
to Edinburgh or Dublin. It continued to the postmaster-
general the sole privilege " to provide horses to persons riding
post." And it gave, for the first time, parliamentary sanction
to the power,'' formerly questionable, of the secretaries of state
with respect to the opening of letters, by enacting that " from
and after the first day of June 1711 no person or persons shall
presume ... to open, detain or delay . . . any letter or letters . . .
after the same is or shall be delivered into the general or other
post office, . . . and before delivery to the persons to whom they
are directed, or for their use, except by an express warrant in
writing under the hand of one. of the principal secretaries of state,
for every such opening, detaining or delaying."
Nine years after the passing of the act of Anne the cross-posts
were farmed to the well-known " humble " Ralph Allen the
.over of peace and of humanity. 5 Allen became
the inventor of the cross-roads postal system,
laving made an agreement that the new profits
so created should be his own during his lifetime. His im-
provements were so successful that he is said to have netted
during forty-two years an average profit of nearly 12,000
a year.
3 Lang, Historical Summary of the Post Office in Scotland, pp. 4, 5.
4 Miles, " History of the Post Office," in the American Bankers
Magazine, new series, vol. vii. p. 358 seq.
" Is there a variance ? enter but this door,
Balked are the courts; the contest is no more."
Pope's " humble Allen " was also the " Allworthy " of Fielding.
'"
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
The postal revenue of Great Britain, meanwhile, stood thus:
Gross and Net Income, 1724-1774.
Gross Produce.
Net Revenue.
1724
'734
'744
'754
1764
'774
i s. d.
178,071 16 9
'76,334 3 I
194,461 8 7
214,300 10 6
225,326 5 8
313,032 14 6
i 8. d.
96,339 7 5
91,701 ii o
85,114 9 4
97-365 5 I
116,182 8 5
164,077 8 4
Matt-
coaches.
The system of burdening the post-office revenue with pensions,
nearly all of which had no public connexion with the postal service,
and some of which were unconnected with any public
i43a" service, was begun by Charles II., who granted to
Barbara, duchess of Cleveland, 4700 a year, and to
the earl of Rochester 4000 a year, out of that revenue. The
example was followed until, in 1694, the pensions so chargeable
amounted to 21,200. Queen Anne granted a pension of 5000
to the duke of Marlbprough, charged in like manner. In March
1857 the existing pensions ceased to be payable by the post office,
and became chargeable to the consolidated fund.
In October 1782 the notice of the manager of the Bath theatre,
John Palmer (1742-1818), was attracted to the postal service.
Palmer** So habitual were the robberies of the post that they
came to be regarded as necessary evils. The officials
urged the precaution of sending all bank-notes and
bills of exchange in halves, and pointed the warning with a
philosophical remark that " there are no other means of prevent-
ing robberies with effect." At this period the postal system
was characterized by extreme irregularity in the departure of
mails and delivery of letters by an average speed of about
3i m. in the hour, and by a rapidly increasing diversion of corre-
spondence into illicit channels. The net revenue, which had
averaged 167,176 during the ten years ending with 1773,
averaged but 159,625 during the ten years ending with 1783.
Yet, when Palmer suggested that by building mail-coaches
expressly adapted to run at a good speed, by furnishing a liberal
supply of horses, and by attaching an armed guard to each coach
the public would be greatly benefited, and the post-office revenue
considerably increased, the officials maintained that the existing
system was all but perfect. Lord Camden, however, brought
the plan under the personal notice of Pitt, who insisted on its
being tried. The experiment was made in August 1784, and its
success exceeded all anticipation. The following table shows
the rapid increase of revenue under the new arrangements:
Cross and Net Income, 1784-1805.
Year.
Gross Income.
Net Revenue.
1784
1785
1790
'795
1800
1805
s. d.
420,101 i 8
463,753 8 4
533.198 I 9
745,238 o o
1.083,950 o o
1,317,842 o o
s. d.
196,513 '6 7
261,409 18 2
331,179 18 8
414,548 II 7
720,981 17 i
944,382 8 4
It had been at first proposed to reward Palmer by a grant
for life of 2$% on a certain proportion of the increased
net revenue, which would eventually have given him some
10,000 a year, but this proposition fell through. Pitt, however,
appointed Palmer to be comptroller-general of postal revenues,
an office which was soon made too hot for him to hold. He
obtained a pension of 3000 a year, and ultimately, by the act
53 Geo. III. c. 157 (1813), after his case had received the sanction
of five successive majorities against government, an additional
sum of 50,000. Every sort of obstruction was placed in the
way of his reward, although nearly a million had been added to
the annual public revenue, and during a quarter of a century the
mails had been conveyed over an aggregate of some seventy
millions of miles without the occurrence of one serious mail
robbery. 1
1 Debates of both Houses of Parliament in 1808 relative to the
Agreement for the Reform and Improvement of the Post Office, passim
See also H. Joyce, The History of the Post Office (1893).
Scotland shared in the advantages of the mail-coach system from
the first. Shortly before its introduction the local penny post was
set on foot in Edinburgh by Peter Williamson, the keeper
of a coffee-room in the hall of Parliament House. He Scota * h * a<t
employed four letter-carriers, in uniform, appointed Mtl> Po * t
receivers in various parts of the city, and established OHke - I7 08-
hourly deliveries. 1 The officials of the post, when the l801 '
success of the plan had become fully apparent, gave Williamson a
pension, and absorbed his business, the acquisition of which was
subsequently confirmed by the Act 34 Geo. III. c. 17 (1794). A
dead-letter office was established in 1784. But in Ireland in 1801
only three public carriages conveyed mails. There were, indeed,
few roads of any sort, and none on which coaches could travel faster
than four miles an hour. 1 At this period the gross receipts of the
Irish post office were 80,040; the charges of management and
collection were 59,216, or at the rate of more than 70%; whilst
in Scotland the receipts were 100,651, and the charges 16,896, or
somewhat less than I7%. 4
In the American colonies postal improvements may be dated from
the administration of Franklin, who was virtually the last colonial
postmaster-general, as well as the best. In one shape
or another he had forty years' experience of postal Fr'aktla.
work, having been appointed postmaster at Philadelphia in October
'737- .When he became postmaster-general in 1753 he visited all
the chief post offices throughput Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New
York and New England, looking at everything with his own eyes.
His administration cannot be better summed up than we find it
to be in a sentence or two which he wrote soon after his dismissal.
Up to the date of his appointment, he says, " the American post
office had never paid anything to that of Britain. We [i.e. himself
and his assistant] were to have 600 a year between us, if we could
make that sum out of the profits of the office. ... In the first four
years the office became above 900 in debt to us. But it soon
after began to repay us; and before I was displaced by a freak of the
ministers, we had brought it to yield three times as much clear
revenue to the Crown as the post office of Ireland. Since that
imprudent transaction they have received from it not one farthing."
The interval between the development of Palmer's methods,
and the reforms introduced twenty-seven years later by Sir Rowland
Hill, is chiefly marked by the growth of the packet system, under
the influence of steam navigation, and by the elaborate investiga-
tions of the revenue commissioners of 1826 and the following years.
In some important particulars these mark out practical and most
valuable reforms, but they contrasted unfavourably with the
lucidity and reasoning of Rowland Hill's Post Office Reform.
As early as 1788 the cost of the packets employed by the post
office attracted parliamentary attention. In that year the " com-
missioners of fees and gratuities " reported that in the
preceding seventeen years the total cost of this branch p * ci '
had amounted to 1,038,133; and they naturally laid Sfrv>Cf s.
stress on the circumstance that many officers of the post office
were owners of such packets, even down to the chamber-keeper
At this time part of the packet service was performed bv hired
vessels, and part by vessels which were the property of the Crown
The commissioners recommended that the latter should be sold,
and the entire service be provided for by public and competitive
tender. The subject was again inquired into by the finance com-
mittee of 1798, which reported that the recommendation of 1788
had not been fully acted upon, and expressed its concurrence in
that recommendation. The plan was then to a considerable extent
enforced. But the war rapidly increased the expenditure. The
average (61,000) of 1771-1787 had increased in 1797 to /?8 4-59
in 1810 to 105,000, in 1814 to 160,603. In the succeeding vears
ol peace the expense fell to an average of about 85,000. As early
as 1818 the "Rob Roy" plied regularly between Greenock and
Belfast; but no use was made of steam navigation for the postal
service until 1821, when the postmaster-general established Crown
Jackets. The expenditure under the new system, from that date
to 1829 inclusive, was thus reported by the commissioners of revenue
nquiry m 1830:
Cost of Packet Service, 1820-1820*
Year.
'820' .... 85,000
'821' .... 134,868
'822 "5-429
2 3 93-725
'824 116,602
Year.
'825.
1826.
110,838
'44-592
' 2 7 159.250
'828 117,260
'829 108.305
The general administration of postal affairs at this period was
still characterized by repeated advances in the letter rates, and the
'Lang, Historical Summary of the Post Office in Scotland, 15
Minutes of Evidence before Select Committee on Taxation of In-
ernal Communication (1837), evidence of Sir Edward Lees p -107
4 Report, &c., of Select Committee on Postage.
* Twenty-second Report of the Commissioners of Revenue Inouiry
pp. 4-6.
Last year of exclusive sailing packets.
7 First year of steam-packets.
i8o
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
twenty years previous to Rowland Hill's reforms by a stationary
revenue. The following table will show the gross receipts, the
charges of collection and management, and the net revenue (omitting
fractions of a pound) of the post office of Great Britain. We give
the figures for the year 1808 for the purpose of comparison.
Year.
Gross
Income.
Charges
of Col-
lection,
&c.
Charges
per cent,
of Gross
Income.
Net
Revenue.
Population
of United
Kingdom.
1808
1-552,037
451,431
29
1,100,606
1815-16
2,193,741
594-045
27
1,599,696
19,552,000
1818-19
2,209,212
719,622
32i
1,489,590
1820-21
2,132,235
636,290
29
1.495.945
20,928,000
1824-25
2,255-239
655,9H
29
1,599.325
22,362,000
1826-27
2,392,272
747,018
31
1,645,254
1836-37
2,206,736
609,220
27*
I.597.5I6
25,605,000
1838-391 2,346,278
686,768
29
1,659,510
Govern-
mental
Interference
Before passing to the reform of 1839 we have to revert to that
important feature in postal history the interference with corre-
spondence for judicial or political purposes. We have
already seen (i) that this assumption had no parlia-
nieneremx menlar y sanction until the enactment of the gth of
with Com- Q ueen Anne ; (2) that the enactment differed from the
spoadence. ro Y a ' proclamations in directing a special warrant for
each opening or detention of correspondence. It is a sig-
nificant gloss on the statute to find that for nearly a century (namely,
until 1798 inclusive) it was not the practice to record such warrants
regularly in any official book. 1 Of the use to which the power was
applied the state trials afford some remarkable instances. At the
trial of Bishop Atterbury, for example, in 1723 certain letters were
offered in evidence which a clerk of the post office deposed on oath
" to be true copies of the originals, which were stopped at the post
office and copied, and sent forward as directed." Hereupon Atter-
bury asked this witness " if he had any express warrant under the
hand of one of the principal secretaries of state for opening the said
letters." But the lords shelved his objection on the grounds of
public inexpediency. Twenty-nine peers recorded their protest
against this decision. 2 But the practice thus sanctioned appears
to have been pushed to such lengths as to elicit in April 1 735 a strong
protest and censure from the House of Commons. A committee
of inquiry was appointed, and after receiving its report the house
resolved that it was " an high infringement of the privileges of the
. . . Commons of Great Britain in Parliament that letters of any
member should be opened or delayed without a warrant of a principal
secretary of state."
Sir Rowland Hill's Reforms (1836-1842).
Rowland Hill's pamphlet (Post Office Reform) of 1837 took for
its starting-point the fact that, whereas the postal revenue
showed for the past twenty years a positive though slight
diminution, it ought to have showed an increase of 507,700 a
year in order to have simply kept pace with the growth of
population, and an increase of nearly four times that amount in
order to have kept pace with the growth of the analogous though
far less exorbitant duties imposed on stage-coaches. The stage-
coach duties had produced, in 1815, 217,671; in 1835 they
produced 498,497. In 1837 there did not exist any precise
account of the number of letters transmitted through the general
post office. Hill, however, was able to prepare a sufficiently
approximate estimate from the data of the London district post,
and from the sums collected for postage. He thus calculated
the number of chargeable letters at about 88,600,000, that of
franked letters at 7,400,000, and that of newspapers at 30,000,000,
giving a gross total of about 126,000,000. At this period the
total cost of management and distribution was 696,569. In
the finance accounts of the year (1837) deductions are made from
the gross revenue for letters " refused, missent, redirected," and
the like, which amount to about 122,000. An analysis of the
component parts of this expenditure assigned 426,517 to cost
of primary distribution and 270,052 to cost of secondary distri-
bution and miscellaneous charges. A further analysis of the
primary distribution expenditure gave 282,308 as the probable
outgoings for receipt and delivery, and 144,209 as the probable
outgoings for transit. In other words, the expenditure which
hinged upon the distance the letters had to be conveyed was
1 Report of Secret Committee on the Post Office (1844), p. 9.
3 Lords' Journals, xxii. 183-186; State Trials, xvi. 540 seq.
144,000, and that which had nothing to do with distance was
282,000. Applying to these figures the estimated number of
letters and newspapers (126,000,000) passing through the office,
there resulted a probable average cost of 3% of a penny for each,
of which ^(fty was cost of transit and $$ c st of receipt, delivery,
&c. Taking into account, however, the greater weight of news-
papers and franked letters as compared with chargeable letters,
the apparent average cost of transit became, by this estimate,
but about rfhy> or less than -fa of a penny.
A detailed estimate of the cost of conveying a letter from London
to Edinburgh, founded upon the average weight of the Edinburgh
mail, gave a still lower proportion, since it reduced the apparent
cost of transit, on the average, to the thirty-sixth part of one penny.
Hill inferred that, if the charge for postage were to be made pro-
portionate to the whole expense incurred in the receipt, transit
and delivery of the letter, and in the collection of its postage, it
must be made uniformly the same from every post-town to every
other post-town in the United Kingdom, unless it could be shown
how we are to collect so small a sum as the thirty-sixth part of a
penny. And, inasmuch as it would take a ninefold weight to make
the expense of transit amount to one farthing, he further inferred
that, taxation apart, the charge ought to be precisely the same for
every packet of moderate weight, without reference to the number
of its enclosures.
At this period the rate of postage actually imoosed (beyond
the limits of the London district office) varied from 4d. to is. 8d.
for a single letter, which was interpreted to mean a single piece
of paper not exceeding an ounce in weight; a second piece of
paper or any other enclosure, however small, constituted the
packet a double letter. A single sheet of paper, if it at all
exceeded an ounce in weight, was charged with fourfold postage.
The average charge on inland general post letters was nearly gd.
for each. It was proposed that the charge for primary distribu-
tion that is to say, the postage on all letters received in a
post-town, and delivered in the same or in any other post-town
in the British Isles should be at the uniform rate of one penny
for each half-ounce all letters and other papers, whether single
or multiple, forming one packet, and not weighing more than
half an ounce, being charged one penny, and heavier packets, to
any convenient limit, being charged an additional penny for
each additional half-ounce. It was further proposed that
stamped covers should be sold to the public at such a price as
to include the postage, which would thus be collected in advance. 3
By the public generally, and pre-eminently by the trading
public, the plan was received with favour. By the Pariia-
functionaries of the post office it was denounced as mentary
ruinous and visionary. In 1838 petitions poured Action,
into the House of Commons. A select committee was appointed,
which reported as follows:
" The principal points which appear to your committee to have
been established in evidence are the following: (i) the exceed-
ingly slow advance and occasionally retrograde movement of the
post office revenue during the . . . last twenty years; (2) the fact
of the charge of postage exceeding the cost in a manifold propor-
tion; (3) the fact of postage being evaded most extensively by all
classes of society, and of correspondence being suppressed, more
especially among the middle and working classes of the people,
and this in consequence, as all the witnesses, including many of
the post office authorities, think, of the excessively high scale
of taxation; (4) the fact of very injurious effects resulting from
this state of things to the commerce and industry of the country,
and to the social habits and moral condition of the people; (5) the
fact, as far as conclusions can be drawn from very imperfect data,
that whenever on former occasions large reductions in the rates
have been made, these reductions have been followed in short
periods of time by an extension of correspondence proportionate
to the contraction of the rates; (6) and, as matters of inference
from fact and of opinion (i.) that the only remedies for the
evils above stated are a reduction of the rates, and the establish-
ment of additional deliveries, and more frequent despatches of
letters; (ii.) that owing to the rapid extension of railroads there
is an urgent and daily increasing necessity for making such
changes; (iii.) that any moderate reduction in the rates would
1 Post Office Reform, 27 seq.
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
181
Results.
occasion loss to the revenue, without in any material degree
diminishing the present amount of letters irregularly conveyed,
or giving rise to the growth of new correspondence; (iv.) that
the principle of a low uniform rate is just in itself, and, when
combined with prepayment and collection by means of a
stamp, would be exceedingly convenient and highly satisfactory
to the public."
A bill to enable the treasury to establish uniform penny
postage was carried in the House of Commons by a majority of
100, and became law on the i;th of August 1839. A
temporary office was created to enable Rowland Hill
to superintend the working out of his plan. The
first step taken was to reduce, on the sth of December 1839, the
London district postage to id. and the general inland postage
to 4d. the half -ounce (existing lower rates being continued).
On the loth of January 1840 the uniform penny rate came into
operation throughout the United Kingdom the scale of weight
advancing from id. for each of the first two half-ounces, by
gradations of 2d. for each additional ounce, or fraction of an
ounce, up to 16 oz. The postage was to be prepaid, and if not
to be charged at double rates. Parliamentary franking was
abolished. Postage stamps were introduced in May following.
The facilities of despatch were soon afterwards increased by the
establishment of day mails.
But on the important point of simplification in the internal
economy of the post office, with the object of reducing its cost
without diminishing its working power, little was done. The
plan had to work in the face of rooted mistrust on the part of
the workers. Its author was (for a term of two years, afterwards
prolonged to three) the officer, not of the post office, but of the
treasury. He could only recommend measures the most indis-
pensable through the chancellor of the exchequer. It happened,
too, that the scheme had to be tried at a period of severe com-
mercial depression. Nevertheless, the results actually attained
in the first two years were briefly these: (i) the
chargeable letters delivered in the United Kingdom,
exclusive of that part of the government correspondence which
theretofore passed free, had already increased from the rate of
about 75,000,000 a year to that of 196,500,000; (2) the London
district post letters had increased from about 13,000,000 to
23,000,000, or nearly in the ratio of the reduction of the rates;
(3) the illicit conveyance of letters was substantially suppressed;
(4) the gross revenue, exclusive of repayments, yielded about a
million and a half per annum, which was about 63% of the
amount of the gross revenue in 1839. These results at so early
a stage, and in the face of so many obstructions, vindicated the
new system.
Seven years later (1849) the 196,500,000 letters delivered
throughout the United Kingdom in 1842 had increased to nearly
329,000,000. In addition, the following administrative improve-
ments had been effected: (i) the time for posting letters at the
London receiving-houses extended; (2) the limitation of weight
abolished; (3) an additional daily despatch to London from the
neighbouring (as yet independent) villages; (4) the postal arrange-
ments of 120 of the largest cities and great towns revised; (5) un-
limited writing on inland newspapers authorized on payment of
an additional penny ; (6) a summary process established for recovery
of postage from the senders of unpaid letters when refused; (7) a
book-post established; (8) registration reduced from one shilling
to sixpence; (9) a third mail daily put on the railway (without
additional charge) from the towns of the north-western district to
London, and day mails extended within a radius of 20 m. round
the metropolis; (10) a service of parliamentary returns, for private
bills, provided for; (n) measures taken, against many obstacles,
for the complete consolidation of the two heretofore distinct corps
of letter-carriers an improvement (on the whole) of detail, which
led to other improvements thereafter. 1
Later History (1842-1905).
When Sir R. Hill initiated his reform the postmaster-general
was the earl of Lichfield, the thirty-first in succession to that
1 Hill, History of Penny Postage (1880), appendix A (Life, &c.,
ii. 438). Part of the strenuousness of the opposition to this measure
arose, it must be owned, from the " high-handedness " which in
Sir R. Hill's character somewhat marred very noble faculties. The
change worked much harm to some humble but hardworking and
meritorious functionaries.
office after Sir Brian Tuke. Under him the legislation of 1839
was carried out in 1840 and 1841. In September 1841 he was
succeeded by Viscount Lowther.
In the summer of 1844 the statement that the letters of
Mazzini, then a political refugee, long resident in England, had
been systematically opened, and their contents openiagtad
communicated to foreign governments, by Sir James Detention of
Graham, secretary of state for the home department, terten.
aroused much indignation. The arrest of the brothers
Bandiera, 2 largely in consequence of information derived
from their correspondence with Mazzini, and their subsequent
execution at Cosenza made a thorough investigation into
the circumstances a public necessity. The consequent parlia-
mentary inquiry of August 1844, after retracing the earlier
events connected with the exercise of the discretional power
of inspection which parliament had vested in the secretaries of
state in 1710, elicited the fact that in 1806 Lord Spencer,
then secretary for the home department, introduced for the first
time the practice of recording in an official book all warrants
issued for the detention and opening of letters, and also the
additional fact that from 1822 onwards the warrants themselves
had been preserved. The whole number of such warrants
issued from 1806 to the middle of 1844 inclusive was stated to
be .3 23, of which no less than 53 had been issued in the years
1841-1844 inclusive, a number exceeding that of any previous
period of like extent.
The committee of 1844 proceeded to report that " the warrants
issued during the present century may be divided into two classes
ist, those issued in furtherance of criminal justice . . . ; 2nd,
those issued for the purpose of discovering the designs of persons
known or suspected to be engaged in proceedings dangerous to
the State, or (as in Mazzini's case) deeply involving British
interests, and carried on in the United Kingdom or in British
possessions beyond the seas. . . . Warrants of the second descrip-
tion originate with the home office. The principal secretary of
state, of his own discretion, determines when to issue them, and
gives instructions accordingly to the under-secretary, whose
office is then purely ministerial. The mode of preparing them,
and keeping record of them in a private book, is the same as in
the case of criminal warrants. There is no record kept of the
grounds on which they are issued, except so far as correspondence
preserved at the home office may lead to infer them.' . . . The
letters which have been detained and opened are, unless retained
by special order, as sometimes happens in criminal cases, closed
and resealed, without affixing any mark to indicate that they
have been so detained and opened, and are forwarded by post
according to their respective superscriptions." 4
Almost forty years later a like question was again raised in the
House of Commons (March 1882) by some Irish members, in
relation to an alleged examination of correspondence at Dublin
for political reasons. Sir William Harcourt on that occasion
spoke thus: " This power is with the secretary of state in Eng-
land. ... In Ireland it belongs to the Irish government. ... It is
a power which is given for purposes of state, and the very essence
of the power is that no account [of its exercise] can be rendered.
To render an account would be to defeat the very object for
which the power was granted. If the minister is not fit to
exercise the power so entrusted, upon the responsibility cast
upon him, he is not fit to occupy the post of secretary of state." 4
The House of Commons- accepted this explanation; and in view
of many grave incidents, both in Ireland and in America, it
would be hard to justify any other conclusion.
The increase in the number of postal deliveries and in that of
the receiving-houses and branch-offices, together
with the numerous improvements introduced into Postal
the working economy of the post office, when Bu*iae**,
Rowland Hill at length obtained the means of fully I839 - IS57 >
carrying put his reforms by his appointment as secretary,
1 Ricordi dei frotdli Bandiera e dei loro compagni di martirio in
Cosenza, p. 47 (Paris, 1844).
* Report from the Secret Committee on the Post Office (1844), p. n.
4 Ibid., pp. 14-17.
1 Hansard, Debates, vol. cclxvii. cols. 294-296 (session of 1882).
182
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
speedily gave a more vigorous impulse to the progress of the
net revenue than had theretofore obtained. During the seven
years 1845-1851 inclusive the average was but 810,951.
During the six years 1852-1857 inclusive the average was
1,166,448 the average of the gross income during the same
septennial period having been 2,681,835.
Number of Letters: Gross and Net Income, 1838-1857.
Year ending
Estimated
No. of
Chargeable
Letters.
Gross
Income.
Cost of
Manage-
ment.
Net
Revenue.
Postage
charged
on Gov-
ernment.
Jan. 5, 1838
1842
1847
1852
Dec. 31,1857
196,500,191
299,586,762
360,647,187
504,421,000
2,339,737
1,499,418
1,963,857
2,422,168
3,035,713
687,313
938,168
1,138,745
1,304,163
1,720,815
1,652,424
561,249
825,112
1,118,004
1,314,898
38,528
"3-255
100,354
167,129
135,517
Within a period of eighteen years under the penny rate the number
of letters became more than sixfold what it was under the rates
of 1838. When the change was first made the increase of letters
was in the ratio of 122-25% during the year. The second year
showed an increase on the first of about 1 6%. During the next
fifteen years the average increase was at the rate of about 6% per
annum. Although this enormous increase of business, coupled
with the increasing preponderance of railway mail conveyance
(invaluable, but costly), carried up the post office expenditure from
757,000 to 1,720,800, yet the net revenue of 1857 was within
350,000 of the net revenue of 1839. During the year 1857 the
number of newspapers delivered in the United Kingdom was about
71 millions, and that of book-packets (the cheap carriage of which
is one of the most serviceable and praiseworthy of modern postal
improvements) about 6 millions.
Since 1858 the achievements of the period 1835-1857 have been
eminently surpassed. This period includes the establishment
of postal savings banks (1861) and the transfer to the state of
Qfovrii, the telegraphic service (1870). These improvements
and are dealt with in separate articles. The British
Changes, postal business has grown at a more rapid rate than
' 90S - the population of the United Kingdom. Some of the
causes of this development must be sought within the post
office department, e.g. improved facilities, lower charges and
the assumption of new functions; but others are to be found
in the higher level of popular education, the increase of wealth,
industry and commerce, and the rapid expansion of Greater
Britain.
The following table shows the growth of letters delivered:
United Kingdom. Estimated inland delivery of letters,
1830-1905, with the increase per cent, per annum. Also the
average number to each person, oo,ooo's omitted.
Letter
Rates.
10 and
The rates of inland letter postage have been altered as
follows. From the 5th of October 1871 to the ist of July 1885
the charges were: not exceeding i oz. one penny; inland
over i oz. and not exceeding 2 oz. three halfpence,
and an additional halfpenny for every 2 oz., so
that the postage on a letter weighing between
12 oz. was 4d. On a letter weighing over 12 oz. and not
exceeding 13 oz. the postage was is. id., and increased id. for
each succeeding ounce. On the ist of July 1885 the postage on
letters over 12 oz. was reduced, and the gradation of charge
beyond 2 oz. was made uniform, at the rate of one halfpenny for
each additional ounce. Thus a letter weighing over 12 and not
exceeding 14 oz. was charged 4%d., 14 to 16 oz. sd., and so on.
Notwithstanding this change, it was found as late as 1895 that
95% of the letters sent through the post weighed not more
than i oz. each.
Among a number of postal and telegraphic concessions made
to the public on the 22nd of June 1897, the sixtieth anniversary
of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne, were new rates for
letters as follows:
Not exceeding 4 oz i
Over 4 oz. and not exceeding 6 oz i \
,,6 8 2
with Jd. for each succeeding 2 oz.
This change, while it saved both the post office and the public
the trouble of testing the weight of a large number of letters,
had also the advantage of simplicity of calculation one half-
penny is charged for each 2 oz., with a minimum charge of id.
Arrangements were at the same time made to ensure a delivery
of letters by postmen at every house in the United Kingdom.
It was estimated that 16 millions of letters, whose owners had previ-
ously to fetch them from the post office or from some point on a
postman's walk, would thus be added to the official delivery.
The estimate proved to be much under the mark, some 60 millions
being added to the letters brought annualjy into the official delivery
under this arrangement. Financial considerations have now been
entirely disregarded for the benefit of these letters, and the cost of
their delivery alone greatly exceeds the whole revenue derived
from them.
In studying the statistics of letters delivered, it should be re-
membered that the figures for any particular year are affected
by circumstances like a general election or a boom in trade, as
well as by changes in the rates or condition of the post office
services. The letters from foreign countries have been stimu-
lated by lower charges, and those from the colonies by the
imperial penny post, to which reference is made below.
Delivered in England and Wales.
-3
C
1
Id
C
a
I
|g
d
c
8 .
|d
_
1
jj .
Year ending 3 ist December until 1876, and
thereafter the Financial Year ending 3 ist
X
fcfiE'
-- .
*, .
II
M
18
i B.
1
y
3 to
c s.
1
" i
Eg
i&
"c S
" |
11
March.
5 u
fi
^.ii."rt
in
cS*
^
Sr 13
C
rt
ti-c
c
fn rt
M^
c s*
a; rt
gjjS
2 c
Q ~ a B
149
-o
3 fc
g 8
_
S c3
i_i *
'~
2 v
<*
'".E
^ t
i
B5
c
C C
gl
I s
S "
te i>
1
i
II
1
1
g_
1
&
Estimated No. of Letters, 1839
Franks. 1839 .
60,0
S.i
-
M
8,0
3
M
8,0
1,0
M
76,0
6,5
\*
,, Letters, 1840 .
88,0
44,0
132,0
I2O-O
8
19,0
143-5
7
18,0
119-2
2
169,0
22-2
7
Average of 5 years, 1841-1845
122,0
10-7
57,o
9-0
179,0
IO-2
ii
24,0
9-2
9
24,0
9-5
3
227,0
10-0
8
,, 1846-1850
1 80,0
5'5
79,0
'5-5
259,0
5-2
15
34,o
4*2
12
34,o
5'
4
327,0
5'
12
1851-1855
233,0
6-5
97,0
5-0
330,0
6-0
18
41,0
5-2
14
39,o
3-5
6
410,0
5-7
15
1856-1860
302,0
4-2
125,0
5-5
427,0
4'5
22
51.0
3-2
16
45,o
3-0
7
523,0
4-2
1 8
1861-1865
373,0
57
161,0
5-7
534,0
5'7
29
61,0
o-5
20
53-0
3-2
9
648,0
5-5
22
1860-1870
472,0
4-2
192,0
3-2
664,0
4-0
31
76,0
4-7
24
60,0
3-2
ii
800,0
4-0
26
Year 1871
501,0
0-5
220,0
7-0
721,0
2-5
32
80,0
1-2
2 4
66,0
3'
13
867,0
2-3
2 7
1875
580,0
4-8
266,7
6-5
846,8
5'3
35
90,9
0-9
26
70,5
0-8
13
1,008,3
4-6
31
1880-1881
650,9
330,4
6-6
98i,3
3-3
38
104,9
3-0
29
78,7
3-8
15
1,165,1
3-3
34
1884-1885
757,2
2-7
39i,i
4-1
1,148,3
3-2
42
122,9
2-6
32
89,1
1-6
18
1,360,3
2-9
38
1890-1891
924,4
3'3
538,4
4-0
1,462,8
3-5
50
143,2
2-1
36
99,8
3''
21
1,709,0
3-4
45
dec.
dec.
dec.
1894-18951 . '.
993,3
2-0
508,8
II-6
1,502,1
3-1
50
156,0
1-4
38
112,8
4-0
24
1,770.9
2-3
46
inc.
inc.
inc.
1900-1901 2
1,312,7
2-9
664,3
5-o
i,977,o
3-6
61
202,4
2-8
47
144,2
2-2
32
2,323,6
3-4
57
1905-1906
1,559,9
3-2
753-4
3-6
2,313,3
3-3
68
238,1
3'7
51
155,8
O-I
36
2,707,2
3-1
62
dec.
1 It was' discovered in the course of this year that the estimated
figures for previous years had been swollen by an imperfect method
of reckoning the London letters, &c. In 1883 as many as 2,770,000
valentines were sent through the post. The numbers gradually
decreased until in 1890 only 320,000 were observed. Christmas
cards have, however, considerably increased.
2 Since the 22nd of June 1897, all packets over 2 oz., formerly
counted as book packets, are reckoned as letters.
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
183
Letter mad
Post Cards.
On the 1 2th of February 1892 letter cards bearing an
imprinted penny stamp, and made to be fastened against in-
spection, were issued to the public at a charge
of is. for 10 cards. The charge was reduced
almost at once to gd. for 8 cards. Similar cards
have long been in use on the continent of Europe, but they
do not enjoy much popularity in Great Britain either with
the post office, which finds them inconvenient to handle in
sorting and stamping, or with the public. The number issued
annually is about 10 millions, not counting those of private
manufacturers.
The following table gives the number of post cards:
Estimated Number of Post Cards delivered in the United Kingdom,
and the Increase per cent, per Annum.
England and
Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
United
Kingdom.
Year.
g
3
*- .
ge
3
IE
3
IE
3
Number.
feg
D.01
Number.
O.
Number.
CX rt
Number.
U C
O HJ
jR
y n.
J
1872 . .
64,000,000
8,000,000
4,000,000
76,000,000
1875 . .
73,369,100
II-6
9,206,300
6-7
4,540,900
5-5
87,116,300
10-7
1881-1882
114,251,500
10-4
14,651,400
9'3
6,426,100
6-9
135,329,000
IO-I
1884-1885
134,100.000
4'3
18,400,000
5-5
7,900,000
3-1
160,400,000
4'4
1889-1890
184,400,000
8-4
22,900,000
5-0
9,800,000
5-4
217,100,000
7-8
1893-1894
209,100,000
27,400,000
2-2
12,000,000
6-2
248,500,000
1-6
1894-1895*
271,600,000
29-9
28,700,000
4-7
12,500,000
4-2
312,800,000
25-9
dec.
1895-1896
268,300,000
1-2
32,200,000
12-2
14,000,000
I2-O
314,500,000
0-6
inc.
1900-1901
359,400,000
4-9
41,600,000
2-O
18,000,000
6-5
419,000,000
4-7
1905-1906
676,500,000
9-6
91,000,000
5-o
32,800,000
6-8
800,300,000
9-0
the purpose of detecting letters, &c., sent by the halfpenny post.
The book post received a great impetus in 1892 (Mav 28) by the
permission to enclose book packets in unsealed envelopes. Com-
plaint is, however, made that such envelopes form a dangerous
irap for small letters, which are liable to slip inside the flaps of
open envelopes. But as the rate of postage for articles weighing
over 2 oz. is now the same for letters and for book packets,
articles over that weight derive no. advantage from being sent in
open covers.
Sample Post. The sample or pattern post, which was confined
to bona-fide trade patterns and samples on the 1st of October 1870,
was then assimilated to the book post (Jd. for 2 oz.); but the re-
striction was difficult to enforce and irritating to the public, and the
sample post was abolished on the sth of October 1871, when the
rates of letter postage were lowered. It was re-established on the
1st of October 1887 (id. for 4 oz. or
under, and id. for each succeeding
2 oz.); but when the Jubilee letter
rates were introduced (June 22,
1897) it lost its raison d'etre, and
ceased to exist for inland purposes.
*Private cards with adhesive stamps first allowed in this year.
Post cards were first introduced in Austria on the 1st of October
1869, and were first issued in Great Britain on the 1st of October
1870. Only one kind of card was employed, and this was sold
for one halfpenny; but on the complaints of the stationers, a charge
of Jd. per dozen for the material of the card was made in 1872, and
permission was given for private persons to have their own cards
stamped at Somerset House. In 1875 a stouter card was put on
sale, and the charges were raised to 7d. per dozen for thin cards
and 8d. per dozen for stout cards. In 1889 the charges were
reduced, and they are now sold at 10 for 5Jd. and n for 6d.
respectively. On the 1st of September 1894, private post cards
with an adhesive halfpenny stamp were allowed to pass by post,
and the result has been greatly to diminish the number of cards
purchased through the post office. It is estimated that 232 out
of the 400 millions of cards delivered in 1890-1900 were private
cards. The sizes of the official cards were again altered in January
1895 and November 1899. The regulations forbidding anything
but the address to be written on the address side of a post card
were made less stringent on the 1st of February 1897; and in 1898
unpaid post cards, which were previously charged as unpaid letters,
were allowed to be delivered on payment of double the post card
rate. These various changes, espe-
cially the use of the private card and
the popularity of illustrated post
cards, have contributed to the rapid
increase in the number of post cards
sent by post. Reply post cards were
first issued on the 1st of October
1893. Their use has not been exten-
sive. Only about ij million are
issued yearly.
Book Packets and Samples. The
table at foot of page shows the
estimated number of book packets,
circulars and samples delivered in
the United Kingdom, and the in-
crease per cent, per annum. The
rate of $d. for 2 oz. for the book
post has remained unaltered since
the 1st of October 1870. Changes
have been made in the regulations
defining the articles which may be
sent by book post, and prescribing
the mode of packing them so as
to admit of easy examination for
Newspapers. The table on
next page shows the estimated
number of newspapers delivered
in the United Kingdom, and the
increase per cent, per annum.
The carriage of newspapers by
the post office does not show the
same elasticity as other post office
business. This is due largely to
the improved system of distri-
bution adopted by newspaper
managers and especially to the
extension of the halfpenny press.
The practice of posting a news-
paper after reading it, under a
co-operative arrangement, has
practically ceased to exist. The
carriage of newspapers by post
is conducted by the post office at a loss.
It has been frequently stated on behalf of the post office that
the halfpenny post is unremunerative. Representations are,
however, made from time 'to time in favour of lower
postage for literature of all kinds. It may therefore
be of interest to mention that the postmaster-
general of the United States has, in successive annual reports,
deplored the effect on the post office service of the cheap
rates for " second-class matter." The cost of carriage over
so large a territory is heavier than in the United Kingdom; but
the postmaster-general states that the low rates of postage
" involve a sheer wanton waste of $20,000,000 or upwards a
year." Facilities like the extension of free delivery are stifled,
and the efficiency of the whole service cramped by the loss
thus sustained. In the United Kingdom the rules respecting the
halfpenny post were greatly simplified and brought into effect on
the ist of October 1906. The halfpenny post can be used only
Finance.
England and
Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
United
Kingdom.
Year.
4W .
SE
U 3
SE
U 3
11
4- .
c e
il
Number.
v- C
o. a
Number.
V. =
C~ (d
Number.
kl
Number.
is
CJ O
j= Z.
jjSL
O O
**
1872 . .
90,000,000
13,000,000
11,000,000
114,000,000
1875 . .
133.394.900
IS-2
15.723.700
9,548,000
158,666,600
n-7
1881-1882
228,999,400
12-3
27,875,000
15-0
14,164,300
16-9
271.038,700
12-8
1884-1885
269,400,000
8-1
34,500,000
1O-0
16,500,000
18-9
320,406,000
8-8
1889-1890
378,200,000
7-5
42,100,000
3-7
21,600,000
9-6
441,900,000
7-3
1894-1895
522,500,000
6-7
60,800,000
8-2
31,300,000
IO-2
614,600,000
7-o
dec.
dec.
dec.
dec.
1898-1899'
590,900,000
3-6
75,100,000
2-3
35,500,000
5-3
701,500,000
3-5
inc.
inc.
inc.
inc.
1900-1901
619,300,000
4-0
77,800,000
3-7
35,300,000
8-6
732,400,000
'
1 Book packets over 2 oz. transferred to the letter post as a result of the Jubilee changes.
184
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
for packets not exceeding 2 oz. in weight. The length of a packet
must not exceed 2 ft., while i ft. is the limit in width or depth.
Any printed or written matter not in the nature of a letter may
be sent by the halfpenny post, but every packet must be posted
either without a cover or in an unfastened envelope, or in a
cover which can be easily removed. The number of halfpenny
packets delivered in 1906-1907 was 933,200,000.
England and
Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
United
Kingdom.
~
~ .
c p
M .
Year.
" 2
3
"1
O 3
Number.
v- Cl
S c
Q.C3
Number.
=
s.n
Number.
Vri G
Number.
. C
5 c
. 1-1
. t-i
<J CJ
c a
i i
a
2
1872 . .
87,000,000
12,000,000
10,000,000
109,000,000
1875 - -
93,345,600
2-3
13,819,100
4-5
13,884,700
IO-2
121,049,400
3'4
1881-1882
108,651,700
5-7
15,477.300
2-4
16,660,100
47
140,789,100
1884-1885
110,700,000
7
16,900,000
0-9
16,100,000
143,700,000
0-7
1889-1890
126,600,000
6-1
16,700,000
0-6
16,000,000
159,300,000
4.9
dec.
dec.
dec.
dec.
1894-1895'
117,500,000
9-5
17,300,000
2-3
17,000,000
2-3
151,800,000
7.9
inc.
inc.
inc.
inc.
1899-1900
125,000,000
5'9
19,300,000
7-8
19,100,000
4-9
163,400,000
6-0
1900-1901
127,800,000
2-2
19,300,000
20,700,000
8-4
167,800,000
2-7
Hallway
Letters.
The inland parcel post began on the ist of August 1883. No
parcel might exceed 7 Ib in weight, 3! ft. in length, of 6 ft. in
length and girth combined. The rates were: not
Pan-els. exceeding i Ib, 3d.; exceeding i ft, but not exceeding
3lb, 6d.; exceeding 3 Ib, but not exceeding 5 Ib, <)d.;
exceeding 5 Ib, but not exceeding 7 Ib, is. The following
table shows the number of parcels delivered in the United
Kingdom :
Year ending 3ist March.
1884 .
1885 . . .
1890 . . .
1895
1900 .
1905 .
Arrangements were made with the railway companies, under
which they receive 55% of the postage on each parcel sent by
train. This arrangement, which was to hold good for 21 years,
proved, however, an onerous one, and on the 1st of June 1887
the post office started a parcel coach between London and Brighton.
The coach, replaced in 1905 by a motor van, travelled by night,
and reached Brighton in time for the first delivery. The experi-
ment proving successful, other coach and motor services were
started at different dates between London and other places in the
provinces, the mail services performed by motor vans amounting
in 1906 to nearly forty. Nearly nj millions of parcels were con-
veyed by the post office in 1900-1901 without passing over a
railway.
On the ist of May 1896, the maximum weight was increased
to ii Ib, and the postage rates were reduced: not exceed ing lib,
3d.; for each succeeding Ib, ijd. ; the charge for a parcel of n Ib
was thus is. 6d. New rates were subsequently introduced and
Number of Parcels.
14,000,000
. 22,910,040
. 42,852,600
. 57,136,000
. . 75,448,000
97,231,000
the rates for parcels now are: not exceeding i ft, 3d. ; 2 Ib, 4d. ;
3 Ib, sd; 5 Ib, 6d. ; 7 Ib, 7d. ; for each succeeding ft up to n Ib,
id. The length of a parcel must not exceed 3 ft. 6 in.; length and
girth combined must not exceed 6 ft. By the Post Office (Literature
for the Blind) Act 1906, the postage on packets of papers and books
impressed for the use of the blind was greatly reduced, the rates
being fixed at: not exceeding 2 oz., id.; exceeding 2 oz. and not
exceeding 2 ft, id.; not exceeding 5 ft, ijd. ; not exceeding 6 ft,
2jd.
The number of letters registered by the public in the United
Kingdom in 1884-1885 amounted to 11,365,151. In the next
ten years the numbers oscillated between 10,779,555
(1886-1887) and 12,132,144 (1892-1893); but since
1894-1895, when 11,958,264 letters were registered,
the number steadily increased, until it stood at 19,029,114 for
1903-1904. It decreased, however, 2-8% in 1904-1905, in-
increased -7 in the following year, but declined again by -8% in
1906-1907. It has been surmised 2 that the introduction of
1 See note to table of Letters Delivered.
1 Thirty-second Report of Postmaster-General.
postal orders checked the growth of registered letters for
some years after 1880. In 1886 a system of insurance for
registered letters was adopted. The ordinary registration fee
entitled the owner, in case of loss, to recover compensation from
the post office up to a limit of 2. For an additional insurance
fee of id. the limit was raised to 5, and for 2d. to 10. Various
changes have since been made, and the separate insurance system
has been abolished. At present
a registration fee of 2d. entitles to
compensation up to 5, 3d. 20,
and each additional penny to a
further 20, up to a maximum
of 400. The system of registra-
tion has also been extended to
parcels.
On the ist of February 1891
the railway letter service came
into operation. At
passenger stations on
the principal railways
a letter not exceeding 4 oz. in
weight may be handed in at the
booking office for conveyance by
the next train. A fee of 2d. is
payable to the railway company as
well as the ordinary postage of id.
The letter may be addressed to a railway station to be called
for. If it bears any other address it is posted on arrival at
its proper station. The number of packets so sent is about
200,000 a year.
The express ' delivery service dates from the 25th of March
1891. A private company formed for the purpose of supplying
the public on demand with an express messenger
to execute errands was found to be infringing the Letters.
postmaster-general's monopoly both as regards
the conveyance of letters and the transmission of communi-
cations by electricity. The services of the company were,
however, much appreciated by the public. The government
accordingly authorized the post office to license the existing
company to continue its business, on the payment of royalties,
till 1903,' and to start an express service of its own.
Messengers can be summoned from the post office by telephone,
and arrangements can be made with the post office for the special
delivery of all packets arriving by particular mails in advance of
the ordinary postman. The sender of a packet may have it con-
veyed by express messenger all the way, or may direct that, after
conveyance by ordinary post to the terminal post office, it shall
then be delivered by special messenger. The fees, in addition to
ordinary postage, were originally fixed at 2d. for the first mile,
3d. for the second mile, and is. a mile additional when the distance
exceeded 2 m. and there was no public conveyance. Under
the present regulations the fee is 3d. for each_ mile covered by
special messenger before delivery. No charge is made for post-
age in respect of the special service, but if the packet is very
weighty or the distance considerable, and no public conveyance
is available, the sender must pay for a cab or other special
conveyance.
Letters and parcels to or from a number of foreign countries
and colonies may also be marked for express delivery after trans-
mission by post; and residents in London, not having a delivery
of ordinary letters on Sunday, may receive on that day express
letters from home or abroad which have come to hand too late
for express delivery on Saturday nights. The total number of
express services in 1905-1906 was 1,578,746. In many cases one
of these services included the delivery of batches of letters, so that
in London alone 1,010,815 express services were performed, in-
cluding 47,601 deliveries in advance of the postmen.
There are various central depfits for dealing with " dead " or
returned letters. The principal office is in London. In the
year 1905-1906 10,868,272 letters were received at Keturaea
the various returned letter offices, of which 1,008,017 Letters.
could neither be delivered to the addresses nor re-
turned to the senders. Such of these as contain nothing of
value are at once destroyed, and no record of them is kept. The
3 Afterwards extended to the 3ist of March 1922.
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
185
others are recorded, and (if not previously claimed by the owners)
their contents are sold by auction at intervals. If the owner
applies after the sale, the proceeds are handed over to him. In
addition to these 10 millions of letters, there were many others
disposed of at head post offices, whence they were returned
direct and unopened to the senders, whose names and addresses
appeared on the outside of the letters. The total number of
post cards received in the various offices as undelivered was
oo's omitted.
Despatched from
the
United Kingdom.
Destined for the
United Kingdom.
Country or Colony.
Letters
and
Post
Cards.
Circulars,
Book
Packets,
Patterns,
News-
papers.
Letters
and
Post
Cards.
Circulars,
Book
Packets,
Patterns,
News-
papers.
EUROPE.
Austria-Hungary
Belgium and Luxemburg .
Denmark, Norway and
Sweden
France (including Algeria
and Tunis) ....
Germany
Ib
52,0
88,0
78,0
329,0
310,0
46,0
140,0
73,o
49,o
50,0
66,0
25-5
ft
392,0
358,0
3H.O
1,426,0
i ,656,0
413,0
302,0
613,0
325,0
536,o
490,0
305,0
ft
41,0
87,0
65,0
354.0
378,0
64,0
90,0
66,0
35.0
47.0
55.0
23.0
ft
1 1 8,0
201,0
132,0
1,152,0
1,090,0
44-0
450,0
172,0
92,0
85,0
147,0
65,0
Gibraltar (including Tan-
gier), Malta and Cyprus.
Holland
Italy
Russia ... . .
Spain, Portugal and Azores
Switzerland ....
Turkey, Greece, Rumania
and Balkan States .
Totals . .
1,306,5
7,130,0
1,305,0
3,748,0
ASIA.
Asiatic Turkey and Persia
India (including Aden)
Ceylon, Straits Settle-
ments and East Indies .
China and Japan .
Totals . .
Ib
8,5
230,0
56,0
54,o
ft
100,0
2,828,0
755.0
762,0
ft
5,0
164,0
40,0
55.0
ft
35,o
432,0
90,0-
84,0
348,5
4.445,0
264,0
641,0
AFRICA.
South African Colonies
East Coast of Africa (Bri-
tish and Portuguese Pos-
sessions), Mauritius, &c. .
West Coast of Africa,
Madeira, Canary Islands,
Cape Verde, St Helena
and Ascension
Egypt
Totals . .
Ib
323,0
16,0
31.0
40,0
ft
2,671,0
1 86,0
382,0
398,o
ft
237.0
IO,O
32,0
28,0
ft
530,0
15.0
20,0
64,0
410,0
3.637.0
307,0
629,0
AMERICA.
United States .
Canada and Newfoundland
Mexico and Central Ameri-
can States ....
Brazil, Argentine Republic,
Uruguay and Paraguay .
Chile, Peru and Bolivia
Ecuador, Colombia and
Venezuela ....
West Indies (British and
Foreign)
Totals . .
ft
397,0
248,0
11,0
39.0
I5,o
7,o
49,0
ft
2,850,0
1,891,0
177,0
621,0
195.0
83,0
449,0
ft
431,0
187,0
II,O
35,0
17,0
3,o
31,0
ft
2,488,0
616,0
13.0
78,0
34,o
4,o
47,o
766,0
6,266,0
7i5.o
3,280,0
AUSTRALASIA.
Commonwealth of Aus-
tralia
New Zealand, Fiji, &c.
Totals . .
Grand totals
ft
122,0
56,0
ft
1,600,0
753,0
ft
80,0
40,0
ft
534,o
333,0
178,0
2,353-0
120,0
867,0
3,009,0
23,831,0
2,711,0
9.165,0
2,656,770; halfpenny packets, 12,439,377; newspapers, 473.346;
and parcels, 248,526; 195,145 of these last were re-issued.
Articles sent by the halfpenny post are destroyed at the head
offices if they cannot be delivered; but the sender may have
such articles returned if he writes a request to that effect on
the outside of the packet, together with his name and address,
and pays a second postage on the return of the packet. The
number of registered letters and letters containing property
sent through the post with insufficient addresses was 320,041.
These letters contained 16,887 in cash and bank-notes, and
656,845 in bills, cheques, money orders, postal orders and
stamps. The coin found loose in the post amounted to
1,380, as well as 12,272 in cheques and other forms of remit-
tance.
The table in opposite column shows the estimated weight of
the mails (excluding parcels) exchanged with the
British colonies and foreign countries in 1905-1906.
The number of letters and post cards may be roughly
taken at 40 to the ft.
During the same year 2,474,003 parcels were despatched out
of the United Kingdom, and 1,431,035 were received from the
British colonies and other countries. Germany, with 356,423,
received the largest number of any one country, and easily
heads the list of countries from which parcels were imported
into the United Kingdom, with 474,669, France coming next
with 254,490.
On the ist of January 1889 a weekly all-sea service to the
Australasian colonies was opened. The rates were 4d. per
$ oz. for letters, and 2d. for post cards, as compared pg^, aad
with 6d. and 3d. by the quicker route. In the Budget Colonial
of 1890 provision was made for a lower and uniform Letter
rate of postage from the United Kingdom to India *"**
and the British colonies generally. The rates, which had hitherto
varied from 2jd. to 4d., sd., or 6d. per oz., were fixed at 2$d.
per 5 oz. The change took effect on the ist of January 1891,
and resulted at the outset in a loss of 100,000 a year. The
fourth postal union congress, which met at Vienna in May and
June 1891 (third congress at Lisbon, February and March 1885),
took a further step in the direction of uniformity, and on the
ist of October 1891 the 2^d. rate was extended to foreign
as well as colonial letters from the United Kingdom. The
Australasian colonies gave their adhesion to the Union at this
congress, and the Cape signified its adhesion at the next congress
(Washington, May and June 1897), while British Bechuanaland
and Rhodesia entered in 1900, and the whole of the British
Empire is now included in the international union. Abyssinia,
Afghanistan, Arabia, China and Morocco are the chief countries
which remain outside. The rate was 2jd. the first oz., and i jd.
per oz. afterwards.
Advantage was taken of the presence in England of special
representatives of India and the principal British colonies
to hold an imperial postal conference in London
in June and July 1897, under the presidency of the
duke of Norfolk, postmaster-general. Chiefly at
the instance of Canada the duke announced that on and from
Christmas Day 1898 an imperial penny post would be estab-
lished with such of the British colonies as were prepared to
reciprocate. The new rates (id. per oz.), which had long been
advocated by Mr Henniker Heaton, were adopted then or shortly
afterwards by the countries within the empire, with the ex-
ceptions of Australasia and the Cape, where the ajd. rate re-
mained unaltered. The Cape came afterwards into the scheme,
and New Zealand joined in 1002. Australia did not see its
way to make the necessary financial arrangements, but in 1905
agreed to receive without surcharge letters from other parts of
the empire prepaid at id. per J oz. and reduced its outward
postage to 2d. per $ oz., raised to i oz. in 1907. In 1911
penny postage was adopted throughout the commonwealth and
to the United Kingdom. Owing to the special relations existing
between the governments of Egypt and the United Kingdom,
penny postage for letters passing between the United Kingdom
and Egypt and the Sudan was introduced in December 1005; and
i86
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
the Egyptian post office subsequently arranged for the adoption
of this rate with many of the British colonies. On the ist of
October 1908 penny postage was established between Great
Britain and the United States on the same lines as the imperial
penny post.
At the 1897 conference it was proposed that the parcel rates
with British possessions should be lowered and simplified by the
adoption of a triple scale for parcels exchanged by sea, namely,
is. up to 3 Ib, 2s. from 3 to 7 ft, and 33. from 7 to n Ib. This
scale has been adopted by many of the British colonies. The parcel
post has been gradually extended to nearly the whole civilized
world, while the rates have in many cases been considerably re-
duced. The United States remained an exception, and in 1902
an agreement was concluded with the American Express Company
for a parcel service. In April 1904 an official service was estab-
lished with the United States post office, but the semi-official
service is still maintained with the American Express Company.
By the official service the limit of weight was 4 Ib 6 oz., and the
postage 2s. per parcel; by the semi-official service parcels up to
II Ib in weight may be sent, the rates ranging from 33. to 6s.
On the 1st of July 1908 the rates were revised. The limit of weight
was increased to II ft), the rate for a parcel being is. 6d. for a parcel
up to 3 Ib in weight, 2s. 6d. up to 7 Ib, 35. 6d. up to 9 Ib and
45. 6d. for II Ib.
On the ist of January 1885 the post office at Malta was
transferred from the control of H.M. postmaster-general to that
of the local administration, and a similar change was made
as regards Gibraltar on the ist of June 1896.
Remarkable improvements have been effected in the speed
and frequency of the mails sent abroad, and contracts are
Foreign entered into from time to time with the various
Mall mail steamship companies for additional or improved
Service. services. The transit charges for special trains
conveying mails through France and Italy for Egypt,
India, Australia and the Far East have been successively
reduced until they now stand at the ordinary Postal Union
transit rates.
Mention should be made of the Army post office, which is
now an essential accompaniment of military operations. On
Army Post the outbreak of hostilities in South Africa in 1899,
Office the British post office supplied 10 officers and 392
Corps. men to j^j w j tn j.jjg ma jj s O f tne f orces> se ii postage
stamps, deal in postal orders, &c. Contingents were also
sent by the Canadian, Australian, and Indian post offices.
Including telegraphists and men of the army reserve, 3400
post office servants were sent to the front.
MONEY ORDER DEPARTMENT
The money order branch of the post office dates from 1792.'
It was begun with the special object of facilitating the safe
Money conveyance of small sums to soldiers and sailors,
Orders. the thefts of letters containing money being fre-
quent. Two schemes were put forward, one similar to the
present money order system. There were doubts whether
the post office had power to adopt the system, and it was not
officially taken up. Six officers of the post office, however, called
the " clerks of the roads," who were already conducting a large
newspaper business with profit to themselves, came forward
with a plan, which was encouraged by the postmaster-general,
who also bore the cost of advertising it, and even allowed the
advices of the money orders to go free by post under the " frank "
of the secretary to the post office. In 1798 the clerks of the
roads gave up the scheme, and three post office clerks known as
" Stow and Company " took it over. The death of Stow in
1836 left one sole proprietor who had a capital of 2000 embarked
in the concern. In 1838 the government determined to take
over the business and compensated the proprietor with an
allowance of over 400 a year. The rates of commission fixed
by the government were is. 6d. for sums exceeding 2 and under
5, and 6d. for all sums not exceeding 2. In 1840 these
rates were reduced to 6d. and 3d. respectively. The number
and aggregate amount of the orders issued (inland, colonial and
1 An historical outline is given in the Forty-Second Report of
Postmaster-General (1896), p. 26.
foreign) in different periods from the reorganization until 1905
is as follows:
Years.
Number.
Amount.
i
1839
188,921
313-124
1849
4,248,891
8,152,643
1861-1865
8,055,227
16,624,503
(average)
1875
16,819,874
27,688,255
1880-1881
16,935,005
26,003,582
1885-1886
11,318,380
24,832,421
1890-1891
10,260,852
27,867,887
1895-1896
10,900,963
29,726,817
1900-1901
13-263,567
39,374,665
1905-1906
13.596,153
44,612,785
The decrease in the number of inland money orders till
1890-1891 was due to the competition of postal orders, and to
the reduction (Jan. i, 1878) of the charge for registering a
letter from 4d. to 2d. 2
In 1862 the issue of orders for larger sums was allowed: not
exceeding 7, gd.; not exceeding 10, is.
On the 1st of May 1871 a scale of charges was fixed as follows:
orders not exceeding los., id.; not exceeding i, 2d. ; not exceeding
2, 3d. ; and so on, an additional penny being charged per . For
sums of 10 the rate was is. It was found, however, that the low
rate of id. for small orders did not provide a profit, and the rates
were raised on the 1st of January 1878 to: orders not exceeding
ios., 2d. ; not exceeding 2, 3d. On the 1st of September 1886 the
rates were altered as follows: orders not exceeding i, 2d.; not
exceeding 2, 3d.; not exceeding 4, 4d. ; not exceeding 7, 5 d.;
not exceeding 10, 6d. On the 1st of February 1897 new rates
were introduced ; on orders not exceeding 3, 3d. ; over 3 and not
exceeding 10, 4d.
The cost of a money order transaction (at least 3d.) is very
little affected by the amount of the remittance, and it was
thought undesirable to continue the unremunerative business
of sending small sums by money order at less than cost price
at the expense of the senders of larger orders. The needs of
smaller remitters appeared to be sufficiently met by postal
orders and the registered letter post. It appeared, however,
that the new charges fell with great severity upon mutual
benefit societies, like the Hearts of Oak, which sent large num-
bers of small money orders every week, and on the ist of May
1897 the 2d. rate was restored for orders not exceeding i. This
society and others now use postal orders instead of money orders.
In 1905 the limit for money orders was extended to 40, and the
rates are: sums over 10 and not exceeding 20, 6d.; sums
over 20 and not exceeding 30, 8d. ; sums over 30 and not
exceeding 40, lod.
Money orders may be sent to almost any country in the world.
The rrftes are as follows: for sums not exceeding l, 3d.;
2, 6d.; 4 , 9 d.; 6, is.; 8, is. 3 d.; 10, is. 6d.;
and for countries on which orders may be issued for
higher amounts (limit 40), 3d. for every additional nftent
2 or fraction of 2.
The money order system is largely used by the British govern-
ment departments for the payment of pensions, separation allow-
ances, remittance of bankruptcy dividends, &c. ; and free orders
may be obtained by the public, under certain conditions, for the
purpose of remitting their taxes. The cost of management of the
money order office was reduced by the substitution, since 1898,
of a number of women clerks for men and boys.
On the 2nd of September 1889 the issue of telegraphic money
orders between London and seventeen large towns was begun as an
experiment, and on the 1st of March 1890 the system
was extended to all head post offices, and branch offices ' Wtpa
in the United Kingdom. Two years later it was ex- f!? ey
tended to every office which transacts both money order
and telegraph business. The rates, which have been several times
revised, are (i) a poundage at the ordinary rate for inland money
orders, (2) a charge for the official telegram of advice to the office
of payment at the ordinary rate for inland telegrams, the minimum
being 6d., and (3) a supplementary fee of 2d. for each order. The
sender of a telegraph money order may give instructions that,
instead of being left at the post office to be called for, it should
be delivered at the payee's residence, and that it should be crossed
2 The total sums remitted did not fall off to the same extent,
showing that the small orders alone were effected. The average
amount for ordinary inland orders is now 2, 193. sd.
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
187
for payment through a bank. He may also, on paying for the extra
words, send a short private message to his correspondent in the
telegram of advice.
Telegraph money orders may also be sent to Algeria, Austria,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Egypt, Faeroe Islands, France,
Germany, Holland, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Luxemburg, Monaco,
Norway. Rumania, Sweden and Switzerland. A fee of zd. is re-
quired in addition to the usual money order commission and the
cost of the telegram. The system is being rapidly extended to
other countries.
The telegraph inland money orders in 1905-1906 amounted to
53>543- an d the sums so remitted to 1,646,882, an average of
3, is. The number of telegraph money order transactions between
the United Kingdom and foreign countries amounted to 18,787,
representing 139,402.
Postal orders were first issued on the ist of January 1881.
For some years before that date postmasters-general had con-
sidered the possibility of issuing orders for fixed
Orders. amounts at a small commission to replace money
orders for sums under 205., which had failed to be
remunerative. When the plan was submitted to a committee
appointed by the treasury, it was objected that postal orders
as remitting media would be less secure than money orders.
This was met in part by giving a discretionary power to fill in
the name of the post office and also of the payee. Another
objection which was urged, namely, that they would prove to
be an issue of government small notes under another name, was
quickly disproved. Parliament sanctioned the scheme in 1880.
The first series were:
is., is. 6d. 2s. 6d., 53., 73. 6d.
Poundage id. id.
ios., I2s. 6d., 153., 173. 6d., 203.
Poundage
2d.
In 1884 a new series was issued and a provision made that
broken amounts might be made up by affixing postage stamps, to
the value of sd., to the orders. Postal orders have become
increasingly popular as a means of remitting small amounts,
especially since the introduction in 1903 of new denominations,
rendering it possible to obtain a postal order for every complete
sixpence from 6d. to 2is. From 6d. to 2s. 6d. the poundage
is Jd., from 35. to 155., id., from 155. 6d. up to 2is., ijd. Postal
orders are also furnished with counterfoils, as a means of keeping
a record of the number and amount of each order posted. Orders
for amounts of ios. and upwards are printed in red ink. A
system of interchange of postal orders between the United
Kingdom and India and the British colonies, and also between
one colony and another, has been instituted. British postal
orders are obtainable also at post offices in Panama, Constan-
tinople, Salonica and Smyrna, and on H.M. ships. The fol-
lowing table shows the number and value of postal orders issued
from the beginning to the 3ist of March 1907 (ooo's omitted):
Year.
Number.
Value.
1881-1882
1883-1884
1885-1886
1890-1891
1895-1896
1900-1901
1906-1907
4,462
12,286
25,79
48,841
64,076
85,390
101,658
2,006
5,028
10,788
19,178
23,896
29,881
40,484
It remains to be added that the various statutes relating to
the post office, except those relating to telegraphs and the car-
riage of mails, were consolidated by the Post Office Act 1908.
The act repealed and superseded 26 acts wholly and 10 acts
in parts. Sections i-n deal with the duties 'of postage;
12-19 with the conditions of transit of postal packets; 20-22
with newspapers; 23-25 with money orders; 26-32 with
ship letters; 33-44 with the postmaster-general and officers;
45-47 with the holding, &c., of land; 48-49 with the
extension of postal facilities and accommodation; 50-69
with post office offences; 70-78 with legal proceedings, and
79-94 with regulations, definitions, &c.
SAVINGS BANKS.'
The establishment of post office savings banks was prac-
tically suggested in the year 1860 by Charles William Sykes of
Huddersfield, whose suggestion was cordially re-
ceived by W. E. Gladstone, then chancellor of the
exchequer, to whose conspicuous exertions in par-
liament the effectual working-out of the measure and also many
and great improvements in its details are due. Half a century
earlier (1807) it had been proposed to utilize the then existing
and rudimentary money order branch of the post office for the
collection and transmission of savings from all parts of the coun-
try to a central savings bank to be established in London. A
bill to that effect was brought into the House of Commons by
S. Whitbread, but it failed to receive adequate support, and was
withdrawn. When Sykes revived the proposal of 1807 the
number of savings banks managed by trustees was 638, but of
these about 350 were open only for a few hours on a single day
of the week. Only twenty throughout the kingdom were open
daily. Twenty-four towns containing upwards of ten thousand
inhabitants each were without any savings bank. Fourteen
counties were without any. In the existing banks the average
amount of a deposit was 4, 6s. sd.
Gladstone's Bill, entitled " An Act to grant additional
facilities for depositing small savings at interest, with the
security of Government for the due repayment thereof, " be-
came law on the I7th of May 1861, and was brought into opera-
tion on the i6th of September following. The banks first opened
were in places theretofore unprovided. In February 1862 the
act was brought into operation in Scotland and in Ireland.
Within two years nearly all the money order offices of the
United Kingdom became savings banks, and the expansion
of the business was continual. The growth of business is shown
in the following table:
Year ending
3 Ist December.
Average
Number of
Accounts.
Average
Amount of
Deposits.
Average
Balance in
each Account.
Average
Number
of Offices.
1863-1868
1869-1874
1875-1880
1881-1885
1886-1890
1891-1895
663,000
1,373.000
1,889,000
3,088,000
4,248,000
5,776,000
7,000,000
18,000,000
29,000,000
42,000,000
59,000,000
83,000,000
s d
ii 3 5
13 5 3
15 12 5
13 ii 3
13 16 10
14 7 o
3-390
4-498
5,742
7-348
9.025
10,888
The code of the ist of November 1888 did not enlarge the
limits of deposits or make any great and conspicuous change
in the general system, but the postmaster-general obtained
power to offer certain facilities for the transfer of money from
one account to another, for the easier disposal of the funds of
deceased depositors by means of nominations, and in various
ways for the convenience of the customers of the bank. Arrange-
ments were made for reducing to is. the cost of certificates of
births, deaths and marriages required for savings bank pur-
poses. In July 1889 Local Loans 3% Stock was made available
for purchase through the post office savings bank.
" In July 1891," says the report of the postmaster-general in
1897, " another Act of Parliament was passed by which the maxi-
mum amount which might be deposited was raised from 150 to
200, inclusive of interest. The annual limit remained at 30,
but it was provided that, irrespective of that limit, depositors
might _ replace in the bank the amount of any one withdrawal
made in the same year. The object of this provision was to avoid
curtailing the saving power of a person who might be driven by
emergency to make an inroad upon his store, but who might never-
theless, when the emergency had passed, find himself none the
poorer and able to replace the money withdrawn.
" The act provided also that where on any account the principal
and interest together exceeded 200, interest should cease only on
the amount in excess of 200, whereas previously interest ceased
altogether when it had brought the balance of an account up to
200.
" The next striking development of the Savings Bank arose out
of the Free Education Act, passed in September 1891. The
1 For a succinct account of the history of the post office savings
bank, " so far as depositors and the general public are concerned,"
see Forty-third Report of Postmaster-General (1897), pp. 32 seq.
188
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
government of the day desired that advantage should be taken
of the opportunity to inculcate upon parents and children alike
a lesson of thrift that they should save the school pence which
they were no longer bound to pay. The Education Department
and the postmaster-general worked in concert to realize this end.
School managers were urged to press the matter upon all concerned,
special stamp slips were prepared and issued, managers were
supplied on credit with stocks of stamps to be sold to the children,
and clerks from the nearest post offices attended at schools to open
accounts and receive deposits. The arrangement began in January
1892; about 1400 schools adopted the scheme at once, and three
years later this number had risen to 3000. A sum of nearly 14,000
was estimated to have been deposited in schools in 5 months, and
about 40,000 in the first year. Concurrently with the spread of
the stamp-slip system in the schools, the extension of School Penny
Banks, connected intimately with the Savings Bank, was a con-
spicuous result of the effort to turn into profitable channels the
pence which no longer paid school fees.
" In December 1893 another Act of Parliament extended the
annual limits of deposits from 30 to 50. The maximum of 200
remained unchanged, but it was piovided that any accumulations
accruing after that amount had been reached should be invested
in government stock unless the depositor gave instructions to the
contrary.
"In December 1893 arrangements were made for the use of the
telegraph for the withdrawal of money from the savings bank.
Postmasters-general had hesitated long before sanctioning this
new departure. It was known that the system was in force abroad,
and it was recognized that there might be, and doubtless were,
cases in the United Kingdom where the possibility of withdrawing
money without delay might be all-important, and might save a
depositor from debt and distress. But, on the other hand, it was
strongly held that the cause of thrift was sometimes served by
interposing a delay between a sudden desire to spend and its
realization; and it was also held to be essential to maintain a marked
distinction between a bank of deposit for savings and a bank for
keeping current accounts."
On the whole, the balance of opinion was in favour of the
change, and two new methods of withdrawal were provided. A
depositor might telegraph for his money and have his warrant
sent to him by return of post, or he might telegraph for his money
and have it paid to him in an hour or two on the authority of a
telegram from the savings bank to the postmaster. The first
method cost the depositor about pd., the second cost him about
is. 3d. for the transaction. On the 3rd of July 1905 a new sys-
tem of withdrawal was instituted, under which a depositor, on
presentation of his book at any post office open for savings bank
business, can withdraw immediately any sum not exceeding
i. Depositors have availed themselves extensively of this
system. During 1906, 4,758,440 withdrawals, considerably more
than one-half of the total number of withdrawals, were made "on
demand," and as a consequence the number of withdrawals
made by telegraph fell to 122,802, against 168,036 in the pre-
vious year (during only half of which the " on demand " system
was in force).
By an act which came into force on the ist of January 1895
building societies, duly incorporated, were enabled to deposit
at' any one time a sum not exceeding 300, and to buy
government stock up to 300 through the savings bank.
Savings Bank Finance. The increase in the deposits lodged in
the post office savings bank must be ascribed to a variety of
causes. Numbers of trustee banks have been closed, and have
transferred their accounts to the post office bank ; greater facilities
have been offered by the bank; the limits of deposit in one year,
and of total deposit, have been raised; and, since October 1892,
deposits may be made by cheque; while the long-continued fall in
the rate of interest made the assured 2|% of the post office savings
bank an increasing temptation to a class of investors previously
accustomed to look elsewhere. The high price of consols, due in
part to the magnitude of purchases on savings bank account,
proved a serious embarrassment to the profitable working of the
bank, which had shown a balance of earnings on each year's work-
ing until 1896, after paying its expenses and 2j% interest to its
depositors. Economical working minimized, but did not remove
the difficulty. The average cost of each transaction, originally
nearly 7d., has been brought down to 5fd. Down to the year
1896, 1,598,767 was paid into the exchequer under 14 of the
Act 40 Viet. c. 13, being the excess of interest which had accrued
year by year. But since 1895 there have been deficits in each year,
and in 1905, owing principally tc the reduced rate on consols, the
expenditure exceeded the income by 88,094.
The central savings bank having outgrown its accommo-
dation in Queen Victoria Street, London, a new site was
purchased in 1898 for 45,000 at West Kensington, and the
foundation-stone of a new building, costing 300,000, was laid by
the prince of Wales on the 24th of June 1899. The entire
removal of the business was carried out in 1903.
Under the Workmen's Compensation Act of 1897, sums
awarded as compensation might be invested in the post office
savings bank. This arrangement proved so convenient that
an act of 1900 authorized a similar investment of money paid
into an English county court in ordinary actions at common
law, and ordered to be invested for the benefit of an infant or
lunatic. In 1906 a committee was appointed to go into the
question as to whether the post office should provide facilities
for the insurance of employers in respect of liabilities under the
Workmen's Compensation Acts, but no scheme was recom-
mended involving post office action either as principal or agent.
Post offices, however, exhibit notices drawing attention to the
liabilities imposed by the act of 1906, and sub-postmasters are
encouraged to accept agencies in their private capacity for
insurance companies undertaking this class of insurance.
Inducements to Thrift. By arrangement with the war office
in July 1893, the deferred pay of soldiers leaving the army was
invested on their behalf in the post office savings bank, but it
was found that the majority of the soldiers draw out practically
the whole amount at once, and the experiment was discontinued
in 1901. At the request of large employers of labour, an officer of
the savings bank attends at industrial establishments on days
when wages are paid, and large numbers of workmen have thus
been induced to become depositors. The advantages of the savings
bank appear to be now thoroughly appreciated throughout the
United Kingdom, as shown by the following table:
On the 3 ist of December 1900.
Number of
Depositors.
Tola) Amount
to Credit of
Depositors.
Average
Amount
to Credit
of each
Depositor.
Proportion of
Depositors to
Population.
England and Wales .
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Totals . .
7.685,317
372,801
381,865
122,365,193
5,126,299
8,058,153
. s. d.
15 18 5
13 15 o
21 2 I
I in 4
I in 12
I in 12
8,439.983
135.549.645
16 I 3
I in 5
On the 3 ist of December 1905.
England and Wales .
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Totals . .
9,O27,II2
451-627
484,310
135.668,450
6,205,339
10,237,351
. s. d.
15 o 7
13 H 1
21 2 9
I in 3-8
I in 10-4
I in 9-1
9,963,049
152,111,140
15 5 4
i in 4-3
Between the foundation of the bank and the end of 1899, upwards
of 648,000,000, inclusive of interest, was credited to depositors,
of which 474,000,000 was withdrawn. There were 232,634,596
deposits, 81,804,509 withdrawals, 27,071,556 accounts opened,
and 18,631,573 accounts closed. The cross-entries, or instances
where the account is operated upon at a different office from that
at which it was opened, amounted to 33%. It is chiefly in respect
of this facility that the post office savings bank enjoys its advan-
tage over the trustee savings bank. In 1905, 16,320,204 deposits
were made, amounting to 42,300,617. In the same year the with-
drawals numbered 7,155,283, the total sum withdrawn being
42,096,037. The interest credited to depositors was 3,567,206,
and the total sum standing to their credit on the 3lst of December
1900 was 152,111,140.
A classification of accounts opened for 3 months in 1896, and
assumed to be fairly typical, showed the following results:
Occupation as stated by Depositors Percentage
in opening Account. to Total.
Professional 1-55
Official 2-81
Educational i-oi
Commercial 3-88
Agricultural and fishing 1-83
Industrial 18-43
Railway, shipping and transport 2-96
Tradesmen and their assistants 8-14
Domestic service 8-61
Miscellaneous 0-37
Married women, spinsters and children . . . 50-41
loo-oo
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
189
Women and children of all ranks are believed to be 60-59 of the
total number of depositors.
The accounts open at the end of 1895 showed the following
division of deposits:
Per cent.
Balances not exceeding .... 50 . . 36-1
Exceeding 50 and not exceeding . . 100 . . 24-5
loo 150 . 17-3
150 200 .. 14-8
200 7-3
100-0
The division according to number of accounts, in the same groups,
was 90-8, 5-3, 2-2, 1-3 and 0-4 respectively.
Investments in Government Stock. In September 1888 the mini-
mum amount of government stock which might be purchased
or sold through the post office savings bank was reduced from
10 to is., and it was also provided that any person who had
purchased stock through the savings bank could, if he so desired,
nave it transferred to his own name in the books of the Bank of
England. The act of 1893 raised the limit of stock to 200 in one
year, and 500 in all; but any depositor might purchase stock, to
replace stock previously sold, in one entire sum during that year.
If a depositor exceeds the authorized limits of deposit in the post
office savings bank, the excess is invested in stock by the post
office on his behalf. The investments of depositors in government
stock, however, have a tendency to decrease, and the sales, on the
other hand, to increase, as will be seen from the following table:
Year.
Investments.
Sales.
Average
price of
Consols.
No. of
Depositors.
Total
holding of
Stock.
No.
Amount.
No.
Amount.
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
46,550
40,893
47,726
39,633
32,301
3,192,154
2,694,447
3,131,172
2,507,546
2,212,285
13,574
17,221
17,742
18,848
22,824
761,629
1-054,193
1,085,578
1,131,543
1,507,219
94J
94i
90:
88
89-
_
109,509
118,696
131.343
138,582
139,992
12,786,190
14,285,617
16,165,548
17,357,950
17,877,644
Annuities and Life Insurances. The act of 1882, which came
into operation on the 3rd of June 1884, utilized the machinery
of the post office savings bank for annuities and life insurances,
which had been effected through the post office at selected towns
in England and Wales since the 1 7th of April 1865. Under the
act of 1882 all payments were to be made by means of money
deposited in the savings bank, and an order could be given by a
depositor that any sum even to id. a week should be devoted
to the purchase of an annuity or insurance so long as he retained
a balance in the savings bank. In February 1896 new life insur-
ance tables came into operation, with reduced annual rates, and with
provision for payment of sums insured at various ages as desired.
The following table shows the business done from 1901 to 1905:
additional five words, the addresses of sender and receiver being
sent free. In 1885 the charge was reduced to a halfpenny a
word throughout, including addresses (a system of abbreviated
addresses, which could be registered on payment of a guinea a
year, being introduced), with a minimum charge of sixpence.
To obviate the damage and interruption resulting from storms
large numbers of wires have been laid underground.
In 1891 the terms under which a new telegraph office was opened,
on the request of a person or persons who undertook to guarantee
the post office against loss, were reduced. In 1892 rural sanitary
authorities were empowered to give such guarantees out of the
rates. In 1897, as part of the Jubilee concessions, the government
undertook to pay one-half of any deficiency under guarantees.
During the six years ended in 1891 the average number of telegraph
offices guaranteed each year was 77. From 1892 to 1897 the
average rose to 167. In 1905 and 1906 it amounted to 152. The
number of telegraph offices opened without guarantee has increased
apace, and there are now 12,993 telegraph offices in all. As part
of the Jubilee scheme the charges for porterage were reduced as
follows: Up to 3 miles free; beyond 3 m., 3d. per m., reckoned from
the post office; and arrangements were made for the free delivery
at all hours of the day or night of any telegram within the metro-
politan postal district. The cost of free delivery up to 3 m. was
estimated at 52,000 a year.
Foreign Telegrams. The sixth international telegraph
conference, held at Berlin in 1884, effected a reduction in the
charges to many countries. E.g. the rate per
word was reduced for Russia from od. to 6^d.,
Spain 6d. to 4id., Italy sd. to 4jd., and India
45. 7d. to 45. The cost of repeating a message
was reduced from one-half to one-fourth of the
original charge for transmission. At the next con-
ference (1890) held at Paris, further considerable
reductions were effected. The rates to Austria-
Hungary and Italy were reduced from 4^d. to 3d.,
Russia 6%d. to s^d., Portugal sid. to 4id., Sweden
5d. to 4d., Spain 4^d. to 4d., Canary Islands is. yjd. to is., &c.
The minimum charge for any foreign (European) telegram was
fixed at tod. The eighth conference (Budapest, 1896) succeeded in
making the following reductions, among others, from the United
Kingdom: China 75. to 53. 6d., Java 6s. to 55., Japan 8s. to
6s. zd., Mauritius 8s. 9d. to 55., Persia 2S. sd. to is. oxi. At this
conference it was made incumbent upon every state adher-
ing to the union to fix in its currency an equivalent approaching
as nearly as possible the standard rate in gold, and to correct
and declare the equivalent in case of any important fluctuation.
Year.
ANNUITIES.
LITE INSCBJOJCES.
Immediate.
Deferred.
Contracts
entered into.
Receipts.
Payments.
Contracts
entered into.
Receipts.
Payments.
Contracts
entered into.
Receipts.
Payments.
No.
Amount of
Annuities.
Amount.
No.
Amount.
No.
Amount of
Annuities.
No.
Amount.
No.
Amount.
No.
Amount of
Insurances.
No.
Amount.
No.
Amount of
claims on
death and
surrender.
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
,764
,679
,763
,768
,840
42,268
42,791
43,973
41,000
45,488
562,159
558,770
557,98i
520,538
573.205
33,269
34,375
35,463
36,607
37,686
527,371
548,251
571,904
594,502
614,406
142
139
157
128
158
3,066
2,973
3,424
2,492
3,204
,365
,353
,366
,366
,386
23,630
21,764
24,489
ji .in i
24,287
,075
,I6 4
,210
,297
,347
14,175
17,172
14,689
16,167
16,965
920
722
592
517
741
44.296
34,646
31,413
28,629
37,01 1
21,972
22,553
22,672
22,323
21,836
22,647
23,045
23,063
23,031
23,376
380
389
387
465
449
12,992
14,646
13,126
16,878
1 5,593
TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES
The history of the development of telegraphy and the early
proposals for the transference to the state of the telegraph
monopoly will be found in the article TELEGRAPHY.
,iegraphs. On the sth Q{ February l87O the Telegraph Act
of the previous year took effect. The post office assumed
control of telegraphic communication within the United King-
dom, and it became possible to send telegrams throughout
the country at a uniform charge irrespective of locality or dis-
tance. In 1885 sixpenny telegrams were introduced. The
charge for a written telegram which came into force in 1870 was
one shilling for the first twenty words, and threepence for every
The limit of letters in one word of plain language was raised
from 10 to 15, and the number of figures from 3 to 5. The
International Telegraph Bureau was also ordered to compile
an enlarged official vocabulary of code words, which it is
proposed to recognize as the sole authority for words which
may be used in cypher telegrams sent by the public. (See
Appendix to Postmaster-General's Report, 1897.) See further
TELEGRAPH.
Ten years of state administration of the telegraphs had not
passed before the postmaster-general was threatened with a
formidable rival in the form of the telephone, which
assumed a practical shape about the year 1878, the
first exchange in the United Kingdom being established in
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
the City of London in that year. The history of the telephone
service and the growth of the industry are set out in the, article
TELEPHONE.
POST OFFICE STAFF
The staff of the post office on the 3ist of March 1906 amounted
to 195,432. Of these 41,081 were women, a proportion of over
one-fifth of the staff. The postmasters numbered 875 (in-
cluding 10 employed abroad), and the sub-postmasters 21,027.
preference was given to army, navy and royal marine pensioners,
and men of the army reserve. Due regard was paid to the legitimate
claims of telegraph messengers or other persons who had prospects
of succeeding to these situations. In August 1897 the government
decided to reserve one-half of all suitable vacancies for ex-soldiers
and sailors, as postmen, porters and labourers, and preference
has been shown to them for employment as lift-attendants, care-
takers, &c.
Finance. The following table shows the financial working
of the post office:
Revenue.
Expenditure.
"3 S
2! < ffi
Sites and
J8J
Other
Year.
Postal
Extra
PI
Total
Buildings.
Salaries,
Convey-
Packet
Expenditure.
Total.
Net
Revenue.
Wages, &c.
i'E&
Pur-
^'3
Under
Under
3" c y
P.O.
other
[3 1 "
en rt *O
Votes.
Votes.
1884-1885
1889-1890
1894-1895
1899-1900
7,808,911
9,467,165
10,748,014
13,192,020
382,002
36,279
198,336
218,037
277,446
202,315
8,389,249
9,721,481
11,025,460
13,394,335
72,464
70,900
12,597
"5,294
80,234
79,840
175,390
169,098
150,742
^53,921
188,919
269,092
2,829,210
3,359,563
4.597,355
5,963,399
,154,211
,249,821
.395,282
,474,118
728,413
664,342
729,813
759,307
515,892
553,910
677,524
719,944
136,999
142,788
178,464
213,747
5,668,165
6,275,085
7.955,344
9,683,909
2,721,084
3,446,396
3,070,116
3,710,336
1900-1901
13,776,886
218,584
13,995,470
81,949
175,000
286,238
6,277,275
,516,859
764,804
726,101
236,677
10,064,903
3,930,567
1905-1906
16,823,349
24,363
216,311
17,064,023
7S.7S9
250,127
377,131
7,737,010
,821,758
687,109
604,927
295,I9
11,849,012
5,540,897
The total number of offices (including branch offices) was 22,088.
The unestablished staff, not entitled to pension, made up chiefly
of telegraph boys, and of persons who are employed for only
part of the day on post office business, included 87,753 out f
the grand total, and almost the whole of the sub-postmasters.
The pay and prospects of almost all classes have been greatly
improved since 1884, when the number stood at 91,184. The
principal schemes of general revision of pay have been: 1881,
Fawcett's scheme for sorting-clerks, sorters and telegraphists
(additional cost 210,000 a year), and for postmen, 1882,
110,000: Raikes's various revisions, 1888, chief clerks and
supervising officers, 6230; 1890, sorting-clerks, sorters and
telegraphists, 179,600; 1890, supervising force, 65,000;
1890, London sorters, 20,700; 1891, London overseers, 940;
1891, postmen, 125,650: Arnold Morley, 1884, London
overseers, 1400, and rural auxiliaries, 20,000.
A committee was appointed in June 1895 with Lord Tweedmouth
as chairman, to consider the pay and position of the post office
staff, excluding the clerical force and those employed at head-
quarters. The committee reported on the I5th of December 1896 and
its recommendations were adopted at an immediate increased ex-
pense of 139,000 a year, which . has since risen to 500,000. In
1897 additional concessions were made at a cost of 100,000 a year.
In July 1890 a number of postmen in London went out on
strike. Over 450 were dismissed in one morning, and the work
of the post office was carried on without interruption. The
men received no sympathy from the public, and most of them
were ultimately successful in their plea to be reinstated. A
quasi-political agitation was carried on during the general elec-
tion of 1892 by some of the London sorters, who, under the plea
of civil rights, claimed the right to influence candidates for
parliament by exacting pledges for the promise of parliamentary
support. The leaders were dismissed, and the post office has
upheld the principle that its officers are to hold themselves free
to serve either party in the State without putting themselves
prominently forward as political partisans. Parliament has
been repeatedly asked to sanction a parliamentary inquiry to
reopen the settlement of the Tweedmouth Committee, and
the telegraphists have been especially active in pressing for
a further committee. The rates of pay at various dates since
1 88 1 are set out with great fullness in the Parliamentary papers
(Postmen, No. 237 of 1897; Sorters, Telegraphists, fire., No. 230
of 1898 and Report of the Select Committee on Post Office Servants,
1907; tnis latter contains important recommendations for the
removal of many grievances which the staff had been long
agitating to have removed).
In November 1891 an important change was made in the method
of recruiting postmen, with the object of encouraging military
service, and providing situations for those who after serving in the
army or navy are left without employment at a comparatively
early age. In making appointments to the situation of postman,
POSTAGE STAMPS
For all practical purposes the history of postage stamps begins
in the United Kingdom. A post-paid envelope was in common
use in Paris in the year 1653. Stamped postal letter-paper
(carta postale bollata) was issued to the public by the govern-
ment of the Sardinian States in November 1818, and stamped
postal envelopes were issued by the same government from
1820 until I836. 1 Stamped wrappers for newspapers were made
experimentally in London by Charles Whiting, under the name
of " go-frees," in 1830. Four years later (June 1834), and in
ignorance of what Whiting had already done, Charles Knight,
the well-known publisher, in a letter addressed to Lord Althorp,
then chancellor of the exchequer, recommended similar wrappers
for adoption. From this suggestion apparently Rowland Hill,
who is justly regarded as the originator of postage stamps, got
his idea. Meanwhile, however, the adhesive stamp was made
experimentally by James Chalmers in his printing-office at
Dundee in August i834. 2 These experimental stamps were
printed from ordinary type, and were made adhesive by a wash
of gum. Chalmers had already won local distinction by his
successful efforts in 1822, for the acceleration of the Scottish
mails from London. Those efforts' resulted in a saving of
forty-eight hours on the double mail journey, and were highly
appreciated in Scotland.
Rowland Hill brought the adhesive stamp under the notice of
the commissioners of post office inquiry on the i3th of February
1837. Chalmers made no public mention of his stamp of 1834
until November 1837.
Rowland Hill's pamphlet led to the appointment of a com-
mittee of the House of Commons on the 22nd of November
1837, " to inquire into the rates and modes of charging postage,
with a view to such a reduction thereof as may be made without
injury to the revenue." This committee reported in favour
of Hill's proposals; and an act was passed in 1839, authorizing
the treasury to fix the rates of postage, and regulate the mode
of their collection, whether by prepayment or otherwise. A
premium of 200 was offered for the best, and 100 for the next
best, proposal for bringing stamps into use, having regard to
1 Stamp-Collector's Magazine, v. 161 seq. ; J. E. Gray, Illustrated
Catalogue of Postage Stamps, 6th ed., 167.
2 Patrick Chalmers, Sir Rowland hill and James Chalmers,
Inventor of the Adhesive Stamp (London, 1882), passim. See also
the same writer's pamphlet, entitled The Position of Sir Rowland
Hill made plain (1882), and his The Adhesive Stamp: a Fresh Chapter
in the History of Post-Office Reform (1881). Compare Pearson Hill's
tract, A Paper on Postage Stamps, in reply to Chalmers, reprinted
from the Philatelic Record of November 1881. Pearson Hill has
therein shown conclusively the priority of publication by Sir Rowland
Hill. He has also given proof of James Chalmers's express acknow-
ledgment of that priority. But he has not weakened the evidence
of the priority of invention by Chalmers.
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
191
" (i) the convenience as regards the public use; (2) the security
against forgery; (3) the facility of being checked and distin-
guished at the post office, which must of necessity be rapid;
and (4) the expense of the production and circulation of the
stamps." To this invitation 2600 replies were received, but no
improvement was made upon Rowland Hill's suggestions. A
further Minute, of the 26th of December 1839, announced that
the treasury had decided to require that, as far as practicable,
the postage of letters should be prepaid, and such prepayment
effected by means of stamps. Stamped covers or wrappers,
stamped envelopes, and adhesive stamps were to be issued by
government. The stamps were engraved by Messrs Perkins,
Bacon & Fetch, of Fleet Street, from Hill's designs, and the
Mulready envelopes and covers by Messrs Clowes & Son, of
Blackfriars. The stamps were appointed to be brought into use
on the 6th of May 1840, but they appear to have been issued
to the public as early as the ist of May. The penny stamp,
bearing a profile of Queen Victoria, was coloured black, and
the twopenny stamp blue, with check-letters in the lower
angles (in all four angles from April 1858). Up to the 28th of
January 1854 the stamps were not officially perforated, except
in the session of 1851, when stamps, perforated by a Mr
Archer, were issued at the House of Commons post office. In
1853 the government purchased Archer's patent for 4000.
The. stamps were first water-marked in April 1840.
The canton of Zurich was the first foreign state to adopt postage
stamps, in 1843. The stamps reached America in the same year,
being introduced by the government of Brazil. That of the United
States did not adopt them until 1847; but a tentative issue was
made by the post office of New York in 1845. An adhesive stamp
was also issued at St Louis in the same year, and in Rhode Island
in the next. In Europe the Swiss cantons of Geneva (1844) and of
Basel (1845) soon followed the example set by Zurich. In the
Russian Empire the use of postage stamps became general in 1848
(after preliminary issues at St Petersburg and in Finland in 1845).
France issued them in 1849. The same year witnessed their intro-
duction into Tuscany, Belgium and Bavaria, and also into New
South Wales'. Austria, Prussia, Saxony, Spain, Italy, followed
in 1850. The use of postage stamps seems to have extended to
the Hawaiian Islands (1851?) a year before it reached the Dutch
Netherlands (1852). Within twenty-five years of the first issue
of a postage stamp in London, the known varieties, issued in all
parts of the world, amounted to 1391. Of these 841 were of
European origin, 333 were American, 59 Asiatic, 55 African. The
varieties of stamp issued in the several countries of Oceania were
103. Of the whole 1391 stamps no less than 811 were already
obsolete in 1865, leaving 580 still in currency.
ENGLISH ISSUES
(i.) Line-engraved Stamps.
Halfpenny Stamp. First issue, October i, 1870: size 18 mm.
by 14 mm.; lake-red varying to rose-red.
One Penny Stamp. First issue, 1st (for 6th) May 1840: the
head executed by Frederick Heath, from a drawing by Henry
Corbould of William Wyon's medal struck to commemorate her
majesty's visit to the City of London on the 9th of November 1837:
size 22$ mm. by i8| mm.; black, watermarked with a small crown;
a few sheets in 1841 struck in red, two essays were made in April
and October 1840 in blue and blue-back; imperforate. The
second issue, January 20, 1841, differed only from the first issue
as to colour red instead of black. It is stated l that the colour,
" though always officially referred to as ' red,' was really a red-
brown, and this may be regarded as the normal colour; but con-
siderable variations in tone and shade (brick-red, orange-red, lake-
red) occurred from time to time, often accentuated by the blueing
of the paper, though primarily due to a want of uniformity in the
method employed for preparing the ink." The change of colour
from black was made in order to render the obliteration (now in
black instead of red ink) more distinct; imperforate. Third
issue, February 1854: small crown watermark; perforated 16
(i.e. 16 holes to 2 centimetres). The fourth issue, January 1855,
differed only from the third issue in being perforated 14. Fifth
issue, February 1855: from a new die, with minute variations of
engraving. In the second die the eyelid is more distinctly shaded,
the nostril more curved, and the band round the hair has a thick
dark line forming its lower edge. Small crown watermark; perfor-
ated 16 and 14. Sixth issue, July 1855: large crown watermark;
perforated 14; a certain number 16. Seventh issue, January
1858: carmine-rose varying from pale to very deep. Large crown
watermark; perforated, chiefly 14. Eighth issue, April I, 1864:
1 Wright and Creeke, History of the Adhesive Stamp of the British
Isles available for Postal and Telegraph Purposes (London, 1899).
check-letters in all four corners instead of two only; large crown
watermark; perforated 14.
In 1880 the line-engraved one penny stamps were superseded by
the surface-printed one of similar value in Venetian red, designed
and printed by Messrs De la Rue & Co.
Three- half penny Stamp. October i, 1870: large crown water-
mark; lake-red; perforated 14. Superseded in October 1880 by
De la Rue's surface-printed stamp.
Twopenny Stamp. First issue, 1st (for 6th) May 1840: small
crown watermark; light blue, dark blue; imperforate. Second
issue, March 1841: small crown watermark; white line below
"Postage" and above "Twopence"; dull to dark blue; imper-
forate. Third issue, February (?) 1854: small crown watermark ;
blue, dark blue; perforated 16. Fourth issue, March 1855: small
crown watermark; blue, dark blue; perforated 14. Fifth issue,
July 1855: large crown watermark; blue; perforated 16; blue,
dark blue; perforated 14. Sixth issue, May (?) 1857: large crown
watermark; white lines thinner, blue, dark blue; perforated 14;
dark blue; perforated 16. Seventh issue, July 1858: large crown
watermark; white lines as in fifth issue; deep to very deep blue;
perforated 16. Eighth issue, April (?) 1869: large crown water-
mark; white lines thinner; dull blue, deep to very deep blue,
violet blue; perforated 14. Superseded in December 1880 by De
la Rue's surface-printed stamp.
(ii.) Embossed Stamps.
Produced by Dryden Brothers, of Lambeth, from designs -sub-
mitted by Mr Ormond Hill of Somerset House, engraved after
Wyon's medal.
Sixpence. March i, 1854: violet, reddish lilac, dark violet;
imperforate. Superseded in October 1856 by De la Rue's surface-
printed stamp.
Tenpence. November 6, 1848: pale to very deep chestnut-
brown; imperforate. Superseded by De la Rue's surface-printed
stamp in 1867.
One Shilling. September n, 1847: emerald green, pure deep
green, yellow-green; imperforate. Superseded in November 1856
by De la Rue's surface-printed stamp.
(iii.) Surface-printed Stamps before 1880.
Twopence-half-penny. First issue, July i, 1875: small anchor
watermark; lilac-rose; perforated 14. Second issue, May 1876:
orb watermark; lilac-rose, perforated 14. Third issue, February
5, 1880: orb watermark; cobalt, and some ultramarine; perforated
14. Fourth issue, March 23, 1881: large crown watermark; bright
blue; perforated 14.
Threepence. All perforated 14. First issue, May i, 1862:
heraldic emblems watermark; carmine (pale to deep). Second issue,
March i, 1865: same watermark as above; carmine-pink. Third
issue, July 1867: watermarked with a spray of rose; carmine-
pink, carmine-rose. Fourth issue, July 1873- watermark as third
issue; carmine-rose. Fifth issue, January i, 1881 : watermark large
crown; carmine- rose. Sixth issue, January i, 1883; watermark
as fifth issue; purple shades overprinted with value in deep pink.
Fourpence. AH perforated 14. First issue, July 31, 1855:
watermark small garter; deep and dull carmine. Second issue,
February 1856: watermark medium garter; pale carmine. Third
issue, November i, 1856: watermark medium garter; dull rose.
Fourth issue, January 1857: watermark large garter; dull and
pale to deep rose, pink. Fifth issue, January 15, 1862: water-
mark large garter; carmine- vermilion, vermilion-red. Sixth issue,
July 1865: watermark large garter; pale to dark vermilion. Seventh
issue, March i, 1876: watermark large garter; pale vermilion.
Eighth issue, February 27, 1877: watermark large garter; pale
sage-green. Ninth issue, July 1880: watermark large garter;
mouse-brown. Tenth issue, January i, 1881 : watermark large
crown; mouse-brown.
Sixpence. All perforated 14. First issue, October 21, 1856: no
letters in angles; watermark heraldic emblems; dull lilac. Second
issue, December i, 1862: small white letters in angles; otherwise
as first issue. Third issue, April i, 1865: large white letters in
angles; otherwise as first issue. Fourth issue, June 1867: water-
mark spray of rose; otherwise as third issue; some in bright lilac.
Fifth issue, March 1869: as fourth issue; lilac, deep lilac, purple-
lilac. Sixth issue, April i, 1872: as fourth issue; bright chestnut-
brown. Seventh issue, October 1872: as fourth issue; buff. Eighth
issue, April 1873: as fourth issue; greenish grey. Ninth issue,
April i, 1874: watermarked as fourth issue; large coloured letters in
angles; greenish grey. Tenth issue, January i, 1881: large crown
watermark; otherwise as ninth issue. Eleventh issue, January i,
1883: as tenth issue; purple, overprinted with value in deep
pink.
Eightpence. September n, 1876: watermark large garter;
chrome-yellow, pale yellow; perforated 14.
Ninepence. All perforated 14. First issue, January 15, 1862:
watermark heraldic emblems; ochre-brown, bright bistre. Second
issue, December i, 1865: watermark as above; bistre-brown, straw.
Third issue, October 1867: watermark spray of rose; straw.
Tenpence. July i, 1867: watermark spray of rose; red-brown;
perforated 14.
192
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
One Shitting. AH perforated 14. First issue, November I,
1856: watermark heraldic emblems; no letters in angles; dull
green, pale to dark green. Second issue, December I, 1862: as
above; small white letters in angles; pale to dark green. Third
issue, February 1865: as above; large white letters in angles; pale
to dark green, bluish green. Fourth issue, August 1867: water-
mark spray of rose; otherwise as third issue; pale to dark green,
bluish green. Fifth issue, September 1873: large coloured letters
in angles; otherwise as fourth issue; light to dark green, bluish
green. Sixth issue, October 14, 1880: as fifth issue; pale red-
brown. Seventh issue, June 15, 1881: watermark large crown;
otherwise as sixth issue ; pale red-brown.
Two Shillings. Watermark spray of rose; perforated 14. First
issue, July I, 1867: pale to full blue, very deep blue. Second
issue, February 1880: light brown.
Five Shillings. First issue, July I, 1867: watermarked with
a cross pate; pink, pale rose; perforated 155 by 15. Second issue,
November 1882: watermark large anchor; carmine-pink; perfor-
ated 14.
Ten Shillings. First issue, September 26, 1878: watermark
cross pate; green-grey; perforated 15^ by 15. Secondissue, February
1883 : watermark large anchor; green-grey; perforated 14.
One Pound. First issue, September 26, 1878: watermark cross
pate; brown-violet; perforated 15^ by 15. Secondissue, December
1882 : watermark large anchor; brown-violet; perforated 14.
(iv.) After 1880.
In 1880-1881 the halfpenny, penny, three-halfpenny and two-
penny surface-printed stamps superseded the line-engraved stamps
of the same value, and a new surface-printed stamp of fivepence
was introduced. These stamps are distinguished from the stamps
already described by the absence of plate-numbers and (except
in the penny stamp) of check-letters in the corners; also by the
coarser style of engraving necessary for printing by machines
driven by steam-power.
One Halfpenny. First issue, October 14, 1880: large crown
watermark; pale green, bluish green, dark green; perforated 14.
Second issue, April I, 1884: slate-blue.
One Penny. January I, 1880: large crown watermark; Venetian
red; perforated 14.
Three-halfpence. October 14, 1880: large crown watermark;
Venetian red; perforated 14.
Twopence. December 8, 1880: large crown watermark; pale to
very deep carmine red; perforated 14.
Fivepence. March 15, 1881 : large crown watermark; dark dull
indigo, indigo-black; perforated 14.
The Customs and Inland Revenue Act which came into force
on June I, 1881, made it unnecessary to provide separate penny
stamps for postal and fiscal purposes. By an act of 1882 (45
& 46 Viet. c. 72) it became unnecessary to provide separate stamps
for postal and fiscal purposes up to and including stamps of the
value of 2s. 6d. A new series was therefore issued :
One Penny. All perforated 14. First issue, July 12, 1881 :
large crown watermark; 14 pearls in each angle; purple-lilac, purple.
Second issue, December 12, 1881 : as first issue; 16 pearls in each
angle; purple.
Three-halfpence. April I,. 1884: large crown watermark; purple;
perforated 14.
Twopence. Ditto.
Twopence-halfpenny. Ditto.
Threepence. Ditto.
Fourpence. Ditto, except in colour (sea-green).
Fivepence. As fourpence.
Sixpence. Ditto.
Ninepence. Ditto.
One Shilling. Ditto.
Two Shillings and Sixpence. Jury 22, 1883: watermark large
anchor; purple, dull lilac, dark purple; perforated 14.
Five Shillings. April I, 1884: ditto; pale to very deep carmine.
Ten Shillings. Ditto; pale blue, cobalt, light to dull blue.
One Pound. First issue, April I, 1884: large crown watermark,
3 appearing in each stamp; brown-violet; perforated 14. Second
tssue, January 27, 1891 : same watermark; bright green; perforated
14.
Five Pounds. March 21, 1882: large anchor watermark; orange-
vermilion, vermilion, bright vermilion; perforated 14.
Following upon the report of a committee of officials of the
General Post Office and Somerset House, a series of new stamps,
commonly known as the " Jubilee " issue, was introduced on
January I, 1887, all of which between one halfpenny and one
shilling exclusive were printed either in two colours or on a coloured
paper, so that each stamp was printed in part in one or other of
the doubly fugitive inks green and purple.
One Halfpenny. January I, 1887: large crown watermark;
orange- vermilion to bright vermilion; perforated 14.
Three-halfpence. January I, 1887: as the halfpenny; green
and purple.
Twopence. Ditto : green and scarlet to carmine.
Twopence-halfpenny. January I, 1887: blue paper; watermark
large crown ; dark purple ; perforated 14.
Threepence. January I, 1887: yellow paper; watermarked with
a large crown; purple; perforated 14.
Fourpence. January I, 1887: watermark and perforation as
in threepence; green and brown.
Four pence-half penny. September 15, 1892: as the fourpence;
green and carmine.
Fivepence. January I, 1887: as the fourpence; purple and blue.
Sixpence. January I, 1887: pale red paper; watermarked with
a large crown; purple; perforated 14.
Ninepence. January I, 1887: large crown watermark; purple
and blue; perforated 14.
Tenpence. February 24, 1890: as the ninepence; purple and
carmine-red.
One Shilling. January I, 1887: as the ninepence; green.
The various fiscal stamps admitted to postage uses, the over-
printed official stamps for use by government departments, and
the stamps specially surcharged for use in the Ottoman Empire, do
not call for detailed notice in this article.
The distinctive telegraph stamps are as follows:
One Halfpenny. April I, 1880: shamrock watermark; orange
vermilion; perforated 14.
One Penny. February I, 1876: as the halfpenny; reddish
brown.
Threepence. Perforated 14. First issue, February i, 1876:
watermark spray of rose; carmine. Second issue, August 1881:
watermark large crown; carmine.
Fourpence. March I, 1877: watermark large garter; pale
sage-green; perforated 14.
Sixpence. Perforated 14. First issue, March I, 1877: water-
mark spray of rose; greenish-grey. Second issue, July 1881: as
first issue; watermark large crown.
One Shilling. Perforated 14. First issue, February I, 1876:
watermark spray of rose; green. Second issue, October 1880:
watermark spray of rose; pale red-brown. Third issue, February
1 88 1 : watermark large crown ; pale red brown.
Three Shillings. Perforated 14; slate blue. First issue, March I,
1877: watermark spray of rose. Second issue, August 1881:
watermark large crown.
Five Shillings. First issue, February I, 1876: watermark cross
pate; dark to light rose; perforated 15 by I5j. Second issue,
August 1881: watermark large anchor; carmine-rose; perforated
14.
Ten Shillings. March I, 1877; watermark cross pate; green-
grey; perforated 15 by 15$.
One Pound. March i, 1877: watermark shamrock; brown-
purple; perforated 14.
Five Pounds. March I, 1877: watermark shamrock; orange-
vermilion: perforated isi by 15.
In addition to these, there were stamps specially prepared for
the army telegraphs.
BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES
Australian Commonwealth. In 1905 there were 6654 post
offices open; 311,401,539 letters and cards, 171,844,868 news-
papers, book-packets and circulars, 2,168,810 parcels, and
13,680,239 telegrams were received and despatched; the revenue
was 2,738,146 and the expenditure 2,720,735.
New Zealand. In 1905 there were 1937 post offices open;
74,767,288 letters and cards, 47,334,263 newspapers, book-
packets and circulars, 392,017 parcels, and 5,640,219 telegrams
were dealt with. The revenue from the post office was 410,968,
and from telegraphs 273,911, while the expenditure on the post
office was 302,146 and on telegraphs 276,581.
Dominion of Canada. In 1905 there were 10,879 P st offices
open; 331,792,500 letters and cards, 60,405,000 newspapers,
book-packets and circulars, and 58,338 parcels were received
and despatched. The revenue from the post office amounted
to 1,053,548, and from telegraphs 28,727, while the expendi-
ture was, on the post office 952,652 and on telegraphs 78,934.
Cape of Good Hope. The number of post offices open in 1905
was 1043; 7,596,600 letters and cards, 3,706,960 newspapers,
book-packets and circulars, 536,800 parcels, and 6,045,228
telegrams were dealt with. The revenue from the post office
was 423,056, and from telegraphs 206,842 the expenditure
being, 456,171 on the post office and 272,863 on telegraphs.
British India. In 1905 there were 16,033 post offices open;
597,707,867 letters and cards, 76,671,197 newspapers, book-
packets and circulars, 4,541,367 parcels, and 9,098,345 tele-
grams were dealt with. The revenue from the post office was
1,566,704 and from telegraphs 733,193, while the expenditure
was, on the post office, 1,199,557 and on telegraphs 546,914.
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
193
FRANCE
The French postal system was founded by Louis XI. (June
19, 1464), was largely extended by Charles IX. (1565), and
received considerable improvements at various
periods under the respective governments of
Henry IV. and Louis XIII. (1603, 1622, 1627 seq.). 1
In 1627 France originated a postal money-transmission system,
a system of cheap registration for letters. The postmaster who
thus anticipated modern improvements was Pierre d'Almeras,
a man of high birth, who gave about 20,000 (of modern money)
for the privilege of serving the public. The turmoils of the
Fronde wrecked much that he had achieved. The first farm of
postal income was made in 1672, and by farmers it was adminis-
tered until June 1790. To increase the income postmaster-
ships for a long time were not only sold but made hereditary.
Many administrative improvements of detail were introduced,
indeed, by Mazarin (1643), by Louvois (c. 1680 seq.), and by
Cardinal de Fleury (1728); but many formidable abuses also
continued. The revolutionary government transferred rather
than removed them. Characteristically, it put a board of post-
masters in room of a farming postmaster-general and a con-
trolling one. Napoleon (during the consulate 2 ) abolished the
board, recommitted the business to a postmaster-general as it
had been under Louis XIII., and greatly improved the details
of the service; Napoleon's organization of 1802 is, in substance,
that which now obtains, although, of course, large modifications
and developments have been made from time to time. 8
The university of Paris, as early as the I3th century, pos-
sessed a special postal system, for the abolition of which in the
1 8th it received a large compensation. But it continued to
possess certain minor postal privileges until the Revolution. 4
Mazarin's edict of the 3rd of December 1643 shows that France
at that date had a parcel post as well as a letter post. That edict
creates for each head post office throughout the kingdom three
several officers styled respectively (i) comptroller, (2) weigher,
(3) assessor; and, instead of remunerating them by salary, it
directs the addition of one-fourth to the existing letter rate and
parcel rate, and the division of the surcharge between the three.
Fleury's edicts of 1728 make sub-postmasters directly respon-
sible for the loss of letters or parcels; they also make it necessary
that senders should post their letters at an office, and not give
them to the carriers, and regulate the book-post by directing
that book parcels (whether MS. or printed) shall be open at the
ends. 5 In 1758, almost eighty years after Dockwra's estab-
lishment of a penny post in London, an historian of that city
published an account of it, which in Paris came under the eye
of Claude Piarron de Chamousset, 6 who obtained letters-patent
to do the like, and, before setting to work or seeking profit for
himself, issued a tract with the title, Memoire sur la pctite-poste
etablie a Londres, sur la modele de laquelle on pourrait en etablir de
semblables dans les plus grandes villes d'Europe. The reform
was successfully carried out.
By this time the general post office of France was producing
1 For the details, see Ency. Brit., 8th ed., xviii. 420-424, and
Maxime Du Camp, " L' Administration des Postes," in Revue des
deux mondes (1865), 2nd series, vol. Ixvii. 169 seq.
1 28 Pluyiose, an XII. = the i8th of February 1804.
* Le Quien de la Neufville, Usages des pastes (1730), pp. 59-67,
80, 121-123, 147-149, 286^-291; Maxime du Camp, op. cit. passim;
Pierre Clement, Appreciation des consequences de la refortne
postale, passim: Loret, Gazette rimee (Aug. 16, 1653); Furetiere, Le
Roman Bourgeois (in Du Camp, ut supra); " Die ersten Posteinricht-
ungen, u.s.w., " in L' Union postale, viii. 138; Ordonnances des Rois
de France, as cited by A. de Rothschild, Histoire de la poste-aux-
lettres (yd ed., 1876), i. 171, 216, 269. We quote M. de Rothschild's
clever book with some misgivings. It is eminently sparkling in
style, and most readable; but its citations are so given that one
is constantly in doubt lest they be given at second or even at third
hand instead of from the sources. The essay of M. du Camp is,
up to its date, far more trustworthy. He approaches his subject
as a publicist, M. de Rothschild as a stamp-collector.
4 There are several charters confirmatory of this original privilege.
The earliest of these is of 1296 (Philip " the Fair ").
6 Ordonnances, &c., as above'.
6 There is an interesting biographical notice of Piarron de
Chamousset in Le Journal officiel of July 5, 1875.
xxn. 7
a considerable and growing revenue. In 1676 the farmers had
paid to the king 48,000 in the money of that day. A century
later they paid a fixed rent of 352,000, and covenanted to pay
in addition one^-fifth of their net profits. In 1788 the date
of the last letting to farm of the postal revenue the fixed and
the variable payments were commuted for one settled sum of
480,000 a year. The result of the devastations of the Revolu-
tion and of the wars of the empire together is shown strikingly
by the fact that in 1814 the gross income of the post office was
but little more than three-fifths of the net income in 1788. Six
years of the peaceful government of Louis XVIII. raised the
gross annual revenue to 928,000. On the eve of the Revolution
of 1830 it reached 1,348,000. Towards the close of the next
reign the post office yielded 2,100,000 (gross). Under the
revolutionary government of 1848-1849 it declined again (falling
in 1850 to 1,744,000); under that of Napoleon III. it rose
steadily and uniformly with every year. In 1858 the gross
revenue was 2,296,000, in 1868 3,596,000.
The ingenuity of the French postal authorities was severely
tried by the exigencies of the German War of 1870-71. The
first contrivance was to organize a pigeon service (see
also PIGEON POST), carrying microscopic despatches
prepared by the aid of photographic appliances. 7 The Pofl
number of postal pigeons employed was 363, of which
number fifty-seven returned with despatches. During the height
of the siege the English postal authorities received letters for
transmission by pigeon post into Paris by way of Tours, subject
to the regulations that no information concerning the war was
given, that the number of words did not exceed twenty, that
the letters were delivered open, and that 5d. a word, with a registra-
tion fee of 6d., 8 was prepaid as postage. At this rate the postage
of the 200 letters on each folio was 40, that on the eighteen pellicles
of sixteen folios each, carried by one pigeon, 11,520. Each des-
patch was repeated until its arrival had been acknowledged by
balloon post; consequently many were sent off twenty and some
even more than thirty times. The second step was to establish a
regular system of postal balloons, fifty-one being employed for letter
service and six for telegraphic service. To M. Durnouf belongs
much of the honour of making the balloon service successful. On
the basis of experiments carried out by him a decree of the 26th of
September 1870 regulated the new postal system. Out of sixty-
four several ascents, each costing on the average about 200,
fifty-seven achieved their purpose, notwithstanding the building
by Krupp of twenty guns, supplied with telescopic apparatus,
for the destruction of the postal balloons. Only five were captured,
and two others were lost at sea. The aggregate weight of the letters
and newspapers thus aerially mailed by the French post office
amounted to about eight tons and a half, including upwards of
3,000,000 letters; and, besides the aeronauts, ninety-one passengers
were conveyed. The heroism displayed by the French balloon
postmen was equalled by that of many of the ordinary letter-
carriers in the conveyance of letters through the catacombs and
quarries of Paris and its suburbs, and, under various disguises,
often through the midst of the Prussian army. Several lost their
lives in the discharge of their duty, in some cases saying their
despatches by the sacrifice.* During the war the Marseilles route
for the Anglo-Indian mails was abandoned. They were sent
through Belgium and Germany, by the Brenner Pass to Brindist,
and thence by Italian packets to Alexandria. The French route
was resumed in l872. 10
7 The despatches carried by the pigeons were in the first instance
photographed on a reduced scale on thin sheets of paper, the original
writing being preserved, but after the ascent of the twenty-fifth
balloon leaving the city an improved system was organized. The
communications, whether public despatches, newspapers or private
letters, were printed in ordinary type, and micro-photographed on
to thin films of collodion. Each pellicle measured less than 2 in.
by I, and the reproduction of sixteen folio pages of type contained
above 3000 private letters. These pellic'es were so light that
50,000 despatches, weighing less than i gramme, were regarded as
the weight for one pigeon. In order to ensure their safety during
transit the films were rolled up tightly and placed in a small quill
which was attached longitudinally to one of the tail feathers of
the bird. On their arrival in Paris they were flattened out and
thrown by means of the electric lantern on to a screen, copied by
clerks, and despatched to their destination. This method was
afterwards improved upon, 'Sensitive paper being substituted for
the screen, so that the letters were printed at once and distributed.
8 Seventeenth Report of the Postmaster-General, p. 7.
* Boissay, " La Poste et la telegraphic pendant le si&ge de Paris,"
in Journal des economistes, 3rd series, vol. xxii. pp. 117129 and
pp. 273-282. Cf. Postal Gazette (1883), i. 7.
10 Sixteenth Report of the Postmaster-General, p. 8.
194
The comparative postal statistics for all France during the
years 1900 and 1905 stands thus:
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
1900.
1905-
No.
980,629,000
No.
1,113,090,000
Post-cards
Newspapers, printed matter,
samples, circulars, &c.
Value of money ( French francs
orders . . \ Internatl. ; ,
Value of postal orders .
Receipts \'f
62,591,000
1,390,246,000
1,422,736,000
56,210,000
40,688,000
209,982,000
8,399,000
450,889,000
1,441,713,000
1,834,360,000
73,229,000
54,582,000
261,454,000
10,458,000
The savings banks system of France, so far as it is connected
with the postal service, dates only from 1875, and began then (at
first) simply by the use of post offices as agencies and feeders for
the pre-existing banks. Prior to the postal connexion the aggre-
gate of the deposits stood at 22,920,000. In 1877 it reached
32,000,000. Postal savings banks, strictly so called, began only
during the year 1881. At the close of 1882 they had 210,712
depositors, with an aggregate deposit of 1,872,938 sterling; in
1905 they had 12,134,523 depositors, with an aggregate deposit
of 229,094,155.
The union of the telegraph with the post office dates only
from 1878. The following table gives the figures for 1900 and
1905:
1900.
1905-
Length of line. - ) &
"7,559
73.004
129,826
80,622
Ungthofwire . Sfc--.
388,814
241,453
418,331
259,784
Total gross receipts j rancs '
43,977,000
1,759,000
46,490,000
1,860,000
Number of messages forwarded:
Home service
36,723,000
39,433,000
International
3,374,000
3,686,000
Amount of International tele-
graphic money orders:
From foreign countries to
France . . (Total francs)
6,145,455
10,239,546
From France to foreign
countries . . (Total francs)
6,124,913
4,754,96o
The postal telephonic system began in 1879. The following
table gives the figures for 1901 and 1905:
1901.
1905-
Length of line .
5 kilometres
miles .
30,142
18,718
46,992
29,182
Length of wire
\ kilometres
' J miles .
453,287
281,491
498,389
309,500
Messages
175,340,000
232,727,645
Receipts
( francs .
' ?
17,518,000
701,000
23,495,000
940,000
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. d'Almeras, Reglement sur le port des lettres
(1627); Le Quien de la Neufville, Usages des pastes (1730); Rowland
Hill, Report to the Chancellor of the Exchequer on the French Post
Office (1837); Annuaire des pastes (from 1850- ); M. du Camp,
" De L'administration . . . et de I'h6tel des rJbstes," in Revue
des deux mondes (1865), 3rd series; Revue des pastes et telegraphes
(pub. at various periods); A. de Rothschild, Histoire de la poste-
nux-lettres (1875); " Entwickelung des Post- u. Telegraphenwesens
in Frankreich," in Archiv }. Post. u. Telegraphic (1882); " Die
franzosischen Postsparkassen," and other articles, in L' Union
postale (Berne).
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The Austrian postal system is among the oldest on record.
Vienna possessed a local letter 'post and a parcel post, on the
plan of prepayment, as early as May 1772, at which date no
city in Germany possessed the like. This local post was es-
tablished by a Frenchman (M. Hardy) and managed by a Dutch-
man (Schooten). 1 Thirteen years after its organization it became
merged in the imperial post. The separate postal organizations
of the empire (Austria) and of the kingdom (Hungary) date from
1867. In Austria the post office and the telegraph office are
1 Loeper, "Organisation des postes de ville," in L' Union postale
vii. i seq.
placed under the control of the minister of commerce, in Hun-
gary under that of the minister of public works. The following
table gives the figures for 1900 and 1904:
Austria.
1900.
1904.
Post offices
. .No.
6,895
8-327
Letters and post-cards
ft
1,193,418,000
1,421,107,000
Newspapers
tt
116,000,000
144,986,000
Packet post :
Ordinary packets
kilogs.
37,521,000
44,624,000
Registered packets
kronen
8,043,570,000
8,323-179,000
and letters .
. -
335,148,000
346,799,000
Receipts ....
kronen
. .
107,718,000
4,488,000
123,919,000
5,163,000
Expenses ....
kronen
98,412,000
4,100,000
121,749,000
5,073,000
Hungary.
1900.
1904.
Post offices
No.
4-923
5,097
Letters, newspapers, &c.
487,670,000
584,081,000
Packet post:
Ordinary packets
17,730,000
21,367,000
Packets with de-
clared value and
i korona
r
6,256,900,000
260,704,000
4-936,403,000
205,683,000
money letters
i
Reimbursements and
korona
1,095-591,000
1,253,440,000
money orders .
- .
45,649,000
52,226,000
Postal orders
korona
. .
27,470,000
1,145,000
30,397,000
1,266,000
Receipts ....
korona .
47,103,000
1,962,000
57,067,000
2,378,000
Expenses ....
korona
39,912,000
1,663,000
44,560,000
1,857,000
GERMAN EMPIRE
The Prussian postal system developed mainly by the ability
and energy of Dr Stephan, to whom the organization of the
International Postal Union 2 was so largely indebted, into the
admirably organized post and telegraph office of the empire
began with the Great Elector, and with the establishment in
1646 of a Government post from Cleves to Memel. Frederick II.
largely extended it, and by his successor the laws relating to
it were consolidated. In Strasburg a messenger code existed
as early as 1443. A postal service was organized at Nurem-
berg in 1570. In 1803 the rights in the indemnity-lands
(Entschadigungslander) of the counts of Taxis as hereditary
imperial postmasters were abolished. The first mail steam-
packet was built in 1821; the first transmission of mails by
railway was in 1847; the beginning of the postal administration
of the telegraphs was in 1849; and, by the treaty of postal
union with Austria, not only was the basis of the existing system
of the posts and telegraphs of Germany fully laid, but the germ
was virtually set of the International Postal Union. That
treaty was made for ten years on the 6th of April 1850,
and was immediately accepted by Bavaria. It came into full
operation on the ist of July following, and then included
Saxony, Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Holstein. Other German
states followed; and the treaty was renewed in August 1860.
The following table gives figures for 1900 and 1905:
1900.
1905-
Post offices .... No.
32,135
33,105
Letters received . . .
2,893,555,000
3,855,369,000
Letters and parcels (
received (value j . ,,
10,508,000
10,518,000
declared) . . ( 1000 marks
15,984,425
16,215,800
Parcels received (value not j j
declared) j iN
153,985,000
186,038,000
Postal orders re- ( . .
126,217,209
162,800,261
ceived . . . ( 1000 marks
7,868,860
9,807,934
2 The International Postal Union was founded at Berne in 1874.
All the countries of the world belong to it, with the exception of
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, China, Abyssinia and Morocco. Con-
gresses have been held at Paris (1878), Lisbon (1885), Vienna
(1891), Washington (1897) and Rome (1906).
POST, AND POSTAL SERVICE
Telegraphs. 1
1900.
1905-
Length of line . .{ j^""*
108,500
67,378
"7.738
73."5
of which under- ( kilometres
10,969
11,460
ground . . t miles
6,812
7.H7
Length of wire . { J^'res
424.500
263,614
469,801
291,746
of which under- ( kilometres
49.934
52.014
ground . . ( miles
31.009
32-301
Number of offices open to the
public . . ...
20,768
26,912
Receipts . . . { Marks ;
33.065,590
1,625,724
39,592,009
1,946,607
Number of messages :
Home service
28,643,849
30.275.833
International
12,356,840
15-300,309
1 Exclusive of Wiirttemburg and Bavaria.
Telephones.
1901.
1905-
Length of line . . . miles
59.460
85450
Length of wire . . .
731.174
1,672,415
Number of messages .
766,226,337
1,207,400,000
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Von Beust, Versuch einer ausfuhrlichen Er-
klarung des Postregals, . . . insbesondere in Anschauung d. h. rbm.
Reichs Teutscher Nation (3 vols., Jena, 1747-1748); Avis instructif
au public ... pour la petite paste [de Vienne] (1772); Ueber die
kleine Post in Wien (1780); A. Flegler. Zur Gesch. d. Fasten (1858);
Stephan, Hein. Gesch. d.preuss. Post (1859); Fischer, Die Verkehrs-
anstalten des deutschen Reichs (1873); Von Linde, Haftverbindlichkeit
d. Postanstalt; W. Kompe, Dai Handelsgesetzbuch u. das Postrecht;
Gad, Die Haftpflicht d. d. Postanstalten (1863); Eug. Hartmann,
Entwickelungsgesch. d. Fasten (1868); P. D. Fischer, Die d. Post-
vnd Telegraphie-Gesetzgebung; O. Dambach, Das Gesetz uber das
Postwesen des deutschen Reichs (1881); Archivf. Post u. Telegraphie;
F. X. von Neumann-Spallart, Uebersichten iiber Verkehr in d.
Weltwirthschaft; Deutsche Verkehrszeitung; W. Lenz, Katechismus
d. d. Reichspost.
ITALY
The origin of the Italian post office may be traced virtually
to Venice and to the establishment of the " Corrieri di Venezia "
early in the i6th century. As early as 1818 the Sardinian post
office issued stamped letter-paper. The total number of
letters, newspapers and book-packets conveyed in 1862 was but
i II >7333i9- In I9o there were 7234 post offices; letters con-
veyed amounted to 180,349,449, P os t cards 82,544,547, news-
papers, &c., 301,495,580, samples 9,117,526, official letters,
franked, 46,302,121, postal packets 8,170,988, and registered
letters of a declared value of 12,931,026. The receipts
amounted to 2,429,000 and the expenses to 1,980,000.
UNITED STATES
The early history of the post office in the British colonies in
North America has been referred to above. Benjamin Franklin
was removed by the home department from his office of post-
master-general in America in 1774. On the 26th of July
1775 the American Congress assumed direction of the post
offices, re-appointing Franklin to his former post. Shortly
afterwards, when Fianklin was sent as ambassador to France,
his son-in-law, Richard Bache, was made postmaster-general in
November 1775.
In 1789 the number of post offices was 75; in 1800, 903; in
I 82 S. 5677; in 1875- 35.734; in 1885, 51,252; in 1890, 62,401;
in 1895, 70,064; in 1900, 76,688; and in 1905, 68,131.
The following table gives the financial statements for a num-
ber of years:
Year.
Extent of post
routes in miles.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
J875
1880
1885
1890
1895
1900
"90S
277.873
343,888
365.251
427.991
456,026
500,982
486,805
$26,791,360
33.315.479
42,560,844
60,882,097
76,983,128
102,354.579
152,826,585
$33.611,309
36,542,804
49.533.150
65.930,717
86,790,172
107,740,268
167,399,169
The revenue quoted does not include any allowance for
the large quantity of official matter carried for other public
departments, &c., indeed, the postmaster-general, in his Report
for 1906, estimated that if the due allowance were made it
would add approximately $20,000,000 to the revenue. The post
office department is compelled to carry anything sent under a
penalty frank, and franks are used by all the departments and
their agents for the purpose of carrying everything they choose
to send (Report, postmaster-general, 1893). The expenditure
does not include the amounts certified to the Treasury for
the transportation of mails over aided Pacific railways, or any
allowance for the use of such buildings as are provided by the
government.
Contrary to expectations repeatedly expressed, each year shows
a deficit. This is partly explained by reductions in charges. The
rate of postage on first-class matter was reduced from three cents
to two cents on the 1st of October 1883, and the unit of weight
was increased from half an ounce to one ounce on the 1st of July
1885. On the latter date, also, the postage on second-class matter
was reduced from two cents to one cent per pound. This low rate
has led to wholesale violation of the purpose of the law. In his
report for 1899 Mr Emory Smith, postmaster-general, estimated
that " fully one-half of all the matter mailed as second-class, and
paid for at the pound rate, is not properly second-class within the
intent of the law"; and that the cost of mere transportation of
this wrongly classed matter exceeded the revenue derived from it
by more than $12,000,000 for the year.
Until 1863 the rates of postage were based upon the dis-
tances over which the mails were conveyed. In 1846 these
rates were not exceeding 300 m., three cents; exceeding
300 m., ten cents. In 1851 the rates were reduced to three
cents for distances not exceeding 3000 m. and ten cents for
distances exceeding 3000 m. The use of adhesive postage
stamps was first authorized by act of Congress, approved on
the 3rd of March 1847, and on the ist of June 1856 prepay-
ment by stamps was made compulsory. In 1863 a uniform rate
of postage without regard to distance was fixed at three cents,
and on the ist of October 1883, the rate was further reduced
to two cents, the equivalent of the British penny postage.
All mail matter for distribution within the United States is divided
into four classes. First-class matter includes letters, postal cards,
post cards and anything sealed or closed against inspection. Second-
class matter includes all newspapers and periodicals exclusively
in print that have been " entered as second-class matter," and are
regularly issued at stated intervals as frequently as four times
a year from a known office of publication and mailed by publishers
or newsagents to actual subscribers or to newsagents for sale, and
newspapers and publications of this class mailed by persons other
than publishers. The rates of postage to publishers are one cent
a pound, and to other than publishers, one cent for each four
ounces. Third-class matter includes printed books, pamphlets,
engravings and circulars in print or reproduced by a copying
process. The rate for third-class matter is one cent for each two
ounces. Fourth-class matter is all mailable matter not included
in the three preceding classes which is so prepared for mailing as
to be easily withdrawn from the wrapper and examined. The rate
is one cent for each ounce.
The franking privilege, which had grown to be an intolerable
abuse, was temporarily abolished in 1873, but the post office now
carries free under official " penalty " labels or envelopes (i.e.
envelopes containing a notice of the legal penalty for their un-
authorized use) matter which is of an official character, the
privilege being extended to congressmen and government officials
(see FRANKING). As late as 1860 the mails conveyed nothing but
written and printed matter. They now admit nearly every known
substance which does not exceed four pounds in weight (this re-
striction does not apply to single books), and which from its nature
is not liable to injure the mails or the persons of postal employes.
A delivery system existed in a number of cities of the Union in
1862, the carriers remunerating themselves by the collection of a
voluntary fee of from one to two cents on each piece of mail
delivered. A uniform free delivery system was first authorized
by law on the 3rd of March 1863, and was established on the
succeeding ist of July in forty-nine cities. The number of
carriers employed the first year was 685. On the ist of July
1884 there were 3890 letter-carriers in one hundred and fifty-
nine " free delivery cities."
The free delivery service has grown rapidly. On the ist of July
1901, 866 cities and towns were included in the scheme, and
196
POST AND PAIR POSTER
16,389 letter-carriers were serving a population of 32,000,000.
An extension to rural districts was started in 1896, and by
December 1901, 4,000,000 of the rural population were within
the scope of free delivery. Since the ist of October 1885 a
system has been in force for the immediate delivery by
special messengers of letters, parcels, &c., for addresses within
certain areas. A special ten-cent stamp (or its equivalent) is
required in addition to the ordinary postage.
The registry system did not attain any degree of excellence
until after 1860; and the money-order system was first established
in 1864. The aggregate number of money orders, domestic and
foreign, issued during the fiscal year 1906 was 61,497,861, of the
value of $507,563,719. A step towards the popularization of the
registry system was authorized in December 1899; letter-carriers
in many city districts now accept and register letters at the door
of the householder. Sea post offices for sorting mails during the
Atlantic transit were established in December 1890 on the steamers
of the North German Lloyd and Hamburg-American lines, and later
on the vessels of the International Navigation Company. This
plan effects a saving of from two to fourteen hours in the delivery
of mails from Europe. The issue of " postal notes," commenced
in 1883, was abandoned in 1894. The introduction of " postal
checks " for small fixed amounts has been advocated. A new
postal convention with Canada, removing the former restriction
against sending merchandise, came into force on the 1st of March
1888. Uniformity of postage rates having been previously estab-
lished, the United States and Canada became virtually one postal
territory.
A convention for an exchange of parcels with Jamaica, admitting
articles not exceeding 1 1 Ib, was agreed to in 1887; and since
then conventions on similar lines have been concluded with other
colonies and countries in America. The first arrangement of
the kind with any European country was made with Germany,
and came into operation on the 1st of October 1899. The postal
laws, regulations and domestic conditions of the United States
have been extended, by act of Congress, to Porto Rico and Hawaii.
The " island possessions " (Guam, the Philippine Archipelago and
Tutuila) have also been brought within the scope of the domestic
conditions, including the rates of postage. The service introduced
into Cuba, though modelled on the American plan, is practically
autonomous.
Telegraphs. The formation of a postal telegraph system has
continued to be a subject of discussion by the postmasters-
general. In his report for the year 1888 D. M. Dickinson pro-
posed the appointment of an expert commission authorized
to erect short experimental lines. His successor, John Wana-
maker, for four years vigorously advocated a limited postal
telegraph service. Under this proposal, contracting telegraph
companies were to furnish lines, instruments and operators, and
to transmit messages at rates fixed by the government; the
department was to receive a small sum per message, to cover
its expenses in collection and delivery. In 1894 Mr Bissell
expressed the opinion that a government system would be
unprofitable and inexpedient.
Savings Banks. The establishment of postal savings banks
was also recommended by Mr Wanamaker in his reports for the
years 1889 to 1892, and by J. A. Gary in 1897. What is regarded
as a step in this direction was taken in 1898, when the postal
regulations were modified to allow money orders to be made
payable at the office of issue, a " mild and very convenient
adaptation of the European savings bank system, without the
payment of interest" (Mr Emory Smith). Finally in 1910 a
system of postal savings banks was authorized by Congress.
AUTHORITIES. Postmaster-General's Annual Reports: Joyce,
History of the British Post Office (1893); J. Wilson Hyde, The Post
in Grant and Farm (1894); A. H. Norway, History of the Packet
Service (1895); F. E. Baines, Forty Years at the Post Office (1895);
Raikes, Life of Rt. Hon. H. C. Raikes (1898); L' Union postale
universelle, sa fondation et son developpement (Lausanne, 1900) ;
memoire publie par le bureau international a 1'occasion de la
celebration du xxv me anniversaire de 1'union 2-5 juillet 1900; Sta-
tistique generate du service postal (Bern); Statistique generate de la
telegraphie (Bern).
The various postal and telegraph rates and regulations of the
United Kingdom appear in the quarterly Post Office Guide (price 6d.).
For the United States, see the U.S. Official Postal Guide.(T- A. I.)
POST AND PAIR, a card game popular in the i6th and i7th
centuries. A hand consisted of three cards, a pair royal ranking
highest, or failing this, the highest pair. Another name of the
game was Pink.
POSTER, a placard in the form either of letterpress or
illustration, for posting up or otherwise exhibiting in public to
attract attention to its contents. According to Brewer's
Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, before the Fire f>f London the rails
and posts which protected foot-passengers in the streets were
used for affixing theatrical and other announcements, whence
the name of posting-bills or posters; and in later times the name
has come more generally into use for any fairly large separate
sheet, illustrated or not, used to attract publicity, even though
not actually posted up. In the article ADVERTISEMENTS the
use of posters is discussed, and newspaper posters (or contents
bills) under NEWSPAPERS. But the illustrated poster has come
to represent a special form of artistic design.
The earliest examples of pictorial posters were adorned with
rough woodcuts. When lithography became a common commercial
process, wood-blocks ceased to be employed. The modern artistic
poster made a definite beginning in France about 1836, with a
design by Lalance to advertise a book entitled Comment meurent
les femmes. His example was followed by C. Nanteuil, D. A. M.
Raffet, Gavarni, Bertrand, Grandville, Tony Johannot, E. de
Beaumont, T. H. Frere, Edouard Manet and other artists of high
repute. Most of these early designs were printed in black on white
or tinted paper. Between 1860 and 1866 crude attempts at print-
ing posters in colours were made in both France and England.
In 1866 Jules Cheret began what was destined to be the most
noticeable series of pictorial placards in existence, a series containing
over a thousand items. Cheret was originally employed in a litho-
graphic establishment in England before he began to work for him-
self, and he used his knowledge there acquired to adapt all three
primary colours, economically used, to astonishingly brilliant ends.
For a considerable time he remained without a rival, though he
had hosts of imitators. Eugene Grasset, a decorative designer
of great versatility, produced the first of a small number of placards
which, though inferior as advertisements to those of Cheret, were
learned and beautiful decorations. Somewhat later a sensation
was caused in Paris by the mordantly grotesque posters of Henri
de Toulouse-Lautrec, in which the artist reduced detail to a mini-
mum and obtained bold effects by the employment of large masses
of flat colour. Important work, similar in character to Lautrec's,
was produced by Ibels, Bonnard, T. A. Steinlen and others. A new
and contrary direction was given to poster design by Mucha, a
Hungarian resident in Paris, whose placards are marked by delicate
colour and richness of detail. The following are amongst French
artists who have designed posters of conspicuous merit: J. L.
Forain, Willette, Paleologue, Sinet, Jossot, Roedel, Mayet, Cazals,
Biais, De Feure, A. Guillaume, Ranft, Realier-Dumas, F. Valloton
and Metivet. Occasionally eminent French painters, such as
Carriere, Boutet de Monvel, Aman-Jean, Schwabe, have made
essays in poster-designing.
In England the first artists of repute to attempt the pictorial
placard were Godfrey Durand and Walter Crane; but the first
bill to attract widespread attention was one by Fred Walker to
advertise a dramatized version of The Woman in White (1871).
This was engraved on wood by W. H. Hooper. Shortly after this
time pictures by Royal Academicians and others began to be re-
produced as advertisements (the best-known case 'being that of
Sir John Millais's " Bubbles "), but these have nothing directly
to do with poster-designing. Stacy Marks, Hubert von Herkomer
(the great poster for the Magazine of Art), Sir Edward Poynter
and Sir James Linton are among popular painters who have made
special drawings for reproduction as posters.
About 1894 the English poster began to improve. Designs by
Aubrey Beardsley for the Avenue Theatre, by Dudley Hardy for
various plays, and by Maurice Greiffenhagen for The Pall Mall
Budget, were widely noticed by reason of their originality, sim-
plicity and effectiveness. Simplicity was carried even farther by
" the Beggarstaff Brothers " (James Pryde and William Nicholson),
whose posters are perhaps the most original yet produced by
Englishmen. Among other British designers the following have
executed artistic and interesting placards: Frank Brangwyn,
R. Anning Bell, John Hassall, Cecil Aldin, Phil May, Leonard
Raven-Hill, Henry Harland, Robert Fowler, Wilson Steer, Charles
R. Mackintosh, MacNair and MacDonald, Edgar Wilson, Charles
I. Foulkes, Mabel Dearmer, Albert Morrow and C. Wilhelm.
Poster design on the continent of Europe has been largely influ-
enced by French work, but designs of much originality have been
made in Germany, Belgium, Italy and Spain. In Germany,
among the most typical posters are those of Saltier, Otto Fischer,
Gysis, T. T. Heine, Speyer, Max Klinger, Dasio, Hofxnann and
L. Zumbrusch. The principal Belgian designers include Priyat
Livempnt, Rassenfosse, Berchmans, Meunier, Duyck and Crespin,
V. Mignot, Donnay, Evenepoel, Cassiers and Toussaint. Of
Italian designers those whose work is most characteristic arc Mata-
loni and Hohenstein; while the best Spanish posters those to
advertise bull-fights and fairs are mostly anonymous. The
Spanish artists Utrillo and Casas have signed posters of more than
POSTERN POTASSIUM
197
ordinary merit. Curious if not very artistic bills have been pro-
duced in Russia ; and in Austria good work has been done by Orlik,
Schliessmann, Oliva and Hynais.
In the United States of America, however, with the exception
of some designs by Matt Morgan, few posters of artistic interest
were produced before 1889, in which year Louis I. Khc.nl commenced
a notable series of decorative placards. Will H. Bradley began
to produce his curious decorative grotesque posters a little later.
If American artists are behind Europeans in the artistic designing
of large posters they have no rivals in the production of small
illustrated placards for publishers of books and magazines. Chief
among those who have devoted themselves to this branch of poster
design is Edward Penfield. Others who have achieved success
in it include Maxfield Parrish, Ethel Reed, Will Carqueville, J. J.
Gould, J. C. Leyendecker, Frank Hazenplug, Charles Dana Gibson,
Will Denslow, Florence Lundbourg and Henry Mayer.
Inhibitions of artistic posters have been held in the chief cities
of ICurope and America, and the illustrated placard has already
a literature of its own. In England a monthly magazine (The
Poster) was for a time specially devoted to its interests, and col-
lectors are numerous and enthusiastic.
See Ernest Maindron, Les Affiches illustrees (Paris, 1895); Les
Maitres de I'affiche (Paris) ; Les Affiches etrangeres Mustrees (Belgium,
Austria, Great Britain, United States, Germany and Japan) (Paris,
1897); Charles Hiatt, Picture Posters (London, 1895); J. L. Spousel,
Das Moderne Plakat (Dresden, 1897); Arsene Alexandre, M. H.
Spielmann, H. C. Bunner and A. Jaccacci, The Modern Poster
(New York, 1895). (C. Hi.)
POSTERN (from O. Fr. posterne, posterle, Late Lat. posterula,
small back-door, posterns, behind), a small gateway in the
enceinte of a castle, abbey, &c., from which to issue and enter
unobserved. They are often called "sally ports." (See GATE.)
POSTHUMOUS, that which appears or is produced after the
author or creator, and thus applied to a literary work or
work of art published or produced after its author's death,
or especially to a child born after the death of its father.
The Latin postumus, latest, last, from which the word is
derived, is formed from post, after, but it was in Late Latin
connected with humare, to place in the ground (humus), to
bury.
POSTICHE, a French term for a pretentious imitation, a
counterfeit, particularly used of an inartistic addition to an
otherwise perfect work of art. The French word was adapted
from the Italian pasticcio, from Latin positus, placed, added.
POSTIL, or APOSTIL, properly a gloss on a scriptural text,
particularly on a gospel text, hence any explanatory note on
other writings. The word is also applied to a general commen-
tary, and also to a homily or discourse on the gospel or epistle
appointed for the day. The word in Medieval Latin was postilla,
and this has been taken to represent post ilia sc. verba textus,
i.e. " after these words of the text " (see Du Cange, Glossarium,
s.v. postillae), but the form " apostil " may point to the Latin
appositum, placed near or next to.
POSTILION (through the Fr. from the Ital. posliglione) ,
a postboy, rider of a post-horse, hence any swift messenger,
but more particularly the rider of the near horse of a vehicle
drawn by two or more horses where there is no driver. The
swift travelling postchaises of the i8th and early igth centuries
were usually driven by postilions.
POSTUMIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of northern Italy,
constructed in 148 B.C. by the consul Spurius Postumius Albinus.
It ran from the coast at Genua through the mountains to
Dertona, Placentia (the termination of the Via Aemilia Lepidi)
and Cremona, just east of the point where it crossed the Po.
From Cremona the road ran eastward to Bedriacum, where it
forked, one branch running to the left to Verona and thence
to the Brenner, the other to the right to Mantua, Altinum and
Aquileia. The military occupation of Liguria depended upon
this road, and several of the more important towns owed their
origin largely to it. Cremona was its central point, the distances
being reckoned from it both eastwards and westwards.
(T. As.)
POSY (a shortened form of poesy, Fr. pofsie, poetry), a
verse of poetry or a motto, either with a moral or religious
sentiment or message of love, often inscribed in a ring or sent
with a present, such as a bouquet of flowers, which may be the
origin of the common use of the word for a nosegay or bouquet.
It has been suggested that this use is due to the custom of the
symbolic use of flowers. Skeat quotes the title of a tract (Heber's
MSS. No. 1442), " A new yeare's guifte, or a posie made upon
certen flowers," &c. " Posy rings," plain or engraved gold
rings with a " posy " inscribed on the inside of the hoops, were
very frequently in use as betrothal rings from the i6th to the
i8th centuries. Common " posies " were such lines as " In
thee my choice I do rejoice," " As God decreed so we agreed,"
and the like. There are several rings of this kind in the British
Museum.
POTASHES, the crude potassium carbonate obtained by
lixiviating wood ashes and evaporating the solution to dryness,
an operation at one time carried out in iron pots hence the
name from " pot " and " ashes." The term potash or caustic
potash is frequently used for potassium hydroxide, whilst such
a phrase as sulphate of potash is now appropriately replaced by
potassium sulphate. (See POTASSIUM.)
POTASSIUM [symbol K (from kalium), atomic weight 39-114
O=i6)], a metallic chemical element, belonging to the group
termed the metals of the alkalis. Although never found free
in nature, in combination the metal is abundantly and widely
distributed. In the oceans alone there are estimated to be
H4IXI0 12 tons of sulphate, KjSCU, but this inexhaustible store
is not much drawn upon; and the "salt gardens" on the coast
of France lost their industrial importance as potash-producers
since the deposits at Stassfurt in Germany have come to be
worked. These deposits, in addition to common salt, include the
following minerals: sylvine, KC1; carnallite, KCl-MgCl 2 -6H 2 O
(transparent, deliquescent crystals, often red with diffused
oxide of iron); kainite, K 2 SO 4 -MgSO 4 -MgCl26H 2 (hard
crystalline masses, permanent in the air) ; kieserite MgSCvH 2 O
(only very slowly dissolved by water); besides polyhalite,
MgSO 4 -K 2 SO 4 -2CaSO 4 -2H 2 O anhydrite, CaSO 4 ; salt, NaCl, and
some minor components. These potassium minerals are not con-
fined to Stassfurt; larger quantities of sylvine and kainite are
met with in the salt mines of Kalusz in the eastern Carpathian
Mountains. The Stassfurt minerals owe their industrial import-
ance to their solubility in water and consequent ready amenability
to chemical operations. In point of absolute mass they are
insignificant compared with the abundance and variety of potas-
siferous silicates, which occur everywhere in the earth's crust ;
orthoclase (potash felspar) and potash mica may be quoted as
prominent examples. Such potassiferous silicates are found in
almost all rocks, both as normal and as accessory components;
and their disintegration furnishes the soluble potassium salts
which are found in all fertile soils. These salts are sucked up by
the roots of plants, and by taking part in the process of nutrition
are partly converted into oxalate, tartrate, and other organic
salts, which, when the plants are burned, are converted into the
carbonate, K 2 CO 3 . It is a remarkable fact that, although in a
given soil the soda-content may predominate largely over the
potash salts, the plants growing in the soil take up the latter:
in the ashes of most land plants the potash (calculated as K 2 O)
forms upwards of 90% of the total alkali. The proposition
holds, in its general sense, for sea plants likewise. In ocean
water the ratio of soda (NajO) to potash (K 2 O) is 100:3-23
(Dittmar); in kelp it is, on the average, too: 5-26 (Richardson).
Ashes particularly rich in potash are those of burning nettles,
wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), tansy (Tanacetum vulgare),
fumitory (Fumaria officinalis), and tobacco. In fact, the ashes
of herbs generally are richer in potash than those of the trunks
and branches of trees; yet, for obvious reasons, the latter are
of greater industrial importance as sources of potassium car-
bonate. According to Liebig, potassium is the essential alkali
of the animal body; and it may be noted that sheep excrete
most of the potassium which they take from the land as sweat,
one-third of the weight of raw merino consisting of potassium
compounds.
To Sir Humphry Davy belongs the merit of isolating this
element from potash, which itself had previously been considered
an element. On placing a piece of potash on a platinum plate,
connected to the negative of a powerful electric battery, and
198
POTASSIUM
bringing a platinum wire, connected to the positive of the
battery, to the surface of the potassium a vivid action was
observed: gas was evolved at the upper surface of the
fused globule of potash, whilst at the lower surface, adjacent
to the platinum plate, minute metallic globules were formed,
some of which immediately inflamed, whilst others merely
tarnished. In 1808 Gay-Lussac and Thenard (Ann. chim.
65, P- 3 2 5) obtained the metal by passing melted potash
down a clay tube containing iron turnings or wire heated to
whiteness, and Caradau (ibid. 66, p. 97) effected the same
decomposition with charcoal at a white heat. This last process
was much improved by Brunner, Wo'hler, and especially by
F. M. L. Donny and J. D. B. Mareska (Ann. Mm. phys., 1852,
(3)> 35> P- I 47)- Brunner's process consisted in forming an
intimate mixture of potassium carbonate and carbon by igniting
crude tartar in covered iron crucibles, cooling the mass, and then
distilling it at a white heat from iron bottles, the vaporized
metal being condensed beneath the surface of paraffin or naphtha
contained in a copper vessel. It was found, however, that if
the cooling be not sufficiently rapid explosions occurred owing
to the combination of the metal with carbon monoxide (produced
in the oxidation of the charcoal) to form the potassium salt
of hexaoxybenzene. In Mareska and Donny's process the con-
densation is effected in a shallow iron box, which has a large
exposed surface, capable of being cooled by damped cloths.
When the distillation is finished the iron box, after cooling, is
undamped and the product turned out beneath the surface of
paraffin. It is purified by redistilling and condensing directly
under paraffin. Electrolytic processes have also been devised.
Linnemann (Journ. Prak. Chem., 1858, 73, p. 413) obtained the
metal on a small scale by electrolysing potassium cyanide between
carbon electrodes; A. Matthiessen (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1856,
p. 30) electrolysed an equimolecular mixture of potassium and
calcium chlorides (which melts at a lower temperature than
potassium chloride) also between carbon electrodes; whilst
Castner's process, in which caustic potash is electrolysed, is
employed commercially. The metal, however, is not in great
demand, for it is generally found that sodium (q.v.), which is
cheaper, and, weight for weight, more reactive, will fulfil any
purpose for which potassium may be desired.
Pure potassium is a silvery white metal tinged with blue;
but on exposure to air it at once forms a film of oxide, and on
prolonged exposure deliquesces into a solution of hydrate and
carbonate. Perfectly dry oxygen, however, has no action upon
it. At temperatures below o C. it is pretty hard and brittle;
at the ordinary temperature it is so soft that it can be kneaded
between the fingers and cut with a blunt knife. Its specific
gravity is 0-865; hence it is the lightest metal known except
lithium. It fuses at 62-5C. (Bunsen) and boils at 667,
emitting an intensely green vapour. It may be obtained
crystallized in quadratic octahedra of a greenish-blue colour,
by melting in a sealed tube containing an inert gas, and inverting
the tube when the metal has partially solidified. When heated
in air it fuses and then takes fire, burning into a mixture
of oxides. Most remarkable, and characteristic for the group
it represents, is its action on water. A pellet of potassium
when thrown on water at once bursts out into a violet flame
and the burning metal fizzes about on the surface, its extremely
high temperature precluding absolute contact with the liquid,
exceot at the very end, when the last remnant, through loss of
temperature, is wetted by the water and bursts with explosive
violence. The reaction may be written 2K+ 2H 2 O = 2KOH+H 2 ,
and the flame is due to the combustion of the hydrogen, the
violet colour being occasioned by the potassium vapour. The
metal also reacts with alcohol to form potassium ethylate,
while hydrogen escapes, this time without inflammation:
K+C 2 H 6 -OH = C 2 H 5 -OK-|-H. When the oxide-free metal is
heated gently in dry ammonia it is gradually transformed into a
blue liquid, which on cooling freezes into a yellowish-brown or
flesh-coloured solid, potassamide, KNH 2 . When heated to redness
the amide is decomposed into ammonia and potassium nitride,
NKj, which is an almost black solid. Both it and the amide
decompose water readily with formation of ammonia and caustic
potash. Potassium at temperatures from 2ooto 4ooC. occludes
hydrogen gas, the highest degree of saturation corresponding
approximately to the formula K 2 H. In a vacuum or in suffi-
ciently dilute hydrogen the compound from 200 upwards loses
hydrogen, until the tension of the free gas has arrived at the
maximum value characteristic of that temperature (Troost
and Hautefeuille).
Compounds.
Oxides and Hydroxide. Potassium forms two well-defined oxides,
K 2 O and K 2 O<, whilst several others, of less certain existence,
have been described. The monoxide, K 2 O, may be obtained by
strongly heating the product or burning the metal in slightly
moist air; by heating the hydroxide with the metal: 2KHO+2K =
2K 2 O+H 2 ; or by passing pure and almost dry air over the molten
metal (Kuhnemann, Chem. Centr., 1863, p. 491). It forms a grey
brittle mass, having a conchoidal fracture; it is very deliquescent,
combining very energetically with water to form caustic potash.
According to Holt and Sims (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1894, p. 438), the
substance as obtained above always contains free potassium.
Potassium hydroxide or caustic potash, KOH, formerly considered
to be an oxide but shown subsequently to be a hydroxide of potas-
sium, may be obtained by dissolving the metal or monoxide in water,
but is manufactured by double decomposition from potassium
carbonate and slaked lime: K 2 CO 3 +Ca(OH) 2 =2KOH+CaCO s .
A solution of one part of the carbonate in 12 parts of water is heated
to boiling in a cast-iron vessel (industrially by means of steam-
pipes) and the milk of lime added in instalments until a sample
of the filtered mixture no longer effervesces with an excess of acid.
The mixture is then allowed to settle in the iron vessel, access of
air being prevented as much as practicable, and the clear liquor is
syphoned off. The remaining mud of calcium carbonate and hydrate
is washed, by decantation, with small instalments of hot water
to recover at least part of the alkali diffused throughout it, but this
process must not be continued too long or else some of the lime
passes into solution. The liquors after a concentration in iron
vessels are now evaporated in a silver dish, until the heavy vapour
of the hydrate is seen to go off. The residual oily liquid is then
poured out into a polished iron tray, or into an iron mould to pro-
duce the customary form of " sticks," and allowed to cool. The
solid must be at once bottled, because it attracts the moisture
and carbonic acid of the air with great avidity and deliquesces.
According to Dittmar (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., May 1884), nickel
basins are far better adapted than iron basins for the preliminary
concentration of potash ley. The latter begin to oxidize before
the ley has come up to the traditional strength of specific gravity
I -333 when cold, while nickel is not attacked so long as the percent-
age of real KHO is short of 60. For the fusion of the dry hydrate
nickel vessels cannot be used; in fact, even silver is perceptibly
attacked as soon as all the excess of water is away; absolutely pure
KHO can be produced only in gold vessels. Glass and (to a less
extent) porcelain are attacked by caustic potash ley, slowly in the
cold, more readily on boiling.
Solid caustic potash forms an opaque, white, stone-like mass
of dense granular fracture; specific gravity 2'l. It fuses consider-
ably below and is perceptibly volatile at a red heat. At a white
heat the vapour breaks down into potassium, hydrogen and oxygen.
It is extremely soluble in even cold water, and in any proportion
of water on boiling. On crystallizing a solution, the hydrate
KOH-2H 2 O is deposited; 2KOH-9H 2 O and 2KOH-sH 2 O have also
been obtained. The solution is intensely " alkaline " to test-
papers. It readily dissolves the epidermis of the skin and many
other kinds of animal tissue hence the former application of the
" sticks " in surgery. A dilute potash readily emulsionizes fats, and
on boiling saponifies them with formation of a soap and glycerin.
All commercial caustic potash is contaminated with excess of water
(over and above that in the KHO) and with potassium carbonate
and chloride; sulphate, as a rule, is absent. A preparation sufficing
for most purposes is obtained by digesting the commercial article
in absolute alcohol, decanting and evaporating the solution to
dryness and fusing in silver vessels.
The peroxide, K 2 p 4 , discovered by Gay-Lussac and Thnard,
is obtained by heating the metal in an excess of slightly moist
air or oxygen. Vernon Harcourt (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1862, p. 267)
recommends melting the. metal in a flask filled with nitrogen and
gradually displacing this gas by oxygen; the first formed grey
film on the metal changes to a deep blue, and then the gas is rapidly
absorbed, the film becoming white and afterwards yellow. It is
a dark yellow powder, which fuses at a high temperature, the
liquid on cooling depositing shining tabular crystals; at a white
heat it loses oxygen and yields the monoxide. Exposed to moist
air it loses oxygen, possibly giving the dioxide, K 2 O 2 ; water reacts
with it, evolving much heat and giving caustic potash, hydrogen
peroxide and oxygen; whilst carbon monoxide gives potassium
carbonate and oxygen at temperatures below 100. A violent
reaction ensues with phosphorus and sulphur, and many metals
are oxidized by it, some with incandescence.
POTASSIUM
199
Halogen Compounds. Potassium fluoride, KF, is a very deliques-
cent salt, crystallizing in cubes and having a sharp saline taste,
which is formed by neutralizing potassium carbonate or hydroxide
with hydrofluoric acid and concentrating in platinum vessels.
It forms the acid fluoride KHFj when dissolved in aqueous hydro-
fluoric acid, a salt which at a red heat gives the normal fluoride
and hydrofluoric acid. Other salts of composition KF-2HF and
KF-3HF, have been described by Moissan (Compt. rend., 1888,
106, p. 547).
Potassium chloride, KC1, also known as muriate of potash,
closely resembles ordinary salt. It is produced in immense quantities
at Stassfurt from the so-called " Abraumsalze." For the purpose
of the manufacturer of this salt these are assorted into a raw
material containing approximately, in 100 parts, 55-65 of carnallite
(representing 16 parts of potassium chloride), 20-25 of common
salt, 15-20 of kieserite; 2-^4 of tachhydrite (CaCl 2 -2MgCl 2 -l2H 2 O),
and minor components. This mixture is now wrought mainly in
two ways, (i) The salt is dissolved in water with the help of
steam, and the solution is cooled down to from 60 to 70, when
a quantity of impure common salt crystallizes out, which is removed.
The decanted ley deposits on standing a 70% potassium chloride,
which is purified by washing with cold water. Common salt
principally goes into solution, and the percentage may thus be
brought up to from 80 to 95. The mother-liquor from the 70%
chloride is evaporated, the common salt which separates out in the
heat removed as it appears, and the sufficiently concentrated
liquor allowed to crystallize, when almost pure carnallite separates
out, which is easily decomposed into its components (see infra).
(2) Ziervogel and Tuchen's method. The crude salt is ground up
and then heated in a concentrated solution of magnesium chloride
with agitation. The carnallite principally dissolves and crystal-
lizes out relatively pure on cooling. The mother-liquor is used for
a subsequent extraction of fresh raw salt. The carnallite produced
is dissolved in hot water and the solution allowed to cool, when it
deposits a coarse granular potassium chloride containing up to.
99 % of the pure substance. The undissolved residue produced
in either process consists chiefly of kieserite and common salt.
It is worked up either for Epsom salt and common salt, or for
sodium sulphate and magnesium chloride. The potassiferous
by-products are utilized for the manufacture of manures.
Chemically pure chloride of potassium is most conveniently
prepared from the pure perchlorate by heating it in a platinum basin
at the lowest temperature and then fusing the residue in a well-
covered platinum crucible. The fused product solidifies on cooling
into a colourless glass.
When hydrochloric acid gas is passed into the solution the
salt is completely precipitated as a fine powder. If the original
solution contained the chlorides of magnesium or calcium or sulphate
of potassium all impurities remain in the mother-liquor (the
sulphur as KHSCh), and can be removed by washing the precipitate
with strong hydrochloric acid. The salt crystallizes in cubes of
specific gravity 1.995; '* melts at about 800 and volatilizes at a
bright red heat. When melted in a current of hydrogen or electro-
lysed in the same condition, a dark blue mass is obtained of uncer-
tain composition. It is extensively employed for the preparation
of other potassium salts, but the largest quantity (especially of the
impure product) is used in the production of artificial manures.
Potassium bromide, KBr, may be obtained by dissolving bromine
in potash, whereupon bromide and bromate are first formed, evapor-
ating and igniting the product in order to decompose the bromate:
6KHO + 3Br 2 = sKBr + KBrO, + 3H 2 O; 2KBrO 8 = 2KBr + 30,
(cf. CHLORATES) ; but it is manufactured by acting with bromine
water on iron filings and decomposing the iron bromide thus formed
with potassium carbonate. In appearance it closely resembles
the chloride, forming colourless cubes which readily dissolve in
water and melt at 722. It combines with bromine to form an
unstable tribromide, KBrs (see F. P. Worley, Journ. Chem. Soc.,
1905, 87, p. 1 107).
Potassium iodide, KI, is obtained by dissolving iodine in potash,
the deoxidation of the iodate being facilitated by the addition
of charcoal before ignition, proceeding as with the bromide. The
commercial salt usually has an alkaline reaction ; it may be purified
by dissolving in the minimum amount of water, and neutralizing
with dilute sulphuric acid; alcohol is now added to precipitate the
potassium sulphate, the solution filtered and crystallized. It
forms colourless cubes which are readily soluble in water, melt
at 685, and yield a vapour of normal density. It is sparingly
soluble in absolute alcohol. Both the iodide and bromide are
used in photography. Iodine dissolves in an aqueous solution
of the salt to form a dark brown liquid, which on evaporation
over sulphuric acid gives black acicular crystals of the tn-iodide,
KI 3 . This salt is very deliquescent; it melts at 45, and at 100
decomposes into iodine and potassium iodide. For the oxy-
halogen salts see CHLORATE, CHLORINE, BROMINE and IODINE.
Potassium carbonate, K 2 COs, popularly known as " potashes,"
was originally obtained in countries where wood was cheap by
lixiviating wood ashes in wooden tubs, evaporating the solution
to dryness in iron pots and calcining the residue; in more recent
practice the calcination is carried out in reverberatory furnaces.
This product, known as " crude potashes," contains, in addition
to carbonate, varying amounts of sulphate and chloride and also
insoluble matter. Crude potash is used for the manufacture of
glass, and, after being causticized, for the making of soft soap.
For many other purposes it must be refined, which is done by
treating the crude product with the minimum of cold water re-
quired to dissolve the carbonate, removing the undissolved part
(which consists chiefly of sulphate), and evaporating the clear
liquor to dryness in an iron pan. The purified carbonate (which
still contains most of the chloride of the raw material and other
impurities) is known as " pearl ashes." Large quantities of carbon-
ate used to be manufactured from the aqueous residue left in the
distillation of beet-root spirit, i.e. indirectly from beet-root molasses.
The liquors are evaporated to dryness and the residue is ignited to
obtain a very impure carbonate, which is purified by methods
founded on the different solubilities of the several components.
Most of the carbonate which now occurs in commerce is made from
the chloride of the Stassfurt beds by an adaptation of the " Leblanc
process " for the conversion of common salt into soda ash (see
ALKALI MANUFACTURE).
Chemically pure carbonate of potash is best prepared by igniting
pure bicarbonate (see below) in iron or (better) in silver or platinum
vessels, or else by calcining pure cream of tartar. The latter opera-
tion furnishes an intimate mixture of the carbonate with charcoal,
from which the carbonate is extracted by lixiviation with water
and filtration. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness (in iron or
platinum vessels) and the residue fully dehydrated by gentle
ignition. The salt is thus obtained as a white porous mass, fusible
at a red heat (838 C., Carnelley) into a colourless liquid, which
solidifies into a white opaque mass. The dry salt is very hygro-
scopic; it deliquesces into an oily solution ("oleum tartari ) in
ordinary air. The most saturated solution contains 205 parts
of the salt to 100 of water and boils at 135. On crystallizing a
solution monoclinic crystals of 2K 2 CO.3H 2 O are deposited, which
at 1 00 lose water and give a white powder of K 2 CO.H 2 O; this
is completely dehydrated at 130. The carbonate, being insoluble
in strong alcohol (and many other liquid organic compounds), is
much used for dehydration of the corresponding aqueous prepara-
tions. The pure carbonate is constantly used in the laboratory as
a basic substance generally, for the disintegration of silicates, and
as a precipitant. The industrial preparation serves for the making
of flint glass, of potash soap (soft soap) and of caustic potash.
Potassium bicarbonate, KHCOj, is obtained when carbonic acid
is passed through a cold solution of the ordinary carbonate as long
as it is absorbed. Any silicate present is also converted into
bicarbonate with elimination of silica, which must be filtered off.
The filtrate is evaporated at a temperature not exceeding 60 or
at most 70" C. ; after sufficient concentration it deposits on cooling
anhydrous crystals of the salt, while the potassium chloride, which
may be present as an impurity, remains mostly in the mother-
liquor; the rest is easily removed by repeated recrystallization.
If an absolutely pure preparation is wanted it is best to follow
Wohler and start with the " black flux " produced by the ignition
of pure bitartrate. The flux is moistened with water and exposed to
a current of carbonic acid, which, on account of the condensing
action of the charcoal, is absorbed with great avidity. The
bicarbonate forms large monoclinic prisms, permanent in the air.
When the dry salt is heated to 190 it decomposes into normal
carbonate, carbon dioxide and water.
Potassium sulphide, K Z S, was obtained by Berzelius in pale red
crystals by passing hydrogen over potassium sulphate, and by
Berthier as a flesh-coloured mass by heating the sulphate with
carbon. It appears, however, that these products contain higher
sulphides. On saturating a solution of caustic potash with sulphur-
etted hydrogen and adding a second equivalent of alkali, a solution
is obtained which on evaporation in a vacuum deposits crystals
of K 2 S.sH 2 O. The solution is strongly caustic. It turns yellow
on exposure to air, absorbing oxygen and carbon dioxide and
forming thiosulphate and potassium carbonate and liberating
sulphuretted hydrogen, which decomposes into water and sulphur,
the latter combining with the monosulphide to form higher salts.
The solution also decomposes on boiling. The hydrosulphide,
KHS, was obtained by Gay-Lussac on heating the metal in sulphur-
etted hydrogen, and by Berzelius on acting with sulphuretted hydro-
gen on potassium carbonate at a dull red heat. It forms a yellowish-
white deliquescent mass, which melts on heating, and at a
sufficiently high temperature it yields a dark red liquid. It is
readily soluble in water, and on evaporation in a vacuum over
caustic lime it deposits colourless, rhombohedral crystals of
2KHS.H 2 O. The solution is more easily prepared by saturating
potash solution with sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution has
a bitter taste, and on exposure to the air turns yellow, but on long
exposure it recovers its original colourless appearance owing to the
formation of thiosulphate. Liver of sulphur or hepar stuphuris,
a medicine known to the alchemists, is a mixture of various poly-
sulphides with the sulphate and thiosulphate, in variable proportions,
obtained by gently heating the carbonate with sulphur in covered
vessels. It forms a liver-coloured mass. In the pharmacopoeia
it is designated potojsa sulphur ata.
Potassium sulphite, K 2 SOi, is prepared by saturating a potash
solution w'ith sulphur dioxide, adding a second equivalent of potash,
200
POTATO
and crystallizing in a vacuum, when the salt separates as small
deliquescent, hexagonal crystals. The salt KjSOa-HjO may be
obtained by crystallizing the metabisulphite, KjSjOs (from sulphur
dioxide and a hot saturated solution of the carbonate, or from
sulphur dioxide and a mixture of milk of lime and potassium sul-
phate) with an equivalent amount of potash. The salt K 2 SO 3 -2H2O
is obtained as oblique rhombic octahedra by crystallizing the
solution over sulphuric acid. On the isomeric potassium sodium
sulphites see SULPHUR.
Potassium sulphate, KjSOi, a salt known early in the I4th century,
and studied by Glauber, Boyle and Tachenius, was styled in the
1 7th century arcanum or sal duplicatum, being regarded as a com-
bination of an acid salt with an alkaline salt. It was obtained as
a by-product in many chemical reactions, and subsequently used
to be extracted from kainite, one of the Stassfurt minerals, but the
process is now given up because the salt can be produced cheaply
enough from the chloride by decomposing it with sulphuric acid
and calcining the residue. To purify the crude product it is dis-
solved in hot water and the solution filtered and allowed to cool,
when the bulk of the dissolved salt crystallizes out with character-
istic promptitude. The very beautiful (anhydrous) crystals have
the habit of a double six-sided pyramid, but really belong to the
rhombic system. They are transparent, very hard and absolutely
permanent in the air. They have a bitter, salty taste. The salt
is soluble in water, but insoluble in caustic potash of sp. gr. 1-35,
and in absolute alcohol. It fuses at 1078. The crude salt is used
occasionally in the manufacture of glass. The acid sulphate or
bisulphate, KHSO<, is readily produced by fusing thirteen parts
of the powdered normal salt with eight parts of sulphuric acid.
It forms rhombic pyramids, which melt at 197. It dissolves in
three parts of water of o C. The solution behaves pretty much
as if its two congeners, KzSO and H 2 SO<, were present side by
side of each other uncombined. An excess of alcohol, in fact,
precipitates normal sulphate (with little bisulphate) and free acid
remains in solution. Similar is the behaviour of the fused dry
salt at a dull red heat; it acts on silicates, titanates, &c., as if it
were sulphuric acid raised beyond its natural boiling point. Hence
its frequent application in analysis as a disintegrating agent. For
the salts of other sulphur acids, see SULPHUR.
Potassamide, NH2K, discovered by Gay-Lussac and Thenard
in 1871, is obtained as an olive green or brown mass by gently heat-
ing the metal in ammonia gas, or as a white, waxy, crystalline
mass when the metal is heated in a silver boat. It decomposes
in moist air, or with water, giving caustic potash and ammonia,
in the latter case with considerable evolution of heat. On strong
heating Tithesley (Journ. Ghent. Soc., 1894, p. 511) found that it
decomposed into its elements. For the nitrite, see NITROGEN,
for the nitrate see SALTPETRE and for the cyanide see PRUSSIC
ACID; for other salts see the articles wherein the corresponding
acid receives treatment.
Analysis, &c. All volatile potassium compounds impart a
violet coloration to the Bunsen flame, which is masked, however,
if sodium be present. The emission spectrum shows two lines,
Ko, a double line towards the infra-red, and K/3 in the violet.
The chief insoluble salts are the perchlorate, acid-tartrate and
platinochloride. The atomic weight was determined by Stas and
more recently by T. W. Richards and A. Stahler, who obtained
the value 39-114 from analyses of the chloride, and by Richards
and E. Meuller, who obtained the values 39-1135 and 39-1143 from
analyses of the bromide (see Abs. J. C. S., 1907, ii. 615).
Medicine.
Pharmacology. Numerous salts and preparations of potassium
are used in medicine; viz. Potassii Carboms (salt of tartar), dose
5 to 20 grs., from which are made (a) Potassii Bicarbonas, dose 5 to
30 grs. ; (b) Potassa Caustica, a powerful caustic not used internally.
From caustic potash are made (i) Potassii Permanganas, dose
i to 3 grs., used in preparing Liquor Potassii Permanganalis, a
i % solution, dose 2 to 4 drs. (2) Potassii lodidum, dose 5 to 20
grs. ; from this are made the Linamentum Potassii lodidi cum sapone,
strength i in 10, and the Unguentum Potassii lodidi, strength
i in 10. (3) Potassii Bromidum, dose 5 to 30 grs. (4) Liquor
Potassae, strength 27 grs. of caustic potash to the oz. Potassii
Citras, dose 10 to 40 grs. Potassii Acetas, dose 10 to 60 grs.
Potassii Chloras, dose 5 to 15 grs., from which is made a lozenge,
Trochiscus Potassii Chloratis, each containing 3 grs. Potassii
Tartras Acidus (cream of tartar), dose 20 to 60 grs., which has
a subpreparation Potassii Tartras, dose 30 to 60 grs. Potassii
Nitras (saltpetre), dose 5 to 20 grs. Potassii Sulphas, dose 10 to
40 grs. Potassii Bichromas, dose tS to gr.
Toxicology. -Poisoning by caustic potash may take place or
poisoning by pearl ash containing caustic potash. A caustic taste
in the mouth is quickly followed by burning abdominal pain,
vomiting and diarrhoea, with a feeble pulse and a cold clammy
skin; the post-mortem appearances are those of acute gastro-
intestinal irritation. The treatment is washing out the stomach or
giving emetics followed by vinegar or lemon juice and later oil and
white of egg.
Therapeutics. Externally: Caustic potash is a most powerful
irritant and caustic; it is used with lime in making Vienna paste,
which is occasionally used to destroy morbid growths. Liquor
potassae is also used in certain skin diseases. The permanganate
of potash is an irritant if used pure. Its principal action is as an
antiseptic and disinfectant. If wet it oxidizes the products of
decomposition. It is used in the dressing of foul ulcers. The I %
solution is an antidote for snake-bite.
Internally: Dilute solutions of potash, like other alkalis, are
used to neutralize the poisonous effects of strong acids. In the
stomach potassium salts neutralize the gastric acid, and hence
small doses are useful in hypcrchloridia. Potassium salts are
strongly diuretic, acting directly on the renal epithelium. They
are quickly excreted in the urine, rendering it alkaline and thus
more able to hold uric acid in solution. They also hinder the forma-
tion of uric acid calculi. The acetate and the citrate are valuable
mild diuretics in Bright's disease and in feverish conditions, and
by increasing the amount of urine diminish the pathological fluids
in pleuritic effusion, ascites, &c. In tubal nephritis they aid the
excretion of fatty casts. The tartrate and acid tartrate are also
diuretic in their action and, as well as the sulphate, are valuable
hydragogue saline purgatives. Potassium nitrate is chiefly used
to make nitre paper, which on burning emits fumes useful in the
treatment of the asthmatic paroxysm. Lozenges of potassium
chlorate are used in stomatitis, tonsilitis and pharyngitis, it can
also be used in a gargle, 10 grs. to I fl. oz. of water. Its thera-
peutic action is said to be due to nascent oxygen given off, so it
is local in its action. In large doses it is a dangerous poison, con-
verting the oxyhaemoglobin of the blood into methaemoglobin.
Internally the permanganate is a valuable antidote in opium
poisoning. The action of potassium bromide and potassium
iodide has been treated under bromine and iodine (q.v.). All potas-
sium salts if taken in large doses are cardiac depressants, they
also depress the nervous system, especially the brain and spinal
cord. Like all alkalis if given in quantities they increase metabolism.
POTATO (Solatium tuberosum), a well-known plant which
owes its value to the peculiar habit of developing underground
slender leafless shoots or branches which differ in character and
office from the true roots, and gradually swelling at the free end
produce the tubers (potatoes) which are the common vegetable
food. The nature of these tubers is further rendered evident
by the presence of " eyes " or leaf-buds, which in due time
lengthen into shoots and form the haulm or stems of the plant.
Such buds are not, under ordinary circumstances, formed on
roots. The determining cause of the formation of the tubers
is not certainly known, but Professor Bernard has suggested
that it is the presence of a fungus, Fusarium solani, which,
growing in the underground shoots, irritates them and causes
the swelling; the result is that an efficient method of propagation
is secured independently of the seed. Starch and other matters
are stored up in the tubers, as in a seed, and are. rendered avail-
able for the nutrition of the young shoots. When grown under
natural circumstances the tubers are relatively small and close
to the surface of the soil, or even lie upon it. In the latter case
they become green and have an acrid taste, which renders them
unpalatable to human beings, and as poisonous qualities are
produced similar to those of many Solanaceae they are unwhole-
some. Hence the recommendation to keep the tubers in cellars
or pits, not exposed to the light. Among the nine hundred
species of Solanum less than a dozen have this property of
forming tubers, but similar growths are formed at the ends of
the shoots of the common bramble, of Convolvulus sepium, of
Helianlhus tuberosus, the so-called Jerusalem artichoke, of
Sagittaria, and other plants. Tubers are also sometimes formed
on aerial branches, as in some Aroids, Begonias, &c. The
production of small green tubers on the haulm, in the axils of
the leaves of the potato, is not very unfrequent, and affords an
interesting proof of the true morphological nature of the under-
ground shoots and tubers. This phenomenon follows injury
to the phloem in the lower parts of the stem, preventing the
downward flow of elaborated sap. The injury may be due to
gnawing insects, and particularly to the fungus Corlicium vagum,
var. Solani (Rhizoctonia) .
The so-called fir-cone potatoes, which are elongated and
provided with scales at more or less regular intervals, show also
very clearly that the tuber is only a thickened branch with
" eyes " set in regular order, as in an ordinary shoot. The
potato tuber consists mainly of a mass of cells filled with starch
and encircled by a thin corky rind. A few vessels and woody
fibres traverse the tubers.
POTATO
201
The chief value of the potato as an article of diet consists in
the starch it contains, and to a less extent in the potash and other
salts. The quantity of nitrogen in its composition is small,
and hence it should not be relied on to constitute the staple
article of diet. Letheby gives the following as the average
composition of the potato
Nitrogenous matters . 2-1
Starch, &c. ... 18-8
Sugar 3-2
Fat 0-2
Saline matter
Water
. 0-7
-75-0
100-0
a result which approximates closely to the average of nineteen
analyses cited in How Crops Grow from Grouven. In some
analyses, however, the starch is put as low as 13-30, and the
nitrogenous matter as 0-92 (Deherain, Cours de chimie agricole,
p. 159). Boussingault gives 25-2% of starch and 3% of nitro-
genous matter. Warington states that the proportion of
nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous matter in the digestible part
of potatoes is as i to 10-6. The composition of the tubers
evidently varies according to season, soils, manuring, the variety
grown, &c., but the figures cited will give a sufficiently accurate
idea of it. The " ash " contains on the average of thirty-one
analyses as much as 59-8% of potash, and 19-1% of phosphoric
acid, the other ingredients being in very minute proportion.
Where, as in some parts of northern Germany, the potato is
grown for the purpose of manufacturing spirit great attention
is necessarily paid to the quantitative analysis of the starchy and
saccharine matters, which are found to vary much in particular
varieties, irrespective of the conditions under which they are
grown.
It is to the Spaniards that we owe this valuable esculent.
The Spaniards met with it in the neighbourhood of Quito,
where it was cultivated by the natives. In the Cronica de Peru
of Pedro Cieca (Seville, 1553), as well as in other Spanish books
of about the same date, the potato is mentioned under the
name " battata " or " papa." Hieronymus Cardan, a monk,
is supposed to have been the first to introduce it from Peru into
Spain, from which country it passed into Italy and thence into
Belgium. Carl Sprengel, cited by Professor Edward Morren
in his biographical sketch entitled Charles de I'Esduse, sa vie
et ses oeuvres, states that the potato was introduced from Santa
Fe into England by John Hawkins in 1563 (Garten Zeitung,
1805, p. 346). If this be so, it is a question whether the English
and not the Spaniards are not entitled to the credit of the first
introduction; but, according to Sir Joseph Banks, the plant
brought by Drake and Hawkins was not the common English
potato but the sweet potato.
In 1587 or 1588 De FEscluse (Clusius) received the plant
from Philippe de Sivry, lord of Waldheim and governor of Mons,
who in his turn received it from some member of the suite of
the papal legate. At the discovery of America, we are told by
Humboldt, the plant was cultivated in all the temperate parts
of the continent from Chile to Colombia, but not in Mexico.
In 1 585 or 1 586, potato tubers were brought from what is now
North Carolina to Ireland on the return of the colonists sent out
by Sir Walter Raleigh, and were first cultivated on Sir Walter's
estate near Cork. The tubers introduced under the auspices
of Raleigh were thus imported a few years later than those
mentioned by Clusius in 1588, which must have been in cultiva-
tion in Italy and Spain for some years prior to that time. The
earliest representation of the plant is to be found in Gerard's
Herbal, published in 1597. The plant is mentioned under the
name Papus orbiculatus in the first edition of the Catalogus
of the same author, published in 1596, and again in the second
edition, which was dedicated to Sir Walter Raleigh (1599).
It is, however, in the Herbal that we find the first description of
the potato, accompanied by a woodcut sufficiently correct to
leave no doubt whatever as to the identity of the plant. In
this work (p. 781) it is called " Battata virginiana sive Virginia-
norum, et Pappus, Potatoes of Virginia."
The " common potatoes " of which Gerard speaks are the
tubers of Ipomoea Batatas, the sweet potato, which nowadays
would not in Great Britain be spoken of as common. A second
edition of the Herbal was published in 1636 by Thomas Johnson,
with a different illustration from that given in the first edition,
and one which in some respects, as in showing the true nature
of the tuber, is superior to the first. The phenomenon of growing
out or ," super-tuberation " is shown in this cut.
Previous to this (in 1629) Parkinson, the friend and associate
of Johnson, had published his Paradisus, in which (p. 517) he
gives an indifferent figure of the potato under the name of Papas
sen Battatas Virginianorum, and adds details as to the method
of cooking the tubers which seem to indicate that they were
still luxuries. Chabraeus, who wrote in 1666, tells us that
the Peruvians made bread from the tubers, which they called
" chunno." He further tells us that by the natives Virginieae
insulae the plant was called " openauk," and that it is now
known in European gardens, but he makes no mention of its
use as an esculent vegetable, and, indeed, includes it among
" plantae malignae et venenatae." Heriot (De Bry's Collection
of Voyages), in his report on Virginia, describes a plant under
the same name " with roots as large as a walnut and others much
larger; they grow in damp soil, many hanging together as if
fixed on ropes; they are good food either boiled or roasted."
The plant (which is not a native of Virginia) was probably
introduced there in consequence of the intercourse of the early
settlers with the Spaniards. The cultivation of the potato
in England made but little progress, even though it was
strongly urged by the Royal Society in 1663; and not much more
than a century has elapsed since its cultivation on a large scale
became general.
Botanists are agreed that the only species in general cultivation
in Great Britain is the one which Bauhin, in his Phytopinax, p. 89
(1596), called Solanum tuberosum esculentum, a name adopted by
Linnaeus (omitting the last epithet), and employed by all botanical
writers. This species is probably native in Chile, but it is very
doubtful if it is truly wild farther north. Baker (Journ. Linn.
Soc., 1884, xx. 489), has reviewed the tuber-bearing species of
Solanum from a systematic point of view as well as from that of
geographical distribution. Out of twenty so-called species he con-
siders six to be really distinct, while the others are merely synony-
mous or trifling variations. The six admitted tuber-bearing species
are 5. tuberosum, S. Maglia, S. Commersoni, S. cardiophyllum, S.
Jamesii and 5. oxycarpum.
S. tuberosum is, according to Mr Baker, a native not only of
the Andes of Chile but also of those of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador
and Colombia, also of the mountains of Costa Rica, Mexico and the
south-western United States. It seems most probable, however,
that some at least of the plants mentioned in the northern part
of America are the descendants of cultivated forms. 5. Maglia
is a native of the Chilean coast as far sou th as the Chonos Archipelago,
and was cultivated in the garden of the Horticultural Society at
Chiswick in 1822, being con-
sidered by Sabine, in his paper
on the native country of the
wild potato, to be the true
5. tuberosum and the origin of
the cultivated forms. This
species was also found by
Darwin in Chile, and was con-
sidered by him, as by Sabine
before him, to be the wild
potato. Baker refers to the
plants figured by Sabine (Trans.
Hort. Soc. Land. v. 249)
(fig. i) as being without doubt
5. Maglia, but A. de Candolle
(Origine des Plantes cultivees,
p. 40) is equally emphatic in
the opinion that it is 5. tuber-
osum. S. Commersoni occurs in
Uruguay, Buenos Aires and the
Argentine Republic, in rocky
situations at a low level. Under
the name of S. Ohrondii it has
been introduced into western
France, where it is not only FlG . ,._ Wi i d Potato-plant in
hardy but produces abundance bloom ( j ^ ^ )
of tubers, which are palatable,
but have a slightly acid taste. S. cardiophyllum, described by
Lindley in the Journ. Hort. Soc. is a native of the mountains
of central Mexico at elevations of 8000 to 9000 ft. S. Jamesii is
a well-defined species occurring in the mountains of Colorado,
New Mexico and Arizona, and also in Mexico. In a wild state
the tubers are not larger than marbles. 5. oxycarpum is a
(From Sabine's figure in the Trans. Sort.
Soc. Land., 1824, vol. v. pi. ii. See
teit.)
202
POTATO
little known but very distinct tuberous species from central
Mexico. 1
A review of the localities in which the presence of 5. tuberosum
and its tuber-bearing allies has been ascertained shows that,
broadly, these varieties may be divided into mountainous and
littoral. In either case they would not be subjected, at least
in their growing season, to the same extremes of heat, cold and
drought as plants growing on inland plains. Again, those forms
growing at a high elevation would probably start into growth
later in the season than those near the coast. The significance
of these facts from a cultural point of view is twofold: for,
while a late variety is desirable for culture in Great Britain,
as ensuring more or less immunity from spring frost, it is, on
the other hand, undesirable, because late varieties are more
liable to be attacked by the potato disease (Phytophthora
infestans) which as a rule appears about the time when the
earliest varieties are ready for lifting, but before the late varieties
are matured.
In cultivation the potato varies very greatly not only as to
the season of its growth but also as to productiveness, the
vigour and luxuriance of its foliage, the presence or relative
absence of hairs, the form of the leaves, the size and colour of
the flowers, &c. The tubers vary greatly in size, form and
colour; gardeners divide them into rounded forms and long
forms or " kidneys," and there are of course varieties inter-
mediate in form. The colour of the rind, yellowish, brown
or purple, furnishes distinctions, as does the yellow or white
colour of the flesh. The colour of the eyes and their prominence
or depression are relatively very constant characteristics.
These variations have arisen chiefly through cross-breeding,
though not entirely so, there being a few cases upon record of
the production of " sports " from tubers that have become the
parents of new varieties, but authentic cases of the sporting
of tubers are few and far between. If, on the other hand, the
true seeds of any of our cultivated varieties are sown, the
seedlings show very wide variations from one another and from
the parents. In this connexion it is very interesting to observe
that Messrs Sutton of Reading find that the seedlings of many
of the varieties of potato that occur spontaneously in different
parts of America come quite true to type from seed.
The potato thrives best in a rather light friable loam ; and in thin
sandy soils the produce, if not heavy, is generally of very good quality.
Soils which are naturally wet and heavy, as well as those which
are heavily manured, are not suitable. Indeed it is best, except
when there is ample space, to grow only the earlier kinds in gardens.
If the soil is of fair quality the less manure used upon it the better,
unless it be soot or lime. Gypsum, bone-dust, superphosphate of
lime and nitrate of soda may also be used, and wood ashes are
advantageous if the soil contains much vegetable matter; but the
best results are usually obtained when farmyard manure is supple-
mented by artificials, not by using artificials alone.
Potatoes are commonly propagated by planting whole^ tubers
or by dividing the tubers, leaving to each segment or " set "one or
two eyes or buds. The " sets " are then planted in rows at a distance
varying from 15 in. to 3 ft., the distance being regulated by the
height of the stems, and that between the sets varying from 6 to
12 in., 8 in. being a good average space for garden crops, with 2 ft.
between the rows. The sets may be put in 6 in. deep. The planting
of whole tubers instead of the cut sets usually gives a better return.
'Although these six are the only species admitted as such by
Baker, it is well to note some of the varieties. The S. etuberosum
of Lindley, differing from the common 5. tuberosum in not producing
tubers, was found in Chile, and is probably not specifically distinct,
although exceptional, for it is by no means very unusual to find
even cultivated plants produce no tubers. S. Fernandezianum is,
according to Baker, a form of S. tuberosum, but if .so its habitat in
the mountain woods of Juan Fernandez is climatically different
from that in the dry mountains of central Chile, where the true
S. tuberosum grows. 5. otites was found more recently by Andr6
on the summit of Quindiu in Colombia, at a height of 11,483 ft.
It produces tubers of the size of a nut. S. Andreanum, found by
Andrd at Cauca (6234 ft.), was considered by the traveller to be the
true S. tuberosum, but this view is not shared by Baker, who named
it after the discoverer. Its tubers, if it produces any, have not
been seen. 5. immite is probably only a slight variety of 5. tubero-
sum, as are also the Venezuelan 5. colombianum, S. verrucosum, S.
demissum and S. utile. S. Fendleri, a native of the mountains of
New Mexico and Arizona, was considered by Asa Gray to be likewise
a form of 5. tuberosum.
The full-sized tubers are, however, preferable to smaller ones, as their
larger buds tend to produce stronger shoots, and where cut sets are
used the best returns are obtained from sets taken from the points
of the tubers not from their base. Thomas Dickson of Edinburgh
long ago observed that the most healthy and productive crop was
to be obtained by planting unripe tubers, and proposed this as a
preventive of the disease called the " curl," which sometimes attacks
the young stems, causing them and also the leaves to become
crumpled, and few or no tubers to be produced; in this connexion
it is interesting to note that Scottish and Irish seed potatoes give a
larger yield than English, probably on account of their being less
matured. It has also been notea that the sprouting of the eyes
of the potato may be accelerated if, while still unripe, it is taken up
and exposed for some weeks to the influence of a scorching sun.
The best sets are those obtained from plants grown in elevated
and open situations, and it is also beneficial to use sets grown on a
different soil.
The earliest crops should, if possible, be planted in a light soil
and in a warm situation, towards the end of February, or as early as
possible in March. In some cases the tubers for early crops are
sprouted on a hotbed, the plants being put out as soon as the leaves
can bear exposure.
The main crop should be planted by the middle of March, sprouted
sets being used; late planting is very undesirable. Those in-
tended for storing should be dug up as soon as they are fairly ripe,
unless they are attacked by the disease, in which case they must
be taken up as soon as the murrain is observed ; or if they are then
sufficiently developed to be worth preserving, but not fully ripe,
the haulms or shaws should be pulled out, to prevent the fungus
passing down them into the tubers; this may be done without dis-
turbing the tubers, which can be dug afterwards.
Forcing. The earliest crop may be planted in December, and
successional ones in January and February; the varieties specially
suited for forcing being chosen. The mode of cultivation adopted
by the London market gardeners is thus in substance explained by
Cuthill: A long trench, 5 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep, is filled with hot
dung, on which soil to the depth of 6 in. is put. The sets employed
are middle-sized whole potatoes, which are placed close together
over the bed, covered with 2 in. of mould, and then hooped and
protected with mats and straw, under which conditions they will
sprout in about a month. A bed of the requisite length (sometimes
loo yds.) is then prepared of about 2 ft. thickness of hot dung, soil
is put on to the depth of 8 in., and the frames set over all. The
potatoes are then carefully taken up from the striking bed, all the
shoots being removed except the main one, and they are planted
4 in. deep, radishes being sown thinly over them and covered lightly
with mould. When the haulm of the potato has grown to about
6 in. in height the points are nipped off, in order to give the radishes
fair play ; and, although this may stop growth for a few days, still
the potato crop is always excellent. After planting nothing more is
required but to keep up the temperature to about 70, admitting
air when practicable, and giving water as required. The crop is
not dug 1 up until it has come to maturity.
Potatoes are also grown largely in hooped beds on a warm
border in the open ground. The sets after having been sprouted,
as above, are planted out in January in trenches 2 ft. deep filled
with hot dung, the sets being planted 5 in. deep, and over all radishes
are sown. The ridges are then hooped over, allowing about 2 ft.
of space in the middle, between the mould and the hoop, and are
covered with mats and straw, but as soon as the radishes come up
they are uncovered daily, and covered again every night as a pro-
tection against possible frosts. This is continued till the potatoes
are ready for digging in May.
Potatoes are sometimes grown in pots in heat, sprouted sets being
planted in n-in. pots about two-thirds full of soil, and placed
near the glass in any of the forcing-houses, where a temperature of
from 65 to 70" is to be maintained. The plants are duly watered
and earthed up as they advance in growth.
POTATO DISEASES
There are few agricultural subjects of greater importance
than the culture of the potato and the losses entailed by potato
disease. It is not unusual in bad seasons for a single grower
to lose 30 per acre in one season. In extreme cases every
tuber is lost, as the produce will not even pay the cost of
lifting.
The best-known disease of potatoes is caused by the growth
of a fungus named Phylophihora infestans, within the tissues
of the host plant, and this fungus has the peculiar property of
piercing and breaking up the cellular tissues and setting up
putrescence in the course of its growth. The parasite, which
has a somewhat restricted range of host plants, chiefly invades
the potato, Solatium tuberosum; the bittersweet, 5. Dulcamara,
and other species of Solanum. It is also very destructive to
the tomato, Lycopersicum esculentum, and to all or nearly all
POTATO
203
the other species of Lycopersicum. At times it attacks petunias
and even scrophulariaceous plants, as Anthocersis and Schiz-
anl/tus.
As a rule, although there are a few exceptions, the disease occurs
wherever the potato is grown. It is known in South America in the
home of the potato plant. In England the disease is generally
first seen during the last ten days of July; its extension is greatly
favoured by warm and showery weather. To the unaided eye the
disease is seen as purplish brown or blackish blotches of various
sizes, at first on the tips and edges of the leaves, and ultimately
upon the leaf-stalks and the larger stems. On gathering the
foliage for examination, especially in humid weather, these
dark blotches are seen to be putrid, and when the disease takes
a bad form the dying leaves give out a highly offensive odour. The
fungus, which is chiefly within the leaves and stems, seldom emerges
through the firm upper surface of the leaf; it commonly appears
as a white bloom or mildew on the circumference of the disease-
patches on the under surface. It grows within the tissues from
central spots towards an ever-extending circumference, carrying
putrescence in its course. As the patches extend in size by the
growth of the fungus they at length become confluent, and so the
leaves are destroyed and an end is put to one of the chief vital
functions of the host plant. On the destruction of the leaves the
fungus either descends the stem by the interior or the spores are
washed by the rain to the tubers in the ground. In either case the
tubers are reached by the fungus or its spores, and so become diseased.
The fungus is very small in size, and under the microscope appears
slightly whitish or colourless. The highest powers are required to see
all parts of the parasite.
The accompanying illustration shows the habit and structure of
the fungus. The letters A B show a vertical section through a frag-
ment ofapotato leaf, enlarged 100 diameters; A is the upper surface
line, and B the lower ; the lower surface of the leaf is shown at the top,
FIG. 2. Phytophthora infestans. Fungus of Potato Disease.
the better to exhibit the nature of the fungus growths. Between
A and B the loose cellular tissue of which the leaf is partly built
up is seen in section, and at C the vertical palisade cells which give
firmness to the upper surface of the leaf. Amongst the loose tissue
of the leaf numerous transparent threads are shown; these are the
mycelial threads or spawn of the fungus; wherever they touch
the leaf-cells they pierce or break down the tissue, and so set up
decomposition, as indicated by the darker shading. The lower
surface of the potato leaf is furnished with numerous organs of
transpiration or stomata, which are narrow orifices opening into
the leaf and from which moisture is transpired in the form of
vapour. Out of these small openings the fungus threads emerge,
as shown at D, D, D. When the threads reach the air they branch
in a tree-like manner, and each branch (sporangiophore) carries one
or more ovate sporangia, as shown at E, E, E, which fall off and are
carried by the wind. One is shown more highly magnified (400
diameters) at F ; the contained protoplasm breaks up into a definite
number of parts as at G, forming eight minute mobile
bodies called " zoospores," each zoospore being furnished with two
extremely attentuated vibrating hairs termed " cilia," as shown at H.
These zoospores escape and swim about in any film of moisture, and
on going to rest take a spherical form, germinate and produce
threads of mycelium as at K. The sporangia may also germinate
directly without undergoing division. The mycelium from the
germinating sporangia or zoospores soon finds its way into the
tissues of the potato leaf by the organs of transpiration, and the
process of growth already described i is repeated 'over and
over again till the entire potato leaf, or indeed the whole plant, is
reduced to putridity.
The germinating spores are not only able to pierce the leaves and
stems of the potato plant, and so gain an entry to its interior through
the epidermis, but they are also able to pierce the skin of the tuber,
especially in young examples. It is therefore obvious that, if the
tubers are exposed to the air where they are liable to become slightly
cracked by the sun, wind, hail and rain, and injured by small animals
and insects, the spores from the leaves will drop on to the tubers,
quickly germinate upon the slightly injured places, and cause the
potatoes to become diseased. Earthing up therefore prevents these
injuries, but where practised to an immoderate extent it materially
reduces the produce of tubers. The labour entailed in repeated
earthing up is also considered a serious objection to its general
adoption.
The means of mitigating the damage done by this disease
are (i) the selection of varieties found to resist its attacks;
(2) the collection and destruction of diseased tubers so that none
are left in the soil to become a menace to future crops; (3) care
that no tubers showing traces of the disease are planted; (4)
spraying with Bordeaux mixture at intervals from midsummer
onwards. The last measure prevents the germination of the
spores of the fungus on the leaves, and is a most useful mode of
checking the spread of the disease; to be successful in its use, how-
ever, entails care in the preparation of the spray and thorough-
ness in its application. In spite of the many efforts in the direc-
tion of obtaining a resistant variety no great measure of success
has been attained. The earlier varieties of potato appear to
escape the disease almost entirely, as they are usually ready to
be lifted before it becomes troublesome; while certain of the later
varieties are much less prone to it than the majority. They
do not appear, however, to maintain the same degree of immunity
over a long period of years, but to become more and more open
to the attack as the variety becomes older; nor do they always
exhibit the same degree of immunity in different localities.
Something may be done to mitigate the loss arising from the
disease by selecting comparatively immune varieties from time
to time.
Many ingenious attempts have been made to obtain a variety
perfectly immune. Maule, thinking a hardier blood might be infused
into the potato by crossing it with some of the native species, raised
hybrids between it and the two common species of Solatium native
in this country, S. Dulcamara, and S. nigrum, but the hybrids
proved as susceptible as the potato itself. Maule also tried the effect
of grafting the potato on these two specie's and, though he succeeded,
there is no record to show whether the product was any hardier
than the parents. Dean (Card. Chron., Sept. 1876, p. 304) succeeded
in grafting the potato on the tomato, and Messrs Sutton have carried
out similar experiments on an extensive scale (Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc.
1899, xxiii. Proc. p. 20), but in no case have the variations produced
proved disease-proof. Various experimenters, especially Fenn,
have asserted that by engrafting an eye of one variety into the tuber
of another, not only will adhesion take place but the new tubers will
present great variety of character; this seems to be the case, but it
can hardly be considered as established that the variations in ques-
tion were the result of any commingling of the essences of the two
varieties. The wound may simply have set up that variation in the
buds the occasional existence of which has been already noted.
It is possible that the hybridizing of the potato with one or other
of the wild types of tuberous Solanums may give rise to a variety
which shall be immune, though unfortunately most are themselves
liable to the attacks of the fungus, and one of the few crosses so made
between the common potato and Solatium Maglia has exhibited the
same undesirable trait. The form cultivated in England for some
time under the name Solatium tuberosum (which, however, forms
tubers and is probably not that known under this name by Lindley)
seems so far to have escaped. In view of the fact that Biffen has
proved that immunity from the attacks of a certain fungus in wheat
is a transmissible recessive character reappearing in some of the
individuals of the second generation, it would appear that there is
?reat hope of securing an immune variety with the aid of this form.
t is possible, too, that continued cultivation in the rich soil of
gardens may induce that tendency to vary when seedlings are
raised that is so marked a feature of the potato of commerce, in one
or more of the other species of tuberous Solanums.
204
POTATO RACE POTCHEFSTROOM
Another fungus attacking the leaves is Macrosporium Solani
(fig. 3), but this attack usually comes earlier in the season
than the foregoing. It is characterized by the curling of the
leaves, which later show black
spots due to the production of
numerous dark spores in patches
on the diseased leaves. The
damage is often considerable, as
the crop is greatly lessened by
the interference with the func-
tions of the leaf. The parasite
may be held in check by spraying
with Bordeaux mixture early in
the season. The fungus passes
the winter on pieces of leaf, &c.,
left on the ground. All such
refuse should be cleared up and
burned. A third fungus, Cerco-
spora concors, also forms spots
on the leaves and may be kept
in check by the same means.
Wilting of the foliage followed
by the discoloration of the stem
FIG. 3. Portion of Leaf of and branches is characteristic
Potato-Plant showing patches o{ disease of the tato
of a black mould, Macrosporium , -m i i unj
Solani, on the surface. known as "Blackleg." This
disease is due to the presence of
large numbers of Bacillus solanacearum in the tubes through
which water is conveyed to the leaves from the roots. Their
presence causes the appearance of blackish streaks in the stem
and a dark ring some little distance below the surface in the
tissues of the tuber. Tubers showing any trace of such a ring
(From the Journal of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, by permission of the
controller of H. M. Stationery Office.)
FIG. 4. Chrysophlyctis endobiotica (Oedomyces leproides) in the
Potato.
i and 2, Tubers deformed by the fungus.
3, Section through diseased tissue showing dark masses of spores.
4 and 5, Tissue-cell, more highly magnified, showing enclosed spores.
should not be used for seed, and rotation of crops should be
observed as a means of preventing the infection of the crop
with the germ. Biting and sucking insects have been found to
carry the bacilli from one plant to another.
The tubers frequently show scurfy or scab-like spots upon their
surface, thus greatly depreciating their value for market purposes.
The fungus, Sorosporium scabies, which is the cause of the scab,
does not penetrate into the flesh of the tuber, nor detract from its
edible properties. Excess of lime in the soil is said to favour
the devejopment of the fungus. Similar spots are produced on
potatoes in America by the fungus Oospora scabies, and in both cases,
if affected " seed " potatoes are steeped in a solution of $ pint
formalin in 15 gallons of water for two hours before planting, the
attack on the resulting crop is materially lessened. The fungus,
Oedomyces leproides, produces large, blackish, irregular warts which
sometimes involve the whole surface of the tuber. This disease is
of recent introduction into Great Britain, but bids fair to be-
come very troublesome. The spores of the fungus pass the
winter in the soil and the delicate mycelium attacks the young
shoots in the summer. These become brown, finally blackish
and greatly contorted until a large scab is formed on the developing
tuber, whence the name by which the disease is known " black
scab." Diseased potatoes left in the soil and even slightly diseased
" sets " are a source of infection of succeeding crops. Rotation must
be observed and no diseased sets planted.
The rotting of tubers after lifting may be due to various causes,
but the infection of the tubers by the Phytophthora already men-
tioned is a frequent source of this trouble, while " Winter Rot " is
due to the fungus Nectria Solani. This fungus finds conditions
suitable for growth when the potatoes are stored in a damp con-
dition; rotting from this cause rarely occurs when they are dried
before being placed in heaps. The first signs of this fungus is the
appearance of small white tufts of mycelium bursting through
the skin of the tuber, the spores of the fungus being carried at the
tips of the threads forming these tufts. This form of fruit is suc-
ceeded by others which have received different names, and lastly
by the mature Nectria which forms minute red flask-shaped pen-
thecia on parts of the rotted potatoes that have dried up. The
intermediate forms are known as Monosporium, Fusarium and
Cephalosporium. The pieces of dried-up potato with the spores
of Nectria upon them are a source of infection in the succeeding year,
and care should be taken that diseased tubers are not planted.
Flowers of sulphur plentifully sprinkled over the potatoes before
storing has been found to check the spread of the rot in the heap.
POTATO RACE, a running contest, where the winner is the
first who collects in a basket or other receptacle a number of
potatoes, usually eight, placed, as a rule two yards apart, along
a straight line, and then crosses a finish line five or ten yards
farther on.
POTATO WAR (Kartoffelkrieg), the name given by the Prus-
sians to the War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778-79. The
Prussians and a Saxon contingent, commanded by Frederick
the Great and his brother Prince Henry, were opposed to two
Austrian armies under Loudon and Lacy. The operations
consisted almost entirely of manoeuvres which had for their
object the obtaining or the denial to the enemy of food-supplies.
The war thus acquired the name of Kartoffelkrieg. Its duration
was from the 3rd of July 1778 to the assembly of the congress
of Teschen on the loth of March 1 7 79, and its total cost 4,3 50,000
and 20,000 men to all parties. The war may be studied from
the military point of view as an extreme example of what
Clausewitz calls " war with a restricted aim."
POTAWATOMI (properly Potewatmik, fire-makers, in
allusion to their secession from the Ojibway, and their establish-
ment of a separate council-fire), a tribe of North- American
Indians of Algonquian stock. When first known (about 1670),
they lived around Green Bay, Wisconsin. They subsequently
moved south and eventually settled in lower Michigan. They
were allied with the French in their wars against the Iroquois
and took part in the conspiracy of Pontiac (q.ii.). In the War of
Independence they fought for England, as also in that of 1812.
In 1846 most of them were removed to a reservation in Kansas.
Of these the majority have abandoned their tribal relations
and become citizens. Others are in Wisconsin and the
bulk in Oklahoma. They now number some 2500.
POTCHEFSTROOM, a town of the Transvaal, 88 m. S.W. of
Johannesburg and 222 m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop.
(1904), 9348, of whom 6014 were whites. The town stands
4100 ft. above the sea on the banks of the Mooi River, 15 m.
POTEMKIN POTENTIOMETER
205
above its junction with the Vaal. The streets are lined with
fine willow trees, and there are public grounds in which are
nurseries and a showyard. Golf links add to the attractions
of the place, which is one of the healthiest in the Transvaal.
In the neighbourhood are gold-mines; the reef appearing to be
a continuation of the VVitwatersrand reefs. The Vaal river
goldfields, of which Venterskroon is the centre, are 16 to 20 m.
south-east of Potchefstroom.
Potchefstroom was founded in November 1838 by Hendrik
Potgieter, and is the oldest town in and first capital of
the Transvaal. In 1862 it was the scene of civil war between
rival Boer factions. In 1880-81 the garrison camped outside
the town was besieged by Boers under Commandant P. A.
Oonje. The British troops (250 in number) were confined to
a fort 25 yds. square and lost over a third of their strength
in killed and wounded before they surrendered on the 2ist of
March, the investment having begun on the i8th of December
1880. Charges of treachery were brought against Cronje for
failing to notify the besieged that an armistice had been agreed
to by the Boer leaders. Of this armistice Colonel R. W. C.
Winsloe, who was in command of the British, became aware
before the surrender took place. On the suggestion of Com-
mandant General Joubert the capitulation was considered as
cancelled and a detachment of British troops reoccupied the
town until the conclusion of peace. In the Anglo-Boer War of
1890-1902 Potehefstroom was occupied by the British without
opposition. (See TRANSVAAL: History.)
POTEMKIN, GRIGORY ALEKSANDROVICH, PRINCE
(1739-1791), Russian statesman, was born at Chizheva near
Smolensk. He was educated at the Moscow University, and
in 1755 entered the " Reiter " of the Horse Guards. His
participation in the coup d'etat of the 8th of July 1762 attracted
the attention of the new empress, Catherine II., who made him
a Kammerjunker and gave him a small estate. The biographical
anecdotes relating to him during the next few years are obscure
and mostly apocryphal. In 1768 he quitted the Guards and
was attached to the court as a Kammerherr, but in 1769 he
volunteered for the Turkish War and distinguished himself
at Khotin, Focshani and Larga, besides routing the Turks
at Olta. It was not till 1771 that he became Catherine's prime
favourite. In that year he was made an adjutant-general,
lieutenant-colonel of the Preobrazhensky Guards, a member of
the council of state, and, in the words of a foreign contemporary
diplomatist, " the most influential personage in Russia."
Somewhat later he was created a count, and appointed com-
mander-in-chief and governor-general of " New Russia," as the
conquered provinces in the Ukraine were then called. In 1776,
at Catherine's request, the emperor Joseph II. raised Potemkin
to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1775
he was superseded in the empress's graces by Zavadovsky;
but the relations between Catherine and her former lover
continued to be most friendly, and his influence with her was
never seriously disturbed by any of her subsequent favourites.
A whole mass of facts testify to the enormous and extraordinary
influence of Potemkin during the next ten years. His corre-
spondence with the empress was uninterrupted. The most
important state documents passed through his hands. Catherine
loaded him with gifts. He was deeply interested in the question
of the southern boundaries of Russia and consequently in the
fate of the Turkish Empire. It was he who, in 1776, sketched
the plan for the conquest of the Crimea which was subsequently
realized; and about the same period he was busy with the so-
called " Greek project," which aimed at restoring the Byzantine
Empire under one of Catherine's grandsons. In many of the
Balkan states he had well-informed agents. After he became
field marshal, in 1 784, he introduced many reforms into the army,
and built a fleet in the Black Sea, which, though constructed
of very bad materials, did excellent service in Catherine's
second Turkish War (1787-92). His colonizing system was
exposed to very severe criticism, yet it is impossible not to
admire the results of his stupendous activity. The arsenal of
Kherson, begun in 1778, the harbour of Sevastopol and the
new fleet of fifteen liners and twenty-five smaller vessels, were
monuments of his genius. But there was exaggeration in all
he attempted. He spared neither men, money, nor himself
in attempting to carry out his gigantic scheme for the coloniza-
tion of the south Russian steppes; but he never calculated the
cost, and more than three-quarters of the design had to be
abandoned when but half finished. Catherine's famous expedi-
tion to the south in 1787 was a veritable triumph for Potemkin;
for he contrived to conceal all the weak points of his administra-
tion and to present everything in a rose-coloured light. On
this occasion he received the title of prince of Tauris. The
same year the second Turkish War began, and the founder of
New Russia took upon himself the responsibilities of commander-
in-chief. But the army was ill-equipped and unprepared; and
Potemkin in an hysterical fit of depression gave everything up
for lost, and would have resigned but for the steady encourage-
ment of the empress. Only after Suvarov had valiantly
defended Kinburn did he take heart again, and besiege and
capture Ochakov and Bender. In 1 790 he conducted the military
operations on the Dniester and held his court at Jassy with
more than Asiatic pomp. In 1791 he returned to St Petersburg
where, along with his friend Bezborodko (<?..), he made vain
efforts to overthrow the new favourite, Zubov, and in four
months spent 850,000 roubles in banquets and entertainments,
a sum subsequently reimbursed to him from the treasury. Then
the empress grew impatient and compelled him (1791) to return
to Jassy to conduct the peace negotiations as chief Russian
plenipotentiary. On the 5th of October, while on his way to
Nikolayev, he died in the open steppe, 40 m. from Jassy, in con-
sequence of eating a whole goose while in a high state of fever.
Very various are the estimates of Potemkin. Neither during
his life nor after his death did any two people agree about him.
The German pamphlet: Pansalim Fiirst der Finsterniss und
seine Geliebte, published in 1794, is a fair specimen of the opinion
of those who regarded him as the evil genius of Catherine and
of Russia. But there were many, including the empress herself,
who looked upon him as a man of manifold and commanding
genius. He was indubitably the most extraordinary of all the
Catherinian favourites. He was an able administrator, but
wanting in self-control. Licentiousness, extravagance and an
utter disregard for human life were his weak points, but he was
loyal, generous and magnanimous. Nearly all the anecdotes
related of him by Helbig, in the biography contributed by him
to the journal Minerva (1797-1800), and freely utilized by later
biographers, are absolutely worthless.
See V. A. Bilbasov, Geschichte Katharinas II. (Berlin, 1891-1893);
C. de Lariviere, Catherine la Grande d'aprks sa correspondence
(Paris, 1895); Anonymous, La Cour de Catherine II. Ses collabora-
teurs (St Petersburg, 1899); A. V. Lopukhin, Sketch of the Congress
of Jassy, 1791 (Rus. ; St Petersburg, 1893); The Papers of Prince
Potemkin, 1744-1793 (Rus.; St Petersburg, 1893-1895). (R. N. B.)
POTENTILLA (nat. order Rosaceae, g.t>.), a border and rock-
garden plant. Many of the species bear brilliantly coloured
flowers and graceful foliage. A soil of a good loamy staple,
enriched with rotten dung, will grow the potentilla to perfection.
Potentillas may be increased, though not very freely, by parting
them into as many pieces as there are crowns, the side growths
being those which can usually be thus separated. This may
be done in autumn or spring, and the plants will generally
bloom the following season. The species and some of the
varieties reproduce true from seed, and are readily increased
by that means. The following are some of the best kinds:
aurea, atrosanguinea, davurica, formosa, nitida, n. atro-rubra,
speciosa, tridentata and villosa.
POTENTIOMETER, an instrument for the measurement of
electromotive force and also of difference of electric potential
between two points. The term potentiometer is usually applied
to an instrument for the measurement of steady or continuous
potential difference between two points in terms of the potential
difference of the terminals of a standard voltaic cell of some
kind, such as a Clark or Weston cell. The modern potentio-
meter has been developed out of an arrangement due to J. C.
Poggendorff, employed also by J. Latimer Clark, but converted
206
POTENTIOMETER
into its modern direct reading form by J. A. Fleming in 1885
(see Industries, 1886, i. 152). In principle the modern potentio-
meter consists of an arrangement by means of which any
potential difference not exceeding a certain assigned value
can be compared with that of a standard cell having a known
electromotive force. In simplest form it consists of a long,
straight, fine, uniform wire stretched over a divided scale. The
ends of this wire are connected to one or more secondary
cells of constant electromotive force, a variable resistance being
interposed so as to regulate the current flowing through the
fine wire. To one end of this fine wire is attached one terminal
of a sensitive galvanometer. Sliding contacts can be moved
along the fine wire into any position. Supposing that the
scale under this wire is divided into 2000 parts and that we
are in possession of a standard Clark cell, the electromotive
force being known at various temperatures, and equal, say, to
1-434 volts at 15 C. The first process is to set the potentio-
meter. The slider is placed so as to touch the fine wire at
division No. 1434 on the fine wire, and the Clark cell is connected
in between the sliding contact and one terminal of the galvano-
meter, so that its negative pole is connected through the galvano-
meter with that end of the fine wire to which the negative pole
of the working battery is attached. The resistance in circuit
with the fine wire is then altered until the galvanometer shows no
deflexion. We then know that the fall of potential down the
2000 divisions of the fine wire must be exactly 2 volts. If
then we substitute for the standard cell any other source of
electromotive force, we can move the slider into another position
in which the galvanometer will show no deflection. The scale
reading then indicates directly the electromotive force of this
second source of potential. Thus, for instance, if an experiment
were made with a Leclanche cell, and if the balancing-point
were found to be at 1500 divisions on the scale, the electromotive
force would be determined as 1-500 volts. Instead of adjusting
in this manner the electromotive force of any form of cell,
if we pass any constant current through a known resistance
and bring wires from the extremities of that resistance into
connexion with the slider and the galvanometer terminal, we
can in the same way determine the fall of potential down the
above resistance in terms of the electromotive force of the
standard cell and thus measure the current flowing through
the standard resistance.
In the practical form the potentiometer wire is partly replaced
by a number of coils of wire, say 14 (see fig. l), and the potentio-
meter wire itself has a resistance equal to one of these coils. One
terminal of the galvanometer can then be shifted to the junction
(VWVWWW
I 2 + i f S 1 & 3 10 II III) .
n^JJJJJJJJJJJLUs:
^- vWVWWWS, I I
R
B
FIG. i.
between any pair of consecutive coils and the slider shifted to any
point on the potentiometer wire. By such an arrangement the
potential difference can be measured of any amount from o to 1-5
volts. In some cases the potentiometer wire is wholly replaced
by a series of coils divided into small subdivisions. We may
employ such a potentiometer to measure large potential difference
greater than the electromotive force of the working battery, as
follows: The two points between which the potential difference is
required are connected by high resistance, say of 100,000 ohms or
more, and from the extremities of a known fraction of this resistance,
say, i/ioo or i/iooo or 1/10,000 wires are brought to the potentio-
meter and connected in between the slider and the corresponding
galvanometer terminal. We can thus measure as described the
drop in volts down a known fraction of the whole high resistance and
therefore calculate the fall in potential down the whole of the high
resistance, which is the potential difference required. The potentio-
meter and the divided resistance constitute a sort of electrical
scaleyard by means of which any electromotive force or difference of
potential can be compared with the electromotive force of a standard
cell. Very convenient and practical forms of potentiometer have
been devised by Crompton (fig. 2), Nalder, Elliot Bros., Fleming
OcO
ODQ OEO OFQ
FIG. 2. Diagram of the Internal Connexions of a Crompton
Potentiometer.
a b. The scale wire.
c, The set of equal potentiometer coils in series with it.
d, The double pole switch connecting the 6 pairs of terminals.
A B c D E F in succession to the slide contacts.
e, The resistance coils.
/, The rheostat.
g, The galvanometer key.
A, B, C, D, E, F, Terminals to which standard cell or voltages to be
tested are attached.
and others. An essential accompaniment therefore of the potentio-
meter is a series of standard low resistances, say of o-i, o-oi, o-ooi
ohm, and also a series of higher resistances divided into known
fractions. In practical work, the low resistances take the form of
certain strips of metal which have on them two pairs of terminals,
one termed " current terminals," and the other " potential ter-
minals." These resistance strips, as they are called, are carefully
adjusted so that the resistance between the potential terminals
has a known low value. In order to measure the value of a con-
tinuous electric current, and therefore to calibrate any amperemeter
we proceed as follows: The amperemeter is placed in series with
a suitable low resistance strip, say of o-oi ohm. From the potential
terminals of the strip, wires are Drought to the potentiometer so a&
to determine their potential difference in terms of the electromotive
force of the standard Clark cell. An observation is then taken
of the reading of the amperemeter and of the fall of resistance
down the low resistance when a certain steady current is passing
through the strip and amperemeter. Supposing that the potential
fall down the strip is found to be -981 volt, the strip difference having
a resistance of o-i ohm, it would be seen that the current passing
through the strip was 98-1 amperes. If then the amperemeter scale
reading was 100 it would show an error of that scale reading of
minus 1-9 amperes or nearly 2 %. In the same manner the potentio-
meter may be used to calibrate a voltmeter by the aid of a divided
resistance of known value.
In electrical measurements connected with incandescent electric
lamps the potentiometer is of great use, as it enables us to make
accurately and nearly simultaneously two measurements, one of
the current through the lamp and the other of the potential differ-
ence of the terminals. For this purpose a resistance, say, of one
ohm is placed in series with the lamp and a resistance of 100,000
ohms placed across the terminals of the lamp; the latter resistance
is divided into two parts, one consisting of 1000 ohms and the other
of 99,000 ohms. The potentiometer enables us to measure therefore
the current through the lamp by measuring the drop in volts down a
resistance in series with it and the potential difference of the ter-
minals of the lamp by measuring the drop in volts down the looth
part of the high resistance of 100,000 ohms connected across the
terminals of the lamp.
Standard Cells. A necessary adjunct to the potentiometer is
some form of standard cell to be used as a standard of electromotive
force. In the case of the Clark standard cell above mentioned the
elements are mercury and zinc separated by a paste of mercurous
sulphate mixed with a saturated solution of zinc sulphate. Other
voltaic standards of electromotive force are in use, such as the Weston
cadmium cell, the Helmholtz calomel cell, and the standard Daniell
cell. The Clark cell is made in two forms, the board of trade or
tubular form, and the H form of cell devised by Lord Rayleigh.
The German experts seem to favour the latter form; the specifica-
tion issued by the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt of Berlin
may be found in the Electrician, xxxi. 265-266. The electromotive
force of the cell diminishes with rise of temperature, the board of
trade value being 1-434 volts at i5C. l and 1-434 (10-00077 (' '5))
volts at t C. A more exact expression is obtained if instead of
0-00077 the quantity 0-00078+0-000017 (/ 15) is used. In the
Weston standard cell cadmium and cadmium sulphate are substi-
tuted for zinc and zinc sulphate; it has the advantage of a much
smaller coefficient of temperature variation than the Clark cell.
It is most conveniently made up in a glass vessel of H form, pure
mercury and cadmium amalgam being the two elements (fig. 3),
1 According to K. Kahle and W. Wien, the electromotive force of
the H form of Clark cell is 1-4322 volts at 15 C.
POTENZA POTGIETER
207
and when made as directed below it has at t" C. an electromotive
force Ei volts, such that
-1-0184-0-0000406 (/ -20) -0.00000095 (/-2o)'4-
o-oooooooi (t 20)'.
After the platinum wires have been sealed through the glass, a
little aqua regia is placed in the cell legs until bubbles of gas arise
from the platinum, when it
is thrown put and replaced
by a solution of mercurous
nitrate. Then, by the use of
another piece of platinum as
anode, mercury is electro-
lytically deposited upon the
platinum, which may also
be amalgamated by making
it white hot in a Bunsen
flame and plunging it in
mercury. To prepare the
cadmium amalgam, one part
of pure cadmium is dissolved
in six parts of pure mercury,
and the product while warm
and fluid is placed in one
limb of the cell and warmed,
to ensure perfect contact with
the platinum wire. The cad-
mium sulphate solution is
FIG. 3. Lord Rayleigh's H form
of Standard Voltaic Cell.
prepared by digesting a saturated solution of cadmium sulphate with
cadmium hydroxide to remove free acid, care being taken not to raise
the temperature above 70 C., and then by digesting it still further
with mercurous sulphate until no more precipitation occurs. The
cadmium sulphate solution must be saturated and have free crystals
of the salt in it. The mercurous sulphate must be free from acid,
and made neutral by trituration with finely divided mercury. In
making the paste, so much cadmium sulphate must be added that a
saturated solution of that salt is formed and is present in the cell.
The cell has the electromotive force above stated if the amalgam
of cadmium has from 6 to 13 parts of mercury to I of cadmium.
The German investigators seem to have a great preference for the
H form of cell, but it is clear that a narrow tubular cell of the British
board of trade form not only conies more quickly to the temperature
of the water bath in which it is placed, but is more certain to be
wholly at one temperature. In a modification of the H form devised
by F. E. Smith, of the National Physical Laboratory (Phil. Trans.,
A, 207, pp. 393-420), a contraction formed in the side of the vertical
tube tends to hold the contents in place. Fig. 4 shows this cell,
hermetically sealed, mounted in a brass case.
In cases when great accuracy is not required, a Daniell cell can
be used as a standard of electromotive force. The form designed
by J. A. Fleming (Phil. Mag., 20,
p. 126) consists of a U tube, one
leg of which contains a rod of pure
amalgamated zinc, and the other a
rod of freshly electrptyped copper.
The legs are filled with solutions of
zinc sulphate and copper sulphate,
the zinc rod being in the zinc
sulphate and the copper rod in the
copper sulphate. When so made,
the cell has an electromotive force
of 1-072 volts and no sensible
temperature variation. The solu-
tions are made by dissolving the
purest recrystallized sulphate of
copper and sulphate of zinc in dis-
tilled water. For the zinc solution,
take 55-5 parts by weight of crys-
tals of zinc sulphate (ZnSOtfOH,)
and dissolve in 44-5 parts by weight
of distilled water; the resulting
FIG. 4. Method of mount- solution should have a specific
Cell, gravity of 1-200 at about 20 C.
For the sulphate of copper solution,
take 16-5 parts by weight of pure
crystals of copper sulphate (CuSO45OHa) and dissolve in 83-5 parts
by weight of water; the resulting solution should have a specific
gravity of i-iop at 20 C. The solutions should be adjusted exactly
to these densities and kept in stock bottles, from which the reservoirs
of the cell should be filled up as required.
A form of potentiometer employing a vibration galvanometer and
suitable for alternating current measurement by null methods has
been devised by Dr Drysdale (see Proc. Phys. Soc. Land. 1909,
21, 561.)
See J. A. Fleming, Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and
Testing Room, vol. i. (London, 1903) vol. i contains on pp. 108-110
an extensive list of various original memoirs published on the Clark
and Weston cells; G. D. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Engineering
Measuring Instruments (London, 1903); W. C. Fisher, The Potentio-
meter and its Adjuncts (London, 1906).
ing Weston Normal
Brass case removed.
POTENZA (anc. Potentia), a town and episcopal see of Basil-
icata, Italy, capital of the province of Potenza, 103 m. by rail
E. by S. of Naples. Pop. (1001), 12,313 (town); 16,163 (com-
mune). Situated 2700 ft. above sea-level on an isolated hill
above the Basento (anc. Casuentus), it is much exposed to winds
and has a far more northerly climate than its position (40 40'
N.) implies, and is indeed one of the coldest places in Italy
(mean temp. Jan 37-8, July 70-9, for whole year 53 F.). It
has been almost entirely rebuilt since the earthquake of 1857.
It has a school of the industrial arts and sciences, grows good
wine, and makes bricks.
The ancient Potentia lay some 470 ft. lower, by the river.
Its name shows that it was of Roman origin, and its importance
was no doubt due to its position at the intersection of the road
leading west to the Via Popillia and north-east to the Via Appia,
with the Via Herculia. No remains are visible, but a consider-
able number of inscriptions have been found.
Potentia must be distinguished from Potentia in Picenum,
on the Adriatic coast, near the modern Porto di Recanati, a
colony founded in 184 B.C., the same year as Pisaurum, but of
which little is known.
The abandonment of the old site and the erection of the new
town probably date from the earthquake of 1273. By the
Angevines Potenza was made a domain of the San Severino
family; in the beginning of the isth century it was held by
Francesco Sforza, and in 1435 it passed to the Guevara family;
the Loffredi, who succeeded by marriage, continued in possession
till the abolition of the great fiefs. In 1694 there was a severe
earthquake; and the more terrible earthquake which on the i6th
and the 1 7th of December 1857 passed through southern Italy,
and in Basilicata alone killed 32,475 persons, laid the greater
part of Potenza in ruins. In 1860 it was the first town to rise
against the Neapolitan government.
POTGIETER, EVERHARDES JOHANNES (1808-1875), Dutch
prose writer and poet, was born at Zwolle, in Overyssel, on the
I7th of June 1808. He started life in a merchant's office at
Antwerp. In 1831 he made a journey to Sweden, described
in two volumes, which appeared at Amsterdam in 1836-1840.
Soon afterwards he settled in Amsterdam, engaged in commercial
pursuits on his own account, but with more and more inclination
towards literature. With Heije, the popular poet of Holland
in those days, and Bakhuizen van den Brink, the rising historian
(see also GROEN VAN PRINSTERER), Potgieter founded De Muzen
(" The Muses," 1834-1836), a literary review, which was, how-
ever, soon superseded by De Gids (" The Guide "), a monthly,
which became the leading magazine of Holland. In it he wrote,
mostly under the initials of " W. D g," a great number of
articles and poems. The first collected edition of his poems
(1832-1868) appeared in 2 vols. (Haarlem, 1868-1875), preceded
by some of his contributions to De Gids, in 2 vols. also (Haar-
lem, 1864), and followed by 3 vols. of his Studien en Schetsen
(" Studies and Sketches," Haarlem, 1879). Soon after his
death (Feb. 3, 1875) a more comprehensive edition of
Potgieter's Verspreide en Nagelaten Werken (" Miscellaneous
and Posthumous Works ") was published in 8 vols. by his
friend and literary executor, Johan C. Zimmerman (Haarlem,
1875-1877), who likewise supervised a more complete edition
of Potgieter's writings which appeared at Haarlem in 1885-
1890 in 19 vols. Of Potgieter's Hel Noorden in Omtrekken
en Tafreelen (" The North in Outlines and Pictures ") the
third edition was issued in 1882, and an edition de luxe of
his poems followed at Haarlem in 1893. Under the title oi
Personen en Onderwerpen (" Persons and Subjects ") many
of Potgieter's criticisms had collectively appeared in 3 vols. at
Haarlem in 1885, with an introduction by Busken-Huet.
Potgieter's favourite master among the Dutch classics was Hooft,
whose peculiarities in style and language he admired and imitated.
The same vein of altruistic, if often exaggerated and biased, abhor-
rence of the wonted conventionalities of literary life runs through all
his writings, even through his private correspondence with nuet,
parts of which have been published. Potgieter remained to his death
the irreconcilable enemy of the Dutch " Jan Salie," as the Dutchman
is nicknamed who does not believe in the regeneration of the Dutch
people. Potgieter held up the Netherlanders of the golden age of the
208
POTHIER POTOCKI, S. F.
l6th and I7th centuries as models to be emulated. In these views
he essentially differed from Huet. Yet the two friends worked
harmoniously together; and when Potgieter reluctantly gave up
De Gids in 1865, it was Huet whom he chose as his successor. Both
then proceeded to Italy, and were present at the Dante festivities
at Florence, which in Potgieter's case resulted in a poem in twenty
stanzas, Florence (Haarlem, 1868). In Holland Potgieter's influence
has been very marked and beneficial ; but his own style, that of ultra-
purist, was at times somewhat forced, stilted and not always easily
understood. (H. Tl.)
POTHIER, ROBERT JOSEPH (1699-1772), French jurist,
was born at Orleans on the 9th of January 1699. He studied
law for the purpose of qualifying for the magistracy, and was
appointed in 1720 judge of the presidial court of Orleans,
thus following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather.
This post he held for fifty-two years. He paid particular atten-
tion to the correction and co-ordination of the text of the
Pandects, his Pandeclae Justinianae in novum ordinem digestae
(Paris and Chartres, 1748-1752) being a classic in the study
of Roman law. In 1749 he was made professor of law in the
university of Orleans. He wrote many learned monographs on
French law, and much of his work was incorporated almost
textually in the French Code Civil. He died at Orleans on the
2nd of March 1772. Of his numerous treatises the following
may be specially mentioned: Traite des obligations (1761);
Du Control de vente (1762) ; Du Central de bail (1764) ; Du Control
de societe (1765); Des Conlrals de prtt de consomplion (1766);
Du Central de depot el de mandal (1766); Du Conlrat de nanlisse-
menl (1767), &c. His works have several times been published in
collected form (edited by Giffrein, 1820-1824; by Dupin, 1823-
1825, and by Bugnet, 2nd ed. n vols. 1861-1862).
See Dupin, Dissertation sur la vie el les outrages de Pothier (Paris,
1825), and Fremont, Vie de R. J. Pothier (Orleans, 1850).
POTHOOK, an S-shaped metal hook for suspending a pot
over a fire. While one extremity is hooked to the handle of
the pot, the other is caught upon an iron crane moving on a
pivot over the fire. Modern cooking-ranges have obviated the
necessity for this arrangement, but it is still to be seen in great
numbers of country cottages and farmhouse kitchens all over
England, and in small artisans' houses in the west midlands and
the north. In the elementary teaching of writing the " pot-
hook " is a script of similar shape.
POTI, a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
of Kutais, at the mouth of the Rion on the coast of the Black
Sea, 193 m. by rail W.N.W. of Tiflis and 35 m. by sea N. of
Batum. Pop. (1882), 3112; (1897), 7666. The white walls of
the fortress contrast with the green trees which surround them,
and the lighthouse, 117 ft. high, is visible 17 m. Situated
in a marshy delta not more than 25 ft. above the level of the
river, Poti is extremely unhealthy, fever and ague prevailing
in summer and autumn. The Russians have improved the town
and port, but the latter is still exposed to west and south-west
gales. A new entrance was constructed in 1905, and a new inner
harbour was at the same time under construction. The shipping
trade amounts to 500,000 to 600,000 a year, almost entirely
manganese ore, with some maize.
Poti represents the ancient Phasis, a commercial colony of
the Greek city of Miletus. The present fortress was built in
1578 by Sultan Murad III. of Turkey at the time of a war with
Persia. In 1640 it was destroyed by the Imeretians (Georgians),
but it was restored and enlarged. The town was a great slave
market. It was captured by the Russians in 1812 and 1829.
POTLATCH, a term, corrupted from a Nootka Indian word
for " gift," for a ceremonial custom among some of the Indian
tribes of north-west America, consisting in the distribution by
an individual of his property among his friends and neighbours,
who make equivalent gifts, with interest, in return.
POTOCKI, IGNATY (1741-1809), Polish statesman and writer,
son of Eustachy Potocki, general of artillery of the army of
Lithuania, was born at Podhajce. He was educated first at
Warsaw beneath the eye of the pedagogic reformer Stanislaw
Konarski (1700-1773), and subsequently in Italy, where he
proposed to take orders. On returning home, however, he
abandoned this idea, and as a member of the newly instituted
commission of education rendered invaluable services to his
country for the next sixteen years. He earnestly desired a
reform of the constitution also, and was thus attracted to the
party of the Czartoryscy. Elected deputy to every diet since
1778, he was a conspicuous member of the patriotic opposition.
In matters of importance nothing was done without his advice,
and he was esteemed as much for his character as for his talents.
His influence was at its height during the Four Years' Diet,
1788-1792. He was appointed a member of the committee
for the reform of the constitution, defended eloquently the right
of the towns to the franchise, and was an advocate of an alliance
with Prussia. Thus he was one of the creators of the constitu-
tion of the 3rd of May 1791, although his aristocratic antecedents
prevented him from going the lengths of the more radical
reformers. On the formation of the confederation of Targowica,
Potocki emigrated to Dresden; but on the outbreak of the
revolution of 1794 returned to Poland, was appointed a member
of the national government, and entrusted with the conduct of
foreign affairs. On the fall of Warsaw he surrendered to Suvarov
and was sent to Russia, where he remained till 1796. On his
return to Poland he retired to the village of Klimuntowo,
where for the next thirteen years he devoted himself to literature.
At the end of the war of 1809 he was commissioned to go to
Vienna to present to Napoleon the petitions of the Galicians
for the incorporation of their province with the grand duchy
of Warsaw. He died at Vienna the same year. The most
notable of Potocki's works is: Vom Entstehen und Unlergange
der polnischen Konstitutionen vom jten May 1791 (Lemberg,
I793)-
See August Sokolowski, Illustrated History of Poland (Pol.), vol.
iv. (Vienna, 1901). (R. N. B.)
POTOCKI, STANISLAW FELIX (1752-1805), Polish politician,
son of Franciszek Salezy Potocki, palatine of Kiev, of the
Tulczyn line of the family, was born in 1752. He entered the
public service, and owing to the influence of his relations became
grand standard-bearer of the Crown at the age of twenty-two.
In 1782 he was made palatine of Russia, in 1784 a lieutenant-
general, and in 1 789 he purchased the rank of a general of artillery
from the Saxon minister, Briihl, for 20,000 ducats. Elected deputy
for Braclaw at the famous Four Years' Diet, he began that career
of treachery which was to terminate in the ruin of his country.
Yet his previous career had awakened many hopes in him. A
grand seigneur ruling patriarchally in his vast estates, liberal,
enlightened, a generous master and a professed patriot, his
popularity culminated in 1784 when he presented an infantry
regiment of 400 men as a free gift to the republic. But he
identified the public welfare with the welfare of the individual
magnates. His scheme was the division of Poland into an
oligarchy of autonomous grandees exercising the supreme power
in rotation (in fact a perpetual interregnum), and in 1788 he
won over to his views two other great lords, Xavier Branicki
and Severin Rzewuski. The election of Malachowski (q.v.)
and Kazimierz Sapieha as marshals of the diet still further
alienated him from the Liberals; and, after strenuously but
vainly opposing every project of reform, he retired to Vienna
whence he continued to carry on an active propaganda against
the new ideas. He protested against the constitution of the
3rd of May 1791, and after attempting fruitlessly to induce the
emperor Leopold to take up arms " for the defence of the liberties
of the republic," proceeded with his friends in March 1792 to
St Petersburg, and subsequently with the connivance of the
empress Catherine formed the confederation of Targowica for
the maintenance of the ancient institutions of Poland (May 14,
1792), of which he was the marshal, or rather the dictator,
directing its operations from his castle at Tulczyn. When the
May constitution was overthrown and the Prussians were
already hi occupation of Great Poland, Potocki (March 1793)
went on a diplomatic mission to St Petersburg; but, finding
himself duped and set aside, retired to Vienna till 1797, when
he settled down at Tulczyn and devoted himself for the remainder
of his h'fe to the improvement of his estates. He wrote On the
POTOMAC POTOSI
209
Polish Succession (Pol.) (Amsterdam, 1789); Protest against
the Succession to the Throne (Pol.) (ibid. 1790); and other political
works.
See Friedrich Schulz, Poland in the year 1793 (Pol.) (Warsaw,
1899); Josef Zajaczek, History of the Revolution of 1704 (Pol.)
(Lemberg, 1881). (R. N. B.)
POTOMAC, a river in the east central part of the United
States, having its source in the Alleghany Mountains and flowing
S.E. into Chesapeake Bay. It is formed by the union of its
north and south branches, about 15 m. S.E. of Cumberland,
Maryland. The main stream has a length of about 450 m. and
is navigable for large vessels for 113 m. above its mouth. The
north branch, about 1 10 m. long, rises in the north-eastern part
of West Virginia, pursues a north-easterly course, and forms
part of the boundary between Maryland and West Virginia.
The south branch has its sources in Highland county, Va.,
and in Pendleton county, W.Va., and flows north-east for
about 140 m. until it joins the north branch. From the junc-
tion of these two streams until it reaches Harper's Ferry the
Potomac river separates Maryland from West Virginia. At
Harper's Ferry it receives the waters of the Shenandoah river
and cuts through the Blue Ridge Mountains in a gorge noted
for its scenic beauty. From this point to its mouth it forms the
boundary between Virginia and Maryland. The stream crosses
the Blue Ridge Mountains at an elevation of about 245 ft., and
at Georgetown (Washington), 62 m. distant, it meets tidewater.
Of this descent about 90 ft. occurs about 15 m. above Washing-
ton, at the Great Falls, a series of rapids about a mile long and
including a cataract about 35 ft. high. Three and a half miles
above Washington are the Little Falls, which mark the head of
navigation. Large vessels, however, are prevented by a bridge
from proceeding above Georgetown. At Washington there are
two channels, with respective depths at mean low water of 18
and 21 ft. Large sums have been spent since 1870 on improving
these channels. A few miles below the city the river broadens
into a deep tidal estuary from 2\ to 7 m. wide; and channels
24 ft. deep and 200 ft. wide through all the shoals were secured
by the project of 1899. The Anacostia river, or " East Branch,"
which flows into the Potomac just south of Washington, is
navigable for large vessels for about 2 m. and for small scows
and lighters as far as Bladensburg, Md., 8f m. above
its mouth; its natural channel was narrow and tortuous,
and about 18 ft. deep; in 1909 improvements (begun in 1902)
had procured a channel 20 ft. deep at mean low water
and 380 ft. wide. The Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, from
Georgetown to Cumberland, Md., follows the Potomac closely
on the Maryland side. The shipments over the Potomac above
Washington in 1907 were valued at $7,596,494, and those
below Washington at $21,093,800, the principal commodities
being sand and gravel, ice, oils, naval ordnance and supplies,
and building and paving materials. The shipments on the
Anacostia river were of much the same character, and in
1907 were valued at $4,312,687.
POTOROO, or RAT KANGAROO, any member of the diprotodont
marsupial sub-family Potoroinae (see MARSUPIALIA). None of
them exceed a common rabbit in size. They inhabit Australia
and Tasmania, are nocturnal, and feed on the leaves of grasses
and other plants, as well as roots and bulbs, which they dig up
with their forepaws; in this way some of them do considerable
damage to cultivated crops. About ten species are known,-
presenting a considerable range of diversity in minor characters.
The members of the type genus (Potorous) run, rather than leap,
and do not use the hind feet for kicking. In the genus Bettongia
the tail is prehensile, and with it they collect grass and twigs
for making nests in their burrows.
POTOSJ, a department of Bolivia occupying the south-western
angle of that republic, bounded N. by Oruro, Cochabamba and
Chuquisaca, E. by the two last departments and Tarija, S. by
Argentina and W. by Chile and Oruro. Pop. (1900), 325,615,
the larger part Indians; area, 48,801 sq. m. The eastern part
of the department is traversed north to south by the eastern
branch of the Andes, locally known as the Cordillera de los
Frailes and the Sierras de Chichas. Spurs and broken ranges
project eastward from these, between which are the headstreams
of the Pilcomayo and Guapay, the first flowing south-east to the
La Plata, and the second north-east to the Madeira and Amazon.
The Pilcomayo itself rises in the department of Oruro, but several
of its larger tributaries belong to Potosi the San Juan, Cota-
gaita and Tumusla in the south, and Cachimayo in the north.
The western part of the department belongs to the great Bolivian
allaplanicie, or southern extension of the Titicaca basin. It is
a barren, saline waste, almost uninhabitable. In the north,
bordering on the transverse ridge of which the Cerro de Tahua
(17,454 ft.) forms a part, is the depression known as the Pampa
de Empeza, 12,080 ft. above sea-level, which is largely a region
of morasses and saline plains. On and near the southern frontier
is another transverse ridge, in part formed by the Sierra de
Lipez, and in part by apparently detached groups of high peaks;
it is a wate/less desert like the Puna de Atacama.
Potosi is essentially a mining department, though agriculture
and grazing occupy some attention in the eastern valleys. The
western plateau is rich in minerals, especially silver and copper.
The Huanchaca group of mines, situated on the slopes of the eastern
Cordillera, overlooking the Pampa de Empeza, has the largest output
of silver in Bolivia. The Pulacayo mine, belonging to this group,
'Si 1 53 ft. above sea-level, ranks next to the Broken Hill mine of
Australia in production. Between 1873 and 1901 it yielded 4520 tons
of silver, of an estimated value of 23,200,000. Farther south are
the Portugalete mines, once very productive, and near the Argentine
border are the Lipez mines. East of the Cordilleras are the famous
" silver mountain " of Potosi, once the richest silver mine in the
world; the snow-capped peak of Chorolque (18,452 ft.), which is
claimed to have the highest mine in the world ; Porco, a few miles
south-west of Potosi; Guadajupe, Colquechaca and Aullagas.
Besides silver, the Chorolque mines also yield tin, copper, bismuth,
lead and wolfram. In 1907 the national government undertook
railways from Potosi to Oruro, 205 m., and from Potosi to Tupiza,
155 m., to connect with the Central Northern line of Argentina,
which was opened to Quiaca on the frontier on the 25th of May 1908.
In western Potosi the department is traversed by the Antofagasta
& Oruro railway (0-75 metre gauge). Besides Potosf, the capital
of the department, the principal towns are Huanchaca (pop. about
10,000 in 1904), the seat of famous silver mines, 13,458 ft. elevation,
and overlooking the Pampa de Empeza; Uyuni, 9 m. from Huan-
chaca, 12,100 ft. above sea-level, a small town but an important
railway junction and commercial centre on the waterless plain, the
shipping point and supply station for an extensive mining region;
and Tupiza (pop. about 5000 in 1906), a prettily situated town near
the Argentine frontier, on a small branch of the San Juan river,
9800 ft. above sea-level.
POTOSf , a city of Bolivia, capital of the department of Potosf,
47 m. (direct) S.W. of Sucre 1 , or 88 m. by the post-road. Pop.
(1906, estimate), 23,450. Potosf stands on a barren terrace
on the northern slope of the Cerro Gordo de Potosi, 12,992 ft.
above sea-level, and is one of the highest towns in the world.
The famous cerro from which its name is taken rises above
the town to a height of 15,381 ft., a barren, white-capped cone
honeycombed with mining shafts. The town is regularly laid
out with streets crossing each other at right angles. The smoke-
begrimed buildings, many of which are unoccupied and in ruins,
are commonly of adobe. A large plaza forms the conventional
centre, around which are grouped various religious edifices, the
government house, town hall, national college, the old " royal
mint " dating from 1585, and the treasury. The city has a
massive, plain cathedral, which in part dates from early colonial
times, and in part from the closing years of Spanish rule. The
water supply is derived from a costly system of reservoirs and
aqueducts constructed by the Spanish government during the
years of the city's greatest prosperity. There are 27 of these
artificial lakes, and the aqueducts originally numbered 32, some
of which are no longer serviceable. Rough mountain roads
and pack animals are the only means of transportation to and
from Potosf, but a railway from Oruro to Tupiza via Potosf,
forming part of the projected Pan-American route, was con-
tracted for in 1908. In 1611 the population of Potosi was
reported to be 160,000, which probably included the whole
mining district. A part of the diminution since then is explained
by the fact that the great majority of the mines on the cerro
have been abandoned.
210
POTOTAN POTT, P.
The foundation of the city dates from 1547, two years after
the first discovery of silver on the cerro by an Indian herder
named Gualci. Charles V. conferred upon it the title of " villa
imperial." From 1545 to 1800 the crown tax of one-fifth upon
the mineral product amounted to 32,600,000, showing an
acknowledged output of 163,000,000. The actual output,
however, must have been much greater, as Spain was flooded
with contraband silver, and there was a large trade in it at
La Plata ports, whence it was taken to Brazil and Portugal.
The total output to 1864 has been estimated at more than
400,000,000, but the annual output at the beginning of the
2oth century barely exceeded 400,000 ozs. The struggle for
independence began in Potosi on the 9th of November 1810,
but the Spanish forces succeeded in retaining possession down
to 1822.
POTOTAN, a town of fhe province of Iloilo, island of Panay,
Philippine Islands, on the Jalaur river, about 17 m. N. of
Iloilo. Pop. (1903), 37,373, including the population of Dingle
(12,129) an d Mina (4280), annexed after the census was taken.
There is a fine church in the old town and a large stone church
in Dingle; in the old town are several other buildings of masonry
and some beautiful " fire " trees for shade. The principal
industries are the cultivation of sugar-cane, Indian corn, rice,
tobacco and hemp, and the raising of cattle, carabaos, sheep and
horses.
POTSDAM, a town of Germany, the administrative capital of
the Prussian province of Brandenburg, and one of the principal
residences of the German Emperor, beautifully situated on the
river Havel, 16 m. S.W. of Berlin, on the main line of railway
to Magdeburg. Pop. (1905), 61,414. It is also connected with
the capital by two local lines and by a steamboat service through
the chain of lakes formed by the river. The greater part of the
town lies on the right bank of the Havel and is connected with
the Teltow suburb on the opposite bank by a long bridge (Lange
Briicke). At the north end of this bridge rises the royal palace,
a large quadrangular building of the i7th century, with a
colonnade, chiefly interesting for the numerous relics it contains
of Frederick the Great, who made it his favourite residence. At
the south-eastern corner of the palace, close to the bridge, is
the tree under which petitioners waited for the answer to their
grievances, which Frederick the Great gave from an opposite
window. It also contains reminiscences of Voltaire, who resided
here for several years. The principal churches are the Nikolai-
kirche; the Church of the Holy Ghost, built in 1728; the garrison
church, containing the remains of Frederick the Great and his
father, Frederick William I.; and the Friedenskirche, or Church
of Peace, erected by Frederick William IV. in 1845-1850. To the
Friedenskirche is attached a mausoleum built after the model
of a chapel at Innichen in Tirol, in which are buried Emperor
Frederick III. and his consort, the Princess Royal of Great
Britain, and two of their children who died in infancy. Among
other conspicuous buildings are the large barracks and other
military establishments; the town hall; and the Brandenburg
gate, in the style of a Roman triumphal arch. The town has
fine statues of several of the Prussian kings, including Frederick
the Great. The Lustgarten, the Wilhelmsplatz and the Plantage
are open spaces laid out as pleasure-grounds and adorned with
statues and busts. In spite of its somewhat sleepy appearance,
Potsdam has manufactures of silk goods, chemicals, furniture,
chocolate, tobacco and optical instruments. Market-gardening
affords occupation to many of the inhabitants, and the cultiva-
tion of winter violets is a specialty. The Havel is well stocked
with fish. On a wooded eminence to the south of the town lies
the observatory with extensive premises.
Potsdam is almost entirely surrounded by a fringe of royal palaces,
parks and pleasure-grounds, which fairly substantiate its claim to
the title of a " German Versailles." Immediately to the west is the
park of Sans Souci, laid out by Frederick the Great, and largely
extended by Frederick William IV. It is in the formal French
style of the period, and is adorned with fountains, statuary and
artificial ruins. Near the palace is the famous .windmill ; now royal
property, which, accbrding to a tradition now regarded as doubtful,
its owner refused to sell to the king, meeting threatened violence
by an appeal to the judges of Berlin. A little farther on is the
Orangery, an extensive edifice in the Italian style, containing numer-
ous pictures and other works of art. The park also includes the
Charlottenhof, a reproduction of a Pompeian villa. At the west
end of the park stands the New Palace, a huge brick edifice 375 ft.
in length, erected by Frederick the Great at enormous expense in
1 763-1 769. It was occupied for a while by the emperor Frederick III.,
and was rechristened by him " Friedrichskron." On the accession
of the emperor William II. its original name was restored. It is
now the residence of the emperor. It contains reminiscences of
Frederick and of Voltaire, a few pictures by ancient masters, a
theatre, and a large hall decorated with shells and minerals. The
spacious buildings at the back are devoted to the "Lehrbataillon, "
a battalion of infantry composed of drafts from different regiments
trained here to ensure uniformity of drill throughout the army.
To the north of Potsdam lies a small Russian village, Alexandrowka,
built in 1826 to accommodate the Russian singers attached to the
Prussian guards. A little to the east of it, on the Heiligersee, is the
New Garden, containing the Marble Palace. The list of Potsdam
palaces may be closed with two situated on the left bank of the
Havel-^-one at Klein-Glienicke, formerly the country-seat of Prince
Frederick Charles of Prussia (the " Red Prince "), and the other on
the hill of Babelsberg. The latter, designed as a miniature copy of
Windsor Castle, in the midst of a park in the English taste, was
formerly the summer residence of the emperor William I.
Potsdam was originally a Slavonic fishing- village named Poztupimi,
and is first mentioned in a document of 993. It became a town in
the I4th century, but was unimportant until the great elector
built a palace here between 1660 and 1682; and even at the close of
his reign it only contained 3000 inhabitants. The elector Frederick
William I. greatly enlarged Potsdam, and his stiff military tastes
are reflected in the monotonous uniformity of the streets. Frederick
the Great continued his father's work, and is the real creator of
the modern splendour of the town, to which all his successors have
contributed.
See H. C. P. Schmidt, Geschichte und Topographic der Residenz-
stadt Potsdam (Potsdam, 1825); G. Sello, P,otsdam und Sanssouci
(Breslau, 1888); Mugge, Fuhrer durch Potsdam und Umgebung
(Potsdam, 1896); Kopisch, Die koniglichen Schlosser und Garten
zu Potsdam (Berlin, 1854); and Bethge, Die Hohenzollernanlagen
Potsdams (Berlin, 1889).
POTSDAM, a village of St Lawrence county, New York, U.S.A.,
in the township of Potsdam, on the Raquette river, about 68 m.
N.E.of Watertown. Pop. of the village (1905) 4162; (1910) 4036;
of the township (1905) 8992; (1910) 8725. The village is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River railway. It has a
public library and is the seat of a state Normal School (1869),
an outgrowth of St Lawrence Academy (founded in 1810 by
Benjamin Raymond and maintained by him until 1816, when it
was incorporated) ; of the Thomas S. Clarkson Memorial School of
Technology (1896), founded by his sisters in honour of Thomas
Streatfield Clarkson (1837-1894); and of the Crane Normal
Institute of Music. The village has a considerable trade in
dairy products. In the neighbourhood are extensive quarries
of the well-known " Potsdam sandstone," the uppermost division
of the Cambrian system, described as a " fine-grained sandstone
cemented with silica," and very durable. The House of Parlia-
ment at Quebec, All Saints Cathedral at Albany, New York,
and many other public edifices were built of this stone.
The " Ten Towns " of St Lawrence county, including the
township of Potsdam, were sold by the state in 1787. The first
settlement was made on the Raquette river, close to the present
village, in 1803; the township was incorporated in 1806 and
the village in 1831. Potsdam was named after Potsdam in
Prussia because of the occurrence in each locality of reddish
sandstone.
POTT, AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1802-1887), German philologist,
was born at Nettelrede, Hanover, on the i4th of November 1802.
He studied in Gottingen, and in 1825 became schoolmaster at
Celle, Hanover; but after two years removed to Berlin, where he
became privatdozent at the university. He studied comparative
philology, and in 1883 was made professor at Halle, where he
lived till his death on the sth of July 1887. His Etymologische
Forschungen (1834-1836) entitled him to rank as Bopp's foremost
disciple in the Indo-Germanic science of language. Pott also
devoted much attention to the origins of the gipsies.
POTT, PERCIVALL (1714-1788), English surgeon, was born
in London on the 6th of January 1714. He served his appren-
ticeship with Edward Nourse, assistant surgeon to St Bartholo-
mew's Hospital, and in 1736 was admitted to the Barbers'
POTTER, A. POTTER, J.
211
Company and licensed to practise. He became assistant
surgeon to St Bartholomew's in 1744 and full surgeon from 1749
till 1787. He died in London on the 22nd of December 1788.
The first surgeon of his day in England, excelling even his pupil,
John Hunter, on the practical side, he introduced various
important innovations in procedure, doing much to abolish the
extensive use of escharotics and the actual cautery that was
prevalent when he began his career. A particular form of
fracture of the ankle which he sustained through a fall from his
horse in 1756 is still described as Pott's fracture, and his book,
Some few Remarks upon Fractures and Dislocations, published in
1768 and translated into French and Italian, had a far-reaching
influence in Great Britain and France. " Pott's disease " is a
spinal affection of which he gave an excellent clinical description
in his Remarks on that kind of Palsy of the Lower Limbs which is
frequently found to accompany a Curvature of the Spine (1779).
Among his other writings the most noteworthy are A Treatise on
Ruptures (1756), Observations on the Nature and Consequences of
those Injuries to which the Head is liable from external violence
(1768), and Chifurgical Observations (1775). There are several
editions of his collected works; that published by Sir James
Earle in 1790 contains a sketch of his life.
POTTER, ALONZO (1800-1865), American bishop of the
Protestant Episcopal Church, was born at Beekman (now La
Grange), Dutchess county, New York, on the 6th of July 1800.
His ancestors, English Friends, settled in Portsmouth, Rhode
Island, between 1640 and 1660; his father was a farmer, a
Quaker, and in 1798 and in 1814 was a member of the New York
Assembly. The son graduated at Union College in 1818, and
in 1821-1826 was professor of mathematics and natural philo-
sophy there. In 1824 he was ordained priest, and married a
daughter of President Eliphalet Nott of Union College; she died
in 1839, and in 1841 he married her cousin. He was rector of
St Paul's Boston, from 1826 to 1831, when he became professor
of moral and intellectual philosophy and political economy at
Union. In 1838 he refused the post of assistant bishop of the
eastern diocese (Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and
Rhode Island). He was vice-president of Union College in
1838-1845. After the suspension of Henry Ustick Onderdonk
(1780-1858) from the bishopric of Pennsylvania Potter was
chosen to succeed him, and was consecrated on the 23rd of
September 1845. Owing to his failing health he visited England
and France in 1858, and in April 1864 sailed from New York
for California, but died on board ship in San Francisco harbour
on the 4th of July 1865.
In 1846 he established the western and north-eastern convocations
of priests in his diocese; from 1850 to 1860, when its corner-stone was
laid, he laboured for the " Hospital of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in Philadelphia"; and in 1861 he established the Phila-
delphia Divinity School. In 1842 with George B. Emerson (1797-
1871) he published The School and the Schoolmaster, which had a
large circulation and great influence. In 1847, 1848, 1849 and 1853
he delivered five courses of lectures on the Lowell Institute founda-
tion. He advocated temperance reform and frequently delivered
a lecture on the Drinking Usages of Society (1852) ; he was an oppon-
ent of slavery and published a reply to the pro-slavery arguments
of Bishop John Henry Hopkins (1792-1868) of Vermont. He
edited many reprints and collections of sermons and lectures, and
wrote: Political Economy (1840), The Principles- of Science applied
to the Domestic and Mechanic Arts (1841), Handbook for Readers and
Students (1843), and Religious Philosophy. (1870).
See M. A. de Wolfe Howe, Memoirs of the Life and Services of the
Right Reverend Alonzo Potter, D.D. (Philadelphia, 1871).
His brother, HORATIO POTTER (1802-1887), was bo in Beek-
man, New York, on the 9th of February 1802. He graduated
at Union College in 1826, was ordained a priest of the Protestant
Episcopal Church in 1828, was rector for several months in Saco,
Maine, and in 1828-1833 was professor of mathematics and
natural philosophy at Washington (now Trinity) College, Hart-
ford, Connecticut. In 1833-1854 he was rector of St Peter's,
Albany; in November 1854 he was elected provincial bishop of
New York in place of Benjamin Tredwell Onderdonk (1791-
1861), who had been suspended, and upon Onderdonk's death
he became bishop. In 1868 his diocese was divided, the new
dioceses of Albany, Central New York and Long Island being
separated from it. Bishop Potter attended the Lambeth
conferences of 1867 and 1868. His failing health put an end
to his active service in 1883, when his nephew, H. C. Potter (q.v.),
became his assistant. He died in New York City on the and
of January 1887.
POTTER, HENRY CODMAN (1835-1008), American Protes-
tant Episcopal bishop, the son of Bishop Alonzo Potter, was
born in Schenectady, New York, on the 25th of May 1835. He
was educated in the Philadelphia Academy of the Protestant
Episcopal Church and in the Theological Seminary of Virginia,
where he graduated in 1857. He was ordained deacon in 1857
and priest in 1858; was rector of Christ Church, Greensburg,
Pennsylvania, in 1858-1859, and of St John's Church, Troy,
N. Y., in 1859-1866; refused the presidency of Kenyon College
in 1863 and the bishopric of Iowa in 1875; was secretary of
the House of Bishops in 1866-1883; and was assistant rector
of Trinity Church, Boston, in 1866-1868, and rector of Grace
Church, New York City, in 1868-1884. In October 1883 he was
consecrated assistant to his uncle, Horatio Potter, bishop of
New York, and in 1887 succeeded him. The Rev. David Hummell
Greer (b. 1844) became his coadjutor in September 1903, and
succeeded to the bishopric after the death of Bishop Potter in
Cooperstown, N. Y., on the 2ist of July 1908. During Bishop
Potter's administration the corner-stone of the Cathedral of
St John the Divine was laid (in 1892).
He was notable for his interest in social reform and in politics:
as rector of Grace Church he worked to make it an " institutional
church " with working-men's clubs, day nurseries, kindergartens,
&c., and he took part in the summer work of the missions on the
east side in New York City long after he was bishop; in 1900 he
attacked the Tammany mayor (Robert A. Van Wyck) of New York
City, accusing the city government of protecting vice, and was a
leader in the reform movement which elected Seth Low mayor
in the same year; he frequently assisted in settling labour disputes;
he worked for the re-establishment of the army canteen and
attempted to improve the saloon, which he called the " poor man's
club " notably by his taking part in the opening (August, 1904)
of the unsuccessful Subway Tavern. He published: Sisterhoods
and Deaconesses at Home and Abroad (1872); The Gates of the East
(1876), a book of travels; Sermons of the City (1881); Waymarks
(1892) ; The Scholar and the State (1897) ; The East of To-day and To-
morrow (1902); The Industrial Situation (1002); Law and Loyalty
(1903). and Reminiscences of Bishops and 'Arch-Bishops (1906).
See Harriett A. Kayser, Bishop Potter, the People's Friend (New
York, 1910).
His brother, CLARKSON NOTT POTTER (1825-1882), was a civil
engineer, then (1848-1868) a practising lawyer in New York City,
and in 1869-1875 and in 1877-1881 a Democratic member of the
National House of Representatives. Another brother, ROBERT
BROWN POTTER (1829-1887), a lawyer and a soldier, commanded
the 5151 New York Volunteers at Cedar Mountain, Second Bull
Run and Antietam, was wounded at Antietam and at Petersburg,
was commissioned major-general of volunteers in September 1865,
and was mustered out in 1866. A third brother, ELIPHALET NOTT
POTTER (1836-1901), was rector of the Church of the Nativity,
South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in 1862-1869, was professor of
ethics in Lehigh University in 1869-1871, and was president of
Union College in 1871-1884, of Hobart College in 1884-1897, and of
Cosmopolitan University, a correspondence school, in 1897-1901.
POTTER, JOHN (c. 1674-1747), archbishop of Canterbury,
was the son of a linen-draper at Wakefield, Yorkshire, and was
born about 1674. At the age of fourteen he entered University
College, Oxford, and in 1693 he published notes on Plutarch's
De audiendis poetis and Basil's Oratio ad juvenes. In 1694 he
was elected fellow of Lincoln College, and in 1697 his edition of
Lycophron appeared. It was followed by his Archaeologia
graeca (2 vols. 8vo, 1697-1798), the popularity of which endured
till the advent of Dr William Smith's dictionaries. A reprint
of his Lycophron in 1702 was dedicated to Graevius, and the
Antiquities was afterwards published in Latin in the Thesaurus
of Gronovius. Besides holding several livings he became in
1704 chaplain to Archbishop Tenison, and shortly afterwards
was made chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Anne. From 1708 he
was regius professor of divinity and canon of Christ Church,
Oxford; and from 1715 he was bishop of Oxford. In the latter
year appeared his edition of Clement of Alexandria. In 1707
he published a Discourse on Church Government, and he took a
prominent part in the controversy with Benjamin Hoadly,
212
POTTER, P. POTTO
bishop of Bangor. In January 1737 Potter was unexpectedly
appointed to succeed Wake in the see of Canterbury. He died
on the loth of October 1747. His Theological Works, consisting
of sermons, charges, divinity lectures and the Discourse on Church
Government, were published in 3 vcls. 8vo, in 1753.
POTTER, PAUL (1625-1654), Dutch animal painter, was born
at Enkhuizen, Holland. He was instructed in art by his father,
Peter Potter, a landscape and figure painter of some merit, and
by Nicolas Moeyaert, of Amsterdam. Other masters and
influences are mentioned by various writers, but more than any
other of his contemporaries he learnt through direct study from
nature. By the time he had attained his fifteenth year his
productions were already much esteemed. In 1646 he went to
Delft, where he became a member of the gild of St Luke. At the
age of twenty he settled at the Hague, and there married in
1650. He was patronized by Maurice, prince of Orange, for
whom he painted the life-size picture of the " Young Bull," now
one of the most celebrated works in the gallery of the Hague.
In 1652 he was induced by Burgomaster Tulp of Amsterdam to
remove to that city. His constitution seems to have been
feeble, and his health suffered from the unremitting diligence
with which he pursued his art. He died on the isth of January
1654 at the age of twenty-nine.
His paintings are generally small; early in life, however, he
attempted, but with ill success, to work on a monumental scale,
as in the " Bear Hunt " at the Rijks Museum and the " Boar
Hunt " of the Carstanjen collection, Berlin. Even the famous
"Equestrian Portrait of Tulp" in the Six collection, Amsterdam,
is awkward and stiff and hard in handling. His animals are
designed with careful accuracy, while the landscape backgrounds
are introduced with spirit and appropriateness. His colour is
clear and transparent, his execution firm and finished without
being laboured. His view of nature is purely objective and
unemotional; he painted with the greatest directness and simpli-
city the things he saw before him, and his paintings of horses and
cattle are so individualized that they become faithful portraits
of the animals. The best among his small portraits of horses
are in the Louvre and in the Schwerin Gallery; and certain of
his studies are the most brilliant of all.
The earliest dated picture of importance is " Abraham Entering
Into Canaan " (1642), at the Germanic Museum in Nuremberg, in
which he makes the Scriptural subject an excuse for painting the
patriarch's herds, just as in his " Orpheus " of 1650 (Rijks Museum,
Amsterdam) he makes similar use of the Greek myth. Among his
finest works on a small scale are a cattle piece (1653) in the Due
d'Arenberg's collection, and a similar, though earlier, picture in
the Munich Pinakothek. In spite of his early death Paul Potter
produced a great number of works. He worked with feverish appli-
cation, as though he were aware of the short span of life that was
granted him. He executed a series of some twenty etchings, mainly
of animals, which are simple and direct in method and handling.
Here, as in painting, his precocity was remarkable : his large plate
of the " Herdsman,' produced when he was only eighteen, and that
of the " Shepherd," which dates from the following year, show him
at his best as an accomplished master of the point.
Potter's works have been engraved by Bartolozzi, Danckerts,
Visscher, Le Bas and others. Authentic paintings from his brush
command very considerable prices. At the Stover sale in 1890
" The Dairy Farm " realized the record price of 6090. There are
two of his paintings at the National Gallery, three in Buckingham
Palace and a few in the duke of Westminster's collection. On the
continent of Europe the most numerous and representative examples
are to be found at the Rijks Museum in Amsterdam, the Hermitage
in St Petersburg, and the Dresden Gallery.
See Paulus Potter, sa vie et ses csuvres, by T. van Westrheene (the
Hague, 1 867) ; Eaux-fortes de Paid Potter, by Georges Gratet Duplessis ;
and an old but interesting Volume, Paul Potter, peintre de I'ecole
hollandaise, by C. L. F. Lecarpentier (Rouen, 1818). (P. G. K.)
POTTER, PHILIP CIPRIANI HAMBLEY (1792-1871), English
musician, was born in London, the son of a pianoforte teacher,
and godson of a sister of G. B. Cipriani, the painter. He was
educated for the musical profession under Attwood, Callcott,
Crotch and Woelfl; later at Vienna, where he received encourage-
ment from Beethoven. In 1816 an overture by him was per-
formed at a Philharmonic concert, and he began a distinguished
career as a pianist. In 1822 he became a professor, and in 1832
principal (resigning in 1859) of the Royal Academy of Music; in
1860 an exhibition was founded there in his honour. Cipriani
Potter composed many works, now mostly forgotten, though
important in their day. He died on the 28th of September
1871.
POTTERIES, THE, a name popularly applied to a district of
north Staffordshire, the principal seat of the china and earthen-
ware industry in England. It lies in the valley of the Trent a
little south of its source, and extends into tributary valleys
and up the hills flanking them. For a distance of 9 m. from
south-east to north-west, and about 3 m. from north-east to
south-west, the district resembles one great town, but the chief
centres are Burslem, Hanley, Longton, Stoke-on-Trent,
Fenton and Tunstall. Under the " Potteries federation "
scheme (1908) these towns were amalgamated in 1910 as one
municipal borough under the name of Stoke-on-Trent. New-
castle-under-Lyme, though not sharing in the staple industry,
may also be reckoned in the district. Among the lesser manufac-
turing centres Etruria, ranking as a suburb of Hanley, is well
known for its connexion with Josiah Wedgwood, who founded
works here in 1769. The Wedgwoods and the Mintons are the
two most famous family names connected with the china industry
of the district. Coal and coarse clay are the only local natural
products necessary to the industry; the finer clay and other
ingredients are brought from Cornwall and elsewhere. Ironstone
is raised in the district. The North Staffordshire and London &
North-Western railways and the Grand Trunk canal are the
principal means of communication.
POTTHAST, AUGUST (1824-1898), German historian, was
born at Hoxter on the i3th of August 1824, and was educated at
Paderborn, Munster and Berlin. He assisted G. H. Pertz, the
editor of the Monumenta Germaniae historica, and edited the
Regesta pontificum romanorum, 1198-1304 (Berlin, 1874-1875).
From 1874 to 1894 he was librarian of the German Reichstag.
Potthast is chiefly known through his monumental Bibliolheca
historica medii aevi (1862), a guide to the sources of European
history in the middle ages. The work, in the form of an index,
gives particulars of practically all the historical writers of Europe
and their work between 375 and 1500. A new and enlarged
edition appeared at Berlin in 1896. Potthast died on the I3th
of February 1898.
POTTINGER, ELDRED (1811-1843), Anglo-Indian soldier and
diplomatist, entered the Bombay Artillery in 1827, and after
some years of regimental duty was appointed to the political
department under Colonel (afterwards Sir Henry) Pottinger.
In 1837 he made a journey through Afghanistan in disguise.
Arriving at Herat, he found it threatened by a Persian army
(with which were some Russian officers) and immediately made
himself known to the Afghan commander, offering his services.
The attack which soon followed was conducted with the greatest
vigour, but the defence, inspired by Pottinger, was invariably
successful, and after a year the siege was raised. For this great
service Pottinger was thanked by the governor-general, the earl
of Auckland, made brevet-major, and also received the C.B.
He was also appointed political officer at Herat. In 1841 he
was political officer in Kohistan when the revolt against Shah
Shuja broke out there. Taking refuge with the Gurkha garrison
of Charikar, Major Pottinger stood a siege of fourteen days,
and then made an adventurous retreat to Kabul. Less than a
fortnight after his arrival Sir William Macnaghten was murdered,
and Pottinger succeeded to his position as envoy to the Afghan
court. The apathy of the military leaders made resistance
hopeless, and it only remained to negotiate for the withdrawal
of the British mission. Pottinger himself was one of the hostages
handed over to Akbar Khan, and thus escaped the massacre
in the Khyber Pass. Released, after many months' captivity,
by Sir George Pollock's army, he returned to India, and a year
later died while visiting Hong-Kong.
POTTO, the native name of the West African slow-lemurs,
popularly miscalled " sloths," and scientifically known as
Perodicticus, a name referring to the aborted condition of the
index finger, which forms their most distinctive feature. The
ordinary potto (P. potto) is about the size of a squirrel, but with
POTTSTOWN POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARiMING 213
large staring eyes, and a mere stump of a tail; its general colour
is rufous brown. Bates's potto (P. batesi), of the Congo, is
nearly allied; but the awantibo (P. [Arctocebus] calabarensis) ,
of Old Calabar, differs by the complete loss of the tail (see
PRIMATES).
POTTSTOWN, a borough of Montgomery county, Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river, 40 m. N.W. of Phila-
delphia. Pop. (1910 census) 15,599. Pottstown is served
by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways,
and by electric lines to neighbouring towns. In the borough is
the Hill School (1851), an excellent secondary school for boys.
There is trade with the surrounding country, which is devoted
to farming and dairying and abounds in iron ore and limestone,
but the principal industry is the manufacture of iron and steel,
the first commercially important iron furnaces in Pennsylvania
having been established near the site of Pottstown in 1716-1718.
In 1905 the factory products were valued at $8,144,723 (10-7%
more than in 1900). Three miles from Pottstown, in an amuse-
ment park, are the " ringing rocks," which cover about an acre,
and have varying tones when struck, so that tunes may be
played upon them. Pottstown was settled and laid out in
1752 and was named Pottsgrove in honour of its founder,
John Potts (1710-1768); in 1815 it was incorporated as a
borough and in 1829 the present name was adopted.
POTTSVILLE, a borough and the county-seat of Schuylkill
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at Schuylkill Gap through Sharp
Mountain on the Schuylkill river, about 90 m. N.W. of Phila-
delphia. Pop. (1910 census) 20,236. It is served by the
Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways, and by the Eastern Pennsylvania railway company to
the borough of Minersville (pop., 1910, 7240), about4jm. N.N.E.,
and to the other boroughs in the immediate neighbourhood,
for which Pottsville is a business and shipping centre. It is
picturesquely situated in the famous Schuylkill coalfield and
on the old Schuylkill canal and Tumbling Run, and has a con-
siderable number of summer visitors. There are large repair
shops of the Pennsylvania and of the Philadelphia & Reading
railways at Pottsville. In 1905 the total value of the factory
products was $5,805,788.
The first settlers here, a single family, were massacred by the
Indians in August 1780; a second settlement was established
about 1795, and an iron furnace was erected a few years later.
In 1804 this furnace was purchased by John Pott (1750-1827),
the founder of the borough; in 1807 coal was discovered; in
1816 the town was laid out; in 1828 it was incorporated as a
borough; and in 1851 the borough became the county-seat. In
1854-1877 Pottsville was a centre of the Molly Maguire
disturbances, and here a number of the leaders were tried
and convicted in 1876-1877. In 1908 the borough of Yorkville
(pop., 1900, 1125) was annexed to Pottsville.
POTWALLOPER, or POTWALLER, the name of a class of
persons who were entitled in certain English boroughs to the
parliamentary franchise. The word is usually taken to mean
literally " one who boils a pot," from " wallop " or " gallop,"
which Skeat (Etym. Did., 1898) connects with the Old Low
Ger. wallen, to boil, cf. " well," i.e. which springs or boils up.
The " Potwalloper " was denned in Curry's Case, 1838 (Falc
and Fitz., p. 311) as "one, whether he be a householder or a
lodger, who has the sole dominion over a room with a fireplace
in it, and who furnishes and cooks his own diet at his own
fireplace." The Representation of the People Act (1832)
reserved these ancient franchise rights to their then holders only.
In the Return of Parliamentary Constituencies (Electors, &c.),
1898, there was one " potwalloper " on the register.
POUCHED MOUSE, the colonial name for any member of
the polyprotodont marsupial genus Phascologale (see MARSUPI-
ALIA). There are over a dozen species, none larger, the most
much smaller than a rat. The food of these animals is almost
entirely insects, which some pursue among the branches of trees,
while others are purely terrestrial. Pouched mice are found
throughout Australia, where all the species have uniformly
coloured fur, and also in New Guinea and the Aru and some
of the adjacent islands, most of the Papuan forms being
distinguished by striping on the back. In the view of Oldfield
Thomas these marsupials fill the place held in Malaya by the
tree-shrews, and in South America by the smaller opossums.
POUGHKEEPSIE, a city and the county-seat of Dutchess
county, New York, U.S.A., and on the east bank of the Hudson
river, 73 m. N. of New York City. Pop. (1910 census),
27,936. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River,
the New York, New Haven & Hartford, the West Shore, the
Central New England, and the Poughkeepsie & Eastern (merged
in the Central New England) railways, and by river steamboat
lines on the Hudson. A cantilever railway bridge, 2260 ft. long
(6767 ft., including approaches) and 200 ft. above the water,
spans the Hudson at this point. The city is built partly on
terraces rising 200 ft. above the river and partly on a level
plateau above. On the Hudson here is the course for the inter-
collegiate boat-races in which the American college crews (save
those of Yale and Harvard, which row on the Thames at New
London) have rowed annually, beginning in 1895, except in 1896,
when the race was rowed at Saratoga. In the north-eastern part
of the city is College Hill Park, and in the centre is Eastman
Park (n acres, originally the home of Harvey Gridley Eastman).
Vassar College (<?..) , one of the most famous women's colleges
in America, occupies extensive grounds a short distance east
of the city. Other educational institutions are the Lyndon
Hall School (1848) for girls, Putnam Hall (for girls), St Faith's
School (Protestant Episcopal; removed in 1904 from Saratoga
Springs, where it was founded in 1890), Riverview Military
Academy (1836), and Eastman Business College, one of the
largest commercial schools in the country, founded in 1859 by
Harvey Gridley Eastman (1832-1878). Immediately north of
Poughkeepsie is the Hudson River State Hospital for the
Insane (1871); in the city are the Vassar Brothers' Hospital
(1878), with which a nurses' training school is connected; the
Vassar Brothers' Home (1881) for aged and infirm men; the
Poughkeepsie Orphan House and Home for the Friendless (1847) ;
the Old Ladies' Home (1870); the Pringle Memorial Home
(1899), for aged and indigent men, and the Adriance Memorial
Library (45,000 volumes in 1909). The city is a manufacturing
centre of considerable importance; the factory products in 1905
were valued at $7,206,914, an increase of 29-2% over 1900.
Poughkeepsie was settled by the Dutch about 1698, taking its
name from an Indian word " Apokeepsing," or " Pooghkepe-
singh," which seems to have been the name of a waterfall on the
river front. The New York legislature met in Poughkeepsie
in 1778, 1780, 1781, 1782, 1788 and 1795, and here in 1788
met the convention which ratified for New York the Federal
constitution (July 28). Poughkeepsie was incorporated as a
village in 1799 and was chartered as a city in 1854.
POULTICE, a mass of linseed-meal, bread or other substance,
sometimes of medicinal herbs, mixed with boiling water and
enclosed in muslin or linen and applied to the skin to reduce
inflammation, to induce warmth, or when mixed with mustard,
&c., as a counter-irritant. The word seems to have been taken
from the plural pultes of the Lat. puls, pottage, pulse, Gr. T6Xroj.
POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING. The term
" poultry " (from " poult," Fr. povlet, dim. of poule, a. fowl) is
usually regarded as including the whole of the domesticated
birds reclaimed by man for the sake of their flesh and their eggs.
The most important is the common fowl, which is remarkable
as having no distinctive English name; but the present article
also deals with the poultry-farming side of the turkey, the
guinea-fowl, the duck and the goose. For purely zoological
details the separate articles referred to should be consulted.
Fowls. The common fowl (see FOWL) belongs to the restricted
genus Callus, of which four wild species are known the Bankiva
jungle fowl (G. ferrugineus) , the Sonnerat jungle fowl (G.
sonnerali), the Ceylon jungle fowl (G. stanleyi), and the forked-
tail jungle fowl (G. furcatus). The origin of the domesticated
breeds is ascribed by Darwin, Blyth and other naturalists to
the Bankiva fowl, much stress being laid on the comparative
want of fertility in the hybrids produced between this species
214
POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING
or the domesticated breeds and the other three forms of wild
Galli, but it is probable that this want of fertility was due in
great part to the unnatural conditions under which the parent
and offspring were placed, as, if bred under more natural condi-
tions, there is no difficulty in rearing these hybrids or in breeding
from them with the domesticated varieties.
Breeds. The number of poultry exhibitions has nowadays
multiplied to such an extent that as many as twenty shows have
been criticized in print in one week in Great Britain. Competition
has increased the money value of prize fowls and created a large
class almost a profession who have considerable pecuniary in-
terests embarked in breeding and exhibiting such birds. This
professionalism, and the interests at stake, have in turn naturally
given rise to many proceedings of doubtful character, which it has
been found needful to keep in check by an organization known
as the Poultry Club. An enormous multiplication of varieties is
another phase of this development, nearly all breeds having had
their older subdivisions supplemented by new colours, produced
through crossing and skilful selection, amidst which buff or orange,
now bred in nearly all fowls, has had a curious popularity. While
formerly the diminutive bantams were confined to a few well-
marked varieties, all the large breeds of poultry have now been
dwarfed into bantam size by the skill of breeders. To enter farther
into this branch of the subject is beyond the scope of the present
article, but it may be interesting to state that at a public auction in
1901 one prize fowl was sold for 15-
Game Fowls. Game fowls differ less from the wild Bankiva than
any other variety; they are, however, considerably larger, and carry
the tail more erect than the wild birds. Game fowls in England
were long cultivated not only as useful poultry, but on account
of their combative tendencies for the cock-pit. The comb in the
ime is single, the beak massive, the spurs strong and very sharp,
here is a tendency towards the assumption of the female plumage
by the males, and distinct breeds of " henny " game are known.
Game are highly esteemed for the table on acccunt of their plumpness,
the amount of the breast-meat, owing to the size of the pectoral
muscles, being very great, from which cause, combined with their
hardihood, they are most valuable for crossing with other breeds, as
the Dorking. English-bred game have been reared of many varieties
of colour, retaining in all cases their distinctive peculiarities of form.
Game fowls have been reduced in size by selective breeding, and
exceedingly minute game bantams have been produced with the
distinguishing characters of the larger breed. But the long-legged
and long-necked " stilly " game fowls, which resulted at one time
from breeding for exhibition purposes, have been again superseded
in favour of the old and genuine type.
Cochins. This type, which must be regarded as including not only
the birds generally so-called but also the Brahmas and Langshans,
is of very large size, some of the males reaching the great weight
of 16 or 17 ft. They are distinguished by a profusion of downy
plumage, with small wings and tails; they are incapable of long
flight, and the pectoral muscles are consequently but feebly
developed. The Cochins originally imported from Shanghai were
of several colours; some of the grey birds in America were crossed
with the grey Chittagong, the Brahmas being the result of the cross,
and they became established as a pure breed, faithfully reproducing
their own type. The Langshans, a later importation, have fuller
breasts and less abundant plumage. The exaggeration of fluff
and leg-feather has removed all Cochins it is to be feared per-
manently^from amongst popular and useful breeds, and in only
less degree the Brahma, once the most popular breed of the day.
On the other hand, new sub-breeds, based upon a cross from one or
the other of the Asiatic races, have been multiplied and largely bred,
these being all of smooth-legged type and somewhat less in size.
A sub- variety of Cochin, raised in America, by crossing with a cuckoo-
coloured breed long known as Dominiques, became fashionable
under the name of Plymouth Rocks. They are cuckoo-coloured,
viz. each feather is marked with transverse grey stripes on a lighter
ground, and, as in all cuckoo-coloured breeds, the cocks are of the
same colour as the hens; their legs are not feathered, and the plumage
is not so loose as that df the more typical Cochins. To the original
cuckoo-coloured Plymouth Rock have been added buff and white
varieties; and by crossing Cochins and Brahmas with other fowls,
American breeders produced another useful race of compact form
with smooth yellow legs, and white feathers laced with black round
the edges, called the silver-laced Wyandotte, to which were speedily
added other colours and patterns of plumage. The feathered Lang-
shan has given rise to the black Orpington with smooth legs; and a
local cross of Cochin and Dorking prevalent in Lincolnshire, to a
buff breed with smooth white legs, now called the buff Orpington,
though quite unrelated to the former. All these are useful for
table, and good layers.
Malayan Fowls. The Malayan type has been long recognized
as of Eastern origin. The birds are of large size, close and scant in
plumage, with very long legs and necks. The Callus giganteus of
Temminck, which he regarded erroneously as a distinct species,
belonged to this group, as did the Kulm fowl and the grey Chittagong
of the United States. The Malays are of savage disposition. Several
smaller breeds of a somewhat similar type are known as Indian
Game; some of these, as the Aseels, are of indomitable courage.
Until the arrival of the so-called Cochin breeds from the north of
China, Malays were the largest fowls known in Europe and were
employed to impart size to other varieties by crossing.
Spanish. The Spanish or Mediterranean type is well marked.
The birds are of moderate size, with large single erect combs and
white ear-lobes. In the black Spanish the whiteness of the ear-lobe
extends over the face, and its size has been so greatly developed
by cultivation that in some specimens it is 6 or 7 in. in length and
several in breadth. Closely related to the Spanish, differing only
in colour of plumage and extent of white face and ear-lobe, are the
white and brown Leghorns, the slaty-blue Andalusians, the black
Minorcas, &c. All are non-incubators, the desire to sit having
been lost in the tendency to the increased production of eggs, which
has been <teveloped by the persistent and long-continued selection
of the most fertile layers. The white-faced black Spanish, once the
most widely kept, has almost disappeared; but the allied red-faced
Minorca and the blue Andalusian have achieved great popularity as
free layers of large white eggs; and the yellow-legged Leghorns of
similar type, though rather smaller, have spread on all sides with
much multiplication of varieties, the latest of which, with mottled
black and white plumage, is termed the Ancona.
Hamburghs. The Hamburghs, erroneously so called from a name
given them in the classification adopted at the early Birmingham
shows, are chiefly breeds of English origin. They have double
combs and small white ear-lobes. There are various sub-varieties.
Those with a dark crescent-like mark on the end of each feather of
the hen are termed Spangled Hamburghs. Others are of uniform
black plumage. A somewhat similar breed of smaller size, with
each feather of the hens marked with transverse bands of black
on a white or bay ground, is termed Pencilled Hamburghs ; they were
formerly known as Dutch Everyday-layers. These breeds arc all non-
sitters and lay a remarkably large number of eggs. Hamburghs in
England have been depressed in recent years by the complicated
system of breeding separate strains for each sex; but there has been
introduced from Europe the hardy Campine or Braekel, resembling
the pencilled Hamburghin plumage, but larger and with a single
comb, and laying a large egg in great numbers.
Crested Fowls. The crested breeds (non-incubating) have long been
cultivated on the continent of Europe and are admirably delineated
in the pictures by Hondekoeter and other early Dutch artists. In
Great Britain they are erroneously termed Polish. The develop-
ment of the feathered crest is accompanied by a great diminution
in the size of the comb, which is sometimes entirely wanting. The
wattles also are absent in some breeds, their place being occupied
by a large tuft of feathers, forming what is termed the " beard."
In all the crested breeds there is a remarkable alteration of the
cranium, the anterior part of the skull forming a prominent hollow
tuberosity which contains a very large part of the brain. This
portion of the brain-case is rarely entirely ossified. There are
numerous sub-varieties of crested fowls. The best-known breeds in
England are the spangled, with a dark mark at the end of each
feather. This mark often assumes a crescent shape, the horns of
the crescent sometimes running up each margin of the feather so as
to form a black border; feathers so marked are termed " laced " by
poultry-fanciers. There are also white Polish and a buff variety.
A very distinct sub-variety is the black breed with a white crest
on the head and large pendent wattles. A variety with the arrange-
ment of these colours reversed was formerly known, but it has now
become extinct. Some of the larger breeds of the west of Europe
are closely related to the Polish. The Creve-coeur is a crested breed
of uniform black colour; it is of large size and of great value for the
table and for egg-production.
The Houdan is a black and white breed of very similar character.
In some breeds the form of the body and structure of bones of the
face closely resemble those of the Polish, but there is an absence of
the feathered crest, the crescent-shaped comb becoming more largely
developed ; such are those known as Guelders, Bredas, and La Fleche,
the latter being the best French fowl for eating. A small white-
crested variety, profusely feathered on the legs, was received about
1864 from Turkey; they are known as Sultans. The older French
breeds are less kept than formerly, but a race originated in France
by crossing Houdans with Dorkings and light Brahmas, and known
as the Faverolles, is a tender and quick-growing table fowl, and even
in the Houdan district itself is displacing the Houdan, one of its
ancestors. The Faverolles have single upright combs, beards and
whiskers, slightly feathered legs, and five toes on each foot ; and the
general colour of the hen is salmon or fawn, with an almost white
breast.
Dorkings. The Dorking type includes fowls that have for many
generations been bred for the supply of the London markets. They
are all fleshy on the breast and of fine quality. The Dorkings have
an extra toe, a monstrosity which leads to disease of the feet. The
Surrey and Sussex fowls are four-toed. The coloured Dorkings were
greatly increased in size by crossing with an Indian breed of the
Malay type. The birds of the Dorking type are fair layers and good
sitters. They are rather delicate in constitution, and are chiefly
bred in the south of England. Crossed with the game breed they
furnish a hardy fowl, plumper than the Dorking and larger than the
POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING
215
Game, which is of unsurpassed excellence for the table. Mating a
Dorking cock with large game hens is found to be the most advan-
tageous.
Silk Fowls. These constitute a singular variety, in which the
barbs of the feathers are not connected by barbules and the entire
plumage has a loose fibrous appearance; similar variations are found
amongst other species of birds, but are soon lost in a wild state.
The silk fowl best known is that in which the plumage is perfectly
white, whilst the skin, cellular tissue between the muscles, and the
periosteum covering the bones are a deep blue-black, the comb and
wattles being a dark leaden blue. The birds are admirable sitters
and mothers, and are much valued for rearing pheasants, being of
somewhat small size. Though of remarkable appearance when
cooked, they are of good quality. In crosses with other breeds the
silky character of the plumage is generally lost, but the dark skin and
intermuscular cellular tissue remain and greatly lessen the value of
the birds in the market.
Frizzled Fowls are birds in which each feather curls outwards
away from the body. They are common in India, but are not
adapted to the climate of Britain, as the plumage offers an imperfect
protection against wet.
Rumpless Fowls are those in which the coccygeal vertebrae are
absent; there is consequently no tail. By crossing, rumpless breeds
of any variety may be produced. They arenot desirableto cultivate,
as, from the structural peculiarities, the eggs are very apt to escape
being fertilized.
Dumpies or Creepers are birds in which the bones of the legs
are so short that their progression is considerably interfered with.
The best known are the Scotch dumpies.
Long-tailed Fowls, under the various names of Yokohama or
Phoenix fowls, or Shinotawaro fowls, are singular varieties recently
introduced from Japan, in which the sickle-leathers of the tail are
6 or 7 ft. long. In Japan they are said to assume a much greater
length. One bird in the museum at Tokio is stated to have sickle-
feathers 17 ft. long. In other respects the fowls are not peculiar,
resembling the birds of the Game type.
Bantam. This term is applied to fowls of a diminutive size
without any reference to the particular breed. By careful selection
and crossing with small specimens any variety can be reduced to the
desired size. The Chinese had in the Summer Palace at Peking small
Cochins weighing not more than I Ib each. The Japanese have long
possessed a dwarf breed with enormous tail and comb, and with
very short legs. One of the most artificial breeds is the Sebright
bantam, named after its originator. This bird has the laced or
marginal feather of the Polish combined with the absence of male
plumage in the cocks, so that it may be described as a hen-feathered
breed with laced plumage. When perfect in marking it is of singular
beauty, but is not remarkable for fertility.
Most of the modern changes in breeds, broadly speaking, have
been in the direction of replacing poultry with chiefly fancy
points by really useful fowls, yet it is noteworthy that they have
been carried out by fanciers, or breeders for exhibition, proving
that there has not been that practical antagonism between the
aims of these breeders and the production of food which some
have alleged. But there has further been, since 1890 especially,
a remarkable development of what has been termed " utility "
poultry-breeding.
Feeding and Egg-production. These aspects of poultry-
culture are closely connected, and in both such advances have
been made as almost amount to a revolution. The breeders of
the United States have led the way, and, though it had first
been taught in England, were the first to practise generally
the systematic breeding, year after t year, from the best layers
only. It had always been known that some hens would lay
from 150 to 200 eggs in a year whilst many did not exceed 100,
and some laid much less. This was tested (on a better stock than
the average) at the Maine experimental station in 1898-1899,
260 pullets being selected, of which 5 died and 19 were stolen.
Of the remainder, 39 laid 160 eggs each or more, and 22 less than
100, the rest coming between these figures; the five best laid 200,
201, 204, 206 and 208 eggs in twelve months, and the three
worst only 36, 37 and 38 in the same time. From such figures
the money value of selective breeding is apparent. As a proof
of what may be done by systematic breeding, one American
breeder obtained an average of 196 eggs per annum from as
many as 600 white Leghorns, and another 194 eggs from 140
Plymouth Rocks; greater numbers have been obtained from
single birds or small pens of fowls, but these are results from
considerable flocks.
It has been proved, however, that such averages as these
cannot be obtained unless they are fed for as well as bred for.
The most successful egg-farmers now feed their poultry on
definite " rations," compounded so as to give what is termed a
proper " nutritive ratio," or proportion of albuminoids to
carbonaceous material. The basis of such feeding is analysis
of foodstuffs, in some form which shows simply their percentages
of albuminoids, fats or hydrocarbons, carbohydrates (starch,
sugar, &c.), salts, crude husk or fibre, and water. Fats, being
relatively much richer in carbon than the starch compounds,
are generally multiplied by 2-25, and this product added
instead to the carbohydrates; then the ratio of albuminoids or
nitrogenous matter to this total of carbonaceous compounds is
the " nutritive ratio." The following is a useful table of
analyses made out in this way, taken from The Book of Poultry:
Analyses of Poultry Foods.
Articles of Food.
Albuminoids or
Flesh-formers.
Fats or Oils.
Fats X l
Value in
Carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates.
Salts and
Minerals.
Husk or Tibre.
6
'f-
Grains and Meals.
Linseed meal
32-9
7-9
= 17-8
35-4
5-7
8-9
9-2
Beans and peas
24-0
1-5
= 3-4
48-0
2-5
IO-O
14-0
Malt sprouts
23-2
1-7
= 3-8
48-5
5-7
10-7
10-2
Oatmeal ....
18-0
6-0 = 13-5
63-5
2-O
'5
9-0
Middlingsor FineSharps
16-0
4-0
= 9-0
57-o
4-5
4-5
14-0
Sunflower seed
16-0
21-5=48-4
21-4
2-6
29-0
9-5
Bran
15-5
4-0
= 0-0
44-0
6-0
16-5
14-0
Oats and ground oats
15-0
5-5 = 12-4
48-0
2-5
19-0
IO-O
Wheat
12-0
1-8
= 4-0
70-1
1-8
2-3
I2-O
Barley (and meal)
I2-O
1-4
= 3-2
56-0
3-6
14-0
13-0
Millet seed
"3
4-0
= 9-0
60-0
3-o
9-4
12-3
Maize
10-5
8-0 = 18-0
66-5
1-5
2-5
I I-O
Rye
10-5
1-8
= 4-0
72-5
1-9
1-7
II-6
Buckwheat ....
10-0
2-2
= 5-0
62-2
2-0
I I-O
12-6
Hempseed ....
IO-O
2I-O
= 47-2
45-o
2-O
14-0
8-0
Dan
9'5
4-5
= IO-I
68-7
i-5
3-3
12-5
White bread
8-8
1-8
- 4-0
56-4
o-5
o-o
32-5
Rice
6-6
0-4
= 0-9
80-0
o-o
o-o
13-0
Brewers' grains
5'4
1-6
= 3-6
12-5
I-O
3-8
75-7
Vegetables.
Potatoes ....
6-5
o-o
= o-o
41-0
2-0
o-o
50-5
Red clover ....
5-o
0-8
= 1-8
13-3
2-4
6-5
72-0
Meadow grass .
3-5
I-O
= 2-2
13-5
2-O
4'7
75-3
Hay
8-4
2-6
= 5-8
41-0
6-2
27-2
14-6
Cabbage ....
2-4
0-4
= 0-9
3-8
i-4
-5
90-5
Onions
1-5
O-2
= 0-5
4-8
-5
2-0
91-0
Turnips
o-5
O-I
= O-2
4-0
I-O
i-4
93-o
Animal Foods.
Dry meat meal. . .
71-2
13-7
= 30-8
o-3
4-1
0-0
10-7
Flesh of fowls .
2I-O
3-8
= 8-5
o-o
1-2
o-o
74-0
Horse-flesh ....
21-7
2-6
= 5-8
o-o
1-4
o-o
74-3
Lean of beef
20-5
3-5
= 7-9
0-0
1-6
0-0
74'4
Fresh-cut bone
2O-2
26-1
= 58-7
o-o
24-0
o-o
29-7
Dried fish ....
48-4
u-6
= 26-1
o-o
29-2
o-o
10-8
Milk : . . . .
4-0
3-5
= 7-9
4-8
0-7
o-o
87-0
Skim milk (separated)
3'i
0-3
= 0-7
5-3
0-7
o-o
90-6
Eggs (yolk only) .
16-0
30-0
= 67-5
o-o
I-O
0-0
53-o
,, (white only) .
12-0
2-0
= 4-5
0-0
1-2
0-0
84-8
Many writers have introduced unnecessary complication into
a very simple matter. Some elaborately compute the amount of
" dry matter," which is needless if our analyses show the proportion
of water, as above. Others have calculated " digestibility," on the
theory that food not rejected as excrement is " retained in the body."
This theory has a basis in the case of animals which consume a large
amount of hard indigestible fibre, excreted in such a form as horse
manure; but fowls macerate all they eat in the crop, and grind it in
the gizzard, and in their case the excreta represent very little
undigested food, but mainly the final result of the vital processes,
and of food usefully employed in carrying these on. We may be
sure that we more than allow for any factor of indigestibility if
we merely leave out any crude husk or fibre, giving that to the
fowl for whatever it is worth, and calculate our ratio direct from
the figures of the table.
Two extremely simple cases will suffice as examples of the modern
method. Potatoes are often cheap, but on account of their starchy
composition require a " balance, and the same may be said of
maize : one method of balancing each will show what is meant and
the simplicity of the calculation. We will take potatoes and bran
first.
2l6
POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING
Ratio of Potatoes and Bran.
Albumi-
noids.
FatXaJ.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Salts.
i Ib Potatoes . .
i Ib Bran ....
6-5
15-5
o-o
9-0
41-0
44-0
2-O
6-0
22-0
9-0
85-0
+9-0
8-0
94-o
Adding here the fats X 2\ to the carbohydrates, we get the ratio
of the mixture as 22 : 94, or about I : 4i, which is very good. Coming
next to the maize, let us suppose that it is desired to feed this as
grain in the evening, and to " balance " it by an equal weight of
" mash " or soft mixture in the morning. One way would be as
follows :
A Diet containing Maize.
Albumi-
noids.
FatXaJ.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Salts.
3 ft Maize (X 3) .
I Ib Horse-flesh. ., .
2 ft Ground oats (X2).
31-5
21-7
30-0
54-o
5'8
24-8
199-5
0-0
96-0
4-5
I-O
5-o
83-2
84-6
295-5
+84-6
10-5
380-1
This ration explains how in such a case we must multiply the figures
for maize by 3, and those for oats by 2, being the proportions we are
taking to one portion of horse-flesh. The ratio of this dietary comes
out slightly lower than I : 4J.
The proper ratio for feeding fowls has received much discussion.
Dietetic authorities mostly agree that about I : 5 is the best for
maintenance of animal life generally, and more specifically that there
should be of albuminoids about 18 parts in 100, of fats 7 and carbo-
hydrates 75. That should suffice for growing chickens; but it
is fairly obvious that fowls fattening may require more fat, while
the constant production of eggs, whose high ratio is shown in the
analyses, must require a larger amount of albuminoids. This fact
is indicated by the hen herself, which when laying devours large
earthworms, usually rejected with disgust at other times. She
shows by this appetite how specially she needs albumen ; and fowls
on a wide range, though only fed with corn, may thus in summer
" balance " a dietary for themselves by the worms and insects
which they procure. When they cannot do this, more albumen
must be supplied, and the general opinion of practical egg-farmers
has tended towards a ratio of i : 4 or i : 4! for hens in full lay.
One successful American breeder feeds as high as i 13, and states
that his results have been best at that figure.
Passing from theory, the greatest practical advance in poultry-
feeding has probably been the discovery of the benefit to be
derived from dividing the extra supply of albumen between
fresh bones cut up small in a mill (known amongst breeders as
" cut bone ") and such green food as clover or cabbage. The
bones contain a good proportion of fat, and of mineral salts also,
which careful experiments have shown to be of great importance
both in egg-production and for growing stock. Green food had
until recently been looked upon chiefly as a corrective, or neces-
sity for health, though it was known that fowls on a pasture
grazed largely. But the nutritive ratio of clover is as high as
1:3, and American poultry-farmers now use it largely as really
albuminous food, to promote laying. Its use in this way also
allows more animal food to be used without ill effect ; and to this
free use of clover and cut bone in conjunction the improved
results upon American egg-farms are largely due. The following
is the " mash " ration on a successful American egg-farm, and
represents a high forcing diet: middlings or sharps 100 Ib, maize-
meal 75 Ib, gluten-meal (a highly nitrogenous by-product of
American flour-milling) 25 Ib, clover-meal 80 Ib, meat-meal
35 Ib, all weighed dry, mixed with boiling water in the evening,
and kept covered all night.
The majority of poultry-farmers give their stock each day
one feed of grain, and one of soft meal-food or " mash," but by
no means agree as to the times for these meals. In England,
morning mash and evening grain are almost universal, the latter
giving more support during the long fast at night, and the former
more rapid recuperation on cold mornings. But in America
and Canada, where the climate compels confinement of the fowls
for months together in enclosed sheds, health and eggs can only
be secured by constant " scratching," to promote which the
grain is scattered amongst loose litter spread several inches deep.
Many, therefore, prefer to scatter the grain in the morning and
feed the mash at night, alleging that a good breakfast of mash
makes the fowls lazy, with bad results. Others state that this
is avoided by a rather scantier morning feed of mash, with a
slight sprinkle of grain in the litter afterwards. In 1890 a
careful experiment was made by the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, two similar lots of pullets being fed upon similar food,
on the two plans, for two periods of several months each, in
summer and winter seasons, and each lot receiving, besides the
morning and evening feeds, a slight sprinkle of millet in the
litter, to promote exercise. In egg-production there was
scarcely any difference, what little there was being in favour of
the morning mash; and the birds thus fed became also somewhat
the heaviest. The most remarkable result was that the weight
of manure voided in the night was nearly double in the case of
the evening-mash birds, showing the rapid digestion of mash
food.
Artificial Incubation and Rearing. In the separate article on
INCUBATOR, details are given concerning the appliances used in
artificial hatching and rearing, and the subject may be only
briefly treated here.
Even in England the eggs hatched in incubators now probably
equal, or nearly equal, those hatched under hens: in America
the wide practice of artificial incubation is difficult to realize.
Of small-sized machines one Illinois maker sold 14,800 in 1899;
and in regard to large sizes, in 1900 at least seven names and
addresses were known of operators who each used from 55 to as
many as 85 machines, every machine holding 300 or more eggs:
somewhat smaller plants were of course far more numerous.
Experience on such a vast scale has led to a practical advance
of considerable importance. While in England it is still usual
to effect empirical adjustment of ventilation and moisture, the
better American incubators now dispense with direct moisture
altogether. It was remembered that the hen hatches without
moisture, and equally so the egg-ovens of Egypt; the absence of
direct air-current, and consequently of any rapid evaporation,
being the obvious explanation. The manufacturers therefore
set themselves to slow the movement of the air; and when this
object was effectually accomplished, it was found that there
was no need for moisture, and that the chicks also hatched out
stronger and in higher proportion. The general opinion in
the United States, where many farmers tested both hens and
machines on a large scale, whilst still undecided between them, is
that the proceeds of artificial incubation are superior by about
10%, and this is based upon hatches of thousands annually.
Artificial hatching necessitates artificial brooding, and in this
also great changes have taken place, any real success in rearing
having been for some years far behind that in hatching. The
method universally attempted at first might be called the
" coverlet " system, nestling material such as strips of flannel or
wool, warmed from above, being provided for the chicks to
nestle under, as they do under the feathers of the hen. Many
were reared in this way, but failures were also terribly general,
and these were ultimately traced to confinement and pollution
and heating and rebreathing of the air, caused by the nesth'ng
material. That system is now abandoned, warmed but open
chambers being provided, which the chicks use at pleasure, but
which have no coverlet to rest upon their bodies. In some,
heated pipes traverse the upper part of the chamber, some
inches above the chicks; in others a warm iron plate radiates
heat in the same way; in others warmed air is brought in by
flues or openings; in some small ones the lamp itself burns in
the chamber of the brooder: but the principle is common to
all of a warmed shelter, open above, and generally with an outer
chamber also, sheltered but not heated, which breaks the transi-
tion to the open air outside. In America a very large propor-
tion of the chickens reared are brought up till hardy in the large
" brooder-houses " mentioned below.
POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING
217
Poultry-farming. Poultry-farming in a practical sense i:
now carried on somewhat extensively in various ways, under
standing that term to include any case where poultry-cultun
is carried on for substantial profit, or as an important interest
of the holding, beyond the mere breeding of prize birds foi
exhibition. The difficulty never had been, as some have stated
in ground getting tainted or rent costing too much. It is now
well understood that in the English climate 100 birds per acre
must not be exceeded, though it is far better to confine them to
one-half or one-third of the space, while some crop is got ofi
the remainder when they go yearly to absolutely fresh ground
The mere rent of an acre is not much for 100 fowls, but the rea
difficulty was and is that a fowl is such a small unit, entailing
constant liability to small losses and wastes, and necessity for
labour and oversight out of proportion. Hence at a time when
100 eggs per annum was thought a fair return for each bird, and
there was but a poor and uncertain market for them, this
difficulty was insuperable. A very different average production
would now be worked for; while, on the other hand, the greater
crowding into cities, and growing appreciation of eggs as an
article of diet, have caused a market for " new-laid " eggs at
good prices which previously did not exist. It is these changes
which have altered the conditions.
The chief development in England at the beginning of the
aoth century was a very large increase in the poultry kept upon
farms. Formerly very few were kept, looked after casually by
the mistress or a boy, and only expected to provide for the house-
hold and occasionally a few shillings in cash, while any food
expressly fed to them was grudged. It has now been taught all
over the country, by lecturers under the county council tech-
nical instruction committees, that poultry pay best of any
branch upon a farm. It has become generally known that,
provided they can be run over the farm by using detached
houses, and not huddled together, a dozen hens per acre can
be kept upon a holding without interfering with any other
stock ; indeed, the curious fact is observed that horses and cattle
prefer to graze over grass that might be thought soiled by the
fowls. Where the statement was once derided, it is now a
commonplace of county council lecturers, that the additional
manure thus made is really worth to the farm from sixpence
per bird per annum for small breeds to as much as one shilling
for very large ones. Out of a large number of similar instances
collected in 1900, one specimen may be given. In Worcester-
shire 210 fowls had the run of 100 acres, lots of 20 to 30 being
kept in detached houses. From 20,000 to 25,000 eggs per
annum were marketed, and 150 to 200 chickens, the food
averaging about 40, and the cash return 90 to 100. The
almost universal opinion is that the manure pays for the labour,
and that the annual profit averages from 45. to 55. 6d. per head.
Poultry-farming on a larger scale than this is also carried on
in connexion with the Sussex fattening industry, presently
described. That was until recently a separate business, chickens
being bought from neighbouring small rearers, or imported
from Ireland, to go directly into fattening cages; and it has
often been stated that rearing and fattening together were
incompatible. This was so far true that the manure made by
numbers of fattening poultry was very considerable, and had to
be used upon a small holding kept in order to use it; such a
holding, therefore, received as much as it could possibly bear,
and was thereby " sickened " for live poultry running at large.
But with an extra holding or larger holding this is not the case,
and increasing competition and the desire for the two profits
have led to a large amount of rearing and fattening combined.
In 1894 one of the officers of the agricultural commission found
8000 chickens being reared and fattened annually on one farm
of 200 acres, and this proved only a pioneer: in 1000 he found
(amongst many such instances) 4000 reared upon 80 acres,
1500 upon 22 acres and 5000 upon an extra holding (taken for
the purpose) of 40 acres. In most 'cases the main cereal crop
was oats, to be fed to the fowls; and some cows were kept, the
skim milk from which was used in the same way ; but the poultry
was the controlling interest of the whole.
On any such scale as this the manure becomes of great impor-
tance. About 1880 Dr Augustus Voelcker, chemist to the Royal
Agricultural Society, made the following analysis of two samples,
one moist or fresh dropped, the other freed from much moisture
by storing under cover for four weeks:
Fresh Partially Dried
t
Moisture
Organic matter and ammonia salts.
Tnbasic phosphate of lime .
Magnesia, alkaline salts, &c.
Insoluble silicious matter (sand)
Manure
61-63
20-19
2-97
2-63
'2-58
IOO-OO
Manure.
41-06
38-19
5-13
3-13
12-49
100-00
Containing nitrogen
Equal to ammonia
.... 1-71 3-78
.... 2-09 4-59
Valued in the usual way, Dr Voelcker found that the moist
manure was worth 2 per ton, and the drier stored manure
4 45. per ton; but though the figures were indisputable, for
many years such manure was practically unsaleable. Gradually
in Sussex it became saleable at 6d. per bushel, and in 1900 some
of the smaller falters were selling it at prices varying from 45.
to 153. per load; the larger men either used it themselves or
obtained higher prices.
Really large poultry-farms are few in England, and to
give quite recent facts would be to run the risk that they
might prove ephemeral. It has been supposed that the
common experience is failure after two years' trial, but
this is unduly pessimistic. Even in 1901 two farms in
Berkshire were selling eggs from over 2000 and 3000 laying
hens; and there was one farm in the west of England,
occupying 300 acres with the poultry (besides a shorthorn
herd and other branches), which had a stock of 5000
pullets for laying, and had been in existence four years,
a large capital amounting to thousands of pounds having
been sunk in it. The owner explained that two years was the
critical period, simply because for about that time there were
practically no returns, and that in his case he had only " turned
the corner " after three years. Though a practical man
already, he had begun in a small way with one incubator and
training one man; gradually extending, building up his own
market, organizing his own selling agency, and building a mill
to grind his own grain. Only such gradual extension by
practical men can ever lead to success.
Besides the breeding of prize poultry, the changes mentioned
in the early portion of this article have led to another class of
breeding directed to the supply of pure races from good stock,
but bred mainly for purposes of utility. The demand for such
stock, at fair prices, though far below those for prize stock, is
a good index of the development of the poultry industry. The
establishments which supply it furnish eggs for hatching, or
stock birds, or newly hatched chickens, which are now hatched
n incubators and sold by thousands when only one day old, at
which age they travel without needing food. Some of such
establishments are quite large. One in Yorkshire occupies
43 acres solely devoted to this business.
Poultry-farming has reached its fullest development in the
Jnited States, owing no doubt to the apparently inexhaustible
market; butcher's meat being far less eaten than in England,
and poultry and eggs to a large extent replacing it as national
'ood. More especially is there an enormous demand for small
chickens, known as " broilers," weighing from i \ ft to 2 Ib only,
destined to be split in half and broiled on a gridiron. These
)irds being unfattened, and ready at ten or twelve weeks, give
a quick turnover with less expense and risk than older fatted
)irds; and this peculiar demand has largely dominated American
poultry-farming, a great deal of which runs in the direction of
;reat " broiler-plants " solely devoted to the hatching and rear-
ng of these broilers, while large " brooder-houses," similar to
hose used in that business, are prevalent on more miscellaneous
arms. The broiler business started at Hammonton in New
ersey about 1880-1885, when plant after plant was rapidly
reeled, some of which have since shut down; but many olhers
218
POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING
have taken their place, and some of the originals are still running.
The chicks are all hatched in incubators (many plants running
from 20 to 40 machines), and then transferred to long " brooder-
houses," built with a corridor all along one side, the rest being
divided into successive pens for the chickens. These latter are
moved along every few days to the next of the pens, which are
arranged so as to give rather more space as the birds grow
larger. Each pen has next the corridor a " hover " or brooding-
shelter. These have no nestling material, but only a roof or cover
somewhat to retain the heat, closed by a curtain cut into strips
in front; and are warmed by hot-water pipes running along the
building. Generally these pipes run some inches above the chicks
reposing on the floor, and are set rather on a slant, so as to be
higher for the bigger chicks in the larger pens; but in some cases
they run under the floor, and warm the air which enters under the
hovers. Every hover, with its inmates, can be reached from the
corridor at the back of all. In many cases the chickens are
confined in these small pens until large enough, the floors being
littered and regularly cleaned; but some raisers have also small
outside yards which they use in fine weather. The mortality
in nearly all plants is great, as might be supposed. There are
said to be some at Hammonton which only market 30% of the
eggs incubated, yet pay a modest profit at that, which is
allowed for. On the one hand, a broiler realizes about four
times the cost of its own hatching and food; on the other hand,
the labour is very heavy and the loss considerable : these factors
obviously give a very wide margin of possibilities as regards
success or failure.
The most remarkable establishment of this kind, embody-
ing some novel features, was erected in Ohio at the end of 1896
by J. Loughlin. The plant cost over $60,000, and was
designed to market 250 to 300 broilers per day regularly, weigh-
ing i| Ib each, which were sold alive to one large dealer at
$3 per dozen. Each day an average of 450 eggs were started,
the chicks from which went into one pen. For the chicks, while
small, there were 30 small pens, each with 5 by 10 ft. of
floor space, or at the rate of six chickens per sq. foot; and
there were 60 larger pens each 8 by 12 ft. with outer runs to
each of 8 by 20 ft. Every day the chickens were marketed from
the ninetieth pen, and all the rest moved one pen forward,
leaving the first small pen vacant for the day's hatch: thus fully
22,000 birds were in the plant at one time.
In more general American poultry-farms the same system of
" brooder-houses " largely prevails, and from many great
numbers of broilers are sent to market; but as both heart and
liver are perceptibly affected by such rearing, birds intended
for stock are either taken out of doors early, or reared in detached
brooders, as in England. Some establishments are mainly egg-
farms, high averages being obtained by the system before
described. Many breeders have a high reputation for their
stock as layers, and derive large profit from selling stock or eggs
to other farms. There are many immense duck-farms or
" ranches," as mentioned below, which sell nothing except
stock ducks or market ducklings. A great many combine the
breeding and sale of exhibition poultry with some or all of these
objects, fancy points being on the whole less distinct from useful
qualities than in England, and the farmer and exhibitor far more
commonly combined.
As a rule, American poultry-farmers employ long ranges of
buildings divided into pens or houses, with enclosed yards in
front; and the most remarkable fact is that interest can be
paid upon the capital sunk in such buildings. The explanation
in some cases is that much is put up by personal labour, while
the cheapness of land and feed are also favourable. But the
climatic conditions also differ. During the winter months the
birds have to be confined in what are called " scratching-sheds,"
and American farmers have successfully reduced to a system
the keeping of them healthy and in profit by scratching amongst
litter in a small space. During this period the outer runs
sweeten and recuperate; smaller runs therefore suffice, and the
stock is kept closer and more compact. Another system is
pursued, more especially about Rhode Island, called the " colony "
plan; detached rough houses, holding forty or fifty hens each,
being scattered over the farm: there may be a hundred houses,
but there is no fencing. This is very economical in buildings,
but expensive in the labour of feeding and collecting eggs, and
the system is only possible near the sea or where there is little
snow. In several cases it has been abandoned for the system
of housing and scratching-sheds.
There are a few very large establishments indeed in the United
States, combining almost every branch. At the Meadow Brook
Farm in Pennsylvania, occupying So acres, the buildings total
112,000 sq. ft. under cover, and the farm has sent to market
in one year 25,000 chickens and 20,000 ducklings, besides selling
many stock birds, and an enormous number of eggs for hatch-
ing at an average price of $40 per 1000. Businesses like this
are very exceptional; but farms on a more moderate scale
are numerous, and intelligent American farmers reckon to make
a profit of a dollar per annum for each head of their laying or
breeding stock.
Table Poultry. National taste governs the market for table
poultry to a large extent. In England white meat, skin and legs
are preferred, and at one time black legs or yellow skin were heavily
discounted. More knowledge has largely removed that prejudice,
but white has a market value still. In France exceedingly white and
smooth skin is preferred, but buyers are indifferent to black legs.
In America yellow skin and legs are actually preferred, such fowls
being thought more juicy ; but there has been some tendency towards
white meat of late. Belgian feeders think the best result follows
from crossing a yellow-skinned race upon a white-fleshed one. It is
some confirmation of this idea that one of the best English table
fowls is the produce of a cross between Dorkings and the yellow-
skinned Indian game, while other similar instances might be cited.
For some years past the quality of British table poultry has been
shown by displays of plucked birds in connexion with the Christmas
Smithfield Cattle Show. For many years France had a reputation
for greatly surpassing British production; and as the best French
fowls readily sell for i each and more in the Paris market, it would
not be surprising if they were superior to such as have to be sold
for 153. per couple. French falters appear to seek and obtain a
smooth whiteness of fat under the skin almost like that of a bladder
of lard which does not find favour in the British market; but the
best judges have considered that the finest English specimens staged
were equal to all comers, and some realized high prices. Foreign
experts, equally with English, admit that England has now
little to learn from any foreign feeders.
The chief supply of the best fowls for the London market has long
come from the Sussex district whose centre is Heathfield : these are
termed " Surrey " fowls, though Surrey now sends few in comparison.
This local industry has been founded in a curious way upon the
" ground oats " of the district, the whole grain being ground up,
husk and all, nearly as fine as flour. This is done by a peculiar local
dressing of the stones, which are " stitched " into little pits by a
pointed pick, instead of being dressed into narrow grooves, as for
flour-milling; and this meal is found specially suitable for feeding
and fattening poultry. In early times cottagers crammed a few
fowls with pellets of meal dipped in milk, but this method is now
quite superseded by machine cramming, a rubber tube from the
machine being introduced into the crop of each fowl, and a stroke
of the foot on a pedal squeezing out a ration of thin, almost creamy,
paste, composed of the ground oats, fat and sour skim-milk, a food
which puts on flesh fast and makes it white and delicate. Great
experience is required in this business. When killed and plucked,
the fowls are placed in a trough whilst still warm, close side by side,
and their backs and breasts pressed closer together by a board loaded
with heavy weights. This combination of fattening and subsequent
shaping constitutes the Sussex system, which is extending in some
other parts of England; many excellent fowls, well fed, but unfat-
tened, are also supplied from Lincolnshire (known as " Bostons ")
and other districts. The largest provincial towns have similar sup-
plies in less degree.
In America larger fowls are called "roasters," to distinguish them
from the broilers above described; and there has grown up in the
eastern states a system of rearing these also in confinement. Hatch-
ing them begins in September, and the birds are at first reared in
brooder-houses; but when large enough are placed about fifty
together in small houses, with 6 by 8 ft. of floor, in small yards
about 20 ft. square. One very successful raiser puts 200 birds into
one pen 10 by 17 ft., in a warmed house, where they remain till
killed at 7 ft or 8 ft weight. One firm had raised in this way, for
seven years in succession, 2000 birds per annum upon half an acre
of ground, but occasionally there is serious mortality in this kind
of business, and as a rule only 60% are reared of those hatched,
the loss of the rest being averaged and allowed for.
In western Europe there is some demand for chickens fattened
quite young, weighing only 8 oz. to 12 oz. each, and known as petits
poussins, or " milk chickens." In Belgium somewhat older ones,
POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING
219
weighing up to I J Ib, are sold as poulets de grains. The demand for
such birds in England is small, and confined to the West End of
London, the flesh being too excessively tender for average English
palates. Birds of similar sizes have lately been finding a market
m the United States, as " squab broilers," but are split and broiled,
and not fattened, the difference being that a whole bird is served
for one portion. .
Turkeys. The varieties of the turkey (q.v.) differ chiefly as
to colour. The principal English breeds are the bronze or Cam-
bridge, the black or Norfolk, the fawn and the white. Of these
the first, especially when crossed with the American, is the
largest and most desirable.
Turkey-breeding has been largely dominated by the magnificent
American bronze breed, derived from wild blood, and distinguished
for size and weight. There is some question whether it does not
require more space and fresher ground than the older English strains,
and may not be more delicate on small holdings. French birds
come largely to the Christmas market in London, but, as compared
with English, are small. The chicks, when hatched after twenty-
eight days' incubation, should be left undisturbed for twenty-four
or thirty hours, during which time they are digesting the yolk that
is absorbed into the intestinal canal at birth. No attempt should
be made to cram them; their first food should consist of sweet
fresh meal, soft custard made with equal parts of egg and milk
set by a gentle heat, and, above all, abundance of some bitter
milky herb, as dandelion, or, much better, lettuce running to seed,
on which they can be reared successfully with very little food of any
other description. The young turkeys progress much better if the
hen has the range of a small enclosure from the first than if she is
confined to a coop; thus reared they are much hardier than when
cooped and corn-fed, and not so susceptible to injury from slight
showers; but a damp locality should be avoided. Turkey-hens
are most persevering sitters, and are employed in France to hatch
successions of sittings of hens' eggs. Turkeys can often be most
advantageously reared by cottagers, as one or two hens only can be
kept, one visit to the male being sufficient to fertilize the entire batch
of eggs. The young turkeys find a larger proportion of their own
food than fowls, and with a good free range cost but little until they
are ready for fattening for the table. In places where the oppor-
tunity serves they may be allowed to roost in the trees with great
advantage. Some wild flocks treated like pheasants are to be found
in several of the large parks in Scotland as well as in England.
Guinea-fowls. The guinea-fowl (<?..) .may be successfully
reared in any dry locality provided it has a good range and trees
in which to roost. The hen lays an abundance of eggs, which
are generally hidden. The birds are useful as furnishing a supply
of poultry for the table in the interval that ensues between the
time when game are out of season and that before chickens arrive
at maturity. On a dry, sandy and chalky soil and in a warm
situation they are reared with ease, but are quite unsuited to
damp, cold localities. The continued vociferation of the hen-
birds renders their maintenance near a house very objectionable,
as the cry is continued throughout great part of the night.
Several variations of colour exist, but they do not require any
detailed description.
Ducks. All the varieties of the domesticated duck are
descended from the common mallard or wild duck, Anas boschas,
a species which, though timid in its wild state, is easily domesti-
cated, and suffers changes of form and colour in a few genera-
tions. The most important breeds are: the Rouen, which,
retaining the colour of the original species, grows to a large
size; the Aylesbury, a large white breed with an expanded lemon-
coloured bill; the Peking, a white breed with a pale yellowish
tint in the plumage, and a very bright orange bill; two breeds
which are entirely black. The smaller of these, which has been
bred down to a very diminutive size, is remarkable for the extreme
lustre of its feathers and the fact that its eggs are covered
with a dark black pigment, which becomes less in quantity
as each successive egg is deposited. It is known by the equally
absurd names of East Indian, Labrador or Buenos Aires duck.
The larger black variety, the Cayuga duck, has been introduced
into England. Decoy or call ducks are small breeds of a very
loquacious character, which were originally bred for the
purpose of attracting the wild birds to the decoys. Some are
of the natural colour, others are white. Amongst the less known
breeds are the Duclair ducks of France, evidently the result
of crossing white and coloured varieties. Among the breeds
differing in structure may be mentioned the Indian Runner
duck, formerly called Penguin duck from its erect attitude,
the hook-billed and the tufted ducks, &c. During the last
fifteen years of the igth century the first of these became very
popular in England as a hardy forager and good layer, many
birds laying 150 to 180 eggs in a year. It is small in body but
good in flavour, and is a great favourite in many districts.
Formerly the greater number of ducklings came to the London
market from the Vale of Aylesbury. This trade still continues,
but the adherence of the Aylesbury duckers to old-fashioned methods,
and the increasing demand, has led to great competition in other
districts, such as Norfolk, Lancashire, Kent, &c. Some of the new
duck-farmers market 10,000 to 15,000 annually, mostly hatched in
incubators, and never allowed in the water or out of the small rearing-
pens. In America, however, this kind of rearing has found its
fullest development, the number who raise 10,000 ducklings or more
being considerable, and a few sending to market, as above indicated,
very large numbers indeed, requiring 40 to 80 incubators to keep
up the supply. It is remarkable that while in England the Aylesbury
is generally preferred, in America the Peking duck is universally
used, and has been made by selection both larger and a better layer.
Some duck-farmers in England have, however, also adopted the
Peking. By good feeding the ducks are caused to lay in the winter
months, when the eggs are hatched under hens, the young ducklings
being reared in artificially warmed buildings or in the labourers'
cottages; they are fed most liberally on soft food, soaked grits,
boiled rice with tallow-melters' greaves, and in ten or twelve weeks
are fit for the market; if killed before moulting their quills, which
they do when about twelve weeks old, they are heavier than after-
wards and much better eating. When ducklings are required for
the early spring markets the old birds must be fed most freely to
cause the production of eggs in cold weather, corn being given
in vessels of water, and the birds must be shut up at night, or the
eggs will be laid in the water, where they sink and become putrid.
Duck-rearing is a very profitable industry, very high prices being
paid for ducklings in the early months of the year. The so-called
Muscovy duck is a Brazilian species, Cairina moschata, which is not
reared for the market, although the young birds are edible. The
drake not unfrequently mates with the common duck, and large
but sterile hybrids are the result.
Geese. The domestic goose (q.v.) of Europe is undoubtedly
the descendant of the migratory Graylag goose, Anser cinereus,
from which it differs chiefly by its increased size. Although
domesticated since the time of the Romans, it has not been sub-
ject to much variation. The most important breeds are the
large grey variety known as the Toulouse, the white breed known
as the Embden, and the common variety frequently marked with
dark feathers on the back, and hence termed " saddlebacks."
After the Crimean War a Russian variety was introduced into
England in which the feathers are singularly elongated, and even
curled and twisted; this breed, termed the Sebastopol, is of small
size and more important as a fanciers' breed than from a practical
point of view. In some countries a second species is domesti-
cated; it is usually termed the Chinese, knob-fronted or swan
goose, Anser cygnoides. Though perfectly distinct as a species,
having a different number of vertebrae in the neck and a loud
clanging voice, it breeds freely with the common goose, and the
hybrids produced are perfectly fertile.
Geese in England are declining in relative popularity. In Germany
they are consumed to an enormous extent, and the British consul-
general at Berlin reports that even the large domestic supplies
have to be supplemented by considerable imports from Russia, a
special "goose-train " of fifteen to forty cars arriving daily from
the Russian frontier at that city. In America there has been in-
creased interest in goose-breeding, and in the Chinese goose
especially, which has been largely bred (with some trifling peculiari-
ties) under the name of the African goose, and crossed with the
Embden and Toulouse. The produce of this African cross is con-
siderM very fertile and profitable to rear.
Geese are much more exclusively vegetable feeders than ducks,
and can only be kept to profit where they can obtain a large propor-
tion of their food by grazing. The old birds should not be killed off,
as they continue fertile to a great age. Geese are readily fattened
on oats thrown into water, and the young, when brought rapidly
forward for the markets, afford a very good profit. The Chinese, if
well fed, lay at a much earlier date than the common species, and,
if their eggs are hatched under, large Cochin hens, giving three or
four to each bird, the young are ready for the table at a very early
period. The nest, as in all cases of ground-nesting birds, should
be made on the earth and not in boxes, which become too dry and
over-heated. In breeding for the market or for the sake of profit,
the very large exhibition birds should be avoided, as many are barren
from over-fatness, and none are so prolific as birds of fair average size.
220
POULTRY AND POULTRY-FARMING
National Interests and Commerce. The foreign importations of
eggs into Great Britain increased rapidly during the later years of the
I9th century. Taking only alternate years for brevity s sake, the
following table shows the amount, value and average price per 120
between 1870 and 1900:
Number, Value and Price of Imported Eggs.
Year.
Number of Eggs.
Value.
Average
Price.
s. d.
1870
430,842,240
1,102,080
6 li
1872
53i.59i.720
1,762,000
7 Ili
1874
680,552,280
2,433,134
8 7
1876
753,026,040
2,620,396
8 4
1878
783,714,720
2,511,696
7 8J
1880
747,408,600
2,235,451
7 2
1882
811,922,400
2,385,263
7 i
1884
993,608,760
2,910,493
7 o
1886
,035,171,000
2,884,063
6 8
1888
,126,793,000
3,083,167
6 6
1890
.234.950.000
3,428,806
6 8
1892
,336,730,000
3,794,718
6 10
1894
,425,236,000
3,786,329
6 5
1896
,589,401,000
4,184,656
6 4
1898
,730,952,000
4,457,117
6 2
1900
2,025,820,560
5,406,141
6 5i
From such figures the conclusion might be drawn that foreign
eggs were "ousting" British to a formidable extent; but such a
conclusion is dispelled when we take into consideration questions of
price and nationality. Imported eggs are of very different qualities
and prices, France averaging for the year 1900, 75. 7jd. per 120,
Denmark 7s. 6|d., Belgium 6s. 2d., Germany 5s. gjd. and Russia
53. 6d., many of the latter being almost putrid when sold in England,
and chiefly used in manufactures, for which, at a low price, they
answer perfectly. Many eggs are sent from Russia to Germany,
Belgium and even Denmark, so that some of these also come from
her, at an original price with which no British producer could com-
pete. A steady decline in imports of the higher priced French eggs,
and an enormous increase of low-priced eggs, explain the drop in
average price from 8s. 7d. per 120 in 1874 to 6s. jjjd. in 1900; and
were this all, the inference would be simply that the selling price of
eggs had fallen. But this is not so. While the higher priced
foreign eggs have thus been largely displaced from the market,
there has grown up a very large demand for British " new-laid
eggs, at prices much higher than any of the above. There is a
wholesale market for such eggs in London. The lowest price (in May)
for 1900 was 73. 6d. to 8s. 6d., and the highest (in December)
193. to 2Os. per 120. The quantity of reputed " new-laid " British
eggs now sold is enormous, and has grown up in the face of foreign
imports, the native producer selling in spite of them, and at far better
prices, many times more than he did, say, in 1875.
The following were the British imports of dead poultry and game
for the last three years of the igth century:
Value of British Imports of Poultry and Game.
Year.
France.
Russia.
Belgium.
Other .
Countries.
1898
1899
1900
217,703
296,555
164,498
139,834
199,282
127,923
165,803
213,603
127,368
183,102
264,327
The total for 1900 thus amounted to 1,010,360. The imports from
France and Belgium are largely for the Christmas market. Those
from Russia are chiefly very small fowls wrapped in paper and packed
in cases of a hundred each, which come over frozen, to be sold at
is. 2d. or is. 3d. each. Other sources include America, Canada
and Australia, which have been sending smaller but increasing
quantities of larger birds, packed in smaller numbers, and which
realize 2s. 6d. to 35. 6d. each, a few of the largest as much as 43. each.
Such supplies have somewhat affected the Sussex fattening industry,
necessitating the production of a lower class of bird at a lower price
and narrower margin; but they look rough and inferior in colour,
and chiefly supply restaurant and hotel demand. The foreign
birds being cold-storage goods, which must be consumed quickly
when taken out, a fresh Sussex fowl of the same weight will always
sell for considerably more.
There are no statistics of British poultry; in Ireland they are
collected. The year 1851 closed a decade in which the number of
holdings under ten acres had decreased enormously, and the number
of poultry in Ireland was then returned as 7,470,694. In 1889
this number had doubled to 14,856,517, and in 1899 there were
18,233,520. The Irish Agricultural Organization Society is doing
much to improve breeds and management, and the packing of eggs,
of which Ireland is a considerable exporter to Great Britain. There
is also now a considerable export of lean chickens for fattening to
Sussex and other parts of England, and a smaller number have also
been fattened in Ireland.
In Australia most of the federated states have a produce export
department, which receives eggs and dead poultry into cold storage
and ships to London, managing, if desired, the whole business. That
of South Australia shipped a good many eggs to England in 1895,
but the temperature was found too low for eggs, and this trade has
so far not developed. Dead poultry come in a similar way from
West Australia and Victoria to London. In New South Wales such
arrangements have inaugurated a small export business which seems
the most active of any, and more seems known about the poultry
industry in this state than in others. The government statistician
estimated the number kept in 1900 at 3,180,000 fowls, 320,000.
ducks, 234,000 turkeys and 97,000 geese, the annual consumption
being about three-fourths of this, and of eggs about 97,000,000.
In Canada the government makes considerable effort to encourage
poultry. It has established several stations where systematic
fattening of chickens in the English manner is taught, and official
experiments are also made on the results of various feeding-rations
and other matters. From these stations shipments of fatted chickens
were first made to Liverpool and London, commencing an export
trade which shows signs of growth.
The poultry industry in the United States is the most gigantic
in the world. By the census of 1900, which tabulates returns from
5,096,252 out of the 5,739,657 farms in the States, the number of
fowls over three months old on the 1st of June 1900 was returned
as 233,598,085, with 6,599,367 turkeys, 5,676,863 geese, and 4,807,358
ducks, or 250,681,673 birds in all, valued at 85,794,996 dollars.
This, however, would include very few of the chickens raised that
year, which would not have reached the age stated, and mainly
represents breeding and laying stock, which thus averages about
49 birds to every holding; it also of necessity omits many of the
smaller city-lot raisers. The value of the poultry raised during the
whole year 1899 is given as 136,891,877 dollars, and of the eggs
produced (1,293,819,186 dozen) at 144,286,186 dollars; a total year's
product of over 56,000,000. Adding only a very moderate amount
for city-lot and other small producers not making return, the poultry
industry in America exceeded in value either the wheat crop, or
swine or cotton crop.
The importance of poultry in France has long been recognized,
being due mainly to the prevalence of moderately small holdings
and the national disposition to small rural industries. The eggs
exported are collected from the farmers by such a well-organized
system that eggs collected on Wednesday are in the London market
the following Tuesday. The home consumption of eggs is also
enormous, so that when prices for foreign eggs decreased in England,
the Paris market paid better. In 1900 the Paris Municipal Council
reported the consumption of eggs in that city alone in the previous
year as 212 per head. Eggs are imported from Italy to some extent.
The conditions in Belgium are somewhat similar to those in France.
Some eggs are imported from Italy, and much of the home production
is from imported Italian hens, kept laying for a year and then killed :
eggs are exported chiefly to France, Great Britain and Germany.
There is a fattening industry somewhat similar to that in Sussex,
lean chickens being bought for fattening in certain markets. The
chief export of these is to Germany, but there is some to the London
market, especially in December.
In the Netherlands the number of poultry increased consider-
ably during the last decade of the igth century, excepting turkeys,
which diminished. Taking 1900 as a typical year, there were
4,083,312 fowls, 430,022 ducks, 36,307 geese, and 13,130 turkeys;
and there were about 70 special establishments for poultry-rearing,
which were rather on the increase, chiefly for local requirements.
Of eggs there were exported to Belgium 656,898, England 370,418
and Germany 3^212,845 kilos; but the imports were in excess of this
by 2,916,269 kilos, and came chiefly from Russia. Dead fowls and
ducks also go to the countries above named.
In Denmark there were in 1900 about 9,000,000 fowls, mostly local
and Italian. The eggs exported numbered 332,000,000, practically
all to England; there were imported 35,600,000, practically all
Russian, re-exported to England. The flourishing export trade is
due to a good co-operative system.
Germany is a large consumer rather than a producer of poultry
products, and chiefly a carrier of her nominal exports. She imports
eggs from Italy and Austria-Hungary as well as from Russia.
Austria-Hungary has a large trade in poultry and eggs. In 1900
the dual monarchy imported poultry to the value of 268,240
and eggs to the value of 1,230,655. But the exports of poultry
amounted to 977,051, and of eggs to no less than 3,750,078.
This country is therefore a very large producer, most of the eggs
going to Germany, and some of them through her on to England.
Italy sends live fowls, for laying, to northern Europe, and eggs
to Belgium and France.
In Russia the growth of the poultry industry has been very great
since 1890. In that year her British trade was small: in 1900 she
bulked largest of all countries in eggs sent to England direct, and
some nominally from others really came from her. Her exports of
eggs (reckoned as l =10 roubles) were valued in 1898 at 3,113,386,
and of live poultry (chiefly geese) at 637,000; but this latter sum is
now exceeded by geese alone sent to Germany, as above noticed.
POUNCE POUND
Her vast southern provinces are, of course, the origin of this produce, I
which is collected by dealers from the farmers, the price realized
by the latter for eggs being in summer sometimes less than a rouble
per hundred. The government has shown considerable interest
in this growing industry in several ways, and produce is carried at
almost incredibly low rates on the State railways; but the vast
distances involved must always confine Russian produce to the
supply of the cheaper class of demand in western Europe. (L. WR.)
POUNCE, (i) To drop upon and seize: properly said of a
bird of prey seizing its victim in its claws. The substantive
" pounce," from which the verb is formed, was the technical
name in falconry for the claws on the three front toes of a hawk's
claws, and so The Book of St Albans (1486) " Fryst the grete
Clees behynde ... ye shall call horn talons. . . . The Clees
within the t fote ye shall call of right her Pownces." (2) To
decorate metal by driving or punching a design into it from the
under or back part of the surface; also to decorate cloth or other
fabrics by punching or " pinking " holes, scalloping the edges,
&c. Both these words seem to be variants of " punch"' (q.v.),
which comes ultimately from the Latin pungere, punctum, to
prick, pierce. From them must be distinguished (3) " pounce, "
a preparation of powdered cuttle-fish or sandarach, the resin
of the sandarach-tree, formerly used for drying ink on the
roughened surface of vellum, parchment or paper where an
erasure had been made; later, the word was also given to the
black sand used generally as a dusting-powder for drying ink
before the invention of blotting-paper. The " pounce-box "
or " pouncet-box " was a familiar object on all writing-tables
till that time. A similar box with pierced lid for holding
perfumes or aromatic vinegar also bore the name. This word is
formed from the Lat. pumex, pumice-stpne, which was employed
for securing a smooth surface on vellum, parchment, &c. The
term " pounce " is also applied to a finely powdered gum of the
juniper or to pipe-clay darkened with charcoal used in trans-
ferring designs to fabrics, wall-surfaces, &c., through holes
pricked in the original drawing.
POUND. 1 (i) An enclosure in which cattle or other animals are
retained until redeemed by the owners, or when taken in distraint
until replevised, such retention being in the nature of a pledge
or security to compel satisfaction for debt or damage done.
Animals may be seized and impounded when (i) distrained for
rent; (2) damage feasant, i.e. doing harm on the land of the person
seizing; (3) straying; (4) taken under legal process: A pound
belongs to the township or village or manor where it is situated.
The pound-keeper is obliged to receive everything offered to his
custody and is not answerable if the thing offered be illegally
impounded.
By a statute of 1554, no distress of cattle can be driven out
of the hundred where taken unless to a pound in the same county,
within three miles of the place of seizure. This statute also
fixes 4d. as the fee for impounding a distress. Where cattle
are impounded the impounder is bound to supply them with
sufficient food and water (Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and 1854) ;
any person, moreover, is authorized to enter a place where
animals are impounded without food and water more than twelve
hours and supply them; and the cost of such food is to be paid
by the owner of the animal before it is removed. A statute
of 1690 gives treble damages and costs against persons guilty
of pound breach; and by statute of 1843 (Pound Breach) persons
releasing or attempting to release cattle impounded or damaging
any pound are liable to a fine not exceeding 5, awardable to
the person on whose behalf the cattle were distrained, with
imprisonment with hard labour in default. In the old law books
>. ' j /"^' i " sense , ('). is represented late in O.E. by the compounds
fund-fold and pund-breche and by the derivative pyndan, to dam up
enclose, and for-pyndan, to shut out. The origin is unknown'
pen, an enclosure is from a different root ; " pond " a small pool
?L W A ?- r ' 1S % i\ h dle En J? lish variant of " pound." In sense (2)
the O.E. and M.E pund, Du. pond, Ger. Pfund, are derivatives
ot the Lat. indeclinable substantive pondo really an ablative
singular as if from pondus (2nd declension) a variant of pondus,
t">"derts, weight. The Lat. pondo is used as a shortened form of
libra pondo pound by weight. Finally is the verb " to pound "
to crush by beating, to strike or beat; this in O.E. is punian, the d
being excrescent as in " sound," noise. The word is rare outside
English; cf. Mod. Du. puin, rubbish, broken stone.
221
varieties of pounds as a common pound, an open pound and
a close pound are enumerated. By the Distress for Rent Act
1737 any person distraining for rent may turn any part of the
premises into a pound pro hoc vice for securing the distress.
Pounds are not now much used. (F. WA.)
POUND (2) (a) a measure of weight; (b) an English money
of account, (a) The English standard unit of weight is the
avoirdupois pound of 7000 grains. The earliest weight in the
English system was the Saxon pound, subsequently known as
the Tower pound, from the old mint pound kept in the Tower
of London. The Tower pound weighed 5400 grains and this
weight of silver was coined into 240 pence or 20 shillings, hence
pound in sense (2) (a pound weight of silver). The pound troy,
probably introduced from France, was in use as early as 1415
and was adopted as the legal standard for gold and silver in
1 527. The act which abolished the Tower pound (18 Hen. VIII. :
the " pounde Troye which exceedeth the pounde Tower in weight
iii quarters of the oz.") substituted a pound of 5760 grains, at
which the pound troy still remains. There was in use together
with the pound troy, the merchant's pound, weighing 6750
grains, which was established about 1270 for all commodities
except gold, silver and medicines, but it was generally superseded
by the pound avoirdupois about 1330. There was also in use
for a short time another merchant's pound, introduced from
France and Germany; this pound weighed 7200 grains. The
pound avoirdupois has remained in use continuously since the
I4th century, although it may have varied slightly at different
periods the Elizabethan standard was probably 7002 grains.
The standard pound troy, placed together with the standard
yard in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons
by a resolution of the House of the 2nd of June 1758,
was destroyed at the burning of the houses of parliament
in 1834. In 1838 a commission was appointed to consider
the restoration of the standards, and in consequence of
their report in 1841 the pound avoirdupois of 7000 grains
was substituted for the pound troy as the standard. A new
standard pound avoirdupois was made under the direction
of a committee appointed in 1834 (which reported in 1854), by
comparison with authenticated copies of the original standard
(see Phil. Trans. 1856). This standard pound was legalized
by an act of 1855 (18 & 19 Viet. c. 72). The standard avoirdu-
pois pound is made of platinum, in the form of a cylinder nearly
1-35 in. high and 1-15 in. in diameter. It has a groove or channel
round it to enable it to be lifted by means of an ivory fork
(for illustration see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES) and is marked
" P.S. 1844. i lb." P.S. meaning Parliamentary Standard. It is
preserved at the Standards Office, in the custody of the Board
of Trade. Copies were also deposited at the Houses of Parlia-
ment, the Royal Mint, the Royal Observatory and with the
Royal Society.
See the Reports of the Standards Commission (6 parts, 1868-1873),
especially 3rd report (on the abolition of troy weight) and 5th
report (on the business of the Standards Dept. and the condition
of the official standards and apparatus; description of the reveri-
fication of the various official standards, with diagrams).
(b) The English monetary unit is the pound; it was originally
a pound weight of silver (hence written for libra, Lat. pound
weight), coined into twenty shillings, and is now represented
by the gold sovereign (q.v.). The pound Scots was at one time
of the same value as the English pound, but through gradual
debasement of the coinage was reduced at the accession of
James I. to about one-twelfth of the value of the English pound,
and was divided into twenty shillings, each about the value of
an English penny. The Egyptian pound, written E, is a gold
coin of 100 piastres, and was made the monetary unit of the
country by a decree of the i4th of November 1885. Its weight
is 8-544 grammes of gold 0-875 fine and its value in English
standard gold is i, os. 6}d. The Turkish pound is written
T. The Turkish monetary system is dealt with at length under
TURKEY: Monetary System.
Valuable information from the historical point of view will be
found in the Reports of the Standards Commission quoted above,
and in H. W. Chisholm's On the Science of Weighing and Measuring
(1877) and his Seventh Annual Report as warden of the standards;
222
POUSSIN POVOA DE VARZIM
R. Ruding, Annals of the Coinage (1819) and H. J. Chaney, Our
Weights and Measures (1897). (T. A. I.)
POUSSIN, NICOLAS (1594-1665), French painter, was born
at Les Andelys (Eure) in June 1594. Early sketches attracted
the notice of Quentin Varin, a local painter, whose pupil Poussin
became, till he went to Paris, where he entered the studio of
Ferdinand Elle, a Fleming, and then of the Lorrainer L'Alle-
mand. He found French art in a stage of transition: the old
apprenticeship system was disturbed, and the academical schools
destined to supplant it were not yet established; but, having
met Courtois the mathematician, Poussin was fired by the study
of his collection of engravings after Italian masters. After two
abortive attempts to reach Rome, he fell in with the chevalier
Marini at Lyons. Marini employed him on illustrations to his
poems, took him into his household, and in 1624 enabled Poussin
(who had been detained by commissions in Lyons and Paris)
to rejoin him at Rome. There, his patron having died, Poussin
fell into great distress. Falling ill he was received into the house
of his compatriot Dughet and nursed by his daughter Anna Maria
to whom in 1629, Poussin was married. Among his first patrons
were Cardinal Barberini, for whom was painted the " Death
of Germanicus " (Barberini Palace) ; Cardinal Omodei, for whom
he produced, in 1630, the "Triumphs of Flora" (Louvre);
Cardinal de Richelieu, who commissioned a Bacchanal (Louvre) ;
Vicenzo Giustiniani, for whom was executed the " Massacre
of the Innocents," of which there is a first sketch in the British
Museum; Cassiano dal Pozzo, who became the owner of the first
series of the " Seven Sacraments " (Belvoir Castle) ; and Fieart
de Chanteloup, with whom in 1640 Poussin, at the call of Sublet
de Noyers, returned to France. Louis XIII. conferred on him
the title of " first painter in ordinary," and in two years at Paris
he produced several pictures for the royal chapels (the " Last
Supper," painted for Versailles, now in the Louvre) and eight
cartoons for the Gobelins, the series of the " Labours of Hercules "
for the Louvre, the " Triumph of Truth " for Cardinal Richelieu
(Louvre), and much minor work. In 1643, disgusted by the
intrigues of Simon Vouet, Feuquieres and the architect Lemercier,
Poussin withdrew to Rome. There, in 1648, he finished for
De Chanteloup the second series of the " Seven Sacraments "
(Bridgewater Gallery) , and also his noble landscape with Diogenes
throwing away his Scoop (Louvre); in 1649 he painted the
" Vision of St Paul " (Louvre) for the comic poet Scarron, and
in ^651 the " Holy Family " (Louvre) for the duke of Crequi.
Year by year he continued to produce an enormous variety of
works, many of which are included in the list given by
Felibien. He died on the igth of November 1665 and was
buried in the church of St Lawrence in Lucina, his wife
having predeceased him.
The finest collection of Poussin's paintings as well as of his
drawings is possessed by the Louvre; but, besides the pictures in
the National Gallery and at Dulwich, England possesses several of
his most considerable works: The " Triumph of Pan " is at Baisildon
(Berkshire), and his great allegorical painting of the " Arts " at
Knowsley. At Rome, in the Colonna and Valentin! Palaces, are nota-
ble works by him, and one of the private apartments of Prince Doria
is decorated by a great series of landscapes in distemper. Through-
out his life he stood aloof from the popular movement of his native
school. French art in his day was purely decorative, but in Poussin
we find a survival of the impulses of the Renaissance coupled with
conscious reference to classic work as the standard of excellence.
In general we see his paintings at a great disadvantage, for the
colour, even of the best preserved, has changed in parts, so that
the keeping is disturbed ; and the noble construction of his designs
can be better seen in engravings than in the original. Amongst
the many who have reproduced his works Audran, Claudine Stella,
Picart and Pesne are the most successful.
Poussin left no children, but he adopted as his son Caspar
Dughet (Gasparo Duche), his wife's brother, who took the name
of Poussin. CASPAR POUSSIN (1613-1675) devoted himself to
landscape painting and rendered admirably the severer -beauties of
the Roman Campagna; a noteworthy series of works in tempera
representing various sites near Rome is to be seen in the Colonna
Palace; but one of his finest easel-pictures, the " Sacrifice of Abra-
ham," formerly the property of the Colonna, is now, with other works
by the same painter, in the National Gallery, London^ The frescoes
executed by Caspar Poussin in S. Martino di Monti are in a bad
state of preservation. The Louvre does not possess a single work
by his hand. Caspar died at Rome on the 27th of May 1675.
See Sandrart, A cad. nob. art. pict.; Lettres de Nicolas Poussin
(Paris, 1824); Felibien, Entretiens; Gault de St Germain, Vie de
Nicolas Poussin (1806); D'Argenville, Abrege de la vie des peintres;
Bouchitte\ Poussin et son asuvre (1858); Emilia F. S. Pattison
(Lady Dilke), Documents inedits, Le Poussin, in L'Art (1882).
POUT, also whiting-pout or bib (Gadus luscus), a fish of the
family Gadidae. It is a small species abundant on the coasts
of northern and western Europe, but less so in the Mediterranean.
It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by
having a deep short body, with more or less distinct dark bars;
a short and obtuse snout, not longer than the eye; the upper jaw
the longer; and a long barbel at the chin. A black spot occupies
the upper part of the base of the pectoral fin. Pout affect certain
localities of limited extent, where a number may be caught with
hook and line. They are excellent food, but must be eaten
soon after capture. A pout of 5 ft is considered a very large
specimen.
POUVILLON, 6MILE (1840-1906), French novelist, was born
at Montauban (Tarn et Garonne). He published in 1878 a
collection of stories entitled Nouvelles realities . Making himself
the chronicler of his native province of Quercy, he painted its
scenery and its life with great clearness of outline and without
exaggeration. His books include Cesetle (1881), the story of
a peasant girl; L 'Innocent (1884); Jean-de-Jeanne (1886); Le
Cheval bleu (1888); Le VOM d'etre chaste (1900); Chante-pleure
(1890); Les Antibel (1892); Petites Ames (1893); Mademoiselle
Clemence (1896); Pays et paysages (1895); Petites gens (ip5);
Bernadette de Lourdes (1894), a mystery; and Le Roi de Rome
(1898), a play. He died at Chambery.
POVINDAH, a class of warrior nomadic traders in Afghanistan,
who belong chiefly to the Nasir and Suliman Kuel tribes of
Ghilzais. Their name, which designates their occupation, is
derived from the same root as the Pushtu word for " to graze."
They are almost wholly engaged in the carrying trade between
India and Afghanistan and Central Asia. They assemble every
autumn in the plains east of Ghazni, with their families, flocks,
herds and long strings of camels and horses, laden with the goods
of Bokhara and Kandahar; and forming caravans march through
the Kakar and Waziri countries by the Zhob and Gomal passes
of the Suliman hills. Entering Dera Ismail Khan district about
October they leave their families and flocks, their arms and some
two-thirds of their fighting men in the great grazing grounds
which lie on either side of the Indus, and while some wander
in search of employment, others pass on with their merchandise
to the great cities of India, and even by rail as far as Calcutta,
Karachi and Bombay. In the spring they again assemble, and
return by the same route to their homes in the hills about Ghazni
and Kalat-i-Ghilzai. When the hot season begins, the men,
leaving their belongings behind them, move off again to
Kandahar, Herat and Bokhara, with the Indian and European
merchandise which they have brought from Hindustan. For
generations the Waziris have carried on war to the knife with
these merchant traders. To meet the opposition that awaited
them on the road the Povindahs used to move heavily armed,
in bodies of from 5000 to 10,000, and regular marches and en-
campments were observed under an elected khan or leader.
But since the Gomal Pass was taken over by the British and
opened up in 1889 there has been comparative security on the
border. During the Second Afghan War the tribes on the Tank
border were stirred up by emissaries from Kabul, and the Suliman
Khel joined the Mahsud Waziris in their daring raid on the town
of Tank in January 1879. Colonel Boisragon, who commanded
at Dera Ismail Khan, moved out against the Povindah settle-
ments in the mouth of the Gomal Pass and severely punished
them. The Povindahs paid a fine of nearly Rs. 60,000 (6000),
and agreed that in future their migratory bands should be dis-
armed on their entry into British territory, their weapons to
be deposited in a military arsenal, and returned to their owners
when they again crossed the border.
POVOA DE VARZIM, a seaport of northern Portugal, in the
district of Oporto; on a small and ill-sheltered bay, 18 m. N. of
Oporto by the branch railway to Villa Nova de Familicao.
Pop. (1900), 12,623. In summer Povoa de Varzim is the most
POWDER POWER
223
frequented sea-bathing resort in northern Portugal; it is also the
headquarters of important sardine, hake, and sea-bream fisheries.
POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat.
pulvls, pulveris, dust), the small loose particles into which
solid matter is disintegrated by such processes as grinding,
crushing, pounding, &c., hence any preparation which takes the
form of such loose uncompacted particles, the most familiar
example of such preparation being that of gunpowder (<?..).
Many powders are found in medical uses, some of which have
retained the name of their inventor, such as the compound
powder of rhubarb, " Gregory powder," named after a Scottish
doctor, James Gregory (1758-1822). Various preparations in
form of powder are used for toilet purposes. During the period
when the hair or wig was worn " powdered " or whitened,
houses had a special room set apart for the process, known as
the powdering-room or closet. In some birds, such as the herons,
certain down-feathers or plumulae break off into a fine dust as
fast as they are formed and form tracts defined in size and situa-
tion and known as " powder-down patches."
POWELL, FREDERICK YORK (1850-1904), English his-
torian and scholar, was born in Bloomsbury, London, on the I4th
of January 1850. Much of his childhood was spent in France
and Spain, so that he early acquired a mastery of the language
of both countries and an insight into the genius of the people.
He was educated at Rugby School, and matriculated at Oxford
as an unattached student, subsequently joining Christ Church,
where he took a first-class in law and modern history in 1872.
He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1874, and
married in the same year. He became law-lecturer and tutor of
Christ Church, fellow of Oriel College, delegate of the Clarendon
Press, and in 1894 he was made regius professor of modern
history in succession to J. A. Froude. Although he never made
any extensive contribution to history, he was a particularly
stimulating teacher. He had been attracted in his school days
to the study of Scandinavian history and literature, and he was
closely allied with Professor Gudbrandr Vigf usson (d. 1 889) , whom
he assisted in his Icelandic Prose Reader (1897), Corpus poeticum
boreale (1887), Origines islandicae (1905), and in the editing of
the Grimm Centenary papers (1886). He took a keen interest
in the development of modern French poetry, and Verlaine,
Mallarme and Verhaeren all lectured at Oxford under his
auspices. He was also a connoisseur in Japanese art. In politics
his sympathies were with the oppressed of all nationalities;
he had befriended refugees after the Commune, counting among
his friends Jules Valles 1 the author of Les Refractaires; and
he was also a friend of Stepniak and his circle. He died at
Oxford on the 8th of May 1904.
See the Life, with letters and selections, by Oliver Elton (1906).
POWELL, GEORGE (c. 1658-1714), English actor and
playwright, was the son of an actor of the same name (d. c.
1698), with whom, as the king of Bakam, he first appeared in
1687, as Emanuel in The Island Princess, Tate's version of
Fletcher's play. He wrote or adapted Alphonso, King of
Naples (1661), Treacherous Brothers (1676), and Very Good Wife
(1693), and acted in them and in a long list of contemporary
plays almost until his death. As a tragedian he succeeded to
many of Betterton's parts, but not to his genius.
POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834-1902), American geologist
and ethnologist, was born at Mount Morris, New York,
on the 24th of March 1834. His parents were of English
birth, but had moved to America in 1830, and he was
educated at Illinois and Oberlin colleges. When the Civil
War broke out he entered the Union Army as a private,
and at the battle of Shiloh he lost his right arm. He
continued, however, on active service and served as division
chief of artillery before Vicksburg, reaching the rank
of major of volunteers. In 1865 he was appointed professor
of geology and curator of the museum in the Illinois Wesleyan
University at Bloomington, and afterwards at the Normal
University. In 1867 he commenced a series of expeditions to
1 (1833-1885), member of the Commune of 1871.
the Rocky Mountains and the canyons of the Green and Colorado
rivers, during the course of which (1869) he made a daring boat-
journey of three months, through the Grand Canyon, the river
channel not having previously been explored. In these travels
he gathered much valuable information on the geology, and he
also made a special study of the Indians and their languages.
His able work led to the establishment under the U.S. government
of the geographical and geological survey of the Rocky Mountain
region with which he was occupied in 1870-1879. This survey,
with those of Ferdinand Hayden (1820-1887) and Captain
George M. Wheeler (b. 1842) was incorporated with the United
States Geological and Geographical Survey under Clarence King
(1842-1901) in 1879, when Powell became director of the
Bureau of Ethnology, a department he had assisted in founding.
On King's resignation in 1881, Powell was appointed director also
of the Geological Survey, a post which he occupied until 1894.
To him the present thorough organization of the U.S. Geological
Survey is largely due.
His principal publications were Exploration of the Colorado
River of the West and its Tributaries (1875), Report on the Geology
of the Eastern Portion of the Uinta Mountains (1876), Report on
the Lands of the A ridRegion of the United States (1879) , Introduction
to the Study of Indian Languages (1880), Canyons of the Colorado
(1895), Truth and Error (1898). Especially important were his
observations on what is now termed the " Uinta type " of
mountain structure: a broad, flattened anticline, from which the
strata descend steeply into bordering low grounds and quickly
resume their horizontality being sometimes faulted, and
affording evidence of enormous denudation. He died in Haven,
Maine, on the 23rd of September 1902.
See F. S. Dellenbaugh, Romance of the Colorado River (New York,
1903), and Canyon Voyage: Second Powell Expedition (New York,
1908).
POWELL, VAVASOR (1617-1670), Welsh Nonconformist,
was by birth a Radnorshire man and was educated at Jesus
College, Oxford. About 1639 he entered upon the career of an
itinerant preacher, and for preaching in various parts of Wales
he was twice arrested in 1640; however, he was not punished and
during the Civil War he preached in and around London. In
1646, when the victory of the parliamentary cause was assured,
Powell returned to Wales, having received a certificate of cha-
racter from the Westminster Assembly, although he had refused
to be ordained by the Presbyterians. With a salary granted to
him by parliament he resumed his itinerant preaching in Wales.
In 1650 parliament appointed a commission " for the better
propagation and preaching of the gospel in Wales," and Powell
acted as one of the principal advisers f this body. For three
years he was actively employed in removing from their parishes
those ministers whom he regarded as incompetent. In 1653 he
returned to London, and having denounced Cromwell for accept-
ing the office of Lord Protector he was imprisoned. At the
Restoration in 1660 he was arrested for preaching, and after a
short period of freedom he was again seized, and he remained in
prison for seven years. He was set free in 1667, but in the
following year he was again a prisoner, and he was in custody
when he died on the 27th of October 1670. Powell wrote several
treatises and also some hymns, but his chief gifts were those of
a preacher.
See The Life and Death of Mr Vavasor Powell (1671), attributed to
Edward Bagshaw the younger; Vavasoris Examen et Purgamen
(1654), by E. Allen and others; D. Neal, History of the Puritans
(1822); and T. Rees, History of Protestant Nonconformity in Wales
(1861).
POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841),
Irish actor, was born near Kilmacthomas on the 2nd of Novem-
ber 1 797. At the age of fourteen he joined a company of strolling
players, eventually getting small parts in the London theatres.
On the sudden death of Charles Connor he was given his parts
and was immediately recognized as the best stage Irishman of his
generation, becoming a popular favourite in London, Dublin
and America. He was on board the ill-fated " President "
when she foundered at sea in March 1841. Power wrote and
224
POWER OF ATTORNEY POWER TRANSMISSION
performed several Irish plays, and published three novels and
his Impressions of America (1836). He had married when
twenty and left a widow and seven children, the oldest of whom,
Sir William Tyrone Power, K.C.B. (b. 1819), became Commis-
sary-general of the British army and was knighted in 1865.
POWER OF ATTORNEY, or LETTER OF ATTORNEY, is an
authority under hand and seal empowering the person named
therein to do some act on behalf of the principal, which other-
wise could only be done by the principal himself. It is either
general or special. A general power of attorney authorizes
the agent to act for his principal in all matters, or in matters of a
particular nature only, or in respect of a particular business.
A special act of attorney authorizes the agent to represent his
principal only in some particular specified act. It expires with
death of the principal, and is revocable at his will, even by a
verbal notice, unless it has been given for a valuable considera-
tion. Moreover, the terms of the power are construed literally,
and give such authority only as they confer expressly or by
necessary implication. The Conveyancing Act of 1881 provides
protection for any person making any payment or doing any
act in good faith, in pursuance of a power of attorney, if before
the time of the payment or act the donor of the power had
died or become lunatic, of unsound mind, or bankrupt, or had
revoked the power. The law relating to powers of attorney
is a branch of the law of agency. (See AGENT; PRINCIPAL and
AGENT.)
POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873), American sculptor, the son
of a farmer, was born at Woodstock, Vermont, on the zpth of
June 1805. In 1819 his father removed to Ohio, about six
miles from Cincinnati, where the son attended school for about
a year, staying meanwhile with his brother, a lawyer in Cincinnati.
After leaving school he found employment in superintending a
reading-room in connexion with the chief hotel of the town,
but, being, in his own words, " forced at last to leave that place
as his clothes and shoes were fast leaving him," he became a
clerk in a general store. His second employer in this line of
business having invested his capital in a clock and organ factory,
Powers set himself to master the construction of the instruments,
displaying an aptitude which in a short time enabled him to
become the first mechanic in the factory. In 1826 he began to
frequent the studio of Mr Eckstein, and at once conceived a
strong passion for the art of sculpture. His proficiency in
modelling secured him the situation of general assistant and
artist of the Western Museum, kept by a Frenchman named
Dorfeuille, where his ingenious representation of the infernal
regions to illustrate the more striking scenes in the poem of
Dante met with extraordinary success. After studying
thoroughly the art of modelling and casting, at the end of
1834 he went to Washington, where his remarkable gifts soon
awakened general attention. In 1837 he settled in Florence,
where he remained till his death. While he found it profitable
to devote the greater part of his time to busts, his best efforts
were bestowed on ideal work. In 1839 his statue of " Eve "
excited the warm admiration of Thorwaldsen, and in 1843 he
produced his celebrated " Greek Slave," which at once gave
him a place among the leading sculptors of his time. Among
the best known of his other ideal statues are the " Fisher
Boy," " II Penseroso," " Proserpine," " California," " America "
(modelled for the Crystal Palace, Sydenham), and the " Last
of his Tribe." He died on the 27th of June 1873.
See an article by T. A. Trollope in Lippincotfs Magazine for
February 1875.
POWER TRANSMISSION. The appliances connected with
installations for the utilization of natural sources of energy may
be classified into three groups:
1. Prime movers, by means of which the natural form of
energy is transformed into mechanical energy. To this group
belong all such appliances as water turbines, steam turbines,
steam engines and boilers, gas producers, gas engines, oil engines,
&c.
2. Machinery of any kind which is driven by energy made
available by the prime mover. To this group belong all machine
tools, textile machinery, pumping machinery, cranes in fact
every kind of machine which requires any considerable quantity
of energy to drive it.
3. The appliances by means of which the energy made avail-
able by the prime mover is transmitted to the machine designed
to utilise it. The term power is used to denote the rate at which
energy is transmitted. The unit of power in common use is
the horse power, and one horse power means a rate of transmis-
sion of 550 foot-pounds per second.
In many cases the prime mover is combined with the machine
in such a way that the transmitting mechanism is not distinctly
differentiated from either the prime mover or the machine, as
in the case of the locomotive engine. In other cases the energy
made available by the prime mover is distributed to a number
of separate machines at a distance from the prime mover, as
in the case of an engineer's workshop. In this case the trans-
mitting mechanism by means of which the energy is distributed
to the several machines has a distinct individuality. In other
cases prime movers are located in places where the natural
source of energy is abundant, namely, near waterfalls, or in the
neighbourhood of coal-fields, and the energy made available
is transmitted in bulk to factories, &c., at relatively great dis-
tances. In this case the method and mechanism of distribution
become of paramount importance, since the distance between
the prime mover and the places where the energy is to be
utilized by machines is only limited by the efficiency of the
mechanism of distribution.
Prime movers are considered in the articles STEAM ENGINE;
GAS ENGINE; OIL ENGINE, and HYDRAULICS, and machines in
various special articles. The methods and mechanisms of
distribution or transmission alone form the subjects of the
present article, and the different methods in general use readily
fall into four divisions:
1. Mechanical. 3. Pneumatic.
2. Hydraulic. 4. Electrical.
I. MECHANICAL
i. Methods. The mechanical transmission of power is
effected in general by means of belts or ropes, by shafts or by
wheel gearing and chains. Each individual method may be
used separately or in combination. The problems involved in the
design and arrangement of the mechanisms for the mechanical
distribution of power are conveniently approached by the con-
sideration of the way in which the mechanical energy made avail-
able by an engine is distributed to the several machines in the
factory. By a belt on the fly-wheel of the prime mover the
power is transmitted to the line shaft, and pulleys suitably placed
along the line shaft by means of other belts transmit power,
first, to small countershafts carrying fast and loose pulleys and
striking gear for starting or stopping each engine at will, and
then to the driving pulleys of the several machines. (See also
PULLEYS.)
2. Quantitative Estimation of the Power Transmitted.- In
dealing with the matter quantitatively the engine crank-shaft
may be taken as the starting point of the transmission, and the
first motion-shaft of the machine as the end of the transmission
so far as that particular machine is concerned.
Let T be the mean torque or turning effort which the engine
exerts continuously on the crank shaft when it is making N revolu-
tions per second. It is more convenient to express the revolutions
per second in terms of the angular velocity u, that is, in radians
per second. The relation between these quantities is &> = 2?rN.
Then the rate at which work is done by the engine crank shaft is
Tu foot-pounds per second, equivalent to Toj/55O horse power.
This is now distributed to the several machines in varying proportions.
Assuming for the sake of simplicity that the whole of the power
is absorbed by one machine, let Ti be the torque on the first motion-
shaft of the machine, and let o>i be its angular velocity, then the
rate at which the machine is absorbing energy is T:I foot-pounds
per second. A certain quantity of energy is absorbed by the transmit-
ting mechanism itself for the purpose of overcoming frictional
and other resistances, otherwise the rate of absorption of energy
by the machine would exactly equal the rate at which it was produced
by the prime mover assuming steady conditions of working. Actually
therefore Tiuj would be less than Tw so that
j)To), (i)
MECHANICAL]
POWER TRANSMISSION
225
where ij is called the efficiency of the transmission. Considering
now the general problem of a multiple machine transmission, if
Ti, ui, T, wi, Ta, ui are the several torques and angular velocities
of the respective first motion shafts of the machines,
(T,o, l +T^,+Tu,+ . . . .) =i,To, (2)
expresses the relations which must exist at any instant of steady
motion. This is not quite a complete statement of the actual
conditions because some of the provided energy is always in course
of being stored and unstored from instant to instant as kinetic
energy in the moving parts of the mechanism. Here, ij is the
over-all efficiency of the distributing mechanism. We now consider
the separate parts of the transmitting mechanism.
3. Belts. Let a pulley A (fig. i) drive a pulley B by means of a
leather belt, and let the direction of motion be as indicated by the
arrows on the pulleys. When the pulleys are revolving uniformly, A
FIG. i.
transmitting power to B, one side of the belt will be tight and the
other side will be slack, but both sides will be in a state of tension.
Let / and u be the respective tensions on the tight and slack side;
then the torque exerted by the belt on the pulley B is (/ u)r,
where r is the radius of the pulley in feet, and the rate at which the
belt does work on the pulley is (t u)ru foot-pounds per second.
If the horse-power required to drive the machine be represented
by h.p., then
assuming the efficiency of the transmission to be unity. This
equation contains two unknown tensions, and before either can
be found another condition is necessary. This is supplied by the
relation between the tensions, the arc of contact 0, in radians (fig. 2),
the coefficient of friction /it between the belt and the pulley, the
mass of the belt and
the speed of the belt.
Consider an element of
the belt (fig. 2) sub-
tending an angle d8 at
the centre of the pul-
ley, and let / be the
. tension on one side of
t-T l d *the element and (t+dt)
the tension of the
other side. The ten-
sion tending to cause
the element to slide
-td9 bodily round the sur-
face of the pulley is dt.
The normal pressure
between the element
and the face of the
pulley due to the tensions is / d8, but this is diminished by the
force necessary to constrain the element to move in the circular
path determined by the curvature of the pulley. If W is the
weight of the belt per foot, the constraining force required for
this purpose is VJv'dB/g, where t; is the linear velocity of the belt
in feet per second. Hence the frictional resistance of the element
to sliding is (/ WVg)jtd0, and this must be equal to the difference
of tensions dt when the element is on the point of slipping, so
that (t Wv-/g)nde = dt. The solution of this equation is
t+dt
FIG. 2.
t-Witlg
u-\Vv-lg~''" '
where t is now the maximum tension and u the minimum tension,
and e is the base of the Napierian system of logarithms, 2-718.
Equations (3) and (4) supply the condition from which the power
transmitted by a given belt at a given speed can be found. For
ordinary work the term involving v may be neglected, so that (4)
becomes
</ = ". (5)
Equations (3) and (5) are ordinarily used for the preliminary design
of a belt to calculate (, the maximum tension in the belt necessary
to transmit a stated horse power at a stated speed, and then the
cross section is proportioned so that the stress per square inch
shall not exceed a certain safe limit determined from practice.
To facilitate the calculations in connexion with equation (5),
tables are constructed givin? the ratio t/u for various values of ,u
and B. (See W. C. Unwin, Machine Design, 12th ed., p. 377.) The
ratio should be calculated for the smaller pulley. If the belt is
arranged as in fig. i, that is, with the slack side uppermost, the drop
of the belt tends to increase 9 and hence the ratio tlu for both pulleys.
xxn. 8
4. Example of Preliminary Design of a Belt. The following
example illustrates the use of the equations for the design of a belt
in the ordinary way. Find the width of a belt to transmit 20 h.p.
from the flywheel of an engine to a shaft which runs at 180 revolu-
tions per miunte (equal to 18-84 radians per second), the pulley on
the shaft being 3 ft. diameter. Assume the engine flywheel to be
of such diameter and at such a distance from the driven pulley
that the arc of contact is 120, equal to 2-094 radians, and further
assume that the coefficient of friction M~o - 3- Then from
equation (5) // = eJ.094X 0.3 = 2-7180.6283; that is log^/u = 0-6282,
from which //w=l-87, and M = //i-87. Using this in (3) we have
*(i-l/l-87) 1-5X18-84 = 550X20, from which t = 838 Ib.
Allowing a working strength of 300 Ib per square inch, the area
required is 2-8 sq. in., so that if the belt is t in. thick its width
would be 1 1-2 in., or if -f t in. thick, 15 in. approximately.
The effect of the force constraining the circular motion in diminish-
ing the horse power transmitted may now be ascertained by calcu-
lating the horse power which a belt of the size found will actually
transmit when the maximum tension / is 838 Ib. A belt of the area
found above would weigh about 1-4 Ib. per foot. The velocity
of the belt, r=wr = 18-84X1-5 = 28-26 ft. per second. The term
Wt^/g therefore has the numerical value 34-7. Hence equation (2)
becomes (i 34'7)/( 34-7) = 1-87, from which, inserting the
value 838 for /, = 464-5 tb. Using this value of u in equation (i)
H P
55
Thus with the comparatively low belt speed of 28 ft. per second
the horse power is only diminished by about 5%. As the velocity
increases the transmitted horse power increases, but the loss from
this cause rapidly increases, and there will be one speed for every
belt at which the horse power transmitted is a maximum. An
increase of speed above this results in a diminution of transmitted
horse power.
5. Belt Velocity for Maximum Horse Power. If the weight of a
belt per foot is given, the speed at which the maximum horse power
is transmitted for an assigned value of the maximum tension / can
be calculated from equations (3) and (4) as follows :
Let t be the given maximum tension with which a belt weighing
W Ib per foot may be worked. Then solving equation (4)
for K, subtracting t from each side, and changing the signs all
through: t-u=(t-'Wv*/g) (i-<r>). And the rate of working
U, in foot-pounds per second, is
U = (t - u)v = (to - W'/) d --*).
Differentiating U with regard to , equating to zero, and solving for
f , we have v V (tg/$W). Utilizing the data of the previous example
to illustrate this matter, 4 = 838 ID per square inch, W = i-4 Ib per
foot, and consequently, from the above expression, = 80 ft. per
second approximately. A lower speed than this should be adopted,
however, because the above investigation does not include the loss
incurred by the continual bending of the belt round the circumference
of the pulley. The loss from this cause increases with the velocity
of the belt, and operates to make the velocity for maximum horse
power considerably lower than that given above.
6. Flexibility. When a belt or rope is working power is absorbed
in its continual bending round the pulleys, the amount depending
upon the flexibility of the belt and the speed. If C is the couple
required to bend the belt to the radius of the pulley, the rate at which
work is done is Co> foot-pounds per second. The value of C for a
given belt varies approximately inversely as the radius of the pulley,
so that the loss of power from this cause will vary inversely as the
radius of the pulley and directly as the speed of revolution. Hence
thin flexible belts are to be preferred to thick stiff ones. Besides the
loss of power in transmission due to this cause, the bending causes
a stress in the belt which is to be added to the direct stress due to the
tensions in the belt in order to find the maximum stress. In ordinary
leather belts the bending stress is usually negligible ; in ropes, how-
ever, especially wire rope, it assumes paramount importance, since
it tends to overstrain the outermost strands and if these give way
the life of the rope is soon determined.
7. Rope Driving. About 1856 James Combe, of Belfast,
introduced the practice of transmitting power by means of
ropes running in grooves turned circumferentially in the rim of
(From Abram Combe, Pmc. list, ileck. Eng.)
FIG. 3. Rope driving; half-crossed rope drive, separate rope to
each groove.
the pulley (fig. 3). The ropes may be led off in groups to the
different floors of the factory to pulleys keyed to the distributing
shafting. A groove was adopted having an angle of about 45,
5
226
POWER TRANSMISSION
[MECHANICAL
and this is the angle now used in the practice of Messrs
Combe, Barbour and Combe, of Belfast. A section of the rim
of a rope driving wheel showing the shape of the groove for a
rope i j in. diameter is shown in fig. 4, and a rope driving pulley
designed for six ifin.
ropes is shown in fig.
5. A rope is less flex-
ible than a belt, and
therefore care must be
j taken not to arrange
*j? rope drives with pul-
leys having too small
a diameter relatively
to the diameter of the
rope. The principles
of 3, 4, S and 6, apply equally to ropes, but with the
practical modification that the working stress in the rope is a
much smaller fraction of the ultimate strength than in the
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5. Rope Pulley, 10 ft. diam., 6 grooves, 2\ in. pitch, weight
about 35 cwt. Constructed by Combe, Barbour & Combe, Ltd.,
Belfast.
case of belting and the ratio of the tensions is much greater.
The following table, based upon the experience of Messrs
Combe, presents the practical possibilities in a convenient
form:
Diameter
of Rope.
Smallest diameter of
Pulley, which should
. be used with the
Rope.
H.P. per Rope for
smallest Pulley at too
revs, per minute.
in.
3
I
I
if
2j
in.
14
21
42
66
i
8
I
8
16
The speed originally adopted for the rope was 55 ft. per second.
This speed has been exceeded, but, as indicated above, for any
particular case there is one speed at which the maximum horse
power is transmitted, and this speed is chosen with due regard
to the effect of centrifugal tension and the loss due to the con-
tinual bending of the rope round the pulley. Instead of using
one rope for each groove, a single continuous rope may be used,
driving from one common pulley several shafts at different
speeds. For further information see Abram Combe, Proc.
Inst. Mech. Eng. (July 1896). Experiments to compare the
efficiencies of rope and belt driving were carried out at Lille
in 1894 by the Societe Industrielle du Nord de la France, for an
account of which see D. S. Capper, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.
(October 1896). Cotton ropes are used extensively for trans-
mitting power in factories, and though more expensive than
Manila ropes, are more durable when worked under suitable
conditions.
8. Shafts. When a shaft transmits power from a prime
mover to a machine, every section of it 'sustains a turning couple
or torque T, and if co is the angular velocity of rotation in radians
per second, the rate of transmission is T w foot-pounds
per second, and the relation between the horse power, torque
and angular velocity is
T<o = 55 oH.P. ( 6 )
The problem involved in the design of a shaft is so to proportion
the size that the stress produced by the torque shall not exceed
a certain limit, or that the relative angular displacement of
two sections at right angles to the axis of the shaft at a given
distance apart shall not exceed a certain angle, the particular
features of the problem determining which condition shall
operate in fixing the size. At a section of a solid round shaft,
where the diameter is D inches, the torque T inch-pounds, and
the maximum shearing stress / pounds per square inch, the
relation between the quantities is given by
T = -rDy/i6, (7)
and the relation between the torque T, the diameter D, the
relative angular displacement 6 of two sections L inches apart by
T = C0*-D 4 /32L, (8)
where C is the modulus of rigidity for the material of the
shaft. Observe that 6 is here measured in radians. The
ordinary problems of shaft transmission by solid round shafts
subject to a uniform torque only can be solved by means of these
equations.
Calculate the horse power which a shaft 4 in. diameter can trans-
mit, revolving 120 times per minute (12-56 radians per second),
when the maximum shearing stress / is limited to 11,000 ft
per square inch. From equation (7) the maximum torque which
may be applied to the shaft is T = 138,400 inch-pounds. From
(6) H.P. = !2X SSO = 264. The example may be continued to
find how much the shaft will twist in a length of 10 ft. Substituting
the value of the torque in inch-pounds in equation (8), and taking
1 1 ,500,000 for the value of C,
138,400X120X32
e = n,5oo,oooX3-i4X256 =0 -57 radians,
and this is equivalent to 3'3.
In the case of hollow round shafts where D is the external diameter
and d the internal diameter equation (7) becomes
T = ir/(D<-<2 4 )/i6D, (9)
and equation (8) becomes
T = C0ir(D 4 -d 4 )/32L. (10)
The assumption tacitly made hitherto that the torque T
remains constant is rarely true in practice; it usually varies from
instant to instant, often in a periodic manner, and an appropriate
value of / must be taken to suit any particular case. Again it
rarely happens that a shaft sustains a torque only. There is
usually a bending moment associated with it. For a discussion
of the proper values of/, to suit cases where the stress is variable,
and the way a bending moment of known amount may be
combined with a known torque, see STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
It is sufficient to state here that if M is the bending moment
in inch-pounds, and T the torque in inch-pounds, the magnitude
of the greatest direct stress in the shaft due to the effect of the
torque and twisting moment acting together is the same as
would be produced by the application of a torque of
M+VCP+M 2 ) inch-pounds. (n)
It will be readily understood that in designing a shaft for the
distribution of power to a factory where power is taken off at
different places along the shaft, the diameter of the shaft near
the engine must be proportioned to transmit the total power
transmitted whilst the parts of the shaft more remote from the
engine are made smaller, since the power transmitted there is
smaller.
9. Gearing Pitch Chains. Gearing is used to transmit power
from one shaft to another. The shafts may be parallel; or inclined
to one another, so that if produced they would meet in a point ; or
inclined to one another so that if produced they would not meet in
a point. In the first case the gear wheels are called spur wheels,
sometimes cog wheels; in the second case bevel wheels, or, if
the angle between the shafts is 90, mitre wheels; and in the third
case they are called skew bevels. In all cases the teeth should
be so shaped that the velocity ratio between the shafts remains
HYDRAULIC]
POWER TRANSMISSION
227
constant, although in very rare cases gearing is designed to
work with a variable velocity ratio as part of some special
machines. For the principles governing the shape of the teeth
to fulfil the condition that the velocity ratio between the wheels
shall be constant, see MECHANICS, Applied. The size of the
teeth is determined by the torque the gearing is required to
transmit.
Pitch chains arc closely allied to gearing; a familiar example
is in the driving chain of a bicycle. Pitch chains are used to a
limited extent as a substitute for belts, and the teeth of the chains
and the teeth of the wheels with which they work are shaped
on the same principles as those governing the design of the teeth
of wheels.
If a pair of wheels is required to transmit a certain maximum horse
power, the angular velocity of the shaft being w, the pressure P
which the teeth must be designed to sustain at the pitch circle is
550 H.P./uR, where R is the radius of the pitch circle of the wheel,
whose angular velocity is a.
10. Velocity Ratio. In the case of transmission either by belts,
ropes, shafts or gearing, the operating principle is that the rate of
working is constant, assuming that the efficiency of the transmission
is unity, and that the product T is therefore constant, whether the
shafts are connected by ropes or gearing. Considering therefore
two shafts, Tiwi=T 2 uj; that is i/wj = Ti/Ti; i.e. the angular
velocity ratio is inversely as the torque ratio. Hence the higher
the speed at which a shaft runs, the smaller the torque for the
transmission of a given horse power, and the smaller the tension
on the belts or ropes for the transmission of a given horse power.
11. Long Distance Transmission of Power. C. F. Him origin-
ated the transmission of power by means of wire ropes at Colmar
in Alsace in 1850. Such a telodynamic transmission consists of
a series of wire ropes running on wheels or pulleys supported
on piers at spans varying from 300 to 500 ft. between the prime
mover and the place where the power is utilized. The slack
of the ropes is supported in some cases on guide pulleys distri-
buted between the main piers. In this way 300 h.p. was trans-
mitted over a distance of 6500 ft. at Freiberg by means of a
series of wire ropes running at 62 ft. per second on pulleys
177 in. diameter. The individual ropes of the series, each
transmitting 300 h.p., were each 1-08 in. diameter and contained
10 strands of 9 wires per strand, the wires being each 0-072 in.
diameter. Similar installations existed at Schaffhausen,
Oberursal, Bellegarde, Tortona and Zurich. For particulars
of these transmissions with full details see W. C. Unwin's
Howard Lectures on the " Development and Transmission of
Power from Central Stations " (Journ. Soc. Arts, 1893, published
in book form 1894). The system of telodynamic transmission
would no doubt have developed to a much greater extent than
it has done but for the advent of electrical transmission, which
made practicable the transmission of power to distances utterly
beyond the possibilities of any mechanical system.
See W. J. M. Rankine, Treatise on Machinery and Millwork;
and W. C. Unwin, Elements of Machine Design ; and for telodynamic
transmission see F. Reuleaux, Die Konstrukteur. (W. E. D.)
II. HYDRAULIC
The first proposal for a general transmission of hydraulic
power was made by Bramah in 1802. In 1846 Lord Armstrong's
hydraulic crane was erected at Newcastle, and was worked from
the town water mains, but the pressure in such mains was too
low and uncertain to secure satisfactory results. The invention
of the accumulator in 1850 enabled much higher pressures to
be used; since then 700 ft per square inch has been adopted in
most private hydraulic power transmission plants. An attempt
to give a public supply of hydraulic power was made in 1859,
when a company was formed for laying mains in London along
the river Thames between the Tower and Blackfriars, the
engineer being Sir George Bruce; but though an act of parlia-
ment was obtained, the works were not carried out. The first
public hydraulic supply station was established at Hull in 1877.
In 1883 the General Hydraulic Power Works, Messrs Ellington
and Woodall being the engineers, were started in London, and
they now form the largest system of hydraulic power transmission
in existence. Works of a similar character have since been
established in several other towns. The general features of
Central
Station.
hydraulic power transmissions are: (i) a central station where
the hydraulic pressure is created, usually by means of steam
pumping engines; (2) a system of distribution mains; (3)
machines for utilizing the pressure. In cases of public supplies
there is the further important matter of registration.
When dealing with any practical problem of hydraulic power
transmission it is of the first importance to determine the maxi-
mum demand for power, its duration and frequency.
If the duration of the maximum demand is limited
and the frequency restricted for instance, when a
swing bridge has to be opened and closed only a few times in
the course of a day a small pumping plant and a large
accumulator will be desirable. If the maximum demand is
more or less continuous, as when hydraulic pressure is used
for working a pump in a mine or a hydraulic engine in a work-
shop, the central station pumping engine must be capable of
supplying the maximum demand without the aid of an
accumulator, which may or may not, according to circum-
stances, be provided to serve as a regulator. A hydraulic
accumulator (fig. i) ordinarily consists of a hydraulic cylinder
.
m
FIG. i.
and ram, the ram being loaded with sufficient weight to give the
pressure required in the hydraulic mains. If a pressure of 700 Ib
per square inch is wanted, the weight of the ram and its load,
neglecting friction, must be 700 Ib for each square inch of its
area, and if the cylinder is full, i.e. the ram elevated to its full
extent, the accumulator is a reservoir of power, exactly as if it
were a tank at the same cubical extent placed at an elevation
of about 1600 ft. above the mains and connected with them.
The function of accumulators in hydraulic power distribution
is frequently misunderstood, and it has been urged that as in
practice the size of the reservoirs of power that can be obtained
by their use is small, they are of little value. An accumulator
having a ram 20 in. diameter by 20 ft. stroke loaded to 700 Ib is
228
POWER TRANSMISSION
[HYDRAULIC
a fairly large one, but it contains only 439,740 foot-pounds of
available energy. If the accumulator ram descended in one
minute the horse power developed during that time would be
13-3, and until again pumped up its function would cease. Is so
small a reservoir worth much? The correct answer to this
question depends upon the surrounding circumstances. In the
case of any general system of hydraulic power transmission it is
certain that there will be very large and frequent variations
in the combined demand for power, the periods of approximate
maximum rarely exceeding in the aggregate 2 or 3 hours a day
(see fig. 2). Where the area of supply is very extensive there
are further subsidiary variations in small sections of the area.
The main features of the combined load curves are fairly con-
stant, but the local peaks are very erratic. Such conditions are
favourable to the extensive use of accumulators.
When comparing the economy of hydraulic machinery which
works intermittently, such as cranes and hoists, with other
systems the effect of the hydraulic accumulator in reducing the
maximum horse power required is often neglected. In con-
sequence the comparison is vitiated, because the minimum cost
of running a central station depends to a great extent upon the
FIG. 2.
maximum demand, even though the maximum may be required
only during a few minutes of the day. In the hydraulic system
accumulators at the central stations perform t the two distinct
functions of reducing the maximum load on the pumps which
supply the demand, and regulating automatically the speed
of the pumps as the demand varies from minute to minute. In
any large system where a number of pumping units are required
they also allow a sufficient interval of time to start any addi-
tional units. Accumulators connected to the mains at a con-
siderable distance from the central station reduce the variations
of pressure, and the size of mains required for a given supply
of power, and therefore have a most important influence on the
economy of distribution. The mechanical efficiency of hydraulic
accumulators is very high, being from 95% to 98%, and they
are practically indestructible.
When designing central stations the aim should be to employ
pumping engines of such capacity that they can be worked as
nearly as possible continuously at about their maximum output;
the same consideration should, in the main, determine the size
of the pumping units in a station where more than a single unit
is employed. With a number of units, each can be worked,
when in use, at or near the most economical speed. Moreover,
reserve plant is necessary if the supply of power is to be constant,
and where the units are many the actual reserve required is
less than where the units are few.
An effect of the multiplication of power units is to increase
the capital outlay; indeed, it may be stated quite generally that
economy in working and maintenance cannot be obtained without a
larger capital outlay than would be required for a simpler and less
economical plant. A high degree of economy estimated on
financial data the ultimate base on which these practical questions
rest can only be obtained in large installations where the averaging
effect of the combination of a large number of comparatively
small intermittent demands for power is greatest. The term load-
factor, since it was first coined by Colonel R. E. Crompton in 1891 , has
come into common use as an expression of the relation between the
average and the maximum output from any central source of supply.
No argument is required to show that a given central station plant
working continuously at its maximum speed day and night all the
year round, say for 8760 hours in a year, should produce the power
more cheaply per unit, not only as to the actual running cost, but also
as to the capital or interest charges, than the same plant running
on the average at the same speed for, say, one-third the time, or
2920 hours. In this case the load-factor 2920/8760 = -333, or
33'37 % The saving on the whole expenditure per unit is not in
direct proportion to an increase in the load-factor, and its effect on
the various items of expenditure is extremely variable. The influence
is greatest on the capital charges, and it has no influence at all, or
may even have a detrimental effect, on some items ; for instance, the
cost of repairs per unit of output may be increased by a high load-
factor. Its effect on the coal consumption depends very much on
the kind and capacity of the boilers in use; on whether the engines
are condensing or non-condensing; on the hours of work of the engine
staff, &c. The economic value of the load-factor is of great import-
ance in every installation, but its influence on the cost of supply
varies at each central station, and must be separately determined.
There is a load-factor peculiar to each use for which the power is
supplied, and the whole load-factor can only be improved by the
combination of different classes of demands, which differ in regard
to the time of day or season at which they attain their maximum.
It is in this respect that the great economy of a public distribution
of power is most apparent, though there is also, of course, a direct
economy due simply to the presumably large size of the central
stations of a public supply. Demands for power of every kind
have unfortunately a tendency to arise at the same time, so that
in the absence of storage of power there seems no prospect of the
load-factors for general supply of power in towns exceeding, in the
most favourable conditions, 40%. The load-factor of most
public hydraulic power supplies is considerably under 30%. It is
questionable, however, whether a very high load-factor conduces to
economy of working expenses as a whole in any general supply of
energy. The more continuous the supply during the twenty-four
hours of the day the greater is the difficulty of executing repair?,
and the greater the amount of the reserve plant required.
In all central station work where fluctuating loads have to be
dealt with it is most important that there should be ample boiler
power. In a comprehensive system of power supply demand
arises in a very sudden and erratic manner, and to meet this by
forcing the boilers involves greater waste of coal than keeping
steam up in sufficient reserve boilers. For this purpose boilers
with large water capacity, such as the Lancashire, are preferable
to the tubular type, if sufficient space is available. Superheated
steam and also thermal storage are advantageous. Feed water
heaters or economizers should always be used, all steam and feed
pipes should be carefully protected from radiation, and the pipe
flanges should be covered ; in short, to secure good results in coal
consumption every care must be taken to minimise the stand-by
losses which are such serious items in central station economy
when the load-factor is low. Though hydraulic power has the
peculiar advantage, as regards coal consumption, that it is the
speed of the engines which varies with an intermittent demand,
nevertheless at the London stations it has been found that during
a year's working only from 60 to 75% of the coal efficiency of trial
runs of the engines can be obtained i.e. at least 25% of the coal is
wasted through the stand-by losses and through the pumping engines
having to run at less than full power.
HYDRAULIC]
POWER TRANSMISSION
229
To determine the scale on which a central station plant should
be designed is frequently a difficult matter. The rate of growth
of the expected demand for the power is an important factor, but
it has been clearly established that the reduction of working expenses
resulting from the increase of size of an undertaking proceeds in a
diminishing ratio. Increase in output is in fact sometimes acco_m-
panied by more than a proportionate increase of expenses. During
recent years there have been causes at work which have raised con-
siderably the price of labour, fuel, other items of expense, and the
law of the " diminishing ratio " has been masked.
On the diagram (fig. 3) of the costs of the London undertaking
and the amount of power supplied, have been plotted points marking
the total expenses of each year in relation to the output of power.
These points for the years 1884-1899, and for output of from 50 to
700 million gallons followed approximately a straight line. Since
1899, however, though the output has increased from 708 millions
to 1040 million gallons, the costs per unit of output have been always
considerably above the preceding periods. The details of the London
supply given in table I partly explain this by the relatively hig^h
price of fuel, but an equally important factor has been the rise in
the local rates, which in the period 1899-1909 have risen from zd. up
to 3d. per 1000 gallons. If the cost of fuel, rates and wages had
remained constant the plotting of expenses in relation to output
would have been approximately along the extension of the line
AB. This line cuts the vertical axis at A above the origin O, and the
line OA indicates the minimum amount of the expenses, and by
implication the initial size of the first central station erected in
London. The curve in this diagram gives the cost per 1000 gallons.
Whether it is more economical to have several smaller stations
in any particular system of power transmission, or a single centre of
supply, is mainly governed by the cost of the mains and the facilities
for laying them in the area served. No general rule can, however,
be formulated, for it is a question of balance of advantages, and the
FIG. 3.
solution must be obtained by consideration of the special circum-
stances of each case. It has been found desirable as the demand
for the power and the area within which it is supplied has enlarged,
not only to increase the number of central stations but also their
capacity. The first pumping station erected was installed with 4
pumping engines of 200 h.p. each. The pumping capacity of this
station has been increased tp 7 units. The station at Rotherhithe
completed in 1904 has 8 units together 1600 h.p., and the plant
at the new station at Grosvenor Road has 8 units equalling 2400 h.p.
The pumping stations are situated about 3 m. apart and concurrently
with the increase in their size it has been found desirable to intro-
duce a system of feeder mains (see below).
There are in all five central stations at work in connexion with
the public supply of hydraulic power in London, having an aggregate
of 7000 i.h.p. All the stations and mains are connected together and
worked as one system. There are 14 accumulators with a total
capacity of 4000 gallons, most of them having rams 20 in. diameter
by 23 ft. stroke. The pumping engines are able together to deliver
11,000 gallons per minute Details of the London supply are given
in fig. 3 and in table I. .
TABLE I.
Year.
Gallons
Pumped*
Annual
Load -factors.
Maximum
24 hours
Load-factors.
lit
P
Price of Fuel
per ton in
Bunkers.
Number
of Machines
at work.
*d
u
aa
1889
1894
1898
1903
1909
163,883,000
400,316,000
620,662,000
888,925,000
1,027,147,000
0328
0-338
0-340
0-361
0-354
0-524
0-553
0-483
0-491
0-495
d.
3-n
1-96
1-98
2-7
2-78
s. d.
10 9
10 o
11 3 3
H 3}
15 i
1022
22O4
355
5337
6504
38
73
109
146
If>S
The load-factors are calculated on the actual recorded maximum
output, and not on the estimated capacity of the plant running or
installed. The daily periods of maximum output are shown in
fig. 2. The table shows that the load-factors have not been much
affected either by the increase of the area of supply or by the in-
creased consumption of power. The coal used has been principally
Durham small. The capital cost of the London undertaking has
been about 950,000. In the central station at Wapping, erected
in 1891, there are six sets of triple-expansion, surface-condensing
vertical pumping engines of 200 i.h.p. each; six boilers with a
working pressure of 150 Ib per square inch, and two accumulators
with rams 20 in. diameter by 23 It. stroke loaded up to 800 Ib per
square inch. The engines run at a maximum piston speed of 250 ft.
per minute, and the pumps are single-acting, driven directly from
the piston rods. The supply given from this station in 1009 was
approximately 6,800,000 gallons per week, and the cost for fuel,
wages, superintendence, lighting, repairs and sundry station expenses
4-28d. per 1000 gallons, the value of the coal used being 145. 1 1 -3d.
per ton in bunkers. The capital cost of the station, including the
land, was 70,000. The load-factor at this station for 1909 was
49, and the supply was maintained for 168 hours per week. The
conditions are exceptionally favourable, and the figures represent
the best result that has hitherto been obtained in hydraulic power
central station work, having regard to the high price of fuel.
The installation in Hull differs little from the numerous private
plants at work on the docks and railways of the United Kingdom.
The value of the experiment was chiefly commercial, and the
large public hydraulic power works established since are to be
directly attributed to the Hull undertaking. In Birmingham gas
engines are employed to drive the pumps. In Liverpool there are
two central stations. The working pressure is 850 Ib per square inch.
There are 27 m. of mains, and about noo machines at work. In
Manchester and Glasgow the pressure adopted is 1 100 Ib per square
inch. In Manchester this pressure was selected principally in view
of the large number of hydraulic packing presses usea in the city,
and the result has been altogether satisfactory. The works were
established by the corporation in 189^, the central station being
designed for 1200 i.h.p. Another station has since been built of
equal capacity, and nearly 5 million gallons per week are being
supplied to work about 2100 machines. Twenty-three miles of
mains are laid.
In Antwerp a regular system of high-pressure hydraulic power
transmission was established in 1894 specially to provide electric
light for the city. The scheme was due to von Ryssleburgh, an
electrical engineer of Ghent, who came to the conclusion that the
most economical way of installing the electric light was to have a
central hydraulic station, and from it transmit the power through
pipes to various sub-stations in the town, where it could be converted
Dy means of turbines and dynamos into electric energy. The coal
cost of the electricity supplied o-88d. per kw. hour compares
favourably with most central electric supply stations, although the
efficiency of the turbines and dynamos used for the conversion does
not exceed 40%. Von Ryssleburgh argued that hydraulic pumping
engines would be more economical than steam-engines and dynamos,
and that the loss in transmission from the central station to the
consumer would be less with hydraulic converters than if the current
were distributed directly. The loss in conversion, however, proved
to be twice as great as had been anticipated, owing largely tp defec-
tive apparatus and to under-estimation of the expense of maintaining
the converting stations; and the net result was commercially un-
satisfactory.
At Buenos Aires hydraulic mains are laid in the streets solely
for drainage purposes. Each of the sumps, which are provided at
intervals, contains two hydraulic pumps which automatically pump
the sewage from a small section of the town into an outfall sewer
at a higher level. The districts where this system is at work lie
below the general drainage level of Buenos Aires. The average
efficiency (pump h.p. to i.h.p.) is 41 %, which is high, haying regard to
the low heads against which the pumps work. In this application
all the conditions are favourable to hydraulic power transmission.
The work is intermittent, there is direct action of the hydraulic
pressure in the machines, and the load at each stroke of the pumps is
constant. The same system has been adopted for the drainage of
Woking and district, and a somewhat similar installation is in use
at Margate.
Hydraulic power is supplied from the hydraulic mains on a sliding
scale according to the quantity consumed. The minimum charge
in London except for very'large quantities is is. 6d. per 1000 gallons.
In 1000 gallons at 750 Ib per square inch there is an energy of
10,000X1730^8.^ hp hours; thus is. 6d. per 1000 gallons = 2d.
33,000X60
per h.p. hour nearly. This amount is made up approximately of oxl.
per 1000 gallons for the cost of generation, distnbution and general
expenses including rates and 90. for capital charges. The average
rate charged to consumers in 1908 was about 2s. 4d. per 1000 gallons.
Even under the most favourable circumstances it does not appear
probable that hydraulic power at 750 Ib per square inch can be
supplied from central stations in towns on a commercial basis over
any considerable areas at less than is. per 1000 gallons. Allowing
230
POWER TRANSMISSION
[HYDRAULIC
75% as the efficiency of the motor through which the power is
utilized, this rate would give i-8;}d. per brake or effective h.p. hour.
This cost seems high, and it is difficult to believe that it is the best
hydraulic power transmission can accomplish having regard to the
well-established fact that the mechanical efficiency of a steam pump-
ing engine is greater than any other application of a steam-engine,
and that the power can be conveyed through mains without any
material loss for considerable distances. Still, no other system of
power transmission except gas seems to be better off, and there
is no method of transmission by which energy could, at the present
time, be supplied retail in towns with commercial success at such
an average rate when steam is employed as the prime mover. The
average rate charged for hydraulic power in London and elsewhere
FIG. 4.
is much the same as the average rate charged for the supply of
electrical energy to the ordinary consumer. Gas is undoubtedly
cheaper, but in a large number of cases is mechanically inconvenient
in its application. Hydraulic pressure, electrical energy and com-
pressed air (with reheating) can all be transmitted throughout
towns with approximately the same losses and at the same cost,
because the power is obtained in each system from coal, boilers,
and steam-engines, and the actual loss in transmission can be kept
down to a small percentage. The use of any particular system of
power does not, however, primarily depend upon the cost of running
the central station and distributing the power, but mainly upon the
mechanical convenience of the system for the purpose to which it
is applied. One form of energy is, in practice, found most useful
for one purpose, another form for another and no one can command
the whole field.
Pi*
FIG. 5.
When water is employed as the fluid in hydraulic transmission
the effects of frost must usually be provided against. In London
and other towns, the water, before being pumped
u ^ oaa into the mains, is passed through the surface condensers
of the engines, so as to raise its temperature. The mains
are laid 3 ft. below the surface of the ground. Exposed
pipes and cylinders are clothed, and means provided for draining
them when out of use. When these simple precautions are adopted
damage from frost is very rare. In special cases oil having a low
freezing point is used, and in small plants good results have been
obtained by mixing glycerin and methylated spirit with the water.
A few gas jets judiciously distributed are of value where there is a
difficulty in properly protecting the machinery by clothing.
From the central station the hydraulic power must be transmitted
through a system of mains to the various points at which it is to be
used. In laying out a network of mains it is first neces-
sary to determine what velocity of flow can be allowed.
Owing to the weight of water, the medium usually
employed for hydraulic transmission, a low velocity is necessary in
order to avoid shocks. The loss of pressure due to the velocity is
Distribu-
tion.
FIG. 6. Half section and elevation at AB. Detail of 10* steel pipe.
independent of the actual pressure employed, and at moderate
velocities of 3 to 4 ft. per second the loss per 1000 yds. is almost a
negligible quantity at a pressure of 700 Ib per square inch. For
practical purposes Box's formula is sufficiently accurate
Loss of
" ons2Xlegth inyard
There is a further
.. . v ..
(diameter of pipes in inches X3) 5
loss due to obstruction caused by valves and bends, but it has been
found in London that a pressure of 750 Ib at the central accumulators
is sufficient to ensure a pressure of 700 ft throughout the system.
The greatest distance the power is conveyed from the central stations
in London is about 4 m. The higher the initial velocity the more
variable the pressure ; and in order to avoid this variation in any large
system of mains it is usual to place additional accumulators at a
FIG. 6. Half back elevation, half front elevation.
10* steel pipe.
Detail of
HYDRAULIC]
POWER TRANSMISSION
231
B
distance from the central station. They act in the same way as
air-vessels. The mains should be laid in circuit, and valves placed
at intervals, so that any section can be isolated for repairs or for
making connexions without affecting the
supply at other points. The main valves
adopted in London are shown in fig. 4.
Valves are also fixed to control all branch
pipes, while relief valves, washouts and
air valves are fixed as required.
The largest pipes used in London are
10 in. internal diameter, and the
smallest laid in the streets are 2 in. The
pipes from 8 in. and below are usually
made in cast iron, flanged and provided
with spigots and faucets. The joint
(fig. 5) is made with a gutta-percha ring,
though sometimes asbestos and leather
packing rings are used. Cast iron pipes
for hydraulic power transmission have
been standardized by the Engineering
Standards Committee. Fig. 6 shows
the 10 in. steel main as used in London.
The main was laid in 1903 from the
Rotherhithe Pumping Station of the
London Hydraulic Power Company
through the Tower Subway, and is used
as a feeder main for supply to the City.
It is the first instance of the use of
feeder mains in hydraulic transmission.
The velocity of flow is 6 ft. per second,
and is automatically disconnected from
the general system should the pressure
in this main fall below that of accumula-
tor pressure. Other mains, similarly
controlled, are now in use. Ellington's
system of hydraulic feeder mains has
been developed by the laying of a 6-in.
steel main from the Falcon Wharf
Station at Blackfriars to the Strand,
over Waterloo Bridge.
The Falcon Wharf Pumping Station
at Blackfriars was the original central
station in London, and the accumulators
there are loaded to 750 Ib per square inch.
The other pumping stations are situated
about 3 m. from Falcon Wharf and
about the same distance from each
other. The accumulator pressure at the
outlying stations is during the busy time
of the day maintained at about 800 Ib
per square inch. Consequently the
smaller variations in demand for power
throughout the system caused very
intermittent running of the plant at
Falcon Wharf, and the load-factor there
is very low. The pumping plant has
now been considerably increased, and
part of the plant is constructed to pump
into the feeder main at pressures of 8po,
900, or 1000 Ib per square inch according
to the demand existing from hour to hour
in the Strand district. By this means the
output from Falcon Wharf has been
doubled with a much improved load-
factor. The accumulator in this system
is of special construction (fig. 7). The
pressure 750 Ib per square inch is main-
tained in the cylinder A from the ordinary
hydraulic supply main. The working
ram B forms the cylinder for the fixed
hollow ram C which is connected to the
6 in. bore feeder main D. The balancing
rams E, E attached to the fixed head F
serve the purpose of adjusting the pres-
sure in the feeder main from 800 to
looo ft per square inch according to the
quantity of pressure water required to be
transmitted through it. The higher
pressure is required when the velocity
m this main is 10 ft. per second. There
is an automatic control valve at the
junction of the feeder main with the
service mains in the Strand, adjusted so
that the same effect is produced as if a
pumping station were in operation at
that point of equal capacity to the maxi-
mum flow through the 6 in. main. The
I length of the feeder main in this case is
2000 yds., and at 10 ft. per second there
is a loss of pressure of 240 Ib per square
inch, but the effect on the coal consumption is almost negligible, as the
maximum flow is seldom needed. The engines are specially con-
structed to take the pressure overload. The feeder main is made of
steel. The economical limit of the use of feeder mains is reached
when the additional running expenses involved equal the annual
value of the saving effected in the capital expenditure.
In public supplies the power used is in all cases registered by
meters, and since 1887 automatic instruments have been used at the
central stations to record the amount supplied at each
instant during the day and night. The ratio between
the power registered at the consumers' machines and the "'
power sent into the mains is the commercial efficiency of the whole
system. The loss may be due to leakage from the mains or to defects
in the meters ; or if, as is often the case, the exhaust from the machines
is registered, to waste on the consumers' premises. The automatic
recorders give the maximum and minimum supplies during 24 hours
every day, the maximum record showing the power required for a
given number and capacity of machines, and the minimum giving
an indication of the leakage. It has been found practicable to
obtain an efficiency of 95% in most public power transmission
plants over a series of years, but great care is required to produce so
good a result. In some years 98% has been registered. L'ntil
1888 no meters were available for registering a pressure of 700 Ib
per square inch, and all that could be done was to register the water
after it had passed through the machines and lost its pressure. This
method is still largely adopted; but now high-pressure meters give
excellent results, exhaust registration is being superseded to a con-
siderable extent by the more satisfactory arrangement of registering
the power on its entry into the consumers' premises. In Manchester
Kent's high-pressure meters are now used exclusively. Venturi
meters have also been used with success for registering automatically
the velocity of flow, and, by integration, the quantity in hydraulic
power mains, and form a most useful check on the automatic
recorders. The water after the pressure has been eliminated by
passage through the machines, may run to a drain or be led back to
the central station in return mains ; the method adopted is a question
of relative cost and convenience.
We proceed to the machines actuated by hydraulic power, and
by a comparison of the useful work done by them with the work
done by the engines and boilers at the central station Machinery
the mechanical efficiency of the system as a whole can
be gauged. At the central station and in the distribution there is
no great difficulty in determining the efficiency within narrow limits;
it should be 80% at the point of entry to the machine in which
the pressure is used.
Where feeder mains are in use the efficiency of the system is neces-
sarily reduced, owing to the higher velocities allowable in the feeder
mains. Mechanical efficiency is then sacrificed for the sake of
economy. The mechanical efficiency of the machines is a very
uncertain quantity; the character of the machines and the nature
of the conditions are so variable that a really accurate general
statement is impossible. In most cases the losses in the machine
are practically constant for a given size and speed of working; con-
sequently the efficiency of a given machine may vary within very
wide limits according to the work it has to do. For instance, a
hydraulic pump of a given capacity, delivering the water to an
elevation of 100 ft., will have an efficiency of 80%; but if the eleva-
tion of discharge is reduced to 15 ft., even though the hydraulic-
pressure rams may be proportioned to the reduced head, the efficiency
falls below 50 %. The ultimate efficiency of the system, or P um P "-P-
i.n.p.,
in the one case is 64%, and in the other under 40%. In crane or lift
work the efficiency varies with the size of the apparatus, with the
load and with the speed. Efficiency in this sense is a most uncertain
euide. Some of the most useful and successful applications of
hydraulic power as, for instance, hydraulic capstans for hauling
wagons in railway goods yards have a very low efficiency ex-
pressed on the ratio of work done to power expended. Hydraulic
cranes for coal or grain hoisting have a high efficiency when well
designed, but it is now very usual to employ grabs to save the labour
of filling the buckets, and their use lowers the efficiency, expressed
in tons of coal or grain raised, by 33 % or even 50 %. When hydrau-
lic machines are fully loaded, 50% to 60% of the indicated power
of the central station engine is often utilized in useful work done
with a radius of 2 or 3 m. from the station. In very favourable
circumstances the efficiency may rise to over 70% and in a
great many cases in practice it no doubt falls below 25 %. If,
however, energy in any form can be obtained ready for use at a
moderate rate, the actual efficiency of the machines (i.e. the ratio
of the useful work done to the energy absorbed in the process) is
not of very great importance where the use is intermittent.
Hydraulic pressure is more particularly advantageous in cases
where the incompressibility of the fluid employed can be utilized,
as in hydraulic lifts, cranes and presses. Hydraulic machines for
these purposes have the peculiar and distinct advantage of direct
action of the pressure on the moving rams, resulting in simplicity
of construction, slow and steady movement of the working
parts, absence of mechanical brakes and greatest safety in action.
When the valve regulating the admission of the pressure to the
hydraulic cylinder is closed, the water is shut in, and, as it is
232
POWER TRANSMISSION
[PNEUMATIC
incompressible, the machine is locked. Thus all hydraulic machines
possess an inherent brake; indeed, many of them are used solely as
brakes.
Hydraulic power transmission does not possess the flexibility of
electricity, its useful applications being comparatively limited, but
the simplicity, efficiency, durability and reliability of typical hydrau-
lic apparatus is such that it must continue to occupy an important
position in industrial development.
Sometimes a much higher pressure than 700 lb or 1000 ft per
square inch is desirable, more particularly for heavy presses and for
machine tools such as are used for riveting, for punching, shearing,
&c. The development of these applications has been largely due
to the very complete machinery invented and perfected by R. H.
Tweddell. One of the principal installations of this kind was erected
in 1876 at Toulon dockyard, where the machines are all connected
with a system of mains of 2j-in. bore and about 1700 yds. long, laid
throughout the yard, and kept charged at a pressure of 1500 lb per
square inch by engines of 100 h.p. with two large accumulators.
Marc Berrier-Fontaine, the superintending engineer of the dockyard,
stated that the economy of the system over the separately-driven
geared machines formerly used is very great. But while pressures
so high as 3 tons per square inch (as in the I2,ooo-ton Armstrong-
Whitworth press) have been used for forging and other presses, it is
not desirable, in the distribution of hydraulic power for general
purposes, that 1000 ft per square inch should
be much exceeded ; otherwise the rams, which
form the principal feature in nearly all
hydraulic machines, if proportioned to the
work required, will often become inconveni-
ently small, and other mechanical difficulties
will arise. The cost of the machinery also
tends to become greater. In particular cases
the working pressure can be increased to any
desired extent by means of an intensifier
(fig. 8).
An important application of hydraulic
power transmission is for ship work, the
system being largely adopted both in H.M.
navy and for merchant vessels. Hydraulic
coal-discharging machinery was fitted by
Armstrong as early as 1854 on board a small
steamer, and in 1868 some hopper barges on
the Tyne were supplied with hydraulic cranes.
A. Betts Brown of Edinburgh applied
hydraulic power to ship work in 1873, and
in the same year the first use of this power
for gunnery work was effected by G. M.Rendel
on H.M.S. " Thunderer." The pressure usu-
ally employed in H.M. navy is 1000 ft per
square inch. Accumulators are not used and
the engines have to be fully equal to supply
directly the whole demand. The distance
through which the power has to be trans-
mitted is, of course, very short, and the high
velocity of 20 ft. per second is allowed in the
main pipes. The maximum engine-power
required under these conditions on the larger ships is very consider-
able. A recent development of hydraulic power on board ship is
the Stone-Lloyd system of closing bulkhead doors. In hydraulic
transmission of power it is usually the pressure which is employed,
but there are one or two important cases in which the velocity of
flow due to the pressure is utilized in the machine. Reference has
already been made to the use of turbines working at 750 ft per
square inch at Antwerp. The Pelton wheel has also been found to
be adapted for use with such high pressures. Another useful ap-
plication of the velocity due to the head in hydraulic transmission is
in an adaptation of the well-known jet pump to fire hydrants. The
value of the system of hydraulic transmission for the extinction of
fire can hardly be overestimated where, as in London and most
large towns, the ordinary pressure in the water mains is insufficient
for the purpose.
AUTHORITIES. Armstrong, Proc. Inst. C.E. (1850 and 1877),
Proc. Inst. Mech. E. (1858 and 1868); Elaine, Hydraulic Machinery
(1897); Davey, Pumping Machinery (1905); Dunkerley, Hydraulics
(1907); Ellington, Proc. Inst. C.E. (1888 and 1893), Proc. Inst. Mech.
E. (1882 and 1895), Proc. Liverpool Eng. Sic. (1880 and 1885);
Greathead, Proc. Inst. Mech. E. (1879); Marks, " Hydraulic Power,"
Engineering (1905); Parsons, "Sanitary Works, Buenos Aires,"
Proc. Inst. C.E. (1896); Robinson, Hydraulic Power and Hydraulic
Machinery (1887); Tweddell, Proc. Inst. C.E. (1883 and 1894),
Proc. Inst. Mech. E. (1872 and 1874); Unwin, Transmission of Power
(1894), Treatise on Hydraulics (1907). (E. B. E.)
Ill . PNEUMATIC
Every wind that blows is an instance of the pneumatic
transmission of power, and every windmill or sail that catches
the breeze is a demonstration of it. The modern or technical
use of the term, however, is confined to the compression of air
FIG. 8.
at one point and its transmission to another point where it is
used in motors to do work. The first recorded instance of this
being done was by Denis Papin (b. 1647), who compressed air
with power derived from a water-wheel and transmitted it
through tubes to a distance. About 1800 George Medhurst (1750-
1827) took out patents in England for compressing air. He
compressed and transmitted air which worked motors, and he
built a pneumatic automobile. William Mann in 1829 took out
a patent in England for a compound air compressor. In his
application he states: " The condensing pumps used in
compressing I make of different capacities, according to the
densities of the fluid to be compressed, those used to compress
the higher densities being proportionately smaller than those
previously used to compress it to the first or lower densities,"
&c. This is a very exact description of the best methods of
compressing air to-day, omitting the very important inter-cooling.
Baron Van Rathen in 1849 proposed to compress air in stages
and to use inter-coolers between each stage to get 750 lb
pressure for use in locomotives. For the next forty years
inventors tried without success all manner of devices for cooling
air during compression by water, either injected into the cylinder
or circulated around it, and finally, with few exceptions, settled
down to direct compression with no cooling worthy of mention.
Only in the last ten years of the igth century were the funda-
mental principles of economical air compression put into general
practice, though all of them are contained in the patent of
William Mann and the suggestion of Van Rathen.
The first successful application of compressed air to the trans-
mission of power, as we know it, was at the Mont Cenis Tunnel in
1 86 1. The form of compressor used was a system of water
rams several of them in succession in which water was the
piston, compressing the air upwards in the cylinder and forcing
it out. Although the air came in contact with the water, it
was not cooled, except slightly at the surface of the water and
around the walls of the cylinders. The compressors were loca-
ted near the tunnel, and the compressed air was transmitted
through pipes to drilling machines working at the faces in the
tunnel. Rotary drills were tried first, but were soon replaced
by percussion drills adapted from drawings in the United
States Patent Office, copied by a French and Italian commission
from the patent of j. W. Fowle of Philadelphia. H. S. Drinker
(Tunneling, Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills, New York,
1893) states positively that the first percussion drill ever made
to work successfully was patented by J. J. Couch of Philadelphia
in 1849. Shortly afterwards Fowle patented his drills, in which
the direct stroke and self-rotating principle was used as we use
it now. The first successful drill in the Hoosac Tunnel was
patented in 1866 by W. Brooks, S. F. Gates and C. Burleigh,
but after a few months was replaced by one made by Burleigh,
who had bought Fowle's patent and improved it. Burleigh made
a compressor, cooling the air during compression by an injected
spray of water in the cylinders. The successful work in the
Mont Cenis and Hoosac Tunnels with the percussion drilling
machines caused the use of compressed air to spread rapidly,
and it was soon found there were many other purposes for which
it could be employed with advantage.
The larger tunnels and metal mines were naturally the earliest
to adopt pneumatic transmission, often using it for pumping
and hoisting as well as drilling. In Paris and Nantes, in Berne
and in Birmingham (England), street tramways have been
operated by pneumatic power, the transmission in these, however,
being in tanks rather than pipes. Tanks on the cars are
filled at the central loading stations with air at very high pressure,
which is used in driving the motors, enough being taken to enable
the car to make a trip and return to the loading station. Several
attempts in pneumatic street traction were made in America,
but failed owing to financial troubles and the successful intro-
duction of electric traction. It is used very successfully,
however, both in Europe and in America, in underground mine
haulage, being especially adapted to coal mines, where electricity
would be dangerous from its sparks. The copper smelting works
at Anaconda, Montana, U.S.A., uses twelve large pneumatic
ELECTRICAL]
POWER TRANSMISSION
233
locomotives for charging the furnaces, removing slag, &c. Many
stone quarries have a central plant for compressing air, which
is transmitted through pipes extending to ail working points,
and operates derricks, hoists, drills, stone cutters, &c., by means
of motors. Every considerable ironworks, railroad shop or
foundry has its pneumatic transmission plant. Also in the
erection of the larger steel bridges or buildings a pneumatic
transmission system is part of the contractor's outfit, and many
railways have a portable compressing plant on a car ready to
be moved to any point as needed.
Dr Julius G. Pohle, of Arizona, patented in 1886, and intro-
duced extensively, the use of compressed air for lifting water
directly, by admitting it into the water column. His plan is
largely adopted in artesian wells that do not flow, or do not
flow as much as desired, and is so arranged that the air supply
has a back pressure of water equal to at least half the lift. If it
is desired to lift the water 30 ft. the air is admitted to the
water column at least 30 ft. below the standing water surface.
The air admitted being so much lighter than the water it dis-
places, the column 60 ft. high becomes lighter than the column
30 ft. high and is constantly released and flows out at the top.
The efficiency of this method is only 20 to 40%, depending on
the lift, but its adaptation to artesian wells renders it valuable
in many localities.
A remarkable pneumatic transmission system was installed
in 1890 by Priestly in the Snake River Desert, Idaho,
U.S.A. On the north side of the river is a cliff, nearly perpen-
dicular, about 300 ft. high. One hundred and ninety feet above
the river, for a considerable distance along the cliff, streams of
water gush out from between the bottom of the great lava bed
and the hardened clay of the old lake bottom. Priestly, without
knowledge of Pohle's system, built a pipe line down the bluff and
trained the water into it in such a way that ii carried a very
considerable quantity of air in the form of bubbles along with
it down the pipe, compressing it on the way. The air was col-
lected at the bottom in a covered reservoir, and taken up the
cliff again to the lower part of an inverted siphon pipe, one side
of which reached down from the water-supply about 60 ft. and
the other side reached up and over the bluff. Allowing the water
to fill both sides of the pipe to the level of the water-supply, he
admitted his compressed air at about 75 lb pressure into the
long side of the pipe near the bottom, and soon had water flowing
upwards over the cliff and irrigating a large tract of rich lava
land. He had made a power, a transmission and a motor plant
without a moving part. A similar compressor was installed
near Montreal, Canada, in 1896; another at Ainsworth, British
Columbia, in 1898; and another at Norwich, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
in 1902. These are called hydraulic air compressors and show
an efficiency of about 70%. They are particularly adapted to
positions where there is a large flow of water with a slight fall or
head.
The actual transmission of power by air from the compressor to
the motor is simple and effective. The air admits of a velocity of
15 to 20 ft. per second through pipes, with very slight loss by friction,
and consequently there is no necessity for an expensive pipe system
in proportion to the power transmitted. It is found in practice
that, allowing a velocity as given above, there is no noticeable
difference in pressure between the compressor and the motor several
miles away. Light butt-welded tubing is largely used for piping,
and if properly put in there is very slight loss from leakage, which,
moreover, can be easily detected and stopped. _ In practice, a
sponge with soap-suds passed around a joint furnishes a detective
agency, the escaping air blowing soap bubbles. In good practice
there need not be more than I % loss through leakage and I %
possibly through friction in the pneumatic transmission of power.
Air develops heat on compression and is cooled by expansion,
and it expands with heat and contracts with cold. For the purpose
of illustration suppose a cylinder io_ ft. long containing 10 cub. ft.
of air at 60 F., with a frictionless piston at one end. If this piston
be moved 7$ ft. into the cylinder, so that the air is compressed to one-
quarter of its volume, and none of the heat developed by compression
be allowed to escape, the air will be under a pressure of 90 lb per
square inch and at a temperature of 460 F. If this air be cooled
down to 60 F. the pressure will be reduced to 45 lb per square inch,
showing that the heat produced in the air itself during compression
gives it an additional expansive force of 45 tb per sauare inch. The
average force or pressure in compressing this air without loss of heat
is 21 lb per square inch, whereas if all the heat developed
during compression had been removed as rapidly as developed
the average pressure on the piston would have been only 1 1 tb
per square inch, showing that the heat developed in the air
during compression, when not removed as fast as developed,
caused in this case an extra force of 10 lb per square inch to be used
on the piston. If this heated air could be transmitted and used
without any loss of heat the extra force used in compressing it could
be utilized; but in practice this is impossible, as the heat is lost in
transmission. If the piston holding the 2\ cub. ft. of air at 45 lb per
square inch and at 60 F. were released the air expanding without
receiving any heat would move it back within 3! ft. of the end only,
and the temperature of the air would be lowered 170 F., or to 1 10 F.
below zero. If the air were then warmed to 60 F. again it would
move the piston the remaining 3$ ft. to its starting point.
It is seen that the ideal air-compressing machine is one which will
take all the heat from the air as rapidly as it is developed during
compression. Such " isothermal compression " is never reached in
practice, the best work yet done lacking 10 % of it. It follows that
the most inefficient compressing machine is one which takes away
no heat during compression that is, works by " adiabatic compres-
sion," which in practice has been much more nearly approached
than the ideal. It also follows that the ideal motor for using com-
pressed air is one which will supply heat to the air as required when
it is expanding. Such " isothermal " expansion is often attained,
and sometimes exceeded, in practice by supplying heat artificially.
Finally, the most inefficient motor for using compressed air is one
which supplies no heat to the air during its expansion, or works by
adiabatic expansion, which was long very closely approached by
most air motors. In practice isothermal compression is approached
by compressing the air slightly, then cooling it, compressing it slightly
again, and again cooling it until the desired compression is com-
pjeted. This is called compression in stages or compound compres-
sion. Isothermal expansion is approximately accomplished by
allowing the air to do part of its work (as expanding slightly in a
cylinder) and then warming it, then allowing it to do a little more
and then warming it again, and so continuing until expansion is
complete. It will be seen that the air is carefully cooled during
compression to prevent the heat it develops from working against
compression, and even more carefully heated during expansion to
prevent loss from cold developed during expansion. More stages
of compression of course give a higher efficiency, but the cost of
machinery and friction losses have to be considered. The reheating
of air is often a disadvantage, especially in mining, where there are
great objections to having any kind of combustion underground;
but where reheating is possible, as W. C. Unwin says, " for the
amount of hieat supplied the economy realized in the weight of air
used is surprising. The reason for this is, the heat supplied to the
air is used nearly five times as efficiently as an equal amount of
heat employed in generating steam." Practically there is a hot-
air engine, using a medium much more effective than common air,
in addition to a compressed-air engine, making the efficiency of the
whole system extremely high. (A. DE W. F.)
IV. ELECTRICAL
Though the older methods of power transmission, such as
wire ropes, compressed air and high-pressure water, are still
worked on a comparatively small scale, the chief commercial
burden has fallen upon the electric generator and motor linked
by a transmission line. The efficiency of the conversion from
mechanical power to electrical energy and back again is so high,
and the facility of power distribution by electric motors is so
great, as to leave little room for competition in any but very
exceptional cases. The largest single department of electrical
power transmission that is, transmission for traction purposes
is at present almost wholly carried on by continuous currents.
The usual voltage is 500 to 600, and the motors are almost uni-
versally series-wound constant-potential machines. The total
amount of such transmission in daily use reaches probably a
million and a half horse power. In long distance power trans-
mission proper continuous currents are not used to any con-
siderable extent, owing mainly to the difficulty of generating
continuous currents at sufficient pressure to be available for
such work, and the difficulty of reducing such pressure, even
if it could be conveniently obtained, far enough to render it
available for convenient distribution at the receiving end of the
line. Single continuous current machines have seldom been
built successfully for more than about 2000 to 3000 volts, if at
the same time they were required to deliver any considerable
amount of current. About 300 to 500 kilowatts per machine
at this voltage appears to be the present limit, although it is
by no means unlikely that the use of commutating poles and
234
POWER TRANSMISSION
[ELECTRICAL
other improvements may considerably increase these figures.
For distances at which more than this very moderate voltage is
desirable one must either depend on alternating currents or
use machines in series. In American practice the former alter-
native is universally taken. On the continent of Europe a
very creditable degree of success has been achieved by adopting
the latter, and many plants upon this system are hi use, mostly
in Switzerland. In these generators are worked at constant
current, a sufficient number in series being employed to give
the necessary electromotive force.
Power Transmission at Constant Current. In this system,
which has been developed chiefly by M. Thury, power is trans-
mitted from constant current generators worked in series, and
commonly coupled mechanically in pairs or larger groups
driven by a single prime mover. The individual generators
are wound for moderate currents, generally between 50 and
150 amperes, and deliver this ordinarily at a maximum voltage
of 2000 to 3500, the output per armature seldom being above
300 kw. For the high voltages needed for long distance
transmission as many generators as may be required are thrown
in series. In the Moutiers-Lyons transmission of no m.,
the most considerable yet installed on this system, there are
four groups, each consisting of four mechanically-coupled genera-
tors. The common current is 75 amp., and the maximum
voltage per group is about 15,000 volts, giving nearly 60,000
volts as the transmission voltage at maximum load. In the
St Maurice-Lausanne transmission of about 35 m. the constant
current is 150 amp. and the voltage per armature is 2300,
five pairs being put in series' for the maximum load voltage of
23,000.
Regulation in such plants is accomplished either by varying the
field strength through an automatic governor or by similarly varying
the speed of the generators. Either method gives sufficiently good
results. The transmission circuit is of the simplest character, and
the power is received by motors, or for local distribution by motor
generators, held to speed by centrifugal governors controlling field-
varying mechanism. For large output the motors, like the generators,
are in groups mechanically coupled and in series. In the Moutiers-
Lyons transmission motor-generators are even designed to give
a three-phase constant potential distribution, and in reverse to
permit interchange of energy between the continuous current and
several polyphase transmission systems.
The advantages of the system reside chiefly in easier line insulation
than with alternating currents and in the abolition of the difficulties
due to line inductance and capacity. It is probably as easy to insulate
for 100,000 volts continuous current as for 50,000 volts alternating
current. Part of the difference is due to the fact that in the latter
case the crest of the E.M.F. wave reaches nearly 75,000 volts, and in
addition static effects and minor resonant rise of voltage must be
reckoned with. There is some possibility, therefore, of the advantage-
ous use of continuous current in case very great distances, requiring
enormous voltages, have to be covered. In addition, a constant
current plant is at full voltage only at brief and rare periods of
maximum load instead of all the time, which greatly increases the
average factor of safety in insulation.
On the other hand, the constant current generators are relatively
expensive and of inconveniently small individual output for large
transmission work, and require very elaborate precautions in the
matter of insulation. Their efficiency is a little less than that of
large alternators, but the difference is partially off-set by the
transformers used with the latter for any considerable voltage.
A characteristic advantage of the constant current system is the
extreme simplicity and cheapness of the switching arrangements as
compared with the complication and cost of the ordinary switch-board
lor a polyphase station at high voltage. Comparing station with
station as a whole it is at least an open question whether the poly-
phase system would have any material advantage in cost per kw.
in an average case. The principal gains of the alternating systems
appear in the relative simplicity of the distribution. In dealing with
a few large power units the constant current system has the best
of the argument in efficiency, but in the ordinary case of widespread
distribution for varied purposes the advantage is quite the other
way.
The high-voltage constant-current plant lends itself with especial
ease to operation, at least in emergency, over a grounded circuit. In
some recent plants, e.g. Moutiers-Lyons, provision is made at the
sub-stations for grounding the central point of the system and either
line in case of need, and in point of fact the voltage drop in working
grounded is found to be within moderate and practicable limits.
The possibilities of improvement in the system have by no means
been worked out, and although it has been overshadowed by the
enormous growth of polyphase transmission it must still be considered
seriously.
Transmission by Alternating Current. The alternating current
has conspicuous advantages. In the first place, whatever the
voltage of transmission, the voltage of generation and that of
distribution can be brought within moderate limits at a very
high degree of efficiency by the use of transformers; and, in the
second place, it is possible to build alternating-current generators
of any required capacity, and for voltages high enough to permit
the abolition of raising transformers except in unusual circum-
stances. At present such generators, giving 10,000 to 13,500
volts directly from the armature windings, are in common and
highly successful use; and while the use of raising transformers
is preferred by some engineers, experience shows that they
cannot be considered essential, and are probably not desirable
for the voltages in question, which are as great as at the present
time seem necessary for the numerical majority of transmission
plants. Polyphase generators, especially in large sizes, can be
successfully wound up to more than double the figures just
mentioned. The plant at Manojlovac, Dalmatia, has been
equipped with four 30,000 volt three-phase generators, giving
each about 5000 kw. at 42 ~ with 420 revolutions per minute,
the full load efficiency being 94%. But for very large trans-
mission work to considerable distances where much higher
voltages are requisite such transformers cannot be dispensed
with. Alternating currents are practically employed in the
polyphase form, on account both of increased generator output
in this type of apparatus and of the extremely valuable proper-
ties of the polyphase induction motors, which furnish a ready
means for the distribution of power at the receiving end of the line.
As between two- and three-phase apparatus the present prac-
tice is about equally divided; the transmission lines themselves,
however, are, with rare exceptions, worked three-phase, on
account of the saving of 25% in copper secured by the use of
this system. Inasmuch as transformers can be freely combined
vectorially to give resultant electromotive forces having any
desired magnitudes and phase relations the passage from two-
phase to three-phase, and back again, is made with the utmost
ease, and the character of the generating and receiving apparatus
thus becomes almost a matter of indifference. As regards such
apparatus it is safe to say that honours are about even: some-
times one system proves more convenient, sometimes the other.
The difficulty of obtaining proper single-phase motors for the
varied purposes of general distribution has so far prevented any
material use of single-phase transmission systems.
Generators for Power Transmission. The generators are usually
large two- or three-phase machines, and in the majority of instances
they are driven by water-wheels. Power transmission on a large
scale from steam plant has, up to the present, made no substantial
progress, save as the networks of large electrical supply stations
have in some cases grown to cover radii of many miles. The size
of these generators varies from 100 or 200 kw. in small plants,
up to 10,000 or more in the larger ones. Their efficiency ranges
from 92% or thereabouts in the smaller sizes up to 96%
or a fraction more in the largest, at full load. The voltage of
these generators varies greatly. When raising transformers are
used it is usually from 500 to 2500 volts; without them the genera-
tors are usually wound for 10,000 to 13,500 volts. Intermediate
voltages have sometimes been employed, but are rather passing out
of use, as they seem to fulfil no particularly useful purpose. The
tendency at the present time, whatever the voltage, is towards the
use of machines with stationary armatures and revolving field
magnets, or towards a pure inductor type having all its windings
stationary. At moderate voltages such an arrangement is merely
a matter of convenience, but in high-voltage generators it is practi-
cally a necessity. Low-voltage machines are usually provided with
polyodontal windings, these windings having several separate arma-
ture teeth per pole per phase, while the high-voltage machines are
generally monodontal; in both classes the edges of the pole pieces
are usually chamfered away in such form as to produce at least a
close approximation to the sinusoidal form for the electromotive
force. For this purpose, and to obtain a better inherent regulation
under variations of load, the field magnets are, or should be, par-
ticularly powerful. In the best modern generators the variation
of electromotive force from no load to full load, non-inductive, is
less than 10% at constant field excitation. Closeness of inherent
regulation is an important matter in generators for transmission work-
ELECTRICAL]
POWER TRANSMISSION
235
inasmuch as there is as yet no entirely successful method of automatic
voltage regulation on very large units; and the less hand regulation
the better. Moreover, the design which secures this result also
tends to secure stability of wave form in the electromotive force, a
matter of even greater importance. There has been much discussion
as to the l>ost wave form for use on alternating circuits, it having
been conclusively shown that for a given fundamental frequency
the sinusoidal wave does not give the most economical use of iron
in the transformers. For transmission work, however, particularly
over long lines, this is a matter of inconceivably small importance
compared with the stability and the freedom from troubles from
higher harmonics that result from the use of a wave as nearly sinu-
soidal as can possibly be obtained. In every alternating circuit
the odd harmonics are considerably in evidence in the electromotive
force, either produced by the structure of the generator or introduced
by the transformers and other apparatus. These are of no particular
moment in work upon a small scale, but in transmission on a large
scale to long distances, or especially through underground cables,
they are, as will be seen in the consideration of the transmission line
itself, a serious menace. Inasmuch as the periodicity of an alter-
nating circuit must be maintained sensibly constant for successful
operation, great care is usually exercised to secure such governing
of the prime movers as will give constant speed at the generators.
This can now be obtained, in all ordinary circumstances, by several
forms of sensitive hydraulic governors which are now in use. The mat-
ter of absolute periodicity has not yet settled itself into any final form.
American practice is based largely upon 60 cycles per second, which
is probably as high a frequency as can be advantageously employed.
Indeed, even this leads to some embarrassment in securing good
motors of moderate rotative speed, and the tendency of the frequency
is rather downward than upward. An inferior limit is set by the
general desirability of operating incandescent lamps off the trans-
mission circuits. For this purpose the frequency should be held
above 30 cycles per second ; below this point, flickering of the lamps
becomes progressively more serious, especially with lamps having
the very slender metallic filaments now commonly employed
so serious, indeed, as practically to prohibit their successful use
and plants installed for such low frequencies are generally confined
to motor practice, or to the use of synchronous converters, which are
somewhat easier to build in large units at low than at high periodici-
ties. Occasional plants for railway and heavy motor service operate
at as low as 15 ~, and more at 25 ~. Nearly all the general work
of power transmission, however, is carried on between 30 and 60 ~.
The inferior limit at which it is possible successfully to operate
alternating arc lamps is about 40 ~ ; and if these are to be an impor-
tant feature in transmission systems the indications are that practice
will tend towards a periodicity above 40 ~, at which all the accessory
apparatus can be successfully operated. European practice is
based generally upon a frequency of 50 ~, which admirably meets
average conditions of distribution.
Transmission Lines. Power transmission lines differ from those
used for general electric distribution principally in the use of higher
voltage and in the precautions entailed thereby. The economic
principles of design are precisely the same here as elsewhere, save
that the conductors vary less in diameter and far more in length.
Inasmuch as transmission systems are frequently installed prior to
the existence of a well-developed distribution system the conditions
of load and the market for the power transmitted can seldom be
predicted accurately; consequently, the cases are very rare in which
Kelvin's law can be applied with any advantage; and as it is at
best confined to determining the most economical conditions at a
particular epoch this law is probably of less use in power transmission
than in any other branch of electric distribution. A superior limit
is set to the permissible loss of energy in the line by the difficulty
attending regulation for constant potential in case the line loss is
considerable. The inferior limit is usually set by the undesirability
of too large an investment in copper, and lines are usually laid out
from the standpoint of regulation rather than from any other.
In ordinary practice it seldom proves advantageous to allow more
than 15% loss in the line even under extreme conditions, and the
cases are few in which less than 5% loss is advisable. These few
cases comprise those in which the demand for power notably over-
runs the supply as limited by the maximum power available at the
generating station, and also the few cases in which a loss greater
than 5% would indicate the use of a line wire too small from a
mechanical standpoint. It is not advisable to attempt to construct
long lines of wire smaller than No. 2 American wire-gauge (-257 in.
diameter), although occasionally wire as small as No. 4 (-204 in.
diameter) may safely be employed. Smaller diameter than this
involves considerable added difficulty of insulation in lines operated
at voltages in excess of about 50,000. The vast majority of trans-
mission lines are composed of overhead conductors. In rare
instances underground cables are used. In single-phase work these
are preferably of concentric form, which, however, gets too com-
plicated in the three-phase lines generally employed to secure
economy in copper; for the latter, triplicate cables, lead sheathed,
laid in glazed earthenware ducts, seem to give the best results.
On account of the cost and the difficulty of repair of such lines they
are not extensively used, and cables have not yet been produced
for the extremely high voltages desirable in some very long circuits,
although they are readily obtainable for voltages up to 30,000 or
40,000. As to the material of the conductors, copper is almost
universally used. For very long spans, however, bronze wire of
high tensile strength is occasionally employed as a substitute for
copper wire, and more rarely steel wire ; aluminium, too, is beginning
to come into use for general line work. Bronze of high tensile
strength (say 80,000 to 100,000 Ib per square inch) has unfortunately
less than half the conductivity of copper; and unless spans of many
hundred feet are to be attempted it is better to use hard-drawn
copper, which gives a tensile strength of from 60,000 to 65,000 B> to
the square inch, with a reduction in conductivity of only 3 to 4 %.
As to aluminium, this metal has a tensile strength slightly less than
that of annealed copper, a conductivity about 60% that of copper,
and for equal conductivity is almost exactly one-half the weight.
Mechanically, aluminium is somewhat inferior to copper, as its
coefficient of expansion with temperature is 50 % greater; and its
elastic limit is very low, the metal tending to take a permanent
set under comparatively light tension, and being seriously affected
at less than half its ultimate tensile strength. Joints in aluminium
wire are difficult to make, since the present methods of soldering
are little better than cementing the metal with the flux ; in practice
the joints are purely mechanical, being usually made by means of
tight-fitting sleeves forced into contact with the wire. With suitable
caution in stringing, aluminium lines can be successfully used, and
are likely to serve as a useful defence against increase in the price
of copper. Whatever the material, most important lines are now
built of stranded cable, sometimes with a hemp core to give added
flexibility.
With respect to line construction the introduction of high
voltages, say 40,000 and upwards, has made a radical change in
the situation. The earlier transmission lines were for rather low
voltages, seldom above 10,000. Insulation was extremely easy,
and the transmission of any considerable amount of power implied
heavy or numerous conductors. The line construction therefore
followed rather closely the precedents set in telegraph and telephone
construction and in low tension electric light service. In American
practice the lines were usually of simple wooden poles set 40 to 50
to the mile, and carrying wooden cross-arms furnished with wooden
pins carrying insulators of glass or porcelain. The poles were little
larger than those used in telegraph lines, a favourite size being
a 4O-ft. pole about 8 in. in diameter at the top and 15 in. at the butt,
set 6 to 7 ft. in the earth. Such poles commonly bore two cross-
arms, the lower and longer carrying 4 pins, and the shorter upper
arm 2 pins, so disposed that the upper pin on each side of the pole
would form with the nearer pins below an equilateral triangle
18 to 24 in. on the side. The poles therefore carried two three-
phase circuits one on either side, one or both circuits being spiralled.
In European practice iron poles have been more .frequently used,
again following rather closely the model of telegraph practice, with
similar spacing of poles, and with insulators, usually of porcelain,
somewhat enlarged and improved over telegraph and electric light
insulators, and spaced somewhat more widely. As between wooden
and steel poles, the latter are of course the more durable and much
the more costly. The difference in cost depends largely on the
locality, and ultimately on the life of the wooden poles. This ranges
from two or three up to ten or fifteen years, the latter figures only
in favourable soils and when the lower ends of the poles nave been
thoroughly treated with some preservative. Under such conditions
wood is often ultimately the cheaper material.
The use of very high voltages results in, for all moderate powers,
the use of small and consequently light wires and in the necessity for
heavy, large and costly insulators. For security against leakage and
failure it becomes desirable to reduce the numer of insulation
points, and with the resulting lengthening of span to design the line
as a mechanical structure. A transmission line is subject to three
sets of stresses. The most considerable are those due to the longi-
tudinal pull of the catenary depending on the weight and tension of
the wires. Under ordinary conditions these strains are balanced
and come into play only when there is breakage of one or more
wires and consequent unbalancing. It has been the common
practice to give the poles sufficient strength to withstand this pull
without failing. The maximum amount of the pull may be safely
taken at the sum of the elastic limits of the wires, since it is unsafe
so to design the spans as to be subject to larger stresses.
There is also lateral stress on a line due to wind acting upon the
poles and wires, the latter amounting to little unless their diameter
is increased by a coating of sleet, a condition which gives maximum
stresses on the line. Wind then tends to push the line over, and it
also increases the longitudinal stresses, being added geometrically
to the catenary stress. The actual possibility of wind pressure is
very generally over-estimated, and has resulted in much needlessly
costly construction. In the first place, save for actual tornadoes,
for which no estimates can be given, even the highest winds at the
level of any ordinary transmission line are of modest actual velocity.
It is probable that no transmission line save on mountain peaks at a
very high elevation is ever exposed to an actual wind velocity of
75 m. per hour, and only at intervals of years is a velocity of even
60 m. reached near the ground level. Further, the maximum wind
velocities are practically never reached at very low temperatures
when the line is under its maximum catenary stress, and sleet
236
POWER TRANSMISSION
[ELECTRICAL
formation, which takes place only within a very limited temperature
range, is practically unknown under conditions of maximum wind.
The relation of wind velocity to pressure in case of a suspended
wire or cable may be approximately expressed by the equation
P = o-oo2sV 2 , where P is the pressure per square foot of projected
area of cable, and V is the actual wind velocity in miles per hour.
Except for sleet conditions the wind pressure is, then, a matter of
little concern. At times sleet may accumulate on bare wires to a
thickness of half an inch to an inch. Even under these conditions
the lateral stability of the line is a matter of less concern than
the added component of stress in the catenary. The third element
of line stress, the actual crushing stress of the wire load, is of no
consequence in high voltage transmission work.
In scientific line design the best example has been set by the
Italian engineers, who, realizing that the longitudinal strains, which
are very severe in case of breakage of spans rigidly supported from
pole to pole, a_re immediately relieved by a slight increase in catenary
drop, have introduced the principle of longitudinal flexibility.
The poles or towers of structural steel are so designed as to be
fairly stiff against lateral pressure and are given secure foundation
against overturning, but are deliberately designed to deflect length-
wise the line in the extreme case of breakage of wires so as at once to
relieve the catenary tension without passing their elastic limit.
In this way complete security is attained with a minimum of material
and expense.
In recent construction both in America and Europe the tendency
is to use steel poles or towers of ample height, 40 to 60 ft. and spans
ranging from 300 to 600 ft., occasionally more. The catenary drop
allowed is considerable, often 3 to- 4% of the span length. Cross-
arms and pins, when used, are commonly of iron or steel, and the
interiors of the insulators are therefore fairly at earth potential.
The insulators are of dense and hard-baked porcelain, built up of
three or four shells cemented together to form a whole, with several
deep petticoats to protect the inner surfaces from wetting. Such
insulators may be 12 to 18 in. in diameter over all, and from top
groove to base a little more. If well designed and made, insulators
of this type can endure even under very heavy precipitation alter-
nating voltages of 60,000 to 100,000 effective without flashing over,
and double these figures when dry. For line voltages above 60,000
to 70,000 it is apparent that the insulating factor of safety would
be seriously reduced, and some recent lines have been equipped with
suspension insulators. These are in effect porcelain bells from 10 in.
diameter upward strung together like a string of Japanese gongs.
The bells are all the same size and are spaced about a foot apart,
the suspensions being variously designed. These insulating groups
can be as large as need be, and it is easy to push the aggregate insula-
tjon resistance, both dry and wet, far beyond the figures just men-
tioned. This suspension requires higher poles than the ordinary,
but allows a considerable amount of longitudinal back lash, in case
a wire burns off. Too extensive slip along the line is checked by
guys fitted with strain insulators, like the suspension ones, at suitable
intervals. The suspension insulator gives promise of successful use
of voltages much higher than 100,000 volts. The wires on high
voltage systems are generally widely spaced : very seldom less than
2 ft. between centres, and for the higher voltages something like I ft.
for each 10,000 volts.
Voltage. The most important factor in the economy pf the con-
ducting system is the actual voltage used for the transmission.
This varies within very wide limits. For transmissions only a few
miles in length the pressures employed may be from 2000 to 5000
volts, but for the serious work of power transmission less than 10,000
volts are now seldom used. This pressure, under all ordinary con-
ditions and in all ordinary climates, can be and is used with complete
success, and apparently without any greater difficulty than would
be encountered at much lower voltage. It is regarded as the stan-
dard transmission voltage in American practice for short distances
up to 10 or 15 m. Beyond this, and sometimes even on shorter
lines, it is greatly increased; up to 20,000 volts there seems to be no
material difficulty whatever in effecting and maintaining a sufficient
insulation of the line. In the higher voltages there were in 1908 more
than fifty plants in regular operation at 40,000 volts and above.
Of these more than a score are operated at 60,000 volts and above.
The highest working voltage employed in 1909 was 110,000 volts,
which was successfully used in two American plants: that of the
Grand Rapids Muskegon (Michigan) system.and in the transmission
work of the Central Colorado system. These both employ suspen-
sion insulators with five bells in series, and operate with no more
trouble than falls to the lot of systems using ordinarily high voltages.
The Rio de Janeiro transmission system, operates at 88,000 volts
with large porcelain insulators, 17-5 in. in over-all diameter and 19-75
in height, carried on steel pins; the Kern River (California) plant
at 75,000 volts with similar construction ; the Missouri River Power
Co. (Montana) at 70,000 volts, using glass insulators on wooden pins
saturated with insulating material. There is no especial difficulty
in building transformers for still higher pressures, the real problem
lying in the insulation of the line. Taken as a whole these high
voltage lines have given good service, those near the upper limit
doing apparently as well as those near the lower, owing to more
careful precautions in construction. Likewise the distances of
transmission have steadily risen. There are, all told, nearly a score
of power transmissions over 100 m. in length, the longest distance
yet covered being from De Sabla to Sausalito (California), a distance
of 232 m. This, like most other long American transmissions, is at
6o~, and it is interesting to note that even over such distances
there seems to be very little evidence of trouble due to frequency.
In point of fact, those who have had the most experience with long
distance transmission are the last to worry about the difficulties
of using alternating current. Some unusual phenomena turn up
in high voltage work, but they are rather interesting than alarming.
The lines become self-luminous from " coronal " discharge at a little
above 20,000 volts, and at 40,000 or 50,000 volts the phenomenon,
which is sometimes aggravated by resonance, becomes of a striking,
not to say startling, character. At above 100,000 volts this coronal
discharge must be given serious consideration.
Resonance, in substance, is due to synchronism of the periodic
electromotive force, or a harmonic thereof, with the electro-magnetic
time-constant of the system. The frequency of the currents
actually employed in transmission work is so low that resonance
with the fundamental frequency must be extremely rare; resonance
with the harmonics is, however, common much commoner than is
generally supposed. In every electromotive force wave the odd
harmonics are more or less in evidence, particularly the third, fifth
and seventh. If the electromotive force wave departs notably from
a sinusoidal form, traces of harmonics up to at least the isth may
generally be found ; the third, seventh and the alternate higher har-
monics are manifest in flattening the crest of the wave. Supposing,
what is seldom quite true, that the harmonics are symmetrically
disposed in phase with the fundamental, all the harmonics tend
somewhat to elevate the shoulders of the wave; a wave, therefore,
with peaked shoulders and a depression in the centre is certain to be
affected by harmonics, while if it has a high central crest, there is
evidence of great predominance of the fifth and higher harmonics.
Generally the harmonics are slightly out of phase with the fundamen-
tal, so that the wave is both deformed and unsymmetrical. As to the
amplitude pf these harmonics, the third is usually the largest, and
may sometimes in commercial machines amount to as much as 20 %
of the amplitude of the fundamental, and frequently 10%. In
machines giving nearly sinusoidal waves it is of course much less,
but it is not difficult to find even the seventh and higher harmonics
producing variations as great as 5%. Since, other things being
equal, the rise in electromotive force due to resonance is directly
projjortional to the magnitude of the harmonics, and the chance of
getting it increases rapidly with the presence of those of the higher
orders, the desirability of using the closest possible approximation
to a sinusoidal wave is self-evident. The greater the inductance
and capacity of the system and the less its ohmic resistance,
the greater the chance of getting serious resonance. As regards
the distributed capacity and inductance due to the line alone, the
ordinary conditions are not at all formidable; the general effect
of such distributed capacity and inductance is to produce in the
system a series of static waves, their length varying inversely with
the frequency. At commercial frequencies the wave length is very
great, so great that even in the longest lines at present employed
only a small fraction of a single wave length appears; the total
length of the line is generally much less than one quarter the com-
plete wave length, and the only notable effect is a moderate rise of
potential along the line. The time-constant of the alternating
circuit is T = -00629 V (LC), where L is the absolute self-induction
in henrys and C the capacity in microfarads; and if the frequency,
or a marked harmonic thereof, coincide with this time-period,
resonance may safely be looked for, and resonance of the harmonics
may appear conspicuously in lines of ordinary lengths. The follow-
ing table gives the values, both L and C, per mile of three-phase
circuit, of the sizes (American wire-gauge) ordinarily employed for
transmission circuits, the wires being assumed to be strung 48 in.
apart and about the height already indicated :
Size No.
Diameter.
L.
C.
inch.
oooo
0-460
O-OO3I2
0-0167
ooo
0-4IO
O-OO322
0-0164
oo
0-365
0-00328
0-0160
o
0-325
0-00336
0-0157
i
0-289
0-00338
0-0154
2
0-258
0-00347
0-0151
3
0-229
0-0035I
0-0148
4
O-2O4
0-00358
0-0145
In cases where underground cables form a part of the system, the
above values of C are very largely increased, and the probability of
resonance is in proportion enhanced. A still further complication
is introduced by the capacity and inductance of the apparatus used
upon the system, which may often be far greater than that due to the
entire line, even if the latter be of considerable length. In point of
fact, it is altogether probable that resonance due to the distributed
capacity and inductance of the overhead line alone is of rare occur-
rence and generally of trivial amount, while it is equally probable
ELECTRICAL]
POWER TRANSMISSION
237
that resonance due to localized capacity and inductance other than
that of the line conductors may, and often does, cause very serious
disturbances upon the system. The subject has never been ade-
quately investigated, but the tendency towards formidable sparking
and arcing at various points on long-distance transmission systems
is generally far greater than can be accounted for by consideration
of the nominal voltages alone. The conditions may be still further
complicated by the effect of earths or open circuits, which sometimes
may produce, temporarily, appalling resonance phenomena, through
bringing into action the capacity and inductance of the apparatus
and introducing surges. In ordinary working the resonance of the
harmonics is not very conspicuous, and the fact that it occurs not
systematically, but only in special ways and under special conditions,
indicates more strongly than anything else that the vital point is
not the time-constant of the line alone, but those of the apparatus
connected thereto. A definite and persistent tendency towards
resonance may sometimes be effectively checked by the introduction
of suitable inductance in the parts of the system most seriously
affected, but the best general policy is to avoid as far as possible
the presence of the higher harmonics, which are the chief sources of
danger.
Closely allied to and connected with resonance is the phenomenon
known as " surging," which is due to the discharge of the electro-
magnetic energy stored in a circuit containing inductance and capa-
city when that circuit is broken. This discharge is an oscillatory
one, going on with decreasing amplitude until it is frittered away
by resistance and other sources of loss. Its frequency is that of the
system affected, and the surge may get reinforcement from resonance
proper. It is sufficiently serious on its merits, however, since the
resulting rise of voltage increases directly with the current and
may produce terrific results when the break comes as the result of a
short circuit. Minor surging occurs when there is a sudden and
violent change in the conditions of the circuit even without an actual
break. Such a change produces an impulsive redistribution of
energy that may give a sharp rise in voltage. Every point of abrupt
variation in the electrical constants on the system is liable to be
affected by minor surges. Such disturbances when trivial are
commonly referred to as " static." Surging, depending as it does
on the current ruptured, may, and indeed often does, give particularly
formidable effects on circuits of moderate voltage, while on high
voltage transmission circuits the usually moderate current and the
large margin of safety in the insulation are important ameliorating
influences.
Maintenance. Transmission lines are, when practicable, laid out
through open country, and along roads which furnish easy access
for inspection and repairs. The chief sources of danger in temperate
climates are mechanical injury from the falling of branches of trees
across the circuits, sleet and wind storms, and lightning. The first-
mentioned difficulty may be avoided by keeping clear, so far as
possible, of wooded country, and it should be remembered that, at
the voltages customarily used for transmission, a twig the size of a
lead-pencil falling across the wires may set up arcing, and it will
end by burning the wires completely off not directly by fusion,
but by persistent arcing. A properly constructed overhead line is
practically safe against all storms, save those of most extraordinary
violence, and with care may be made secure even against these.
As a matter of practice, interruptions of service upon transmission
systems are very rarely due to trouble upon the main line itself,
but are far more likely to occur in some part of the distributing
system. The most dangerous combination of circumstances is a sleet
storm sufficient to coat the wires with ice, followed by heavy winds ;
if the line, however, is constructed with proper factors of safety,
bearing this particular danger in mind, there need be very little
fear of serious results. Lightning is a much more formidable enemy.
The lightning discharges observed upon electric circuits are of two
general descriptions: first, a direct discharge of lightning upon the
fine, more or less severe, and always to be dreaded ; and secondly,
induced discharges due to lightning flashes which do not hit the line,
or to static disturbances which may or may not produce actual
lightning. Discharges of the former class are vastly more severe
than those of the latter, and, fortunately, are somewhat rare. They
may actually shatter the line, or may distribute themselves along it
for a considerable distance, leaping from wire to pole, and thence to
earth, without actually damaging the line to any marked degree.
The induced discharges are felt principally in the apparatus, causing
many of the burn-outs observed in transformers and generators.
There is no complete protection against the effects of lightning upon
the apparatus. Even the best lightning arresters are palliatives
rather than preventives. If, however, a number of arresters are
put in parallel, with reactance coils between them on the way
towards the apparatus, the vast majority of lightning discharges,
to whatever cause they may be due, will be deflected harmlessly
to earth. Moreover, the apparatus itself has a considerable power
of resistance, due to its high insulation. The ends of the line should
be very thoroughly protected by such lightning arresters, and other
points, such as prominent elevations along the line, should receive
similar additional protection. In some cases a substantial steel-wire
ca_ble stretched along the tops of the poles several feet above the line
wires and well grounded at frequent intervals has been found
very advantageous. With the best protection at present available,
lightning is not a serious menace to continuity of service, and the
apparatus of the distributing system is far more difficult to protect
than the main line and its apparatus.
Sub-stations. In most long-distance transmission work the trans-
mission line itself terminates in a sub-station, which bears to the
general distribution system precisely the same relations which are
borne by a central electric supply station to its distributing lines.
Such a sub-station should be treated, in fact, as a central station,
receiving its electric energy from a distance instead of employing
local generators driven by prime movers. The design of the sub-
station, however, is somewhat different from that of the ordinary
central station. The transmission lines terminate generally in a
bank of reducing transformers, bringing the voltage from the 10,000
or higher voltage employed upon the line to the 2000 or more
generally used in the distribution. These transformers are usually-
large, and their magnitude should be determined by the same con-
siderations which apply to determining the size of the units to be
employed in a generating station. The general rule to be followed
is that the separate units shall be of such size that one of them may
be dispensed with without serious inconvenience. In the case of
transformers, the unit in two- or three-phase working is the bank of
transformers, which must be used together. In Continental practice
three-phase reducing transformers are frequently made to include
all three phases in a single structure ; this practice is less frequently
followed in American plants, separate transformers being more often
used in each phase. In this case, two or three transformers, accord-
ing as the two- or three-phase system is used, constitute a single
transformer unit in the sense just mentioned. If a change is to DC
made from three-phase line to two-phase distribution, the change
is made by the appropriate vector connexion of the transformers.
The full-load efficiency of large sub-station transformers is commonly
97 to 98%. In any case, the sub-station is furnished with voltage
regulating appliances, to enable the voltage upon the distribution
lines to be held constant and uniform. These regulators are, in
practice, transformers with a variable transformation ratio. This
is obtained in divers ways sometimes by changing the inductive
relations of the primary and secondary coils, sometimes by
changing the relative number of effective turns in primary and
secondary. Sets of these inductive regulators enable the voltage
to be controlled over a sufficiently wide range to secure uniform
potential on the system, and with a degree of delicacy that
obviates any undesirable changes in voltage. The regulation
is usually manual, no automatic regulator yet having proved
entirely satisfactory. In very large systems it is worth noting
that the so-called " skin effect " in alternating current conductors
may become conspicuous. In the transmission circuits them-
selves the wires are, in practice, never large enough to produce
any sensible difference in conductivity for continuous and for alter-
nating currents. In the heavy omnibus-bars of a large sub-station
this immunity may not be continued, but in such cases flat strips
are frequently employed. If these are not more than, say, a centi-
metre in thickness, the " skin effect " is practically insignificant for
all frequencies used commercially. Not infrequently the sub-station
also contains devices for the changing of alternating to continuous
current, usually synchronous converters feeding either traction
system or electric lighting mains. Beyond these converters the
system becomes an ordinary continuous-current system, and is
treated as such. When very close regulation is necessary, motor-
generators are often preferred to synchronous converters. Series
arc lighting from transmission circuits is a much more serious
problem. At the present time two methods are in vogue: first,
the operation of continuous-current series-arc machines by
synchronous or induction motors driven from the transmission
system; and, secondly, series alternating apparatus for feeding
alternating arcs. This apparatus consists either of constant-
current transformers with automatically moving secondaries,
or of inductive regulators, also automatic in their action,
supplemented by transformers to supply them with the necessarily
rather high voltage employed for arc distribution. As between
these two systems practice is at present divided; electrically, the
alternating apparatus gives a rather higher real efficiency, but in-
volves the use of alternating arcs, which are somewhat less efficient,
watt for watt, as light producers than the continuous-current arcs.
The apparatus, however, requires practically no care, while the arc
machines, driven by motors, require the same amount of care as if
they were driven by other power. Arc light transformers, however,
are likely to have low power factors, hardly above 0-8 at full load,
and rapidly falling off at lower loads. Synchronous rectifiers
changing the alternating current into a unidirectional current, suit-
able for use." with arc lights, have been employed with some success,
but not to any considerable extent. They are satisfactory in avoid-
ing the use of alternating currents in the arc, and consume but little
energy in the transformation from one form of current to the other,
but involve the use of static transformers automatically giving con-
stant current, which are somewhat objectionable on the score of low-
power factor. Mercury rectifiers are now used rather extensively
and give excellent results, although they are as yet of somewhat
uncertain life, and, like the synchronous rectifiers, require special
transformers when worked at constant current. In Continental
practice arc lights are almost universally worked off constant
238 POWIS, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF POYNINGS
potential circuits, and hence the difficulties just considered are for
the most part peculiar to American systems.
Distances of Transmission. The ultimate determining factor in
the distance to which power can be commercially transmitted is
the economic side of the transmission, the maximum distance being
the maximum distance at which the transmission will pay. As a
mere engineering feat the transmission of power to a distance
of many hundred miles is perfectly feasible, and, judging from the
data available, the phenomena encountered in increasing the length
of lines have not been of such character as to cause any hesitation
in going still farther, provided the increase is commercially feasible.
In American practice, it is within the truth to say that nearly all
transmissions of reasonable size (say a few hundred kilowatts) to
distances of twenty miles, or less, are pretty certain to pay. At
distances up to fifty miles, in a large proportion of cases power can
be delivered at prices which will enable it to compete with power
locally generated by steam. From fifty to one hundred miles (on a
large scale several thousand kilowatts) the chances for commercial
success are still good. The larger the amount of power transmitted,
the better on the whole is the commercial outlook. The longest
one yet operated has already been noted, and may be regarded as a
commercial success. In certain localities where the cost of fuel
is extremely high, transmissions of several hundred miles may prove
successful from a commercial as well as an engineering standpoint,
but the growth of industry, which indicates the necessity for such a
transmission, may go on until, through improved facilities of trans-
port, the cost of fuel may be greatly lowered and the economic
conditions entirely changed. Such a modification of the con-
ditions sometimes takes place much more quickly than would be
anticipated at first sight, so that when very long distance trans-
missions are under consideration, the permanence of the conditions
which will render them profitable should be a very serious subject
of consideration. (L. BL.)
POWIS, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. Before the Norman
Conquest the Welsh principality of Powis, comprising the
county of Montgomery and part of the counties of Brecknock,
Radnor, Shropshire, Merioneth and Denbigh, was subject to
the princes of North Wales. Early in the i2th century it was
divided into upper and lower Powis. In 1283 Owen ap Griffin,
prince of upper Powis, formally resigned his princely title
(nomen et circulum principatus) and his lands to the English
king Edward I. at Shrewsbury, and received the lands again
as an English barony. (See Montgomeryshire Collections, 1868,
vol. i.). This barony of Powis passed through female inherit-
ance to the family of Cherleton and in 1421 to that of Grey.
It fell into abeyance in 1551.
In 1587 Sir Edward Herbert (d. 1594), a younger son of William
Herbert, earl of Pembroke, purchased some of the lands of the
barony, including Red castle, afterwards Powis castle, near
Welshpool, and in 1629 his son William (c. 1573-1656) was
created Baron Powis. William's grandson, William, the 3rd
baron (c. 1629-1696), was created earl of Powis in 1674 and
Viscount Montgomery and marquess of Powis in 1687. The
recognized head of the Roman Catholic aristocracy in England,
Powis was suspected of complicity in some of the popish plots
and was imprisoned in the Tower of London from 1678 to 1684.
He followed James II. into exile and was created duke of Powis
by the dethroned king. The English government deprived
him of his estates, but these were restored to his son William, the
2nd marquess, in 1722. William, who had a somewhat chequered
career as a Jacobite, died in October 1745, and when his son
William, the 3rd marquess, died in 1748 the titles became
extinct.
In 1748 Henry Arthur Herbert (d. 1772), who had been made
Baron Herbert of Chirbury in 1743, was created Baron Powis
and earl of Powis. He allied himself with the earlier holders
of these titles, with which family he was distantly connected,
by marrying Barbara, a niece of the 3rd marquess. The titles
became extinct a second time when his son George Edward
died in January 1801. George's sister and heiress, Henrietta
Antonia (1758-1830), married Edward Clive (1754-1829), son
and heir of the great Lord Clive. In 1794 he was made Baron
Clive of Walcot, and in 1804, after serving as governor of Madras
from 1798 to 1803, he was created Baron Powis and earl of Powis.
His son Edward, the 2nd earl (1785-1848), took the name of
Herbert in 1807 in lieu of that of Clive. He was a member of
parliament from 1806 to 1839, and was elected in opposition
to the Prince Consort, as chancellor of the university of
Cambridge in 1847. His second son was Lieut.-General
Sir Percy Egerton Herbert (1822-1876), who distinguished him-
self in the Crimean War, and Sir Percy's son, George Ckarles
(b. 1862), became the 4th earl in 1891.
POWNALL, THOMAS (1722-1805), British colonial states-
man and soldier, was born at Saltfleetby, Lincolnshire, Eng-
land, in 1722. He was educated at Lincoln and at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1743. He entered
the office of the lords commissioners of trade and plantations,
of which his brother John was then secretary; and in 1753 he
went to America as private secretary to Sir Danvers Osborn,
just appointed governor of New York. Osborn committed
suicide soon after reaching New York (Oct. 6), but Pownall
remained in America, devoting himself to studying the con-
dition of the American colonies. At the Albany Congress, in
1754, ha met Benjamin Franklin, and a life-long friendship
between the two resulted. In 1756 he returned to England,
and presented to Pitt a plan for a campaign against the French
in Canada, to begin with the investment of Quebec. In 1757
Pitt appointed him governor of Massachusetts, 1 in which office
he heartily supported Pitt's policy during the Seven Years'
War, and in 1758 encouraged the equipment of a force of 7000
men, to be recruited and armed in New England; but the French
power in America once broken, Pownall came more directly
under the influence of the lords of trade, and his unwillingness
to carry out the repressive policies of that body caused his
transfer to the governorship of South Carolina in February 1760.
This office he held nominally for about a year; but he never
went to South Carolina, and in June 1760 he returned to Eng-
land. In 1762-1763 he was commissary-general of the British
troops in Germany. As member of parliament for Tregony in
1768-1774 and for Minehead in 1774-1780, he at first sided
with the Whigs in opposing all plans to tax the American
colonists, but he supported North's administration after the
outbreak of the War of Independence. He died at Bath
on the 25th of February 1805. In 1764 he published (at first
anonymously) his famous Administration of the Colonies (other
editions appeared in 1765, 1766, 1768 and 1774), in which he
advocated a union of all British possessions upon the basis of
community of commercial interests.
For an extended account of Pownall's career and a bibliography
of his publications see Thomas Pownall, M.P., F.R.S. (London,
1908), by Charles A. W. Pownall, a distant kinsman, who attempts
to prove that Pownall was the " author behind the scenes " of the
" Letters of Junius " and " that Francis was his subordinate."
POYET, GUILLAUME (1473-1548), French magistrate, was
born at Angers. After practising successfully as a barrister
at Angers and Paris, he was instructed by Louise of Savoy,
mother of the king, Francis I., to uphold her rights against
the constable de Bourbon in 1521. This was the beginning
of his fortunes. Through the influence of the queen-mother
he obtained the posts of advocate-general (1530) and president
of the parlement of Paris (1534), and became chancellor of
France in 1538. He was responsible for the legal reform con-
tained in the ordinance of Villers-Cotterets (1539), the object
of which was to shorten procedure. This ordered the keeping
of registers of baptisms and deaths, and enjoined the exclusive
use of the French language in legal procedure. With the con-
stable de Montmorency he organized an intrigue to ruin Admiral
Chabot, and procured his condemnation in 1541; but after the
admiral was pardoned, Poyet was himself thrown into prison,
deprived of his offices, and sentenced to a fine of 100,000 livres.
He recovered his liberty in 1545, and died in April 1548.
See C. Poree, Guillaume Poyet (Angers, 1898).
POYNINGS, SIR EDWARD (1450-1521), lord deputy of Ire-
land, was the only son of Robert Poynings, second son of the
5th Baron Poynings. His mother was a daughter of Sir William
Paston, and some of her correspondence is to be found in the
1 In September 1755 Pownall had been made lieutenant-governor
of New Jersey, but he had little to do with the affairs of that province
and resigned soon after his appointment to Massachusetts.
POYNTER POZZO DI BORGO
239
Fasten Letters. Robert Poynings was implicated in Jack Cade's
rebellion, and Edward was himself concerned in a Kentish
rising against Richard III., which compelled him to escape to
the Continent. He attached himself to Henry, earl of Rich-
mond, afterwards King Henry VII., with whom he returned to
England in 1485. By Henry VII. Poynings was employed
in the wars on the Continent, and in 1493 he was made governor
of Calais. In the following year he went to Ireland as lord
deputy under the viceroyalty of Prince Henry, afterwards King
Henry VIII. Poynings immediately set about Anglicizing the
government of Ireland, which he thoroughly accomplished,
after inflicting punishment on the powerful Irish clans who
supported the imposture of Perkin Warbeck. He then sum-
moned the celebrated parliament of Drogheda, which met in
December 1494, and enacted the " Statutes of Drogheda,"
famous in Irish history as " Poynings's law " (see STATUTE:
Ireland), which made the Irish legislature subordinate to, and
completely dependent on, that of England, till its repeal in 1782.
After defeating Perkin Warbeck at Waterford and driving him
out of Ireland, Poynings returned to England in 1496, and was
appointed warden of the Cinque Ports. He was employed both
in military commands and in diplomatic missions abroad by
Henry VII., and later by Henry VIII., his most important
achievement being the successful negotiation of the " holy
league " between England, Spain, the emperor, and the pope,
in 1513. In 1520 he was present at the Field of the Cloth
of Gold, in the arrangement of which he had taken an active part.
He died in 1521. By his wife, Elizabeth Scot, Poynings left
no surviving issue, and his estates passed through a collateral
female line to the earl of Northumberland. He had several
illegitimate children, one of whom, Thomas Poynings, was
created Baron Poynings in 1545, but died in the same year
without heirs.
See Sir Francis Bacon, The History of the Reign of King Henry VII.
(London, 1641); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (2 vols.,
London, 1885); J. T. Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland
(Dublin, 1865) ; J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland (3 vols., London,
1872-1874) ; Wilhelm Busch, England under the Tudors, ed. by James
Gairdner (London, 1895).
POYNTER, SIR EDWARD JOHN, BART. (1836- ), English
painter, son of Ambrose Poynter, architect, was born in Paris
on the 20th of March 1836. He pursued his art studies in
England and in Paris (under Gleyre, 1856-1859), and exhibited
his first picture at the Royal Academy in 1861. In 1869, after
the exhibition of " Israel in Egypt " and " The Catapult," he
was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1876,
the year of " Atalanta's Race," full Academician.
In the decorative arts he practised freely as a designer in fresco,
mosaic, stained glass, pottery, tile-work and the like. While still
quite a young man, he was encouraged by the architect William
Burges, A.R.A., to design panels for his quaint Gothic cabinets;
Messrs Powell obtained from him cartoons of designs for stained-
glass; for the decoration of Waltham Abbey church he was employed
on a series of thirty important designs. Attracted by these, Dalziel
Brothers commissioned a number of full-page drawings on wood
for the illustration of their celebrated " Bible Gallery. The car-
toons for " St George " and " St David," the mosaic panels now
embellishing the outer lobby of the Palace of Westminster, were
produced in 1870, and they were followed by the " Apelles " and
Phidias," in the same method of reproduction, in the Victoria and
Albert Museum; by the important series of frescoes in St Stephen's,
Dulwich scenes from the life of the saint ; by the decoration of the
grill room at the Museum at South Kensington, with the tiles en
camaieu an achievement strikingly successful and pregnant with
results. Always a lover of water-colour drawing and of the art
of landscape painting, he was elected to the Royal Society of Painters
in Water Colours in 1883. In 1874 he designed the Ashantee medal;
and in 1892, for the coinage of that year, the reverse of the shilling
and florin, to the obverse of Mr Thomas Brock, R.A.
When the art teaching centre of South Kensington was
assuming the importance it has since attained, Mr Poynter was
appointed director for art in the Science and Art Department,
and principal of the National Art Training Schools (now the
Royal College of Art), and by virtue of his vigorous and
successful administration he invested his office with a distinction
which, after his resignation in 1881, it soon notoriously lacked.
The directorship of the National Gallery became vacant in
1894, and Poynter, profoundly versed in the works of the Old
Masters, especially of the Italian schools, was appointed to the
post, which he held for ten years. Under his rule the National
Gallery of British Art, at Millbank, presented by the late Sir
Henry Tate, became a department of the National Gallery, and
thither were removed many pictures formerly in the British
rooms at Trafalgar Square, as well as the Chantrey Collection
from South Kensington, &c. One of the most important services
by the director was the editing of the great Illustrated Catalogue
of the National Gallery (1889-1900), in which every picture in
the collection is reproduced an unprecedented achievement in
the annals of art-publishing.
On the death of Sir John Millais in 1896, Poynter was elected
to the presidency of the Royal Academy, and was knighted.
He was made a baronet in 1902.
Paintings. Among Sir Edward Poynter's most notable pictures
have been the following: "Israel in Egypt" (1867); "The
Catapult " (1868) ; " Perseus and Andromeda (1872) ; " Atalanta's
Race " (1876); " The Fortune-Teller " (1877); " Nausicaa and Her
Maidens " (1879); " Visit to Aesculapius " (1880), now in the Chan-
trey Collection in the Tate Gallery; " The Ides of March " (1883);
" Diadumene " (1885), now destroyed; " On the Terrace " (1889);
" The Meeting of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba " (1891) ; " Horae
Serenae " and " Idle Fears " (1894), and numerous portraits and
water-colour drawings.
Lectures. In his series of Slade Lectures, delivered from 1875 to
1879, and first published in 1879 (republished, with additions, in
1897), Sir Edward Poynter deals with the whole subject of art
education, considering in turn Decorative Art, Old ana New Art,
Systems of Art Education, Hints on the Formation of a Style,
Training of Art Students, The Study of Nature, The Value of Things,
Objects of Study, Professor Ruskin on Michelangelo (hotly con-
troversial in tone), Influence of Art in Social Life, and Ancient
Decorative Art.
See also Cosmo Monkhouse, " Sir E. J. Poynter, P.R.A. : His
Life and Work," Art Annual (1897); M. H. Spielmann, " Sir E. J.
Poynter, P.R.A., and his Studies," The Magazine of Art (1897).
POZHAREVATS (also written Passarowitz and Pozarevac),
a town in Servia, situated in the Morava valley, 4 m. E. of the
Morava river and 8 m. S. of the Danube. The station for
steamers, Dubravitsa, with its custom-house, standing on the
banks of the Danube, forms practically the harbour of Pozhare-
vats. The town has no special industry, but is the principal
market of a very extensive and fruitful plain between the
rivers Morava, Mlava and Danube. It is the capital of a depart-
ment bearing the same name, and the seat of a prefecture, a
tribunal of justice, a college and several national or normal
schools. It has a large modern penitentiary, with a department
for political offenders and a prison for women. Two miles to the
west, towards Morava, is situated Lubichevo, a model farm and
stud belonging to the government. The shady park and flower
gardens are a popular resort of the people of Pozharevats. The
town is known in the history of international treaties as the place
at which the famous peace of Passarowitz between Austria and
Turkey was concluded in 1718. Pop. (1900), 12,957.
Lignite is worked at Kostolats, 7 m. N. by E., and the hills
between Pozharevats and Kostolats show many traces of Roman
mines. A number of coins, sarcophagi and inscriptions found
in the neighbourhood are also Roman.
POZOBLANCO, a town of southern Spain in the province of
Cordova, near the head-waters of the Guadamatillas and of other
small sub-tributaries of the Guadiana. Pop. (1900), 12,792.
Pozoblanco is one of the chief towns in the lowlands of Los
Pedroches, which lie between the Sierra de la Alcudia on the
north and the Sierra Morena on the south. Although there is
no railway in the district, Pozoblanco has a thriving trade. Its
fairs are famed for their exhibits of live stock and agricultural
products. There are zinc and argentiferous lead mines in the
neighbourhood, and manufactures of cloth and leather in the
town itself.
POZZO DI BORGO, CARLO ANDREA, COUNT (1764-1842).
Russian diplomatist, was born at Alata, near Ajaccio, of a
noble Corsican family, on the 8th of March 1764, some four years
before the cession of the island to France. He was educated
240
POZZUOLI PRAED
at Pisa, and in early life was closely associated with Napoleon
and Joseph Bonaparte, the two families being at that time
closely allied in politics. Pozzo was one of the two delegates
sent to the National Assembly in Paris to demand the political
incorporation of Corsica in France, and was subsequently one
of the Corsican deputies to the Legislative Assembly, where he
sat on the benches of the right until the events of August 1792.
On his safe return to Corsica he was warmly received by Paoli,
but found himself in opposition to the Bonaparte brothers, who
were now veering to the Jacobin party. Under the new con-
stitution Pozzo was elected procureur-general-syndic, that is,
chief of the civil government, while Paoli commanded the army.
With Paoli he refused to obey a summons to the bar of the
Convention, and the definite breach with the Bonaparte family,
who actively supported the revolutionary authorities, dates
from this time. Eventually Paoli and Pozzo accepted
foreign help, and from 1794 to 1796, during the English pro-
tectorate of Corsica, Pozzo was president of the council of state
under Sir Gilbert Elliot. When Napoleon sent troops to occupy
the island he was excepted from the general amnesty, and took
refuge in Rome, but the French authorities demanded his ex-
pulsion, and gave orders for his arrest in northern Italy. After
a short stay in London he accompanied in 1798 Sir Gilbert
Elliot (now become Lord Minto) on an embassy to Vienna, where
he lived for six years and was well received in political circles.
Hatred of Napoleon was his dominant passion, and even as an
exile of no official standing he was recognized as a dangerous
enemy. In 1804 through the influence of Prince Adam Czar-
toryski he entered the Russian diplomatic service, and was em-
ployed in 1805 as Russian commissioner with the Anglo-Neapoli-
tan, and in 1806 with the Prussian army. He was entrusted
with an important mission to Constantinople in 1807, but the
conclusion of the alliance between Alexander I. and Napoleon
at Tilsit in July interrupted his career, necessitating a tem-
porary retirement after the completion of his business with the
Porte. He returned to Vienna, but on the demand of Napoleon
for his extradition Metternich desired him to leave the capital.
In London, where he found safety from Napoleon, he renewed
many old ties, and remained in England until 1812, when he
was recalled by Alexander. He diligently sought to sow dis-
sension in the Bonaparte household, and in a mission to Sweden
he secured the co-operation of Bernadotte against Napoleon.
On the entry of the allies into Paris he became commissary
general to the provisional government. At the Bourbon restora-
tion General Pozzo di Borgo became Russian ambassador at
the Tuileries, and sought to secure a marriage between the duke
of Berry and the Russian grandduchess Anna, Alexander's
sister. He assisted at the Congress of Vienna, and during the
Hundred Days he joined Louis XVIII. in Belgium, where he
was also instructed to discuss the situation with Wellington.
The tsar dreamed of allowing an appeal to the people of France
on the subject of the government of France in accordance with
his vague liberalizing tendencies, but Pozzo's suggestions in
this direction were met by violent opposition, the duke refusing
to make any concessions to what he regarded as rebellion; but
in Petersburg, on the other hand, his attachment to the Bourbon
dynasty was considered excessive. During the early years
of his residence in Paris Pozzo laboured tirelessly to lessen the
burdens laid on France by the allies and to shorten the period of
foreign occupation. That his French sympathies were re-
cognized in Paris is shown by the strange suggestion that he
should enter the French ministry with the portfolio of foreign
affairs. He consistently supported the moderate, party at
court, and stood by the ministry of the due de Richelieu, thus
earning the distrust and dislike of Metternich, who held him
responsible for the revival of Liberal agitation in France. His
influence at the Tuileries declined with the accession of
Charles X., whose reactionary tendencies had always been dis-
tasteful to him; but at the revolution of 1830, when the Tsar
Nicholas was reluctant to acknowledge Louis Philippe, he did
good service in preventing difficulties with Russia. In 1832 he
visited Petersburg; the next year he was in London renewing
his relations with Wellington, and early in 1835 he was sud-
denly transferred to the London embassy in succession to Prince
Lieven. Although he did not lose in official standing, Pozzo
was aware that this change was due to suspicions long har-
boured in various quarters in St Petersburg that his diplomacy
was too favourable to French interests. In London his health
suffered, and he retired from the service in 1839 to spend the
rest of his days in Paris, where he died on the isth of February
1842. He had been made a count and peer of France in 1818.
See Ouvaroff, Stein et Pozzo (St Petersburg, 1846) ; Correspondance
diplomatique du comte Pozzo di Borgo et du comte de Nesselrode,
ed. by Charles Pozzo di Borgo (2 vols., Paris, 1890-1897); Vicomte
A. Maggiolo, Corse, France et Russie. Pozzo di Borgo, 1764-1842
(Paris, 1890) ; J.B.H.R. Capefigure, Les Diplomates europeens (4 vols.,
1843-1847).
POZZUOLI (anc. Puleoli, q.v.), a seaport and episcopal
see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 7j m. W. of
it by rail. Pop. (1906), 17,017 (town); 22,838 (commune).
It is situated on and at the base of a hill projecting into the bay
at Pozzuoli, separated from the main portion of the Gulf of
Naples by the promontory of Posilipo. Its mineral baths are
frequented in summer; and the volcanic pozzolana earth (also
found near Rome), used now as in Roman times for making
cement and concrete, derives its name from the place. In the
middle ages Pozzuoli was frequently sacked and also damaged
by the natural convulsions of 1198 and 1538. To the north-
east of the town is the Solfatura, a half extinct volcano crater,
in which sulphurous gases are exhaled.
PRABHU, the writer caste of Western India, corresponding to
the Kayasth of Bengal. Though numbering only 21,941 in
Bombay in 1901, they occupy a very high position socially and
in the professions. The first Indian to be appointed to the
executive council at Bombay was a Prabhu, of the well-known
Chaubal family.
PRADIER, JAMES (1792-1862), French sculptor, was born
at Geneva. He was a member of the French Academy, and a
popular sculptor of the pre-Romantic period, representing in
France the drawing-room classicism which Canova illustrated
at Rome. His chief works are the Niobe group (1822), "Ata-
lanta" (1850), "Psyche" (1824), "Sappho" (1852) (all ia
the Louvre), "Prometheus" (Tuileries Gardens), a bas-reliet
on the triumphal arch of the Carrousel, the figures of " Fame "
on the Arc de 1'Etoile, and a statue of J. J. Rousseau for Geneva.
Besides these mention should be made of his "'Three Graces "
(1821).
PRADILLA, FRANCISCO (1847- ), Spanish painter, was
born at Villanueva da Callage (Saragossa). Having studied
first at the Fernando Academy, and then at the Spanish Academy
in Rome, of which he was afterwards director, he became the
leading historical painter of modern Spain. In 1896 he was
appointed director of the Madrid Museum. Though he is best
known for such large historical compositions as "Joan the Mad "
(gold medal, Paris, 1878), and " The Surrender of Granada "
(gold medal, Munich, 1883), in which he discarded the heavy
colouring of Laurens for a lighter and more atmospheric key,
he has painted many excellent genre pictures in the manner of
Fortuny, and some decorative compositions in which he follows
the example of Tiepolo. The best of these are his decorations
in the Murgo Palace in Madrid. Among his best known works
are " Elopement," " Strand at Vigo," " Procession in Venice,"
" La Fiorella," " Reading on the Balcony," " Don Alfonso
the Warrior," and " Don Alfonso the Scholar." He became
member of the Berlin Academy in 1892.
PRAED, WINTHROP MACKWORTH (1802-1839), English
poet, was born in London on the 26th of July 1802. The old
family name was Mackworth, the additional name of Praed
being derived from the marriage of the poet's great grand-
father with a Cornish heiress. His father, William Mackworth
Praed, was a serjeant-at-law. His mother belonged to the
English branch of the New England family of Winthrop. In
1814 Praed was sent to Eton College. He there founded a
manuscript periodical called Apis matina. This was suc-
ceeded in October 1820 by the Etonian, a paper projected and
PRAEFECT
241
edited by Praed and Walter Blount, which appeared every
month until July 1821, when the chief editor, who signed his
contributions " Peregrine Courtenay," left Eton, and the paper
died. Henry Nelson Coleridge, William Sidney Walker, and
John Moultrie were the three best known of his coadjutors in
this periodical, which was published by Charles Knight, and
of which many interesting particulars are given in Knight's
A utobiography and in Maxwell Lyte's Eton College. Before Praed
left school he succeeded in establishing over a shop at Eton a
" boys' library," the books of which are now amalgamated in
the School Library. His career at Cambridge, where he matricu-
lated at Trinity College, October 1821, was marked by excep-
tional brilliancy. He gained the Browne medal for Greek
verse four times, and twice the chancellor's medal for English
verse. He was bracketed third in the classical tripos in 1825,
won a fellowship at his college in 1827, and three years later
carried off the Seatonian prize. At the Union his speeches were
only rivalled by those of Macaulay and of Charles Austin (1799-
1874), who subsequently made a great reputation at the par-
liamentary bar. The character of Praed during his university
life is described by Bulwer Lytton in the first volume of his
Life. He began to study law, and in 1829 was called to the bar
at the Middle Temple. He went the Norfolk circuit, where
his prospects of advancement were bright, but the bias of his
feelings inclined him towards politics, and after a year or two
he devoted himself entirely to political life. Whilst at Cam-
bridge he leaned to Whiggism, and even to the autumn of 1829
his feelings were bent towards the same side, but during the
agitation for parliamentary reform his opinions changed, and
when he was returned to parliament for St Germans (Dec.
17, 1830) his election was due to the Tory party. He sat
for that borough until December 1832, and on its extinction
contested the borough of St Ives, within the limits of which the
Cornish estates of the Praeds were situated. The squibs which
he wrote on this occasion were collected in a volume printed at
Penzance in 1833 and entitled Trash, dedicated without respect
to James Halse, Esq., M.P., his successful competitor. Praed
sat for Great Yarmouth from 1835 to 1837, and was secretary
to the Board of Control during Sir Robert Peel's short adminis-
tration. He sat for Aylesbury from 1837 until his death.
During the progress of the Reform Bill he advocated the creation
of three-cornered constituencies, in which each voter should
have the power of giving two votes only, and maintained that
freeholds within boroughs should confer votes for the boroughs
and not for the county. Neither of these suggestions was then
adopted, but the former ultimately formed part of the Reform
Bill of 1866. He married in 1835 Helen Bogle. He died of
consumption at Chester Square, London, on the isth of July
1839.
Praed's lighter poetry was the perfection of ease. Mr Austin
Dobson has justly praised his " sparkling wit, the clearness
and finish of his style, and the flexibility and unflagging
vivacity of his rhythm " (Ward's English Poets). It abounded
in happy allusions to the characters and follies of the day. In
his humorous effusions he found numerous imitators.
His poems were first edited by R. W. Griswold (New York, 1844) ;
another American edition, by W. A. Whitmore, appeared in 1859;
an authorized edition with a memoir by Derwent Coleridge appeared
in 1864: The Political and Occasional Poems of W. M. Praed (1888),
edited with notes by his nephew, Sir George Young, included many
pieces collected from various newspapers and periodicals. Sir
George Young separated from his work some poems, the work of his
friend Edward Maryborough Fitzgerald, generally confused with his.
Praed's essays, contributed to various magazines, were published in
Morley's Universal Library in 1887.
PRAEFECT (praefeclus), the title of various Roman officials,
both civil and military. A praefect was not one of the magis-
trates proper; he was, strictly speaking, only the deputy or
lieutenant of a superior magistrate or commander. The fol-
lowing were the most important.
i. The city praefect (praefeclus urbis) acted at Rome as the
deputy of the chief magistrate or magistrates during his or
their absence from the city. Thus he represented in the earliest
times the king and in later times the consul or consuls when
he or they were absent on a campaign or on other public duties,
such as the celebration of the annual Latin festival on the Alban
Mount. The absence of the chief magistrate for more than a
single day rendered the appointment of a praefect obligatory;
but the obligation only arose when all the higher magistrates
were absent. Hence so long as the consuls were the only higher
magistrates their frequent absence often rendered the appoint-
ment of a praefect necessary, but after the institution of the
praetorship (367 B.C.) the necessity only arose exceptionally,
as it rarely happened that both the consuls and the praetor
were absent simultaneously. But a praefect continued to be
regularly appointed, even under the empire, during Pnefectut
the enforced absence of all the higher magistrates Urbi*
at the Latin festival. The right and duty of appoint- feriarum
ing a praefect belonged to the magistrate (king, LaUa * n " a -
dictator or consul) whose deputy he was, but it seems to have
been withdrawn from the consuls by the Licinian law (367),
except that they still nominated praefects for the time of the
festival. No formalities in the appointment and no legal
qualifications on the part of the praefect were required. The
praefect had all the powers of the magistrate whose deputy
he was, except that he could not nominate a deputy to him-
self. His office expired on the return of his superior. There
could only be one city praefect at a time, though the dictator
Caesar broke the rule by appointing six or eight praefects
simultaneously.
Under the empire there was introduced a city prefecture
which differed essentially from the above. Augustus occa-
sionally appointed a city praefect to represent him in his absence
from Italy, although the praetors, or even one of the consuls,
remained in the capital. In the absence of Tiberius from Rome
during the last eleven years of his reign (A.D. 26-37) the city
prefecture, hitherto an exceptional and temporary office, be-
came a regular and permanent magistracy; in all subsequent
reigns the praefect held office even during the presence of the
emperor in Rome. He was always chosen by the emperor and
usually from men who had held the consulship; his office was
regarded, like the censorship under the republic, as the crown-
ing honour of a long political career. It was not conferred for
any definite length of time, but might be held for years or for
life.' As under the republic, the praefect was not allowed to
quit the city for more than a day at a time. His duty was the
preservation of peace in the capital; he was, in fact, the chief
of the police, being charged with the superintendence pf the
streets, markets and public buildings. He was further entrusted
by Augustus with a summary criminal jurisdiction over slaves
and rioters, which was, however, gradually extended till in the
time of Severus or even earlier it embraced all offences by
whomsoever committed. Further, he had the power of dealing
with civil cases where his interference seemed requisite in the
interests of the public safety, but such occasions were naturally
few. By the beginning of the 3rd century, and perhaps earlier,
appeals to the emperor in civil cases were handed over by him
to be dealt with by the praefect. Except where special re-
strictions interfered, an appeal lay from the praefect to the
emperor. Though, not a military officer, the praefect com-
manded the city cohorts (cohortes urbanae), which formed part
of the garrison of Rome and ranked above the line regiments,
though below the guards (see PRAETORIANS). The military
power thus placed in the hands of the chief of the police was one
of the most sorely-felt innovations of the empire. The con-
stitutional changes of Diocletian and Constantine extended
still further the power of the praefect, in whom, after the dis-
banding of the guards and the removal from Rome of the highest
officials, the whole military, administrative and judicial powers
were centred.
2. Under the republic judicial praefects (praefeeti jure diccndo)
were sent annually from Rome as deputies of the praetors
to administer justice in certain towns of the Italian allies.
These towns were called prefectures (praefecturae). After the
Social War (90-89 B.C.), when all Italy had received the Roman
242
PRAEMUNIRE
franchise, such prefectures ceased to exist in fact, though the
name was sometimes retained.
3. Under the empire the praetorians or imperial guards were
commanded by one, two, or even three praefects (praefecli
praelorio), who were chosen by the emperor from among the
knights and held office at his pleasure. From the time of Alex-
ander Severus the post was open to senators also, and if a knight
was appointed he was at the same time raised to the senate.
Down to the time of Constantino, who deprived the office of
its military character, the prefecture of the guards was regu-
larly held by tried soldiers, often by men who had fought their
way up from the ranks. In course of time the command seems
to have been enlarged so as to include all the troops in Italy
except the corps commanded by the city praefect (cohortes
urbanae). Further, the praetorian praefect acquired, in addition
to his military functions, a criminal jurisdiction, which he
exercised not as the delegate but as the representative of the
emperor, and hence it was decreed by Constantino (331) that
from the sentence of the praetorian praefect there should be no
appeal. A similar jurisdiction in civil cases was acquired by
him not later than the time of Severus. Hence a knowledge
of law became a qualification for the post, which under Marcus
Antoninus and Commodus, but especially from the time of
Severus, was held by the first jurists of the age, (e.g. Papinian,
Ulpian and Paullus), while the military qualification fell more
and more into the background. Under Constantino the insti-
tution of the magistri militum deprived the praetorian pre-
fecture altogether of its military character, but left it the
highest civil office of the empire.
The title of " praefect " was borne by various other Roman officials,
of whom we may mention the following :
4. Praefectus Socium (sociorum). Under the republic the con-
tingents furnished to the Roman armies by the Italian allies were
commanded by Roman officers called praefecti socium (sociorum),
who were nominated by the consuls and corresponded to the
tribunes in the legions.
5. Praefectus Classium. Down to near the close of the republic a
naval command was never held independently but only in connexion
with the command of an army, and, when the general appointed
an officer to command the fleet in his room, this lieutenant was
styled " praefect of the fleet " (praefectus classium). When in 31 1 B.C.
the people took the appointment of these lieutenants into their
own hands the title was changed from " praefects " to duo mri
navales, or "two naval men"; but under the empire the admirals
went by their old name of praefects.
6. Praefectus Fabrum. The colonel of the engineer and artillery
corps (fabri) in a Roman army was called a praefect; he did not
belong to the legion, but was directly subordinate to the general in
command.
7. Praefectus Annonae. The important duty of provisioning
Rome was committed by Augustus (between A.D. 8 and 14) to a
praefect, who was appointed by the emperor from among the knights
and held office at the imperial pleasure.
8. Praefectus Aegypti (afterwards Praefectus augustalis). Under
the empire the government of Egypt was entrusted to a viceroy
with the title of " praefect," who was selected from the knights, and
was surrounded by royal pomp instead of the usual insignia of a
Roman magistrate. He stood under the immediate orders of the
emperor. The exceptional position thus accorded to Egypt was
due to a regard on the part of the emperors to the peculiar character
of the population, the strategic strength of the country, and its
political importance as the granary of Rome. (J. G. FR.)
9. Praefectus Castrorum, from the time of Augustus to Severus the
title of the commander of the fixed camps of the legions in different
parts of the empire. He was a purely military man appointed by
the emperor, usually a centurion whose term of service was com-
pleted. From the time of Domitian, when each legion had a separate
camp, the name of the legion was added to the title, e.g. praefectus
castrorum legionis xiii. gem. (C.I.L. iii. 454). The duties of this
officer included : the arrangement of the camp and medical service,
the transport of the baggage, the construction of roads, bridges and
fortifications, the supply of ammunition and engines of war.
10. Praefectus Vigilum, the commander of the seven cohortes
vigilum, a night police force instituted by Augustus (A.D. 6). To
each cohort, consisting of about 1000 men (chiefly freedmen), was
entrusted the care of two of the fourteen city districts; one of its
chief duties was that of a fire brigade. The policing of the city had
formerly been one of the duties of the aediles, but was now trans-
ferred to the praefectus vigilum, appointed by the emperor from the
equites. He exercised criminal jurisdiction in cases of incendiarism
and offences committed against the law during the night, and in
later times this jurisdiction was considerably extended.
The different kinds of praefects are fully discussed in Mommsen,
Romisches Staatsrecht (1887) vols. ii., iii. ; see also T. M. Taylor, Con-
stitutional and Political History of Rome (1899). There is an excellent
monograph on the Praefectura urbis by P. E. Vigneaux (1896).
Mommsen deals very cursorily with the praefectus castrorum, but
there is a special article by G. Wilmanns, in Ephemeris epigraphica
(1872), vol. i.," De praefecto castrorum et praefecto legionis."
For the French prefet see PREFECT. (X.)
PRAEMUNIRE (Lat. praemonere, to pre-admonish or fore-
warn), in English law an offence so called from the introductory
words of the writ of summons issued to the defendant to answer
the charge, " Praemunire facias A.B,.," &c., i.e. " cause A.B.
to be forewarned." From this the word came to be used to
denote the offences, usually ecclesiastical, prosecuted by means
of such a writ, and also the penalties they incurred. The statute
of Richard II., Purchasing bulls from Rome (1392), is usually
designated the Statute of Praemunire, but it is only one of
numerous stringent measures (some still unrepealed, and, as
a body, of the most confused character) passed for the pur-
pose of putting restraint on the papal usurpation of authority
in England. From the beginning of the I4th century papal
aggression had been particularly active, more especially in two
forms. The one, the disposal of ecclesiastical benefices, before
the same became vacant, to men of the pope's own choosing;
the other, the encouragement of resort to himself and his curia
rather than to the courts of the country. The Statute of
Provisors 1306, passed in the reign of Edward I., was, according
to Coke, the foundation of all subsequent statutes of praemunire.
This statute enacted " that no tax imposed by any religious
persons should be sent out of the country whether under the
name of a rent, tallage, tribute or any kind of imposition." A
much greater check on the freedom of action of the popes was
imposed by the Statute of Provisors (1350-1351) and the Statute
of Praemunire passed in the reign of Edward III. The former
of these, after premising "that the Pope of Rome, accroaching
to him the seignories of possession and benefices of the holy
Church of the realm of England doth give and grant the same
benefices to aliens which did never dwell in England, and to
cardinals, which might not dwell here, and to others as well
aliens as denizens, as if he had been patron or advowee of the
said dignities and benefices, as he was not of right by the laws
of England . . . ," ordained the free election of all dignities
and benefices elective in the manner as they were granted by
the king's progenitors. The Statute of Praemunire (the first
statute so called) 1353, though expressly levelled at the pre-
tensions of the Roman curia, excludes any direct reference to
it in actual words. By it, the king " at the grievous and clam-
orous complaints of the great men and commons of the realm
of England " enacts " that all the people of the king's ligeance
of what condition that they be, which shall draw any out of the
realm in plea " or any matter of which the cognizance properly
belongs to the king's court shall be allowed two months in which
to answer for their contempt of the king's rights in transferring
their pleas abroad. The penalties which were attached to the
offence under this statute involved the loss of all civil rights,
forfeiture of lands, goods and chattels, and imprisonment
during the royal pleasure.
Many other statutes followed that of 1353, but that passed in
the sixteenth year of Richard II. 's reign is, as mentioned before,
usually referred to as the Statute of Praemunire. This statute,
after first stating " that the right of recovering the present-
ments to churches, prebends, and other benefices . . . be-
longeth only to the king's court of the old right of his crown,
used and approved in the time of all his progenitors kings of
England," proceeds to condemn the practice of papal trans-
lation, and after rehearsing the promise of the three estates
of the realm to stand with the king in all cases touching his
crown and his regally, enacts "that if any purchase or pursue,
or cause to be purchased or pursued in the court of Rome, or
elsewhere, any such translations, processes, and sentences of
excommunications, bulls, instruments or any other things what-
soever ... he and his notaries, abettors and counsellors "
shall be put out of the king's protection, and their lands,
PRAENESTE
243
tenements, goods and chattels forfeit to the king, and they shall
be attached by their bodies or process made against them by
pracmunire facias. This statute, says Stubbs, was one of the
strongest defensive measures taken during the middle ages
against Rome and was called for by the conduct of the pope,
who had forbidden the bishops to execute the sentences of the
royal courts in suits connected with ecclesiastical patronage.
The last ancient statute concerning praemunire, until the Refor-
mation, was an extension in the reign of Henry IV. (1400) of
the Statute of Provisors, by which all persons who accepted any
provision from the pope to be exempt from canonical obedience
to their proper ordinary were subjected to the penalties pre-
scribed. The range and description of offences subject to the
penalties of praemunire were greatly widened after the Refor-
mation, so that acts of a very miscellaneous character were from
time to time brought within the scope of enactments passed
for a very different purpose. For instance, the penalties of
praemunire were incurred, under an act of Queen Elizabeth
(1571), for denying the Queen's title; and under an act of James I.
the Statute of Monopolies (1623), for obtaining any stay of
proceedings (other than by arrest of judgment or a writ of error)
in any suit for a monopoly; under an act of Charles I. (1640) the
attempting to restrain the importation or making of gunpowder
was a praemunire; in the reign of Charles II. an act of 1661
made the asserting maliciously and advisedly, by speaking or
writing, that both or either house of parliament has a legis-
lative authority without the king, a praemunire. In the same
reign, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 made the committing of
any man to prison out of the realm a praemunire, unpardonable
even by the king. It thus appears that while the Crown by
its prerogative might at any time remit the whole or any part
of the punishment incurred by a praemunire, an exception was
made in transgressions of the Statute of Habeas Corpus. 1 An
act of William III. (1695) made Serjeants, counsellors, proctors,
attorneys, and all officers of courts practising without having
taken the proper oaths guilty of a praemunire. By the Suc-
cession to the Crown Act 1707, verbally to assert the rights of
a person to the Crown contrary to the Acts of Settlement and
Union is praemunire (to do so by writing or printing is treason).
The Royal Marriages Act 1772 is the last statute which sub-
jects anyone to the penalties of a praemunire. A peer charged
with praemunire is not entitled to trial by his peers, but is to
be tried by a jury. The most famous historical instance of a
prosecution of the Statute of Praemunire was that of Cardinal
VVolsey in 1529.
AUTHORITIES. Statutes of the Realm; Coke, Institutes; Collier,
Ecclesiastical History; Hallam, Middle Ages; Reeves' History of
English Law; Stephen's Commentaries on the Laws of England; Sir
J. Stephen's History of Criminal Law ; Sir T. E. Tomlin's Law Diction-
ary ; Stubbs, Constitutional History. (T. A. I.)
PRAENESTE (mod. Palestrina), a very ancient city of Latium,
lies 23 m. E. of Rome by the Via Praenestina (see below), on
a spur of the Apennines facing the Alban Hills. To the natural
strength of the place and its commanding situation Praeneste
owed in large measure its historical importance. There are
various legends as to its foundation. Objects in metal and
ivory discovered in the earliest graves prove that as early as the
8th or 7th century B.C. Praeneste had reached a considerable
degree of civilization and stood in commercial relations not only
with Etruria but with the East. At this time the city was pro-
bably under the hegemony of Alba Longa, then the head of the
Latin League. In 499 B.C., according to Livy, Praeneste with-
drew from the Latin League, in the list of whose members given
by Dionysius (v. 61) it occurs, and formed an alliance with Rome.
After Rome had been weakened by the Gallic invasion (390)
Praeneste joined its foes in a long struggle with Rome. The
struggle culminated in the great Latin War (340-38), in which
the Romans were victorious, and Praeneste was punished for
1 Sir T. E. Tomlins says that there is only one instance of a prose-
cution on a praemunire to be found in the state trials, in which case
the penalties were inflicted upon some persons for refusing to take
the oath of allegiance to Charles II.
its share in the war by the loss of part of its territory. It was
not, however, like most other Latin cities, embodied In the
Roman state, but continued in the position of a city in alliance
with Rome down to the Social War, when it received the Roman
franchise (in 90 B.C., probably as one of those cities which had
not rebelled or had laid down their arms at once), which in
215 B.C. some of its citizens who had bravely held Casilinum
against Hannibal, and only surrendered when pressed by hunger
had refused to accept.
As an allied city it furnished contingents to the Roman army
and possessed the right of exile (jus exilii), i.e. persons banished
from Rome were allowed to reside at Praeneste. To judge from
the works of art and inscriptions of this period (338 to oo B.C.),
it must have been for the place a time of prosperity, and even
luxury. The nuts of Praeneste were famous and its roses were
amongst the finest in Italy. The Latin spoken at Praeneste
was somewhat peculiar, 2 and was ridiculed to some extent by
the Romans. In the civil wars of Sulla the younger Marius
was blockaded in the town by the Sullans (82 B.C.); and on its
capture Marius slew himself, the male inhabitants were mas-
sacred in cold blood, and a military colony was settled on part
of its territory, though, possibly owing to the extravagance of
the new coloni, we find that in 63 B.C. this was already in the
possession of large proprietors. It was probably in 82 B.C. that
the city was removed from the hill-side to the lower ground at
the Madonna dell' Aquila, and that the temple of Fortune was
enlarged so as to include much of the space occupied by the
ancient city. From an inscription found in 1907 it appears
that Sulla delegated the foundation of the new colony to
M. Terentius Varro Lucullus, who was consul in 73 B.C. Under
the empire Praeneste, from its elevated situation and cool
salubrious air, became a favourite summer resort of the wealthy
Romans, whose villas studded the neighbourhood. Horace
ranked it with Tibur and Baiae, though as a fact it never
became so fashionable a residence as Tibur or the Alban Hills.
Still, Augustus resorted thither; here Tiberius recovered from a
dangerous illness, and here Hadrian probably built himself a
villa. Marcus Aurelius also had a villa here. Amongst private
persons who owned villas at Praeneste were Pliny the younger
and Symmachus. Inscriptions show that the inhabitants of
Praeneste were especially fond of gladiatorial shows.
But Praeneste was chiefly famed for its great temple of Fortune
and for its oracle, in connexion with the temple, known as the
" Praenestine lots " (sortes praentstinae). The oldest portion of
the sanctuary was, however, that situated on the lowest terrace
but one. Here is a grotto in the natural rock, containing a
beautiful coloured mosaic pavement, representing a sea-scene
a temple of Poseidon on the shore, with various fish swimming
in the sea. To the east of this is a large space, now open, but
once very possibly roofed, and forming a basilica in two storeys,
built against the rock on the north side, and there decorated with
pilasters also; and to the east again is an apsidal hall, often
identified with the temple itself, in which the famous mosaic
with scenes from the Nile, now in the Palazzo Barberini on the
uppermost terrace, was found. Under this hall is a chamber,
which, as an inscription on its walls shows, served as a treasury
in the 2nd century B.C. In front of this temple an obelisk
was erected in the reign of Claudius, fragments of which still
exist. The modern cathedral, just below the level of this
temple, occupies the civil basilica of the town, upon the facade
of which was a sun-dial, described by Varro (traces of which may
still be seen). In the modern piazza the steps leading up to
this latter basilica and the base of a large monument were found
in 1907; so that only a part of the piazza represents the ancient
forum. As extended by Sulla the sanctuary of Fortune occu-
pied a series of five vast terraces, which, resting on gigantic
1 Thus the Praenestines shortened some words : they said conia
for ciconia, tammodo for tantummodo (Plaut. True. iii. 2, 23 ; Id.
Trinum. iii. i, 8; cf. Comment, on Festus, p. 731, ed. Lindemann),
and inscriptions exhibit the forms Acmemeno and Tondrus for
Agamemno and Tyndarus. They said nef rones for nefrendes in the
sense of testiculi and tpngitio for notio (Festus, s.v. " nefrendes " and
" tongere "). Cf. Quintilian, Instit. i. 5, 56.
244
PRAENESTINA, VIA PRAETOR
substructions of masonry and connected with each other by grand
staircases, rose one above the other on the hill in the form of
the side of a pyramid, crowned on the highest terrace by the
round temple of Fortune. This immense edifice, probably
by far the largest sanctuary in Italy, must have presented a
most imposing aspect, visible as it was from a great part of
Latium, from Rome, and even from the sea. The ground at
the foot of the lowest terrace is 1476 ft. above sea-level; here
is a cistern, divided into ten large chambers, in brick-faced
concrete. The goddess Fortuna here went by the name of
Primigenia (First-Born, but perhaps in an active sense First-
Bearer); she was represented suckling two babes, said to be
Jupiter and Juno, and she was especially worshipped by matrons.
The oracle continued to be consulted down to Christian times,
until Constantine, and again later Theodosius, forbade the
practice and closed the temple. A bishop of Praeneste is first
mentioned in A.D. 313. In 1297 the Colonna family, who .then
owned Praeneste (Palestrina), revolted from the pope, but in the
following year the town was taken and razed to the ground. In
1437 the city, which had been rebuilt, was captured by the papal
general Cardinal Vitelleschi and once more utterly destroyed.
It was rebuilt and fortified by Stefano Colonna in 1448. In
1630 it passed by purchase into the Barberini family. Prae-
neste was the native town of Aelian, and in modern times of
the great composer (Giovanni) Pierluigi da Palestrina.
The modern town of Palestrina, a collection of narrow and filthy
alleys, stands on the terraces once occupied by the temple of Fortune.
On the summit of the hill (2471 ft.), nearly a mile from the town,
stood the ancient citadel, the site of which is now occupied by a
few poor houses (Castel San Pietro) and a ruined medieval castle
of the Colonna. The magnificent view embraces Soracte, Rome,
the Alban Hills and the Campagna as far as the sea. Considerable
portions of the southern wall of the ancient citadel, built in very
massive Cyclopean masonry of blocks of limestone, are still to be
seen ; and the two walls, also polygonal, which formerly united the
citadel with the town, can still be traced. The ruins of the villa
attributed to Hadrian stand in the plain near the church of S. Maria
della Villa, about three-quarters of a mile from the town. Here
was discovered the Braschi Antinoiis, now in the Vatican. The
calendar, which, as Suetonius tells us, was set up by the grammarian,
M. Verrius Flaccus in the forum of Praeneste (the reference being to
the forum of the imperial period, at the Madonna dell' Aquila), was
discovered in the ruins of the church of S. Agapitus in 1771, where
it has been used as building material (C. Hiilsen in Corp. inscr. lat.
2nd ed. i. 230). Excavations made, especially since 1855, in the
ancient necropolis, which lay on a plateau surrounded by valleys
at the foot of the hill, and of the town, have yielded important
results for the history of the ait and manufactures of Praeneste.
Of the objects found in the oldest graves, and supposed to date from
about the 7th century B.C., the cups of silver and silver-gilt and most
of the gold and amber jewelry are Phoenician (possibly Carthaginian),
or at least made on Phoenician models; but the bronzes and some
of the ivory articles seem to be Etruscan. No objects have been
discovered belonging to the period intermediate between the 7th
and 3rd centuries B.C.; but " from about 250 B.C. onwards we have
a series of Praenestine graves surmounted by the characteristic
1 pine-apple ' of local stone, containing stone coffins with rich
bronze, ivory and gold ornaments beside the skeleton. From these
come the bronze cistae and specula with partly (but far from wholly)
Etruscan inscriptions, for which Praeneste is renowned " (Conway,
Ital. Dial.). Among these is the famous Ficoroni casket, engraved
with pictures of the arrival of the Argonauts in Bithynia and the
victory of Pollux over Amycus. It was found in 1738. "_The
caskets are unique in Italy, but a large number of mirrors of precisely
similar style have been discovered in Etruria and are published
in full by the German Archaeological School at Rome: Etruskische
Spiegeln, vol. v. sqq. (Berlin, 1884). Hence, although a priori it would
be reasonable to conjecture that objects with Etruscan character-
istics came from Etruria, the evidence, positive and negative, points
decisively to an Etruscan factory in or near Praeneste itself " (Con-
way, ibid.). Most of the objects discovered in the necropolis are
preserved in the Roman collections, especially in the Kircherian
Museum (which possesses the Ficoroni casket) and the Barberini
library.
See E. Ferntque. Prtneste (Blblioth^que des Ecoles Franchises,
fasc. 17, Paris, 1880); H. Dessau in Corp. inscr. lat. xiv. 288 sqq.,
Corp. inscr. etrusc. vol. ii.; O. Marucchi, Guida archeologica dell'
antica Preneste (Rome, 1885), and in Bulletlino comunale (1904),
233 sqq. ; R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, i. 311 sqq. (Cambridge, 1897) ;
T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. 132 sqq.;
R. De\bruck,HeUenistische Bauten in Latium, p. 47 sqq. (Berlin, 1907) ;
Notizie degli Scavi, passim; and especially D. Vaglieri (1907), p. 132,
&c. ; R. van Deman Magoffin, Topography and Municipal History of
Praeneste (Johns Hopkins University Studies, xxvi. 9, 10) ; (Balti-
more, 1908). (J. G. FR.; R. S. C.; T. As.)
PRAENESTINA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading from
Rome E. by S. to Praeneste, a distance of 23 m., Gabii being
situated almost exactly half-way. At the ninth mile the road
crosses a ravine by the well-preserved and lofty Ponte di Nona,
with seven arches, the finest ancient bridge in the neigh-
bourhood of Rome. The line of the road is, considering the
difficulty of the country beyond Gabii, very straight. .In
the stretch beyond Gabii it is only used as a track, and well
preserved. Half-way between Gabii and Praeneste is the
well-preserved single-arched bridge, known as Ponte Amato.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, \. 149 sqq.
(T. As.)
PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader"),
originally a military title, was in classical times the designation
of the highest magistrates in the Latin towns. The Roman
consuls were at first called praetors; in the early code of the
Twelve Tables (450 B.C.) they appear to have had no other title.
By the Licinian law of 367, which abolished the military
tribunes with consular power and enacted that the supreme
executive should henceforward be in the hands of the two consuls,
a new magistrate was at the same time created who was to be a
colleague of the consuls, though with lower rank and lesser
powers. This new magistrate was entrusted with the exclusive
jurisdiction in civil cases; in other respects his powers resembled
those of the consuls. His distinctive title was the city praetor
(praetor urbanus), and in aftertime, when the number of praetors
was increased, the city praetor always ranked first. To this new
magistrate the title of " praetor " was thenceforward properly
restricted. 1 About 242 the increase of a foreign population
in Rome necessitated the creation of a second praetor for the
decision of suits between foreigners (peregrini) or between
citizens and foreigners. This praetor was known at a later time
as the " foreign praetor " {praetor peregrinus)? About 227 two
more praetors were added to administer the recently acquired
provinces of Sicily and Sardinia. The conquest of Spain
occasioned the appointment of two more in 197, of whom one
governed Hither and the other Further Spain. The number
of praetors, thus augmented to six, remained stationary till
Sulla's time (82). But in the interval their duties vastly
multiplied. On the one hand, five new provinces were added
to the Roman dominions Macedonia and Achaia in 146, Africa
in the same year, Asia in 134, Gallia Narbonensis in 118, Cilicia
probably in 102. On the other hand, new and permanent jury
courts (quaestiones perpetuae) were instituted at Rome, over which
the praetors were called on to preside. To meet this increase
of business the tenure of office of the praetors and also of the
consuls was practically prolonged from one to two years, with the
distinction that in their second year of office they bore the titles
of propraetor and proconsul instead of praetor and consul. The
prolongation of office, together with the participation of the
proconsuls in duties which properly fell to the praetors, formed
the basis of Sulla's arrangements. He increased the number of
the praetors from six to eight, and ordained that henceforward
all the eight should in their first year administer justice at
Rome and in their second should as propraetors undertake the
government of provinces. The courts over which the praetors
presided, in addition to those of the city praetor and the foreign
praetor, dealt with the following offences: oppression of the
provincials by governors (repetundarum), bribery (ambitus),
embezzlement (peculatus), treason (majestatis), murder (de sica-
riis et veneficis), and probably forgery (falsi). A tenth province
1 Some writers, following Livy vi. 42, assert that at first the
praetofship was open to patricians only, but Mommsen (Rom.
Staaisrechi ii. 195 [204] shows that this is probably a mistake.
The election of a plebeian to the office for the first time in 337
was certainly opposed by the consul who presided at the election,
but there appears to have been no legal obstacle to it.
! [His official title in republican times was Praetor qui inter pere-
grines jus dicit, under the empire Praetor qui inter ctves peregrines
jus dicit, until the time of Vespasian, when the abbreviated title
praetor peregrinus came into use.]
PRAETORIANS
245
(Gallia cisalpina) was added to the previous nine, and thus the
number of judicial and provincial departments corresponded
to the annual number of praetors, propraetors and proconsuls.
The proportion, however, was not long maintained: new pro-
vinces were added to the empire Bithynia in 74, Cyrene about
the same time, Crete in 67, Syria in 64 and one or more new
law courts were instituted. To keep pace with the increase
of duties Julius Caesar increased the number of praetors
successively to ten, fourteen and sixteen; after his time the
number varied from eight to eighteen.
The praetors were elected, like the consuls, by the people
assembled in the comitia centuriata and with the same formal-
ities. 1 They regularly held office for a year; only in the
transition period between the republic and the empire was
their tenure of office sometimes limited to a few months. 2 The
insignia of the praetor were those common to the higher Roman
magistrates the purple-edged robe (toga praetexta) and the
ivory chair (sella curulis); in Rome he was attended by two
lictors, in the provinces- by six. The praetors elect cast lots
to determine the department which each of them should ad-
minister. A praetor was essentially a civil judge, and as such
he was accustomed at or before his entry on office to publish an
edict setting forth the rules of law and procedure by which he
intended to be guided in his decisions. As these rules were often
accepted by his successors, the praetor thus acquired an almost
legislatorial power, and his edicts, thus continued, corrected
and amplified from year to year, became, under the title of the
" perpetual " edicts, one of the most important factors in mould-
ing Roman law. Their tendency was to smooth away the
occasional harshness and anomalies- of the civil law by substitu-
ting rules of equity for the letter of the law, and in this respect
the Roman praetor has been compared to the English chancellor.
His functions were considerably modified by the introduction
of the standing jury courts (quaestiones perpetuae). Hitherto
the praetor had conducted the preliminary inquiry as to whether
an action would lie, and had appointed for the actual trial of the
case a deputy, whom he instructed in the law applicable to the
case and whose decisions he enforced. The proceedings before
the praetor were technically known as jus in distinction from
indicium, which was the actual trial before the deputy judge.
But in the standing jury courts (of which the first that for
repelundae was instituted in 149), or rather in the most im-
portant of them, the praetors themselves presided and tried
the cases. These new courts, though formally civil, were sub-
stantially criminal courts; and thus a criminal jurisdiction was
added to the original civil jurisdiction of the praetors. Under
the empire various special functions were assigned to certain
praetors, such as the two treasury praetors (praetores aerarii), 3
appointed by Augustus in 23; the spear praetor (praetor has-
tarius), who presided over the court of the Hundred Men, which
dealt especially with cases of inheritance; the two trust praetors
(praetores fideicommissarii) , appointed by Claudius to look after
cases of trust estates, but reduced by Titus to one; the ward
praetor (praetor tutelaris), appointed by Marcus Aurelius to deal
with the affairs of minors; and the liberation praetor (praetor de
liberalibus causis), who tried cases turning on the liberation of
slaves. 4 There is no evidence that the praetors continued to
preside over the standing courts after the beginning of the 3rd
century A.D., and the foreign praetorship disappears about this
time. 5 Even the jurisdiction of the city praetor seems not to
have survived the reforms of Diocletian, though the office itself
continued to exist. But of the praetorships with special juris-
diction (especially the ward praetorship and the liberation
1 [Until the time of Tiberius, when their election was transferred
to the Senate.]
2 [The age for the office was forty under the republic, thirty under
the empire.]
8 [They took the place of the quaestors; this arrangement
continued till the time of Claudius.]
4 [The fiscal praetor (praetor fiscalis) was appointed by Nerva to
hear claims preferred against the imperial fiscus.]
6 Marquardt conjectures with much probability that when
Caracalla extended the Roman franchise to the whole empire he
at the same time abolished the foreign praetorship.
praetorship) some lasted into the 4th century and were copied
in the constitution of Constantinople.
Besides their judicial functions, the praetors, as colleagues
of the consuls, possessed, though in a less degree, all the con-
sular powers, which they regularly exercised in the absence of
the consuls; but in the presence of a consul they exercised them
only at the special command either of the consul or, more usually,
of the senate. Thus the praetor possessed military power
(imperium) ; even the city praetor, though attached by his office
to Rome, could not only levy troops but also in certain cir-
cumstances take the command in person. As provincial gover-
nors the praetors had frequent occasion to exercise their military
powers, and they were often accorded a triumph. The city
praetor presided over popular assemblies for the election of
certain inferior magistrates, but all the praetors officiating in
Rome had the right to summon assemblies for the purpose of
legislation. In the absence of the consuls the city praetor, and
in default of him the other praetors, were empowered to call
meetings of the senate. Public religious duties, such as the
fulfilment of state vows, the celebration of sacrifices and games,
and the fixing of the dates of movable feasts, probably only fell
to the praetors in the absence of the consuls. But since in the
early times the consuls as a rule spent only the first months
of their year of office in Rome, it is probable that a consider-
able share of religious business devolved on the city praetor;
this was certainly the case with the Festival of the Cross-roads
(compitalia), and he directed the games in honour of Apollo from
their institution in 212. Augustus in 22 placed the direction
of all the popular festivals in the hands of the praetors, and it
is not without significance that the praetors continued thus
to minister to the pleasures of the Roman mob for centuries
after they had ceased almost entirely to transact the business of
the state. (For the praetor as provincial governor see
PROVINCE.) (J.G.FR.;X.)
A full account of the praetorship will be found in Mommsen,
Romisches Staatsrecht (1887), vol. ii. and P. Willems, Le Droit public
remain (1883); T. M. Taylor's Constitutional and Political History
of Rome (1899) will also be found useful. There is a monograph by
E. Labatut, Histoire de la preture (1868).
PRAETORIANS. In the early Roman republic, praetor
(q.v.) meant commander of the army: in the later republic
praetor and propraetor were the usual titles for provincial gover-
nors with military powers. Accordingly, the general's quarters
in a camp came to be called praetorium, 6 and one of the gates
porta praetoria, and the general's bodyguard cohors praetoria,
or, if large enough to include several cohorts, cohortes prae-
toriae. Under the empire the nomenclature continued with
some changes. In particular cohortes praetoriae now designated
the imperial bodyguard. This, as founded by Augustus, con-
sisted of nine cohorts, each 1000 strong, some part of which was
always with the emperor, whether in Rome or elsewhere. In
A.D. 23 his successor Tiberius concentrated this force on the
eastern edge of Rome in fortified barracks: hence one cohort in
turn, clad in civilian garb, was sent to the emperor's house on
the Palatine, and large detachments could be despatched to
foreign wars. The men were recruited voluntarily, in Italy or in
Italianized districts, and enjoyed better pay and shorter service
than the regular army: they were under praefecti praetorio (usually
two; later, sometimes three, rarely only one), who during most
of the empire might not be senators. This force was the only
body of troops in Rome (save a few cohortes urbanae, a fire
brigade, and some non-Roman personal guards of the emperor),
or, indeed, anywhere near the capital. Accordingly it could make
or unmake emperors in crises at the accession of Claudius in
A.D. 41, in 68-69, and again late in the second century. But
its normal influence was less than is often asserted. Moreover,
its prefects, since they were two and liable to be disunited, and
since they could not be senators, neither combined with the
6 In permanent forts and fortresses, praelorium probably denoted
strictly a residence: the official headquarters building (though
commonly styled praelorium by moderns) was the principta. On
the other hand praetorium could denote any lord's residence, even
on a civilian's estate.
246
PRAETORIUS PRAGMATISM
senators to restore an oligarchy nor themselves aspired as
pretenders to the throne. These prefects were at first soldiers,
but later mostly lawyers who relieved the emperors of various
civil and criminal jurisdiction. In the second century the
praetorian cohorts became ten in number, and at the end of it
Septimius Severus reorganized them so that they consisted prac-
tically of barbarian soldiers and held constant conflict with the
people of Rome. At the end of the third century the praefecti
praetorio were reconstituted as four officers, each ruling one
quarter of the now divided empire. In 312 the Praetorian
Guard was suppressed by Constantine. Their barracks at Rome
covering a rectangle of 39 acres (1210 by 1410 ft.), were included
by Aurelian in the walls of Rome, and three sides of the enceinte
can still be seen near the Porta Pia, with brickwork as old as
Tiberius: the interior (now barracks for the Italian army) is
archaeologically less interesting.
PRAETORIUS, MICHAEL (1571-1621), German musical
historian, theorist and composer, was born at Kreuzberg, in
Thuringia, on the isth of February 1571. His father's name
was Michael Schultheis. 1 While he was still quite young he
visited the university of Frankfort on the Oder for three years.
Here he studied philosophy, and on the death of his brother, on
whose support he relied, he was given a post as organist in the
town. He acted as kapellmeister at Liineburg early in life,
was engaged first as organist and later as kapellmeister and
secretary to the duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, and was
eventually rewarded for his long services with the priory of
Ringelheim, near Goslar. He died at Wolfenbiittel on the isth
of February 1621. Of his very numerous compositions copies
are now very scarce. The most important are : Polyhymnia
(15 vols.), Musae Sioniae (16 vols.), and Musa Aonia (g vols.),
all written partly to Latin and partly to German words. But
more precious than all these is the Syntagma 'musicum (3 vols.
and a cahier of plates, 410, Wittenberg and Wolfenbiittel,
1615-1620). In the original prospectus of the work four
volumes were promised, but it is certain that no more than
three were ever published. The fourth volume mentioned in
Forkel's catalogue is clearly nothing but the cahier of plates
attached to vol. ii.
The chief value of this very remarkable work lies in the
information it gives concerning the condition of instrumental
music in the early years of the i7th century. The plates
include excellent representations of all the musical instruments
in use at the time they were published, together with many
forms even then treated only as antique curiosities. The work
thus throws a light upon the earlier forms of instrumental
music which to the historian is invaluable. In fact, without
the information bequeathed to us by Praetorius it would be
impossible to reconstruct in theory the orchestra of the earlier
half of the 1 7th century, during which the opera and the oratorio
both sprang into existence, or even to understand the descrip-
tions left us by other less careful writers.
PRAETUTTII (also called UpairerTiol), a tribe of ancient
Italy inhabiting the south of Picenum. Their territory lay
between the rivers Vomanum and Tessinnus (Pliny iii. no),
and therefore included Castrum Novum, Interamnia and the
Truentus, as well as probably the original of Hadria. From
this name was derived the medieval form Aprutium (quoted by
Kiepert in his A lie Geographic), and hence the modern Abruzzo
(more commonly in the plural gli Abruzzi), denoting the whole
central mountain land of Italy. We have no evidence, except
their name, and that throws no light on their language, for
separating them from the other inhabitants of Picenum (q.v.).
(R. S. CO
PRAGMATIC SANCTION (Lat. pragmatica sanctio, from the
Gr. TrpttT^o, business), originally a term of the later Roman
law. It is found in the Theodosian and Justinian codes, together
with such variants as a pragmaticum, pragmatica jussio, com-
mand; annotatio, an imperial rescript; constitutio, a regulation;
1 German Schultz or Schultze (Schultheiss), meaning the head-man
of a township, latinized into praetor or praetorius. Many other
members of the family of Praetorius were eminent as musicians.
and pragmaticum rescriptum. It was a decision of the state
dealing with some interest greater than a question in dispute
between private persons, and was given for some community
(universitas hominum) and for a public cause. In more recent
times it was adopted by those countries which followed the
Roman law, and in particular by despotically governed countries
where the rulers had a natural tendency to approve of the
maxims and to adopt the language of the imperial Roman
lawyers. A pragmatic sanction, as the term was used by them,
was an expression of the will of the sovereign or " the prince,"
defining the limits of his own power, or regulating the succession.
Justinian regulated the government of Italy after it had been
reconquered from the Ostrogoths by pragmatic sanctions.
In after ages the king of France, Charles VII., imposed limits
on the claims of the popes to exercise jurisdiction in his dominions
by the pragmatic sanction of Bourges in 1438. The emperor
Charles VI. settled the law of succession for the dominions of
the house of Habsburg by pragmatic sanction first published on
the ipth of April 1713, and thereby prepared the way for the
great war which ensued upon his death. Philip V., the first of
the Bourbon kings of Spain, introduced the Salic law by a
pragmatic sanction, and his descendant, Ferdinand VII., revoked
it by another. The term was not used in England even for such
things as the will by which Henry VIII. regulated the succession
to the throne, which would have been a pragmatic sanction in a
country of the Roman law. The term and the thing signified
by it have become obsolete owing to the spread of constitutional
government in modern Europe.
PRAGMATISM, in philosophy, etymologically a theory or
method of dealing with real things (Gr. irpcryjuara: cf.
7rpa7/i<mKos, versed in affairs). "Pragmatic, " as here employed
is not used in the common colloquial sense of " pragmatical,"
i.e. " fussy and positive," nor in the historical sense, as in
" Pragmatic Sanction," of " relating to affairs of state," but in
the sense of practical or efficient. 2 Pragmatism, as a general
philosophic doctrine or mental attitude, can only be understood
as part of a reaction against the intellectualistic speculation
which has characterized most of modern metaphysics. It
arises from a general awakening to the fact that the growth
of our psychological and biological knowledge must profoundly
transform the traditional epistemology. It follows that " prag-
matic " lines of thought may originate from a multiplicity of
considerations and in a variety of contexts. These, however,
may be conveniently classified under four main heads psycho-
logical, logical, ethical and religious and the history of the
subject shows that all these have contributed to the develop-
ment of pragmatism.
1. Psychologically, pragmatism starts from the efficacy and all-
pervasiveness of mental activity, and points out that interest,
attention, selection, purpose, bias, desire, emotion, satisfaction,
&c., colour and control all our cognitive processes. It insists
that all thought is personal and purposive and that "pure"
thought is a figment. A judgment which is not prompted by
motives and inspired by interest, which has not for its aim the
satisfaction of a cognitive purpose, is psychologically impossible,
and it is, therefore, mistaken to construct a logic which abstracts
from all these facts. Nor is the presence of such non-intellectual
factors in thinking necessarily deleterious: at any rate they are
ineradicable. Truths are always on one side matters of belief,
and beliefs are ultimately rules for action. The whole function-
ing of our mental apparatus is directed upon yielding the right
response to the stimulations of the environment, and is valuable
if and in so far as it does this. The " psychologism " thus
introduced into logic amounts to a systematic protest against the
notion of a dehumanized thought and the study of logic in
abstraction from actual psychic process.
2. In its logical aspect pragmatism originates in a criticism
of fundamental conceptions like " truth," " error," " fact "
* The New English Dictionary quotes for nine distinct senses of
the word, of which the philosophic is the eighth. The seven earlier
ones are all more or less obsolescent, and their very number shows
that the meaning of the word was very vague.
PRAGMATISM
247
and " reality, " the current accounts of which it finds untenable
or unmeaning. " Truth," for example, cannot be defined as
the agreement or correspondence of thought with " reality,"
for how can thought determine whether it correctly " copies "
what transcends it? Nor can our truth be a copy of a trans-
cendent and absolute truth (Dewey). If it be asked, therefore,
what such phrases mean, it is found that their meaning is really
defined by their use. The real difference between two concep-
tions lies in their application, in the different consequences for
the purposes of life which their acceptance carries. When no
such " practical " difference can be found, conceptions are
identical; when they will not " work," i.e. when they thwart
the purpose which demanded them, they are false; when they
are inapplicable they are unmeaning (A. Sidgwick). Hence
the " principle of Peirce " may be formulated as being that
" every truth has practical consequences, and these are the test
of its truth." It is clear that this (i) implicitly considers truth
as a value, and so connects it with the conception of good, and
(2) openly raises the question What is truth, and how is it to
be distinguished from error? This accordingly becomes the
central problem of pragmatism. This same issue also arises
independently out of the breakdown or rationalistic theories
of knowledge (F. H. Bradley, H. H. Joachim). Logical analysis,
after assuming that truth is independent and not of our making,
has to confess that all logical operations involve an apparently
arbitrary interference with their data (Bradley). Again, it
assumes an ideal of truth which turns out to be humanly unat-
tainable and incompatible with the existence of error, and an
ideal of science which no human science can be conceived as
attaining. The obvious way of avoiding the scepticism into
which rationalism is thus driven is to revise the assumptions
about the nature and postulates of truth which lead to it.
3. The ethical affinities of pragmatism spring from the
perception that all knowing is referred to a purpose. This
at once renders it " useful," i.e. a means to an end or " good."
Completely " useless " knowledge becomes impossible, though
the uses of knowledge may still vary greatly in character, in
directness, and in the extent and force of their appeal to different
minds. This relation to a " good " must not, however, be
construed as a doctrine of ethics in the narrower sense; nor is
its " utilitarianism " to be confused with the hedonism of the
British associationists. " Useful " means " good for an (any)
end," and the " good " which the " true " claims must be
understood as cognitive. But cognitive " good " and moral
" good " are brought into close connexion, as species of teleo-
logical " good " and contributory to " the Good." Thus only
the generic, not the specific, difference between them is abolished.
The " true " becomes a sort of value, like the beautiful and the
(moral) good. Moreover, since the " real " is the object of the
" true," and can be distinguished from the " unreal " only by
developing superior value in the process of cognition which
arrives at it, the notions of " reality " and " fact " also turn out
to be disguised forms of value. Thus the dualism between
judgments of fact and judgments of value disappears: whatever
" facts " we recognize are seen to be relative to the complex
of human purposes to which they are revealed. It should
further be noted that pragmatism conceives " practice " very
widely: it includes everything related to the control of experi-
ence. The dualism, therefore, between " practice " and
" theory " also vanishes; a " theory " unrelated to practice
(however indirectly) is simply an illusion. Lastly it may be
pointed out that, as asserting the efficacy of thought and
the reality of choice, pragmatism involves a real, though
determinable, indetermination in the course of events.
4. Pragmatism has very distinctly a connexion with religion,
because it explains, and to some extent justifies, the faith-
attitude or will to believe, and those who study the psychology
of religion cannot but be impressed with the pragmatic nature
of this attitude. If the whole of a man's personality goes to
the making of the truth he accepts, it is dear that his beliefs
are not matters of " pure reason," and that his passional and
volitional nature must contribute to them and cannot validly
be excluded. His religion also is ultimately a vital attitude
which rests on his interests and on his choices between alterna-
tives which are real for him. It is not however asserted that his
mere willing to believe is a proof of the truth of what he wishes
to believe, any more than a will to disbelieve justifies disbelief.
His will to believe merely recognizes that choice is necessary and
implies risk, and puts him in a position to obtain verification
(or disproof). The pragmatic claim for religion, therefore, is
that to those who will take the first step and will to believe an
encouraging amount of the appropriate verifications accrues.
It is further pointed out that this procedure is quite consonant
with the practice of science with regard to its axioms. Origin-
ally these are always postulates which have to be assumed before
they can be proved, and thus in a way " make " the evidence
which confirms them. Scientific and religious verification
therefore, though superficially distinct, are alike in kind.
The pragmatic doctrine of truth, which it is now possible to
outline, results from a convergence of the above lines of argument.
Because truth is a value and vitally valuable, and all meaning
depends on its context and its relation to us, there cannot be any
abstract " absolute " truth disconnected from all human pur-
poses. Because all truth is primarily a claim which may turn
out to be false, it has to be tested. To test it is to try to dis-
tinguish between truth and falsity, and to answer the question
What renders the claim of a judgment to be true, really true?
Now such testing, though it varies greatly in different depart-
ments of knowledge, is always effected by the consequences to
which the claim leads when acted on. Only if they are " good "
is the claim validated and the reasoning judged to be " right ":
only if they are tested does the theory of truth become intelligible
and that of error explicable. If, therefore, a logic fails to employ
the pragmatic test, it is doomed to remain purely formal, and
the possibility of applying its doctrines to actual knowing, and
their real validity, remain in doubt. By applying the pragmatic
test on the other hand, it is possible to describe how truths are
developed and errors corrected, and how in general old truths
are adjusted to new situations. This " making of truth " is
conceived as making for greater satisfaction and greater control
of experience. It renders the truth of any time relative to the
knowledge of the time, and precludes the notion of any rigid,
static or incorrigible truth. Thus truth is continually being
made and re-made. If the new truth seems to be such that our
cognitive purposes would have been better served by it than
they were by the truth we had at the time, it is antedated and
said to have been " true all along." If an old truth is improved
upon, it is revalued as " false. " To this double process there
is no actual end, but ideally an " absolute " truth (or system of
truths) would be a truth which would be adequate to every
purpose.
Extensions of pragmatism in a variety of directions readily
suggest themselves, and indeed only the doctrine of truth in
the above sketch can be treated as strictly indispensable. If
however the logical method of pragmatism is critically applied
to all the sciences, many doctrines will be cut out which have
little or no " pragmatic value." This all-round application
of the pragmatic method has received the name of " humanism."
It expressly refers itself to the maxim of Protagoras that " man
is the measure of all things," and is best conceived as a protest
against the assumption that logic can treat thought in abstrac-
tion from its psychological context and the personality of the
knower, i.e. that knowledge can be dehumanized. To arbitrary
and unverifiable metaphysical speculation, and to forms of
" absolutism " which have lost touch with human interests,
this humanism is particularly destructive. It emphasizes
still more than pragmatism the personal aspect of all knowing
and its contribution to the " making of reality " which neces-
sarily accompanies the making of truth. But it also goes on
to raise the question whether the making of reality for our
knowledge does not, in view of the essentially practical nature
of knowledge, imply also a real making of reality by us, and so
throw light upon the whole genesis of reality. In this direction
pragmatism may ultimately lead to a number of metaphysics,
PRAGUE
each of which will represent a personal guess at a final synthesis
of experience, while remaining essentially undogmatic and
improvable. The great variety and impermanence of meta-
physical systems in the past thus find their explanation: they
were all along what they are now recognized as being, viz.
personal efflorescences provoked by a totality of experiences
which differed in each case.
As regards the history and bibliography of pragmatism, the term
was first invented by C. S. Peirce in discussions with William James
at Harvard University, and its meaning was expounded by him
in an article on " How to make our Ideas clear ' in the Popular
Science Monthly for January 1878. The pragmatic test of truth
was referred to by James in his Witt to Believe (1896, p. 124, in a
paper first published in 1881). The validity of the argument from
consequences and the connexion of truth with what " works " was
asserted a propos of A. T. Balfour's Foundations of Belief by A. Seth
Pringle-Pattison in his Man's Place in Cosmos (1897, p. 307). But
the word " pragmatism " itself first occurs in print in 1898, in James's
pamphlet on Theoretical Conceptions and Practical Results, and again
in his Varieties of Religious Experience (1902, p. 444). It was rapidly
taken up, first by W. Caldwell in Mind (1900, new series, No. 36), and
by F. C. S. Schiller in Personal Idealism (1902). James himself at
first developed chiefly the psychological and ethical aspects of the
doctrine in his epoch-making Principles of Psychology (1890) and his
Will to Believe. The application to logic, therefore, was mainly
made by his followers, John Dewey and his pupils, in the Chicago
Decennial Publications and especially in their Studies in Logical
Theory (1903), where, however, the term used is " instrumentalism,"
and by F. C. S. Schiller, in " Axioms as Postulates " (in Personal
Idealism, ed. H. Sturt, 1902), in Humanism (1903), in which that
term was proposed for the extensions of pragmatism, in Studies in
Humanism (1907), and in Plato or Protagoras (1908). All these
logical and philosophic developments were popularly expounded
by James in his Pragmatism (1907), followed by A Pluralistic
Universe (1908) and The Meaning of Truth (1909). H. H. Bawden's
The Principles of Pragmatism (1910) is a popular sketch. Alfred
Sidgwick's logical writings, especially his Distinction (1892) and
The. Use of Words in Argument (1901), represent an independent
development. For the religious applications see G. Tyrrell (Lex
orandi, 1903, Lex credendi, 1906). Among critical writers on
the pragmatic side may be mentioned H. Sturt (Idola theatri,
1906), and H. V. Knox (Mind, new series, No. 54). There is
already a large controversial literature in the philosophic journals,
and two critical works appeared in 1909: J. B. Pratt, What is
Pragmatism? (1909), and A. Schinz, Anti-Pragmatism(igo^). Outside
the English-writing world, identical or kindred tendencies are
represented in France by Leroy, Poincar6, Bergson, Milhaud,
Blondel, Duhem, Wilbois, Pradines; in Germany by Mach, Ostwald,
Simmel, Jerusalem, Goldscheid, Jacoby; in Italy by Papini, Prez-
zolini, Vailati, Troiano. In addition there are numbers of partial
pragmatists, e.g. G. Santayana (The Life of Reason, 1905). Various
anticipations of pragmatism in the history of philosophy are noted
in Schiller's Plato or Protagoras ? (1908). (F. C. S. S.)
PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha), the ancient capital
of the Bohemian kingdom, residence of an archbishop and
an Imperial governor, and the meeting-place of the Bohemian
Diet. The population of the town, including the suburbs that
have not yet been incorporated with it, was 460,849 in 1906.
Somewhat under a fifth of the population are Germans, the rest
belong to the Bohemian (Czech) nationality. Prague is situated
on both banks of the river Vltava (Ger. Moldau) in sos' N.,
i425' E., 150 m. N.W. of Vienna and 75 S.S.E. of Dresden.
The city is divided into eight districts, which are numbered thus:
I. Stare mesto (the old town), II. Nove mesto (the new town);
III. Mala strana (the small side "quarter"); IV. Hradcany;
V. Josefske mesto (Joseph's, formerly the Jewish, town); VI.
Vysehrad; VII. Holesovic-Bubna; VIII. the suburbs Karlin
(Ger. Karolinenthal), Vinohrady and Smichov are not yet
incorporated with the city. Prague was by its geographical
situation naturally destined to become the capital of Bohemia,
as it lies in the centre of the country. The origin of Prague
goes back to a very early date, though, as is the case with most
very ancient cities, the tales connected with its origin are no
doubt legendary. The earliest inhabited spot within the pre-
cincts of the .present city was the hill named Vysehrad (higher
castle, acropolis) on the right bank of the Vltava. Here the
semi-mythical prince Krok, his daughter Libusa, and her
husband the peasant Pr6mysl are stated to have resided. To
Libusa is attributed also the foundation of a settlement on the
opposite bank of the Vltava on the Hradcany hill. The ancient
Bohemian chronicler Cosmas of Prague gives a very picturesque
account of this semi-mythical occurrence.
It is probable that at an early period buildings sprang up in
those parts of the present Stare mesto and Mala strana that are
situated nearest to the banks of the river. These banks were
from a very remote period connected by a bridge. This bridge
was probably situated very near the spot where Charles IV.
afterwards built the famed " bridge of Prague." It is probable
that independently of the Hradcany and Vysehrad settlements
a certain number of buildings existed as early as 993 on the site
of the present Pofic Street (near the station of the state railway).
The city continued to increase, and during the reign of King
Vratislav (1061-1092) many Germans were attracted to Prague.
In 1235 King Wenceslaus I. surrounded the old town that
is to say, the buildings on the right bank of the Vltava with a
wall and ditch. These fortifications, starting from the river,
followed the line of the present Elisabeth Street, the Pfikopy
or Graben which therefrom derives its name, signifying ditch
or 'trench and then that of the Ovocna and Ferdinandova
Streets. The Jewish quarter was included in the fortifications,
but it was divided by gates and a wall from the old town. King
Ottakar II. also contributed greatly to the enlargement of
Prague. The still extant fortified towers of the Hradcany
belong to his reign. The sovereign, however, to whom Prague
is most indebted is the emperor Charles IV. (Charles I., as king
of Bohemia). He has rightly been called the second founder
of Prague. He founded the university, one of the oldest on
the Continent. It immediately became famous all over Europe
and students flocked to it from all countries. The town soon
became too small, and it is probably in consequence of this that
Charles determined to found the " new town." This, which
includes the greater part of the modern city, was surrounded
by walls, which starting from the foot of the Vysehrad included
the small already-existing settlement of Pofic and then adjoined
the borders of the old town from the beginning of the present
Pfikopy Street up to the river. During the Hussite wars Prague
suffered greatly. Two of the greatest battles of the Hussite
wars, that of the 2izkov and that of the Vysehrad (both 1420),
were fought on the outskirts of Prague, and after the last-named
battle the ancient Vysehrad castle was entirely destroyed. The
Bohemian nobles in alliance with the citizens of the old town
attacked and conquered the new town, which for a time lost
its privileges and became subject to the old town. Prague
gradually recovered during the reign of King George of Podebrad,,
and became yet more prosperous during that of King Vladislav.
During the reign of Ferdinand I. of Habsburg (1526-1564)
Prague played a considerable part in the opposition to that
prince caused in Bohemia by his endeavour to reduce both
the political and religious liberty of the country. When the
antagonism between the Romanist dynasty and the Bohemian
Protestants culminated in the troubles of 1546 and 1547 and the
Bohemians, after a weak and unsuccessful attempt to assert their
liberties, were obliged to submit unconditionally to the house
of Habsburg, Prague was deprived of many of its liberties and
privileges. The burgomaster of the old town was one of those
who were decapitated in the Hradcany Square (Aug. 20, 1547).
Ferdinand had summoned a meeting of the estates on that
day at the adjoining HradCany palace, and it became known as
the " bloody diet " (Krvavy snem).
The importance of the city of Prague greatly increased during
the reign of Rudolph II. That sovereign chose Prague as his
permanent residence and it thus became as Rudolph, besides
being king of Bohemia, was also German emperor, king of
Hungary and ruler of the hereditary Habsburg lands the
centre of his vast domains. It was in Prague that the Thirty
Years' War broke out. On the 23rd of May 1618 the Protes-
tant nobles of Bohemia threw from the windows of the council
chamber of the Hradcany palace two of the Imperial councillors
who were accused of having influenced in a manner unfavourable
to the Bohemians the emperor Matthias, who was also king of
Bohemia. War broke out and continued when in 1619 Matthias
was succeeded by Ferdinand. In the same year the Bohemians
PRAGUE
249
elected as their king Frederick of the Palatinate, and both he
and his wife Elizabeth of England were crowned in St Vitus's
Cathedral. On the 8th of November 1620 the Bohemian forces
were decisively defeated by the Imperialists on the White
Mountain at the outskirts of Prague. The town submitted on the
following day and the whole country was quickly subdued by the
Imperialist armies. On the zist of June 1621 the principal
leaders of the rising against the house of Habsburg were beheaded
in the market of the old town near the town hall. In 1631
Prague was occupied for a short time by the Saxon allies of
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, but the Imperial army led
by Wallenstein soon obliged them to retire. In 1648 a Swedish
army stormed the Mala strana and HradCany. The citizens, now
entirely Romanists, bravely defended the bridge, and the Swedes
were unable to obtain possession of the part of Prague situated
on the right bank of the Vltava. In November the news of
the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia reached Prague and
put a stop to hostilities.
Henceforth the history of Prague continues uneventful for
a considerable period. During the Austrian War of Succession
it again became the scene of important events. On the 26th
of November 1741 Prague was stormed by an army consisting
of Bavarians, French and Saxons which upheld the cause of
Charles, elector of Bavaria, who claimed the succession to the
Bohemian throne and to the other domains of the house of
Habsburg. A large part of the Bohemian nobility did homage
to Charles, and he was crowned king of Bohemia in St Vitus's
Cathedral on the lyth of December 1741. The rule of the
Bavarian prince lasted, however, but a very short time. On the
27th of June 1742 the armies of the empress Maria Theresa
began to besiege the French army of Marshal Belle-Isle in Prague,
and the French commander was obliged to evacuate the city in'
December 1742. In the spring of the following year Maria
Theresa arrived at Prague and was crowned there, but in 1744
the city was again the scene of warfare. In that year Frederick
the Great of Prussia invaded Bohemia and obtained possession
of Prague after a severe and prolonged bombardment, in the
course of which a large part of the town was destroyed. The
Prussian occupation was, however, of short duration. At the
beginning of the Seven Years' War Prague was in 1757 again
besieged by Frederick the Great after he had defeated the
Austrians in a battle between the 2izkov and Polemic (com-
monly called the battle of Prague, see SEVEN YEARS' WAR).
In June of the same year the Austrian victory at Kolin obliged
the Prussians to raise the siege. Prague, which had suffered even
more during the second bombardment, now enjoyed a long
period of quiet.
In the beginning of the igth century Prague, which had
become almost a German city, became the centre of a movement
that endeavoured to revive the almost extinct Bohemian nation-
ality. This movement was greatly aided by the foundation
of the " Society of the Bohemian Museum " in 1822. Several
patriotic Bohemian noblemen founded this association. The
collections belonging to it and its library were at first housed in
the Mala strana, then in a somewhat larger building in the
Pfikopy. They are now in a large handsome building at the
top of the Vaclavske Namfeti. In connexion with the Bohemian
museum a society named Matice (treasury) was founded, which
published editions of the ancient Bohemian works, as well as
writings of modern Bohemian authors.
This movement was at first purely literary, and only in 1848
assumed a political character. It was determined to hold at
Prague a " Slavic congress " at which all Slavic countries were
to be represented. During the sittings of the congress troubles
broke out which originated in an insignificant conflict between
students and soldiers of the garrison. Barricades were erected
and the town finally surrendered unconditionally after a severe
bombardment (June 1848). In 1866 the Prussians, who had
invaded Bohemia, occupied Prague (July 8) without encounter-
ing any resistance. At the " Blue Star " hotel in Prague also
was signed the treaty which ended the war between Austria
and Prussia (Aug. 23).
In the years of peace that followed, the development of
Prague was constant and vast. The removal of the fortifications
greatly assisted this development. The communities of VySeh-
rad (1883), Holesovic-Bubna (1884) and Liben (1901) were
consecutively included in the city. Occasional riots, such as
in 1897, when the Bohemians were exasperated by the action
of the Vienna government which restricted the use of the national
language in the law courts; and in 1905, when the people
demanded an extension of the suffrage, have not interfered with
the increasing prosperity of the city, and their importance has
been greatly exaggerated.
Though numerous ancient monuments at Prague have been
destroyed in consequence of intestine strife and foreign warfare, the
city still contains many of great value and may be considered one
of the most interesting cities of central Europe. The natural
situation of the town has also at all periods been greatly admired.
The centre of the old town and indeed of the entire community of
Prague is the town hall (staromlstskd radnice), which is surrounded
by the market-place, the scene of the execution of the Bohemian
patriots in 1621. The buildings of the town hall date from various
periods. Its oldest parts are the tower and the chapel of St Lawrence,
built in 1381. The adjoining ancient council chamber dates from
the reign of King Vladislav (1471-1516). The modern hall that
is now used for the meetings of the town council is decorated by
two paintings of the Bohemian artist Wenceslaus Brozik, which
represent Hus before the council of Constance, and the election of
George of Podebrad as king of Bohemia. In the market-place
opposite the town hall is situated the ancient Tyn church, memorable
as having been the religious centre of the Hussite Tnovement. A
chapel connected with the so-called Tyn or market-place of the
German traders stood here from the earliest times, but the present
building was begun in the I4th century, and completed in the isth
during the reign of George of Podlbrad. The fine facade built by
that king was formerly adorned with a statue of King George, who
was represented as holding a sword pointing upward to a representa-
tion of the chalice, the emblem of the Hussite Church. Both statue
and chalice were removed by the Jesuits in 1623. In the interior
of the church the tomb of the astronomer Tycho Brahe is notable,
as is the very ancient pulpit from which the Hussite archbishop
John of Rokycan preached. In earlier days the Church reformers
Milic' and Hus also preached here. Close to the town hall is the
Joseph-Stadt, the ancient ghetto of Prague. The synagogue is
one of the oldest in Europe, and the adjoining cemetery part of
which has unfortunately been destroyed in the course of the modern
sanitary improvement of this part of Prague has great historical
interest. The university founded by Charles IV. in 1348 played a
great part in the history of Bohemia during the Hussite wars. The
lecture-rooms and other institutions connected with the two univer-
sities in 1 88 1 and 1882 a Bohemian university was founded though
the German one continued to exist are now housed in two vast
buildings known as the Carolinum and the Clementinum. The
Carolinum, first built about the year 1383 but frequently altered,
has a closer connexion with Hus and the Hussite movement than
any other building at Prague. It was the scene of many religious
discussions, and it was here also that the Bohemian nobles met
before the uprising of 1618. The large part of the lecture-rooms, the
observatory and the very valuable library are in the Clementinum.
This building was formerly a college of the Jesuits, who established
themselves in Prague in 1556 and erected these extensive buildings
at various periods between 1578 and 1715. The Celetna ulice, which
leads from the town hall to the limits of the old town contains at
its extremity the so-called powder tower (praina brdna). It occupies
the spot where one of the old town gates was situated, and was built
by King Vladislav in that elaborate style of architecture which is
known as the style of Vladislav. The building was very skilfully
restored in 18801883. The powder tower stands at the corner of
the Prikopy (in Ger. Graben) which with its continuations, the
Ovocna ulice and the Ferdinandova ulice, is the most animated
part of modern Prague. At the extreme end of the Ferdinandova
ulice is the modern Bohemian national theatre.
The " new town " of Prague, though not equal in interest to the
" old town," is also well worth notice. At the extremity of the
place of Wenceslaus (Vaclavsk6 Namesti) is situated the handsome
building that contains the collections and library of the Bohemian
museum. The museum was opened by the Archduke Charles
Louis of Austria on the i8th of May 1891. Of the many interesting
churches in the " new town " the Karlov deserves special mention.
It was built by Charles IV. in 1350 in the Gothic style, but was
restored in the i8th century. The monastery that formerly ad-
joined this church has been suppressed and its buildings are now used
as a hospital. Near the Karlov church is the Karlovo NamSsti
(place of Charles), in which is situated the former town hall of the
" new town," from the windows of which the councillors were
thrown at the beginning of the Hussite wars. The Vysehrad, now
a part of Prague, adjoins the " new town." It has preserved
but slight traces of its ancient splendour. It contains, however, the
250
PRAGUERIE, THE PRAIRIE DU CHIEN
Romanesque chapel of S Martin, the Church of SS Peter-and Paul,
and .the adjoining cemetery where many of the leaders of the
Bohemian national movement are buried.
The districts of Prague situated on the left bank of the Vltava
are connected with the other parts of the city by bridges, of which
the oldest is the Karlovo^ most (bridge of Charles). The present
structure was begun by Charles IV. in 1357, but in consequence of
frequent storms and inundations it was only completed in 1503.
The statues on the bridge are of an even later date. Not far from
the bridge in the centre of the Mala strana is the monument to
Radetzky, erected in 1858 out of captured Piedmontese cannon.
Near here are the palaces of the governor of Bohemia and that in
which the Bohemian diet (snZm) now meets. At the extreme end
of the Mala strana is the extensive Strahov monastery, from the
terraces of which the finest view of the city of Prague can be
obtained. The monastery possesses one of the most valuable
libraries in Prague and a small picture gallery. The church of the
monastery contains the tomb of the famous General Pappenheim.
In the Mala strana and the adjoining Hradcany are situated the
winter residences of the wealthy Bohemian nobility. Of the many
palaces, the Waldstein, Schwarzenberg formerly Rosenberg
palaces, the two palaces of the counts Thun and that of Prince
Lobkowitz are the most interesting. On the summit of the Hradcany
is the vast palace of the ancient kings of Bohemia, which also contains
the hall where the estates of Bohemia formerly met. During the
Hussite wars most of the buildings on the Hradcany hill were
destroyed, and a large part of the castle still known as the halls of
Vladislav was rebuilt by the kings of that name. The handsome
halls known as the Spanish and German halls ivere erected by
Ferdinand I., and additions were made by other sovereigns also.
The Hradcany was for a time the residence of Rudolph, crown
prince of Austria, and it is also occupied by the emperor of Austria
during his visits to Prague. Adjoining the Hradcany palace is the
famed Cathedral of St Vitus, where the kings of Bohemia were
crowned. The earliest church on this spot was built by St Wen-
ceslaus, and the present building was begun by Charles IV. and has
as yet remained unfinished. The cathedral contains the chapel
of St Wenceslaus, where the insignia of the Bohemian kings are
preserved, the tomb of St John of Nepomuk, and a monument to
the Bohemian sovereigns who are buried here, the work of Colin
of Malines. On the slope of the Hradcany hill are the ancient
towers named Mikulka, Daliborka, the white tower and the
black tower, which formed part of the fortified works erected by
Ottakar II. (1253-1278).
The suburbs of Prague contain few objects of interest, but
they are centres of the rapidly increasing trade and industry of
Prague.
See Count Liitzow, Prague, in " Mediaeval Towns" Series (London,
1902) ; Tomek, Dejepis Mesta Prahy (History of the town of Prague),
the standard work on Prague, which the author only continued up
to the year 1608. (L.)
PRAGUERIE, THE, a revolt of the French nobility against
King Charles VII. in 1440. It was so named because a similar
rising had recently taken place in Prague, Bohemia, at that
time closely associated with France through the house of
Luxemburg, kings of Bohemia, and it was caused by the re-
forms of Charles VII. at the close of the Hundred Years' War, by
which he sought to lessen the anarchy in France. The attempt
to reduce the brigand-soldiery, and especially the ordinances
passed by the estates of Languedoil at Orleans in 1439, which
not only gave the king an aid of 100,000 francs (an act which
was later used by the king as though it were a perpetual grant
and so freed him from that parliamentary control of the purse
so important in England), but demanded as well royal nomina-
tions to officerships in the army, marked a gain in the royal
prerogative which the nobility resolved to challenge. The
main instigator was Charles I., duke of Bourbon, who three
years before had attempted a similar rising, and had been
forced to ask pardon of the king. He and his bastard brother,
Alexander, were joined by the former favourite, Georges de la
Tremoille, John V., duke of Brittany, who allied himself with
the English, the duke of Alencon, the count of Vendome, and
captains of mercenaries like Antoine de Chabannes, or Jean de
la Roche. The duke of Bourbon gained over to their side the
dauphin Louis afterwards Louis XI. then sixteen years old,
and proposed to set aside the king in his favour, making him
regent. Louis was readily induced to rebel; but the country
was saved from a serious civil war by the energy of the king's
officers and the solid loyalty of his " good cities." The constable
de Richemont marched with the king's troops into Poitou, his
old battleground with Georges de la Tremoille, and in two months
he had subdued the country. The royal artillery battered down
the feudal strongholds. The dauphin and the duke of Alencon
failed to bring about any sympathetic rising in Auvergne, and
the Praguerie was over, except for some final pillaging and
plundering in Saintonge and Poitou, which the royal army
failed to prevent. Charles VII. then attempted to ensure
the loyalty of the duke of Bourbon by the gift of a large pension,
forgave all the rebellious gentry, and installed his son in Dau-
phine (see Louis XI.). The ordinance of Orleans was enforced.
PRAHRAN, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
35 m. by rail S.E. of Melbourne and suburban to it. Pop.
(1901), 41,161. It is connected with Melbourne by cable tram
over a fine iron girder bridge across the Yarra. Many of its
streets are planted with trees and it has numerous handsome
shops and villas. Prahran was proclaimed a city in 1879.
PRAIRIE (adopted from the Fr. prairie, a meadow-tract.
Late Lat. pralaria, Lat. pratum, meadow), a level tract of grassy
and treeless country, generally restricted to tracts so character-
ized in the central parts of North America. In the United
States the prairies may be taken to extend from southern
Michigan and western Ohio over Illinois (especially designated
the Prairie State), Indiana, Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin and
Minnesota, and west of the Missouri to the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains (see articles on the several states, and UNITED
STATES). In Canada they extend from the same mountains
to a line somewhat to the east of Winnipeg. The word prairie
is used in a large number of compounds referring to natural
and other features, flora, fauna, &c., characteristic of the
prairies. Examples are: prairie-chicken or prairie-hen, a
name for the pinnated grouse (Cupidonia or Tympanucus
cupido), also applied to Pedioecetes phasinellus, the sharp-tailed
grouse; prairie-dog, a rodent of the squirrel family, genus
Cynomys, a gregarious burrowing animal, and other animals
noticed below; prairie-schooner, a name for the covered wagons
in which emigrants used to cross the plains; prairie-grass, &c.
PRAIRIE DU CHIEN, a city and the county-seat of Crawford
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the east bank of the Mississippi
river about 3 m. above the mouth of the Wisconsin, about 98 m.
W. of Madison. Pop. (1890)3131; (1900) 3232; (1905)3179;
(1910) 3149. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St
Paul, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. The
city has a fine location, its natural attractiveness and mineral
springs in the vicinity combining to make it a summer and
health resort. It has an excellent artesian water-supply.
Among its buildings are the Crawford county court-house, the
city hospital and a sanatorium. It is the seat of St Mary's
Academy (1872; R.C.) for young women, and the College of the
Sacred Heart (1880; R.C.) for men. Among the manufactures
are beer, wagons, wool, and pearl buttons, and the city is a
centre of the fresh-water pearl fisheries along the Mississippi.
Prairie du Chien is one of the most interesting places, historically,
in Wisconsin. The first white man known to have visited the
site was Father Hennepin in 1680; later in the same year the
trader Du Lhut (or Duluth) was here. In 1685 Nicholas Perrot,
the French commandant in the West, built Fort St Nicholas
near the site of the present city. After the close of the French
and Indian War, British authorities assumed possession, but
no garrison was regularly maintained. In 1779-1780 Prairie du
Chien was the scene of plots and counterplots of American and
British sympathizers and of the activities of Godefrey Linctot,
the agent of George Rogers Clark. About 1 780-1 781 a permanent
settlement began to grow up around the post. Prairie du
Chien was formally surrendered in 1796 to the United States
authorities under the Jay treaty, and by them Fort Shelby was
erected. On the I7th of July 1814 a force of British, Canadians
and Indians under Major William McKay captured the fort,
and renamed it Fort McKay, but abandoned it in May 1815.
In 1816 Fort Crawford was erected it was rebuilt on a different
site in 1829 and in 1820 one of the principal depots of the
American Fur Company was established here. Here in 1823
Judge James Duane Doty (1799-1865) opened the first United
States court in what is now the state of Wisconsin. At the time
of the Red Bird rising in 1827, Governor Lewis Cass of Michigan
PRAIRIE-MARMOTPRAKRIT
251
Territory made Prairie du Chien his temporary headquarters.
During the Black Hawk War (1832) Zachary Taylor, then a
lieutenant-colonel, was in command of Fort Crawford, and to
him Black Hawk was entrusted after his capture. The Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul railroad was completed to Prairie du
Chien in 1857. The city was chartered in 1872.
PRAIRIE-MARMOT, a zoological emendation for the Ameri-
can name " prairie-dog," applied to a small North American
rodent allied to the squirrels and marmots, and technically
known as Cynomys ludovicianus (see MARMOT). In a great
degree prairie-marmots, of which there are several species in
North America, ranging as far south as Mexico, are intermediate
between marmots and sousliks (see SOUSLIK), having the cheek-
pouches much smaller than in the latter, and the first front-toe,
which is rudimentary in marmots and sousliks, well developed.
The cheek-teeth are more complex than those of marmots, and
the two series converge behind. In their slender build and
small size, prairie-marmots are much more like sousliks than
marmots. In habits these rodents are very like marmots,
the typical species inhabiting the open prairies, while the others
are found in mountains. The prairie species (C. ludovicianus)
makes a raised, funnel-shaped entrance to its burrow. All
feed on the roots of grass; and when disturbed, like marmots,
utter a whistling cry. Rattlesnakes, owls and weasels are
commonly found in the burrows; but their presence is no indica-
tion of the existence of a kind of " happy family " arrangement,
the snakes, at any rate, preying on the young marmots. The
hibernation of these rodents is only partial, and confined to
seasons of intense cold. (See RODENTIA.)
PRAKRIT (prakrla, natural), a term applied to the ver-
nacular languages of India as opposed to the literary Sanskrit
(samsk[ta, purified). The place which the Prakrits occupy
in regard to the Indo-European languages (?..), ancient
and modern, is treated under that head. There were two main
groups of ancient Indo-Aryan dialects, or Primary Prakrits,
viz. the language of the Midland or Aryavarta, and that of what
is called the Outer Band. The language of the Midland became
the language of literature, and was crystallized in the shape of
literary Sanskrit about 300 B.C. Beside it all the Primary
Prakrits continued to develop under the usual laws of phonetics,
and, as vernaculars, reached a secondary stage marked by a
tendency to simplify harsh combinations of consonants and the
broader diphthongs, the synthetic processes of declension and
conjugation remaining as a whole unaltered. The process of
development closely resembles that of old Italian from the
Italic dialects of Latin times. It should be noted that although
the literary dialect of the Midland became fixed, the vernacular
of the same tract continued to develop along with the other
Primary Prakrits, but owing to the existence of a literary
standard by its side its development was to a certain extent
retarded, so that it was left somewhat behind by its fellows in
the race.
The Secondary Prakrits, in their turn, received literary
culture. In their earliest stage one of them became the sacred
language of Buddhism, and under the name of Pali (q.v.) has
been widely studied. In a still later stage several Secondary
Prakrits became generally employed for a new literature, both
sacred and profane. Not only were three of them used for
the propagation of the Jaina religion (see JAINS), but they were
also dealt with as vehicles for independent secular works,
besides being largely employed in the Indian drama. In the
last-named Brahmans, heroes and people of high rank spoke in
Sanskrit, while the other characters expressed themselves in
some Secondary Prakrit according to nationality or profession.
This later stage of the Secondary Prakrits is known as the
Prakrit par excellence, and forms the main subject of the present
article. A still further stage of development will also be dis-
cussed, that of the ApabhramSa, or " corrupt language." The
Prakrit par excellence, which will throughout the rest of this
article be called simply " Prakrit," underwent the common fate
of all Indian literary languages. In its turn it was fixed by
grammarians, and as a literary language ceased to grow, while
as a vernacular it went on in its own course. From the point
of view of grammarians this further development was looked
upon as corruption, and its result hence received the name of
ApabhraMa. Again in their turn the Apabhraihias received
literary cultivation and a stereotyped form, while as vernaculars
they went on into the stage of the Tertiary Prakrits and become
the modern Indo-Aryan languages.
In the Prakrit stage of the Secondary Prakrits we see the
same grouping as before a Midland language, and the dialects
of the Outer Band. The Prakrit of the Midland was known as
Sauraseni, from Surasna, the name of the country round
Mathura (Muttra). It was the language of the territories having
the Gangetic Doab for their centre. To the west it probably
extended as far as the modern Lahore and to the east as far
as the confluence of the Jumna and the Ganges. Conquests
carried the language much further afield, so that it occupied
not only Rajputana, but also Gujarat. As stated above, the
development of Sauraseni was retarded by the influence of its
great neighbour Sanskrit. Moreover, both being sprung from
the same original the Primary Prakrit of the Midland its
vocabulary, making allowances for phonetic changes, is the
same as in that language.
The Prakrits of the Outer Band, all more closely connected
with each other than any one of them was to Sauraseni, were
Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Maharastri, and an unknown Prakrit
of the North-west. Magadhi was spoken in the eastern half
of the Gangetic plain. Its proper home was Magadha, the
modern South Bihar, but it extended far beyond these limits
at very early times. Judging from the modern vernaculars,
its western limit must have been about the longitude of the
city of Benares. Between it and Sauraseni (i.e. in the modern
Oudh and the country to its south) lay Ardhamagadhi or " half-
Magadhl." Maharastri was the language of Maharastra, the
great kingdom extending southwards from the river Nerbudda
to the Kistna and sometimes including the southern part of the
modern Bombay Presidency and Hyderabad. Its language
therefore lay south of Sauraseni. West of Sauraseni, in the
Western Punjab, there must have been another Prakrit of which
we have no record, although we know a little about its later
ApabhramSa form. Here there were also speakers of Paisaci
(see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES), and the local Prakrit, if we are to
judge from the modern Tertiary vernacular, was a mixed form of
speech. We have a detailed description of only one ApabhramSa
the Nagara the Apabhramia of the Sauraseni spoken in
the neighbourhood of Gujarat, and therefore somewhat mixed
with Maharastri. We may, however, conclude that there was
an Apabhramia corresponding to each Prakrit, so that we have,
in addition to Sauras6na, a Magadha, an Ardhamagadha
and a Maharastra ApabhrariiSa. Native writers describe more
than one local Apabhramia, of which we may mention Vracada,
the ancient dialect of Sind. There were numerous Prakrit
subdialects to which it is not necessary to refer.
Of all these Prakrits, Maharastri is that which is best known
to us. It early obtained literary pre-eminence, and not only
was the subject of long treatises by native grammarians, but
became the language of lyric poetry and of the formal epic
(kdvya). Dramatic works have been written in it, and it was
also the vehicle of many later scriptures of the Jaina religion.
We also know a good deal about Ardhamagadhi, in which the
older Jaina writings were composed. With Magadhi we have,
unfortunately, only a partial acquaintance, derived from brief
accounts by native grammarians and from short sentences
scattered through the plays. We know something more about
Sauraseni, for it is the usual prose dialect of the plays, and
is also employed for the sacred writings of one of the Jaina sects.
The materials extant for the study of the Prakrit are either
native grammars or else literary works written in accord with
the rules laid down therein. Originally real ver- ^^
naculars with tendencies towards certain phonetic
changes, the dialects were taken in hand by grammatical
systematizers, who pruned down what they thought was over-
luxuriant growth, trained errant shoots in the way they thought
252
PRAKRIT
they ought to have gone, and too often generalized tendencies
into universal rules. Subsequent writers followed these rules
and not the living speech, even though they were writing in
what was meant to be a vernacular. Moreover, at an early
date, the Prakrits, qua literary languages, began to lose their
characteristics as local forms of speech. A writer composed
in Maharastri, not because it was his native language, but
because it was the particular Prakrit employed for lyrics and
in formal epics. In the same way, in dramatic literature,
Sauraseni and Magadhi were put into the mouths of characters
in particular walks in life, whatever the nationality of the
dramatist might have been; There was thus a tendency for
these literary Prakrits to adopt forms from the vernacular
dialects of those who wrote them, and, en revanche, for the very
popular lyric poetry of Ma.hara.stri to influence the local dialects
of the most distant parts of India. On the other hand, although
to a certain extent artificial, the literary Prakrits are all based
on local vernaculars, a fact entirely borne out by a comparison
with the modern Indian languages, which closely agree with
them in their mutual points of difference. We now proceed to
consider the general points in which the Prakrits differ from
Sanskrit and from each other. The reader is throughout
assumed to be familiar with the general outline of the article
SANSKRIT.
[Contractions: Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Prakrit. S. = Sauraseni.
Mg. = Magadhi. AMg. = Ardhamagadhi. M. =Mahara?tri. Ap. =
Nagara Apabhrarhsa.]
Vocabulary. The vocabulary of S. is to all intents and purposes
the same as that of Skr. In the languages of the Outer Band there
are numerous provincial words (dell or de^>a),the originals of which
belonged to Primary Prakrits other than those of the Midland.
In the Outer Band there is also a rich variety of grammatical forms,
many of which are found in the Veda and not in classical Sanskrit,
and some (e.g. Pr. -hi, Pali -dhi, Greek -0i) which cannot be traced
to any known Primary Prakrit form, but which must have existed
in that stage and beyond it, back into Indo-European times.
Phonetics. The Skr. diphthongs e and o are treated in Pr. as pure
vowelsj and may each be either long or short. Ai and au become
either e and S or a'i and ail respectively. The vowel T becomes a, i,
or, under the influence of a neighbouring labial, . Befpre two con-
sonants an original long vowel becomes short, and i and u are
(according to the grammarians) changed to e and o respectively.
The last rule is an instance of grammarians' over-generalization, and
is not universally true. Examples, Skr. m&rga-, Pr. magga-; Skr.
sindura-, Pr. sendura-; Skr. pustaka-, Pr. potthaa-. Conversely,
a short vowel before two consonants is lengthened on one of them
being elided. Thus, Skr. isvara-, Pr. issara- or Isara-; Skr. jihva,
Pr. jiha. In Ap. the quantity of vowels is very loosely observed.
In all dialects n becomes n unless it is followed by a dental mute,
but in Jaina works nn and initial remain unchanged. Judging
from modern vernaculars, the latter seems to have been the real
state of affairs. In Mg. j becomes y and r becomes /. Here also
s and s become , a peculiarity still preserved by the modern Bengali.
Elsewhere i and i usually become s, but the change of a sibilant
to h is not uncommon in the Outer Prakrits (even in Mg.), though
rare in the more archaic S.
Initial y becomes j except in Mg., in which, on the contrary, j
becomes y. Subject to the foregoing general rules, all other initia'
consonants usually remain unchanged. As regards medial single
consonants :
1. K, g, c, j, t, d and y are usually elided. As a hiatus is causec
by the elision, a faintly sounded y (or in some cases ) is substitutec
for the elided consonant, though only written in Jaina MSS. Ex-
amples: Skr. loka-, Pr. lo(y)a-; Pr. maa = Skr. mata-, mada-, maya-
mr&a or mrjta-. The latter example illustrates the extraordinary
confusion which results from the strict application of this rule o
elision of medial consonants. Such a Prakrit would have failec
in the main object of a .language the connotation of distinct ideas
by distinct sounds. To the present writer it seems impossible tha
such a language could ever have existed, and he is persuaded that
the rule just given is merely another instance of grammarians
over-generalization. A rule has been made out of a tendency
and this tendency was evidently, first, to soften a hard letter, anc
then (but not necessarily) to elide it. We see this well illustratec
by Apabhramsa, in which k, t and * are usually preserved under
the forms g, d and 6. In the Outer Prakrits also k often becomes g
as in Skr. fravaka-, Jaina M. and AMg. savaga-, Mg. Savaga-. S. anc
Mg. always preserve a medial t, changing it to d; thus, Skr. gala-
's. Mg. gada-, elsewhere ga(y)a-.
2. Kh, gh, th, dh, ph and bh similarly become h. Also, as above
S. and Mg. change th to dh. Th becomes dh, and ph may become bh
The other aspirates (ch, jh, <}h), and also sometimes bh, remain
unchanged. In Ap., as before, kh, th and ph are usually preserved
n gh, dh and bh respectively.
3. T becomes 4, 9 becomes / (often written /), which when doubled
>econies dentalized to tt, as in the case of the Jaina nn. P and b
usually become v. The Outer languages often cerebralize dental
sounds and change t to /.
4. N, m, I and h remain unchanged. V disappears before u,
>ut otherwise generally remains unchanged. In Ap. m may
>ecome a v nasalized by anunasika; thus, Skr. bhramara-, Ap.
>haVara-.
Final consonants usually disappear altogether, except nasals,
which become anusvara. Thus, Skr. samantat, phalam, Pr. samantd,
phalam.
The following rules will be found to include the great majority
of possible cases of compound consonants. They show clearly the
character of all) changes from Primary to Secondary Prakrit, viz.
:he substitution, mainly by a process of assimilation, of a slurred
or a distinct pronunciation :
1. In Pr. a conjunct consonant cannot consist of more than two
elements, and, except in Mg. and Ap., can only be a double consonant
or a consonant preceded by a nasal, a consonant followed by r, or
one of the following: nh, nn, mh, Ih. The consonants r and h cannot
oe doubled.
2. In Pr. the only conjuncts which can begin a word are nh, nh,
mh, and Ih. If any other conjunct consonant be initial, the first
member of the Pr. form of it is dropped. Thus, in Pr. kr becomes kk,
and the Skr. akramati becomes Pr. akkamai. If we omit the
initial preposition a- (Pr. a-), the kk becomes initial, and we have
kamai, not *kkamai. Similarly, Skr. sthira- becomes Pr. thira- for
tthira-.
3. L and t; are elided when they stand first or last in a compound,
and the remaining letter is doubled, if it admits of doubling. Thus,
Skr. ulka, Pr. ukka; Skr. pakva, Pr. pakka-. The same rule is
followed regarding r, but when it follows a consonant it is sometimes,
especially in Ap., retained even when initial. Thus, Skr. arka-,
Pr. akka; Skr. priya-, Pr. pia- or (Ap.) pria-.
4. M, n and y are elided when standing last in a compound, and
the remaining letter is doubled ; thus, Skr. rasmi-, Pr. rassi-.
(see rule 2).
6. The above rules hold in the order given above; that is to say,
rule 3 holds in preference to rules 4 and 5, and rule 4 in preference
to rule 5. Thus, in the Skr. compound kr, the r is elided under rule 3,
and not the k under rule 5, so that the Pr. form is kk.
7. Special Rules for Mg. In this form of Pr. there are several
peculiar changes. Dy, rj, ry, all become yy; tiy, ny, jn, nj become
nn; medial cch becomes sc\ ft, ft, ?{h become s(; and rth, sth become
st. Other changes also occur, besides dialectic variations of those
given above.
Declension. Pr. has preserved the three genders of Skr., but has
lost the dual number. As a rule, the gender of a noun follows that
of the Skr. original, though in AMg. there is already a tendency to
substitute the masculine for the neuter, and in Ap. these two genders
are frequently confused, if the distinction is not altogether neglected.
In the formation of cases, the phonetic rules just given are fully
applied, but there are also other deviations from the Skr. original.
The consonantal stems which form an important part of Skr. declen-
sion are frequently given vocalic endings, and there is a general
tendency to assimilate their declension to that of a-bases, corre-
sponding to the first and second declensions in Latin. This tendency
is strongly helped by the free use of pleonastic suffixes ending in o,
which are added to the base without affecting its meaning. Of
these the most common are -ka-, -4a ; , and -alia-, -ilia- or -ulla-.
The first of these was also very common in Skr., but its use became
much extended in Pr. In accordance with the general rule, the k is
liable to elision ; thus, Skr. gho(a-ka-, Pr. ghoda-a-. It may even
be doubled, as in Skr. bahu-, much, Pr. bahu-a-a-, for bahu-ka-ka-.
-Da- is confined to Ap., and may be used alone or together with the
other two, as in Skr bahubala-, strength of arm, Ap. bahubal-ulla-
4a-(k)a-. Ilia- is most common in the Outer languages, and especi-
ally so in AMg. and M.; thus, Skr. pura-, M. pur-ilia-.
All the Skr. cases are preserved except the dative, which has
altogether disappeared in the Midland, but has survived in the singu-
lar number in the Outer languages. Everywhere the genitive can be
employed in its place. Most of the case-forms are derived from
Sanskrit according to the phonetic rules, but Ap. has a number
of dialectic forms which cannot be referred to that language (cf.
the remarks above about -hi=6i). It also rarely distinguishes
between the nominative and the accusative. As an example, we
may give the commoner forms of the declension of the Skr. putra, Pr.
putta-, a son (see next page). It should be understood that numerous
other forms were also in use, but the ones given here are selected
because they are both common and typical.
The declension of neuter a-bases closely resembles the above,
differing only in the nominative and accusative singular and plural.
Ap. has almost lost the neuter termination in the singular. Feminine
a-stems are declined on the same lines, but the cases have run more
into each other, the instrumental, genitivg and locative singular
PRAKRIT
253
being identical in form. Very similarly arc declined the bases
ending in other vowels. The few still ending in consonants and
which have not become merged in the o-declension, present numerous
apparent irregularities, due to the inevitable phonbtic changes,
which must be learned from the textbooks.
Skr.
S.
Ap.
M.
AMg.
Mg.
Singular:
Nom.
putras
pulto
Putin
putti
putte
putte
Ace.
putram
puttam
pultu
puttarh
puttam
puttam
Instr.
putrena
puttena
putti
puttena(m)
pultena(m)
puttena
Dat.
putraya
puttaa
putt&e
pult&a
Abl.
putr&t
puttado
putlahu
puttad
puttad
puttado
Gen.
putrasya
puttassa
puttaho,
puttassa
puttassa,
puttassa
puttaha
puttaha
Loc.
putre
putte
putti.
putte,
putte.
putte,
*putrasmin
pultammi
puttammi
puttammi.
puttaM
puttdhim
Plural:
Nom.
putras
putta
putta
putta
putta
putta
Ace.
putran
putte
putte
putte
putte.
putte
putta
putta
putta
Instr.
*pulrebhis
puttehim
puttahl
puttehim'
puttehim
puttehim
Abl.
putrebhyas
puttahim-to
puttaha
puttahim-to
puttehim-to
puttahim-to
Gen.
putrandm
putt (in arii
puttaha
puttdnam
puttdnam
puttdnam,
puttaha
Loc.
putresu
puttesu (in)
puttahl
puttesu
puttesu
puttesu(m)
All the Skr. pronouns appear in Pr., but often in extremely
abraded shapes. It would, for instance, be difficult to recognize
the Skr. tvam in the Ap. pai. There is also a, most luxuriant growth
of by-forms, the genitive plural of the pronoun of the second person
being, e.g., represented by no less than twenty-five different words
in M. alone. We also find forms which have no original in classical
Skr. Thus, in that language, the pronoun sa-, he, is only used in
the nominative singular of two genders, but occurs also in other
cases in Pr.
Conjugation. The Pr. verb shows even more
decay than does the noun. With a few isolated
exceptions, all trace of the second, or consonantal,
conjugation of Skr. has disappeared, and (much
as has happened in the case of nouns) all verbs are
now conjugated after the analogy of the a-conjuga-
tion. This o-conjugation, on the other hand, falls
into two classes, the first being the o-conjuga-
tion proper, and the second the e-conjugation,
in which the e represents the aya of the Skr.
loth class and of causal and denominative verbs.
The atmanepada voice of Skr. has practically
disappeared in the Midland, and even in the Outer languages it is
not common. The present participle is the only form which has
everywhere survived. The other forms are supplied by the paras-
maipada. All the past tenses (imperfect, perfect and aorists) have
fallen into disuse, leaving only a few sporadic remains, their place
being supplied, as in the case of the tertiary vernaculars, by the
participles, with or without auxiliary verbs. The present tense
of the verb substantive has survived from Skr., but it is usual
to employ atthi ( = Skr. asti) for both numbers and all persons of
the present, and dsi (=dsit) for both numbers and all persons of
the past. It is interesting to note that the latter has survived in
the modern Panjabi si, was, in which language it is universally,
but wrongly, described as a feminine. Another verb substantive
(Skr. V bhu) has also survived, generally in the form hoi or huva'i
for bhavati. In AMg. and M. we also have bhava'i pretty frequently,
and the same form also occurs, but less often, in . and Mg. Its
usual past participle is hua- or Mg. huda-, . bhuda-. The forms
are given here as they are important when the history of the
Tertiary Prakrits comes under consideration. These two verbs
substantive make periphrastic tenses with other participles, and,
in the case of the past participles and gerundives of transitive verbs
(both of which are passive in signification), the agent or subject is put
into the instrumentaj case, the participle being used either personally
or impersonally, as in the tertiary languages. Thus, lena girivaro
di((hp, by him a mountain was seen, i.e. he saw a mountain; tena
pa4ivannam, it was acknowledged by him, he acknowledged. The
gerundive, or future passive participle, is also used impersonally
in the case of intransitive verbs, as in duram gantawam, it is to be
gone far, we must go far.
Besides the participles, the infinitive and the indeclinable parti-
ciple (gerund) have also survived. So also the passive voice, con-
jugated in the same tenses as the active, and generally with paras-
maipada terminations. The causal has been already mentioned.
There are also numerous denominative verbs (many of them onoma-
topoeic), and a good supply of examples of frequentative and
desiderative bases, mostly formed, with the necessary phonetic
modifications, as in Skr. The present participle in the parasmaipada
ends in -anta- (-enta-), declined according to the o-declension, and
in the atmanepada in -mono-. The termination -(t')to- of the Skr.
past participle passive has survived under the form -to-. Many
direct representatives of Skr. participles in -to- (without the t) and
-no- also appear. Thus, Skr. dr,ffto-, Pr. di((ha-, seen; Skr. lagna-,
Pr. lagga-, attached. As usual there is a tendency to simplification,
and the termination ia is commonly added to the Pr. present base,
instead of following Skr. analogy.
Thus, not only have we tatta- formed
directly from the Skr. tapta-, but we
have also tavia- from the Pr. present
stem tav-ai ( = Skr. tapati), he is hot.
All the three forms of the future
passive participle or gerundive, in
-tavya-, -antya- and -yo-, have sur-
vived. The infinitive has survived, not
only with the form corresponding to
the classical Sanskrit termination
-him, but also with several old Vedic
forms. The same is the case with
the gerund, in which both the
classical forms in -tva and -(t)ya
have survived, but with the loss of
the distinctive use which obtained in
Sanskrit. Besides these there are
also survivals of Vedic forms, and
even of Primary Prakrit forms not
found in the Veda. .The passive is
generally formed by adding -jja or,
in S. and Mg., -ta-, to the root or,
more often, to the present stem.
Thus, M. pucchijjai or S. pucchiadi, he is being asked.
The following are therefore the only tenses which are fully
conjugated in Pr. : the present, the imperative, the future and
the optative. Except in Ap., the personal terminations in general
correspond to the Skr. ones, but in Ap. there are some forms which
probably go back to unrecorded Primary Prakrits and have not as
yet been explained. As an example we take the conjugation of
the base puccha-, ask (Skr. pr.cchati), in the present tense.
Skr.
S.
Ap.
M.
AMg.
Mg.
Sing.
I.
2.
Phir.
i.
2.
3-
pr.cchdmi
pr.cchasi
pr.cchati
pr.cchamas
prcchatha
pr.cchanti
pucchami
pucchasi
pucchadi
pucchamo
pucchadha
pucchanti
pucchau
pucchasi or-hi
pucchai
pucchahu
pucchahu
pucchahl
pucchami
pucchasi
pucchai
pucchamo
pucchaha
pucchanti
pucchami
pucchasi
pucchai
pucchamo
pucchaha
pucchanti
puscami
puscasi
puscadi
puscdmo
puscadha
puscanti
The imperative similarly follows the Skr. imperative. The S.
second person singular is generally puccha, while the Outer languages
often have a form corresponding to pucchehi. The base of the
optative is generally formed by adding -ejja- in the Outer languages
and -ea- in S. ; thus, S. puccheam, others gucchejjami, &c., may I
ask. The Skr. future termination -isya- is represented by -issa-
or -ihi- ; thus, pucchissami or pucchihimi, I shall ask.
Prakrit Literature. The great mass of Prakrit literature
is devoted to the Jaina religion, and, so far as it is known, is
described under the head of JAINS. Here it is LKentarff
sufficient to state that the oldest Jaina sutras were
in ArdhamagadhI, while the non-canonical books of the Svetam-
bara sect were in a form of Maharastri, and the canon of the
Digambaras appears to have been in a form of Sauraseni.
Besides these religious works, Prakrit also appears in secular
literature. In artificial lyric poetry it is pre-eminent. The
most admired work is the Sattasai (Saptaiaptika) , compiled
at some time between the 3rd and 7th centuries A.D. by
Hala. The grace and poetry of this collection, in which art
most happily succeeds in concealing art, has rarely been
exceeded in literature of its kind. It has had numerous
imitators, both in Sanskrit and in the modern vernaculars, the
most famous of which is the Satsai of Bihari Lai (i7th century
A.D.). Hala's work is important, not only on its own account,
but also as showing the existence of a large Prakrit literature at
the time when it was compiled. Most of this is now lost. There
are some scholars (including the present writer) who believe that
Sanskrit literature owes more than is generally admitted to
works in the vernacular, and that even the Mahabharata first
took its form as a folk-epic in an early Prakrit, and was sub-
sequently translated into Sanskrit, in which language it was
further manipulated, added to, and received its final shape.
In literary Prakrit we have two important specimens of formal
254
PRAM PRATINCOLE
epic poetry the Rdvanavaha or Selubandha (attributed to
Pravarasena, before A.D. 700), dealing with the subject of the
Rdmdyana, and the Gautfavaha of Vakpati (yth-Sth century
A.D.), celebrating the conquest of Bengal by Yasovarman, king
of Kanauj. Reference must also be made to the Kumarapala-
carita, the title of the last eight cantos of the huge Dvydsraya
Mahdkdvya of Hemacandra (A.D. 1150). The whole work was
written to serve as a series of illustrations to the author's Sanskrit
and Prakrit grammar, the Siddha-hemacandra. The last eight
cantos are in Prakrit, and illustrate the rules of the corresponding
portion of his work. Its hero is Kumara-pala of Anhilvada.
Dramatic literature has also an ad mired example in the Karpura-
manjari (" Camphor-cluster," the name of the heroine) by
Raja-sekhara (A.D. 900), an amusing comedy of intrigue. An
important source of our knowledge of Prakrit, and especially
of dialectic Prakrit, is the Sanskrit drama. It has already been
pointed out that in works of this class many of the characters
speak in Prakrit, different dialects being employed for different
purposes. Generally speaking, Sauraseni is employed for
prose and Maharastri (the language of lyric poetry) for the
songs, but special characters also speak special dialects according
to their supposed nationality or profession. In India there is
nothing extraordinary in such a polyglot medley. It is paralleled
by the conditions of any large house in Bengal at the present
day, in which there are people from every part of India, each
of whom speaks his own language and is understood by the
others, though none of them attempts to speak what is not
his mother tongue. The result is that in the Sanskrit drama
we have a valuable reflection of the local dialects. It is some-
what distorted, for the authors wrote according to the rules
laid down by technical handbooks, and the dialects which
they employed were, in the case of the later writers, as dead as
Sanskrit. But nevertheless, if not an absolutely true representa-
tion, it is founded on the truth, and it is almost our only source
of information as to the condition of the Indian vernaculars in
the first five centuries A.D. The drama which gives the best
examples of these dialects is the M^cchakatikd. For further
particulars regarding the Sanskrit drama, reference should be
made to the article SANSKRIT.
AUTHORITIES. The father of Prakrit philology was Ch. Lassen,
the author of the Institutiones linguae pracriticae (Bonn, 1837).
This famous work, a wonderful product of the learning of the time,
is now out of date, and has been definitely superseded by R. Pischel's
Grammatik der Prakritsprachen (Strasburg, 1900). As an introduc-
tion to the study of the language, the best work is H. Jacobi's
Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen in Mdhdrdsh{ri zur Einfiihrung in das
Sludium des Prakrit, Grammatik, Text, Worterbuch (Leipzig, 1886).
The best editions of the native grammars are E. B. Cowell's
of Vararuci's Prakrta-prakdsa (London, 1868), R. Pischel's of
Hemacandra (Halle, 1877, 1889) [see above], and E. Hultzsch's of
Sirhharaja's Prakr.tarupavatara (London, 1969). For Desya words,
see Piscnel's The Defindmamdld of Hemachandra (Bombay, 1880).
For A pabhramsa, in addition to his edition of Hemacandra's grammar,
see the same author's Materialen zur Kenntnis des Apabhrarhsa
(Berlin, 1902). For the mutual relationship of the various Prakrits,
see S. Konow, " Maharashtri and M&rathi,"inthe Indian Antiquary,
(1903), xxxii., 180 sqq. For Jaina Prakrit, see under JAINS. As
regards the secular texts mentioned above the following are the
best editions : A. Weber, Das Saptatac.atakam des Hdla (Leipzig, 1 88 1 ) ;
another edition by Durgaprasad and Kaslnath Pano'urang Parab
under the title of The Gdthasapatasatt of Sdtavdhana (Bombay, 1889)
[a good commentary] ; S. Goldschmidt, Ravanavaha oder Setubandha
(Strasburg. 1880-1883) [text and translation]; Sivadatta and Parab,
The Setubandha of Pravarasena (Bombay, 1895) ; Shankar Pandurang
Paijdit, The Gaiidavaho, a Historical Poem in Prakrit, by Vdkpati
(Bombay, 1887) ; the same editor, The Kumdrapdla-charita (Bombay,
1900); Rajafekhara's Karpuramanjari, edited by S. Konow, trans-
lated by C. R. Lanman (Cambridge, Mass., 1901).
The literature of the Sanskrit drama is given under SANSKRIT.
(G. A. GR.)
PRAM (Du. praam), the name of a flat-bottomed boat or
barge used as a " lighter " for discharging and loading cargo
in the ports of the Baltic and North Sea. The word, which is
common in various forms to all the languages bordering on those
seas, is originally Slavonic; its ultimate etymology connects it
with the words found in all Indo-European languages which are
to be traced to the root par-, to go through, travel; cf. " fare,"
" ferry," " far," Gr. 7r6pos, way, Lat. portare, carry, &c.
PRANTL, KARL VON (1820-1888), German philosopher, was
born at Landsberg on the Lech on the 28th of January 1820, and
died on the I4th of September 1888 at Oberstdorf. In 1843 he
became doctor of philosophy at Munich Observatory, where
he was made professor in 1859. He was also a member of the
Academies of Berlin and Munich. Strongly in agreement
with the Hegelian tradition, he defended and amplified it in
Die gegemviirtige Aufgabe der Philosophic (1852) and Verslehen
una Beurteilen (1877). In these works he emphasized the
identity of the subjective and the objective for consciousness,
and the fact that the perception of this unity is peculiar to man.
He is more important, however, as a commentator and scholar,
and made valuable contributions to the study of Aristotle. He
published Aristoteles ilber die Farben (1849), Aristoteles' acht
Bilcher der Physik (1857), and numerous minor articles on
smaller points, such as the authenticity of the thirty-eight books
of the Problems. The work by which he is best known is the
Geschichte der Logik im Abendland (Leipzig, 1855-1870). Chr.
Sigwart, in the preface to the first edition of his Logic, makes
" special mention " of the assistance he obtained from this
book.
PRATI, GIOVANNI (1815-1884), Italian poet, was born at
Dasindo and educated in law at Padua. Adopting a literary
career, he was inspired by anti-Austrian feeling and devotion
to the royal house of Savoy, and in early life his combination of
a sympathy for national independence with monarchical senti-
ments brought him into trouble in both quarters, Guerrazzi
expelling him from Tuscany in 1849 for his praise of Carlo
Alberto. In 1862 he was elected a deputy to the Italian parlia-
ment, and in 1876 a senator. He died at Rome on the oth
of May 1884. Prati was a prolific poet, his volumes of verse
ranging from his romantic narrative Ermenegarda (1841) to the
lyrics collected in Psiche (1875) and Iside (1878). His Opere
varie were published in five volumes in 1875, and a selection
in one volume in 1892.
PRATINAS (the quantity of the second vowel is doubtful),
one of the oldest tragic poets of Athens, was a native of Phlius
in Peloponnesus. About 500 B.C. he competed with Choerilus
and Aeschylus, when the latter made his first appearance as a
writer for the stage. Pratinas was also the introducer of satyric
dramas as a species of entertainment distinct from tragedy, in
which the rustic merry-makings and the extravagant dances of
the satyrs were retained. The associations of his home, not
far from Corinth, where Arion was said to have established the
cyclic choruses of satyrs, may account for his preference for this
kind of drama. Pratinas was also a writer of dithyrambs and
the choral odes called hyporchemata (a considerable fragment
of one of these is preserved in Athenaeus xiv. 617). It is
related that, during the performance of one of his plays, the
scaffolding of the wooden stage gave way, in consequence of
which the Athenians built a theatre of stone; but recent excava-
tions make it doubtful whether a stone theatre existed in Athens
at so early a date. A monument was erected by the inhabitants
of Phlius in honour of Pratinas's son Aristias, who, with his
father, enjoyed the reputation of excelling all, with the exception
of Aeschylus, in the composition of satyric dramas, one of
which was called Cyclops.
See Pausanias ii. 13; Suidas q.v.; fragments in T. Bergk,
Poetae lyrici graeci, vol. iii.
PRATINCOLE, a word apparently invented by J. Latham
(Synopsis, v. 222), being the English rendering of Pratincola,
applied in 1756 by P. Kramer (Elenchus, p. 381) to a bird which
had hitherto received no definite name, though it had long before
been described and even recognizably figured by Aldrovandus
(Ornithologia, xvii. 9) under the vague designation of " hirnndo
marina." It is the Glareola pratincola of modern ornithologists,
forming the type of a genus Glareola, founded by M. J. Brisson
in 1760, belonging to the group Limicolae, and constituting to-
gether with the coursers (Cursorius) a separate family, Glareolidae.
The pratincoles, of which some eight or nine species have been
described, are all small birds, slenderly built and mostly delicately
coloured, with a short stout bill, a wide gape, long pointed wings,
PRATO PRAXITELES
255
and a tail more or less forked. In some of their habits they are
thoroughly plover-like, running very swiftly and breeding on
the ground, but on the wing they have much the appearance
of swallows, and, like them, feed, at least partly, while flying. 1
The ordinary pratincole of Europe, G. pralincola, breeds abun-
dantly in many parts of Spain, Barbary and Sicily, along the
valley of the Danube, and in southern Russia, while owing to
its great powers of flight it frequently wanders far from its home,
and more than a score of examples have been recorded as occur-
ring in the British Islands. In thesouth-east of Europe a second
and closely-allied species, G. nordmannl or G. melanoptera,
which has black instead of chestnut inner wing-coverts, accom-
panies or, farther to the eastward, replaces it; and in its turn
it is replaced in India, China and Australia by G. orienlalis.
Australia also possesses another species, G. grallaria, remarkable
for the great length of its wings and much longer legs, while its
tail is scarcely forked peculiarities that have led to its being
considered the type of a distinct genus or sub-genus Stiltia.
Two species, G. lactea and G. cinerea, from India and Africa
respectively, seem by their pale coloration to be desert forms,
and they are the smallest of this curious little group. The
species whose mode of nidification is known lay either two
or three eggs, stone-coloured, blotched, spotted, and streaked
with black or brownish-grey. The young when hatched are
clothed in down and are able to run at once just as are young
plovers. (A. N.)
PRATO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, Italy, in the
province of Florence, n m. by rail N.W. of Florence, 207 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1906), 20,197 (town); 55,298 (com-
mune). It is situated on the Bisenzio, and is dominated by a
medieval castle and surrounded by walls of the nth and I4th
centuries. The cathedral of St Stephen was begun in the I2th
century in the Tuscan Romanesque style; to this period belongs
the narrow nave with its wide arches; the raised transepts and
the chapels were added by Giovanni Pisano in 1317-1320; the
campanile dates from 1340 (it is a much smaller and less elabo-
rate version of Giotto's campanile at Florence), while the facade,
also of alternate white sandstone and green serpentine, belongs
to 1413. It has a fine doorway with a bas-relief by Andrea
della Robbia over it ; but the most striking external feature is
the lovely open-air pulpit at an angle of the building, erected
by Donatello and Michelozzo for displaying to the people without
risk the Virgin's girdle, brought from the Holy Land by a knight
of Prato in 1130. The pulpit itself has beautiful reliefs of
dancing children; beneath it is a splendid bronze capital. The
contract was given out in 1428, but the work was seriously begun
only in 1434 and finished in 1438. The Chapel of the Girdle
has good frescoes by Agnolo Gaddi (1365), a statue of the Virgin
by Giovanni Pisano, and a handsome bronze open-work screen.
The frescoes in the choir, with scenes from the life of St John
the Baptist and St Stephen, are by Fra Filippo Lippi (1456-1466)
and are his best work; the dance of Salome and the lying in state
of St Stephen are the finest of the series. Among other works
of art may be mentioned the clay statue of the Madonna dell'
Ulivo by Benedetto da Maiano. The massive old Palazzo
Pretorio (i3th century) has been somewhat modified in details;
the adjacent Palazzo Comunale contains a small picture gallery
1 This combination of characters for many years led systematizers
astray, though some of them were from the first correct in their
notions as to the Pratincole's position. Linnaeus, even in his latest
publication, placed it in the genus Hirundo; but the interleaved and
annotated copies of his Systema naturae in the Linnean Society's
library show the species marked for separation and insertion in the
Order Grallae Pratincola trachelia being the name by which he had
meant to designate it in any future edition. He seems to have been
induced to this change of view mainly through a specimen of the bird
sent to him by John White, the brother of Gilbert White; but the
opinion published in 1769 by Scopoli (Ann. I. hist, naiuralis, p. Iio)
had doubtless contributed thereto, though the earlier judgment to
the same effect of Brisson, as mentioned above, had been disregarded.
Different erroneous assignments of the form have been made even
by recent authors, who neglected the clear evidence afforded by the
internal structure of the Pratincole. For instance, Sundevall in
'873 (Tentamen, p. 86) placed Glareola among the Caprimulgidae,
a position which osteology shows cannot be maintained for a moment.
with works by Filippo and Filippino Lippi. A beautiful
Madonna by the latter (1497) is in a small street shrine at the
corner of the Via S. Margherita. The Church of S. Domenico
is a Gothic edifice of 1281; that of S. Francesco has an almost
Renaissance facade, fine cloisters with a good 15th-century
tomb, and a chapter-house with Giottesque frescoes. The
Madonna del Buon Consiglio has some good reliefs by Andrea
della Robbia, by whom is also the beautiful frieze in the Madonna
delle Carceri. This church, by Giuliano da Sangallo (1485-1491),
is a Greek cross, with barrel vaults over the arms, and a dome;
it is a fine work, and the decoration of the exterior in marble
of different colours (unfinished) is of a noble simplicity. Some
remains exist of the 13th-century fortress, and the large Piazza
Mercatale is picturesque. The works of art visible in Prato are
due, as will be seen, entirely to Florentine artists. As a whole
the town has a somewhat modern aspect. The industries of
Prato embrace the manufacture of woollens (the most important),
straw-plaiting, biscuits, hats, macaroni, candles, silk, olive
oil, clothing and furniture, also copper and iron works, and
printing.
Prato is said to be first mentioned by name in 1107, but the
cathedral appears as early as 1048 as the parish church of Borgo
Cornio or Santo Stefano. It was subject to the Alberti until 1180,
and was then under the Imperial supremacy. It appears to have
freed itself from this at the end of the I3th century. In 1313 the
town acknowledged the authority of Robert, king of Naples, and in
1350 Niccola Acciajoli, seneschal of Joanna, sold it to the Florentines
for 17,500 florins of gold. In 1512 it was sacked by the Spaniards
under General Cardona. In 1653 it obtained the rank of city.
See E. Corradini, Prato (Bergamo, 1905).
PRATT, ORSON (1811-1881), Mormon apostle, was born of
humble parents at Hartford, New York. In 1830 he joined the
Mormon Church, becoming a member of its council of twelve
in 1834 and one of its twelve apostles in 1835. Pratt was also
a mathematician of some note. He was professor of mathematics
in the university of Deseret and wrote several books on this
subject, these including Cubic and Biquadratic Equations (1866).
He was a member, and several times speaker, of the Utah
House of Representatives. Among his writings may be mentioned
Key to the Universe (1866), and The Bible and Polygamy (1870).
PRAWN, the name of an edible large shrimp-like crustacean
in Great Britain usually applied to Leander serratus (see SHRIMP).
The word is in M. Eng. prayne or prane, and no cognate forms are
found in any other languages. It has been often referred to
the Lat. perna, a ham-shaped shellfish, but this is due to Florio,
who by a mistake glosses parnocchie, prawne-fishes or shrimps.
The O. Ital. perna and pernocchia meant a shellfish which yielded
" nacre " or mother-of-pearl.
PRAXIAS and ANDROSTHENES, Greek sculptors, who are
said by Pausanias (x. 19, 4) to have executed the pediments of
the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Both were Athenians; Praxias
a pupil of Calamis. The statement raises historic difficulties,
as, according to the leaders of the recent French excavations at
Delphi, the temple of Apollo was destroyed about 373 B.C. and
rebuilt by 339 B.C., a date which seems too late for the lifetime
of a pupil of Calamis. In any case no fragments of the pedi-
ments of this later temple have been found, and it has been
suggested that they were removed bodily to Rome.
PRAXILLA, of Sicyon, Greek lyric poetess, one of the so-called
nine " lyric " Muses, flourished about 450 B.C. According to
Athenaeus (xv. 694), she was famous as a composer of scolia
(short lyrical poems sung after dinner), which were considered
equal to those of Alcaeus and Anacreon. She also wrote
dithyrambs and hymns, chiefly on mystic and mythological
subjects, genealogies, and the love-stories of the gods and heroes.
A dactylic metre was also called by her name.
Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetat lyrici graeci, vol. iii.; see also
C. F. Neue, De PraxUlae Sicyoniae reliquiis (progr. Dorpat, 1844).
PRAXITELES, of Athens, the son of Cephissodotus, the
greatest of the Attic sculptors of the 4th century B.C., who has
left an imperishable mark on the history of art. It has been
maintained by some writers that there were two sculptors of
the name, one a contemporary of Pheidias, the other, more
256
PRAYER
celebrated, of two generations later. This duplication is de-
fended in Furtwiingler's Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (pp. 99,
102, seq.) but on insufficient grounds. There is, however, no
reason why the great Praxiteles should not have had a grand-
father of the same name: all that we can say is that at present
we have no certain evidence that this was the case.
Though Praxiteles may be considered as in some ways well
known to us, yet we have no means for fixing his date accurately.
It seems clear that he was no longer working in the time of
Alexander the Great, or that king would have employed
him. Pliny's date, 364 B.C., is probably that of one of his most
noted works.
Our knowledge of Praxiteles has received a great addition,
and has been placed on a satisfactory basis, by the discovery
at Olympia in 1877 of his statue of Hermes bearing the infant
Dionysus, a statue which has become famous throughout the
world (GREEK ART, fig. 43 and Plate VI. fig. 82). Hermes is
represented as in the act of carrying the child Dionysus to the
nymphs who were charged with his rearing. He pauses on the
way, and holds out to the child a bunch of grapes to excite his
desire. The young child can hardly be regarded as a success;
he is not really childlike. But the figure of the Hermes, full
and solid without being fleshy, at once strong and active, is a
masterpiece, and the play of surface is astonishing. In the head
we have a remarkably rounded and intelligent shape, and the
face expresses the perfection of health and enjoyment.
This statue must for the future be our best evidence for the
style of Praxiteles. It altogether confirms and interprets the
statements as to Praxiteles made by Pliny and other ancient
critics. Gracefulness in repose, and an indefinable charm are
also the attributes of works in our museums which appear to
be copies of statues by Praxiteles. Perhaps the most notable
of these are the Apollo Sauroctonus, or the lizard-slayer, a youth
leaning against a tree and idly striking with an arrow at a lizard,
and the Aphrodite at the bath (GREEK ART, Plate V., fig. 71)
of the Vatican, which is a copy of the statue made by Praxiteles
for the people of Cnidus, and by them valued so highly that
they refused to sell it to King Nicomedes, who was willing in
return to discharge the whole debt of the city, which, says Pliny,
was enormous.
The Satyr of the Capitol at Rome has commonly been regarded
as a copy of one of the Satyrs of Praxiteles; but we cannot
identify it in the list of his works. Moreover, the style is hard
and poor; a far superior replica exists in a torso in the
Louvre. The attitude and character of the work are certainly
of Praxitelean school.
Excavations at Mantineia in Arcadia have brought to light
the basis of a group of Leto Apollo and Artemis by Praxiteles.
This basis was doubtless not the work of the great sculptor him-
self, but of one of his assistants. Nevertheless it is pleasing
and historically valuable. Pausanias (viii. 9, i) thus describes
the base, " on the base which supports the statues there are
sculptured the Muses and Marsyas playing the flutes." Three
slabs which have survived represent Apollo, Marsyas, a slave,
and six of the Muses, the slab which held the other three having
disappeared.
A head of Aphrodite at Petworth in England, and a head of
Hermes in the British Museum (Aberdeen Hermes), have lately
been claimed by competent authorities as actual works of
Praxiteles. Both are charming works, but rather by the suc-
cessors of Praxiteles than by himself.
Besides these works, connected with Praxiteles on definite
evidence, there are in our museums works without number of
the Roman age, statues of Hermes, of Dionysus, of Aphrodite,
of Satyrs and Nymphs and the like, in which a varied amount
of Praxitelean style may be discerned. Four points of composi-
tion may be mentioned, which appear to be in origin Praxitelean:
(i) a very flexible line divides the figures if drawn down the
midst from top to bottom; they all tend to lounging; (2) they
are adapted to front and back view rather than to being seen
from one side or the other; (3) trees, drapery and the like are
used for supports to the marble figures, and included in the
design, instead of being extraneous to it; (4) the faces are
presented in three-quarter view.
The subjects chosen by Praxiteles were either human beings
or the less elderly and dignified deities. It is Apollo, Hermes
and Aphrodite who attract him rather than Zeus, Poseidon
or Athena. And in his hands the deities sink to the human
level, or, indeed, sometimes almost below it. They have grace
and charm in a supreme degree, but the element of awe and
reverence is wanting.
Praxiteles and his school worked almost entirely in marble.
At the time the marble quarries of Paros were at their best;
nor could any marble be finer for the purposes of the sculptor
than that of which the Hermes is made. Some of the statues
of Praxiteles were coloured by the painter Nicias, and in the
opinion of the sculptor they gained greatly by this treatment.
(P. G.)
PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr.
priere), a term used generally for any humble petition, but more
technically, in religion, for that mode of addressing a divine
or sacred power in which there predominates the mood and
intention of reverent entreaty.
Prayer and its Congeners. Prayer in the latter sense is a
characteristic feature of the higher religions, and we might even
say that Christianity or Mahommedanism, ritually viewed, is
in its inmost essence a service of prayer. At all stages of
religious development, however, and more especially in the case
of the more primitive types of cult, prayer as thus understood
occurs together with, and shades off into, other varieties of
observance that bear obvious marks of belonging to the same
family.
Confining ourselves for the moment to forms of explicit address,
we may group these under three categories according as the
power addressed is conceived by the applicant to be on a higher,
or on much the same, or on a lower plane of dignity and authority
as compared with himself, (i) Only if the deity be regarded
as altogether superior is there room for prayer proper, that is,
reverent entreaty. Of this we may perhaps roughly distinguish
a higher and a lower type, according as there is either complete
confidence in the divine benevolence and justice, or a disposition
to suppose a certain arbitrariness or at any rate condition-
ality to attach to the granting of requests. In the first case
prayer will be accompanied with disinterested homage, praise
and thankgiving, and will in fact, tend to lose its distinctive
character of entreaty or petition, passing into a mystic commun-
ing or converse with God. In the second case it will be supported
by pleading, involving on the one hand self-abasement, with
confession of sins and promises of repentance and reform, or
on the other hand self-justification, in the shape of the expression
of faith and recitation of past services, together with reminders
of previous favour shown. (2) If, however, the worshipper place
his god on a level with himself, so far at any rate as to make
him to some extent dependent on the service man contracts
to render him, then genuine prayer tends to be replaced by a
mere bargaining, often conjoined with flattery and with insincere
promises. This spirit of do ut des will be found to go closely
with the gift-theory of sacrifice, and tx> be especially character-
istic of those religions of middle grade that are given over to
sacrificial worship as conducted in temples and by means of
organized priesthoods. Not but what, when the high gods
are kind for a consideration, the lower deities will likewise be
found addicted to such commerce; thus in India the hedge-priest
and his familiar will bandy conditions in spirited dialogue audible
to the multitude (cf. W. Crooke, Things Indian, s.i>. " Demon-
ology," pp. 132, 134). (3) Lastly, the degree of dependency on
human goodwill attributed to the power addressed may be so
great that, instead of diplomatic politeness, there is positive
hectoring, with dictation, threats and abuse. Even the Italian
peasant is said occasionally to offer both abuse and physical
violence to the image of a recalcitrant saint; and antiquity
wondered at the bullying manner of the Egyptians towards
their gods (cf. lamblichus, De mysteriis, vi. 5-7). This frame
of mind, however, is mainly symptomatic of the lower levels
PRAYER
257
of cult. Thus the Zulu says to the ancestral ghost, " Help me
or you will feed on nettles "; whilst the still more primitive
Australian exclaims to the " dead hand " that he carries about
with him as a kind of divining-rod, " Guide me aright, or I
throw you to the dogs."
So far we have dealt with forms of address explicitly directed
towards a power that, one might naturally conclude, has
personality, since it is apparently expected to hear and answer.
At the primitive stage, however, the degree of personification is,
probably, often far slighter than the words used would seem
to suggest. The verbal employment of vocatives and of the
second person may have little or no personifying force, serving
primarily but to make the speaker's wish and idea intelligible
to himself. When the rustic talks in the vernacular to his horse
he is not much concerned to know whether he is heard and
understood; still less when he mutters threats against an absent
rival, or kicks the stool that has tripped him up with a vicious
" Take that! "
These considerations may help towards the understanding
of a second class of cases, namely forms of implicit address
shading off into unaddressed formulas. Wishings, blessings,
cursings, oaths, vows, exorcisms, and so on, are uttered aloud,
doubtless partly that they may be heard by the human parties
to the rite, but likewise in many cases that they may be heard,
or at least overheard, by a consentient deity, perhaps represented
visibly by an idol or other cult-object. The ease with which
explicit invocations attach themselves to many of these appar-
ently self-contained forms proves that there is not necessarily
any perceived difference of kind, and that implicit address as
towards a " something not-ourselves " is often the true designa-
tion of the latter. On the other hand, there is reason to believe
that the magical spell proper is a self-contained and self-
sufficient form of utterance, and that it lies at the root of
much that has become address, and even prayer in the fullest
sense.
From Spell to Prayer. Of course to address and entreat a
fellow-being is a faculty as old as that of speech, and, as soon
as it occurred to man to treat sacred powers as fellow-beings,
assuredly there was a beginning of prayer. We do not know,
and are not likely to know, how religion first arose, and the
probability is that many springs went to feed that immense
river. Thus care for the dead may well have been one amongst
such separate sources. It is natural for sorrow to cry to the
newly dead " Come back! " and for bereavement to add " Come
back and help!" Another source is mythologic fancy, which,
in answer to childlike questions; "Who made the world?"
"Who made our laws?" and so on, creates " magnified non-
natural men," who presently made their appearance in ritual (for
to think a thing the savage must, dance it) ; whereupon personal
intercourse becomes possible between such a being and the
tribesmen, the more so because the supporters of law and order,
the elders, will wish to associate themselves as closely as possible
with the supreme law-giver. From Australia, where we have
the best chance of studying rudimentary religion in some bulk,
comes a certain amount of evidence showing that in the two
ways just mentioned some inchoate prayer is being evolved.
On the other hand, it is remarkable how conspicuous, on the
whole, is the absence of prayer from the magico-religious ritual
of the Australians. Uttered formulas abound; yet they are
not forms of address, but rather the self-sufficient pronounce-
ments of the magician's^a/. Viewed analytically in its developed
nature, magic is a wonder-working recognized as such, the core
of the mystery consisting in the supposed transformation of
suggested idea into accomplished fact by means of that sugges-
tion itself. To the magician, endowed in the opinion of his
fellows (and doubtless of himself) with this wonderful power
of effective suggestion, the output of such power naturally repre-
sents itself as a kind of unconditional willing. When he cries
" Rain, rain," or otherwise makes vivid to himself and his
hearers the idea of rain, expecting that the rain will thereby
be forced to come, it is as if he had said " Rain, now you must
come," or simply "Rain, come!" and we find as a fact that
xxu. 9
magical formulas mostly assume the tone of an actual or virtual
imperative, " As I do this, so let the like happen," " I do this in
order that the like may happen," and so on. Now it is easy to
" call spirits from the vasty deep," but disappointed experience
shows that they will not always come. Hence such imperatives
have a tendency to dwindle into optatives. " Let the demon
of small-pox depart!" is replaced by the more humble "Grand-
father Smallpox, go away!" where the affectionate appellative
(employed, however, in all likelihood merely to cajole) signalizes
an approach to the genuine spirit of prayer. Again, the magician
conscious of his limitations will seek to supplement his influence
his mana, as it is termed in the Pacific by tapping, so to
speak, whatever sources of similar power lie round about him;
and these the " magomorphism " of primitive society perceives
on every hand. A notable method of borrowing power from
another magic-wielding agency is simply to breathe its name
in connexion with the spell that stands in need of reinforcement ;
as the name suggests its owner, so it comes to stand for his real
presence. It is noticeable that even the more highly developed
forms of liturgical prayer tend, in the recitation of divine titles,
attributes and the like, to present a survival of this magical
use of potent names.
Prayer as a Part of Ritual. An exactly converse process
must now be glanced at, whereby, instead of growing out of it,
prayer actually generates spell. In advanced religion, indeed,
prayer is the chosen vehicle of the free spirit of worship. Its
mechanism is not unduly rigid, and it is largely autonomous,
being rid of subservience to other ritual factors. In more
primitive ritual, however, set forms of prayer are the rule, and
their function is mainly to accompany and support a ceremony
the nerve of which consists in action rather than speech. Hence,
suppose genuine prayer to have come into being, it is exceedingly
apt to degenerate into a mere piece of formalism; and yet,
whereas its intrinsic meaning is dulled by repetition according
to a well-known pyschological law, its virtue is thereby hardly
lessened for the undeveloped religious consciousness, which holds
the saving grace to lie mainly in the repetition itself. But a
formula that depends for its efficacy on being uttered rather than
on being heard is virtually indistinguishable from the self-
sufficient spell of the magician, though its origin is different. A
good example of a degenerated prayer-ritual comes from the
Todas (see W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas, ch. x.). The prayer itself
tends to be slurred over, or even omitted. On the other hand,
great stress is laid on a preliminary citation of names of power
followed by the word idith. This at one time seems to have
meant " for the sake of," carrying with it some idea of supplica-
tion; but it has now lost this connotation, seeing that it can be
used not merely after the name of a god, but after that of any
sacred object or incident held capable of imparting magic
efficacy to the formula. Even the higher religions have to fight
against the tendency to " vain repetitions " (often embodying a
certain sacred number, e.g. three), as well as to the use of prayers
as amulets, medicinal charms, and so on. Thus, Buddhism
offers the striking case of the praying-wheel. It remains to
add that throughout we must carefully distinguish in theory,
however hard this may be to do in practice, between legitimate
ritual understood as such, whether integral to prayer, such as
its verbal forms, or accessory, such as gestures, postures, incense,
oil or what not, and the formalism of religious decay, such as
generally betrays itself by its meaninglessness, by its gibberish
phrases, sing-song intonation and so forth.
Silent Prayer. A small point in the history of prayer, but
one that has an interesting bearing on the subject of its relation
to magic, is concerned with the custom of praying silently.
Charms and words of power being supposed to possess efficacy
in themselves are guarded with great secrecy by their owners,
and hence, in so far as prayer verges on spell, there will be a
disposition to mutter or otherwise conceal the sacred formula.
Thus the prayers of the Todas already alluded to are in all cases
uttered " in the throat," although these are public prayers, each
village having a form of its own. At a later stage, when the
distinction between magic and religion is more clearly recognized
2 5 8
PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON
and an anti-social character assigned to the former on the
ground that it subserves the sinister interests of individuals,
the overt and as it were congregational nature of the praying
comes to be insisted on as a guarantee that no magic is being
employed (cf. Apuleius, Apol. 54, " tacitas preces in templo dis
allegasti: igitur magus es "), a notion that suffers easy transla-
tion into the view that there are more or less disreputable gods
with whom private trafficking may be done on the sly (cf . Horace,
Ep. I. xvi. 60, " labra movet metuens audiri, Pulchra Laverna,
da mihi fallere ") Thus it is quite in accordance with the out-
look of the classical period that Plato in his Laws (900-910)
should prohibit all possession of private shrines or performance
of private rites; " let a man go to a temple to pray, and let any
one who pleases join with him in the prayer." Nevertheless,
instances are not wanting amongst the Greeks of private prayers
of the loftiest and most disinterested tone (cf. L. R. Farnell,
The Evolution of Religion, p. 202 seq.). Finally we may note in
this connexion that in advanced religion, at the point at which
prayer is coming to be conceived as communion, silent adoration
is sometimes thought to bring man nearest to God.
The Moralizalion of Prayer. When we come to consider the
moral quality of the act of prayer, this contrast between the
spirit of public and private religion is fundamental for all but
the most advanced forms of cult. In its public rites the com-
munity becomes conscious of common ends and a common
edification. We may observe how even a very primitive people
such as the Arunta of Australia behaves with the greatest
solemnity at its ceremonies, and professes to be made " glad "
and " strong " thereby; whilst of his countrymen, whom he
would not trust to pray in private, Plato testifies that in the
temples during the sacrificial prayers " they show an intense
earnestness and with eager interest talk to the Gods and beseech
them " (Laws, 887). We may therefore assume that, in acts
of public worship at any rate, prayer and its magico-religious
congeners are at all stages resorted to as a " means of grace,"
even though such grace do not constitute the expressed object of
petition. Poverty of expression is apt to cloak the real spirit
of primitive prayer, and the formula under which its aspirations
may be summed up, namely, " Blessings come, evils go," covers
all sorts of confused notions about a grace to be acquired and
an impurity to be wiped away, which, as far back as our clues
take us, invite interpretations of a decidedly spiritualistic and
ethical order. To explicate, however, and purge the meaning
of that " strong heart " and " clean " which the savage after
his fashion can wish and ask for, remained the task of the higher
and more self-conscious types of religion. A favourite contrast
for which there is more to be said is that drawn between the
magico-religious spell-ritual, that says in effect, " My will be
done," and the spirit of " Thy will be done " that breathes through
the highest forms of worship. Such resignation in the face of the
divine will and providence is, however, not altogether beyond
the horizon of primitive faith, as witness the following prayer
of the Khonds of Orissa: " We are ignorant of what it is good
to ask for. You know what is good for us. Give it to us."
(Tylor, Prim. Culture, 4. 369.) At this point prayer by a supreme
paradox virtually extinguishes itself, since in becoming an end
in itself, a means of contemplative devotion and of mystic
communing with God, it ceases to have logical need for the
petitionary form. Thus on the face of it there is something
like a return to the self-sufficient utterance of antique religion;
but, in reality, there is all the difference in the world between
a suggestion directed outwardly in the fruitless attempt to
conjure nature without first obeying her, and one directed
towards the inner man so as to establish the peace of God within
the heart.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following works deal generally with the
subject of prayer from the comparative standpoint: E. B. Tylor,
Primitive Culture, ch. 18 (1903) ; C. Tiele, Elements of the Science of
Religion (Gifford lectures.lect. 6) (1897) ; F. Max Miiller, " On Ancient
Prayers," in Semitic Studies in Memory of Rev. Dr Alexander Kohut
(June, 1904); W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic (1900). Degeneration
of prayer: W. H. R. Rivers, The Tpdas, ch. 10 (1906). Use of the
name of power: F. Giesebrecht, Die alttestamentliche Schdtzung des
Gottesnamens (1901); W. Heitmiiller, Im Namen Jesu (1903). Silent
prayer: S. Sudhaus, " Lautes und Icises Beten " in Archiv fur
Religionswissenschaft, 185 seq. (1906). Beginnings of Prayer in
Australia: A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-East Australia,
394, cf. 546 (1904); K. Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, 79 seq.
(!95) ; the evidence discussed in Man, 2, 42, 72 (1907). Prayer and
spell in North American religion: W. Matthews, " The Prayer of a
NavajoShaman," in American Anthropologist,!.; idem, "The Mountain
Chant ; a Navajo Ceremony," in Fifth Report of Bureau of American
Ethnology; J. Mooney, " The Sacred Formulas of the Cherokces,"
(7th Kept. 1891). Greek prayer : C.Ausfeld,I> graecorum precationibus
quaestiones (1903). Christian prayer: E. von der Goltz, Das Cebet
in der altesten Christenheit (1901); id., Tischgebete und Abendmahls-
gebete (1905) ; O. Dibelius, Das Vaterunser: Umrisse zu einer Geschifkte
des Gebets in der alien und mittleren Kirche (1903); T. K. Cheyne,
article " Prayer," in Ency. Bib. (1902). (R. R. M.)
PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON, the title of the official service
book of the Church of England. One of the most important
steps taken at the Reformation was the compilation and provi-
sion of a comprehensive service book for general and compulsory
use in public worship in all cathedral and parish churches
throughout the Church of England.
Apart from alterations in detail, both as to doctrine and ritual,
which will be referred to later, the following main advantages
were achieved from the very first and apply to all editions of
the Prayer Book equally.
1. The substitution of the English language for the Latin
language, which had hitherto been in universal and almost
complete use, and in which all the old service books were written.
2. Unification and simplification. The number of books
required for the performance of divine service in pre-Reformation
days was very large; the most important being the Missal for
the service of Holy Communion or the Mass; the Breviary for
the daily service or performance of the divine office; the Manual
for the minor sacramental offices usually performed by the parish
priest; and the Pontifical, containing such services as were
exclusively reserved for performance by the bishop. Many
of the contents of these larger volumes were published in separate
volumes known by a great variety over one hundred different
names. The Prayer Book represents in a much condensed and
abbreviated form the four chief ancient service books, viz.:
the Missal, Breviary, Manual and Pontifical.
In addition to a multiplicity of books there was much variety
of use. Although the Sarum Use prevailed far the most widely,
yet there were separate Uses of York and Hereford, and also
to a less degree of Lincoln, Bangor, Exeter, Wells, St Paul's, and
probably of other dioceses and cathedral churches as well.
Cranmer's preface " Concerning the Service of the Church "
expressly mentions the abolition of this variety as one of the
things to be achieved by a Book of Common Prayer. It says:
" And whereas heretofore there hath been great diversity in
saying and singing in Churches within this Realm; some following
Salisbury Use, some Hereford Use, and some the Use of Bangor,
some of York, some of Lincoln; now from henceforth all the
whole Realm shall have but one Use."
We will next enumerate the sources from which the Prayer Book
was compiled. I. It has been already indicated that the older
pre-Reformation service books formed the main quarry, especially
those according to the Use of Sarum. Morning and Evening Prayer,
including the psalter and the lessons, were taken from the Breviary,
Matins being compiled out of Nocturns (or Matins), Lauds and
Prime; and Evensong out of Vespers and Compline. The Order*
of Holy Communion, including the collects, epistles and gospels,
was taken from the Missal. The sacramental and other offices
which occupy a position in the Prayer Book between the Order
of Holy Communion and the Psalms were taken from the Manual ;
and the services for consecration or ordering of bishops, priests and
deacons were taken from the Pontifical; but in all cases not only
with a change of Latin into English, but with numerous alterations*
omissions and additions.
2. The reformed Latin Breviary of Cardinal Quignon, Francis
de Quinones, a Spaniard, a Franciscan and cardinal of the Holy
^ross, brought out a reformed Latin breviary with papal sanction
In . !535- A second and revised edition appeared in 1537. It met
with considerable favour, and was adopted into use in many places,
without, however, winning universal acceptance, and in 1558 papal
PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON
259
sanction was withdrawn and it ceased to be printed. From this
rrt'ormnl hn-viary the compilers of the Prayer Book borrowed the
following, (a) Many passages almost verbatim in the preface
" Concerning the Service of the Church." It would occupy too
much space to print them in parallel columns here, (ft) Making
tin- Sunday and Holy-day services identical in structure with the
wi c -k -il.iv s-rviri-.. (c) The removal of all antiphons and responds.
This refers to Quignon's first edition only, (d) The increased
amount of Holy Scripture read. Quignon provided a first lesson
from the Old Testament; a second lesson from the New Testament;
and on Saints' Days a third lesson from the Lives of the Saints,
thouyh this li-sson was also occasionally taken from Holy Scripture.
(e) The prefixing to every service a form of confession and absolu-
tion. The idea, not the actual language, is borrowed by the Prayer
Book. (/) The substitution of the Athanasian Creed for the Apostles'
I'nx-d on certain days instead of the former being an addition to
the Litter. So in the Prayer Book, when used, the Athanasian
I is substituted for, not added to, the shorter creed, (g) The
uniform assignment of three Psalms to each hour suggests the
average number and arrangement of the Psalms in the Prayer Book
at Matins and Evensong.
3. The Mozarabic Missal, (a) The four short prayers preceding
the prayer for the consecration of the water in the office for the public
baptism of infants are adapted from the benediction of the font
in the Mozarabic Liturgy (Migne, Pat. Lat. torn. Ixxxv. col. 465).
The evidence for this borrowing is still plainer in the larger form of
prayer for this purpose provided in the first book of Edward VI.
The Mozarabic Liturgy was printed and published under Cardinal
Ximenes in 1500, and may well have been in Cranmer's hands;
whereas the Missale gallicanum, a Galilean Sacramentary, contain-
ing the same prayers with slight variations, was first published by
Cardinal Thomesius in 1680 and must have been unknown to
Cranmer. (ft) According to F. Procter and W. H. Frere (A New
History of the Book of Common Prayer, p. 375: London, 1902), the
use of the plural number instead of the singular in the form of the
opening yersicles of Morning and Evening prayer is a following of
Mozarabic usage. But we have been unable to verify this statement.
(c) Many of the new collects introduced into the Prayer Book,
though not transferred bodily from any Mozarabic service book,
are modelled upon a Mozarabic pattern, and preserve some Mozarabic
ideas and phrases, e.g. the references to the Second Advent in the
collects for the first and third Sundays in Advent take their tone
from the Mozarabic Advent services. The collect for Christmas
Day is based on a collect for Christmas Day Lauds in the Mozarabic
Breviary (Migne, Pat. Lat. torn. Ixxxvi., col. 122). The collect
for the first Sunday in Lent is based on a preface (Inlatio) in the
Mass for the Wednesday after the fifth Sunday in Lent (ibid., torn.
Ixxxv., col. 382). The collect for the first Sunday after Easter
is based upon an " Alia Oratio " (ibid., col. 517), and an " Oratio ad
pacem " (col. 518) for the Saturday in Easter week. The collect
for St Andrew's Day is based on a Missa in the Mozarabic Mass for
the same festival (ibid., col. 159). Other examples might be given,
but this is hardly theplace for complete details, (d) The many
addresses, beginning with " Dearly beloved brethren " (" the Scripture
moveth us," &c.), introduced into most of the services in the Prayer
Book, correspond to the addresses which, under the title of " Missa,"
and generally addressed to " fratres dilectissimi " or " carissimi,"
form part of every Mozarabic Mass, (e) The prayer of consecration
in the Order of Holy Communion, especially as regards the recital
of the words of institution commencing " Who in the same night,"
&c., follows a Mozarabic rather than the Sarum or Roman model
in several respects, but the same features are found in the consecra-
tion prayer in the Brandenburg-Nurnberg agenda of 1533, and it is
doubtful whether the Anglican borrowing is from a Mozarabic or a
Lutheran source. Possibly both the Anglican and Lutheran formulae
are derived independently from the Mozarabic ; because, as we have
'seen, a Mozarabic missal was certainly in Cranmer's hands and
studied by him.
4. Eastern Liturgies. These were certainly known to Cranmer,
but it is remarkable how little he borrowed from them, (a) The
prayer which was placed at the end of the Litany in 1549, and now
stands as the last prayer but one at the end of Matins and Evensong,
as well as of the Litany, was undoubtedly borrowed from the Liturgy
of St Chrysostom, where, as likewise in the Liturgy of St Basil, it
forms the prayer of the third antiphon after the Deacon's Litany
in the Mass of the Catechumens, (ft) The concluding prayer of
Matins and Evensong, " The Grace of our Lord," &c., which was
added in 1662, may have been taken from Greek liturgies. It is
the opening salutation in the Mass of the Catechumens in the
Clementine Liturgy, where it occurs again, as it does in the
Greek Liturgies before the " Sursum corda " ; though there
is no evidence to prove that it was not taken directly from Holy
Scripture (2 Cor. xiii. 14). (c) The Epiklesis or invocation of the
Holy Spirit upon the elements, must have been copied from an
Eastern Liturgy. It occurs in the 1549 Prayer Book, but has been
omitted in all subsequent editions. It runs thus: " Hear us, O
merciful Father, we beseech Thee, and with Thy holy Spirit and word
vouchsafe to bjtess and sanc|tify these Thy gifts and creatures
of bread and wine, that thev may be unto us the body and blood
of Thy most dearly beloved Son Jesus Christ."
This is not an exact translation of any known epiklesis, and Cranmer
altered its position from after to immediately before the words of
institution, (d) Four petitions in the Litany. " That it may please
Thee to illuminate all Bishops, Priests and Deacons," &c. (altered
in 1661 from all Bishops, pastors and ministers) and " That it may
please Thee to give to all nations unity, peace and concord," and
" That it may please Thee to succour, help and comfort all that
are in danger, necessity and tribulation," and " That it may please
Thee to preserve all that travel by land or by water, all women
labouring of child, all sick persons, and young children, and to
show Thy pity upon all prisoners and captives ! " are almost
certainly modelled on corresponding petitions in the Deacon's
Litany in the Liturgy of St Chrysostom (ed. F. E. Brightman,
p, 362, i. 35, and p. 363, lines 4, 17, 15). At least, they resemble
far more closely the Greek petitions than they do any correspond-
ing Latin petitions in the Old Sarum Litany.
5. Lutheran and other continental Protestant service books.
The most considerable quantity of the new material which was
imported into the Prayer Book was drawn from Lutheran and
Genevan service books. The Litany, for example, in the Prayer
Book is based upon the medieval Latin Litany, but great variation
both in substance and language and by way of addition and omission,
are made in it. These variations are largely borrowed from and
closely follow the language of various Lutheran litanies, especially
that given in the consultation of Archbishop Hermann of Cologne
issued in 1543. Lutheran influence can likewise be traced in way
of variation introduced into the baptismal and other sacramental
or occasional offices. So in the Communion service the most
striking departures from ancient precedent have a Protestant
origin. The introduction of the Ten Commandments in 1553 seems
to be derived from the order of service published by Valerandus
Pollanus (Pullain) in 1551 ; and that of the Comfortable Words in
1549 is borrowed, though all the texts chosen are not identical, from
the Consultation of Hermann. It is impossible to pursue this subject
here further in detail.
6. Original compositions of the compilers of the Prayer Book,
not traceable to ancient or 16th-century originals. These are not
numerous. They include most of the collects on Saints' Days, for
which, though no direct evidence of authorship is as yet forthcoming,
Cranmer is probably responsible, and certain other collects, such as
that for the Royal Farhily (Archbishop Whitgift) ; that for the high
court of parliament (Archbishop Laud) ; that for all conditions
of men (Bishop Gunning), &c.
We proceed to describe next the various stages through which
the Book of Common Prayer has passed and the leading features
of each revision. Of changes preceding the first Prayer Book
it will only be necessary to mention here: (a) The compiling and
publishing of the Litany in English by Cranmer in 1544. (b)
Royal injunctions in August 1 547 ordering the Epistle and Gospel
to be read in English at High Mass, (c) A royal proclamation,
dated the 8th of March 1548, imposing for use at the coming
Easter The Order of the Communion. This was an order or
form of service in English for the communion of the people in
both kinds. It was to be inserted into the service after the
communion of the priest, without making any other alteration
in the Latin Mass. It comprised the long exhortation or
notice to be given on Sunday, or on some other day, previous
to the Communion, the longer exhortation, and the shorter
invitation, the confession, absolution, comfortable words, prayer
of humble access, formulae of administration and the concluding
peace, all as they exist at present, though with variations of
some importance.
The first complete vernacular Book of Common Prayer was
issued in 1549. It was carried through both houses of parliament
by the 2ist of January 1549, by an Act of Uniformity which
made its use compulsory on and after the following Whit-Sunday.
The exact date of the giving of the royal assent, and the
question whether this Book received the assent of Convocation,
are historical points of difficulty and uncertainty which cannot
be treated at length here.
Some of the chief points of difference between this and subse-
quent Prayer Books were the following: Matins and Evensong
began with the Lord's Prayer, and ended with the third collect;
there were no alternative Psalm-canticles for Benedictus,
Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis; the Athanasian Creed was
introduced after the Benedictus on six festivals only, and in
addition to the Apostles' Creed; the Litany was placed after
the Communion service, for which an alternative title was given,
viz.: "commonly called the Mass." Introits were provided
for use on every Sunday and Holy-Day; after the offertory
26o
PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON
intending communicants were directed to " tarry still in the quire
or in some convenient place nigh the quire"; in the prayer
" for the whole state of Christ's church," the blessed Virgin
Mary was commemorated by name among departed saints;
prayer for the departed was explicitly retained; also an invoca-
tion .of the Holy Spirit before the words of institution, the
prayer of oblation immediately following them. The mixed
chalice was ordered to be used, and the Agnus Dei to be sung
during the Communion of the people. A large selection of short
scriptural post-Communions was provided. Unleavened bread
was to be used and placed not in the hand but in the mouth of
the communicant. The sign of the cross was to be made not
only in the eucharistic consecration prayer, but also in Baptism,
Confirmation, Holy Matrimony and the Visitation of the Sick.
Reservation for the sick and unction of the sick were retained;
and exorcism, unction, trine immersion and the chrisom were
included in the baptismal service. The prayer in the burial
service, as in the Communion service, contained distinct inter-
cessions for the departed; and a form of Holy Communion was
provided for use at funerals with proper introit, collect, epistle
and gospel.
As to vestments, in the choir offices, the surplice only was to
be used; the hood being added in cathedrals and colleges; and
by all graduates when preaching, everywhere.
At Holy Communion the officiating priest was to wear " a
white Albe plain with a vestment or Cope," and the assistant
clergy were to wear " Albes with tunicles." Whenever a bishop
was celebrant he was to wear, " beside his rochette, a surplice
or albe, and a cope or vestment," and also to carry " his pastoral
staff in his hand, or else borne or holden by his chaplain." The
mitre was not mentioned.
The ordinal was not attached to this Prayer Book at its first
appearance, but it was added under another act of parliament
in the following year, 1550. It was very similar to the present
ordinal except that the words " for the office and work of a
Priest in the Church of God, now committed unto thee by the
Imposition of our hands " were wanting, and the chalice or
cup with the bread were delivered, as well as a Bible, to each
newly-ordained priest.
We pass on to 1552 when a new and revised edition of the
Prayer Book was introduced by an act of parliament which
ordered that it should come into use on All Saints' Day (Nov. i).
The alterations made in it were many and important, and as
they represent the furthest point ever reached by the Prayer
Book in a Protestant direction, they deserve special mention
and attention.
1. The introductory sentences, exhortation, confession and
absolution were prefixed to the Order for Morning Prayer daily
throughout the year and ordered to be read before Evening
Prayer as well. Alternative Psalms were provided for Benedictus,
Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis.
2. Numerous and most important alterations were made in
the Order for Holy Communion, in the title of which the words
" commonly called the Mass " were left out. (a) The Introits
were omitted, (ft) Gloria in excelsis was transferred from near
the beginning to near the end of the service, (c) The ten com-
mandments with an expanded tenfold Kyrie eleison were intro-
duced, (d) The long new English canon of 1549 was split up
into three parts: the first part becoming the prayer for the church
militant; the second part becoming the prayer of consecration,
the third part, or prayer of oblation, becoming the first post-
Communion collect; the epiklesis or invocation of the Holy Ghost
upon the elements was entirely omitted, (e) The mixed chalice,
the use of the sign of the cross in the consecration prayer; the
commemoration of the blessed Virgin Mary and of various
classes of saints were omitted. (/) The Agnus Dei and the post-
Communion anthems were omitted, (g) The words of adminis-
tration in the 1549 book were abolished, viz.: " The body of
our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve thy
body and soul unto everlasting life," and " The blood of our
Lord Jesus Christ which was shed for thee preserve thy body
and soul unto everlasting life," and the following words were
substituted : " Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died
for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanks-
giving," and " Drink this in remembrance that Christ's blood
was shed for thee, and be thankful." (h) A long rubric was added
at the end of the service explanatory of the attitude of kneeling
at the reception of Holy Communion, in which it was stated
that " it is not meant hereby that any adoration is done, or
ought to be done, either unto the sacramental bread and wine
there bodily received, or to any real and essential presence there
being of Christ's natural flesh and blood," &c. (i) Exorcism,
unction, trine immersion and the chrisom were omitted from
the baptismal service, (k) Unction and communion with the
reserved sacrament were removed from the services for the
visitation and the communion of the sick. (/) Prayers for the
dead and provision for a celebration of Holy Communion at a
funeral were removed from the burial service, (m) The vest-
ments retained and ordered under the Prayer Book of 1549 were
abolished by a new rubric which directed that both at the time
of Communion and at all other times of ministration a bishop
should wear a rochet and that a priest or deacon should have
and wear a surplice only; (n) on the other hand, the directions
as to daily service were extended to all clergy and made much
stricter, (6) and the number of days on which the Athanasian
Creed was to be used was raised from six to thirteen.
The main objects of these drastic alterations have been thought
to have been two-fold.
1. To abolish all ritual for which there was not scriptural
warrant. If this was their object it was not consistently or
completely carried out. No scriptural warrant can be found
for the use of the surplice, or for the use of the sign of the cross
in baptism, both of which were retained.
2. To make the services as unlike the pre-Reformation services
as possible. This object too was not fully attained; no liturgical
precedent can be found for the violent dislocation of certain
parts of the Order for Holy Communion, especially in the case
of the prayer of oblation and of the Gloria in Excelsis; but the
orders for Morning and Evening Prayer and the Holy Communion
retained features of the Breviary and Missal services, the bulk
of their component material being still drawn from them. While
the alterations, therefore, were violent enough to alarm and
offend the Catholic party, they were not violent enough to satisfy
the extreme Puritan party, who would no doubt have agitated
for and would probably have obtained still further reformation
and revision. But this Prayer Book only lived for eight months.
It came into use on All Saints' Day (Nov. i) 1552, and on the 6th
of July 1553 Edward VI. died and was succeeded by his sister
Mary, under whom the Prayer Book was abolished and the old
Latin services and service books resumed their place.
On the death of Queen Mary and the accession of her sister
Elizabeth (Nov. 17, 1558) all was reversed, and the Book of
Common Prayer was restored into use again.
The Act of Uniformity, which obtained final parliamentary
authority on the 28th of April 1559, ordered that the Prayer
Book should come again into use on St John the Baptist's Day
(June 24, 1559). This was the second Prayer Book of King
Edward VI., with the following few but important alterations,
which, like all the alterations introduced at subsequent dates
into the Prayer Book, were in a Catholic rather than in a
Protestant direction.
1. Morning and Evening Prayer were directed to be " used
in the accustomed place of the church, chapel or chancel, instead
of " in such place as the people may best hear."
2. The rubric ordering the use of the rochet only by the
bishop and of surplice only by a priest or deacon was abolished.
The eucharistic vestments ordered in the first Prayer Book of
Edward VI. were brought back by a new rubric which directed
that " the minister at the time of the communion and at all
other times in his ministration, shall use such vestments in the
church as were in use by authority of parliament in the second
year of the reign of King Edward the VI. according to the act
of parliament set in the beginning of this book.
3. In the Litany the following petition found in both the
PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON
261
Edwardian Prayer Books was omitted " from the tyranny of
the bishop of Rome and all his detestable enormities, good
Lord deliver us."
4. In the Communion service the two clauses of administration
found in the first and second Prayer Books of King Edward's
reign were combined.
5. The rubric explanatory of " kneeling for reception," com-
monly known as " the Black Rubric " was omitted.
6. In the Ordinal in the rubric before the oath of the queen's
sovereignty the words " against the power and authority of all
foreign potentates " were substituted for " against the usurped
power and authority of the Bishop of Rome," and in the oath
itself four references to the bishop of Rome, by name, were
omitted.
There were a few more minor alterations, without doctrinal or
political significance which need not be described in detail here.
The only further addition or alteration made in Queen
Elizabeth's reign was in 1561, when all the present black letter
Holy Days were added to the Kalendar except St George
(April 23) Lammas (Aug. i), St Laurence (Aug. 10) and St
Clement (Nov. 22), which already existed, and except St
Enurchus (Sept. 7), added in 1604, and the Venerable Bede
(May 27) and St Alban (June 17) added in 1662.
A smouldering artd growing Puritan discontent with the Prayer
Book, suppressed with a firm hand under Queen Elizabeth, burst
out into a flame on the accession of King James I. in 1603.
A petition called the millenary petition, because signed by no
less than one thousand ministers, was soon presented to him,
asking, among other things, for various alterations in the Prayer
Book and specifying the alterations desired. As a result the
king summoned a conference of leading Puritan divines,
and of bishops and other leading Anglican divines, which
met under his presidency at Hampton Court in January 1604.
After both sides had been heard, certain alterations were
determined upon and were ordered by royal authority, with the
general assent of Convocation. These alterations were not very
numerous nor of great importance, but such as they were they all
went in the direction of catholicizing rather than of puritanizing
the Prayer Book; the one exception being the substitution of
some chapters of the canonical scriptures for some chapters
of the Apocrypha, especially of the book of Tobit. Other
changes were:
1. The addition of one more black letter Saint's Day, viz.:
Enurchus (by error for Evurtius) on the 7th of September. This
was a small but a very extraordinary and an inexplicable change
to make. The only explanation offered, which is a pure guess
and seems barely possible, is that it was desired to place some
mark of dignity upon a day which during the late reign had
been kept with great festivity as the birthday of Queen Elizabeth.
2. The words, " The absolution to be pronounced by the
minister alone " at Morning and Evening Prayer, were altered
to " The Absolution, or Remission of Sins, to be pronounced
by the priest alone, standing; the people still kneeling."
3. A prayer for the royal family was added after the prayer
for the king, and a petition was added in the Litany to the same
effect, both exhibiting slight verbal differences from the prayer
and petition as used to-day.
4. Thanksgiving prayers were added for rain, for fair weather,
for plenty, for peace and victory.
5. Important alterations were introduced into the service
for the private baptism of children in houses, with the object
of doing away with lay baptism and securing the administration
by the minister of the parish, or some other lawful minister.
6. The confirmation service was entitled and explained thus:
" The Order of Confirmation, or Laying on of Hands upon
Children Baptized, and able to render an account of their faith
according to the Catechism following."
7. The concluding portion of the Catechism, consisting of
eleven questions on the sacraments, was now added.
There were other slight changes of a verbal kind, involving
no doctrinal or political significance and which therefore need
not be described here.
The next important stage in the history of the Prayer Book
was its total suppression in 1645 for a period of fifteen years.
" the Directory for the Public Worship of God in the Three
Kingdoms " being established in its place. The restoration
of King Charles II. in 1660 brought with it toleration at once,
and soon afterwards complete restoration of the Prayer Book,
but not exactly in the same form which it had before. Non-
conformists pressed upon the king, either that the Prayer Book
should not be re-introduced, or that if it were re-introduced,
features which they objected to might be removed. The result
was that a conference was held in 1661, known from its place
of meeting as the Savoy Conference, the church being represented
by twelve bishops and the Nonconformists by twelve eminent
Presbyterian divines, each side accompanied by nine coadjutors.
The objections raised from the Nonconformist point of view
were numerous and varied, but they, were thoroughly discussed
between the first meeting on the isth of April and the last on
the 24th of July 1661; the bishops agreeing to meet the Puritan
wishes on a few minor points but on none of fundamental
importance. Later in the year, between the 2oth of November
and the 2oth of December, Convocation assembled and under-
took the revision of the Prayer Book. In the earlier part of
the following year the book so revised came before parliament.
No amendment was made in it in either house and it finally
received the royal assent on the igth of May 1662, being annexed
to an Act of Uniformity which provided for its coming into
general and compulsory use on St Bartholomew's Day (Aug. 24).
The alterations thus introduced were very numerous, amount-
ing to many hundreds, and many of them were more important
than any which had been introduced into the Prayer Book since
1552. Their general tendency was distinctly in a Catholic as
opposed to a Puritan direction, and the two thousand Puritan
incumbents who vacated their benefices on St Bartholomew's
Day rather than accept the altered Prayer Book bear eloquent
testimony to that fact.
It is impossible to give here an exhaustive list of the alterations :
but the following were some of the principal changes made in 1662.
(a) The preface " It hath been the wisdom of the Church of England,"
&c., composed by Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln, was prefixed to
the Prayer Book, (b) The authorized version of the Bible of 1611
was taken into use, except in the case of the Psalms, where the
great Bible of 1539-1540 was retained as much smoother for singing,
and in parts of the Communion service, (c) The rubric preceding
the absolution in Morning and Evening Prayer, viz.: " The absolu-
tion to be pronounced by the minister alone,' was altered into " The
Absolution, or Remission of Sins, to be pronounced by the priest
alone, standing; the people still kneeling. (d) In the Litany the
phrase " Bishops, Pastors and Ministers of the Church," was altered
into " Bishops, Priests and Deacons," and in the clause commencing
" From all sedition and privy conspiracy ,"&c., the words" rebellion "
and " schism " were added. () Among the " Prayers and Thanks-
givings upon several occasions, " were added the two Ember week
prayers, the prayer for the high court of parliament, the collect or
prayer for all conditions of men, the general thanksgiving, and that
' For restoring Public Peace at Home." (/) In the Communion
service two rubrics were prefixed to the prayer " for the whole state
of Christ's Church militant here in earth " ordering the humble
presentation and placing of the alms upon the Holy Table, and the
placing thereon then of so much Bread and Wine as the priest shall
think sufficient; and (g) the commemoration of the departed was
added to the prayer itself. (/) The rubric explanatory of the posture
of kneeling for reception, known us the Black Rubric, which had
been added in 1 562 , but omitted in 1 559 and 1 604, was re-introduced ;
but the words " to any real and essential presence there being of
Christ's natural flesh and blood " were altered to " unto any Corporal
Presence of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood " a very important
and significant alteration which affected the meaning of the whole
rubric, (i) Rubrics were also added ordering the manual acts by
the rjriest in the prayer of consecration, and the covering of the
remainder of the consecrated elements after Communion with a fair
linen cloth, (k) A new office was added for the Ministration of
Baptism to such as are of riper years. (/) A rubric was prefixed
to the Order for the Burial of the Dead, forbidding that order tp
be used " for any that die unbaptized, or excommunicate, or have
laid violent hands upon themselves." (m) In the " Ordering of
Priests," and " the Consecration of Bishops," in the formula for
ordination, after the words, " Receive the Holy Ghost," these words
were added " for the Office and Work of a Pnest (or Bishop) in the
Church^ of God, now committed unto thee by the Imposition of our
hands." (n) The ornaments rubric, regulating the vesture of the
262
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD
clergy was thrown into its present shape, referring back not to 1604
r '559 r I 55 2 > but to the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. in 1549
for the rule to be followed.
The above are the important alterations, among numerous
others of minor significance, introduced into the Prayer Book
in 1662. Their general trend is obvious. It is not in the Puritan
direction, but intended to emphasize and to make more clear
church doctrine and discipline, which in recent years had become
obscured or decayed. No substantial alteration has been made
in the Prayer Book since 1662, but two alterations must be
chronicled as having obtained the sanction of the Convocations
of Canterbury and York, and also legal force by act of parliament.
In 1871 a new Lectionary was substituted for the previously
existing one, into the merits and demerits of which it is not
possible to enter here; and in 1872, by the Act of Uniformity
Amendment Act, a shortened form of service was provided
instead of the present form of Morning and Evening Prayer for
optional use in other than cathedral churches on all days exeept
Sunday, Christmas Day, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday and
Ascension Day; provision was also statutably made for the
separation of services, and for additional services, to be taken,
however, except so far as anthems and hymns are concerned,
entirely out of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer.
In the year 1907 letters of business were issued by the Crown
to the Convocations inviting and enabling them to make altera-
tions in the Prayer Book (afterwards to be embodied in an act
of parliament). These letters were issued in compliance with
the second recommendation (1906) of the Royal Commission
on Ecclesiastical Discipline, viz.: that " Letters of business
should be issued to the Convocations with instructions: (a) to
consider the preparation of a new rubric regulating the orna-
ments (that is to say, the vesture) of the ministers of the church,
at the times of their ministrations, with a view to its enact-
ment by parliament; and (b) to frame, with a view to their
enactment of parliament, such modifications in the existing law
relating to the conduct of Divine Service, and to the orna-
ments and fittings of churches as may tend to secure the greater
elasticity which a reasonable recognition of the comprehensive-
ness of the Church of England and of its present needs seems to
demand."
A few words are added in conclusion about the state services.
Until the year 1859 they were four in number.
1. A Form of Prayer with Thanksgiving to be used yearly upon
the Fifth Day of November, to commemorate the happy deliverance
of King James I. and the Three Estates of England from the Gun-
powder Plot in 1604.
2. A Form of Prayer with Fasting to be used yearly on the
Thirtieth Day of January, to commemorate the Martyrdom of the
Blessed King Charles the First in 1649.
3. A Form of Prayer with Thanksgiving to be used yearly on the
Twenty-ninth Day of May, to commemorate the Restoration to the
throne of King Charles the Second in 1660.
4. A Form of Prayer with Thanksgiving to be used yearly on the
Day of the Accession of the reigning Monarch.
The first three of these services were abolished in 1859 by royal
warrant that is to say by the exercise of the same authority which
had instituted them. The fourth form of service was retained in
its old shape till 1901, when a new form, or rather new forms of
service, having been prepared by Convocation, were authorized by
royal warrant on the gth of November. (F. E. W.)
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD. Wherever there is a belief in
the continued existence of man's personality through and after
death, religion naturally concerns itself with the relations between
the living and the dead. And where the idea of a future judg-
ment obtains, prayers are often offered on their behalf to the
Higher Powers. Prayers for the dead are mentioned in 2 Mac-
cabees xii. 43-45, where the writer is uncertain whether to
regard the sacrifice offered by Judas as a propitiatory sin-offering
or as a memorial thank-offering, a distinction of great importance
in the later history of the practice. Prayers for the dead form
part of the authorized Jewish services. The form in use in
England contains the following passage: " Have mercy upon
him; pardon all his transgressions . . . Shelter his soul in the
shadow of Thy wings. Make known to him the path of life."
The only passage in the New Testament which is held to bear
directly on the subject is 2 Tim. i. 18, where, however, it is not
certain that Onesiphorus, for whom St Paul prayed, was dead.
Outside the Bible the proof of the early use of prayers for the
dead has been carried a step farther by Professor Ramsay's
discoveries, for it is now impossible to doubt the genuineness
of the copy (contained in the spurious acts of the saint) of the
inscription on the tomb of Abercius of Hieropolis in Phrygia
(see Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, pt. ii. vol. i. p. 492 sqq.). The
igth line of the inscription runs thus: " Let every friend who
observeth this pray for me," i.e. Abercius, who throughout
speaks in the first person: he died in the latter part of the 2nd
century. The inscriptions in the Roman catacombs bear similar
witness to the practice, by the occurrence of such phrases as
" Mayst thou live among the saints " (3rd century) ; " May God
refresh the soul of ... "; " Peace be with them." Among
Church writers Tertullian is the first to mention prayers for
the dead, and that not as a concession to natural sentiment,
but as a duty: " The widow who does not pray for her dead
husband has as good as divorced him." This passage occurs
in one of his later Montanistic writings, dating from the beginning
of the 3rd century. Subsequent writers similarly make incidental
mention of the practice as prevalent, but not as unlawful or even
disputed (until Aerius challenged it towards the end of the
4th century). The most famous instance is St Augustine's
prayer for his mother, Monica, at the end of the gth book oi
his Confessions.
An important element in the liturgies of the various Churches
consisted of the diptychs or lists of names of living and dead
who were to be commemorated at the Eucharist. To be inserted
in these lists was an honour, and out of the practice grew the
canonization of saints; on the other hand, to be excluded was a
condemnation. In the middle of the 3rd century we find Cyprian
enjoining that there should be no oblation or public prayer made
for a deceased layman who had broken a Church rule by appoint-
ing a cleric trustee under his will: " He ought not to be named
in the priests' prayer who has done his best to detain the clergy
from the altar." Although it is not possible, as a rule, to name
dates for the exact words used in the ancient liturgies, yet the
universal occurrence of these diptychs and of definite prayers
for the dead in all parts of the Church in the 4th and sth centuries
tends to show how primitive such prayers were. The language
used in the prayers for the departed is very reserved, and contains
no suggestion of a place or state of pain. We may cite the
following from the so-called liturgy of St James:
" Remember, O Lord, the God of Spirits and of all Flesh, those
whom we have remembered and those whom we have not remem-
bered, men of the true faith, from righteous Abel unto to-day; do
thou thyself give them rest there in the land of the living, in thy
kingdom, in the delight of Paradise, in the bosom of Abraham, Isaac
and Jacob, our holy fathers, from whence pain and sorrow and
sighing have fled away, where the light of thy countenance visiteth
them and always shineth upon them."
Public prayers were only offered for those who were believed
to have died as faithful members of Christ. But Perpetua, who
was martyred in 202, believed herself to have been encouraged
by a vision to pray for her brother, who had died in his eighth
year, almost certainly unbaptized; and a later vision assured
her that her prayer had been answered and he translated from
punishment. St Augustine thought it needful to point out that
the narrative was not canonical Scripture, and contended that
the child had perhaps been baptized. Similarly, a medieval
legend relates that Gregory the Great was so struck with the
justice of the emperor Trajan, that he prayed for him, and in
consequence he was admitted to Paradise (cf. Dante, Purg. x.,
Par ad. xx.).
As time went on, further developments took place. Petitions
to God that he would hear the intercessions of the departed
became direct requests to them to pray (Ora pro nobis); and,
finally, the saints were asked themselves to grant grace and help.
Again, men felt difficulty in supposing that one who repented
at the close of a wicked life could at once enjoy the fellowship
of the saints in Paradise (St Luke xxiii. 43), and it seemed unfair
that they should be made equal with those who had borne the
PRAYING WHEEL PREACHING
263
burden and heat of the day (St Matt. xx. 12). And so the simple
severance between good and bad indicated in St Luke vi. 26,
became the threefold division made familiar by Dante. These
speculations were further fixed by the growth of the theory
of satisfaction and of Indulgences: each forgiven soul was
supposed to have to endure an amount of suffering in proportion
to the guilt of its sins, and the prayers and pious acts of the living
availed to shorten this penance time in Purgatory (see INDUL-
GENCES). It thus came about that prayers for the dead were
regarded only as aiming at the deliverance of souls from pur-
gatorial fires; and that application of the Eucharist seems to
have overshadowed all others. The Council of Trent attempted
certain reforms in the matter, with more or less success; but,
broadly speaking, the system still remains in the Roman Catholic
Church, and masses for the dead are a very important part of
its acts of worship.
The Reformation took its rise in a righteous protest against
the sale of Indulgences; and by a natural reaction the Protestants,
in rejecting the Roman doctrine of Purgatory, were inclined to
disuse all prayers for the dead. Important changes have been
made, in the successive revisions of the Prayer Book, in the
commemorations of the dead at the Eucharist and in the Burial
Service.
In the Communion Service of 1549, after praise and thanks
were offered for all the saints, chiefly the Blessed Virgin, came
the following: " We commend into thy mercy all other thy
servants, which are departed hence from us with the sign of
faith and now do rest in the sleep of peace: grant unto them,
we beseech thee, thy mercy and everlasting peace." The
Burial Service of the same date contained explicit prayers for
the deceased, and introit, collect, epistle and gospel were
provided for " the Celebration of the Holy Communion when
there is a Burial of the Dead." In 1552, under the influence
of Bucer, all mention of the dead, whether commemorative or
intercessory, was cut out of the Eucharist; the prayers in the
Burial Service were brought into their present form; and the
provision for Holy Communion at a Burial was omitted. The
thankful commemoration of the dead in the Eucharist was
restored in 1661, but prayers for them remained, if they remained
at all, veiled in ambiguous phrases.
The Church of England has never forbidden prayers for the
dead, however little she has used them in her public services.
It was proposed in 1552 to condemn the scholastic doctrine De
precatione pro defunctis in what is now the 22nd of the Thirty-
Nine Articles, but the proposal was rejected. And these inter-
cessions have been used in private by a long list of English
divines, among whom Andrewes, Cosin, Ken, Wesley and Keble
form an almost complete chain down to the present day. On
the tomb of Bishop Barrow (1680) stands a request to passers-by
to pray for their fellow-servant. And in a suit (1838) as to the
lawfulness of an inscription, " Pray for the soul of . . .," the
Court decided that " no authority or canon has been pointed
out by which the practice of praying for the dead has been
expressly prohibited." As Jeremy Taylor put it (Dissuasive
from Popery, I. i. iv.), " General prayers for the dead the Church
of England never did condemn by any express articles, but left
it in the middle."
H. M. Luckock, After Death (isted., London, 1879) ;E~.H.Plumptre,
The Spirits in Prison (London, 1884). (W. O. B.)
PRAYING WHEEL, a mechanical apparatus used by the
Lamaist Buddhists in Tibet and elsewhere for offering prayers.
Strips of paper bearing a manifold repetition of the words
" The Jewel in the Lotus, Amen," are wrapped round cylinders
of all sizes from hand-mills to wind- or water-mills. As the
wheel revolves these uncoil and the prayer is considered to be
offered.
PREACHING (Fr. precher, from Lat. pracdicare, to proclaim),
the proclamation of a Divine message both to those who have
not heard it, and to those who, having heard it, have not accepted
it, and the regular instruction of the converted in the doctrines
and duties of the faith, is a distinctive though not a peculiar
feature of the Christian religion. The Mahommedans exercise
it freely, and it is not unknown among the Buddhists. The
history of Christian preaching with which alone this article is
concerned has its roots (i) in the activity of the Hebrew prophets
and scribes, the former representing the broader appeal, the
latter the edification of the faithful, (2) in the ministry of Jesus
Christ and His apostles, where again we have both the evan-
gelical invitation and the teaching of truth and duty. Which-
ever element is emphasized in preaching, the preacher is one who
believes himself to be the ambassador of God, charged with a
message which it is his duty to deliver.
i. The Patristic Age, to the Death of St Augustine, A.D. 430.
Of the first two centuries we have very little information.
From the Acts of the Apostles we gather something as to the
methods adopted by St Peter and St Paul, and these we may
believe were more or less general. The Apostles who had known
the Lord would naturally recall the facts of His life, and the
story of His words and works would form a great deal of their
preaching. After they had passed away and before the Christian
Scriptures were canonically sifted and collected there was a gap
which for us is only slenderly filled by such productions as the
so-called 2nd Epistle of Clement, really a rambling homily on
repentance and confession (see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE), and
by what we can imagine was the practice of men like Ignatius
and, on the other hand, the Apologists. Most of these were
primarily writers, but Justin Martyr has left a reputation for
speaking, especially in debate, as well. Some of the writings
of Tertullian (c. 200), e.g. those on Patience and Penitence, read
as though they had been spoken, and it is hard to believe that
this brilliant rhetorician did not consecrate his powers of address
to his new faith. Cyprian (d. 258), too, was a finished speaker;
his Epistle to Donatus emphasizes the need of a simple and un-
decorated style in the proclamation of the gospel. None of his
sermons, however, unless we regard his book on the Lord's Prayer
as a homily, has come down to us.
By this time the canon of New Testament Scripture was fairly
settled, and with Origen (d. 254) we find the beginning of preach-
ing as an explanation and application of definite texts. Origen
was pre-eminently a teacher, and the didactic side of preaching
is thus more conspicuous in his work. When we allow for his
excessive use of the allegorical method, there is still left a great
deal of power and suggestiveness. In his hands, as may be
seen from the 19 homilies on Jeremiah that have been preserved
in the Greek (and others in the Latin of Rufinus), the crude
homily of his predecessors began to take a more dignified,
orderly and impressive form. Alongside Origen we may rank
Hippolytus of Rome on the strength of the one sermon of his
which is extant, a panegyric on baptism based on the theophany
which marked the baptism of Jesus.
The 4th century marks the culmination of early Christian
preaching. The imperial patronage had made education and
social distinctions a greater possibility for the preacher, and the
decline of political eloquence furnished an opening for pulpit
oratory. The didactic element was no longer in sole possession
of the field, for the inrush of multitudes to the Christian faith
and the building of large churches necessitated a return to the
evangelical or proclamatory type of sermon. It was the age
of doctrinal controversy, and the intellectual presentation of
the Christian position was thus sharpened and developed. The
Antiochene school had set a worthy example of careful exegesis
of scripture. It was in the East especially that preaching
flourished: Eusebius of Caesarea, Eusebius of Emesa, Athanasius,
Macarius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ephraem Syrus among the ortho-
dox; and of the Arians, Anus himself and Ulfilas the great
Gothic missionary, are all of high quality; but above even these
stand out the three Cappadocians,Basil (q.v.) of Caesarea,cultured,
devout and practical; his brother Gregory (q.v.) of Nyssa, more
inclined to the speculative and metaphysical, and Gregory (q.v.)
of Nazianzus, richly endowed with poetic and oratorial gifts,
the finest preacher of the three. At the apex of the pyramid
stands John of Antioch, Chrysostom (q.v.), who in 387, at the
age of 40, began his 1 2 years' ministry in his native city and in
399, the six memorable years in Constantinople, where he loved
264
PREACHING
the poor, withstood tyranny and preached with amazing power.
His sermons, says Dr E. C. Dargan, " show the native oratorical
instinct highly trained by study and practice, a careful and
sensible (not greatly allegorical) interpretation of Scripture, a
deep concern for the spiritual welfare of his charge, and a
thorough consecration to his work. His style is impetuous,
rich, torrential at times; his thought is practical and imaginative
rather than deeply philosophical. His knowledge of human
nature is keen and ample, and his sermons are a remarkable
reflection of the manners and customs of his age. His ethical
appeal is constant and stimulating."
In the West the allegorical method of Alexander had more
influence than the historical exegesis of Antioch. This is seen
in Ambrose of Milan, with whom may be named Hilary of
Poitiers and Gaudentius of Brescia, the friend of Chrysostom,
and a link between him and Ambrose. But the only name of
first rank in preaching is that of Augustine, and even he is
curiously unequal. His fondness for the allegorical and his
manifest carelessness of preparation disappoint as often as his
profundity, his devout mysticisms, his practical application
attract and satisfy. Augustine's De doctrina Christiana, bk. iv.,
is the first attempt to formulate the principles of homiletics.
2. The Early Middle Ages, 430-1100. After the days of
Chrysostom and Augustine there was a great decline of preaching.
With the poor exceptions of one or two names like those of
Theodore of Mopsuestia and John of Damascus, the Eastern
Church produced no preachers of distinction. The causes of
the ebb were both internal and external. Within the Church
there was a departure from the great experimental truths of
the Gospel, their place being taken by the preaching of nature
and morality on a theistic basis. To this we may add a fantastic
and absurd allegorization, the indiscriminate laudation of saints
and martyrs, polemical strife, the hardening of the doctrine into
dogma, the development of a narrow ecclesiasticism, and the
failure of the missionary spirit in the orthodox section of the
Eastern Church (as contrasted with the marvellous evangelistic
activity of the Nestorians (q.v.). Outside the Church the break-
up of old civilizations, the confused beginnings of medieval
kingdoms, with the attendant war and rapine, the inroads of
the Saracens and the rise of Islam, were all effective silencers
of the pulpit. Yet the night was not without its stars; at Rome
Leo the Great and Gregory the Great could preach, and the
missionaries Patrick, Columba, Columbanus, Augustine, Wilfrid,
Willibrord, Gall and Boniface are known by their fruits. The
homilies of Beda are marked by a tender devoutness, and here
and there rise to glowing eloquence. In the 8th century
Charlemagne, through the Capitularies, tried in vain to galvanize
preaching; such specimens as we have show the sermons of the
times to be marked by superstition, ignorance, formality and
plagiarism. It was the age when the papacy was growing out
of the ruins of the old Roman Empire, and the best talents were
devoted to the organization of ecclesiasticism rather than to the
preaching of the Word. Liturgies were taking shape, penance
was deemed of more importance than repentance, and there
was more insistence on discipline than on Christian morality.
Towards the end of the period we note the beginnings of the triple
division of medieval preaching into cloistral, parochial and
missionary or popular preaching, a division based at first on
audiences rather than on subject-matter, the general character
of which legends and popular stories rather than exposition
of Scripture was much the same everywhere. About this
time, no doubt, some preachers began to use the vernacular,
though no examples of such a practice have been preserved.
There are few great names in the pth, loth and nth centuries:
Anselm was a great Churchman, but no great preacher; perhaps
the most worthy of mention is Anskar, the missionary to the
Scandinavians. Rabanus Maurus published an adaptation of
Augustine's De doctrina Christiana, bk. iv. But certain forces were
at work which were destined to bring about a great revival, viz.
the rise of the scholastic theology, the reforms of Pope Hilde-
brand, and the preaching of the First Crusade by Pope Urban II.
(d. 1009) and Peter the Hermit.
3. The Later Medieval Age, 1100-1500. In the izth century
the significant feature is the growing use of the various national
languages in competition with the hitherto universal Latin.
The most eminent preacher of the century was Bernard of
Clairvaux (1091-1153), esteemed alike by gentle and simple,
and summing up the popular scholastic and mystical types of
preaching. His homilies, though tediously minute, still breathe
a charm and power (see BERNARD, ST).
Alongside Bernard may be placed the two mystics of St Victor,
Hugo and Richard, and a little later Peter Waldo of Lyons, who,
like Henry of Lausanne, preached a plain message to the poor
and lowly. The i3th century saw the culmination of medieval
preaching, especially in the rise of the two great mendicant
orders of Francis and Dominic. Representative Franciscan
names are Antony of Padua (d. 1231), who travelled and preached
through southern Europe; Berthold of Regensburg (d. 1272),
who, with his wit and pathos, imagination and insight, drew
huge crowds all over Germany, as in homeliest vernacular he
denounced sin with all the severity of a John the Baptist; and
Francis Bonaventura, the schoolman and mystic, who wrote a
little book on The Art of Preaching. Of the Dominicans Thomas
Aquinas (d. 1274), the theologian, was perhaps also the greatest
preacher. With the i4th century a new note, that of reformation,
is struck; but on the whole there was a drop from the high level
of the I3th. In Italy Bernardino of Siena on the scholastic
side, Robert of Lecce and Gabriel Barletta on the popular, are
the chief names; in Germany these phases are represented by
John Gritsch and John Geiler of Kaiserburg respectively.
Among the popular preachers vigour was often blended with
coarseness and vulgarity. Mysticism is represented by Suso,
Meister Eckhart, above all Johann Tauler (q.v.) of Strassburg
(d. 1461), a true prophet in an age of degeneration. Towards
the close of the century comes John Wycliffe (q.v.) and his
English travelling preachers, who passed the torch to Hus
and the Bohemians, and in the next age Savonarola, who was
to Florence what Jeremiah had been to Jerusalem.
4. The Reformation Period, 1500-1700. It is here that the
story of modern preaching may be said to begin. The Reformers
gave the sermon a higher place in the ordinary service than it
had previously held, and they laid special stress upon the
interpretation and application of Scripture. The controversy
with Rome, and the appeal to the reason and conscience of the
individual, together with the spread of the New Learning, gave
preaching a new force and influence which reacted upon the old
faith, as John Wild (d. 1554), one of the best Roman Catholic
preachers of the day, a man noted for his " emphasis on Scripture,
his grasp of evangelical truth, his earnest piety, amiable character
and sustained power in the pulpit," fully admitted. Other
famous preachers on the same side were the Spaniards Luiz of
Granada and Thomas of Villanova, the Italians Cornelio Musso,
Egidio of Viterbo and Carlo Borromeo, and the German Peter
Canisius. Among the Reformers were, of course, Martin Luther
and most of his German collaborators; the Swiss Zwingli, Bui-
linger, Farel and Calvin; the English Latimer, John Bradford,
John Jewel; the Scot John Knox. Nor can even so cursory
a sketch omit to mention Bernardino Ochino and the Anabaptist
Hiibmaier. In all these cases fuller details will be found in the
articles bearing their names. Most of the Reformation preachers
read their sermons, in contrast to the practice of earlier ages.
The English Book of Homilies was compiled because competent
preachers were comparatively rare.
The 17th-century preaching was, generally speaking, a continu-
ation of that of the i6th century, the pattern having been set
by the Council of Trent and by the principles and practice of
the Reformers. In Spain and Germany, however, there was
a decline of power, in marked contrast to the vigour manifested
in France and England. In France, indeed, the Catholic pulpit
now came to its perfection, stimulated, no doubt, by the toleration
accorded to the Huguenots up to 1685 and by the patronage
of Louis XIV. The names of Bossuet, Flechier, Bourdaloue,
Fenelon and Massillon, all supreme preachers, despite a certain
artificial pompousness, belong here, and on the reformed side
PREAMBLE PREANGER
265
are Jean Claude (d. 1687), author of the Essay on the Sermon,
and Jacques Saurin (d. 1730). In England the rivalry was not
between Catholic and Reformer, but between Anglican and
Nonconformist, or, if we may use the wide but less correct term,
Puritan. On the one hand are Andrewes, Hall, Chillingworth,
Jeremy Taylor, Barrow and South; on the other Baxter, Calamy,
the Goodwins, Howe, Owen, Bunyan, in each case but a few
names out of many. The sermons of these men were largely
scriptural, the cardinal evangelical truths being emphasized with
reality and vigour, but with a tendency to abstract theology
rather than concrete religion. The danger was felt by the
university of Cambridge, which in 1674 passed a statute for-
bidding its preachers to read their sermons.
Germany, harassed by the Thirty Years' War and deadened
by a rigid Lutheranism, can show little besides Andrea and
Johann Arndt until the coming of the Pietists (see PIETISM),
A. H. Francke and Philipp Spencer, with Paul Gerhardt and
his cousin Johann. The early years of the i8th century were a
time of deadness as regards preaching. The Illumination in
Germany and Deism in England were largely responsible for
this, though the names of J. A. Bengel (better known as a
commentator), Zinzendorf, Butler and the Erskines helped to
redeem the time from the reproach of being the dark age of
Protestantism. In the Roman Catholic Church the greatest
force was Bridaine in France, a popular preacher of high worth.
But, generally speaking, there was no heart in preaching, sermons
were unimpassioned, stilted and formal presentations of ethics
and apologetics, seldom delivered extempore.
5. The Modern Period may be said to begin in 1738, the year
in which John Wesley began his memorable work. Preaching
once more was based on the Bible, which was expounded with
force and earnestness, and though throughout the century there
remained a good many pulpiteers who produced nothing but
solemn fudge, the example and stimulus given by Wesley and
Whitefield were almost immeasurably productive. Whitefield
was the greater orator, Wesley the better thinker; but, diverse
in temperament as they were, they alike laid emphasis on open-
air preaching. In their train came the great field preachers
of Wales, like John Elias and Christmas Evans, and later the
Primitive Methodists, who by their camp meetings and itiner-
ancies kept religious enthusiasm alive when Wesleyan Methodism
was in peril of hardening. Meanwhile, in America the Puritan
tradition, adapted to the new conditions, is represented by Cotton
Mather, and later by Jonathan Edwards, the greatest preacher
of his time and country. Whitefield's visits raised a band
of pioneer preachers, cultured and uncultured, men who knew
their Bibles but often interpreted them awry.
In the early igth century the pulpit had a great power,
especially in Wales, where it was the vehicle of almost every
kind of knowledge. And it may be doubted whether, all in all,
preaching has ever reached so uniformly high a level or been so
powerful a force as during the ipth century, and this in spite
of other forces similarly making for enlightenment and morality.
It shared to the full in all the quickening that transformed so
many departments of civilization during that epoch, and has
been specially influenced by the missionary enterprise, the
discoveries of science, the fuller knowledge of the Bible, the
awakened zeal for social service. Modern preaching, like ancient
preaching, has been so varied, depending, as it so largely does, on
the personality of the preacher, that it is not possible to speak
of its characteristics. Nor can one do more than enumerate
a few outstanding modern names, exclusive of living preachers.
In the Roman Catholic Church are the Italians Ventura and Curci,
the Germans Diepenbrock and Foerster, the French Lacordaire,
Dupanloup, Loyson (Pe're Hyacinthe) and Henri Didon. Of
Protestants, Germany produced Schleiermacher, Claus Harms,
Tholuck and F. W. Krummacher; France, Vinet and the Monods.
In England representative Anglican preachers were Newman
(whose best preaching preceded his obedience to Rome), T.
Arnold. F. W. Robertson, Liddon, Farrar, Magee; of Free Church-
men, T. Binney, Thomas Jones, R. W. Dale and Joseph Parker
(Congregationalist); Robert Hall, C. H. Spurgeon and Alexander
Maclaren (Baptists); W. M. Punshon, Hugh Price Hughes and
Peter Mackenzie (Wesleyan); James Martineau (Unitarian).
The Scottish Churches gave Edward Irving, Thos. Chalmers,
R. S. Candlish, R. M. McCheyne and John Caird. In America,
honoured names are those of W. E. Channing, Henry Ward
Beecher, Horace Bushnell, Phillips Brooks, to mention only
a few.
See J. M. Neale, Medieval Preachers and Preaching (1857); R.
Rothe, Geschichte der Predigt vom Anfang bis auf Schleiermacher
(1881); J. P. Mahaffy, Decay of Modern Preaching (1882); E. C.
Durgan, A History of Preaching (1906), and preface to The Pulpit
Encyclopaedia, vol. i. (1909); and the various volumes of the Yale
Lectures on Preaching. Also SERMON. (A. J. G.)
PREAMBLE (Med. Lat. praeambulum, from praeambulare, to
walk before), an introductory statement, a preliminary explana-
tion. The term is particularly applied to the opening paragraph
of a statute which summarizes the intention of the legislature
in passing the measure; thus the preamble of the statute, of
which the title is the Children Act 1908, is as follows: " An
Act to consolidate and amend the Law relating to the Protection
of Children and Young Persons, Reformatory and Industrial
Schools and Juvenile Offenders, and otherwise to amend the
Law with respect to Children and Young Persons." The
procedure in the British parliament differs in regard to the
preambles of public and private bills. The second reading of
a public bill affirms the principle, and therefore in committee
the preamble stands postponed till after the consideration of
the clauses, when it is considered in reference to those clauses
as amended and altered if need be (Standing Order 35). On
the other hand, the preamble of a private bill, if opposed, is
considered first in committee, and counsel for the bill deals with
the expediency of the bill, calls witnesses for the allegation in
the preamble, and petitions against the bill are then heard; if
the preamble is negatived the bill is dropped, if affirmed it is
gone through clause by clause. On unopposed private bills
the preamble has also to be proved, more especially with regard
to whether the clauses required by the standing orders are
inserted (see May, Parliamentary Practice, 1006, pp. 483, 808 seq.).
PREANGER, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded S. by the Indian Ocean, W. by Bantam, N. by
Batavia and Krawang, and N.E. and E. by Cheribon and
Banyumas. It is officially termed the Preanger Regencies, of
which there are five, covering the several administrative divisions.
It also includes the small island of Nusa Were. The natives
are Sudanese. The whole residency is mountainous, but there are
two main parallel ranges of peaks along the northern boundary
and through the middle. Among these are to be found a singu-
larly large number of both active and inactive volcanoes, includ-
ing the well-known Salak and Cede in the north, and bunched
together at the eastern end the Chikorai, Papandayan, Wayang,
Malabar, Guntur, &c., ranging from 6000 to 10,000 ft. in height.
The rivers of the province belong to the basins of the Indian
Ocean and the Java Sea respectively, the water-parting being
formed by the western and eastern ends respectively of the
northern and southern lines of mountain peaks. The two which
drain the largest basin are the Chi Manuk and the Chi Tarum,
both rising in the eastern end of the province and flowing north-
east and north-west respectively to the Java Sea. The Chi
Tandui, also rising here, flows south-east to the Indian Ocean,
and alone of all the rivers in this province is navigable. Large
stretches of marsh occur on each side of this river, as well as
here and there among the hills where inland lakes formerly
existed, as, for instance, near Bandung. Crater lakes are Telaga
(lake) Budas, in the crater of the volcano of the same name
in the south-east, and Telaga Warna, on the slopes of the Cede,
famous for its beautiful tinting. On the same side of the Cede is
the health resort of Sindanglaya (founded 1850-1860), with a
mineral spring containing salt, and close by is the country
residence of Chipanas, belonging to the governor-general.
Numerous warm springs are scattered about this volcanic
region. Petroleum and coal have been worked, and there is a rich
yield of chalk, while a good quality of bricks is made from the
266
PREBENDARY PRE-CAMBRIAN
red clay. The soil is in general very fertile, the principal products
being rice, maize and pulse (kachang) in the lower grounds, and
cinchona, coffee and tea, as well as cocoa, tobacco and fibrous
plants in the hills. The coffee cultivation has, however, consider-
ably diminished. Forest culture, mat-making, weaving and
fish-breeding are also practised, the last-named in the marshes
after the rice harvest. The plantations are almost entirely
owned by the government and Europeans, but the rice mills
are in the hands of Chinese. Irrigation works have been carried
out in various parts. The principal towns are Bandung, the
capital of the residency, Sukabumi, Chianjar, Sumedang,
Chichalengka, Garut, Tasik Malaya and Manon Jaya, all with
the exception of Sumedang connected by railway.
PREBENDARY (Lat. praebendo = give or grant, through
Low Lat. praebenda), one who holds a prebend, namely an
endowment in land, or pension in money, given to a cathedral or
conventual church in praebendam that is, for the maintenance
of a secular priest or regular canon. In the early Church the
title had a more general signification. The word praebenda
originally signified the daily rations given to soldiers, whence
it passed to indicate daily distributions of food and drink to
monks, canons, &c. It became a frequent custom to grant
such a prebend from the resources of a monastery to certain
poor people or to the founder. Such persons were, literally,
prebendaries. At a later date, when the custom in collegiate
churches of living in common had become less general, a certain
amount of the church revenue was divided among the clergy
serving such a church, and each portion (no longer of meat or
drink only) was called a prebend. The clergy of such churches
were generally canons, and the titles canon and prebendary were,
and are, sometimes used as synonymous. A member of such
a college is a canon in virtue of the spiritual duties which he
has to perform, and the assignation to him of a stall in choir and
a place in chapter; he is a prebendary in virtue of his benefice.
In the Roman Catholic Church the duties of a prebendary as
such generally consist in his attendance at choral office in his
church. In the Anglican Church he usually bears his part in
the conducting of the ordinary church services, except when he
has a vicar, as in the old cathedral foundations (see CATHEDRAL).
A prebendary may be either simple or a dignitary. In the former
case he has no cure and no more than his revenue for his support ;
in the latter he has always a jurisdiction annexed. In the
Anglican Church the bishop is of common right patron of all
prebends, and if a prebend is in the gift of a lay patron he must
present his candidate to the bishop who institutes as to other
benefices. No person may hold more than one prebend in the
same church; therefore, if a prebendary accepts a deanery in his
church his prebend becomes void by cession. A prebend is
practically a sinecure, and the holder has no cure of souls as
such. He may, and often does, accept a parochial office or
chaplaincy in addition.
In the middle ages there were many less regular kinds of prebends:
e.g. praebenda doctoralis, with which teaching duties were connected,
praebenda lectoralis, praebenda missae, to which the duty of saying
a certain number of masses was attached, praebenda mortuaria,
founded for the saying of masses for the dead. Chantries belonged
to this class. All these prebends were generally assigned to special
holders, but there were also praebendae currentes, which were not held
by any persons in particular. Sometimes prebends were held by
boys who sang in choir, praebendae pueriles. Occasionally the name
of prebendary was applied to those servants in a monastery who
attended to the food. In England the word prebendary was some-
times used as synonymous with prebend, as prebend was occasionally
used for prebendary.
Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis, ed. L. Favre
(Niort, 1883, &c.); Migne, Encyclopedie theologique, 1st series, vol. x.
(s. Droit Canon) ; Sir R. J. Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law of the Church
of England (2nd ed., 1895). (E. O'N.)
PRE-CAMBRIAN, in geology, the enormously long and
indistinctly denned period of time anterior to the Cambrian
period. In the restricted sense in which it is now often employed
it embraces a period or group of periods subsequent to the
Archean (q.v.) and anterior to the Cambrian, although some
writers still prefer to include the former. The superior limit
of pre-Cambrian rocks is fixed by the Olenellus fauna at the base
of the Cambrian (some geologists speak of certain pre-Olenellus
beds as eo-Cambrian) ; the lower limit has not yet been generally
established, though it is sufficiently clear in certain regions.
The rocks of this period are much more obviously of sedimentary
origin than those of the Archean; they include conglomerates,
sandstones, greywackes, quartzites, slates, limestones and
dolomites, which appear to have been formed under conditions
similar to those which obtained in later epochs. Although the
sediments prevail, they are often very highly metamorphosed
and distorted by crustal movements; igneous rocks occur in
great bulk in some regions. Fossils are usually extremely rare
and very ill-preserved; but indications of protozoa, coelenterates,
echinoderms, molluscoids, mollusca, worms and arthropods have
been distinguished. The name pre-Cambrian is the equivalent
of the " Algonkian " of the United States Geological Survey,
and of the " Proterozoic " of other American authorities; the
terms eozoic, archaeozoic, agnotozoic, cryptozoic, eparchaic and
others have also been applied to the same period.
Three or more great stratigraphical breaks have been recog-
nized within the system of pre-Cambrian rocks; but how far
these breaks synchronize in widely separated regions where they
are found is difficult to determine in the absence of good palae-
ontological evidence.
The most striking development of pre-Cambrian rocks in Great
Britain is the Tprridpnian (q.v.) group of the north-west highlands
of Scotland, which lies with strong unconformability between the
Lewisian gneiss and the basal quartzite of the Cambrian. The
Eastern or Dalradian (q.v.) schists of Scotland and their equivalents
in Ireland and Anglesey may be, in part at least, of the same age.
In Shropshire, in the neighbourhood of the Welsh border, is the
remnant of an ancient ridge now forming the Longmynd and the
smaller hills to the west, Caer Caradpc, the Wrekin, and the Carding-
ton Hills. The latter are built mainly of much altered porphyries
and tuffs which C. Callaway named the Uriconian series; this series
is clearly of pre-Cambrian age. The great mass of grits, flags and
slates forming the Longmynd cannot yet be definitely assigned to
this period, though they may be provisionally retained here under
Callaway's name, Londmyndian. Probably contemporaneous with
the Uriconian are the volcanic series of Barnt Green, Licky Hill and
Caldecote. The micaceous schists of Rushton (Salop) may be placed
here. In the Charnwood Forest a group of crystalline rocks, named
Charnian by W. W. Watts, rises up in the form of small hills amid
the surrounding Trias; they are classed as follows in descending
order: The Brand series, including the slates of Swithland and
Groby, quartzite and conglomerate and purple and green beds; the
Maplewell series, including the olive hornstones of Bradgate, the
Woodhouse beds, the slate-agglomerate of Roecliffe, the Beacon
Hill hornstones and a felspathic agglomerate; and the Blackbrook
series of grits and hornstones. The ancient volcanic rocks of St
Davids, Pembrokeshire, were formerly regarded by H. Hicks as of
pre-Cambrian age, in which he recognized a lower, " Dimetian," a
middle, " Arvonian," and an upper, " Pebidian," series. The pre-
Cambrian age of these rocks was for a long time disputed, but
J. F. N. Green (Q. J. Ceol. Soc., 1908, 64, p. 363) made it clear that
there is an Upper Pebidian (Rhyolitic group), and a Lower Pebidian
(Trachytic group), and that Hicks's " Dimetian," the St Davids
granophyre, is a laccolitic mass intrusive in the Pebidian. Both
the Pebidian volcanic rocks and the intruded granophyre are
separated from the Cambrian by an unconformity.
In Finnp-Scandinavia pre-Cambrian rocks are well developed. In
the Scandinavian mountain ranges are the Seve and Sparagmite
formations; the latter, a coarse-grained felspathic sandstone, is very
similar to the Torridonian of Scotland; it occurs also in Enontekis
in Finland. Next in descending order come the Jotnian sandstones
(2000 metres), which retain ripple-marks; they are associated with
conglomerates and slates and intrusive diabase and the Rapakiwi
granite. The Jotnian group rests unconfprmably upon the Jatulian
quartzites and schists, with slates, dolomite and carbonaceous beds
(north of Lake Onega is a bed of anthracite 2 metres thick). Out-
flows of diabase and gabbro occur in this series, which is from 1600
to 2000 metres in thickness. Below the Jatulian is another group
of schistose sediments, the Kalevian, more strongly folded than
the former and separated from the groups above and below by
unconformable junctions. These rocks are regarded by J. J.
Sederholm as older than the Huronian of North America (possibly
analogous to the Keewatin formation), and yet several groups of
sediments in this region (Bptnian schists, &c.) lie between the
Kalevian series and the granitic (Archean) complex.
Pre-Cambrian rocks occupy large areas and attain an enormous
thickness in North America; all types of sediment are represented
in various stages of metamorphism, and with these are igneous rocks,
often developed upon a vast scale. They have been subdivided
into the following groups or formations: an upper Keweenawan
PRECARIOUS PRECEDENCE
267
and a lower Huronian group; the latter is subdivided into an
up|KT Animikean (north-east Minnesota) or Penokean (north-wi-st
Wisconsin); a middle and a lower division. Each of these four
groups is separated by marked unconformity from the rocks above
and below. Huronian rocks are well developed in the following
district*: the Marquette region of northern Michigan, comprising
quartzites, slates and conglomerates, with important iron-bearing
! and schists and ferruginous cherts; in the Menominee district
of Michigan and Wisconsin similar rocks occur; the Penokee-Gogebic
district of Wisconsin and Michigan comprises quartzites, shales and
limestones, with beds and dikes of diabase and olivine-gabbro;
the same rocks occur in the Crystal Falls, north Michigan; the Mesabi
and Vermilion districts, Minnesota, and north of Lake Michigan
rock groups of this age take an important place. The valuable iron
ores of Mesabi, Penokee-Gogebic and Menominee belong mainly to
the Animikean group; in the Penokee rocks of this age vast
thicknesses of igneous rocks constitute the greater part of the
formation. The Keweenawan rocks are said to attain the enormous
thickness of 50,000 ft.; the higher beds are mainly sandy sediments
and conglomerates; in the lower portions are great igneous masses,
gabbros, diabase and porphyries; thus in the St Croix valley, north-
west Wisconsin and Minnesota, no fewer than 65 lava flows and 5
conglomeratic beds have been counted, which together aggregate
some 20,000 ft. in thickness. Some of these lava flows appear to
have been due to fissure eruptions. The native copper deposits of
this age in north Michigan are the most extensive known.
1 're-Cambrian rocks occupy large areas and reach great thicknesses
in the eastern provinces of Canada; in Newfoundland 10,000 ft. of
strata lie between the Archean and Cambrian (the Terranovian series
of South Hunt; Avalon group of others); similar rocks occur also
north of the Great Lakes and in the Hudson Bay region. They are
found also in great force in the Colorado Canyon, in the Adirondack
Mountains, and Black Hills of S. Dakota and elsewhere.
Turning to Europe, we find pre-Cambrian rocks in Brittany, the
" phyllades de Saint L6," or BrioveVian of Chas. Barrois; and along
the western border of France and south-west of the central massif.
In the Fichtelgebirge, the Silesian mountains and east Thuringia
similar rocks occur; the Przibramer Schiefer of Lipold and rocks
in J. Barrande's stage A are of this age. Probably the metamor-
phosed eruptive rocks on the southern border of the Hunsruck and
Taunus are pre-Cambrian. Large tracts of metamorphic sedimentary
rocks that may be classed here are found in Shantung and north
China, and probably also in Brazil, India and Australia. In South
Africa the gold-bearing Witwatersrand beds of the Transvaal and
the overlying Ventersdorp and Potchefstroom systems; the Griqua-
land system and Cango and Ibeques systems of Cape Colony, all
occur above Archean rocks and below those of Devonian age; they
cannot as yet, therefore' be classed as pre-Cambrian and their age
is still uncertain.
Little can be said of the climatic conditions of this remote
period, the fossil evidence being so poor; but it is of interest
to note that in certain regions, viz. in the Lake Huron region,
in the Gaisa series of Varanger Fjord, Norway, and in the
Yangtse district in China, conglomerate beds are found in which
many of the boulders are scratched like those of the Dwyka beds
of South Africa, and thus suggest the possibility of glacial
conditions at some stages of the period.
For literature see Geological Literature added to the Geological
Society's Library (annual). . (J. A. H.)
PRECARIOUS, literally, held on the good-will of another, or
on entreaty (Lat. prex, precis, prayer) to another. The word is
used, in law, of a tenure of land, office, &c., held at the pleasure
of another. In general usage it has the significance of something
uncertain, dangerous or risky.
PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede).
This word in the sense in which it is here employed means
priority of place, or superiority of rank, in the conventional
system of arrangement under which the more eminent and
dignified orders of the community are classified on occasions of
public ceremony and in the intercourse of private life.. In the
United Kingdom there is no complete and comprehensive code
whereby the scheme of social gradation has been defined and
settled, once and for all, on a sure and lasting foundation. The
principles and rules at present controlling it have been formulated
at different periods and have been derived from various sources.
The Crown is the fountain of honour, and it is its undoubted
prerogative to confer on any of its subjects, in any part of its
dominions, such titles and distinctions and such rank and place
as to it may seem meet and convenient. Its discretion in this
respect is altogether unbounded at common law, and is limited
in those cases only wherein it has been submitted to restraint
by act of parliament. In the old time all questions of precedence
came in the ordinary course of things within the jurisdiction of
the court of chivalry, in which the lord high constable and earl
marshal presided as judges, and of which the kings of arms,
heralds and pursuivants were the assessors and executive
officers. When, however, points of unusual moment and magni-
tude happened to be brought into controversy, they were
occasionally considered and decided by the sovereign in person,
or by a special commission, or by the privy council, or even by
the parliament itself. But it was not until towards the middle
of the i6th century that precedence was made the subject of
any legislation in the proper meaning of the term. 1
In 1539 an act " for the placing of the Lords in Parliament "
(31 Hen. VIII. c. 10) was passed at the instance of the king, and
by it the relative rank of the members of the royal family, of the
great officers of state and the household, and of the hierarchy
and the peerage was definitely and definitively ascertained. In
1563 an act "for declaring the authority of the Lord Keeper
of the Great Seal and the Lord Chancellor to be the same"
(5 Eliz. c. 1 8) also declared their precedence to be the same.
Questions concerning the precedence of peers are mentioned
in the Lords Journals 4 & 5 Ph. and M. and 39 Eliz., but in the
reign of James I. such questions were often referred to the
commissioners for executing the office of earl marshal. In the
reign of Charles I. the House of Lords considered several ques-
tions of precedency and objected in the earl of Banbury's case
to warrants overruling the statute of 31 Hen. VIII. In 1689 an
act " for enabling Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal to
execute the office of Lord Chancellor or Lord Keeper " (i Will,
and Mary c. 21) gave to the commissioners not being peers of
the realm place next to the speaker of the House of Commons
and to the speaker place next to the peers of the realm. In
1707 the Act of Union with Scotland (6 Anne c. n) provided
that all peers of Scotland should be peers of Great Britain 2 and
should have rank immediately after the peers of the like degrees
in England at the time of the union and before all peers of Great
Britain of the like degrees created after the union. In 1800 the
Act of Union with Ireland (39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67) provided
that the lords spiritual of Ireland should have rank immediately
after the lords spiritual of the same degree in Great Britain, and
that the lords temporal of Ireland should have rank immediately
after the lords temporal of the same degree in Great Britain at
the time of the union, and further that " peerages of Ireland
created after the union should have precedence with peerages
of the United Kingdom created after the union according to
the dates of their creation." At different times too during the
current century several statutes have been passed for the reform
and extension of the judicial organization which have very
materially affected the precedence of the judges, more especially
the Judicature Act of 1873 (36 & 37 Viet. c. 66), under which
the lords justices of appeal and the justices of the High Court
now receive their appointments. But the statute of Henry VIII.
" for the placing of the Lords " still remains the only legislative
measure in which it has been attempted to deal directly and
systematically with any large and important section of the scale
of general precedence; and the law, so far as it relates to the
ranking of the sovereign's immediate kindred whether lineal or
collateral, the principal ministers of the Crown and court, and
both the spiritual and temporal members of the House of Lords,
is to all practical intents and purposes what it was made by that
statute nearly 350 years ago. Where no act of parliament applies
precedence is determined either by the will and pleasure of the sov-
ereign or by what is accepted as " ancient usage and established
1 Ample materials for the satisfaction of the curiosity of those
who are desirous of investigating the history of precedence under its
wider and more remote aspects will be found in such writers as
Selden or Mackenzie, together with the authorities quoted or referred
to by them : Selden, Titles of Honor, pt. ii. p. 740 seq. (London, 1672) ;
Mackenzie, Observations upon The Laws and Customs of Nations as to
Precedency (Edinburgh, 1680; and also reprinted in Guillim, Display
of Heraldry, 6th ed., London, 1724).
1 For the parliamentary rights of Scottish peers see article
PEERAGE.
268
PRECEDENCE
custom." Of the sovereign's will and pleasure the appropri-
ate method of announcement is by warrant under the sign-
manual, or letters patent under the great seal. But, although
the Crown has at all periods very frequently conceded special
privileges of rank and place to particular persons, its interference
with the scale of general precedence has been rare and excep-
tional. In 1540 it was provided by warrant from Henry VIII.
that certain officers of the household therein named should
precede the secretaries of state when and if they were under
the degree of barons. 1 In 1612 James I. directed by letters
patent, not without long and elaborate argument in the Star
Chamber, that baronets, then newly created, should be ranked
after the younger sons of viscounts and barons, and that a
number of political and judicial functionaries should be ranked
between knights of the Garter and such knights bannerets as
should be made by the sovereign in person " under his standard
displayed in an army "royal in open war." 2 Four years later
he further directed, also by letters patent, that the sons of
baronets and their wives and the daughters of baronets should
be placed before the sons of knights and their wives and the
daughters of knights " of what degree or order soever." 3 And
again in 1620 the same king commanded by warrant " after
solemn argument before his majesty " that the younger sons of
earls should precede knights of the privy council and knights
of the Garter not being "barons or of a higher degree." 4 If
we add to these ordinances the provisions relating to precedence
contained in the statutes of several of the orders of knighthood
which since then have been instituted or reconstructed, we shall
nearly, if not quite, exhaust the catalogue of the interpositions
of the sovereign with regard to the rank and place of classes
as distinguished from individuals. Of " ancient usage and
established custom " the records of the College of Arms furnish
the fullest and most trustworthy evidence. Among them in
particular there is a collection of early tables of precedence
which were published by authority at intervals from the end of
the I4th to the end of the isth century, and to which peculiar
weight has been attached by many successive generations of
heralds. On them, indeed, as illustrative of and supplementary
to the action of parliament and the Crown, all subsequent tables
of precedence have been in great measure founded. The oldest
is the "Order of All Estates of Nobles and Gentry," prepared
apparently for the coronation of Henry IV. in 1399, under the
supervision of Ralph Nevill, earl of Westmorland and earl
marshal; and the next is the " Order of All States of Worship
and Gentry," prepared, as announced in the heading, for the
coronation of Henry VI. in 1429, under the supervision of the
lord protector Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and the earl
marshal, John Mowbray, duke of Norfolk. Two more are of
the reign of Edward IV., and were severally issued by John
Tiptoft, earl of Worcester and lord high constable, in 1467, and
by Anthony Widvile, Earl Rivers and lord high constable, in
1479. The latest is commonly and shortly known as the " Series
Ordinum," and was drawn up by a special commission presided
over by Jasper Tudor, duke of Bedford, it is presumed for
observance at the marriage of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of
York in 1486. To these may be added the " Order for the
Placing of Lords and Ladies," taken at a grand entertainment
given by command of Henry VIII. at the king's manor-house of
Richmond in 1520 by Charles Somerset, earl of Worcester, lord
chamberlain of the household, to the French ambassador,
Olivier de la Vernade, seigneur de la Batie; the " Precedency
of All Estates," arranged in 1594 by the commissioners for
1 Quoted by Sir Charles Young from State Papers: published by
Authority (410, 1830), p. 623, in Privy Councillors and their Precedence
(1850), p. 15.
1 Patent Rolls, loth Jac., pt. x. mem. 8. It is commonly stated
that the bannerets here referred to could be made by the prince of
Wales as well as by the king. But the privilege was conferred by
James I. on Henry, the then prince of Wales, only (Selden, Titles of
Honor, pt. ii. p. 750).
1 Ibid., I4th Jac., part ii. mem. 24; Selden, Titles of Honor,
part ii. p. 752.
4 Cited by Sir Charles Young, Order of Precedence, with Authorities
and Remarks, p. 27 (London, 1851).
executing the office of earl marshal; and the " Roll of the King's
Majesty's most Royal Proceeding through London " from the
Tower to Whitehall on the eve of the coronation of James I.,
also arranged by the commissioners for executing the office of
earl marshal. On many isolated points, too, of more or less
importance, special declaratory decisions have been from time
to time propounded by the earls marshal, their substitutes and
deputies; for example, in 1594, when the younger sons of dukes
were placed before viscounts; in 1625, when-the rank of knights
of the Bath and their wives was fixed; and in 1615 and 1677,
when the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers were placed
before the eldest sons of knights and of baronets. It is from
these miscellaneous sources that the precedence among others
of all peeresses, the eldest sons and their wives and the daughters
of all peers, and the younger sons and their wives of all dukes,
marquesses and earls is ascertained and established. And
further, for the purpose of proving continuity of practice and
disposing of minor questions not otherwise and more conclusively
set at rest, the official programmes and accounts preserved by
the heralds of different public solemnities and processions, such
as coronations, royal marriages, state funerals, national thanks-
givings and so on, have always been considered to be of great
historical and technical value. 6
i. General Precedence of Men.
The sovereign; (i) prince of Wales; (2) younger sons of the
sovereign; (3) grandsons of the sovereign; (4) brothers of the
sovereign; (5) uncles of the sovereign; (6) nephews of the sover-
eign; 6 (7) ambassadors; (8) archbishop of Canterbury, primate
of all England; (9) lord high chancellor of Great Britain or lord
keeper of the great seal; (10) archbishop of York, primate of
England; 7 , (ii) prime minister; (12) lord high treasurer of Great
6 Selden, Titles of Honor, pt. ii. p. 753.
8 The precedence of the members of the royal family depends on
their relationship to the reigning sovereign and not on their relation-
ship to any of the predecessors of the reigning sovereign. It is pro-
vided by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10 that no person, " except only the King's
children, shall have place " at the side of the Cloth of Estate in the
Parliament Chamber, ' and that " the King's Son, the King's Brother,
the King's Nephew, or the King's Brother's or Sister's Sons," shall
have place before all prelates, great officers of state and peers. Lord
Chief Justice Coke was of opinion that the king's nephew meant the
king's grandson ornepos (Institutes, vol. iv. ch. 77). But, as Mr Justice
Blackstone says, " under the description of the King's children his
grandsons are held to be included without having recourse to Sir
Edward Coke's interpretation of nephew " (Commentaries, vol. i. ch. 4).
Besides, if grandson is to be understood by nephew, the king's grand-
son would be placed after the king's brother. The prince of Wales
is not specifically mentioned in the statute " for the placing of the
Lords " ; but, as he is always, whether the son or the grandson of the
sovereign, the heir-apparent to the Crown, he is ranked next to the
sovereign or the queen-consort. With the exception of the prince of
Wales, all the male relations of the sovereign are ranked first in the
order of their degrees of consanguinity with him or her, and secondly,
in the order of their proximity to the succession to the Crown ; thus
the members of the several groups into which the royal family is
divided take precedence according to their own seniority and the
seniority of their fathers or mothers, the sons of the sons or brothers
of the sovereign being preferred to the sons of the daughters or sisters
of the sovereign among the sovereign's grandsons and nephews.
7 By 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10, the king's vicegerent " for good and
due ministration of justice in all causes and cases touching the
ecclesiastical jurisdiction " is placed immediately before the arch-
bishop of Canterbury. The office of vicegerent or vicar-general was
then held by Thomas, Lord Cromwell, afterwards earl of Essex,
together with that of lord privy seal, and it was never conferred on
any other person. By the Act of Union with Ireland the archbishops
of Ireland had place next to the archbishops of England, and if
consecrated before and not after the disestablishment of the Church
in Ireland they retain this position under the Irish Church Act of
1869. At the coronation of William IV. the lord chancellor of
Ireland walked next after the lord chancellor of Great Britain and
before the lord president of the council and lord privy seal. In
Ireland, if he is a peer he has precedence between the archbishops
of Armagh and Dublin, and if he is not a peer'after the archbishop
of Dublin. But, except in the House of Lords, the precedence of
the lord chancellor of Great Britain or the lord keeper of the great
seal is the same whether he is a peer or a commoner. The lord
keeper has the same precedence as the lord chancellor under 5 Eliz.
c. 1 8. But the last appointment to the lord keepership was that
of Sir Robert Henley, afterwards Lord Henley, lord chancellor, and
earl of Northington, in 1757, and the office is not likely to be revived.
PRECEDENCE
269
Britain 1(13) lord president of the privy council 1(14) lord keeper of
the privy seal; 1 (15) lord great chamberlain of England; (16) lord
high constable of England; (17) earl marshal; (18) lord high
admiral; (19) lord steward of the household; (20) lord chamber-
lain of the household; 2 above peers of their own degree; (21)
dukes; 3 (22) marquesses; (23) dukes' eldest sons; 4 (24) earls;
(25) marquesses' eldest sons; (26) dukes' younger sons; (27)
viscounts; (28) earls' eldest sons; (29) marquesses' younger
1 The lord president of the council and the lord privy seal, if they
are peers, are placed by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10 before all dukes except
dukes related to the sovereign in one or other of the degrees of
consanguinity specified in the act. And, since the holders of these
offices have been and are always peers, their proper precedence if
they are commoners has never been determined.
1 It is provided by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10 that " the Great Chamber-
lain, the Constable, the Marshal, the Lord Admiral, the Grand Master
or Lord Steward, and the King's Chamberlain shall sit and be placed
after the Lord Privy Seal in manner and form following : that is to
say, every one of them shall sit and be placed above all other person-
ages being of the same estates or degrees that they shall happen to
be of, that is to say the Great Chamberlain first, the Constable next,
the Marshal third, the Lord Admiral the fourth, the Grand Master
or Lord Steward the fifth, and the King's Chamberlain the sixth."
The office of lord high steward of England, then under attainder, is
not mentioned in the act for the placing of the Lords, " because it
was intended," Lord Chief Justice Coke says, " that when the use
of him should be necessary he should not endure longer than hac vice "
(Inst. iv. 77). But it may be noted that, when his office is called
out of abeyance for coronations or trials by the House of Lords, the
lord high steward is the greatest of all the great officers of state in
England. The office of lord great chamberlain of England is
hereditary in the coheirs of the last duke of Ancaster, who inherited
it from the De Veres, earls of Oxford, in whose line it had descended
from the reign of Henry I. The office of lord high constable of
England, also under attainder, is called out of abeyance for and
pending coronations only. The office of earl marshal is hereditary
in the Howards, dukes of Norfolk, premier dukes and, as earls of
Arundel, premier earls of England, under a grant in special tail male
from Charles II. in 1672. The office of lord high admiral, like the
office of lord high treasurer, is practically extinct as a dignity. Since
the reign of Queen Anne there has been only one lord high admiral,
namely, William, duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., for a
few months in the Canning administration of 1827. The lord steward
and the lord chamberlain of the household are always peers, and
have seldom been under the degree of earls. We may here remark
that both the Scottish and Irish Acts of Union make no reference
to the precedence of the great officers of state of Scotland and Ireland.
Not to mention the prince of Wales, who is by birth steward of Scot-
land, the earl of Shrewsbury is hereditary great seneschal of Ireland;
the duke of Argyll is hereditary master of the household; the earl
of Errol is hereditary lord high constable of Scotland; but what
places they are entitled to in the scale of general precedence is alto-
gether doubtful and uncertain. In Ireland the great seneschal
ranks after the lord chancellor if he is a commoner, and after the
archbishop of Dublin if the lord chancellor is a peer, and in both
cases before dukes (" Order of precedence," Dublin Gazette, June 3,
1843). Again, on George IV.'s visit to Edinburgh in 1821, the lord
high constable had place as the first subject in Scotland immediately
after the members of the royal family. At every coronation from
that of George III. to that of Queen Victoria, the lord high constable
of Scotland has been placed next to the earl marshal of England,
and, although no rank has been assigned on these occasions to the
hereditary great seneschal of Ireland, the lord high constable of
Ireland appointed for the ceremony has been at all or most of them
placed next to the lord high constable of Scotland. It is worthy
of notice, however, that Sir George Mackenzie, writing when lord
advocate of Scotland in the reign of Charles II., says that " the
Constable and Marischal take not place as Officers of the Crown but
according to their creation as Earls," and he moreover expresses
the opinion that " it seems very strange that these who ride upon
the King's right and left hand when he returns from his Parliaments
and who guard the Parliament itself, and the Honours, should have
no precedency by their offices " (Observations, &c., p. 25, in Guillim's
Display of Heraldry, p. 461 seq.; but see also Wood-Douglas, Peerage
of Scotland, i. 557).
1 Both Sir Charles Young and Sir Bernard Burke place " Dukes of
the Blood Royal " before dukes, their eldest sons before marquesses,
and their younger sons before marquesses' eldest sons. In the
" Ancient Tables of Precedence," which we have already cited, dukes
of the blood royal are always ranked before other dukes, and in most
of them their eldest sons and in some of them their younger sons are
placed in a corresponding order of precedence. But in this connexion
the words of the act for the placing of the Lords are perfectly plain
and unambiguous: " All Dukes not aforementioned, i.e. all except
only such as shall happen to be the king's son, the king's brother,
the king's uncle, the king's nephew, or the king's brothers or sister's
son, " Marquesses, Earls, Viscounts and Barons, not having any of
the offices aforesaid, shall sit and be placed after their ancienty as
sons; (30) bishops; (31) barons; 6 (32) speaker of the House of
Commons; (33) commissioners of the great seal;' (34) treasurer
of the household; (35) comptroller of the household; (36) master
of the horse; (37) vice-chamberlain of the household; (38)
secretaries of state; 7 (39) viscounts' eldest sons; (40) earls'
younger sons; (41) barons' eldest sons; (42) knights of the
Garter; 8 (43) privy councillors;' (44) chancellor of the exchequer;
(45) chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; (46) lord chief
it hath been accustomed." As Lord Chief Justice Coke and Mr
Justice Blackstone observe, the degrees of consanguinity with the
sovereign to which precedence is given by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10 are
the same as those within which it was made nigh treason by 28 Hen.
VIII. c. 18 for any man to contract marriage without the consent
of the king. Queen Victoria, by letters patent under the great seal
in 1865, ordained that, " besides the children of Sovereigns of these
realms, the children of the sons of any of the Sovereigns of Great
Britain and Ireland shall have and at all times hold and enjoy the
style or attribute of ' Royal Highness ' with their titular dignity
of Prince or Princess prefixed to their respective Christian names,
or with their other titles of honour." But, notwithstanding this,
their rank and place are still governed by the act for the placing of
the Lords. The duke of Cumberland has no precedence as a cousin
of the king, being the grandson of a son of George III. and would
not be a Royal Highness " at all if his father nad not been, like
his grandfather, king of Hanover. In Garter's Roll of the Lords
Spiritual and Temporal, the official list of the House of Lords, the
duke of Cumberland is entered in the precedence of his dukedom
after the duke of Northumberland. Under the combined operation
of the act for the placing of the Lords and the Acts of Union with
Scotland (art. 23) and with Ireland (art. 4), peers of the same degrees,
as dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts and barons, severally, have
precedence according to priority in the creation of their respective
peerages. But peerages of England created before 1707 precede
peerages of Scotland created before 1707, peerages of Great Britain
created between 1707 and 1801 precede peerages of Ireland created
before 1 80 1, and peerages of Ireland createa before 1801 precede
peerages of the United Kingdom and of Ireland created after 1801,
which take precedence in common. The relative precedence of the
members of the House of Lords, including the representative peers
of Scotland and Ireland, is officially set forth in Garter's roll, which
is prepared by the Garter king of arms at the commencement of each
session of parliament, that of the Scottish peers generally in the
Union Roll, and that of the Irish peers generally in Ulster's Roll, a
record which is under the charge of and is periodically corrected
by the Ulster king of arms. The Union Roll is founded on the
" Decreet of Ranking " pronounced and promulgated by a royal
commission in 1606, which, in the words of an eminent authority
in such matters, " was adopted at once as the roll of the peers in
Parliament, convention and all public meetings, and continued to
be called uninterruptedly with such alterations upon it as judgments
of the Court of Session upon appeal in modification of the precedency
of certain peers rendered necessary, with the omission of such
dignities as became extinct and with the addition from time to
time of newly created peerages down to the last sitting of the
Scottish Parliament on tne 1st of May 1707 " (The Earldom of Mar,
&c., by the earl of Crawford (25th) and Balcarres (8th), ii. 16).
4 Eldest sons of peers of any given degree are of the same rank as,
but are to be placed immediately after, peers of the first degree under
that of their fathers; and the younger sons of peers of any given
degree are of the same rank, but are to be placed after peers of the
second degree and the eldest sons of peers of the first degree under
that of their fathers.
Secretaries of state, if they are barons, precede all other barons
under 31 Hen. VIII. c. 10. But if they are of any higher degree their
rank^is not influenced by their official position.
6 Under I Will, and Mary, c. 21, being the only commissioners
for the execution of any office who have precedence assigned to
them.
7 The officers of the household who, under Henry VIII. 's warrant
of 1540, precede the secretaries of state have been for a long time
always peers or the sons of peers, with personal rank higher, and
usually far higher, than their official rank. The practical result is,
seeing also that the great seal is only very rarely indeed in commission,
that the secretaries of state, when they are commoners whose personal
precedence is below a baron's, have official precedence immediately
after the speaker of the House of Commons. The principal secretaries,
for so they are all designated, are officially equal to one another in
dignity, and are placed among themselves according to seniority
of appoiikmcnt.
During more than two centuries only one commoner has been
indebted for his precedence to his election into the order, and that
was Sir Robert Walpole, the minister, who at the coronation of
George II. in 1727 was placed as a knight of the Garter immediately
before privy councillors. The proper precedence of both knights of
the Thistle and knights of St Patrick is undecided.
Privy councillors of Great Britain and of Ireland take precedence
in common according to priority of admission. The chancellors of
the exchequer and of the duchy of Lancaster, the lord chief justice
270
PRECEDENCE
justice of England; (47) master of the rolls; (48) lords justices
of appeal; 1 (49) judges of the High Court of Justice; 2 (50)
knights bannerets made by the sovereign in person; (51) vis-
counts' younger sons; (52) barons' younger sons; (53) sons of
lords of appeal; 3 (54) baronets; 4 (55) knights bannerets not
made by the sovereign in person; (56) knights of the first class
of the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and St George; 5
(57) the Indian Empire, the Royal Victorian Order; (58) knights
of the second class of the Bath, the Star of India, and St Michael
and St George; 6 other orders K.C.I.E., &c.;(s9) knights bache-
lors; 7 (60) sons of commanders of the Royal Victorian Order;
(61) judges of county courts; 8 (62) eldest sons of the younger
sons of peers; (63) baronets' eldest sons; (64) knights' eldest
sons; (65) baronets' younger sons; (66) knights' younger sons; 9
of England, the master of the rolls, and the lords justices of appael
are always members of the privy council, and have rank and place
as privy councillors, if they are not also peers.
1 The lords justices of appeal have precedence among themselves
according to seniority of appointment. Until recently they were
preceded by the lord chief justice of the common pleas and the lord
chief baron of the exchequer (divisions of the High Court of Justice).
But under existing arrangements these offices have fallen into abey-
ance, although they have not been formally abolished. The vice-
chancellors used to follow the lords justices of appeal; but, in spite
of the fact that there is still one vice-chancellor remaining, the office
of vice-chancellor is extinct and will altogether disappear on his
decease. In Ireland all these offices are in existence, but they have
no precedence allotted to them in England; as the judges holding
them are invariably privy councillors, however, they are ranked
accordingly. And it is the same with regard to the lord justice-
general and the lord justice-clerk in Scotland.
2 The judges of all the divisions of the High Court of Justice are
ranked together according to seniority of appointment. Neither the
senators of the College of Justice in Scotland nor the judges of the
various divisions of the High Court in Ireland have any precedence
in England. The precedence of the Scottish judges among them-
selves is settled by a royal warrant of Nisbet in his System of Heraldry.
The precedence of the Irish judges among themselves is the same
as the precedence of the English judges among themselves used to
be before the offices of chief justice of the common pleas and chief
baron of the exchequer were suspended.
3 By warrants of the 3Oth of March 1898, although lords of
appeal rank with hereditary barons in order of creation, their sons
stand in a class by themselves.
4 It is a question whether baronets ought or ought not to have
precedence, like peers, according as they are of England, Scotland,
Great Britain, Ireland or the United Kingdom. Baronets are
not referred to in either the Scottish or the Irish Act of Union;
and Sir Bernard Burke contends that, since the Acts of Union are
silent with regard to them, they are still entitled to whatever pre-
cedence was originally conferred on them. He therefore places
the whole body of the baronets together in the order merely of the
dates of their several creations, and in this he appears to us to have
both law and reason on his side.
'These knights consist of grand crosses of the first, grand
commanders of the second, and grand crosses of the third order,
and have precedence in their respective orders according to seniority
of creation. By the statutes of the order of the Bath, as revised
in 1847, it is ordained that the knights grand crosses are to be placed
" next to and immediately after baronets," thus superseding
knights bannerets not created by the sovereign in person.
6 Knights commanders of all three orders are placed in each
order according to seniority of creation.
7 Knights bachelors are ranked together according to seniority
of creation, whether they are made by the sovereign or the lord
lieutenant of Ireland.
8 Royal x. Warrant of 1884.
The sons of all persons, when any specified rank is assigned to
them, are placed in the precedence of their fathers. Eldest sons
of the younger sons of peers were ranked before the eldest sons of
knights by order of the earl marshal, the l8th of March 1615, and
before the eldest sons of baronets by order of the earl marshal,
the 6th of April 1677. But no precedence has been given to the
younger sons of the younger sons of peers, although precedence
is given to the younger as well as the eldest sons of baronets and
knights by James I. s decree of 1616. Moreover, no precedence
has been given to either the eldest or the younger sons of the eldest
sons of peers. But in practice this omission is generally disre-
garded, and the children of the eldest sons of dukes, marquesses
and earls, at all events, are accorded the same rank and titles
which they would have if their fathers were actual instead of quasi
peers of the degree next under that of their grandfathers. Sir
Charles Young says that " by decision (Chap. Coll. Arms of 1680) if
the eldest son of an earl died in his father's lifetime leaving a son and
heir, such son and heir during the life of the earl his grandfather is
(67) companions of the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and
St George and the Indian Empire; 10 (68) members of the 4th
class of the Royal Victorian Order; (69) companions of the
Distinguished Service Order; (70) members of the 5th class of
the Royal Victorian Order; (71) esquires; 11 (72) gentlemen. 12
2. General Precedence of Women
The Queen; 13 (i) queen dowager; (2) princess of Wales;
(3) daughters of the sovereign; (4) wives of the sovereign's
younger sons; (5) granddaughters of the sovereign; (6) wives
of the sovereign's grandsons; (7) sisters of the sovereign; (8)
wives of the sovereign's brothers; (9) aunts of the sovereign;
(10) wives of the sovereign's uncles; (n) nieces of the sovereign;
entitled to the same place and precedence as was due to his father : so
had the father been summoned to parliament as the eldest son of a
peer the grandson would succeed to the dignity even during the
grandfather's lifetime " (Order of Precedence, p. 27). And, oi course,
what applies to the grandson and heir of an earl applies equally
to the grandsons and heirs of dukes and marquesses. But the
grandsons and heirs of viscounts and barons are differently situated,
and have neither honorary additions to their names nor any ascer-
tained place and precedence even by the etiquette of society.
"".Companions are members of the third class of the first three
orders and the only members of the fourth order, except the
sovereign and the grand master. Sir Charles Young and Sir Bernard
Burke concur in placing the companions of these orders before the
eldest sons of the younger sons of peers, on the ground that under
their statutes they are entitled to precede " all Esquires of the
Realm." But the sons of peers themselves the eldest as well
as the younger are merely esquires, and are ranked before, and
not among, other esquires because they have a particular preced-
ence of their own assigned to them. Similarly the eldest sons
of the younger sons of peers and the eldest sons of baronets and of
knights who are also esquires, and likewise the younger sons of
baronets and of knights who are not esquires, have a particular
precedence of their own assigned to them. All of them are placed
before esquires as a specific grade in the scale of general precedence,
and it seems clear enough that it is before esquires, considered as
a specific grade, that the companions of the orders ought to be placed
and not before any other persons who, whether they are or are not
esquires, have a definite and settled rank which is superior to that
specific grade in the scale of general precedence.
11 It appears to be admitted on all hands that the following
persons are esquires and ought to be so described in all legal docu-
ments and processes: first, the eldest sons of peers in the lifetime
of their fathers, and the younger sons of peers both in and after
the lifetime of their fathers; secondly, the eldest sons of the younger
sons of peers and their eldest sons in perpetual succession, and the
eldest sons of baronets and knights; thirdly, esquires created
with or without the grant of armorial bearings by the sovereign;
fourthly, justices of the peace, barristers-at-law and mayors of
corporations; and fifthly, those who are styled esquires in patents,
commissions or appointments to offices under the Crown in the
state, the household, the army or navy and elsewhere. Sir Bernard
Burke accords precedence to serjeants-at-law and masters in lunacy,
not only before esquires as such, but also before the companions
of the orders of knighthood. It is, however, enough to observe
with regard to the first, since no more of them are to be created,
that, in spite of the extravagant pretensions which have been fre-
quently urged by them and on their behalf, " they have not in the
general scale," as Sir Charles Young says, " any precedence, and
when under the degree of a Knight rank only as Esquires "; and
with regard to the second, that the statute 8 & 9 Viet. c. 100, on
which the Ulster king of arms bases their claims, simply provides
that they " shall take the same rank and precedence as the masters
in ordinary of the High Court of Chancery," who are now extinct,
" apparently," to recur to Sir Charles Young, " assuming the rank
of the masters without defining it." " The masters, however,"
he adds, " as such have not a settled place in the order of general
precedency emanating from any authority by statute or otherwise "
(Order of Precedence, p. 71). Sir William Blackstone says that
before esquires " the Heralds rank all Colonels, Serjeants-at-Law
and Doctors in the three learned professions " (Commentaries,
vol. i. ch. 12). But the only foundation for this statement seems to be
a passage in Guillim, which is obviously without any authority.
12 The heralds and lawyers are agreed that gentlemen are those
who, by inheritance or grant from the Crown, are entitled to bear
coat armour (see Coke, Inst. iv. ch. 77; Blackstone, Comm. i. ch. 12;
Selden, Titles of Honor, pt. ii. ch. 8; Guillim, Display of Heraldry,
pt. ii. ch. 26).
13 The queen-consort is the second personage in the realm, and
has precedence of the queen-dowager. But the husband of a reign-
ing queen has no rank or place except such as is specially accorded
to him by the sovereign.
PRECEDENCE
271
(u) wives of the sovereign's nephews; 1 (13) wives of dukes of the
blood royal; (14) duchesses; 2 (15) wives of eldest sons of dukes of
the blood royal; (16) marchionesses; (17) wives of the eldest
sons of dukes; (18) dukes' daughters;* (19) countesses; (20)
wives of younger sons of dukes of the blood royal 5(21) wives of the
eldest sons of marquesses; (22) marquesses' daughters; (23) wives
of the younger sons of dukes; (24) viscountesses; (25) wives of
the eldest sons of earls; (26) earls' daughters, (27) wives of the
younger sons of marquesses; (28) baronesses; (29) wives of the
eldest sons of viscounts; (30) viscounts' daughters; (31) wives
of the younger sons of earls; (32) wives of the eldest sons of
barons; (33) barons' daughters; (34) maids of honour to the
queen; 4 (35) wives of knights of the Garter; (36) wives of
knights bannerets made by the sovereign in person; (37) wives
of the younger sons of viscounts; (38) wives of the younger sons
of barons; (39) baronets' wives; (40) wives of knights bannerets
not made by the sovereign in person; (41) wives of knights of
the Thistle; (42) wives of knights of St Patrick; (43) wives of
knights grand crosses of the Bath, grand commanders of the
Star of India, and grand crosses of St Michael and St George;
(44) wives of knights commanders of the Bath, the Star of India,
and St Michael and St George; (45) knights bachelors' wives;
(46) wives of the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers; (47)
daughters of the younger sons of peers; (48) wives of the eldest
sons of baronets; (49) baronets' daughters; (50) wives of the
eldest sons of knights; (51) knights' daughters; (52) wives of
the younger sons of baronets; (53) wives of the younger sons of
knights; 4 (54) wives of commanders of the Royal Victorian Order,
companions of the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and St
George, and the Indian Empire; (55) wives of members of the
4th class Royal Victorian Order; (56) wives of esquires; 6 (57)
gentlewomen; 7
A special table of precedence in Scotland is regulated by a
royal warrant dated the i6th of March 1905, and a special
table of precedence in Ireland was set forth by authority of
the Lord Lieutenant (Jan. 2, 1895). Both contain errors and
will probably be revised.
Attention to the foregoing tables will show that general
precedence is of different kinds as well as of several degrees.
It is first either personal or official, and secondly either substan-
tive or derivative. Personal precedence belongs to the royal
1 There is no act of parliament or ordinance of the Crown ref-
lating the precedence of the female members of the royal family.
But the above is the gradation which appears to have become
established among them, and follows the analogy supplied by the
act for the placing of the lords in the case of their husbands and
brothers.
1 Peeresses in their own right and peeresses by marriage are
ranked together, the first in their own precedence and the second
in the precedence of their husbands.
3 Among the daughters of peers there is no distinction between
the eldest and the younger as there is among; the sons of peers.
Their precedence is immediately after the wives of their eldest
brothers, and several degrees above the wives of their younger
brothers. They are placed among themselves in the precedence
of their fathers. But the daughter of the premier duke or baron
ranks after the wife of the eldest son of the junior duke or baron.
Maids of honour to the queen are the only women who have
any official precedence. They have the style or title of honour-
able, and are placed immediately after barons' daughters by Sir
Bernard Burke, the rank which is accorded to them by the eti-
quette of society. But Sir Charles Young does not assign any
precedence to them, and we do not know on what authority the
Ulster king of arms does so, although he is by no means singular
in the course he has taken.
6 The wives of baronets and knights, the wives of the eldest
sons and the daughters of the younger sons of peers, and the wives of
the sons and the daughters of baronets and knights are all placed
severally in the precedence of their respective husbands, husbands'
fathers and fathers.
" Esquire " and " gentleman " are not names of " dignity "
but names of " worship," and esquires and gentlemen do not, in
strictness, convey or transmit any precedence to their wives or
children (see Coke, Inst. ii., " Of Additions," p. 667).
"And generosus and generosa are good additions: and if a
gentlewoman be named Spinster in any original writ, i.e. appeal
or indictment, she may abate and quash the same, for she hath
as good right to that addition as Baroness, Viscountess, Marchioness
or Duchess have to theirs " (Coke, Inst. ii., "Of Additions," p. 668).
family, the peerage and certain specified classes of the com-
monalty. Official precedence belongs to such of the dignitaries
of the Church and such of the ministers of state and the household
as have had rank and place accorded to them by parliament or
the Crown, to the speaker of the House of Commons and to the
members of the privy council and the judicature. Substantive
precedence, which may be either personal or official, belongs to
all those whose rank and place are enjoyed by them indepen-
dently of their connexion with anybody else, as by the arch-
bishop of Canterbury, the lord high chancellor or the lord great
chamberlain, peers and peeresses, baronets, knights and some
esquires. Derivative precedence, which can only be personal,
belongs to all those whose rank and place are determined by
their consanguinity with or affinity to somebody else, as the
lineal and collateral relations of the sovereign, the sons, daugh-
ters and daughters-in-law of peers and peeresses in their own
right, and the wives, sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of
baronets, knights and some esquires. It is to be observed,
however, that the precedence of the sovereign is at once official
and personal, and that the precedence of peeresses by marriage
is at once derivative and substantive. In the case of the sover-
eign it is his or her actual tenure of the office of king or queen
which regulates the rank and place of the various members of
the royal family, and in the case of peeresses by marriage,
although their rank and place are derivative in origin, yet they
are substantive in continuance, since during coverture and widow-
hood peeresses by marriage are as much peeresses as peeresses in
their own right, and their legal and political status is precisely
the same as if they had acquired it by creation or inheritance.
Bearing the above definitions and explanations in mind, the
following canons or rules may be found practically useful:
1. Anybody who is entitled to both personal and official
precedence is to be placed according to that which implies the
higher rank. If, for example, a baron and a baronet are both
privy councillors, the precedence of the first is that of a baron
and the precedence of the second is that of a privy councillor.
And similarly, except as hereafter stated, with respect to the
holders of two or more personal or two or more official
dignities.
2. Save in the case of the sovereign, official rank can never
supply the foundation for derivative rank. Hence the official
precedence of a husband or father affords no indication of the
personal precedence of his wife or children. The wives and
children, for example, of the archbishop of Canterbury, the lord
high chancellor or the speaker of the House of Commons do
not participate in their official rank but only in their personal
rank, whatever it may be.
3. Among subjects men alone can convey derivative rank,
except in the case of the daughters and sisters of the sovereign,
or of peeresses in their own right. But no man can acquire any
rank or place by marriage. The sons-in-law or brothers-in-law
of the sovereign and the husbands of peeresses in their own right
have as such no precedence whatever. And the daughter and
heiress of the premier duke of England, unless she happens to be
also a peeress in her own right, does not transmit any rank or
place to her children.
4. Within the limits of the peerage derivative rank is as a
rule always merged in personal, as distinguished from official,
substantive rank. If, for example, the younger son of a duke is
created a baron or inherits a barony, his precedence ceases to be
that of a duke's younger son and becomes that of a baron.
But where the eldest son of a duke, a marquess or an earl is
summoned to the House of Lords in a barony of his father's,
or succeeds as or is created a baron, he is still, as before, " com-
monly called " by some superior title of peerage, as marquess,
earl or viscount, and retains his derivative precedence on all
occasions, except in parliament or at ceremonies which he attends
in his character as a peer. The younger sons of all peers,
however, who are created or who inherit peerages which they
often do under special limitations are everywhere placed
according to their substantive rank, no matter how inferior it
may be to their derivative rank. But if the son of a duke or a
272
PRECEDENCE
marquess, whether eldest or younger, or the eldest son of an earl
is consecrated a bishop his derivative rank is not merged in his
substantive rank, because it is official, and his derivative and
personal rank implies the higher precedence. Again, the daugh-
ters of dukes, marquesses and earls who become peeresses by
marriage or creation, or who inherit as peeresses, are placed
according to their substantive and not according to their deriva-
tive rank, although they may thereby be assigned a far lower
precedence than that to which their birth entitles them.
5. The widows of peers and baronets have precedence imme-
diately before the wives or widows of the next successors in their
husbands' dignities. But the sons and daughters of peers and
baronets have precedence immediately before the sons and
daughters of the holders of the dignities to whom their fathers
succeeded. The reason of this is that the first are senior in the
dignities and the second are nearer in the line of succession to
them.
6. The widows of peers who marry again either share the
precedence of their second husbands or resume the precedence
belonging to them independently of their marriage with their
first husbands. Thus, if the daughter of a duke or an esquire
marries first an earl and secondly a baron, although she remains
a peeress, she is placed as a baroness instead of a countess. But
if either of them should marry a commoner as her second
husband, whatever may be his rank or degree, she ceases to be a
peeress. While, however, the duke's daughter, if her second
husband were not the eldest son of a duke, would resume her
precedence as the daughter of a duke, the esquire's daughter
would share the precedence of her second husband, whether he
were a peer's son, a baronet, a knight or an esquire. The widows
of peers have long kept their former rank in society, but they
have no such right unless by permission of the sovereign, which
permission has on several recent occasions been refused.
7. The widows of the eldest and younger sons of dukes and
marquesses and of the eldest sons of earls, and also the widows of
baronets and knights who marry again, are permitted by the
etiquette of society to keep the titles and rank acquired by their
first marriage if their second marriage is with a commoner
whose precedence is considerably lower. But the widows of the
younger sons of earls and of the eldest and younger sons of
viscounts and barons, although their precedence is higher
than that of the widows of baronets and knights, are not
allowed to retain it, under any circumstances, after a second
marriage.
8. Marriage does not affect the precedence of peeresses in
their own right unless their husbands are peers whose peerages
are of a higher degree, or, being of the same degree, are of more
ancient creation than their own. If, for example, a baroness in
her own right marries a viscount she is placed and described as a
viscountess, or if she marries a baron whose barony is older than
hers she is placed in his precedence and described by his title.
But if she marries a baron whose barony is junior to hers she
keeps her own precedence and title.
9. The daughters of peers, of sons of peers, baronets and
knights retain after marriage the precedence they derive from
their fathers, unless they marry peers of any rank or commoners
of higher rank than their own. Hence, for example, the daughter
of a duke who marries the eldest son of a marquess is placed as
a duke's daughter, not as the wife of a marquess's eldest son,
and the daughter of a baronet who marries the younger son of a
knight is placed as a baronet's daughter and not as the wife of a
knight's younger son.
10. What are termed " titles of courtesy " are borne by all the
sons and daughters of peers and peeresses in their own right, who
in this connexion stand on exactly the same footing. The
eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls are designated by the
names of one or other of the inferior peerages of their fathers,
usually a marquessate or an earldom in the first, an earldom or a
viscounty in the second and a viscounty or barony in the third
case. The rule applicable in former times, still adhered to by
the older English dignities, was that a duke's eldest son was
styled earl, the son of a marquess, viscount, the son of an earl,
baron. No such rule obtained in Scotland. But, whatever it
may be, it is altogether without effect on the rank and place of
the bearer, which are those belonging to him as the eldest son of
his father. The younger sons of dukes and marquesses are
styled " lords," followed by both their Christian names and
surnames. The younger sons of earls and both the eldest and
the younger sons of viscounts and barons are described as
" honourable" before both their Christian names and surnames.
The daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled " ladies "
before both their Christian names and surnames. The daughters
of viscounts and barons are described as " honourable " before
both their Christian names and surnames. If the eldest son of a
marquess or an earl marries a woman of rank equal or inferior
to his own, she takes his title and precedence; but if she is of
superior rank she retains, with her own precedence, the prefix
" lady " before her Christian name followed by the name of
her husband's title of courtesy. Again, if the younger son of a
duke or a marquess marries a woman of rank equal or inferior
to his own, she is called " lady," with his Christian and sur-
name following, and is placed in his precedence, but, if she is
of superior rank, she retains, with her own precedence, the
prefix " lady " before her Christian name and his surname. If the
daughter of a duke, a marquess or an earl marries the younger
son of an earl, the eldest or younger son of a viscount or baron, a
baronet, a knight or an esquire, &c., she retains, with her own
precedence, the prefix " lady " before her Christian name and
her husband's surname. If the daughter of a viscount marries
the younger son of an earl or anybody of inferior rank to
him, or the daughter of a baron marries the younger son of a
viscount or anybody of inferior rank to him, she retains her own
precedence with the prefix " honourable " before the addition
" Mrs v and his surname or Christian name and surname. But,
if her husband is a baronet or a knight, she is called the Honour-
able Lady Smith or the Honourable Lady Jones, as the case may
be. The wives of the younger sons of earls and of the eldest and
younger sons of viscounts and barons, if they are of inferior
rank to their husbands, take their precedence and are described
as the Honourable Mrs, with the surnames or Christian names
and surnames of their husbands following. The judges were
placed by James I. before the younger sons of viscounts and
barons and accorded the title of " honourable " (q.v.). But in
this addition their wives do not participate, since it is merely an
official distinction.
It is manifest on even a cursory examination of the tables
we have given that, although they embody the only scheme of
general precedence, whether for men or for women, which is
authoritatively sanctioned or recognized, they are in many
respects very imperfectly fitted to meet the circumstances and
requirements of the present day. 1 In both of them the limits
prescribed to the royal family are pedantically and inconveni-
ently narrow, and stand out in striking contrast to the wide and
ample bounds through which the operation of the Royal Marriage
Act (12 Geo. III. c. n) extends the disabilities but not the
privileges of the sovereign's kindred. Otherwise the scale of
general precedence for women compares favourably enough with
1 " There are no doubt certain public ceremonials of State, such
as Coronations, Royal Public Funerals and Processions of the
Sovereign to Parliament, &c., wherein various public functionaries
walk and have for the occasion certain places assigned to them,
but which they may not at all times find the same, as it by no
means follows that they are always entitled to the same place for
having been there once: there is to a certain extent a precedent
furnished thereby, and in some cases the uniformity of precedence
in regard to one class over another has in such cases become estab-
lished. This applies, for instance, to the places of the Gentlemen
of the Privy Chamber, Law Officers of the Crown and Masters
and Six Clerks in Chancery, who have no definite or fixed place
in the tables of precedency regulating the general orders of society,
though in reference to State ceremonials they have certain places
assigned in the order of procession in right of their offices, which,
however, give them no general rank. Upon such occasions, never-
theless, the legal rank and precedence which they hold in the Courts
of Law is observed, and so far establishes among themselves, and
in respect to their several classes, their precedency " (Sir Charles
Young, Order of Precedence, &c., pp. 59-61).
PRECEDENCE
273
the scale of general precedence for men. If, indeed, it includes
the queen's maids of honour and the wives of the companions
of the knightly orders, there certainly does not seems to be any
good reason why it should omit the mistress of the robes and the
ladies of the bedchamber, or the ladies of the royal order of
Victoria and Albert and the imperial order of the Crown of India.
But these are trifling matters in themselves, and concern only
a minute fraction of the community. The scale of general
precedence for men is now in substantially the same condition
as that in which it has been for between two and three centuries,
and the political, to say nothing of the social, arrangements to
which it was framed to apply have in the interval undergone an
almost complete transformation. The consequence is that a
good deal of it has come down to us in the shape of a survival,
and has ceased to be of any practical use for the purpose it was
originally designed to effect. While it comprises several official
and personal dignities which are virtually obsolete and extin-
guished, it entirely omits the great majority of the members of
Government in its existing form, and whole sections of society
on a less exalted level, to whom it is universally felt that some
rank and place at all events are both in public and in private
justly due. And, when it does confess the presence of any of
the sovereign's principal ministers, it commonly places them in
positions which are out of all keeping with their actual eminence
and importance. It ranks the lord president of the council
and the lord privy seal before dukes, while it places the chan-
cellor of the exchequer after the younger sons of earls and the
eldest sons of barons, and the secretaries of state after the master
of the horse and the vice-chamberlain of the household. The
lord chancellor still has precedence as the first of the great
officers of state, which was allotted to him not as what he is,
the head of the judicature, but as what he once was, the prime
minister of the sovereign; and the lord chief justice, who is next
to him in regular judicial rank, as presiding over the common
law courts, as he presides over the courts of equity, is placed
after the chancellors of the exchequer and of the duchy of
Lancaster, who still have the precedence which was allotted to
them not as ministers, which they are, but as judges, which they
are no longer. Neither the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the
viceroy of India, nor the governor-general of Canada has any
rank or place at St James's, where, as well as at Westminster,
the lord steward or the lord chamberlain of the household is a
much greater and more splendid personage. Again, in the scale
of general precedence there are no clergymen except bishops, no
lawyers except judges, and no officers of either the army or the
navy from field marshals and admirals of the fleet downwards.
Nor, of course, are any colonial governors or lieutenant-governors
entered on it. It contains no mention of under-secretaries of
state, chairmen or commissioners of administrative boards,
comptrollers or secretaries of government departments, lord-
lieutenants or sheriffs of counties, deputy lieutenants or justices
of the peace, members of the House of Commons or graduates
of the universities. It is true that among some of these classes
definite systems of subordination are established by either
authority or usage, which are carefully observed and enforced
in the particular areas and spheres to which they have reference.
But we have seldom any means of determining the relative
value of a given term in one series as compared with a given term
in another series, or of connecting the different steps in the scales
of local, professional or academical precedence with the different
steps in the scale of general precedence, to which such scales of
special precedence ought to be contributory and supplementary.
We know, for example, that major-generals and rear-admirals are
of equal rank, that with them are placed commissaries-general
and inspectors-general of hospitals and fleets, that in India along
with civilians of thirty-one years' standing they immediately
follow the vice-chancellors of the Indian universities, and that
in relation to the consular service they immediately precede
agents-general and consuls-general. But there is nothing to
aid us in determining whether in England they should be ranked
with, before or after deans, king's counsel or doctors in divinity,
who are as destitute as they are themselves of any recognized
general precedence, and who, as matters now stand, would
certainly have to give place to the younger sons of baronets and
knights and the companions of the knightly orders.
No foreigner has any legal precedence in Great Britain, 1
but it is suggested that it being proper courtesy to accord to
guests the precedence due to the rank they bear in their own
countries, they should rank in society with and immediately
before those of the relative rank in England. It should, how-
ever, be remembered that the younger sons of counts and
other nobles bear the title of count with the addition of the
Christian name, and they should be ranked with younger sons
of British earls, &c., whatever title they bear. The eldest son
of a duke for example is sometimes called prince, but the place
accorded to him by the above rule would be next after a British
marquess. Some persons of authority consider, however, that
a foreigner should be given precedence over every native
whatever the rank may be.
It has now become usual to recognize ecclesiastical rank
derived from the pope, even when held by subjects of the king.
Cardinals, therefore, rank by international usage above arch-
bishops, as princes of the blood royal, and in Ireland, Roman
Catholic and Protestant bishops rank as such by authority of
the warrants there in force.
An order respecting precedence was sent by the secretary of
state for the colonies to the governor-general of Canada (July 24,
1868). Precedence in India is regulated by a Royal Warrant
dated the 6th of May 1871, a copy of which is subjoined.
VICTORIA, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith.
To all to whom these presents shall come, greeting.
Whereas it hath been represented unto Us that it is advisable
to regulate the Rank and Precedence of persons holding appoint-
ments in the East Indies. In order to fix the same, and prevent
all disputes, We do hereby declare that it is Our will and pleasure
that the following Table be observed with respect to the Rank and
Precedence of the persons hereinafter named, viz. :
Governor-General and Viceroy of India. Governor of Madras.
Governor of Bombay. President of the Council of the Governor-
General. Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. Lieutenant-Governor of
North-West Provinces. Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjaub.
Commander-in-Chief in India, when a Member of Council. Chief
Justice of Bengal. Bishop of Calcutta, Metropolitan of India.
Chief Justices of Madras, Bombay and North-western Provinces.
Commanders-in-Chief in Madras and Bombay, when also Members
of Council. Ordinary Members of the Council of the Governor-
General. Bishops of Madras and Bombay. Ordinary Members
of Council in Madras and Bombay.
Commander-in-Chief in India, when not a Member of Council.
Puisne Judges of the High Courts of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
and North-Western Provinces. Commanders-in-Chief, Madras
and Bombay, when not Members of Council. Chief Commissioners
and Resident at Hyderabad. Military Officers above rank of
Major-General. Additional Members of the Council of the Governor-
General when assembled to make laws, &c. Commodore command-
ing Her Majesty's Naval Forces in India. Judge Advocate General
of India. Secretaries to the Government of India. Additional
Members of the Councils of the Governors of Madras and Bombay
when assembled to make laws, &c. Members of the Legislative
Council of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. Agents to the
Governor-General in Rajpootana and Central India. Commissioner
inSind. Judges of the Chief Court, Punjaub. Chief Secretaries to the
Governments of Madras and Bombay.
FIRST CLASS
Civilians of 28 years' standing to rank with Major-Generals.
Advocate General, Calcutta. Residents at Foreign Courts and
Residents at Aden, the Persian Gulf and Bagdad. Recorders of
Moulmein and Rangoon. Advocates-General, Madras and Bombay.
Members of the Boards of Revenue, Bengal, Madras, North-West
Provinces. Secretaries to Local Governments. Chief Engineer,
1st Class. Comptroller-General of Accounts in India. Directors-
General, Post Office, Telegraphs and Irrigation. Judicial Com-
missioners, Oude, Central Provinces, Mysore and Sind. Financial
Commissioners in the Punjaub, Oude and Central Provinces. Arch-
deacon of Calcutta. Secretary to Council of Governor-General
for making Laws, &c. Officers Commanding Brigades.
1 This subject was considered by the House of Lords in February
1628, on the proposition of a committee that no foreign nobility
has right of precedence within this realm before any peer of this
kingdom.
274 PRECENTOR PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES
SECOND CLASS
Civilians of 20 years' standing ranking with Colonels.
Commissioners of Divisions. Directors of Public Instruction
under Governments. Private Secretary to Viceroy. Military
Secretary to Viceroy. Archdeacons of Madras and Bombay.
Surveyor-General of India. Superintendent, Great Trigonometrical
Survey. Sanitary Commissioner with Government of India.
Superintendent of the Geological Survey in India. Inspector-
General of Forests in India.
ter; G G e e n n e e r ri, 0f ^ j Under Local Governments.
Standing Counsel to Government of India. Remembrancers of
Legal Affairs, and Legal Advisers to the Government in the North-
West Provinces and the Punjaub. Commissioners of Revenue
Survey and Settlement. Chief Engineers, 2nd and 3rd Class, and
Superintendents of Irrigation.
THIRD CLASS
Civilians of 12 years' standing ranking with Lieutenant-Colonels.
Political Agents. Under-Secretaries to Government of India.
Inspector-General of Education, Central Provinces, and Directors-
General of Education, Oude, British Burmah, Berer and Mysore.
Officers, 1st Grade, Education Department. Officers, 1st Grade,
Financial Department. Private Secretaries to Governors. Military
Secretaries to Governors. First Judges of Presidency Courts of
Small Causes. Chief Magistrates of Presidency Towns. Adminis-
trator-General, Calcutta. Administrators-General, Madras and
Bombay.
Inspectors-General of Jails. 1
Sanitary Commissioners. f-Under Local Governments.
Conservators of Forests. J
Superintending Engineers, 1st Class. Deputy Directors of Post
Office and Telegraphs and Directors of Traffic and Construction.
Postmasters-General. Senior Chaplains. Officers, 1st Grade,
Geological Survey. Officers, 2nd Grade, Education Department.
Officers, 2nd Grade, Financial Department. Superintendents, 1st
Grade, Telegraph Department.
FOURTH CLASS
Civilians of 8 years' standing ranking with Majors.
Assistant Political Agents. Officers, 2nd Grade, Geological
Survey. Officers, 3rd Grade, Education Department. Officers,
3rd Grade, Financial Department. Superintendents, 2nd Grade,
Telegraph Department. Government Solicitors.
FIFTH CLASS
Civilians of 4 years' standing ranking with Captains.
Junior Chaplains. Officers, 4th Grade, Education Department.
SIXTH CLASS
Civilians of less than 4 years' standing to rank with Subalterns.
Note I. Commissioners of Divisions within their own Divisions,
and Residents and Political Agents within the limits of their respec-
tive charges, to take precedence immediately before Civilians of
the ist Class.
Note 2. Collectors and Magistrates of Districts, and Deputy
Commissioners of Districts, and the Chief Officer of each Presidency
Municipality, to take precedence within their respective charges
before the 3rd Class and Lieutenant-Colonels in the Army.
Sheriffs to rank within their charges immediately after Lieu-
tenant-Colonels in the Army.
All Officers not mentioned in the above table, whose rank is
regulated by comparison with rank in the Army, to have the same
rank with reference to Civil Servants as is enjoyed by Military
Officers of equal grades.
All other persons who may not be mentioned in this table to
take rank according to general usage, which is to be explained
and determined by the Governor-General in Council in case any
question shall arise.
Nothing in the foregoing rules to disturb the existing practice
relating to precedence at Native Courts, or on occasions of inter-
course with Natives, and the Governor-General in Council to be
empowered to make rules for such occasions in case any dispute
shall arise.
AH ladies to take place according to the rank herein assigned
to their respective husbands, with the exception of wives of Peers,
and of ladies having precedence in England, independently of
their husbands, and who are not in rank below the daughters of
Barons; such ladies to take place according to their several ranks,
with reference to such precedence in England, immediately after
the wives of Members of Council at the Presidencies in India.
Given at Our Court at Windsor, this sixth day of May, in the
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-one,
and in the thirty-fourth year of our Reign.
By Her Majesty's Command.
(Signed) ARGYLL.
(F. DR.; W. A. L.)
PRECENTOR (Late Lat. praecenlor, from praecinere, to sing
before, lead in singing), the title of the principal director of the
singing or musical portions of the service in a cathedral or
cathedral church. In the English Church in cathedrals of the
" Old Foundation " the precentor is a member of the cathedral
chapter and officially ranks next to the dean. His musical
duties are usually performed by the " succentor," one of the
vicars choral. In cathedrals of the " New Foundation " the
" precentor " is not a member of the chapter, but is one of the
minor canons.
PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally
to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders), a com-
mand or rule, especially one with regard to conduct or action, a
moral rule or injunction, a maxim. Apart from this general
use, the word was used, in law, of many orders in writing issuing
from a court or other legal authority; it is now chiefly used of an
order demanding the payment of money under a rate by poor
law or other local authorities (see RATE). The Latin form
praecipe, i.e. enjoin, command, is used of the note of instructions
delivered by a plaintiff or his solicitor to be filed by the officer
of the court, giving the names of the plaintiff and defendant,
the nature of the writ, &c. For the obsolete writ of praecipe
quod reddat see WRIT.
PRECEPTOR, a teacher or instructor, the classical meaning
of the Latin praeceptor, from praecipere, literally to take in
advance, hence to give rules or " precepts," advise, teach. As
an educational term in English the word is familiar through the
College of Preceptors, a chartered society chiefly composed of
private teachers; it was incorporated in 1849 and was one of the
first professional bodies to institute regular courses of pedagogic
lectures and to award after examination the titles of licentiate
and associate to teachers. It also holds examinations for pupils.
In post-classical Latin praeceptor meant a commander, praecipere,
to order, enjoin, and the term was adopted by the Knights
Templars for the heads of the provincial communities of knights
established on their estates. These communities and the estates
themselves were known as " preceptories," and answered to the
" commanderies " of the Hospitallers.
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, in astronomy, the term
assigned to the progressive motion of the equinox, because it
takes place in a direction from east towards west, opposite to
that in which planets move, and in which longitudes are
measured. The equinox being defined as the point of intersec-
tion of the equator and ecliptic, its motion arises from the fact
that both of these great circles are in continuous though slow
motion. The motion of the ecliptic is due to the action of the
planets on the earth, which produces a slow progressive change
in the position of the plane of the earth's orbit, and therefore of
the ecliptic. This motion takes place round a diameter of
the celestial sphere as an axis or nodal line, which intersects the
sphere in two points, which are at present in longitudes about
173 and 353. The direction of the motion around this axis
is such that from the limits 353 through o to 173, which
includes the vernal equinox, the motion is towards the south,
while, in the remainder of the circle, it is towards the north.
At the present time the rate of the motion is 46.7" per century.
In consequence of the smallness of the angle, 7, which the axis
of motion makes with the line of the equinoxes, its effect on the
precession is quite small, now amounting to only 0.14" per
annum. Owing to its cause this small part of the precession is
called " planetary."
The motion of the equator is due to the combined action of
the sun and moon on the equatorial protuberance of the earth
(see ASTRONOMY). Owing to its cause this largest part of the
precession is called " luni-solar." Its fundamental law is that
the mean celestial pole at each instant (see NUTATION) moves
at right angles to the circle joining it to the pole of the ecliptic
as that instant. Hence if the pole of the ecliptic were fixed,
the celestial pole would revolve around it in a circle at a constant
distance equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic. Owing, however,
to the slow change in the position of the pole of the ecliptic,
the motion is only approximately in a circle, and the obliquity
PRECINCT PREDESTINATION
275
varies slowly from century to century. At the present time the
rate of motion measured on a great circle is about 20* per year;
that is to say both the pole and the plane of the equator move
through this angle annually. But when measured around the
pole of the ecliptic as a centre the motion is about 2-5 times this
or, at present, 50-37* annually. This is the present amount of
the luni-solar precession which, if it remained constant, would
carry the pole completely round in a period of 25,730 years.
But the exact period varies slightly, owing to the motion of the
pole of the ecliptic. The combined effect of the luni-solar and
planetary precession or the total motion of the equinox is called
the general precession. Its annual amount during our time is
50-2564+0-02220* T, T being the time reckoned from 1900 in
centuries.
PRECINCT (from Lat. praecingere, to encircle, enclose, sur-
round, prae and cingere, to gird), an enclosure, a space within
the boundaries, marked by walls or fences or by an imaginary
line, of a building or group of buildings, especially used of such
a space belonging to a cathedral or other religious building.
The word is frequently used, indefinitely, of the neighbourhood
or environs of a place or building. In the United States of
America it is applied to various minor territorial divisions or
districts, for electoral or judicial purposes. In some of the
states they correspond to the " township " as the principal
subdivision of the " county."
PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of
high value or price, pretium) , costly or of high value, particularly
used in political economy of those metals which are " valuable
enough to be used as a standard of value and abundant enough
for coinage" (The Century Dictionary). The term is thus
practically confined to gold and silver. Platinum in theory
may be included as it was used for coinage in Russia in 1828;
the fluctuations in the value of the metal caused its discontinu-
ance in 1845 ( see GOLD, SILVER and MONEY). " Precious
stones " include those gems which are valued for ornament and
jewelry. " Strictly speaking the only precious stones are the
diamond, ruby, sapphire and emerald, though the term is often
extended to the opal, notwithstanding its lack of hardness, and to
the pearl . . . strictly an animal product," G. F. Kunz, Gems and
Precious Stones of North America (1890) (see GEM, and LAPIDARY
AND GEM-CUTTING). A particular use of " precious " as meaning
fastidious, over-refined, is taken from the French precieux,
familiar in the appellation of Les Precieuses, given to the social
and literary circle of ladies which centred round the H6tel de
Rambouillet in the i7th century (see RAMBOUILLET; CATHERINE
DE VIVONNE, MARQUISE DE).
PRECONIZATION (Late Lat. praeconizalio, from praeconizare,
to proclaim, Lat. praeco, a public crier), a public proclamation or
announcement. In this sense it is practically obsolete; but the
word is still technically used of the solemn proclamation of new
bishops, and of the sees to which they are appointed, made by the
pope in the consistory of cardinals (see BISHOP). In the English
ecclesiastical courts " praeconize " is also still used in the sense
of " to summon by name. "
PREDELLA, the Italian word for a footstool or kneeling-
stool, hence applied to the step or platform on which an altar
rests, and to a shelf raised above the altar at the back, a super-
altar or gradino. The face both of the step and shelf are fre-
quently decorated with sculpture or painting, and the term
" predella " is frequently given to the sculpture or painting so
used, and, further, to any painting that is a pendant to a larger
work.
PREDESTINATION (from Late Lat. praedestinare, to deter-
mine beforehand; from the root sta, as in stare, stand), a theologi-
cal term used in three senses: (i) God's unchangeable decision
from eternity of all that is to be; (2) God's destination of men to
everlasting happiness or misery; (3) God's appointment unto
life or " election " (the appointment unto death being called
" reprobation," and the term " foreordination " being preferred
to " predestination " in regard to it). In the first sense the
conception is similar to that of fate; this assumes a moral
character as nemesis, or the inevitable penalty of transgression.
Sophocles represents man's life as woven with a " shuttle of
adamant " (Antigone, 622-624). Stoicism formulated a doctrine
of providence or necessity. Epicurus denies a divine superin-
tendence of human affairs. A powerful influence in Scandinavian
religion was exercised by the belief in " the nornir, or Fates,
usually thought of as three sisters." In Brahminic thought
Karma, the consequences of action, necessitates rebirth in a
lower or higher mode of existence, according to guilt or merit.
With some modifications this conception is taken over by
Buddhism. The Chinese too, the order of heaven, which should
be the order for earth as well, may also be compared. Accord-
ing to Josephus (Antiq. xviii. i, 3, 4; xiii. 5, 9) the Sadducees
denied fate altogether, and placed good and evil wholly in man's
choice; the Pharisees, while recognizing man's freedom, laid
emphasis on fate; the Essenes insisted on an absolute fate.
This statement is exposed to the suspicion of attempting to
assimilate the Jewish sects to the Greek schools. In Islam the
orthodox theology teaches an absolute predestination, and yet
some teachers hold men responsible for the moral character of
their acts. The freethinking school of the Mo'tazilites insisted
that the righteousness of God in rewarding or punishing men for
their actions could be vindicated only by the recognition of
human freedom.
The question of the relation of divine and human will has been
the subject of two controversies in the Christian church,
the Augustinian-Pelagian and the Calvinistic-Arminian. Pelagius
maintained the free-will of man, and held that man's conduct,
character, destiny are in his own hand. Grace, by enlightening,
forgiving sin and strengthening his moral powers, helps man to
fulfil this purpose. While grace is meant for all, men make them-
selves worthy of it by striving after virtue. This doctrine as
minimizing grace was repugnant to Augustine. He regarded
mankind as sinful, guilty, ruined, incapable of any good. God
alone can save. His grace is effectual and irresistible. As what
God has done He has eternally willed to do, grace involves pre-
destination. God has from eternity chosen those whom He wills
to save (" election "), and consequently He has also passed over
those whom He leaves to perish (" praeterition "). As all deserve
damnation, there is no injustice in leaving them to their deserts.
The " reprobation " of the wicked is not the cause of their sin;
God's foreknowledge does not make the sin necessary; how repro-
bation and foreknowledge are related is not made plain.
The doctrine of Augustine was revived in the 9th century by
Gottschalk, who taught that God's passing over the lost meant
their predestination to punishment. Hincmar of Reims perse-
cuted him for not distinguishing the two positions. This dispute
would have little interest now, had not Hincmar appealed to John
Scotus Erigena, who attempted to solve the theological problem
by philosophical conceptions. He denied that foreknowledge or
predestination as temporal relations could be properly predicated
of God as eternal ; he described sin and its consequences as negations,
neither caused by nor known to God ; he maintained that as evil
is only a stage in the development of good, there will ultimately
be a universal return to God. Thus the doctrine of reprobation
was emptied of meaning. This defence of orthodoxy was con-
demned as heretical. The controversy was kept up during the
scholastic period. Thomas Aquinas followed Augustine. Duns
Scotus leaned toward Semi-Pelagianism, which rejected the doctrine
of predestination, and maintained a co-operation of freedom and
race. While Aquinas affirmed the positions of Augustine, he
educed them from his Aristotelian conception of God as " first
mover, itself unmoved." His original contribution to the subject
was his theory of divine concurrence. He distinguishes secondary
causes as natural and necessary, and as voluntary and contingent;
though both are set in motion by God, yet as the natural
remain natural, so do the voluntary remain voluntary. But this
is clearly only a verbal solution.
At the Reformation the Augustinian position was accepted by
both Luther and Calvin. Melanchthon modified his earlier view
in the direction of synergism, the theory of a co-operation of divine
grace and human freedom. The later Lutheran doctrine is " that
man, unable as he is to will any good thing, can yet use the means
of grace, and that these means of grace, carrying in themselves
a divine power, produce a saving effect on all who do not
voluntarily oppose their influence. Baptism, e.g. confers grace,
which if not resisted is saving. And God, foreseeing who
will and who will not, resist the grace offered, predestinates
to life all who are foreseen as believers." Calvin's view is the
same as Augustine's. He held the sublapsarian view that the
fall was decreed, but not the supralapsarian view that it " was
decreed as a means towards carrying out a previous decree to save
some and leave others to perish." The latter view was held by
Beza and other Calvinists, and, it is said, repelled Arminius from
276 PREDICABLES PRE-EXISTENCE, DOCTRINE OF
Calvinism, and led him to formulate the doctrine that as repentance
and faith are the divinely decreed conditions of eternal life, God
has determined to give that life to all whom He foresees as fulfilling
these conditions. According to Calvinism God's election unto
salvation is absolute, determined by His own inscrutable will ;
according to Arminianism it is conditional, dependent on man's
use of grace. The Synod of Dort (1618-1619) which affirmed the
sublapsarian without excluding the supralapsarian form of Calvin-
ism, condemned the views of Arminius and his followers, who were
known as Remonstrants from the remonstrance " which in four
articles repudiates supralapsarianism and infralapsarianism (which
regarded the Fall as foreseen, but not decreed), and the doctrines
of irresistibility of grace, and of the impossibility of the elect finally
falling away from it, and boldly asserts the universality of grace.
In the Church of Rome the Dominicans favoured Augustinianism,
the Jesuits Semi-Pelagianism ; the work of Molina on the agreement
of free-will with the gifts of grace provoked a controversy, which
the pope silenced without deciding; but which broke out again
a generation later when Jansen tried to revive the decaying Augus-
tinianism. The church of England has passed through several dis-
putes regarding the question whether the Thirty-Nine Articles are
Calvinistic or not; while there is some ambiguity in the language,
it seems to favour Calvinism. At the Evangelical Revival the
old questions came up, as Wesley favoured Arminianism and
George Whitefield Calvinism. In Scotland Calvinism was repudi-
ated by James Morison, the founder of the Evangelical Union,
who declared the three universalities, God's love for all, Christ's
death for all, the Holy Spirit's working for all.
While retained in the creeds of several denominations, in the
public teaching of the churches the doctrine of predestination
has lost its place and power. While the doctrine of election
magnified God's grace, and so encouraged humility in man, it
minimized man's freedom, and so produced either an over-confi-
dence hi those who believed themselves elect, or despair in those
who could not reach the assurance. Now it is recognized that
God's sovereignty must be conceived as consistent with man's
liberty. While God fulfils His all-embracing purpose, that
fulfilment leaves room for the exercise of individual freedom;
the freedom God has bestowed on man He can so restrain and
direct as to overrule even its abuse for His own gracious ends.
That God desires that all should be saved, and that the salvation
of each depends on his own choice these are the general con-
victions of modern theology. The problem now is the reconcili-
ation of human freedom with divine foreknowledge. Martineau
accepts Dugald Stewart's solution. " There is no absurdity in
supposing that the deity may, for wise purposes, have chosen
to open a source of contingency in the voluntary actions of his
creatures, to which no prescience can possibly extend." Others
hold the problem to be insoluble, and not needing to be solved.
(A. E. G.*)
PREDICABLES (Lat. praedicabills, that which may be- stated
or affirmed ) , in scholastic logic, a term applied to a classification
of the possible relations in which a predicate may stand to its
subject. The list given by the schoolmen and generally adopted
by modern logicians is based on the original fivefold classification
given by Aristotle (Topics, a iv. 101 b. 17-25): definition (&pos),
genus (yevos), differentia (<5ta(/>opa) , property (iStov), accident
(trvfifitfiriKos). 1 The scholastic classification, obtained from
Boetius's Latin version of Porphyry's Eisagoge, modified
Aristotle's by substituting species (eKos) for definition. Both
classifications are of universals, concepts or general terms,
proper names of course being excluded. There is, however, a
radical difference between the two systems. The standpoint
of the Aristotelian classification is the predication of one uni-
versal concerning another. The Porphyrian, by introducing
species, deals with the predication of universals concerning
individuals (for species is necessarily predicated of the indi-
vidual), and thus created difficulties from which the Aristotelian
is free (see below).
The Aristotelian classification may be briefly explained: (i) The
Definition of anything is the statement of its essence (Arist. rl> rl
fy tlvai), i.e. that which makes it what it is: e.g. "a triangle is
a three-sided rectilineal figure." (2) Genus is that part of the
essence which is also predicable of other things different from
them in kind. A triangle is a rectilineal figure; i.e. in fixing the
genus of a thing, we subsume it under a higher universal, of which
1 Strictly Aristotle's classification is into four as &ia<t>opa. really
belongs to yivot.
it is a species. (3) Differentia is that part of the essence which
distinguishes one species from another. As compared with quadri-
laterals, hexagons, &c., all of which are rectilineal figures, a triangle
is " differentiated " as having three sides. (4) A Property is an
attribute which is common to all the members of a class, but is
not part of its essence (i.e. need not be given in its definition).
The fact that the interior angles of all triangles are equal to two
right angles is not part of the definition, but is universally true.
(5) An Accident is an attribute which may or may not belong to
a subject. The colour of the human hair is an accident, for it
belongs in no way to the essence of humanity.
This classification, though it is of high value in the clearing up
of our conceptions of the essential contrasted with the accidental,
the relation of genus, differentia and definition and so forth, is of
more significance in connexion with abstract sciences, especially
mathematics, than for the physical sciences. It is superior on the
whole to the Porphyrian scheme, which has grave defects. As has
been said it classifies universals as predicates of individuals and
thus involves the difficulties which gave rise to the controversy
between realism and nominalism (q.v.). How are we to distinguish
species from genus ? Napoleon was a Frenchman, a man, an animal.
In the second place how do we distinguish property and accident?
Many so-called accidents are predicable necessarily of any particular
persons. This difficulty gave rise to the distinction of separable and
inseparable accidents, which is one of considerable difficulty.
See the modern logic textbooks.
PREDICAMENT, now used only in the sense of a dangerous
or unpleasant position or situation. It meant properly that
which is " predicated " or affirmed (Lat. praedicare) of anything,
in logic, one of the ten Aristotelian categories (see CATEGORY),
and so any definite state or condition. The use of " predica-
ment " in the sense of " bad predicament," without the limiting
adjective, is paralleled by " plight," for " bad plight," " success "
for " good success."
PREDICATION (from Lat. praedicare, to state, assert), in
logic, the term which denotes the joining of a predicate to a
subject in a judgment or proposition. The statement " all
men are mortal " is to predicate mortality of all men. In other
words a judgment is made up of a subject and a predicate joined
by a copula. Since the true unit of thought is the judgment,
since ah 1 concepts or universals exist only in continuous thinking
(judging), the theory of predication is a fundamental part of logic.
The true relation of subject and predicate has not been deter-
mined with unanimity, various logicians emphasizing different
aspects of the process (see LOGIC). The logical use of " predi-
cate " is to be distinguished from the grammatical, which
includes the verb, whether it be the verb " to be " in its various
forms, or another verb. The simple grammatical sentence
" he strokes the dog " the first word is the subject, while "strokes
the dog " is the predicate, including verb and object. In logic
every proposition is reducible to the form " A is B," " B " being
the predicate. Thus the logical form of "he strokes the dog "
would be " he is stroking the dog " or some other periphrasis
which liberates and determines the logical predicate. The
true significance of the logical copula is difficult. It cannot be
described simply as a third (i.e. separate part) of the judgment,
because until two terms are enjoined by it they are not subject
and predicate. Much discussion has raged round the question
whether the use of the verb " to be " as the copula implies that
existence is predicated by the subject. It may be taken as
generally agreed that this is not the case (see further LOGIC, and
the textbooks).
PRE-EXISTENCE, DOCTRINE OF, in theology, the doctrine
that Jesus Christ had a human soul which existed before the
creation of the world the first and most perfect of created things
and subsisted, prior to His human birth, in union with the
Second Person of the Godhead. It was this human soul which
suffered the pain and sorrow described in the Gospels. The
chief exposition of this doctrine is that of Dr Watts (Works, v.
274, &c.); it has received little support. In a wider form the
doctrine has been applied to men in general namely, that in the
beginning of Creation God created the souls of all men, which
were subsequently as a punishment for ill-doing incarnated in
physical bodies till discipline should render them fit for spiritual
existence. Supporters of this doctrine, the Pre-existants or
Pre-existiani, are found as early as the and century, among
PREFACE PREL
277
them being Justin Martyr and Origen (?..), and the idea not
only belongs to metempsychosis and mysticism generally, but is
widely prevalent in Oriental thought. It was condemned by the
Council of Constantinople in 540, but has frequently reappeared
in modern thought (cf. Wordsworth's Intimations of Immortality)
being in fact the natural correlative of a belief in immortality.
PREFACE (Med. Lat. prejatia, for classical praefatio, praefari,
to speak beforehand), an introduction to a book, also any
preliminary or introductory statement. In liturgical use the
term is applied to that portion of the Eucharistic service which
immediately precedes the canon or central portion; the preface,
which begins at the words Vere dignum, " It is very meet, right,
&c.," is ushered in, in all liturgies, with the Sursum Corda,
" Lift up your hearts," and ends with the Satxtus, " Holy, Holy,
Holy, &c." In the Western liturgies proper prefaces are
appointed for particular occasions (see LITURGY).
PREFECT (prefet), in France, the title of a high official. The
prefects of the department were created by a law of the z8th
Pluviose in the year VIII. (Feb. 17, 1800). They were intended
to be the chief organs of internal administration, and have, in
fact, discharged this function, especially under the First and
Second Empire, surviving, though with diminished importance,
under the other forms of government which modern France has
seen. In comparison with other French officials, they are well
paid (the salary nowadays ranges from 39,000 to 18,000 francs
according to the class).
In the administration of the ancien regime the term " prefect "
was not employed; practically the only case in which it occurs
was in the organization of the establishment of institutions
opened by the religious orders, in which there was generally a
" prefect of the studies " (prefet des etudes). In the year VIII.,
in the discussion of the law of the 28th Pluviose, no reason was
stated for the choice of this term. But like the " Tribunes "
and " Consuls " of the constitution of the year VIII., it was
taken from the Roman institutions which were then so fashion-
able (see PRAEFECT); it may also be recalled that Voltaire had
used the term " prefecture " in speaking of the authority of
Louis XIV. over the free towns of Alsace.
The prefect has to a certain extent a double character and two
series of functions. Firstly he is the general representative of the
government, whose duty it is to ensure execution of the govern-
ment's decisions, the exercise of the law, and the regular working
of all branches of the public service in the department. In so far
the r61e of the prefect is essentially political ; he guarantees the direct
and legal action of the government in his department. He has the
supervision of all the state services in his department, which pro-
cures the necessary uniformity in the working of the services,
each of which is specialized within a narrow sphere. He serves as
a local source of information to the government, and transmits
to it complaints or representations from those under his adminis-
tration. In the name of the state he exercises a certain adminis-
trative control over the local authorities, such as the conseil
general, the mayors and the municipal councils. This control,
though considerably restricted by the law of the loth of August
1871, on the consols generaux, and that of the 5th of April 1884,
on municipal organization, still holds good in some important
respects. The prefect can still annul certain decisions of the conseil
general. He can suspend for a month a municipal council, mayor
or deputy-mayor; certain decisions of the municipal councils
require his approval; and he may annul such of their regulations
as are extra vtres. He can annul or suspend the maire's decrees
and he has also considerable control over public institutions, charit-
able and otherwise. He may make regulations (reglements) both
on special points, in virtue of various laws, and for the general
administration of the police.
When the prefects were created in the year VIII. the intendants
of provinces of the ancien regime were taken as a model, and there
is a great resemblance between their respective functions. The
prefect, however, is no more than an intendant in miniature,
being only at the head of a department, whereas the intendant
was over a generalite, which was a much larger district. In the
same way the sous-prefets correspond to the subdelegues of the
intendants, with the difference that they are actual officials sub-
ordinate to the prefects, while the subdelegues were merely the
representatives with whom the intendants provided themselves,
and to whom they gave powers.
Secondly, the prefect is not only the general representative of
the government, but the representative of the department in the
management of its local interests. But his unfettered powers in
this respect have been reduced under the third Republic. This
has chiefly been the effect of the law of the loth of August 1871,
which has led to decentralization, by increasing the powers of the
conseils generaux. The law created a departmental committee
(commission departementale) , elected by the conseil general which,
in the interval of the sessions of the latter, takes part in matters
concerning the administration of the departmental interests,
either in_ virtue of the law, or by a delegation of powers from the
conseil general.
The sous-prefels, having very limited powers of deciding ques-
tions, serve above all as intermediaries between the prefect and the
persons under his administration. This function was most useful
in the year VIII., when communications were difficult, even within
a department, but nowadays it only leads to complications.
As a matter of fact their chief service to the administration lies
in keeping up good relations with the maires of the communes
in their arrondissement, and thus acquiring a certain amount of
influence over them. The National Assembly, which passed the
law of the loth of August 1871, had also decided to suppress the
sous-prefets, but M. Thiers, who was then president of the Republic,
persuaded them to reconsider this decision. Since then the Chamber
of Deputies has on several occasions taken advantage of the budget
to attempt the suppression of the sous-prefets by refusing to vote
the amount necessary for the payment of their salaries. But the
government has always opposed this unconstitutional measure,
holding that the suppression could only be effected by an organic
law, and that it would necessarily involve a remodelling of the
administrative organization. So far their view has prevailed in
the Chambers. (J. p. .)
PREHNITE, a mineral consisting of calcium hydrogen ortho-
silicate, H 2 Ca2Al2(SiO 4 )j. It crystallizes in the hemimorphic
class of the orthorhombic system, but the hemimorphic character
is usually obscured by twinning. Crystals are generally platy
in habit, but they rarely occur singly and distinctly shaped;
almost invariably they are closely aggregated together to form
barrel-shaped or globular groups with a crystalline surface. This
form, together with the pale oil-green colour, gives the mineral
a very characteristic appearance. It is translucent and has a
vitreous lustre. The hardness is rather over 6 and the spec. grav.
2-80-2-95. Crystals are pyro-electric. Prehnite is sometimes
classed with the zeolites, since it occurs under the same condi-
tions as these minerals and often in association with them: the
small amount of water (4-4%) is, however, expelled only at a
red heat and is therefore not water of crystallization.
Prehnite occurs as a mineral of secondary origin in the amygda-
loidal cavities of basic igneous rocks, such as basalt and diabase,
and less often, in veins in granite and gneiss. Fine specimens
are found with zeolites in the volcanic rocks of several places in
the south of Scotland, e.g. Old Kilpatrick in Dumbartonshire,
Bishopton in Renfrewshire, Campsie Hills in Stirlingshire and in
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh; also at Paterson and Bergen
Hill in New Jersey, and with native copper in the trap-rocks of the
Lake Superior region. In the French (at Le Bourg d'Oisans)
and Tyrolese Alps it occurs with axinite, epidote, felspar, &c.,
lining crevices in gneiss. Large masses have been found at Cradock
in Cape Colony, from which locality it was brought in the i8th
century by Colonel Prehn, the governor of the colony; hence the
names " Cape chrysolite " and prehnite (of A. G. Werner, 1789).
Prehnite is sometimes cut and polished for small ornaments; it
then somewhat resembles chrysoprase in appearance.
PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium), literally judgment or
decision beforehand, which in classical usage meant a precedent,
a preceding judgment, also a special form of judicial examination
precedent to a trial, especially in matters relating to status.
The transferred sense, of injury or damage inflicted by decisions
or judgments disregarding interests affected, does not appear
till post-classical times in Latin. This last use of damage appears
in English in relation to legal matters, especially in the phrase
" without prejudice," i.e. without detriment to rights or claims.
When two parties are negotiating for the settlement of a dispute,
statements or admissions made by or on behalf of either, with a
stipulation, expressed or implied, that the statements are made
" without prejudice " to the party's claims in the dispute,
cannot be put in evidence in litigation to settle the dispute (see
EVIDENCE). The general meaning of the word is that of opinion,
Favourable or hostile, based on prepossessions, and therefore
biassed or unreasonable.
PREL, KARL, FREIHERR VON (1830-1899), German philo-
sopher, was born at Landshut on the 3rd of April 1839. After
studying at the university of Munich he served in the Bavarian*
278
PRELATE PRELLER, L.
army from 1859 to 1872, when he retired with the rank of captain.
He then gave himself up to philosophical work, especially in
connexion with the phenomena of hypnotism and occultism
from the modern psychological standpoint. He attempted to
deduce the existence of spirit, apart from, and yet entering from
time to time into connexion with, the phenomena of the senses,
by an examination of the relation between the ego of thought
and the age of sensible experience as understood by Kant. In
1868 he received the degree of doctor from the university of
Tubingen in recognition of a treatise on the psychology of
Dreams (Oneirokritikon. Der Traum vom Standpunkt des
transcendentalen Idealismus).
Subsequently, he published numerous works on various psycho-
logical and scientific subjects, of which the more important are:
Der gesunde Menschenverstand vor den Problemen der Wissen-
schaft (1872); Der Kampf urns Dasein am Himmel (1874), repub-
lished in 1882 under the title Entwickelungsgeschichle des Weltalls;
Die Planetenbewohner und die Nebularhypothese (1880); Die Philo-
sophic der Mystik (1885); Justinus Kerner und die Seherin von
Prevorst (1886); Die monistische Seelenlehre (1888); Die Mystik
der alien Griechen (1888); Kants mystische Weltanschauung (1889);
Studien aus dent Gebiete der Geheimwissenschaften (1890); Der
Spiritismus (1893); Die Entdeckung der Seele durch die Geheim-
wissenschaften (1894-1895). In Der Kampf urns Dasein am Himmel
von Prel endeavoured to apply the Darwinian doctrine of organic
evolution not only to the sphere of consciousness but also even
more widely as the philosophical principle of the world. He was one
of a large number of German thinkers who during the latter half
of the i gth century endeavoured to treat the mind as a mechanism.
He died on the 4th of August 1899.
See EVOLUTION; in Philosophy.
PRELATE (Lat. praelatus, set above, from praefero, prefer),
an ecclesiastical dignitary of high rank. In the early middle ages
the title prelate was applied to secular persons in high positions
and thence it passed to persons having ecclesiastical authority.
The De prelatis of Valerian is concerned with secular princes,
and even as late as the I4th century the title was occasionally
applied to secular magistrates. In medieval ecclesiastical
usage the term might be applied to almost any person having
ecclesiastical authority; it was very commonly given to the
more dignified clergy of a cathedral church, but often also to
ordinary priests charged with the cure of souls and, in the early
days of monasticism, to monastic superiors, even to superiors
of convents of women. The term occurs very frequently in
the Rule of St Benedict and other early monastic rules.
In more modern usage in the Roman Catholic Church prelates,
properly so-called, are those who have jurisdiction in foro
externo, but a liberal interpretation has given the title a more
general significance. Prelacy is defined by the canonists as
" pre-eminence with jurisdiction " (praeeminentia cum juris-
dictione), and the idea supposes an episcopal or quasi-episcopal
jurisdiction. But gradually the title was extended to ecclesias-
tical persons having a prominent office even without jurisdiction,
and later still it has come to be applied to ecclesiastical persons
marked by some special honour though without any definite
office or jurisdiction.
We may therefore distinguish " true " from " titular "
prelates. The true prelacy is composed of the persons who
constitute the ecclesiastical hierarchy; jurisdiction is inherent
in their office and gives pre-eminence, as with patriarchs, arch-
bishops and bishops. A good example of the dependence of
prelacy on jurisdiction is found in those religious orders, such as
the Dominicans, where authority is strictly elective and tem-
porary. Thus a Dominican prior ranks ipso facto as a prelate
during his three years of office, but, if not re-elected, loses this
dignity with his jurisdiction.
The true, no less than the titular, prelates have their various
ranks, differing as regards title, precedence, clothing and other
insignia. The distinguishing colour of a prelate's clothing is
violet; the form, like the greater or less use of violet, depends
on the rank of the prelate. Four classes may be distinguished:
(1) Great prelates, e.g. cardinals, archbishops and bishops.
(2) Exempt prelates (praelati nullius dioeceseos, praelati nullius),
i.e. abbots and religious superiors, who are withdrawn from the
ordinary diocesan jurisdiction and themselves possess episcopal
jurisdiction (jurisdictio quasi episcopalis). (3) Roman prelates,
(a) active and (b) honorary. The title is applied to numerous
ecclesiastics attached by some dignity, active or honorary, to
the Roman court (see CURIA ROMANA). In the list of these
prelates are protonotaries apostolic, domestic prelates, private
chamberlains, parlicipanti and supernumerary. Of these last
there are two kinds, honorary and honorary extra urbem. Only
protonotaries and domestic prelates are for life; the others lose
their dignity at the death of the pope who appointed them. A
special class of Roman prelatures exist at Rome, endowed as a
kind of ecclesiastical majority to which those members of certain
families who are destined for the clerical life naturally succeed.
In the reformed churches the title was retained in England,
Sweden, Denmark and Germany. The cathedral chapter of
Brandenburg consists of two prelates, the dean and the senior,
besides eight other members. The chapter of Merseburg con-
tains five prelates, viz. the dean, senior, provost, custos and
scholasticus. In Baden the general synod is presided over by
the prelate (prelaf), i.e. the principal " superintendent." In
the Church of England the term prelate has been since the
Reformation applied only to archbishops and bishops. The
word " prelacy," meaning no more originally than the office and
dignity of a prelate, came to be applied in Presbyterian Scotland
and Puritan England especially during the I7th century to
the episcopal form of church government, being used in a
derogatory sense.
See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae el infimae latinitatis (new ed.,
by L. Favre, Niort, 1883); Paul Hinschius, Kirchenrecht (Berlin,
1869) ; F. H. Vering, professor of law at Prague, Lehrbuch des katho-
lischen, orientalischen und protestantischen Kirchenrechts (1893).
(E. O'N.)
PRELLER, FRIEDRICH (1804-1878), German landscape-
painter, was born at Eisenach on the 25th of April 1804. After
studying drawing at Weimar, he went in 1821, on Goethe's
advice, to Dresden, where in 1824 he was invited to accompany
the grand duke of Weimar to Belgium. He became a pupil
in the academy at Antwerp. From 1827 to 1831 he studied in
Italy, and in 1831 received an appointment in the Weimar school
of art. In 1834-1836 he executed in tempera six pictures on
subjects taken from the Odyssey in the " Roman House " at
Leipzig, in 1836-1837 the landscapes with scenes from Oberon in
the Wieland room in the grand-ducal palace at Weimar, and in
1836-1848 six frescoes on Thuringian subjects commissioned by
the grand duchess. In 1840 he visited Norway and produced a
number of easel works, some of which are preserved at Weimar.
In 1859 he revisited Italy, and on his return in 1861 he completed
for the grand-ducal museum the frescoes illustrative of the
Odyssey, which are held to constitute his chief claim to fame.
Preller, who was also a successful etcher, died at Weimar on the
23rd of April 1878.
PRELLER, LUDWIG (1809-1861), German philologist and
antiquarian, was born at Hamburg on the isth of September
1809. After having studied at Leipzig, Berlin and Gottingen,
in 1838 he was appointed to the professorship of philology at
Dorpat, which, however, he resigned in 1843. He afterwards
spent some time in Italy, but settled in Jena in 1844, where he
became professor in 1846. In the same year he removed as
head librarian to Weimar, where he died on the 2ist of June 1861.
His chief works are: Demeter u. Persephone (1837); Griechische
Mythologie (1854-1855; 4th ed., by C. Robert, 1887 seq.); and
Romische Mythologie (1858; 3rd ed. by H. Jordan, 1881-1883).
He also co-operated with H. Ritter in the preparation of the
most useful Historia philosophiae graecae el romanae ex fontium
locis contexla (1838; ed. E. Wellmann, 1898). He contributed
extensively to Ersch and Gruber's Attgemeine Encyklopadie and
Pauly's Realencyklopddie der classischen Altertumswissenschafl.
A complete list of his works will be found in Ausgewahlte
Aufsalze aus dem Gebiete der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft
(ed. R. Kohler, 1864).
See G. T. Stichling, Ludwig Preller. Eine Gedachtnissrede
(Weimar, 1863); C. Bursian, Geschichte der classischen Philologie
in Deutschland (1883).
PREMIUM PRERAU
279
PREMIUM (Lat. praemium, profit, reward, prae+emere, to
buy), in general, a reward or prize; a consideration. In the law
of insurance, the sum of money or consideration (either annual
or in a lump sum) which the insured pays the insurers in order
to gain a certain amount in the event of some specific loss
happening is termed a premium. The word is applied to the
fee paid in consideration of being taught a trade or profession.
It is also used in the sense of " bonus," as something beyond
or additional, as in the phrases, " premium bonus system,"
" premium system," where a bonus or sum is given in addition
to wages in proportion to the value of the work done. On the
stock exchange, when a security has not yet been fully paid
up, it is customary to quote its price at par, or so much premium
or discount. Par represents the amount actually paid up on it,
while if it is above the level it is said to be at a premium of so
much, or if below at a discount.
PREMONITION (from Lat. Prae, before, monere, to advise
or warn), an impression relating to a future event. Strictly
the word should mean a warning proceeding from an external
source. Its modern extension to all forms of impression sup-
posed to convey information as to the future is justified on the
assumption that such intimations commonly originate in the
subliminal consciousness of the percipient and are thence trans-
ferred to the ordinary consciousness. In modern times the best
attested premonitions are those relating to events about to occur
in the subject's own organism. It was observed by the animal
magnetists at the beginning of the ipth century in France and
Germany, that certain of their subjects, when in the " magnetic "
trance, could foretell accurately the course of their diseases,
the date of the occurrence of a crisis and the length of time needed
to effect a cure. Similar observations were subsequently
recorded in Great Britain and in America (see, for instance, the
case of Anna Winsor, 1860-1863, reported by Dr Ira Barrows).
The power of prediction possessed by the subject in such cases
may be explained in two ways: (i) As due to an abnormal
power of perception possessed by certain persons, when in the
hypnotic trance, of the working of their own pathological
processes; or (2) more probably, as the result of self-suggestion;
the organism is " set " to explode at a given date in a crisis,
or to develop the fore-ordained symptoms.
Apart from these cases there are two types of alleged pre-
monitions, (i) The future event may be foreshadowed by a
symbol. Amongst the best known of these symbolic impressions
are banshees, corpse lights, phantom funeral processions,
ominous animals or sounds and symbolic dreams (e.g. of teeth
falling out). Of all such cases it is enough to say that it is
impossible for the serious inquirer to establish any causal con-
nexion between the omen and the event which it is presumed
to foreshadow. (2) There are many instances, recorded by
educated witnesses, of dreams, visions, warning voices, &c., giving
precise information as to coming events. In some of these
cases, where the dream, &c., has been put on record before its
" fulfilment " is known, chance is sufficient to explain the coin-
cidence, as in the recorded cases of dreams foretelling the winner
of the Derby or the death of a crowned head. In cases where
such an explanation is precluded by the nature of the details
foreshadowed, the evidence is found to be defective, generally
from the absence of contemporary documents. The persistent
belief on the part of the narrators in the genuineness of their
previsions indicates that in some cases there may be a halluci-
nation of memory, analogous to the well known feeling of " false
recognition." Prof. Josiah Royce has suggested for this supposed
form of hallucination the term " pseudo-presentiment."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Puysdgur, Du Magnetisme animal (1807);
Alexandre Bertrand, Traile du somnambulisme (1823); Mrs H.
Sidgwick, Proceedings S.P.R., vol. v.; F. W. H. Myers, Proceed-
ings S.P.R., vol. xi.; F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality (1903);
F. Podmore, Studies in Psychical Research (1897); Proceedings
American Society for Psychical Research (1889, Report on Phantasms
and Presentiments); Annales des sciences psychiques (Jan.-Feb.,
1889, Article on Premonitions by G. B. Ermacora). (F. P.)
PREMONSTRATENSIANS, also called Norbertines, and in
England White Canons, from the colour of the habit: an order
of Augustinian Canons founded in 1120 by St Norbert, after-
wards archbishop of Magdeburg. He had made various efforts
to introduce a strict form of canonical life in various communities
of canons in Germany; in 1120 he was working in the diocese
of Laon, and there in a desert place, called Pr6montr6, in Aisne,
he and thirteen companions established a monastery to be the
cradle of a new order. They were canons regular and followed
the so-called Rule of St Augustine (see AUGUSTINIANS) , but with
supplementary statutes that made the life one of great austerity.
St Norbert was a friend of St Bernard of Clairvaux and he was
largely influenced by the Cistercian ideals as to both the manner
of life and the government of his order. But as the Premonstra-
tensians were not monks but canons regular, their work was
preaching and the exercise of the pastoral office, and they served
a large number of parishes incorporated in their monasteries.
The order was founded in 1120; in 1126, when it received papal
approbation, there were nine houses; and others were established
in quick succession throughout western Europe, so that at
the middle of the I4th century there are said to have been over
1300 monasteries of men and 400 of women. The Premonstra-
tensians played a predominant part in the conversion of the
Wends and the Christianizing and civilizing of the territories
about the Elbe and the Oder. In time mitigations and relaxa-
tions crept in, and these gave rise to reforms and semi-indepen-
dent congregations within the order. The Premonstratensians
came into England (c. 1143) first at Newhouse in Lincoln, and
before the dissolution under Henry VIII. there were 35 houses.
At the beginning of the igth century the order had been almost
exterminated, only eight houses surviving, all in the Austrian
dominions. There are now some 20 monasteries and 1000
canons, who serve numerous parishes; and there are two or three
small houses in England. The strength of the order now lies
in Belgium, where at Tongerloo is a great Premonstratensian
abbey that still maintains a semblance of its medieval state.
Helyot, Histoire des ordres rthgieux (1714), ii. chs. 23-26; Max
Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), ii. 56; articles in
Wetzer u. Welte Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.) and Herzog Realencyklopddie
(3rd ed.). The best special study is F. Winter, Die Prdmonstratenser
des 12. Jahrh. und ihre Bedeutung fur das nordostliche Deutschland
(186$). (E. C. B.)
PREMYSL, the reputed ancestor of the line of dukes and kings
which ruled in Bohemia from 873 or earlier until the murder
of Wenceslaus III. in 1306, and which was known as the Pfemy-
slide dynasty. According to legend Pfemysl was a peasant of
Staditz who attracted the notice of Libussa, daughter of a certain
Krok, who ruled over a large part of Bohemia, and is said to
have been descended from Samo. Pfemysl married Libussa,
the traditional foundress of Prague, and during the 8th century
became prince of the Bohemian Cechs. His family became
extinct when Wenceslaus III. died, but through females the
title to Bohemia passed from the Pfemyslides to the house of
Luxemburg and later to the house of Habsburg.
See F. Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, Bd. I. (Prague, 1844).
PRENZLAU, or PRF.XZLOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg. It lies on the lower Ucker See, 30 m.
W. by S. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1005), 20,929. The Gothic
church of St Mary (Evangelical), dating from 1340, is one of the
finest churches in the district, and the remains of the town gates,
walls and towers are also interesting. The industries include wool-
spinning, iron-founding, brewing and sugar-refining. Tobacco
is grown in the neighbourhood, and cigars are manufactured in
the town.
Prenzlau is first mentioned in a document of the close of the
1 2th century, and received its municipal charter in 1233. As
the capital of the old Uckermark it was a frequent object of
dispute between Pomerania and Brandenburg until incorporated
with the latter about 1480. At Prenzlau Prince Hohenlobe, with
his corps of 12,000 men, surrendered to Murat on the retreat
after the battle of Jena in October 1806.
See I. Ziegler, Prenzlau, die ehemalige Hauptstadt der Uckermark
(Prenzlau, 1886).
PRERAU (Czech, Pferov), a town of Austria, in Moravia,
56 m. E.N.E. of Brilnn by rail. Pop. (1000), 16,738, chiefly
280
PREROGATIVE
Czech. It is one of the oldest towns in Moravia, and possesses
a Gothic town-hall and an old castle, once occupied by Matthias
Corvinus. It has an important cloth industry, and manufactures
of sugar, ropes, machinery and agricultural implements. Prerau
was at one time the chief seat of the Moravian Brethren.
PREROGATIVE, in law, an exclusive privilege of the Crown.
The word, originally an adjective, is derived from the centuria
praerogativa, or century which voted first on a proposed law
(rogatio) in the Roman comitia centuriata. In English law,
Blackstone says, " by the word prerogative we are to understand
the character and power which the sovereign hath over and
above all other persons, in right of his regal dignity; and which,
though part of the common law of the country, is out of its
ordinary course. This is expressed in its very name, for it
signifies, in its etymology, something that is required or demanded
before, or in preference to, all others " (Stephen's Comm. vol. ii.
bk. iv. pt. i. ch. vi.). The prerogative is sometimes called jura
regalia or regalia, the regalia being either majora, the regal
dignity and power, or minora, the revenue of the Crown.
The theory of English law as to the prerogative of the king
seems to be not quite consistent. On the one hand, he is a
perfect and irresponsible being, holding his office by divine right ;
George V., " by the Grace of God of Great Britain and Ireland
King," 1 is still the heading of every writ. On the other hand,
his powers are defined and limited by law. This is laid down
as early as the I3th century (Bracton, sb). A consequence of
this position is that the prerogative may be confined or extended
by the supreme legislative authority, and that the courts have
jurisdiction to decide whether or not any alleged right falls
within the prerogative. The prerogative of the Crown, still of
great extent, has been gradually limited by a long series of enact-
ments, the most worthy of notice being Magna carlo,, Confir-
matio cartarum, t'rerogativa regis, the Petition of Right, the
Habeas Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement.
The most important of the obsolete prerogatives which have been
at one time claimed and exercised are the following: (T) the right
to impose a tax upon the subject without the consent of parlia-
ment. (2) The right to dispense with the obligation of statutes,
by the insertion in a grant of the clause non obstante slatuto (see
DISPENSATION). (3) The right of purveyance and pre-emption
that is, of buying up provisions at a valuation without the
consent of the owner and the right of impressing carriages and
horses (see PURVEYANCE). (4) The authority to erect tribunals
not proceeding according to the ordinary course of justice was
declared illegal by 16 Car. I. c. 10 (the act dissolving the Star
Chamber, the court of the marches of Wales, and the court of
the president and council of the north). (5) The revenue from
first-fruits and tenths (see ANNATES). (6) The right of corody
that is, of sending one of the royal chaplains to be maintained
by a bishop until the bishop promotes him to a benefice has
become obsolete by disuse. (7) The right by forfeiture to the
property of a convict upon his conviction for treason or felony
was abolished by the Felony Act 1870. (8) The immunity of
the Crown from payment of costs has been taken away in almost
all cases. (9) The right to alienate crown lands by grant at
pleasure was taken away by i Anne c. 8. In very few cases has
the prerogative been extended by statute; the Regulation of
the Forces Act was an example of such extension. By that act
the jurisdiction of lords-lieutenant of counties over the auxiliary
forces was revested in the Crown.
The prerogative may be exercised in person or by delegation.
The prerogative of conferring honours is generally (though not
necessarily) exercised by the king in person, as in the case of
investment with knighthood and military or civil decorations.
The delegation of the prerogative often takes place by commis-
sion, issued with or without a joint address from both houses of
parliament. Parts of the prerogative generally in the nature of
profit, and so in derogation of the revenue of the Crown may be
1 There is no difference in the prerogative as exercised by a king
or a queen regnant, so that the word " king " in its constitutional
sense includes queen. That the queen regnant has the same rights
as a king was declared by i Mary sess. 3, c. i.
conferred upon subjects by grant in letters patent, which will be
presumed after enjoyment by the subject for a certain time.
What in the king is a prerogative becomes a franchise in the
subject, e.g. chases, warrens, wrecks, treasure-trove, courts-leet.
The existing prerogatives may be divided, with Blackstone, into
such as are direct and such as are by way of exception ; or perhaps
better, with Chief Baron Comyns, into those affecting external
relations and those affecting internal relations. Under the first
class would fall the power of making war and concluding peace.
As incidents to this power the king has the right of sending and
receiving ambassadors, of concluding treaties, and of granting
passports, safe-conducts, letters of marque and reprisals. These
rights may be limited by international agreement ; thus the Declara-
tion of Paris, 1856, abolished privateering as far as the assenting
nations (of whom Great Britain was one) were concerned.
The prerogatives affecting internal relations may be conveni-
ently, if not scientifically, classified as personal, political, judicial,
ecclesiastical and fiscal.
Personal. In order that there may always be an existing head
of the -state the king is regarded as a corporation. He cannot die;
there can only be a demise of the Crown that is, a transfer of the
royal authority to a different person. On the same principle the
king cannot be under age, though in cases where the king has been
of tender years a protector or regent has usually been appointed
for administrative purposes. The king is personally irresponsible
for crime or tort, it being an ancient common law maxim that the
king can do no wrong, and that any injury suffered by a subject at
the hands of the king is to be attributed to the mistake of his
advisers. A curious consequence of this irresponsibility is that the
king is apparently the only person in the realm who cannot under
any circumstances arrest a suspected felon, for no action for false
imprisonment would lie against him, and in the event of the arrest
of an innocent person there would be a wrong without a remedy.
He cannot be guilty of laches, or negligence. The maxim of the
common law is " Nullum tempus occurrit regi." This is still the
law in criminal matters. With a very few exceptions, such as
prosecutions for treason and offences against the customs, no lapse
of time will in England (though it is otherwise in Scotland) bar the
right of the Crown to prosecute. The king is exempt from taxation
on the ground that, as the revenue of the realm is his prerogative,
it is useless for him to tax himself. But lands purchased by the
privy purse are liable to taxation (39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 88, s. 6).
He is also exempt from tolls (which can only exist as a franchise
granted by him), and from the poor-rate, as he is not mentioned in
the Poor Law Acts. His person cannot be arrested or his goods
distrained or taken in execution. The privilege of exemption
from taxation applies to his palaces and to the public buildings
of the state. No kind of judicial process can be executed in a
palace as long as it continues to be a royal residence. The privilege
does not attach to palaces which the king has ceased to use as a
dwelling, such as Hampton Court. The king has also several
personal privileges of minor importance, such as the title of
" majesty," the right to a royal salute, to the use of the royal
standard and of special liveries, &c.
Political. The king is the supreme executive and co-ordinate
legislative authority. As such authority he has the attribute of
sovereignty 2 or pre-eminence, and the right to the allegiance of
his subjects. All land is mediately or immediately held of him.
Land derelict suddenly by the sea, land newly discovered by sub-
jects and islands arising in the sea are his. As paramount authority
in parliament he can dissolve or prorogue it at pleasure, but cannot
prolong it beyond seven years. In theory parliament only exists
at his will, for it is summoned by his writ, and the vote for a member
of parliament is only a franchise, not a right existing independently
of his grant. He can refuse his assent to a bill passed by the
houses of parliament. This right has, however, not been exercised
since 1707, when Queen Anne refused the royal assent to a Scottish
Militia Bill. The king has power to issue proclamations and (with
the assent of the privy council) orders in council, in some cases as
part of the ancient prerogative, in others under the provisions
of an act of parliament. Proclamations are only binding so far as
they are founded upon and enforce the laws of the realm. They
cannot alter the common law or create a new offence. The king
is the fountain of honour; as such he has the valuable power of
granting peerages at will, so far as he is not restrained by any
act of parliament, and so far as he keeps within certain constitu-
tional limits, e.g. he cannot insert a shifting clause in a patent of
peerage. He also confers all other titles of honour, whether heredi-
tary or not, and grants precedence and armorial bearings. The
great officers of state are appointed by the king. The only restric-
tion upon the creation of offices is that he cannot create new offices
with new fees attached to them, or annex new fees to old offices,
for this would be to impose a tax upon the subject without an act
2 The word " sovereign " is frequently applied to the king in
legal works. It should be borne in mind at the same time that the
king is not a sovereign in the strict sense in which the term is used
by Austin.
PREROGATIVE COURTS PRESBYTER
281
of parliament. The king, as head of the state, is in supreme com
in.inil of the army and navy for the defence of the realm. This
right, contested by the Long Parliament, was finally declared by
13 Car. II. c. 6 to be in the king alone. The right of command
carries with it as an incident the right to build forts and defences,
to impress seamen in case of necessity, and to prohibit the im-
portation of munitions of war (39 & 40 Viet. c. 36, s. 43), also the
right to the soil of the foreshore and of estuaries of rivers, and the
jurisdiction over territorial waters. Other rights which fall under
the political branch of the prerogative may be called the commercial
rights, including the coining of money, the regulating of weights
and measures, the establishing of markets and fairs, ana the erecting
of Ijcacons. lighthouses and sea-marks. As parens patriot he is
ex officio guardian of infants, idiots and lunatics. It is scarcely
necessary to point out that all these prerogatives (except the
conferring of honours and such prerogatives as are purely personal)
are exercised through responsible ministers, practically in these
il.iys members ol the party to which the majority of the House of
Commons belongs. Thus the jurisdiction over infants, &c., is
exercised in England by the lord chancellor, and over beacons, &c ,
liv the Trinity House, under the general superintendence of the
lioaril of Trade.
Judicial. The king is the fountain of justice, and the supreme
conservator of the peace of the realm. As supreme judge the king
has the appointment of all judicial officers (other than those in
certain local courts), who act as his deputies. He may constitute
legal courts for the administration of tnc general law of the land,
but he cannot erect tribunals not proceeding according to the
known and established law of the realm, such as the Star Chamber
<>r the commissions of martial law forbidden by the Petition of
Right. Nor can he add to the jurisdiction of courts; thus he cannot
give a spiritual court temporal powers. The king was in theory
supposed to be present in court. Actions in the king's bench
were until modern times said to be coram rege ipso, andthe king
could not be non-suited, for a non-suit implied the non-appearance
of the plaintiff in court. The king enforces judgment by means
of the sheriff, who represents the executive authority. As supreme
conservator of the peace, the king, through the lord-lieutenant in
counties, and through the lord chancellor in cities and boroughs,
appoints justices of the peace. In the same capacity he is the
prosecutor of crimes. All indictments still conclude with the
words "against the peace of our lord the king, his crown and
dignity." As it is the king's peace that is broken by the com-
mission of a crime, the king has, as the offended party, the power
of remission. The king cannot be sued by ordinary action. He
may sue by ordinary action, but he has the advantage of being able
to use prerogative process (see below). He has the right of inter-
vention in all litigation where his rights are concerned, or in the
interests of public justice, as where collusion is alleged between
the decree nisi and the decree absolute in divorce. Crown debts
have priority in administration and bankruptcy.
Ecclesiastical, The king is recognized as " supreme governor "
of the Church by 26 Hen. V II I . c. I , and I Eliz. c. I . By this preroga-
tive he convenes and dissolves convocation and nominates to vacant
bishoprics and other ecclesiastical preferments. The dean and
chapter of a cathedral cannot proceed to the electipn of a bishop
without the king's permission to elect (see CONGE D'EuRE). When
any benefice is vacant by the promotion of the incumbent to a
bishopric other than a colonial bishopric the king has the patronage
pro hoc vice. The king cannot create new ecclesiastical jurisdiction
in England or in colonies other than crown colonies. Where a new
bishopric is created it is under the powers of an act of parliament.
Fiscal. The theory of the constitution is that the king, being
entrusted with the defence of the realm and the administration of
justice, must have sufficient means given him for the purpose.
The bulk of the revenue of the Norman and Plantagenet kings was
derived from crown lands and feudal dues. At the present day the
rents of crown lands form a very small part of the revenue, and the
feudal dues do not exist except in the pecuniarily unimportant
cases of escheat, royal fish, wrecks, treasure trove, waifs and strays,
&c. Of the revenue a comparatively small part (the civil list)
is paid to the king in person, the rest (the consolidated fund) is
applied to public purposes.
Prerogative Process. This is the name given to certain methods
of procedure which the Crown alone has the right of using; such
are inquest of office (an inquiry by jury concerning the right of the
Crown to land or goods), extent (a mode of execution), scire facias
(for the resumption of a grant), and information (by which pro-
ceedings are commenced in the name of the attorney-general for
a public wrong or for injury to crown property).
Prerogative Writs. Certain writs are called " prerogative writs,"
as distinguished from writs of right, because it is within the pre-
rogative to issue or reissue them (see WRIT).
Besides the authorities cited, see Allen, Inquiry into the Rise and
Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England; Chitty, The Prerogative
of the Crown; Staunforde, Exposition of the King's Prerogative;
Comyns, Digest, art. " Praerogative " ; Broom, Constitutional
Law; and the works of W. Bagehot, S. Low, A. V. Dicey and Sir
W. Anson, on the Constitution.
PREROGATIVE COURTS, the name given to the English
provincial courts of Canterbury and York, as far as regarded
their jurisdiction over the estates of deceased persons.
They had jurisdiction to grant probate or administration where
the diocesan courts could not entertain the case owing to the de-
ceased having died possessed of goods above the value of 5 (bona
notabilia) in each of two or more dioceses. The jurisdiction of the
prerogative courts was transferred to the Court of Probate in 1857
by the Probate Court Act, and is now vested in the Probate,
Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice by
the Judicature Act 1875. In the state of New Jersey, United
States, the court having jurisdiction over probate matters is called
the Prerogative Court.
PRESBYTER (Gr. irptff/S&Ttpos, elder, the comparative of
?rpo-j3i*, an old man), the title borne from very early times by
certain officers or ministers of the Christian Church intermediate
between " bishops " and " deacons." The specialized use of
the word as implying not only age, but consequently wisdom and
authority, is analogous to that of " senate " (from senior), of
"gerousia" (from ytpuv), and of "elder." It is the original
form of priest (q.v.). The word is not found in pre-Christian
writings except in the Septuagint, though as Deissmann has
shown it is found on the Papyri as an official title for the village
magistrates of Egypt and the members of the ytpovaia, or senate,
of many towns in Asia Minor. The office is, however, closely
analogous to, and perhaps founded on, a similar office in the
Jewish synagogue organization among the officials of which
were the zekenim, or elders, sometimes identified with the archi-
synagogues. In the New Testament the Greek word is used both
for the ancient Jewish official and for the Christian elder. On
Jewish tombstones of the Hellenistic period the title is frequently
found, sometimes applied to women. The head official of the
English Jews prior to their expulsion bore the title of Presbyter
judaeorum; opinions differ as to whether this-officer was eccles-
iastical or had merely the secular duty of supervising the
exchequer of the Jews (see further The Jewish Encyclopedia.
1905, x. 190, 191).
The history of presbyteral government as opposed to episcopacy
and pure Congregationalism is not known in detail. After the
Reformation, however, it was adopted by Calvin and his followers,
who created that system which has ever since been known as
Presbyterianism (q.v.). There are many theories as to the origin of
the office of presbyter in the Christian Church, (i) Some connect
it with the appointment of the seven recorded in Acts vi. This
is the view taken by Boehmer, 1 Ritschl 1 and Lindsay. 1 It is
urged that the traditional view which regards the seven as deacons
is untenable because the term " deacon " is never used in the narra-
tive, and there is no reference to the office in the Acts. On the
other hand the officials of the Jerusalem church are always called
" elders " and when they are first introduced (Acts xi. 30) appear
to be discharging the functions for which " the seven " were specially
set apart. (2) The view adopted by the majority of English
scholars is, while refusing to accept the connexion between the
presbyters and the seven, to regard the office as distinctly primitive
and say that it was taken over by the earliest Christian community
at Jerusalem from the Jewish synagogue. 4 (3) Harnack and a
few other modern scholars ' maintain that the office of presbyter
did not come into existence till the 2nd century. During the last
quarter of the 1st century, a three-fold organization is found in
the Church : (a) a spiritual organization composed of " apostles,
prophets and teachers who had been awakened by the spirit and by
the spirit endowed "; (6) an administrative organization, " For the
care of the poor, for worship, for correspondence, the congregation
needed controlling officials. These were the bishop and the deacons,
the former for higher, the latter for inferior services " ; (c) a patri-
archal organization based upon the natural deference of the younger
to the older members of the Church. The senior members of the
community, by virtue of their age and experience, watched over
the conduct and guided the action of the younger and less experi-
enced portion of the Church, though they held no official position
and were not appointed for any particular work like the bishops
and deacons. In the 2nd century the patriarchal element in the
organization was merged in the administrative, and the presbyter.-.
1 Dtss. jur. eccl. p. 373.
* Entstfhung der altkalholischen Kirche. 2nd ed. p. 355.
' The Church and the Ministry, p. 116; cf. also Brown, Apos-
tolical Succession, p. 144.
4 Lightfoot, Ep. to the Philippians, p. 192.
' E.g. Sohm, Kirchenrecht, 92; Weizsacker, Apostolic Age (Eng.
trans, ii. 330); Allen, Christian Institutions, p. 38; A. C. McGiffert,
Apostolic Age, p. 663 (1897).
282
PRESBYTER
became a definite order in the ministry. The time at which the
change occurred cannot be definitely fixed. " In some congrega-
tions," as Harnack says, " it may have been long before the elders
were chosen, in others this may have come very soon; in some the
sphere of the competency of the presbyters and patrons may have
been quite indefinite and in others more precise." Harnack's
theory is based upon the following arguments: (a) The silence
of the genuine Epistles of St Paul and the Epistle to the Hebrews.
In I Cor. xii. 28 Paul says that God has given to the Church apostles,
prophets, teachers, miracles, gifts of healing, helps, governments;
but of presbyters he has not a word to say. Even from passages
where he is speaking of the jurisdiction of the congregation, as
for example in I Cor. v., vi., the presbyters are absent, while in
Phil. i. I it is the bishops and deacons that he mentions. (6) The
documents in which presbyters are mentioned in an official sense,
viz. the Epistle of James, the first Epistle of Peter, the Acts of the
Apostles and the Pastoral Epistles belong to a later age and reflect
the customs of their own day rather than those of the primitive
Church, (c) Even Clement of Rome does not say that the apostles
had appointed presbyters in the congregation, he speaks only of
bishops and deacons. For this reason the statement in Acts xiv.
23 is to be looked upon with suspicion. These arguments, however,
are not absolutely decisive. It is true that presbyters are not
mentioned in the genuine Epistles of St Paul, but there are
hints that similar officers existed in some of the churches founded by
the apostle. There is a reference in I Thess. v. 12 to " those
who rule over you " (irpo'iaT&nevoi), and the same word occurs in
Rom. xii. 8. 1 The term " governments " (Kvflfpv/iatis) in I Cor.
xiv. 28 obviously refers to men who discharged the same functions
as presbyters. If too, as seems most probable, bishops and pres-
byters were practically identical, there is of course a specific refer-
ence to them in Phil. i. I. The " leaders " who are mentioned
three times in Hebrews xiii. were also probably " presbyters "
under another name. Harnack's second argument depends for
its validity upon certain conclusions with regard to the date of
James and I Peter, which are not universally accepted. Few
English scholars, for instance, would accept as late a date as 120-
140 for James, and i Peter may be as early as 65, as Harnack
himself admits, though he prefers a date in the reign of Domitian.
If this possibility in regard to I Peter is granted, it is fatal to the
theory, because at the time when the epistle was written official
presbyters were so well established that abuse and degeneration
had already begun to creep in and some of the elders were already
guilty of " lording it over their heritage " and making a profit
out of their office (i Pet. v. 1-4). With regard to the testimony
of Acts, the only question, since Harnack admits the Lucan author-
ship, 2 is whether Luke is describing the organization of the Church
as it existed at the time of the events recorded or reflecting the
arrangements which prevailed at the time when the book was written.
It is difficult to see now Luke can have been wrong with regard to
the " Ephesian elders " who came to meet Paul at Miletus since he
was present on the occasion (xx. 15-17). The only mistake that
seems possible is that he may have conferred a later title upon the
emissaries of the Church of Ephesus. This is not likely, but, at
all events, it would only prove that the office under another name
existed at Ephesus, for otherwise Luke could not possibly have
put into the mouth of Paul the address which follows. Neither
is there prima facie ground for objecting to the statements with
regard to the presbyters of Jerusalem. If the Church at Jerusalem
had any officials, it is highly probable that those officials bore
the name and took over the functions of the elders of the synagogue.
The statement in Acts xiv. 23, that Paul and Barnabas appointed
elders in the churches of South Galatia, is more open to objection
perhaps, owing to the silence of the Epistle to the Galatians. With
regard to the evidence of the Epistle of Clement, Harnack seems to
be incorrect in his conclusions. Scholars of such opposite schools
of thought as Schmiedel 3 and Lindsay* maintain that the epistle
contains the most explicit references to presbyters of the official
type. The crucial passage (xliv. 4-6) seems to bear out their
contention. " It will be no light sin for us if we thrust out of the
oversight (kiriaKoirri) those who have offered the gifts unblameably
and holily. Blessed are those presbyters who have gone before
. . . for they have no fear lest any one should remove them from
their appointed place " (into TOV Ubpviiivov rbvov). There is an
equally specific reference in liv. 2: " Only let the flock of Christ
keep peace with its duly-appointed presbyters" (nera TWC KaBiorankvuv
The conclusions which we seem to reach are as follows: (i) In the
earliest stage (between 30 and 60) there is no uniform organization
1 Hort translates irpoitrT&ncvoi " those who care for you," but
I Tim. iii. 12 and v. 17 seem to be against this. In Justin Martyr,
Apol. i. 67, Trpotarw evidently refers to " the president of the
church," and in a recently discovered papyrus which Ramsay dates
303 a certain bishop is described as XaoO Trpoiaraufvov, Studies in
Roman Provinces, pp. 125-126.
1 Lukas der Arzt (1006), cap. I.
' Ency. Bib. p. 3134 sqq.
4 The Church and the Ministry, p. 160. Cf. also Loening, Die
Gcmeindeverfassung des Urchrislentums, p. 58.
in the Christian Church. Presbyters are found in Jerusalem
from primitive times. In the Pauline churches the name is not
found except at Ephesus and possibly in south Galatia, though
there are traces of the office, at any rate in germ, under different
titles in other churches. (2) In the second stage (between 60 and
100) there is an increasing tendency towards uniformity. The
office is found definitely mentioned in connexion with the churches
of Asia Minor (i Pet. i. i), Corinth (Epistle of Clement) and Crete
(Titus). The officials were called by two names, " elders " and
" bishops," the former denoting the office, the latter the function
(exercising the oversight). The substantial identity of the two
titles cannot be doubted in the light of such passages as Acts xx.
17, 28.; l Pet. v. i, 2; i Tim. iii. 1-7, v. 17-19 and Titus i. 5-7.
There is far less controversy with regard to the later history
of the presbyters. The third stage of the development of the
office is marked by the rise of the single episcopus as the head
of the individual church (see BISHOP; EPISCOPACY). The first
trace of this is to be found in the Epistles of Ignatius which
prove that by the year 115 " the three orders " as they were
afterwards called bishop, presbyters and deacons already
existed, not indeed universally, but in a large proportion of the
churches. The presbyters occupied an intermediate position
between the bishop and the deacons. They constituted " the
council of the bishop." It was some time before the threefold
ministry became universal. The Didache knows nothing of the
presbyters; bishops and deacons are mentioned, but there is no
reference to the second order. The Shepherd of Hernias knows
nothing of the single bishop; the churches are under the control
of a body of presbyter-bishops. Before the close of the 2nd
century however the three orders were established almost
everywhere. The sources of the Apostolic Canons (which date
between 140-180) lay down the rule that even the smallest
community of Christians, though it contain only twelve mem-
bers, must have its bishop and its presbyters. The original
equality of bishops and presbyters was still however theoreti-
cally maintained. The Canons of Hippolytus which belong to
the end of the 2nd century distinctly lay it down that " at the
ordination of a presbyter everything is to be done as in the
case of a bishop, save that he does not seat himself upon the
throne. The same prayer shall also be said as for a bishop, the
name of the bishop only being left out. The presbyter shall in
all things be equal with the bishop, save in the matter of pre-
siding and ordaining, for the power to ordain is not given him."
The presbyters formed the governing body of the church. It
was their duty to maintain order, exercise discipline, and
superintend the affairs of the Church. At the beginning of
the 3rd century, if we are to believe Tertullian, they had no
spiritual authority of their own, at any rate as far as the sacra-
ments are concerned. The right to baptize and celebrate the
communion was delegated to them by the bishop. 6
In the fourth stage we find the presbyters, like the bishops,
becoming endowed with special sacerdotal powers and functions.
Up to the end of the 2nd century the universal priesthood
of all believers was the accepted doctrine of the Church. It was
not till the middle of the 3rd century that the priesthood was
restricted to the clergy. Cyprian is largely responsible for the
change, though traces of it are found during the previous half
century. Cyprian bestows the highest sacerdotal terms upon
the bishops of course, but his references to the priestly character
of the office of presbyter are also most definite. 6 Henceforth pres-
byters are recognized as the secundum sacerdotium in the Church.
With the rise of the diocesan bishops the position of the
presbyters became more important. The charge of the indi-
vidual church was entrusted to them and gradually they took the
place of the local bishops of earlier days, so that in the 5th and
6th centuries an organization was reached which approximated
in general outline to the system which prevails in the Anglican
Church to-day.
See Hatch, Organization of the Early Christian Churches (2nd ed.,
1882), and Harnack's " excursus " in the German edition of this
6 Tertull. De bapt, 17 : " Baptismi dandi habet jus summus sacerdos
qui est episcopus ; dehinc presbyteri .... non tamen sine episcopi
auctoritate."
6 Cf. Ep. 58 : "Presbyteri cumepiscoposacerdotalihonore conjunct!."
PRESBYTERIANISM
283
work (1883); Harnack, Die Lehre der zwolf A pastel (1884); Loening,
Die Gemeindeverfassung des Urchristentums (1889); Sohni, Kirchen-
recht (1892); an article by Loofs, in Studien una Kritiken, for 1890
(pp. 619-658); Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early
Centuries (1902); Schmiedel, article " Ministry," in Ene. Bib.
(H. T. A.)
PRESBYTERIANISM, a highly organized form of church
government in which presbyters or elders occupy a prominent
place. As one of the three principal systems of ecclesiastical
polity known to the Christian Church, Presbyterianism occupies
an intermediate position between episcopacy' and Congrega-
tionalism. A brief comparison with these will indicate its
salient features. In episcopacy the supreme authority is a
diocesan bishop; in Congregationalism it is the members of the
congregation assembled in church meeting; in Presbyterianism
it is a church council composed of representative presbyters.
In episcopacy the control of church affairs is almost entirely
withdrawn from the people; in Congregationalism it is almost
entirely exercised by the people; in Presbyterianism it rests
with a council composed of duly appointed office-bearers chosen
by the people. The ecclesiastical unit in episcopacy is a diocese,
comprising many churches and ruled by a prelate; in Congrega-
tionalism it is a single church, self-governed and entirely inde-
pendent of all others; in Presbyterianism it is a presbytery or
council composed of ministers and elders representing all the
churches within a specified district. It may be said broadly,
therefore, that in episcopacy the government is monarchical;
in Congregationalism, democratic; and in Presbyterianism,
aristocratic or representative.
I. THE SYSTEM DESCRIBED
As compared with the Church of England (Episcopal) in which
there are three orders of clergy bishops, priests and deacons,
One Order l ^ e P res byterian Church -recognizes but one spiritual
order, viz. presbyters. These are ecclesiastically of
equal rank, though differentiated, according to their duties, as
ministers who preach and administer the sacraments, and as
elders who are associated with the ministers in the oversight of
the people. There are deacons in Presbyterianism inferior in
rank to presbyters, their duties being regarded as non-spiritual.
The membership of a Presbyterian Church consists of all
who are enrolled as communicants, together with their children.
Member- Others who worship regularly without becoming
ship. communicants are called adherents. Only com-
municants exercise the rights of membership. They elect the
minister and other office-bearers. But, in contrast with Con-
gregationalism, when they elect and " call " a minister their
action has to be sustained by the presbytery, which judges of
his fitness for that particular sphere, of the measure of the
congregation's unanimity, and of the adequacy of financial
support. When satisfied, the presbytery proceeds with the
ordination and induction. The ordination and induction of
ministers is always the act of a presbytery. The ordination
and induction of elders in some branches of the Church is the
act of the kirk-session; in others it is the act of the presbytery.
The kirk-session is the first of a series of councils or church
courts which are an essential feature of Presbyterianism. It
. consists of the ministers and ruling elders. The minister
* ', is ex officio president or moderator. Without his
presence or the presence of his duly-appointed deputy
the meeting would not be in order nor its proceedings valid. The
moderator has not a deliberative, but only a casting vote. (This
is true of the moderator in all the church courts.) Neither the session
nor the congregation has jurisdiction over the minister. He holds
his office advitam aut culpam; he cannot demit it or be deprived
of it without consent of the presbytery. In this way his inde-
pendence among the people to whom he ministers is to a large extent
secured. The kirk-session has oversight of the congregation in
regard to such matters as the hours of public worship, the arrange-
ments for administration of the sacraments, the admission of new
members and the exercise of church discipline. New members
are either catechumens or members transferred from other churches.
The former are received after special instruction and profession
of faith; the latter on presenting a certificate of church membership
from the church which they have left. Though the admission of
new members is, strictly speaking, the act of the session, this duty
usually devolves upon the minister, who reports his procedure to
the session for approval and confirmation. Matters about which
there is any doubt or difficulty, or division of opinion in the
session, may be carried for settlement to the next higher court,
the presbytery.
The presbytery consists of all the ministers and a selection of
the ruling elders from the congregations within a prescribed area.
The presbytery chooses its moderator periodically from _..
among its ministerial members. His duty is to see
that business is transacted according to Presbyterian
principle and procedure. The moderator has no special power or
supremacy over his brethren, but is honoured and obeyed as primus
inter pares. The work of the presbytery is episcopal. It has
oversight of all the congregations within its bounds; hears refer-
ences from kirk-sessions or appeals from individual members;
sanctions the formation of new congregations; superintends the
education of students for the ministry; stimulates and guides
pastoral and evangelistic work; and exercises discipline over all
within its bounds, including the ministers. Three members, two
of whom must be ministers, form a quorum ; a smalt number com-
pared with the important business they may have to transact,
but the right of appeal to a higher court is perhaps sufficient safe-
guard against abuse. Presbytery meetings arc either ordinary
or occasional. The former are. held at prearranged intervals.
Occasional meetings are either in hunc effectum or pro re nata.
The presbytery fixes the former for specific business; the latter i>
summoned by the moderator, either on his own initiative or on the
requisition ot two or more members of presbytery, for the transac-
tion of business which has suddenly emerged. The first question
considered at a pro re nata meeting is the action of the moderator
in calling the meeting. If this is approved the meeting proceeds;
if not, the meeting is dissolved. Appeals and complaints may be
taken from the presbytery to the synod.
The synod is a provincial council which consists of the ministers
and representative elders from all the congregations within a
specified number of presbyteries, in the same way as _.
the presbytery is representative of a specified number
of congregations. Though higher in rank and larger than most
presbyteries it is practically of less importance, not being, like the
presbytery, a court of first instance, nor yet, like the general
assembly, a court of final appeal. The synod at its first meeting
chooses a minister as its moderator whose duties, though somewhat
more restricted, are similar to those of presbyterial moderators.
The synod hears appeals and references from presbyteries; and by
its discussions and decisions business of various kinds, if not settled,
is ripened for consideration and final settlement by the general
assembly, the supreme court of the Church.
The general assembly is representative of the whole Church,
either, as in the Irish General Assembly, by a minister and elder
sent direct to it from every congregation, or, as in the
Scottish General Assemblies, by a proportion of dele-
gates, ministers and elders from every presbytery. Asseta6 W-
The general assembly annually at its first meeting chooses one
of its ministerial members as moderator. He takes precedence,
primus inter pares, of all the members, and is recognized as
the official head of the Church during his term of office. His
position is one of great honour and influence, but he remains a
simple presbyter, without any special rule or jurisdiction. The
general assembly reviews all the work of the Church; settles con-
troversies; makes administrative laws; directs and stimulates
missionary and other spiritual work; appoints professors of theology ;
admits to the ministry applicants from other churches; hears and
decides complaints, references and appeals which have come up
through the inferior courts; and takes cognizance of all matters
connected with the Church's interests or with the general welfare
of the people. As a judicatory it is the final court of appeal; and
by it alone can the graver censures of church discipline be reviewed
and removed. The general assembly meets once a year at the
time and place agreed upon and appointed by its predecessor.
By means of this series of concihar courts the unity of the Church
is secured and made manifest; the combined, simultaneous effort
of the whole is made possible; and disputes, instead of
being fought out where they arise, are carried for settle-
ment to a larger and higher judicatory, free from local
feeling and prejudice. As access to the church courts is the right
of all, and involves but slight expense, the liberty of even the
humblest member of the Church is safeguarded, and local oppression
or injustice is rendered difficult.
The weak point in the system is that episcopal superintendence
being exercised in every case by a plurality of individuals there is
no one, moderator or senior member, whose special duty it is to take
initial action when the unpleasant work of judicial investigation
or ecclesiastical discipline becomes necessary. This has led in some
quarters to a desire that the moderator should be clothed with
greater responsibility and have his period of office prolonged;
should be made, in fact, more of a bishop in the Anglican sense of
the word.
Though the jus dirinum of presbytery is not now insisted upon
as in some former times, Presbyterians claim that it is the church
polity set forth in the New Testament. The case is usually
stated somewhat as follows. With the sanction and under the
284
PRESBYTERIANISM
guidance of the Apostles, officers called elders and deacons were
appointed in every newly-formed church. 1 They were elected by
New the people, and ordained or set apart for their sacred
Testament wor k by the Apostles. 2 The elders were appointed to
Authority, teach and rule; 3 the deacons to minister to the poor. 4
There were elders in the church at Jerusalem, 6 and in
the church at Ephesus;' Paul and Barnabas appointed elders in the
cities of Lycaoma and Pisidia; 7 Paul left Titus in Crete to appoint
elders in every city; 8 the elders amongst the strangers scattered
throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia re-
ceived a special exhortation by Peter. 9 These elders were rulers,
and the only rulers in the New Testament Church. Just as in the
synagogue there was a plurality of rulers called elders, so there was
in every Christian church a plurality of elders. The elders were
different from the deacons, but there is no indication that any one
elder was of higher rank than the others. The elder was not an
officer inferior and subordinate to the bishop. The elder was a
bishop. The two titles are applied to the same persons. See
Acts xx. 17, 28; " he sent and called for the elders of the church. . . .
Take heed to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath made
you bishops." See also Titus i. 5, 6: " ordain elders . . . for a
bishop must be blameless." This is now admitted by modern
expositors. 10 The elders were chosen by the people. This is not
expressly stated in the New Testament but is regarded as a necessary
inference. When an apostle was about to be chosen as successor
to Judas, the people were invited to take part in the election; 11
and when deacons were about to be appointed the Apostles
asked the people to make the choice. 12 It is inferred that elders
were similarly chosen. It is worthy of notice that there is no account
at all of the first appointment of elders as there is of deacons.
Probably the recognition and appointment of elders was simply
the transfer from the synagogue to the Church of a usage which was
regarded as essential among Jews; and the Gentile churches
naturally followed the example of the Jewish Christians. 13 The
elders thus chosen by the people and inducted to their office by the
Apostles acted as a church court. Only thus could a plurality
of rulers of equal rank act in an efficient and orderly way. They
would discharge their pastoral duties as individuals, but when
a solemn ecclesiastical act, like ordination, was performed, it
would be done, as in the case of Timothy, by " the laying on of
the hands of the presbytery " ; u and when an authoritative decision
had to be reached, as in regard to circumcision, a synod or court
was called together for the purpose. 16 The action of Paul and
Barnabas at Antioch l * seems to accord with Presbyterian rather
than Congregational polity. The latter would have required that
the question should have been settled by the church at Antioch
instead of being referred to Jerusalem. And the decision of the
council at Jerusalem was evidently more than advisory; it was
authoritative and meant to be binding on all the churches." The
principle of ministerial parity which is ^fundamental in Presbyterian-
ism is founded not merely on apostolic example but on the words
of Christ Himself: "Ye know that the princes of the Gentiles
exercise dominion over them, and they that are great exercise
authority upon them. But it shall not be so among you." 18
From the foregoing outline it will be seen that Presbyterianism
may be said to consist in the government of the Church by
., representative assemblies composed of the two
Alternative , e . . .
Definitions. cl asse s of presbyters, ministers and elders, and so
arranged as to manifest and realize the visible unity
of the whole Church. Or it may be described as denying (i)
that the apostolic office is perpetual and should still exist in the
Christian Church; (2) that all church power should be vested in
the clergy; (3) that each congregation should be independent of
all the rest; and as asserting (i) that the people ought to have
a substantial part in the government of the Church; (2) that
presbyters, i.e. elders or bishops, are the highest permanent
officers in the Church and are of equal rank; (3) that an outward
and visible Church is one in the sense that a smaller part is
controlled by a larger and all the parts by the whole. 19
Though Presbyterians are unanimous in adopting the general
system of church polity as here outlined, and in claiming New
I Phil. i. i. Acts xx. 17.
"- Acts vi. 2-6. ' Acts xiv. 23.
3 i Tim. v. 17; Titus i. 9. 8 Titus i. 5.
4 Acts vi. 1,2. 9 i Peter v. I.
6 Acts xi. 29, xv. 2, 4, 6, xvi. 4.
10 See Bishop Lightfoot's exhaustive essay in his volume on the
Epistle to the Philippians.
II Acts i. 15-26. 16 Acts xv. 6-20.
12 Acts vi. 2-6. 16 Acts xv. 2.
13 Acts xiv. 23. " Acts xvi. 4.
14 I Timothy iv. 14. 18 Matt.xx.25,26;Lukexxii.25,26.
19 Proceedings of Seventh General Council of the Alliance of Re-
formed Churches holding the Presbyterian System (Washington,
1899).
Testament authority for it, there are certain differences of view
in regard to details which may be noticed. There is no doubt
that considerable indefiniteness in regard to the
precise status and rank of the ruling elder is com-
monly prevalent. When ministers and elders are
associated in the membership of a church court their equality
is admitted; no such idea as voting by orders is ever entertained.
Yet even in a church court inequality, generally speaking, is
visible to the extent that an elder is not usually eligible for the
moderator's chair. In some other respects also a certain
disparity is apparent between a minister and his elders. Practi-
cally the minister is regarded as of higher standing. The duty
of teaching and of administering the sacraments and of always
presiding in church courts being strictly reserved to him invests
his office with a dignity and influence greater than that of the
elder. It was inevitable, therefore, that this question as to the
exact status of the ruling elder should claim attention in the
discussions of the Pan-Presbyterian Alliance. At its meeting
in Belfast in 1884 a report was submitted by a " committee on
the eldership " which had been previously appointed. Accord-
ing to this committee there are prevalent three distinct theories
in regard to the office and function of ruling elders:
I. That while the New Testament recognizes but one order of
presbyters there are in this order two degrees or classes, known
as teaching elders and ruling elders. In teaching, in _,. .
dispensing the sacraments, in presiding over public //"2 , t f "'
worship, and in the private functions by which hevjjj *
ministers to the comfort, the instruction and the improve-
ment of the people committed to his care, a pastor acts within his
parish (or congregation) according to his own discretion; and for
the discharge of all the duties of the pastoral office he is accountable
only to the presbytery from whom he received the charge of the
parish (or congregation). But in everything which concerns what
is called discipline the exercise of that jurisdiction over the people
with which the office-bearers of the church are conceived to be
invested, he is assisted by lay-elders. They are laymen in that they
have no right to teach or to dispense the sacraments, and on this
account they fill an office in the Presbyterian Church inferior in
rank and power to that of the pastors. Their peculiar business
is expressed by the term " ruling elders." M
II. A second theory is contended for by Principal Campbell
in his treatise on the eldership, and by others also, that there is
no warrant in Scripture for the eldership as it exists in the Presby-
terian Church; that the ruling elder is not, and is not designed to
be, a counterpart of the New Testament elder; in other words,
that he is not a presbyter, but only a layman chosen to represent
the laity in the church courts and permitted to assist in the govern-
ment of the church.
III. A third theory, advanced by Professor Witherow and others,
is that the modern elder is intended to be, and should be, recog-
nized as a copy of the scriptural presbyter. Those who take this
view hold that " in everything except training and the conse-
quences of training the elder is the very same as the minister,"
and they base their opinion on the fact that the terms " overseer "
or " bishop," " presbyter " and " elder," are used interchangeably
throughout the New Testament. It is consistent with this view to
argue the absolute parity of ministers and elders, conceding to all
presbyters " equal right to teach, to rule, to administer the sacra-
ments, to take part in the ordination of ministers, and to preside
in church courts."
The practice of the Presbyterian churches of the present
day is in accord with the first-named theory. Where attempts
are made to reduce the third theory to practice
the result is not satisfactory. Nor is the first-named
theory less in harmony with Scripture teaching than
the third. In the initial stages of the Apostolic Church it was
no doubt sufficient to have a plurality of presbyters with abso-
lutely similar duties and powers. At first, indeed, this may
have been the only possible course. But apparently it soon
became desirable and perhaps necessary to specialize the work
of teaching by setting apart for that duty one presbyter who
should withdraw from secular occupation and devote his whole
time to the work of the ministry. There seems to be evidence
of this in the later writings of the New Testament. 21 It is now
held by all Presbyterian churches that one presbyter in every
congregation should have specially committed to him the work
20 Hill's View of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland, pp. 37,
38.
21 I Tim. iv. 15, v. 17; Col. iv. 17.
PRESBYTERIANISM
285
of teaching, administering the sacraments, visiting the flock
pastorally, and taking oversight, with his fellow elders, of all
the interests of the church. To share with the minister such
general oversight is not regarded by intelligent and influential
laymen as an incongruous or unworthy office; but to identify
the duties of the eldership, even in theory, with those of the
minister is a sure way of deterring from accepting office many
whose counsel and influence in the eldership would be in-
valuable. 1
Another subject upon which there is a difference of opinion
in the Presbyterian churches is the question of Church Establish-
ments. The view, originally held by all Presbyterian churches
in Great Britain and on the Continent, that union with and
support by the civil government are not only lawful but also
desirable, is now held only by a minority, and is practically
exemplified among English-speaking Presbyterians only in
the Church of Scotland (see SCOTLAND, CHURCH or). The law-
fulness of Church Establishments with due qualifications is
perhaps generally recognized in theory, but there is a growing
tendency to regard connexion with the state as inexpedient,
if not actually contrary to sound Presbyterian principle. That
this tendency exists cannot be doubted, and there is reason to
fear that its influence, by identifying Presbyterianism with
dissent in England and Scotland, is unfavourable to the general
tone and character of the Presbyterian Church.
Those who favour state connexion and those who oppose
it agree in claiming spiritual independence as a fundamental
principle of Presbyterianism. That principle is
'" equally opposed to Erastianism and to Papacy,
to the civil power dominating the Church, and to
the ecclesiastical power dominating the state. All Presby-
terians admit the supremacy of the state in things secular, and
they claim supremacy for the Church in things spiritual. Those
who favour a Church Establishment hold that Church and state
should each be supreme in its own sphere, and that on these
terms a union between them is not only lawful but is the highest
exemplification of Christian statesmanship. So long as these
two spheres are at all points clearly distinct, and so long as there
is a desire on the part of each to recognize the supremacy of
the other, there is little danger of friction or collision. But
when spiritual and secular interests come into unfriendly contact
and entanglement; when controversy in regard to them becomes
inevitable; from which sphere, the spiritual or the civil, is the
final decision to come? Before the Reformation the Church
would have had the last word; since that event the right and the
duty of the civil power have been generally recognized.
The origin of Presbyterianism is a question of historical
interest. By some it is said to have begun at the Reformation;
by some it is traced back to the days of Israel in
Egypt; 2 by most, however, it is regarded as of later
Jewish origin, and as having come into existence in its present
form simultaneously with the formation of the Christian Church.
The last is Bishop Lightfoot's view. He connects the Christian
ministry, not with the worship of the Temple, in which were
priests and sacrificial ritual, but with that of the synagogue,
which was a local institution providing spiritual edification
by the reading and exposition of Scripture. 3 The first Christians
were regarded, even by themselves, as a Jewish sect. They
were spoken of as " the way." 4 They took with them,
into the new communities which they formed, the Jewish
polity or rule and oversight by elders. The appointment of
these would be regarded as a matter of course, and would not
seem to call for any special notice in such a narrative as the
Acts of the Apostles.
But Presbyterianism was associated in the 2nd century with a
kind of episcopacy. This episcopacy was at first rather con-
gregational than diocesan; but the tendency of its growth was
undoubtedly towards the latter. Hence for proof that their
1 Report of Proceedings, Third General Council of the Alliance
of Reformed Churches, &c. (1884), pp. 373 seq. and App. p. 131.
1 Exodus iii. 16; iv. 29.
. ' St Luke iv. 16 seq. 4 Acts ix. 2.
Origin.
church polity is apostolic Presbyterians are accustomed to
appeal to the New Testament and to the time when the apostles
were still living; and for proof of the apostolicity
of prelacy Episcopalians appeal rather to the ^
Church fathers and to a time when the last of the
Apostles had just passed away.' It is generally admitted that dis-
tinct traces of Presbyterian polity are to be found in unexpected
quarters (e.g. Ireland, lona, the Culdees, &c.) from the early
centuries of church history and throughout the medieval
ages down to the Reformation of the :6th century. Only in
a very modified sense, therefore, can it be correctly said to date
from the Reformation.
At the Reformation the Bible was for the great mass of both
priests and people a new discovery. The study of it shed floods
of light upon all church questions. The leaders of the _..
Reformation searched the New Testament not only for f
doctrinal truth but also to ascertain the polity of the
primitive Church. This was specially true of the Reformers in
Switzerland, France, Scotland, Holland and in some parts of
Germany. Luther gave little attention to New Testament polity,
though he believed in and clung passionately to the universal
priesthood of all true Christians, and rejected the idea of a sacer-
dotal caste. He had no dream or vision of the Church's spiritual
independence and prerogative. He was content that ecclesiastical
supremacy should be with the civil power, and he believed that
the work of the Reformation would in that way be best preserved
and furthered. In no sense can his " consistorial " system of
church government be regarded as Presbyterian.
It was different with the Reformers outside Germany. While
Luther studied the Scriptures in search of true doctrine and
Christian life and was indifferent to forms of church
polity, they studied the New Testament not only in 5*5"*
search of primitive church doctrine but also of primitive ,
church polity. One is struck by the unanimity with v~t
which, working individually and often in lands far apart,
they reached the same conclusions. They did not get their ideas
of church polity from one another, but drew it directly from the
New Testament. For example, John Row, one of the five commis-
sioners appointed by the Scottish Privy Council to draw up what
is now known as the First Book of Discipline, distinctly says that
" they took not their example from any kirk in the world ; no,
not from Geneva "; but they drew their plan from the sacred Scrip-
tures.* This was true of them all. They were unanimous in
rejecting the episcopacy of the Church of Rome, the sanctity of
celibacy, the sacerdotal character of the ministry, the confessional,
the propitiatory nature of the mass. They were unanimous in
adopting the idea of a church in which all the members were priests
under the Lord Jesus, the One High Priest and Ruler; the officers
of which were not mediators between men and God, but preachers
of One Mediator, Christ Jesus; not lords over God's heritage, but
ensamples to the flock and ministers to render service. They were
unanimous in regarding ministerial service as mainly pastoral;
preaching, administering the sacraments and visiting from house
to house; and, further, in perceiving that Christian ministers must
be also spiritual rulers, not in virtue of any magical influence
transmitted from the Apostles, but in virtue of their election by the
Church and of their appointment in the name of the Lord Jesus.
When the conclusions thus reached by many independent investi-
gators were at length reduced to a system by Calvin, in his famous
Institutio, it became the definite ideal of church government for
all the Reformed, in contradistinction to the Lutheran, churches.
Yet we do not find that the leaders of the Reformed Church
succeeded in establishing at once a fully-developed Presbyterian
polity. Powerful influences hindered them from realiz-
ing their ideal. We notice two. In the first place, the 7JJ"?
people generally dreaded the recurrence of ecclesiastical
tyranny. So dreadful had been the yoke of Rome, which they had
shaken off, that they feared to submit to anything similar even
under Protestant auspices. When their ministers, moved by an
intense desire to keep the Church pure by means of the exercise
of scriptural discipline, claimed special spiritual rule over the people,
it was not wonderful that the latter should have been reluctant to
submit to a new spiritual despotism. So strong was this feeling
in some places that it was contended that the discipline of ex-
communication, if exercised at all, should be exercised only by the
secular power. A second powerful influence was of a different
kind, viz. municipal jealousy of church power. The municipal
authority in those times claimed the right to exercise a censorship
over the citizens' private life. Any attempt on the part of the Church
to exercise discipline was resented as an intrusion. It has been
a common mistake to think of Calvin and contemporary Reformers
1 See Lightfoot's Essay in Commentary on the Epistle to the
PhiJippians.
1 Knox, Winran, Spotswood and Douglas all of them John
were the other commissioners.
286
PRESBYTERIANISM
as introducing a discipline of stern repression which made the in-
nocent gaieties of life impossible, and produced a dull uniformity
of straitlaced manners and hypocritical morals. The discipline
was there before the Reformers. There were civil laws which
regulated clothing, food and social festivity. Hence friction, at
times, between the Reformers and civic authorities friendly to the
Reformation; not as to whether there should be "discipline"
(that was never doubted) but as to whether it should be ecclesi-
astical or municipal. Even, therefore, where people desired the
Reformation there were powerful influences opposed to the setting
up of church government and to the exercise of church discipline
after the manner of the apostolic Church ; and one ceases to wonder
at the absence of complete Presbyterianism in the countries which
were forward to embrace and adopt the Reformation. Indeed
the more favourable the secular authorities were to the Reformation
the less need was there to discriminate between civil and ecclesi-
astical power, and to define strictly how the latter should be exer-
cised. We look in vain, therefore, for much more than the germs
and principles of Presbyterianism in the churches of the first
Reformers. Its evolution and the thorough application of its
principles to actual church life came later, not in Saxony or Switzer-
land, but in France and Scotland; and through Scotland it has
passed to all English-speaking lands.
The doctrines of Presbyterianism are those generally known
as evangelical and Calvinistic. The supreme standard of
belief is the Word of God in the original languages.
gy- 'pjjg subordinate standards have been numerous,
though marked by striking agreement -in the main body of
Christian doctrine which they set forth. Much has been done
of late years to make these subordinate standards of reformed
doctrine more generally known. The following list is fairly
complete:
Switzerland. First Helvetic Confession (1536). Geneva Con-
fession (1536). Geneva Catechism (1545).
England. Forty-two Articles (1553). Thirty-eight Articles (1563).
Thirty-nine Articles (1571). Lambeth Articles (1595). Irish Articles
(1615). Westminster Confession (1644-1647). Larger and Shorter
Catechisms (1647).
France. Confessio gallicana (1559).
Scotland. Scottish' Confession (1560). Westminster Confession
(1647). Larger and Shorter Catechisms (1647).
Netherlands. Frisian Confession (1528). Confessio belgica (1561).
Netherlands Confession (1566).
Hungary. Hungarian Confession (1562).
Bohemia. Bohemian Confession (1609).
The form of worship associated with Presbyterianism has
been marked by extreme simplicity. It consists of reading of
Holy Scripture, psalmody, non-liturgical prayer
and preaching. There is nothing in the standards
Worship. O f t he Presbyterian Church against liturgical worship.
In some of the early books of order a few forms of prayer were
given, but their use was not compulsory. On the whole, the
preponderating preference has always been in favour of so-called
extemporaneous, or free prayer; and the Westminster Directory
of Public Worship has to a large extent stereotyped the form
and order of the service in most Presbyterian churches. Within
certain broad outlines much, perhaps too much, is left to the
choice of individual congregations. It used to be customary
among Presbyterians to stand during public prayer, and to
remain seated during the acts of praise, but this peculiarity
is no longer maintained. The psalms rendered into metre
were formerly the only vehicle of the Church's public praise,
but hymns are now also used in most Presbyterian churches. 1
Organs used to be regarded as contrary to New Testament
example, but their use is now all but universal. The public
praise used to be led by an individual called the " precentor,"
who occupied a box in front of, and a little lower than, the pulpit.
Choirs of male and female voices now lead the church praise.
Presbyterianism has two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's
Supper. Baptism is administered both to infants and adults by
c . pouring or sprinkling, but the mode is considered
"immaterial. The Lord's Supper, as generally ob-
served throughout the various Presbyterian churches, is a close
1 Principal Rous's version is the best known and most widely
used. It is an English work. Somewhat reluctantly it was ac-
cepted by Scottish Presbyterianism as a substitute for an older
version with a greater variety of metre and music. " Old
Hundred " and " Old I24th " mean the looth and I24th Psalms
in that old book.
imitation of the New Testament practice ; and where it is not marred
by undue prolixity commends itself to most Christian people as
a solemn and impressive service. The old plan of coining out
and taking one's place at the communion table in the body of the
church is unhappily seen no more; communicants now receive the
sacred elements seated in their pews. The dispensing of this rite
is strictly reserved to an ordained minister, who is assisted by elders
in handing the bread and the cup to the people. The administra-
tion of private communion to the sick and dying is extremely rare
in Presbyterian churches, but there is less objection to it than
formerly, and in some churches it is even encouraged.
Presbyterian discipline is now entirely confined to exclusion from
membership or from office. Though it is the duty of a minister
to warn against irreverent or profane participation in . . .
the Lord's Supper, he himself has no right to exclude
any one from communion; that can only be done as the act of
himself and the elders duly assembled in session. A code of in-
structions for the guidance of church courts when engaged in
cases of discipline is in general use, and bears witness to the extreme
care taken not only to have things done decently and in order,
but also to prevent hasty, impulsive and illogical procedure in the
investigation of charges of heresy or immorality. Cases of dis-
cipline are now comparatively rare, and, when they do occur,
are not characterized by the bigoted severity which prevailed in
former times and was rightly denounced as unchristian.
The extent to which the Presbyterian form of church govern-
ment prevails throughout the world has been made more manifest
in recent years by the formation of a " General
Council of the Alliance of Reformed Churches statistics.
holding the Presbyterian System." At a representa-
tive conference in London in 1875 the constitution of the council
was agreed upon. The first council met in Edinburgh in 1877.
Since then it has met in Philadelphia, Belfast, London, Toronto,
Glasgow, Washington and Liverpool. Churches which are
organized on Presbyterian principles and hold doctrines in
harmony with the reformed confessions are eligible for admis-
sion to the alliance. The object is not to form one great
Presbyterian organization, but to promote unity and fellowship
among the numerous branches of Presbyterianism throughout
the world. On the roll of the general council held at Washington
in 1899 there were sixty-four churches. The statistics of
these and of sixteen others not formally in the alliance
were 29,476 congregations, 26,251 ministers, 126,607 elders
and 4,852,096 communicants. Of these eighty churches,
twelve were in the United Kingdom, twenty on the conti-
nent of Europe, sixteen in North America, three in South
America, ten in Asia, nine in Africa, six in Australia, two
in New Zealand, one in Jamaica and one in Melanesia.
The desire for union which led to the formation of the
alliance has, since 1875, borne remarkable fruit. In England
in 1876 two churches united to form the Presbyterian
Church of England; in the Netherlands two churches be-
came one in 1892; in South Africa a union of the different
branches of the Presbyterian Church took place in 1897;
in Scotland the Free Church and the United Presbyterian
became one in 1900 under the designation of the United Free
Church; in Australia and Tasmania six churches united in
1901 to form the Presbyterian Church of Australia; and a few
months later the two churches in New Zealand which represented
respectively the North and South Islands united to form the
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand. " In no portion of the
empire," it has been said, " does the British flag now fly
over a divided Presbyterianism, except in the British Isles
themselves."
II. HISTORY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
From this general outline of Presbyterianism we now turn
to consider its evolution and history in some of the countries
with which it is or has been specially associated. We omit,
however, one of the most important, viz. Scotland, as the history
is fully covered under the separate headings of SCOTLAND,
CHURCH OF, and allied articles.
Switzerland.
The Swiss, owing to their peculiar geographical position and
to certain political circumstances, early manifested indepen-
dence in ecclesiastical matters, and became accustomed to the
PRESBYTERIANISM
287
management of their church affairs. The work of Zwingli as
a Reformer, important and thorough though it was, did not con-
cern itself mainly with church polity. Ecclesiastical affairs were,
as a matter of course, wholly under the management of the
cantonal and municipal authorities, and Zwingli was content that
it should be so. The work of Farel, previous to his coming to
Geneva, was almost entirely evangelistic, and his first work in
Geneva was of a similar character. It was the town council
which made arrangements for religious disputations, and pro-
vided for the housing and maintenance of the preachers. When
Calvin Calvin, at Farel's invitation, settled in Geneva (1536)
the work of reformation became more constructive.
" The need of the hour was organization and familiar instruction,
and Calvin set himself to work at once." The first reforms he
wished to see introduced concerned the Lord's Supper, church
praise, religious instruction of youth and the regulation of
marriage. In connexion with the first he desired that the
discipline de I' excommunication should be exercised. His plan
was partly Presbyterian and partly consistorial. Owing to
certain circumstances in its past history, Geneva was notoriously
immoral. " The rule of dissolute bishops, and the example of
a turbulent and immoral clergy, had poisoned the morals of
the city. Even the nuns of Geneva were notorious for their
conduct." 1 Calvin suggested that men of known worth should
be appointed in different quarters of the city to report to the
ministers those persons in their district who lived in open sin;
that the ministers should then warn such persons not to come to
the communion; and that, if their warnings were unheeded,
discipline should be enforced. It was on this subject of keeping
pure the Lord's Table that the controversy arose between the
ministers and the town councillors which ended in the banish-
ment of Calvin, Farel and Conrad from Geneva. In 1538 the
ministers took upon themselves to refuse to administer the
Lord's Supper in Geneva because the city, as represented
by its council, declined to submit to church discipline. The
storm then broke out, and the ministers were banished
(i538).
It may be convenient at this point to consider Calvin's ideal
church polity, as set forth in his famous Christianae religionis
inslitutio, the first edition of which was published in 1536. Briefly
it was as follows:
A separate ministry is an ordinance of God (Inst. iv. 3, i. 3).
Ministers duly called and ordained may alone preach and ad-
minister the sacraments (iv. 3, 10).
A legitimate ministry is one appointed with the consent and
approbation of the people under the presidency of other
pastors by whom the final act of ordination (with laying on
of hands) shall be performed (iv. 3, 15).
Governors or persons of advanced years selected from the people
and associated with the ministers in admonishing and
exercising discipline (iv. 3, 8). This discipline is all-important,
and is the special business of the governors.
His system, while preserving the democratic theory by recognizing
the congregation as holding the church power, was in practice
strictly aristocratic inasmuch as the congregation is never allowed
any direct use of power, which is invested in the whole body of elders.
His great object was discipline. With regard to the relations
between the Church and the civil power, Calvin was opposed to the
Zwinglian theory whereby all ecclesiastical power was handed
over to the state. Calvin's refusal to administer the sacrament,
for which he was banished from Geneva, is important as a matter
of ecclesiastical history, because it is the essence of the whole
system which he subsequently introduced. It rests on the prin-
ciples that the Church has the right to exclude those who are un-
worthy, and that she is in no way subject to the civil power in
spiritual matters. During the three years of his banishment
Calvin was at Strassburg, where he had been carrying out his ideas.
His recall was greatly to his honour. The town nad become a
prey to anarchy. One party threatened to return to Romanism;
another threatened to sacrifice the independence of Geneva and
submit to Berne. It was felt to be a political necessity that he should
return, and in 1541, somewhat reluctantly, he returned on his own
terms. These were the recognition of the Church's spiritual inde-
pendence, the division of the town into parishes, and the appoint-
ment (by the municipal authority) of a consistory or council of
ciders in each parish for the exercise of discipline.
These terms were embodied in the famous Ordonnanccs ecclesi-
asliques de I'eglise de Geneve (1541). The four orders mentioned
1 Lindsay, Hist, of the Reform, ii. 90.
in the Instilutio are recognized : pastors, doctors, elders and deacons.
The pastors were to preach, administer the sacraments, and in
conjunction with the elders to exercise discipline. In their totality
they form the venerable compagnie. A newly-made pastor was to
be settled in a fixed charge by the magistrate with the consent of
the congregation, after having been approved as to knowledge
and manner of life by the pastors already in office. By them he
was to be ordained, after vowing to be true in office, faithful to
the church system, obedient to the laws and to the civil govern-
ment, and ready to exercise discipline without fear or favour.
The doctors were to teach the faithful in sound learning, to guard
purity of doctrine, and to be amenable to discipline. The elders
(Anciens, commis, ou deputez par la seigneurie ou consistoire)
were regarded as the essential part of the system. They were the
bond of union between Church and state. Their business was to
supervise daily life, to warn the disorderly, and to give notice
to the consistory of cases requiring discipline. To form the.
consistory all the ciders with the ministers were to meet every
Sunday under the presidency of one of the syndics or magistrates.
This court could award censures up to exclusion from the
sacrament.
Manifestly the arrangement was a compromise. The state
retained control of the ecclesiastical organization, and Calvin
secured his much-needed system of discipline. Fourteen years of
friction and struggle followed, and if there came after them
a period of comparative triumph and repose for the great reformer
it must still be remembered that he was never able to have his
ideal ecclesiastical organization fully realized in the city of his
adoption.
The early Presbyterianism of Switzerland was defective in the
following respects: (i) It started from a wrong definition of the
Church, which, instead of being conceived as an organized
community of believers in the Lord Jesus Christ, was made to
depend upon the preaching of the gospel and the administration
of the sacraments. As these implied a duly appointed minister,
the existence of the Church was made to depend upon an organized
ministry rather than an organized membership. It calls to mind
the Romish formula: "t/W episcopus ibi ecclesia." (2) It did
not maintain the scriptural right of the people to choose their
minister and other office-bearers. (3) Its independence of civil
control was very imperfect. (4) And it did not by means of church
courts provide for the manifestation of the Church's unity and for
the concentration of the Church's influence.
" Calvin," says Principal Lindsay, " did three things for Geneva
all of which went far beyond its walls. He gave its Church a
trained ministry, its homes an educated people who could give a
reason for their faith, and the whole city an heroic soul which
enabled the little town to stand forth as the citadel and city of
refuge for the oppressed Protestants of Europe." *
France.
It is pathetic and yet inspiring to study the development
of Presbyterianism in France; pathetic because it was in a
time of fierce persecution that the French Protestants organized
themselves into churches, and inspiring, because it showed the
power which scriptural organization gave them to withstand
incessant, unrelenting hostility. It would be difficult to exag-
gerate the influence of Calvin upon French Protest-
antism. His Christiana* religionis instilutio became
a standard round which his countrymen rallied in
the work and battle of the Reformation. Though under thirty
years of age, he became all over Europe, and in an exceptional
degree in France, the leader, organizer and consolidator of the
Reformation. The work which the young Frenchman did for
his countrymen was immense. 3
The year 1555 may be taken as the date when French Protestant-
ism began to be organized. A few churches had been organized
earlier, at Meaux in 1546 and at Nimes in 1547, but
their members had been dispersed by persecution.
Prior to 1555 the Protestants of France had been for'"" '
the most part solitary Bible students or little companies
meeting together for worship without any organization. But in
that year the following incident was the beginning of a great
movement. A small company had been accustomed to meet in
the lodging of the sieur de la Ferrifere in Paris near the Pr-aux-
Clercs. At one of the meetings the father of a newly-born child
explained that he could not go outside France to seek a pure baptism
and that his conscience would not permit his child to be baptized
according to the rites of the Romish Church. After prayer the
company constituted themselves into a church: chose jean le
Macon to be their minister, and others of their number to be elders
and deacons. It seemed as if all France had been waiting for this
event as a signal, for organized churches began to spring up every-
1 Hist, of the Reform, ii. 31. Ibid. ii. 158.
288
PRESBYTERIANISM
where immediately afterwards. Within two years Meaux, Poitiers,
Angers, les Ties de Saintonge, Agen, Bourges, Issoudun, Aubigny,
Blois, Tours, Lyon, Orleans and Rouen were organized. Thirty-
six more were completely organized by 1560.' According to Beza
there were about this time 2150 organized churches. A few years
later Cardinal St Croix reckoned that the Huguenots were one
half of the population. One hundred and twenty-seven pastors
had been sent to France from Geneva before 1567.
In 1558 a further stage in the development of Presbyterian
church polity was reached. Some doctrinal differences having
pjrst arisen in the church at Poitiers, Antoine de Chandieu,
._, minister at Paris, went to compose them, and, as the
t/enerai . e e t r .
Synod result ot a conference, a synod was convened to meet
in Paris the following year (1559). It was the first
general synod of the French Protestant Church, and consisted of
representatives from, some say sixty-six, others, twelve churches.
It adopted a confession of faith and a book of order or discipline.
The confession consisted of forty articles. It was based on a short
confession drafted by Calvin in 1557, and may still be regarded,
though once or twice revised, as the confession of the French
Protestant Church. The book of order, Discipline ecclesiastique
des eglises reformees de France, regulated the organization and pro-
cedure of the churches. It contains this fundamental statement
of Presbyterian parity, " Aucune eglise ne pourra pretendre primaute
ni domination sur 1'autre; ni pareillement, les ministres d'une
eglise les uns sur les autres; ni les anciens ou diacres, les uns sur
les autres." The various church courts, familiar to us now as
Presbyterian, are explained. The consistoire or session consisted
of the minister, elders and deacons (the latter without a vote),
and was over the congregation. The collogue or presbytery was
composed of representative ministers and elders (anciens) from a
group of congregations. Next in order was the provincial synod
which consisted of a minister and an elder or deacon from each
church in the province. Over all was the general or national
synod. Some of the arrangements are worthy of notice. When
a church was first formed the office bearers were elected by the
people, but there the power of the congregation ceased. Future
vacancies in the eldership were filled up by the office-bearers.
The eldership was not for life, but there was always a tendency to
make it so. When the ministry of a church became vacant the
choice of a successor rested with the collogue or with the provincial
synod. The people, however, might object, and if their objection
was considered valid redress was given. Later the synod of
Nimes (1572) decreed that no minister might be imposed upon an
unwilling people. Deacons, in addition to having charge of the
poor and sick, might catechize, and occasionally offer public prayer
or read a written sermon. The president or moderator of each
church court was primus inter pares. The remarkable feature of
French church polity was its aristocratic nature, which it owed
to the system of co-optation ; and the exclusion of the congregation
from direct and frequent interference in spiritual matters prevented
many evils which result from too much intermeddling on the
part of the laity. Up to 1565 the national synod consisted of a
minister with one or two elders or deacons from every church;
after that date, to avoid overcrowding, its numbers were restricted
to representatives from each provincial synod. On questions of
discipline elders and deacons might vote; on doctrinal questions
only as many of these as there were ministers.
It is interesting to see how in a country whose civil rule was
becoming gradually more absolutist, this ' Church under the cross'
framed for itself a government which reconciled, more thoroughly
perhaps than has ever been done since, the two principles of popular
rights and supreme control. Its constitution has spread to Holland,
Scotland (Ireland, England), and to the great American (and
Colonial) churches. Their ecclesiastical polity came much more
from Paris than from Geneva." 2
To trace the history of Presbyterianism in France for the next
thirty years would be to write the history of France itself during
that period. We should have to tell of the great and rapid
increase of the Church; of its powerful influence among the nobles
and the bourgeoisie; of its direful persecutions; of itsSt Bartholomew
massacre with 70,000 victims; of its regrettable though perhaps
inevitable entanglements in politics and war; and finally of its
attaining not only tolerance but also honourable recognition and
protection when Henry IV. in 1598 signed the famous edict of
Nantes. This secured complete liberty of conscience everywhere
within the realm and the free right of public worship in all places
in which it existed during the years 1596 and 1597, or where it
had been granted by the edict of Poitiers (1577) interpreted by the
convention of Nerac (1578) and the treaty of Fleix (1580) in all
some two hundred towns; in two places in every bailliage and
senechaussee; in the castles of Protestant seigneurs hauls justiciers
(some three thousand); and in the houses of lesser nobles, pro-
vided the audience did not consist of more than thirty persons
over and above relations of the family. Protestants were granted
full civil rights and protection, and were permitted to hold their
ecclesiastical assemblies consistories, colloquies and synods,
'Lindsay, Hist, of the Reform, ii. 166. * Ibid. ii. 169.
national and provincial. Under the protection of the edict the
Huguenot Church of France flourished. Theological colleges were
established at Sedan, Montauban and Saumur, and French theo-
logy became a counterpoise to the narrow Reformed scholastic of
Switzerland and Holland. 3
The history of the Church from the passing of the edict of Nantes
till its revocation in 1685 cannot be given here. That event was
the climax of a long series of horrors. Under the persecution, a
large number were killed, and between four and five millions of Pro-
testants left the country. Early in the l8th century Antoine Court
made marvellous efforts to restore Presbyterianism. In momentary
peril of death for fifteen years, he restored in the Vivarais and the
Cevennes Presbyterian church polity in all its integrity. In 1715
he assembled his first colloque. Synods were held in 1718, 1723,
1726 and 1727; and in a remote spot in Bas Languedoc in 1744 a
national synod assembled the first since 1660 which consisted
of representatives from every province formerly Protestant.
From 1760 owing to the gradual spread of the sceptical spirit
and the teaching of Voltaire more tolerant views prevailed. In
1787 the Edict of Tolerance was published. In 1789 all citizens
were made equal before the law, and the position of Presbyterianism
improved till 1791. In 1801 and 1802 Napoleon took into his own
hands the independence of both Catholic and Protestant Churches, the
national synod was abolished, and all active religious propaganda
was rigorously forbidden. In 1848 an assembly representative
of the eglises consistoriales met at Paris. When it refused to discuss
points of doctrine a secession took place under the name of the
Union des eglises evangeliques de France. This society held a synod
at which a confession of faith and a book of order were drawn up.
Meanwhile the national Protestant Church set itself to the work
of reconstruction on the basis of universal suffrage, with restrictions,
but no result was arrived at. In 1852 a change took place in its
constitution. The eglises consistoriales were abolished, and in each
parish a presbyterial council was appointed, the minister being
president, with four to seven elders chosen by the people. In the
large towns there were consistories composed of all the ministers
and of delegates from the various parishes. Over all was the
central provincial council consisting of the two senior ministers
and fifteen members nominated by the state in the first instance.
In 1858 there were 617 pastors and the Union des eglises evangeliques
numbered 27 churches.
The Netherlands.
From the geographical position of the Netherlands, Pres-
byterianism there took its tone from France. In 1562 the
Confessio belgica was publicly acknowledged, and in 1563
the church order was arranged. In 1574 the first provincial
synod of Holland and Zealand was held, but William of Orange
would not allow any action to be taken independently of the
state. The Reformed churches had established themselves in
independence of the state when that state was Catholic; when
the government became Protestant the Church had protection
and at the same time became dependent. It was a state
church. By the union of Utrecht the communes and provinces
had each the regulation of its own religion; hence constant
conflict. In most cases it was insisted on as necessary that
church discipline should remain with the civil authority. In
1576 William, with the support of Holland, Zeeland and their
allies, put forth forty articles, by which doctors, elders and
deacons were recognized, and church discipline given to the
elders, subject to appeal to the magistrate and by which the
Church was placed in absolute dependence on the state. These
articles, however, never came into operation; and the decisions
of the synod of Dort in 1 578, which made the Church independent
were equally fruitless. In 1581 the Middelburg Synod divided
the Church, created provincial synods and presbyteries, but
could not shake off the civil power in connexion with the choice
of church officers. Thus, although the congregations were
Presbyterian, the civil government retained overwhelming
influence. The Leiden magistrates said in 1581: " If we accept
everything determined upon in the synod, we shall end by being
vassals of the synod. We will not open to churchmen a door
for a new mastership over government and subjects, wife and
child." From 1618 a modified Presbyterian polity predom-
inated. As a rule elders held office for only two years. The
" kerk-raad " (kirk-session) met weekly, the magistrate being
a member ex officio. The colloque consisted of one minister
and one elder from each congregation. At the annual provincial
synod, held by consent of the states, two ministers and one
3 Ibid. ii. 222, 223.
PRESBYTERIANISM
289
elder attended from each colloque. Every congregation was
visited by ministers appointed by . the provincial synod. In
1795, of course, everything was upset, and it was not until after
the restoration of the Netherland States that a new organization
was formed in 1816. Its main features were strictly Presby-
terian, but the minister was greatly superior to the elder, and
the state had wide powers especially in the nomination of higher
officers. In 1851 the system now in force was adopted. The
congregation chooses all the officers, and these form a church
council.
England.
Presbyterian principles and ideas were entertained by many
of the leading ecclesiastics in England during the reign of
Edward VI. Even the archbishop of Canterbury favoured a
modification of episcopacy, and an approach to Presbyterian
polity and dicipline; but attention was mainly directed to the
settlement of doctrine and worship. Cranmer wrote that
bishops and priests were not different but the same in the
beginning of Christ's religion. Thirteen bishops subscribed
this proposition: that in the New Testament there is no mention
made of any distinctions or degrees in orders but only deacons
and priests or bishops. Cranmer held that the consecration of
a bishop was an unnecessary rite, and not required by Scripture;
that election and appointment to office were sufficient. The
bishop of St Davids was of the same opinion. Latimer and
Hooper maintained that Bishops and presbyters were identical;
and Pilkington, bishop of Durham, and Bishop Jewel were of
the same mind. The latter, about the time of Elizabeth's
succession, expressed his hope that the bishops would become
pastors, labourers and watchmen; and that the great riches of
bishoprics would be diminished and reduced to mediocrity; that,
being delivered from courtly and regal pomp, the bishops might
take care of the flock of Christ. During the reign of Edward,
the title of superintendent was often adopted instead of bishop,
and it will be recollected that John Knox was an honoured
worker in England with the title of superintendent during this
reign. As an indication of sympathy with Presbyterianism,
it may be noted that Cranmer favoured a proposal for the
formation of a council of presbyters in each diocese, and for
provincial synods.
During 1567 and 1568 the persecutions in France and Holland
drove thousands of Protestants, mostly Presbyterians, to England.
In 1570 Presbyterian views found a distinguished exponent in
Dr Thomas Cartwright at Cambridge; and the temper of parliament
was shown by the act of 1571, for the reform of disorders in the
Church, in which] while all mention of doctrine is omitted, the
doctrinal articles alone being sanctioned, ordination without
a bishop is implicitly recognized. In 1572 a formal manifesto
was published, entitled an Admonition to Parliament, the
leading ideas in which were: parity of ministers, appointment
of elders and deacons; election of ministers by the congre-
gation; objection to prescribed prayer and antiphonal chant-
ing; preaching, the chief duty of a minister; and the power
of the magistrates to root out superstition and idolatry. On
Presbytery tne . 2 9 tn * November 1572 the authors of the " Ad-
of Wands- mon 'tion " set up at Wandsworth what has been
worth called the first presbytery in England. They adopted
a purely Presbyterian system which was published as
the Orders of Wandsworth. Similar associations or presbyteries
were formed in London and in the midland and eastern counties;
but the privy council was hostile. Only in Jersey and Guernsey,
whither large numbers of Huguenots had fled after the St Bartholo-
mew massacre, was Presbyterianism fully permitted. Cartwright
and Edmund Snape were ministers there; and from 1576 to 1625
a completely appointed Presbyterian Church existed, under the rule
of synods, and authorized by the governor. The action of the
Commons in 1584, stimulated by the opposition of the Lords, showed
that the principles of Presbyterianism were strongly held. Bills
were introduced to reduce the position of a bishop to well-nigh
that of primus inter pares; to place the power of veto in the con-
gregation; to abolish the canon law and to establish a presbytery
in every parish. These proposals were rendered abortive by the
unflinching use of the queen's prerogative.
In 1640 Henderson, Baillie, Blair and Gillespie came to London
as commissioners from the General Assembly in Scotland, in
response to a request from ministers in London who desired to
see the Church of England more closely modelled after the
Reformed type. They were able men, whose preaching drew
great crowds, and increased the desire for the establishment of
XXII. IO
Presbyterianism. In 1642 the Long Parliament abolished Episcopacy
(the act to come into force on the 5th of November Th w
1643); and summoned an assembly of divines to meet ", .
at Westminster in June 1643 to advise parliament A M
as to the new form of Church government. The West-
minster Assembly, through its Confession, Directory and Catechisms,
has become so associated with the Presbyterian Church that it is
difficult to realize that it was not a church court at all, much less
a creation of Presbyterianism.
It was a council created by parliament to give advice in church
matters at a great crisis in the nation's history; but its acts, though
from the high character and great learning of its members worthy
of deepest respect, did not per se bind parliament or indeed any-
one. It was, in a very real sense, representative of the whole
country, as two members were chosen 'by parliament from each
county. The number summoned was 151, viz. ten lords, twenty
members of the House of Commons, and one hundred and twenty-
one ministers. The ministers were mostly Puritans; by their
ordination, &c., Episcopalian; and for the most part strongly
impressed with the desirability of nearer agreement with the Church
of Scotland, and other branches of the Reformed Church on the
Continent. About one-half of the members attended regularly.
Those who were out-and-out Episcopalians did not attend at all.
Apart from these, there were three well-defined parties: (i) those
with Presbyterian ideas and sympathies, a great majority; (2)
Erastians, ably represented and led by Selden, Lightfoot and Cole-
man; (3) Independents, ten or eleven in number, led by Philip
Nye, and assured of Cromwell's support. Then there were the Scot-
tish commissioners who, though without votes, took a leading
part in the proceedings. Judged by the objects for which it was
summoned the Westminster Assembly was a failure, a remarkable
failure. Episcopacy, Erastianism and Independency, though of
little account in the assembly, were to bulk largely in England's
future; while the church polity which the assembly favoured and
recommended was to be almost unknown. Judged in other ways,
however, the influence of the assembly's labours has been very
great. The Confession of Faith and the Larger and Shorter Cate-
chisms are recognized and venerated standards in all the lands
where British Presbyterianism, with its sturdy characteristics,
has taken root. And the Directory of Public Worship has shaped
and coloured, perhaps too thoroughly, the ritual and atmosphere
of every group of Protestant Anglo-Saxon worshippers throughout
the world, except Episcopalians.
In June 1646 the ordinance establishing presbyteries was ratified
by both houses of parliament, and a few days afterwards it was
ordered to be put into execution. Twelve presbyteries were
erected in London; Shropshire and Lancashire were organized;
and Bolton was so vigorous in the cause as to gain the name of the
Gene /a of Lancashire. But the system never took root. Not
only were there well-known adverse influences, but the soil seems
to have been uncongenial. As compared with Scotland, English
Presbyterianism had more of the lay element. In every classis
or presbytery there were two elders to each minister. The Synod
of London met half-yearly from 1647 till 1655. Synods
also were held in the north. But during the Common-
wealth Independency gained ground. Then with the " ""'
Restoration came Episcopacy, and the persecution of all who were
not Episcopalians; and the ciream and vision of a truly Reformed
English Church practically passed away.
After the Revolution and during the reign of William and Mary
the hatred of the Church of England to the Presbyterians and
other dissenters had been obliged to lie dormant, rjecaaeace
With the accession of Anne, however, began an attempt
apparently to make up for lost time From the beginning of the
i8th century the greater number of the Presbyterian congregations
became practically independent in polity and Unitarian in doctrine.
Indigenous Presbyterianism became almost unknown. The
Presbyterianism now visible in England is of Scottish origin and
Scottish type, and beyond the fact of embracing a few congregations
which date from, or before, the Act of Uniformity and the Five
Mile Act, has little in common with the Presbyterianism which was
for a brief period by law established.
In 1876 the union of the Presbyterian Church in England with
the English congregations of the United Presbyterian Church of
Scotland gathered all English Presbyterians (with (jaloala
some exceptions) into one church, " The Presbyterian I876
Church of England." " What kept these bodies apart
was their separate historic origin and development, but especially
the alienation caused by the ' Voluntary Controversy ' which had
its roots in the difficult problems of civil law in its relation to religion,
and the stumbling-block of the civil magistrate's authority in
relation to the Christian conscience." l Since the union the growth
of the Church has been considerable. Presbyterianism is compara-
tively strong in three districts of England, namely Northumbenand,
Lancashire and London. Elsewhere it is either weak or non-
existent. Even where it is comparatively strong it is largely
exotic. The membership is mainly Scottish, and the ministers
1 Drysdale, History of the Presbyterians in England, p. 625.
5
290
PRESBYTERIANISM
have been imported principally from Scotland. To English
people, therefore, the Presbyterian is still the " Scotch Church,"
and they are as a whole slow to connect themselves with it. Efforts
have been made to counteract this feeling by making the Church
more distinctly English. The danger in this direction is that when
Presbyterianism has been modified far enough to suit the English
taste it may be found less acceptable to its more stalwart sup-
porters from beyond the Tweed. Following the lead of the Inde-
pendents, who set up Mansfield College at Oxford, the Presby-
terian Church has founded Westminster College at Cambridge
as a substitute for its Theological Hall in London. It was opened
in 1899 with the view of securing a home-bred ministry more
conversant with English academic life and thought.
In common with the general Presbyterianism of the British Isles,
the Presbyterian Church of England has in recent years been
readjusting its relation to the Westminster Confession of Faith.
Without setting aside the Cqnfession as the church's standard,
twenty-four " Articles of the Faith " have been adopted. In these
no change, it is alleged, has been made in regard to the substance
of the Westminster doctrine, but there is an alteration of emphasis
and proportion.
There are in England fourteen congregations in connexion with
the Church of Scotland, six of them in London and the remainder
in Berwick, Northumberland, Carlisle and Lancashire.
Many Unitarians in England still call themselves Presbyterians.
This, except historically, is a misnomer, for, though descended
from the old English Presbyterians, they retain nothing of their
distinctive doctrine of polity nothing of Presbyterianism, indeed,
but the name.
Ireland.
Presbyterianism in Ireland, in modern times at least, dates
from the plantation of Ulster in the reign of James I. The
infusion of a considerable Scottish element into the population
necessitated the formation of a congenial church. The immi-
grants from England took with them, in like manner, their
attachment to the Episcopal Church. But these two sections
of Protestantism, in their common exile and in presence of the
preponderating Roman Catholicism of the country, seemed at
first inclined to draw closer together than had been thought
possible in Great Britain. A confession of faith, drawn up by
Archbishop Usher at the convocation of 1615, implicitly ad-
mitted the validity of Presbyterian ordination, and denied the
distinction between bishop and presbyter. Within the Episcopal
Church and supported by its endowments, Robert Blair,
John Livingstone and other ministers maintained a Scottish
Presbyterian communion.
From 1625 to 1638 the history of Irish Presbyterians is one of
bare existence. Their ministers, silenced by Wentworth, after an
ineffectual attempt to reach New England, fled to Scotland, and
there took a leading part in the great movement of 1638. After
the Irish rebellion of 1641 the Protestant interest for a time was
ruined. A majority of the Ulster Protestants were Presbyterians,
and in a great religious revival which took place the ministers
of the Scottish regiments stationed in Ireland took a leading part.
Kirk-sessions were formed in four regiments, and the first regular
presbytery was held at Carrickfergus on the loth of
J une l6 4 2 > attended by five ministers and by ruling
-
- elders from the regimental sessions. This presbytery
supplied ministers to as many congregations as possible; and for
the remainder ministers were sent from Scotland. By the end of
1643 the Ulster Church was fairly established. Notwithstanding
intervening reverses there were by 1647 nearly thirty ordained
ministers in fixed charges in Ulster besides the chaplains of the
Scottish regiments.
At the Restoration, in which they heartily co-operated-, there
were in Ulster seventy ministers in fixed charges, with nearly
eighty parishes or congregations containing one hundred thousand.
persons. There were five presbyteries holding monthly meetings
and annual visitations of all the congregations within their bounds,
and coming together in general synod four times a year. Entire
conformity with the Scottish Church was maintained, and strict
discipline was enforced by pastoral visitations, kirk-sessions and
presbyteries.
After the Restoration the determination of the government to
put down Presbyterianism was speedily felt in Ireland. In 1661
the lords justices forbade all unlawful assemblies,' and in these
they included meetings of presbytery as exercising ecclesiastical
jurisdiction not warranted by the law. Bishop Jeremy Taylor
was forward in this work of persecution. The ministers refused
to take the Oath of Supremacy without the qualification suggested
by Usher. Their parishes were declared vacant, and episcopal
clergy appointed to them. The ejected ministers were forbidden
to preach or administer the sacraments. In Ulster sixty-one
ministers were ejected. Of seventy only seven conformed. Under
Ormonde, in 1665, ministers were again permitted to revive
Presbyterian worship and discipline, and for several years the Church
prospered not only in Ulster but also in the south and west. In
1672 she received a yearly grant from Charles II. of 600 (regium
donum), and under William III. the amount was considerably
increased. It was continued till 1869.
In 1679 the rising in Scotland which ended in the battle of Both-
well Bridge brought trouble on the Irish Presbyterians in spite of
their loyal addresses disowning it.. It was not, however, till 1682
that they again lost the privilege of public ministry, and suffered
severe oppression. They were opposed to James II., though they
had benefited by his Declaration of Indulgence, and they were
the first to congratulate the Prince of Orange on his arrival in
England. The heroic defence of Londonderry owed much to them,
as they were a majority of the population, and some of their
ministers rendered conspicuous service. There were then in Ireland
about a hundred congregations, seventy-five with settled ministers,
under five presbyteries. Their preponderance in Ulster and their
consciousness of their great service to England led them first of
all to hope that Presbyterianism might be substituted for Episcopacy
in Ulster, and afterwards, that it might be placed on an equal
footing with the latter.
During the i8th century Irish Presbyterianism became infected
with Arianism. Under the leadership of Dr Henry Cooke, a minister
of rare ability and eloquence, the evangelical party triumphed in
the church courts, and the Unitarians seceded and became a separate
denomination. In 1840 the Synod of Ulster and the Secession
Synod united to form the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church in Ireland.
The Presbyterian Church in Ireland is the most conservative
of the great Presbyterian churches in the United Kingdom. Her
attitude is one of sturdy adherence to the old paths of evangelical
doctrine and Presbyterian polity. She has been a zealous supporter
of Irish national education, which is theoretically " united secular
and separate religious instruction." The Church Act of 1869
which disestablished and disendowed the Irish Episcopal Church
took away the Presbyterian regium donum. The ministers with
all but absolute unanimity decided to commute their life-interest
and form therewith a great fund for the support of the Church.
The commutation fund thus formed is a permanent memorial
of a generous and disinterested act on the part of her ministry.
It amounted in 1902 to 588,028. The interest accruing from it
is added to the yearly sustentation contributions, and forms a
central fund for ministerial support. Since the state endowment
ceased the average income of ministers from their congregations
has considerably increased.
The Irish Presbyterian Church has set an example to all her
sister churches by her forwardness to care for the poor. Her
" Presbyterian Orphan Society " undertakes the support of every
poor orphan child throughout the Church. No Presbyterian
orphan child now needs to seek workhouse relief. The orphans
are boarded in the homes of respectable poor people, who thus also
benefit by the society. A scheme of pensions for her aged poor
has been instituted.
Three small communities of Presbyterians maintain a separate
autonomy in Ireland, viz. the Reformed Presbyterian Church,
with thirty-six; the Eastern Reformed, with six ; and the Secession
Church, with ten congregations.
Wales.
The Presbyterian Church of Wales, commonly known as the
" Calvinistic Methodist," had its origin in the great evangelical
revival of the i8th century. Its polity has been of gradual
growth, and still retains some features peculiar to itself. In
1811 its preachers were first presbytcrially ordained and author-
ized to administer the sacraments. In 1823 a Confession of Faith
was adopted. In 1864 the two associations or synods of North
and South Wales were united in a general assembly. Great
attention is given to the education of the ministry, a considerable
number of whom, in recent years, have taken arts degrees at
Oxford and Cambridge. As far as the difference in language
will permit, there is cordial fellowship and co-operation with
the Presbyterian Church of England. The appetite of the
Welsh people for sermons is enormous, and the preachers are
characterized by an exceptionally high order of pulpit power.
(W. Y.)
United States.
Presbyterianism in the United States is a reproduction and
further development of Presbyterianism in Europe. The history
of the American Presbyterian churches, excluding the two
"Reformed" Churches (see REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED
STATES for the German body, and REFORMED CHURCH IN
AMERICA for the Dutch body), may be divided into three
periods.
PRESBYTERIANISM
291
I. The Colonial Period. The earliest Presbyterian emigration
isted of French Hugm-nots under the auspices of Admiral
Coligny, led to 1'ort Koynl, South Carolina, by Jean Ribaut in
1562, and to Florida (near the present St Augustine) by Rend de
:i 1564, and by Ribaut in 1565. The former enter-
prise w.ii soon abandoned, and the colonists of the latter were
! by the Spaniards. Under Pierre de Guast, sieur de
Moiits, Huguenots settled in Nova Scotia in 1604 but did not remain
after 1607. Huguenot churches were formed on Staten Island,
New York, in 1665; in New York City in 1683; at Charleston, South
Una, in 1686; at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1687; at New
KiK-helle, New York, in 1688; and at other places. The Charleston
church alone of these early churches maintains its independence
my American denomination.
IWi Puritans emigrated under the auspices of the Virginia
Company to the Bermudas in 1612; and in 1617 a Presbyterian
( 'liun-h, governed by ministers and four elders, was established there
by Lewis Hughes, who used the liturgy of the isles of Guernsey
Jersey. Beginning with 1620, New England was colonized
by English Presbyterians of the two types which developed from
the dix-ussions of the Westminster Assembly (1643-1648) into
>. icrianism and Congregationalism. The Plymouth colony
nither of the Congregational type, and the Massachusetts
Bay colony rather of the Presbyterian. These types co-operated
as in Old England in the county associations; and a mixed system
produced, called by Henry M. Dexter "a Congregationalized
l're-l>\ -teri.inism ora Presbyterianized Congregationalism." Presby-
trrianism was stronger in Connecticut than in Massachusetts.
Thence it crossed into the Dutch settlements on the Hudson and
the Delaware, and mingled with other elements in Virginia, Mary-
land and the Carolinas. Nine of these Puritan Presbyterian
churches, were established on Long Island between 1640 and 1670
one at Southampton and one at Southold (originally of the Congre-
nal type) in 1640, one at Hempstead about 1644, one at Jamaica
tn 1662, and churches at Newtown and Setauket in the next half
century; and three Puritan Presbyterian churches were established
in Westchester county, New York, between 1677 and 1685. In
New York City, Francis Doughty preached to Puritan Presbyterians
in 1643; in 1650 he was succeeded by Richard Denton (1586-1662).
Doughty preached in Virginia and Maryland in 1650-1659, and was
the father of British Presbyterianism in the Middle Colonies. His
work in Virginia and Maryland was carried on twenty-five years
later by Francis Makemie (d. 1708).
Irish Presbyterianism was carried to America by an unknown
Irish minister in 1668. Its foremost representative was Francis
Makemie, already mentioned, who, in 1683, as an ordained minister
of the presbytery of Laggan, was invited to minister to the Mary-
land and Virginia Presbyterians. In 1684 he acted as pastor of
an Irish church at Elizabeth River, Virginia; in 1699 received
permission from the colonial authorities to preach at Pocomoke
and Onancock on the eastern shore of Virginia, and about 1700
.iized a church at Snow Hill in Worcester county, Maryland;
in 1 704 he returned to America from a trip to Great Britain in which
he had interested the Presbyterians of London, Dublin and Glasgow
in the American churches, and brought back with him two ordained
missionaries, John Hampton (d. c. 1721) and George McNish
(1660-1723); in 1707 was imprisoned in New York City for
preaching without licence, but was acquitted in 1708.
To the banks of the Delaware the clergy of New England sent
missionaries: Benjamin Woodbridge went to Philadelphia in 1698
and was followed almost immediately by Jedediah Andrews (1674-
174^6), who was ordained in 1701, ana under whom the first Presby-
terian church in Philadelphia was organized; in 1698 John Wilson
(d. 1712) became pastor of a Presbyterian Church at New Castle,
Delaware; Samuel Davis (d. 1725) seems to have preached as early
as 1692 at Lewes, Delaware, and Nathaniel Taylor (d. 1710) was
another of the New England missionaries along the Delaware
river and bay. About 1695 Thomas Bridge, with Presbyterians
from Fairfield county, Connecticut, settled at Cohansey, in West
Jersey. These New England ministers in the Delaware valley,
with Francis Makemie as moderator, organized in 1706 the first
American presbytery, the presbytery of Philadelphia. In 1716
this presbytery became a synod by dividing itself into four " sub-
ordinate meetings or presbyteries," after the Irish model. The
synod increased the number of its churches by a large accession,
from New York and from New Jersey, where there had been large
Presbyterian settlements. The synod seems to have remained
without a constitution and without subscription until 1729, when
it adopted the Westminster standards. In 1732 the presbytery of
" Dunagall " (Donegal) was established in Lancaster county,
Pennsylvania.
Two parties had developed with the growth of the Church. The
stricter party urged the adoption of the Westminster standards
and conformity thereto; the broader party were unwilling to
sacrifice their liberty. The former followed the model of the Church
of Scotland; the liberal party sympathized with the London and
Dublin Presbyterians. The two parties united under the act ot
1729, which adopted the Westminster symbols "-as being, in all
the essential and necessary articles, good forms of sound words
and systems of Christian doctrine." This adopting act allowed
scruples as to " articles not essential and necessary in doctrine,
worship or government " the presbytery being judge in the case
and not the subscriber. In 1730-1732 the stricter party in the
presbyteries of New Castle and Donegal insisted on full subscrip-
tion, and in 1736, in a minority synod, interpreted the adopting
act according to their own views. The liberals put themsclvts
on guard against the plotting of the other side. Friction was
increased by a contest between Gilbert Tennent and his friends,
who favoured Whitefield and his revival measures, and Robert
Cross (1689-1766), pastor at Jamaica in 1723-1758, and his friends.
The Tennents erected the Log College (on the Neshaminy, about
20 m. north of Philadelphia) to educate candidates for the ministry ;
and the synod in 1738 passed an act,, aimed at the Log College,
providing that all students not educated in the colleges of New-
England or Great Britain should be examined by a committee of
synod, thus depriving the presbyteries of the right of determining
in the case. The presbytery of New Brunswick declined to yield
(i739)- The Cross party charged the Tennents with heresy and
disorder; the Tennents charged their opponents with ungodliness
and tyranny. When the synod met in 1741 the moderate men
remained away; and thus the synod broke in two. The New York
presbytery declined at first to unite with either party, worked jn
vain for reconciliation, and finally joined with the Tennents in
establishing the synod of New York (1745) which was called the
New Side, in contradistinction to the synod of Philadelphia, the
Old Side.
During the separation the New Side established the college of
New Jersey at Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth) in 1747, and the
Log College of the Tennents was merged into it. It was removed
to Princeton in 1755, funds for its aid being received from England,
Ireland and Scotland. The Old Side adopted the academy at
New London, Chester county, Pennsylvania, which had been organ-
ized by Francis Alison in 1741, as their own; but the New London
school broke up when Alison became a professor in the Philadelphia
Academy (afterwards the university of Pennsylvania). During
the separation the synod of Philadelphia decreased from twenty-
six to twenty-two ministers, but the synod of New York grew from
twenty to seventy-two ministers, and the New Side reaped all the
fruits of the Great Awakening under Whitefield and his successors.
Different views on subscription and discipline, and the arbitrary
act of excision were the barriers to union, but these were removed;
in 1758 the adopting act was re-established in its original breadth,
the " Synod of New York and Philadelphia " was formed, and the
reunion was signalized by the formation of the presbytery of Han-
over in Virginia. Under John Witherspoon the college of New
Jersey was the favoured school of the reunited church. The
union was not perfect; the presbytery of Donegal was for three
years in revolt against the synod; and in 1762 a second presbytery
of Philadelphia was formed; but the strength of the synod increased
rapidly and at the outbreak of the War of Independence it had
ii presbyteries and 132 ministers.
Presbyterianism had an independent development in the
Carolinas, whither there was a considerable Scotch migration in
1684-1687. William Dunlop (c. 1650-1700) ministered to them
until 1688, when he became principal of the university of Glasgow.
At Charleston a mixed congregation of Scotch Presbyterians and
English Puritans was organized in 1690. What is now Dorchester
county, South Carolina, was settled in 1695 by members of a church
established in Dorchester, Massachusetts. In 1710 there were five
churches in the Carolinas; in 1722-1723 they formed the presbytery
of James Island, which (after 1727) went through the same struggle
as the synod of Philadelphia in reference to subscription ; and in
1731 the parties separated into subscribers and non-subscribers.
From New England, as has been seen, Puritan settlers estab-
lished Presbyterian churches (or churches which immediately
became Presbyterian) in Long Island, on New Jersey, and in South
Carolina; but the Puritans who remained in New England usually
established Congregational churches. But there were exceptions:
Irish Presbyterians from Ulster formed a church at Londonderry',
New Hampshire, which, about 1729, grew into a presbytery; the
Boston presbytery, organized in 1745, became in 1774 the synod
of New England with three presbyteries and sixteen ministers;
and there were two independent presbyteries, that of " the East-
ward " organized at Boothbay, Maine, in 1771, and that of Grafton,
in New Hampshire, founded- by Elcazar Wheelock and other
ministers interested in Dartmouth College.
The Presbyterians from the Scotch Established Church combined
with the American Presbyterian Church, but the separating churches
of Scotland organized independent bodies. The Reformed Presby-
terian Church (Covenanters) sent John Cuthbertson in 1751 ; he
was joined in 1773 by Matthew Lino: and Alexander Dobbin from the
Reformed Presbytery of Ireland, and they organized in March
1774 the Reformed Presbytery of America. The Anti-Burgher
Synod sent Alexander Gellatly and Andrew Arnot in 1752, and two
years later they organized the Associate Presbytery of Pennsyl-
vania; they were joined in 1757 by the Scotch Church in New York
City, which had split off because of objections to the growing use
of Watts's Psalms; they had grown to two presbyteries and thirteen
292
PRESBYTERIANISM
ministers in 1776. The Burgher Synod in 1764 sent Thomas
Clarke of Ballybay, Ireland, who settled at Salem, Washington
county, New York, and in 1776 sent David Telfair, of Monteith,
Scotland, who preached in Philadelphia; they united with the
Associate Presbytery of Pennsylvania; in 1771 the Scotch Synod
ordered the presbytery to annul its union with the Burghers, and
although Dr Clarke of Salem remained in the Associate Presbytery,
the Burgher ministers who immigrated later joined the Associate
Reformed Church. In 1769-1774 there was a futile attempt to
secure the union of the Associate Presbytery with the main American
Church.
2. From the War of Independence to the CM War. During
the War of Independence the Presbyterian churches suffered
severely. Ministers and people with few exceptions the most
notable being the Scotch Highlanders who had settled in the
valley of the Mohawk in New York and on Cape Fear river in
North Carolina sided with the patriot or Whig party: John
Witherspoon was the only clergyman in the Continental Congress
of 1776, and was otherwise a prominent leader; John Murray
of the Presbytery of the Eastward was an eloquent leader in
New England; and in the South the Scotch-Irish were the back-
bone of the American partisan forces, two of whose leaders,
Daniel Morgan and Andrew Pickens, were Presbyterian elders.
At the close of the War the Presbyterian bodies began at once
to reconstruct themselves. In 1782 the presbyteries of the
Associate and Reformed churches united, forming the Associate
and Reformed Synod of North Am erica; but as there were a few
dissenters in both bodies the older Associate and Reformed
Presbyteries remained as separate units the Associate Presby-
tery continued to exist under the same name until 1801, when
it became the Associate Synod of North America; in 1818 it
ceased to be subordinate to the Scotch General Synod. The
Associate Reformed Synod added in 1794 a fourth presbytery,
that of Londonderry, containing most of the New England
churches, but in 1801 " disclaimed " this presbytery because it
did not take a sufficiently strict view of the question of psalm-
singing. The Reformed Presbytery of North America was
reconstituted by two ministers from Ireland in 1798; it became
a synod of three presbyteries in 1809 and a general synod in
1823; in the first decade of the century the presbytery required
all members to free their slaves. The synod of New York and
Philadelphia, which in 1781 had organized the presbytery of
Redstone, the first of western Pennsylvania, in 1788 resolved
itself into a General Assembly, which first met in Philadelphia
in 1789, and after revising the chapters on Church and state,
adopted the Westminster symbols as to their constitution, " as
containing the system of doctrine taught in the Holy Scrip-
tures," and they made them unalterable without the consent
of two-thirds of the presbyteries and the General Assembly.
In 1801 a " plan of union " proposed by the General Association
(Congregational) of Connecticut was accepted by the General
Assembly, and the work of home missions in the western section
of the country was prosecuted jointly. The result was mixed
churches in western New York and the new states west of the
Alleghany Mountains, which grew into presbyteries and synods
having peculiar features midway between Presbyterianism and
Congregationalism.
The general strictness of the church in its requirements for
ministerial education occasioned it great loss in this period when
the territory beyond the Appalachians was being settled so largely
by Scotch-Irish and Presbyterians. The revivals in Kentucky
brought about differences which resulted in the high-handed ex-
clusion of the revivalists. These formed themselves into the
presbytery of Cumberland, on the 4th of February 1810, which grew
in three years into a synod of three presbyteries and became the
" Cumberland Presbyterian Church." In 1813 they revised the
Westminster Confession and excluded, as they claimed, fatalism and
infant damnation. If they had appealed to the General Assembly
they might have received justice, or possibly the separation might
have been on a larger scale. In 1822, under the influence of John
Mitchell Mason (1770-1829), the Associate Reformed Synod com-
bined with the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church,
but the majority was too slender to make the union thorough.
The greater part of the ministers decided to remain separate,
and accordingly organized three independent synods New York,
Scioto and the Carolinas. In 1858 the associate synods of the
north and west united with the Associate Synod as the United
Presbyterian Church. In 1833 the Reformed Presbyterian Church
divided into New Lights and Old Lights in a dispute as to the
propriety of Covenanters exercising the rights of citizenship under
the constitution of the United States.
A great and widespread revival marked the opening years of
the century, resulting in marvellous increase of zeal and numbers.
New measures were adopted, doctrines were adapted to the times,
and ancient disputes were revived between the conservative and
progressive forces. Theological seminaries had been organized :
the Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church at Princeton,
N.J., founded in 5812 by the General Assembly; the Auburn
Theological Seminary at Auburn, N.Y., founded in 1819 by the
synod of Geneva, and afterwards associated with the New School;
a school at Hampden Sidney, Virginia, founded by the synod of
Virginia in 1824, named Union Theological Seminary in Virginia
after 1826, supported after 1828 by the synods of Virginia and North
Carolina, and in 1898 removed to Richmond, Va. ; the Western
Theological Seminary, founded at Allegheny (Pittsburg), Pa., in
1827 by the General Assembly; the Presbyterian Theological
Seminary at Columbia, South Carolina, founded in 1828 by the synod
of South Carolina ; Lane Theological Seminary, founded indepen-
dently in 1829 by the New School at Cincinnati, Ohio; and Union
Theological Seminary, founded in 1836 by independent action of
New School men, in New York City. Differences in doctrine as
well as polity and discipline became more and more prominent.
The doctrinal differences came to a head in the trials of George
Duffield (1832), Lyman Beecher (1835) and Albert Barnes (1836)
which, however, resulted in the acquittal of the accused, but which
increased friction and ill feeling. The differences developed were
chiefly between general atonement and atonement for the elect
only and between mediate imputation and immediate imputation.
The agitation with reference to African slavery threw the bulk
of the Southern Presbyterians on the Old Side, which was further
strengthened by the accession of the Associate Reformed. The
ancient differences between Old and New Side were revived, and
once more it was urged that there should be (i) strict subscription,
(2) exclusion of the Congregationalized churches, and strict Presby-
terian polity and discipline, and (3) the condemnation and exclusion
of the new divinity and the maintenance of scholastic orthodoxy.
In 1834 a convention of the Old Side was held in Philadelphia,
and the " Act and Testimony " was adopted charging doctrinal
unsoundness and neglect of discipline upon the New Side, and urging
that these should be excluded from the Church. The moderate
men on both sides opposed this action and strove for peace or an
amicable separation, but in vain. In 1837 the Old Side obtained
the majority in the Genera} Assembly for the second time only in
seven years; they seized their opportunity and abrogated the " Plan
of Union of 1801 with the Connecticut Congregationalists," cut
off the synod of Western Reserve and then the synods of Utica,
Geneva and Genesee, without a trial, and dissolved the third
presbytery of Philadelphia without providing for the standing
of its ministers. The New Side men met in convention at Auburn,
N.Y., in August 1837, and adopted measures for resisting the wrong,
but in the General Assembly of 1838 the moderator refused to re-
cognize their commissioners. On an appeal to the assembly the
moderator's decision was reversed, a new moderator was chosen,
and the assembly adjourned to another place of meeting. The
Old Side remained after the adjournment and organized them-
selves, claiming the historic succession. Having the moderator
and clerks from the assembly of 1837, they retained the books and
papers. Thus two General Assemblies were organized, the Old and
the New School. An appeal was made to the civil courts, which
decided (1839) in favour of the New School; but this decision was
overruled and a new trial ordered. It was deemed best, however,
to cease litigation and to leave matters as they were.
Several years of confusion followed. In 1840 we have the first
safe basis for comparison of strength.
Ministers.
Churches.
Communicants.
Old School . .
New School .
1308
1234
1898
1375
126,583
102,060
The " sides " remained separate throughout the remainder of this
period. The North was especially agitated by the slavery ques-
tion. 1 In 1847 the synod of the Free Presbyterian Church was
formed by the anti-slavery secession of the presbytery of Ripley,
O. (New School), and a part of the presbytery of Mahpning, Pa.,
(Old School) ; this synod, then numbering five presbyteries with 43
ministers, joined the New School Assembly during the Civil War.
In 1850 the New School Assembly declared slave-holding, unless
excusable for some special reason, a cause for discipline; in 1853
it asked the Southern presbyteries to report what action they had
taken to put themselves in accord with the resolution of 1850;
1 The separation of the southern part of the Associate Reformed
Church from the northern in 1821, and the establishment of the
Associate Reformed Synod of the South had not been due to slavery,
but was for convenience in administration.
PRESBYTERIANISM
293
in 1858, 6 synods, 21 presbyteries and about 15,000 communi-
cants withdrew and organized the United Synod. Just before the
outbreak of the Civil \Var in 1861 these churches numbered:
Sjno.l-
Presby-
teries.
Ministers.
Churches.
Communicant*.
Old School .
New School.
United Synod
Cumberland
1'rusbyterian
33
22
4
23
I?'
104
'5
9 6
2656
1523
"3
890
353'
1482
197
1189
292,927 (1860)
134.933 ('860)
10,205 ('85**)
82,008 (1859)
3. Since the beginning of the Civil War. The Southern presby-
teries of the Old School Assembly withdrew in 1861, and dele-
gates from ten southern synods (47 presbyteries) met in Augusta,
Georgia, in December, and organized as the General Assembly
of the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America,
which included 700 ministers, 1000 churches and 75,000 com-
municants. Its strength was increased by the addition: in
1863 of the small Independent Presbyterian Church of South
Carolina; in 1865 of the United Synod (New School), which
at that time had 120 ministers, 190 churches, and 12,000 com-
municants; in 1867 of the presbytery of Patapsco; in 1869
of the synod of Kentucky; and in 1874 of the synod of Missouri.
At the close of the Civil War this Southern Church adopted the
name of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States.
In 1867 there was an unsuccessful attempt to combine all the
Presbyterian bodies of the North. In 1869 the Old and New Schools
in the North combined on the basis of the common standards; to
commemorate the union a memorial fund was raised which amounted
in 1871 to $7,607,492. Between 1870 and 1881 three presbyteries
of the Reformed Presbyterian General Synod (New School) joined
the northern General Assembly. In 1906 the greater part of the
Cumberland Presbyterian Church (then having 195,770 members)
united with the northern General Assembly. Although the differ-
ences between the Old School and the New School were much less
in 1869 than in 1837 during the separation the New School was
conservative, the Old School liberal, in tendency there were serious
dissensions in the northern church after the union. The first of
these was due to the adoption by certain teachers in theological
seminaries of the methods and results of the " higher criticism,"
and two famous heresy cases followed. Charles Augustus Briggs,
tried for heresy for his inaugural address in 1891 as professor of
biblical theology at Union Seminary (in which he attacked the
inerrancy of the Bible, held the composite character of the Hexa-
tcuch and of the Book of Isaiah ana taught that sanctification is
not complete at death), was acquitted by the presbytery of New
York, but was declared guilty and was suspended from its ministry
by the General Assembly of 1893. Henry Preserved Smith, pro-
fessor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis in Lane Seminary,
for a pamphlet published in 1891 denying the inerrancy but affirm-
ing the inspiration of the Scriptures, was suspended in 1892 by the
presbytery of Cincinnati, and was unsuccessful in his appeal to the
synod and to the General Assembly. Dr Briggs remained a member
of the Union Seminary faculty but left the Presbyterian Church
to enter the Protestant Episcopal. Dr Smith resigned his chair
at Lane Seminary, and entered the Congregational ministry. In
1892-1893 there was an open break between the General Assembly
and Union Seminary, which repudiated the agreement of i87o l
between the seminaries and the assembly; the assembly disclaimed
responsibility for the Seminary's teachings and withheld financial
aid from its students. In 1896 McCormick Theological Seminary
(which in 1858 as New Albany Theological Seminary had come under
the control of the assembly) and Auburn Seminary refused to
make the changes desired by the General Assembly; a satisfactory
arrangement with McCormick was made. Lane and Auburn
remained practically independent.
But although the conservative party was successful in inducing
successive general assemblies to lay repeatedly stronger stress on
the verbal inerrancy of Holy Scripture and to make beliel in such
inerrancy a requisite of teachers in theological seminaries and of
candidates for the ministry, there was in other matters an increas-
ing liberal tendency. In 1902 the General Assembly adopted a
Brief Statement of the Reformed Faith, not as a legal standard
but as an interpretation of the confession ; it repudiated the doctrine
of infant damnation, insisted on the consistency of predestination
with God's universal love, and incorporated new chapters on the
Holy Spirit, the love of God, and missions. The Assembly of
1906 authorized (but did not make mandatory) the use of a book
of common worship; the question of a liturgy had been opened in
1 This agreement, proposed to the General Assembly in 1870
by the directors of Princeton and of Union, gave the Assembly
a veto on the election and removal of professors.
1855 by C. W. Baird's Eutaxia; in 1864 Charles W. Shields (1825-
1904), who afterwards entered the Protestant Episcopal Church,
republished and urged the adoption of the Book of Common Prayer
as amended by the Westminster Divines in the royal commission
of 1661 ; and Henry Van Dyke was prominent in the latter stage
of the movement for a liturgy.
The northern General Assembly and the Cumberland Church,
which united with it in 1006, are the only Presbyterian bodies
in America that have done anything tangible for Christian
union in the last fifty years: the. southern Assembly is much
more conservative than the northern in 1866 it suspended
James Woodrow (1828-1007), professor of natural science in
connexion with revealed religion, for holding evolutionary
views, and it declared that Adam's body was " directly fashioned
by Almighty God, without any natural animal parentage of
any kind, out of matter previously created out of nothing";
and in 1897 it ordered that women were not to speak in pro-
miscuous meetings and its attitude toward the negro, insisting
in separate church organizations for blacks and whites, makes
union with the northern bodies difficult; the United Presbyterian
Church in North America in 1890 refused to join the union of
Presbyterian and Reformed missions in India, and its opposition
to instrumental music and to the use of any songs but the
psalms of the Old Testament, although this is decreasing in
strength, are bars to union; the synod of the Reformed Presby-
terian Church of North America in 1888 refused to unite with
the United Presbyterian Church because the latter did not
object to the secular character of the constitution of the United
States; and with the general synod of the Reformed Presby-
terian Church the synod could not unite in 1800 because the
general synod allowed and the synod did not allow its members
to " incorporate " themselves with the political system of the
United States. A loose union, calle'd the " Federal Council of
the Reformed Churches in America," was formed in 1894 by
the churches mentioned (excepting the Southern Assembly)
and the Dutch and German Reformed churches.
More or less closely connected with the Northern Church are the
theological seminaries at Princeton, Auburn, Pittsburg (formerly
Allegheny the Western Seminary), Cincinnati (Lane), New York
(Union) and Chicago (McCormick), already named, and San Fran-
cisco Seminary (1871) since 1892 at San Anselmo, Cal., a theo-
logical seminary (1891) at Omaha, Nebraska, a German theological
seminary (1869) at Bloomfield, New Jersey, the German Presby-
terian Theological School of the North-west (1852) at Dubuque,
Iowa, and the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky,
which is under the control and supervision of the northern and
southern churches. Seminaries of the Southern Church are the
Union Theological Seminary at Richmond, Virginia, and the
Columbia Theological Seminary at Columbia, South Carolina,
already mentioned, the Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary
(1902) at Austin, Texas, the theological department in the South-
western Presbyterian University at Clarksville, Tennessee, and,
for negroes, Stillman Institute (1877), at Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The
United Presbyterian Church has two seminaries, one at Xenia,
Ohio, and one at Allegheny (Pittsburg). Of the Covenanter bodies
the synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church has a theological
seminary in Allegheny (Pittsburg), established in 1856, and the
general synod in 1887 organized a college at Cedarville, Ohio.
The Associate Reformed Synod of the South has the Erskine Theo-
logical Seminary (1837) in Due West, South Carolina.
The foreign missionary work of the General Assembly had been
earned on after 1812 through the (Congregational) American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (organized in 1810) until
the separation of 1837, when the Old School Assembly established
its own board of foreign missions; the New School continued to
work through the American board; after the union of 1869 the
separate board was perpetuated and the American board trans-
ferred to it, with the contributions made to the American board
by the New School churches, the missions in Africa (1833), in Syria
(1822), and in Persia (1835). The Church now has, besides these
missions, others in India (1834), Siam (1840), China (1846), Colombia
(1856), Brazil (1859), Japan (1859), Laos (1867), Mexico (transferred
in 1872 by the American and Foreign Christian Union), Chile
(transferred in 1873 by the same Union; first established in 1845),
Guatemala (1882), Korea (1884) and the Philippine Islands (1899).
A board of home missions was organized in 1816; a board of
educatio^ in 1819; a woman's board of foreign missions in 1869;
a women s executive committee for home mission work (which
takes particular interest in the work for the freedmen) in 1878;
a board of publication in 1838 (after 1887 called the board of
Publication and Sunday School Work) ; a board of aid for colleges
294
PRESBYTERY PRESCOTT
(1883); a board of church erection in 1844; a board of work for
freedmen; and a board of ministerial relief; after the union of
1869 the Board of Home Missions was removed from Philadelphia
to New York City.
The Southern Church, unlike the Northern, is not working through
" boards," but through executive committees, which were formerly
more loosely organized, and which left to the presbyteries the more
direct control of their activities, but which now differ little from
the boards of the northern Church. It has: an executive com-
mittee on foreign missions (first definitely organized bv the
Assembly in 1877), which has missions in China (1867), Brazil
(1869), Mexico (1874), Japan (1885), Congo Free State (1891),
Korea (1896) and Cuba (1899); and executive committees of home
missions (1865), of publication and sabbath school work, of minis-
terial education and relief, of schools and colleges and of colored
evangelization (formed in 1891). Permanent committees on the
" sabbath and family religion," the " Bible cause " and
" evangelistic work " report to the General Assembly annually.
The .United Presbyterian Church has a board of foreign missions
(reorganized in 1859) with missions in Egypt (1853), now a synod
with four presbyteries (in 1909, 71 congregations, 70 ministers
and 10,341 members), in the Punjab (1854), now a synod with
four presbyteries (in 1909, 35 congregations, 51 ministers and
17,321 members), and in the Sudan (1901); and boards of home
missions (reorganized, 1859), church extension (1859), publication
(1859), education (1859), ministerial relief (1862), and missions
to the freedmen (1863).
Presbyterians of different churches in the United States in
1906 numbered 1,830,555; of this total 322,542 were in Penn-
sylvania, where there were 248,335 members of the Presbyterian
Church in the United States of America (the Northern Church),
being more than one-fifth of its total membership; 56, 587 mem-
bers of the United Presbyterian Church of North America,
being more than two-fifths of its total membership; 2709 mem-
bers of the Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of
North America, three-tenths of its total membership; the
entire membership of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in
the United States and Canada (440), 3150 members of the Welsh
Calvinistic Methodist Church, nearly one-fourth of its total
membership; and 2065 members of the Reformed Presbyterian
Church in North America, general synod, about five-ninths
of its total membership. The strength of the Church in Penn-
sylvania is largely due to the Scotch-Irish settlements in that
state. Philadelphia is the home of the boards of publication
and of Sunday schools of the Northern Church; and in Allegheny
(Pittsburg) are the principal theological seminary of the United
Presbyterian body and its publishing house. In New York state
there were 199,923 Presbyterians, of whom 186,278 were members
of the Northern Church and 10,115 of the United Presbyterian
Church of North America. In Ohio there were 138,768 Presby-
terians, 114,772 being of the Northern and 18,336 of the United
Presbyterian Church. The other states with a large Presbyterian
population were Illinois (115, 602; 86,251 of the Northern Church;
17,208 of the Cumberland Church; 9555 of the United Presby-
terian Church); New Jersey (79,912; 78,490 of the Northern
Church); Tennessee (79,337; 42,464 being Cumberland Presby-
terians, more than one-fifth of the total membership; 6640 of
the Colored Cumberland Church, more than one-third of its
membership; 21,390 of the Southern Church; and 6786 of the
Northern Church); Missouri (71,599; 28,637 f the Cumberland
Church; 25,991 of the Northern Church; 14,713 of the Southern
Church); Texas (62,090; 31,598 of the Cumberland Church;
23,934 of the Southern Church; 4118 of the Northern Church;
and 2091 of the Colored Cumberland Church); Iowa (60,081;
48,326 of the Northern Church; 8890 of the United Presbyterian
Church); and North Carolina (55, 837; 41,322 of the Southern and
10,696 of the Northern Church). The Northern Church had a
total membership of 1,179,566. The Southern Church had a
total membership of 266,345. The Cumberland Presbyterian
Church had (in 1906, when it became a part of the Northern
Church) 195,770 members. The Colored Cumberland Church
had a membership of 18,066. The United Presbyterian Church
of North America had a total membership of 130,342. The
Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church had a total membership
of 13,280. The Associate Reformed Synod of the South had
a membership of 13,201. The Synod of the Reformed Presby-
terian Church in North America had in 1906 a membership of
9122. The "Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America,
General Synod," had a membership of 3620. The Associate
Presbyterian Church, or Associated Synod of North America
had a membership of 786. The Reformed Presbyterian Church
in the United States and Canada had a membership in the
United States of 440.
On American Presbyterianism, see Charles Hodge, Constitutional
History of the Presbyterian Church in the United Slates of America,
1706-1788 (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1839-1840); Records of the Presby-
terian Church in the United States of America from 1706 to 1788
(ibid., 1841); Richard Webster, History of the Presbyterian Church
in America (ibid., 1858); E. H. Gillett, History of the Presbyterian
Church in the United States of America (2nd ed., ibid., 1873);
C. A. Briggs, American Presbyterianism (New York, 1885). There
is a good bibliography on pp. xi-xxxi of R. E. Thompson's History
of the Presbyterian Churches in the United States (ibid., 1895), vol. vi.
of the American Church History Series; in the same series in vol. xi.
are sketches of " The United Presbyterians," by J. B. Scouller,
" The Cumberland Presbyterians," by R. N. Foster, and " The
Southern Presbyterians," by Thomas C. Johnson. Other works
on the separate churches are: E. B. Crisman, Origin and Doctrines
of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (St Louis, 1877) and W. M.
Glasgow, History of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in America
(Baltimore, 1888).
PRESBYTERY, in architecture, that portion of the choir
of a church in which the high altar is placed, and which is
generally raised by a few steps above the rest of the church.
It is reserved for the priests, and in that respect differs from the
choir, the stalls in which are occasionally occupied by the laity.
In Westminster Abbey the space east of the transept is the
presbytery, and the same arrangement is found in Canterbury
Cathedral. In San Clemente at Rome the presbytery is enclosed
with a marble balustrade or screen. For the use of the word
in Church government see PRESBYTER and PRESBYTERIANISM.
PRESCOT, a market town and urban district in the Ormskirk
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 8 m. E. of
Liverpool by the London & North Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 7855. It is of considerable antiquity, and received a
grant for a market and fair in the 7th year of Edward III.
A church existed in the i3th century. The present church of
St Mary is in various styles, with a lofty tower and spire and
carved timber roof. The chief industry is the making of watches,
and the town has long been celebrated for the production of watch
movements and tools. The industry was first introduced in 1730
by John Miller from Yorkshire. There is also a manufacture
of electric cables. John Philip Kemble, the actor, was born
at Prescot in 1757. To the north of the town is Knowsley Park,
the demesne of the earls of Derby, with a mansion of various
dates from the i5th century onward, containing a fine collection
of pictures. Prescot was formerly of greater importance in
relation to the now populous district of south-west Lan-
cashire; it was also a postal centre, and it is curious to notice
that such addresses as " Liverpool, near Prescot " were
necessary.
PRESCOTT, WILLIAM HICKLING (1796-1859), American
historian, was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May
1796. His grandfather was Colonel William Prescott (1726-
I 79S)> who commanded at the battle of Bunker Hill; and his
father was a well-known lawyer. He received his earlier educa-
tion in his native city, until the removal of his family in 1808 to
Boston. He entered Harvard College in the autumn of 1811,
but almost at the outset his career was interrupted by an accident
which affected the subsequent course of his life. A hard piece
of bread, flung at random in the Commons Hall, struck his left
eye and destroyed the sight. After graduating honourably in
1814 he entered his father's office as a student of law; but in
January 1815 the uninjured eye showed dangerous symptoms of
inflammation. When at last in the autumn he was in condition
to travel, it was determined that he should pass the winter at St
Michael's and in the spring obtain medical advice in Europe.
His visit to the Azores, which was constantly broken by con-
finement to a darkened room, is chiefly noteworthy from the
fact that he there began the mental discipline which enabled
him to compose and retain in memory long passages for subse-
quent dictation; and, apart from the gain in culture, his journey
PRESCOTT
295
to England, France, and Italy (April 1816 to July 1817) was
scarcely satisfactory. The verdict of the physicians was that
the injured eye was hopelessly paralysed, and that the preserva-
tion of the sight of the other depended upon the maintenance of
his general health. His further pursuit of the legal profession
seemed to be out of the question, and on his return to Boston he
remained quietly at home. On 4th May 1820 he was married
to Miss Susan Amory. Prior to his marriage he had made a
few experiments in composition, but he now finally decided to
devote his life to literature. A review of Byron's Letters on
Pope in 1821 constituted his first contribution to the North
American Review, to which he continued for many years to send
the results of his slighter researches. He next turned to French
literature, and to the early English drama and ballad literature.
Of the direction and quality of his thought at this time he has
left indications in his papers on Essay-Writing (1822) and on
French and English Tragedy (1823). In pursuance of his method
of successive studies he began in 1823 the study of Italian
literature, passing over German as demanding more labour than
he could afford. In the following year he made his first acquaint-
ance with the literature of Spain under the influence of his
friend and biographer, Ticknor; and, while its attractiveness
proved greater than he had at the outset anticipated, the com-
parative novelty of the subject as a field for research served as
an additional stimulus.
In the meantime his aims had been gradually concentrating.
History had always been a favourite study with him, and Mably's
Observations sur rhistoire appears to have had considerable
influence in determining him to the choice of some special period
for historic research. The selection, however, was not finally
made without prolonged hesitation. It was not till the ipth
of January 1826 that he recorded in the private memoranda
begun by him in 1820 his decision " to embrace the gift of the
Spanish subject." The choice was certainly a bold one. He
could only use the eye which remained to him for brief and
intermittent periods, and as travelling affected his sight pre-
judicially he could not anticipate any personal research amongst
unpublished records and historic scenes. He was happy, how-
ever, in the possession of ample means and admirable friends;
and he sketched with no undue restriction or hesitancy the plan
of the History of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella his first
great work. Mr English, one of his secretaries, has furnished
a picture of him at this period seated in a study lined on two sides
with books and darkened by green screens and curtains of blue
muslin, which required readjustment with almost every cloud
that passed across the sky. His writing apparatus a nocto-
graph lay before him, and he kept his ivory style in his hand to
jot down notes as the reading progressed. In accordance with
his general method these notes were in turn read over to him
until he had completely mastered them, when they were worked
up in his memory to their final shape. So proficient did he
become that he was able to retain the equivalent of sixty pages
of printed matter in his memory, turning and returning them as
he walked or drove. The rate of progress was necessarily slow,
apart from any liability to interruption by other undertakings
and failures in bodily health. He still continued his yearly
experimental contributions to the North American Review,
elaborating them with a view as much to ultimate historical
proficiency as to immediate literary effect, the essays on Scottish
Song (1826), Novel-Writing (1827), Moliere (1828), and Irving's
Granada (1829) belonging to this preparatory period. On the
6th of October 1829 he began the actual work of composition,
which was continued without more serious interruptions than
those occasioned by the essays on Asylums for the Blind (1830),
Poetry and Romance of the Italians (1831), and English Literature
of the iQth Century (1832), until the 2Sth of June 1836, when the
concluding note was written. Another year, during which his
essay on Cervantes appeared, was spent in the final revision of
the H istory for the press. Its success upon its publication in
Boston was immediate. Arrangements were speedily made for
its publication in England, and there its success was not less
marked. From the position of an obscure reviewer Prescott
suddenly found himself elevated to the first rank of contemporary
historians.
After coquetting for a short time with the project of a life
of Moliere he decided to follow in the track of his first work
with a History of the Conquest of Mexico. Washington Irving,
who had already made preparations to occupy the same field,
generously withdrew in his favour. The work was completed in
August 1843, the five years' labour having been broken by the
composition of reviews of Lockh&rt's Life of Scott (1838), Kenyon's
Poems (1839), Chateaubriand (1839), Bancroft's United States
(1841), Mariotti's Italy (1842), and Madame Calderon's Life in
Mexico (1843), and by the preparation of an abridgment of
his Ferdinand and Isabella in anticipation of its threatened
abridgment by another hand. On the 6th of December 1843
the Conquest of Mexico was published with a success propor-
tionate to a wide reputation won by his previous work. The
careful methods of work which he had adopted from the outset
had borne admirable fruit. While the consultation of authorities
had been no less thorough, his style had become more free and
less self-conscious; and the epic qualities of the theme were such
as to call forth in the highest degree his powers of picturesque
narration.
It was only a step from the conquest of Mexico to that of
Peru, and scarcely three months elapsed before he began to
break ground on the latter subject. In February 1845 he
received the announcement of his election as corresponding
member of the French Institute in place of the Spanish historian
Navarrete, and also of the Royal Society of Berlin. The winter
found him arranging for the publication in England of the
selection from his articles and reviews which appeared in 1845,
under the title of Critical and Historical Essays, and was issued
almost contemporaneously at New York under the title of
Biographical and Critical Miscellanies. The Conquest of Peru
was completed in November 1846 and published in March
following. His misgivings as to its reception were at once set
at rest, and it was speedily issued in translations into French,
Spanish, German and Dutch, in addition to the English editions
of New York, London and Paris.
He was now over fifty and his sight showed serious symptoms
of enfeeblement. Although during the composition of the
Ferdinand and Isabella it had been of very intermittent service
to him, it had so far improved that he could read with a certain
amount of regularity during the writing of the Conquest of Mexico,
and also, though in a less degree, during the years devoted to the
Conquest of Peru. Now, however, the use of his remaining eye
had been reduced to an hour a day, divided into portions at
wide intervals, and he was driven to the conclusion that whatever
plans he made must be formed on the same calculations as those
of a blind man. He had been for many years collecting materials
for a history of Philip II., but he hesitated for some time to
attempt a work of such magnitude, occupying himself in the
meantime with the slighter labours of a memoir of John Pickering
for the Massachusetts Historical Society and the revision of
Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature. But in March 1848 he
set himself with characteristic courage to the accomplishment of
the larger project. He had been fortunate in obtaining the
aid of Don Pascual de Gayangos, then professor of Arabic
literature at Madrid, by whose offices he was enabled to obtain
material not only from the public archives of Spain but from
the muniment rooms of the great Spanish families. With an
exceptional range of information thus afforded him, he wrote the
opening of his history in July 1849; but, finding himself still
unsettled in his work, he decided in the spring of the following
year to carry out a long projected visit to England. The idea
of writing memoirs was dismissed in favour of the more elaborate
form, and in November 1855 the first two volumes of his uncom-
pleted History of Philip II. were issued from the press, their
sale eclipsing that of any of his earlier books. This was his
last great undertaking; but as Robertson's Charles V., in the
light of new sources of information, was inadequate to take its
place as a link in the series, he republished it in an improved
and extended form in December 1856. A slight attack of
296
PRESCRIPTION
apoplexy on the 4th of February 1858 foretold the end, though he
persevered with the preparation of the third volume of Philip
II. for the press, and with the emendation and annotation of
his Conquest of Mexico. On the morning of the 27th of January
1859 a second attack occurred, and he died in the afternoon of
the same day in his sixty-third year.
As an historian Prescott stands in the direct line of literary descent
from Robertson, whose influence is clearly discernible both in his
method and style. But, while Robertson was in some measure the
initiator of a movement, Prescott came to his task when the range
of information was incomparably wider and when progress in
sociologic theory had thrown innumerable convergent lights upon
the progress of events. He worked, therefore, upon more assured
ground ; his sifting of authorities was more thorough and his method
less restricted. At the same time he cannot be classed as in the
highest sense a philosophic historian. His power lies chiefly in the
clear grasp of fact, in selection and synthesis, in the vivid narration
of incident. For extended analysis he had small liking and faculty ;
his critical insight is limited in range, and he confines himself almost
wholly to the concrete elements of history. When he does venture
upon more abstract criticism his standards are often commonplace
and superficial, and the world scheme to which he relates events
is less profound than the thought of his time altogether warranted.
Moreover, the authorities on whom he relied have had to be corrected
since in many points of detail in the light of later archaeological
research. If these things, however, indicate Prescott's deficiencies
from the point of view of ideal history, few historians have had in
a higher degree that artistic feeling in the broad arrangement of
materials which ensures popular interest. The course of his narrative
is unperplexed by doubtful or insoluble problems. The painting
is filled in with primary colours and with a free hand; and any sense
of crudity which may be awakened by close inspection is compensated
by the vigour and massive effectiveness of the whole.
Prescott's works in 16 vols. were edited by J. F. Kirk in 1870-1874.
His Life was written by George Ticknor (1864; revised 1875). There
are later lives by R. Ogden (1904). and H. T. Peck (1905).
PRESCRIPTION, in the broadest sense, the acquisition or
extinction of rights by lapse of time. The term is derived from
the praescriptio of Roman law, originally a matter of procedure,
a clause inserted before the formula on behalf of either the
plaintiff or, in early times, the defendant, limiting the question
at issue. It was so called from its preceding the formula* One
of the defendant's praescriptiones was longi temporis or longae
possessions praescriptio (afterwards superseded by the exceptio),
limiting the question to the fact of possession without interrup-
tion by the defendant for a certain time. It seems to have been
introduced by the praetor to meet cases affecting aliens or
lands out of Italy where the usucapio of the civil law (the original
means of curing a defect of title by lapse of time) could not
apply. The time of acquisition by usucapio was fixed by the
Twelve Tables at one year for movables and two years for
immovables. Praescriptio thus constituted a kind of praetorian
usucapio. In the time of Justinian usucapio and praescriptio
(called also longi temporis possessio), as far as they affected the
acquisition of ownership, differed only in name, usucapio being
looked at from the point of view of property, praescriptio from
the point of view of pleading. By the legislation of Justinian
movables were acquired by three years' possession, immovables
by ten years' possession where the parties had their domicile
in the same province (inter praesentes), twenty years' possession
where they were domiciled in different provinces (inter absentes).
Servitudes could not be acquired by usucapio proper, but were
said to be acquired by quasi usucapio, probably in the same time
as sufficed to give a title to immovables. There was also a
longissimi temporis possessio of thirty years, applicable to both
movables and immovables, and requiring nothing but bona fides
on the part of the possessor. Where the right sought to be estab-
lished was claimed against the Church, a still longer period of
forty years (at one time a hundred) was necessary. Immemorial
prescription was required in a few cases of a public character,
as roads. 2 Praescriptio was also the term applied to lapse of
time as barring actions upon contracts or torts under various
provisions corresponding to the English Statutes of Limitation.
The prescription of Roman law (and of modern systems based
upon it) is thus both acquisitive and extinctive. It looks either
1 " Praescriptiones autem appellatas esse ab eo quod ante formula
praescribuntur " (Gaius iv. 132).
2 " Viae vicinales, quarum memoria non extat " (Dig. xhn. 7, 3).
to the length of time during which the defendant has been in
possession, or to the length of time during which the plaintiff
has been out of possession. In English law the latter kind of
prescription is called limitation. The tendency of law is to
substitute a definite for an indefinite period of prescription.
In English law prescription is used in a comparatively narrow
sense. It is acquisitive only, and is very limited in its application.
A title by prescription can be made only to incorporeal hereditaments
that is, in legal language, hereditaments that are or have been
appendant or appurtenant to corporeal hereditaments and to
certain exemptions and privileges. 3 The rights claimable by pre-
scription for the most part consist of rights in alieno solo. The
most important are advowsons, tithes, commons, ways, watercourses,
lights, offices, dignities, franchises, pensions, annuities and rents.
Land or movables cannot be claimed by prescription. The founda-
tion of prescription is the presumption of law that a person found
in undisturbed enjoyment of a right did not come into possession
by an unlawful act (see Williams, Rights of Common, 3). In the
English courts this presumption was, perhaps still is, based upon
the fiction of a lost grant, viz. that there had been a grant of the
hereditament by a person capable of granting it to a person capable
of taking it, and that the grant had been lost. The jury were
instructed to find the loss of a once existing grant in whose existence
no one really believed. The enjoyment of the right must have
been from a time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the
contrary. The period of legal memory was after a time necessarily
fixed for purposes of convenience at a certain date. The date
adopted varied at first with the time during which the demandant
in a writ of right must have proved seisin in himself or his ancestors.
After one or two previous enactments the date was finally fixed by
the Statute of Westminster the First (3 Edw. I. c. 39) at the reign
of Richard I., which was interpreted to mean the first year of the
reign of Richard I. (1189). The inconvenience of this remote date,
as time went on, led to the gradual growth of a rule of evidence that
proof of enjoyment for twenty years was prima facie evidence of
enjoyment from time immemorial. But evidence of the beginning of
the enjoyment at however remote a date, if subsequent to I Richard I.,
was sufficient to destroy the claim. This is still the law with respect
to claims not falling within the Prescription Act, mostly rights in
gross that is, where there is no dominant or servient tenement,
e.g. a right to a pew or to a several fishery in gross. The twenty
years' rule was of comparatively late introduction; it does not seem
to have been known in the time of Elizabeth, and was perhaps
introduced in analogy to the Statute of Limitations, 21 Jac. I. c. 16.
With respect to claims of profits a prendre and easements a change
was made by the Prescription Act 1832 (extended to Ireland by
an act of 1858, but not to Scotland). By that act claims to rights
of common and other profits d. prendre are not to be defeated after
thirty years' enjoyment by any person claiming right thereto without
interruption for thirty years by showing only the commencement
of the right, and after sixty years' enjoyment the right is absolute
and indefeasible unless had by consent or agreement by deed or
writing ( i). In claims of rights of way or other easements the
periods are twenty years and forty years respectively ( 2). The
before-mentioned periods are to be deemed those next before suits,
and nothing is to be deemed to be an interruption unless acquiesced
in for one year ( 4). In pleading, the enjoyment as of right may
be alleged during the period mentioned in the act, and without
claiming in the name or right of the owner of the fee (5). No
presumption is to be made in favour of a right exercised for a less
period ( 6). The time during which a person otherwise capable of
resisting a claim is an infant, idiot, non compos mentis, feme covert,
or tenant for life, or during which an action or suit has been pending
until abated by the death of a party, is to be excluded in the com-
putation of the periods unless where the right or claim is declared
to be absolute and indefeasible ( 7). An act to define the period
of prescription for a modus decimandi, or an exemption from tithes
by composition, was passed the same year. The Prescription Act
is only supplemented to the common law, so that a claim may be
based upon the act or, in the alternative, upon the common law.
Nor does the act alter the conditions necessary at common law for
a good claim by prescription. The claim under the statute must
be one which may be lawfully made at common law. The principal
rules upon the subject are these, (i) The title is founded upon
actual usage. The amount of actual usage and the evidence necessary
to prove it vary according to the kind of claim. (2) The enjoyment
must (except in the case of light) be as of right that is to say, peace-
able, openly used, and not by licence. (3) The prescription must
be certain and reasonable. Inhabitants cannot, however, claim by
prescription, as they are an uncertain and fluctuating body, unless
under a grant from the Crown, which constitutes them a corporation
for the purposes of the grant. (4) The prescription must be alleged
in a que estate or in a man and his ancestors. Prescription in a
3 Prescription seems at one time to have borne a wider meaning.
A claim by prescription to land is mentioned in 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2.
And it seems that tenants in common may still make title to land by
prescription (Littleton's Tenures, 310).
PRESENT
297
gue estate lies at common law by reason of continuous and immemorial
enjoyment by the claimant, a person seised in fee, and all those whose
estate he had (toux ceux que estate U ad). The Prescription Act fixes
a definite period and does away with the necessity which existed
at common law of prescribing in the name of the person seised in
fee. Prescription in a man and his ancestors is not of ordinary
occurrence in practice. Corporations, however, occasionally claim
by a prescription analogous to this, viz. in the corporation and its
predecessors. Such claims by either a person or a corporation are
not within the Prescription Act, which applies only where there
are dominant and servient tenements. By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2
(1540) no person can make any prescription by the seisin or possession
of his ancestor unless such seisen or possession had been within
threescore years next before such prescription made. (5) A pre-
scription cannot lie for a thing which cannot be granted, as it rests
upon the presumption of a lost grant. Thus a lord of a manor
cannot prescribe to raise a tax or toll upon strangers, for such
a claim could never have been good by any grant.
Prescription and Custom. Prescription must be carefully dis-
tinguished from custom. Prescription, as has been said, is either
in a que estate or in a man and his ancestors that is to say, it is a
personal claim; custom is purely local that is to say, it is a usage
obtaining the force of law within a particular district. In the time
of Littleton the difference between prescription and custom was not
fully recognized (see Littleton's Tenures, 170), but the law as it
exists at present had become established by the time of Sir Edward
Coke. A custom must be certain, reasonable and exercised as of
right. Like prescription at common law, it must have existed from
time immemorial. On this ground a custom to erect stalls at
statute sessions for hiring servants was held to be bad, because such
sessions were introduced by the Statute of Labourers, 23 Edw. III.
st. i (Simpson \. Wells, L.R., 7 Q.B., 214). Some rights may be
claimed by custom which cannot be claimed by prescription, e.g. a
right of inhabitants to dance on a village green, for such a right is
not connected with the enjoyment of land. On the other hand,
profits a prendre can be claimed by prescription but not by custom,
unless in two or three exceptional cases, such as rights of copy-
holders to common in the lord's demesne, or to dig sand within their
tenements, rights to estovers in royal forests, and rights of tin-
bounders in Cornwall.
United States. The Law of the United States (except in Louisiana)
is based upon that of England, but the period of enjoyment necessary
to found a title by prescription varies in the different states. An
easement or profit a prendre is acquired by twenty years' enjoyment
in most states, following the English common law rule. In Louisiana
the period varies according to the subject from three to thirty years,
and property other than incorporeal hereditaments may be claimed
by prescription as in Roman law (see Kent's Comm. iii. 4^2).
International Law uses the term " prescription " in its wider or
Roman sense. " The general consent of mankind has established
the principle that long and uninterrupted possession by one nation
excludes the claim of every other" (Wheaton, Int. Law, 165).
Historic instances of rights which were at one time claimed and
exercised by prescription as against other nations are the sovereignty
of Venice over the Adriatic and of Great Britain over the Narrow
Seas, and the right to the Sound dues long exacted by Denmark.
But such claims were rejected by the highest authorities on inter-
national law (e.g. Grotius), on the ground that they were defective
both in Justus titulus and in de facto possession. There is no special
period fixed, as in municipal law, for the acquirement of international
rights by lapse of time. In private international law prescription
is treated as part of the lex fori or law of procedure. (J. W.)
Scotland. In the law of Scotland " prescription " is a term of
wider meaning than in England, being used as including both pre-
scription and limitation of English law. In its most general sense
it may be described as the effect which the law attaches to the lapse
of time, and it involves the idea of possession held by one person
adverse to the rights of another. Though having its basis in the
common law, its operation was early denned by statute, and it is
now in all respects statutory. Prescription in Scots law may be
regarded (i) as a mode of acquiring rights the positive prescrip-
tion ; (2) as a mode of extinguishing rights -the negative prescription ;
(3) as a mode of limiting rights of action the shorter prescriptions.
It must, however, be observed with reference to this division that
the distinction between (i) and (2) is rather an accidental (due to
a loose interpretation of the language of the act of 1617, c. 12) than a
logically accurate one. It is, moreover, strictly confined to heritable
rights, having no application in the case of movable property. But,
though the distinction has been complained of by the highest
authority as tending to create embarrassment in the law (see opinion
of Lord Chancellor St Leonards in Dougall v. Dundee Harbour
Trustees, 1852, 24 Jurist, 385), it is now too well settled to be
departed from.
i. Positive Prescription. The positive prescription was introduced
by the act of 1617, c. 12. After setting forth in the preamble the
inconvenience resulting from the loss of titles and tne danger of
forgery after the means of improbation are lost by the lapse of time,
it enacts that whatever heritages the lieges, their predecessors or
authors have possessed by themselves or others in their names
peaceably, in virtue of infeftments for the space of forty years,
continually and together, from the date of their said infeftments,
and without any lawful interruption during the said space, they shall
not be disturbed therein, provided they produce a written title on
which their possession has proceeded. Such written title must be
either a charter and sasine preceding the forty years, or, when no
charter is extant, instruments of sasine proceeding upon retours or
precepts of dare constat. Though the statute in its literal construc-
tion only applied to such heritable subjects as had been conveyed
by charter and sasine, it was at an early date interpreted so as to
include other heritable rights, as servitudes, tacks, public rights of
way, &c., where no charter could be supposed to exist. The act
of 1617 was so well framed that it continued to regulate the pre-
scription of land rights till 1874. By the Conveyancing Act of
that year (37 & 38 Viet. c. 94, 34) the period of prescription was
shortened from forty years to twenty. It was provided that posses-
sions for twenty years upon " an ex facie valid irredeemable title
recorded in the appropriate register of sasines " should in future
give the same right as forty years' possessions upon charter and
sasine under the earlier law. The act of 1874 does not, however,
apply to all the cases which fell under the act of 1617. Thus it has
been decided that twenty years' possession on a charter of adjudica-
tion followed by sasine and a declarator of expiry of the legal is
insufficient to give an unchallengeable right, an adjudication not
being an " ex facie irredeemable title " (Hinton v. Connel's Trustees,
1883, 10 Rettie's Reports, p. mo). It is further specially provided
by the act of 1874 that the twenty years' prescription is not to apply
to servitudes, rights of way, and public rights generally. The
following rules apply to the positive prescription, (a) The possession
which is required for it must be peaceable, continuous (" continually
and together," as the act of 1617 has it), and uninterrupted, (b) The
prescription runs de momenta in momentum, (c) The person against
whom the prescription runs must be major and sut juris a rule
which, as regards minority, was specially provided for by the act
of 1617, and aj regards other cases of incapacity by the application
of the principles of the common law. Under the Conveyancing
Act, however, it is provided that in all cases where the twenty
years' prescription applies, the lapse of thirty years is to exclude
any plea on the ground of minority or want of capacity.
2. Negative Prescription. This prescription was introduced by
the act of 1469, c. 28, and substantially re-enacted by the act of 1474,
c. 55. At first restricted to personal claims of debt, it was gradually
extended in practice and ultimately made applicable to heritable
bonds and other heritable rights by the above-mentioned act of 1617.
By the act of 1469 it is declared that the person having interest in
an obligation must follow the same within the space of forty years
and take document thereupon, otherwise it shall be prescribed. The
negative prescription accordingly extinguishes in toto the right to
demand performance of an obligation after forty years, the years
being reckoned from the day on which fulfilment of the obligation
can be first demanded. The lapse of this period of time creates a
conclusive presumption one incapable of being redargued that
the debt or obligation has been paid or fulfilled. But it must be
kept in view that the negative prescription does not per se without
the operation of the positive establish a right to heritable property
(Erskine, Inst. b. iii. tit. 7, 8). As regards the character of the
prescription, it is requisite, in the same way as in the case of the
positive, that the years shall have run continuously and without
interruption, i.e. without any act done on the part of the creditor
which indicates his intention to keep alive the right Such inter-
ruption may, for instance, take place by the payment of interest
on the debt, or citation of the debtor in an action for the debt, or
by a claim being lodged in the debtor's sequestration. In the same
way as in the positive, the currency of the negative prescription is
suspended by the debtor being minor or non valens agere.
3. Shorter Prescriptions. There are certain short prescriptions
recognized by Scots law corresponding to the limitations of English
law which operate not as extinguishing rights but as excluding
the ordinary means of proving them. The following require to be
noticed, (a) Vicennial prescription protecting a person who has been
served as heir for twenty years against action by any other person
claiming to be heir, (b) Decennial prescription requiring all actions
by minors against their tutors and curators, and vice versa, to be
prosecuted within ten years from the expiration of the guardianship.
(c) Septennial prescription providing that no person bind himself,
under certain exceptions, for and with another, conjunctly and
severally, in any bond or contract for sums of money shall be bound
for more than seven years after the date of the obligation. There
are also other shorter prescriptions limiting rights of action in
different matters as the sexennial, quinquennial and triennial.
PRESENT, an adjective, adverb and substantive meaning
that which is at hand or before one in place or in time. Also
another substantive meaning a gift, and a verb meaning to bring
into the presence of, to offer, to deliver. The verb is pronounced
prestnt; the others present. The first group is due to the Latin
pratsens, the present participle of praeesse, to be before one or
at hand; from this participle was formed the verb praesentare, to
bring before one, exhibit, show. The sense of " gift " is due to
298
PRESENT ATIONISM PRESS
the O. Fr. phrase metlre en prisent a quelqu'un, to bring something
into the presence of a person, to offer, give. The legal formal
phrase" these presents " iscommon, especially in the form " know
all men by these presents," as an opening to a deed, more particu-
larly to a deed-poll which cannot be referred to as an " indenture."
The phrase " these present words, documents, writings," &c.
is an adaptation of a similar phrase in O.Fr. ces presentes (sc.
ettres). As ecclesiastical terms " to present " or " presentation "
are used of the " presenting " or nomination by the patron
to the bishop of the person chosen by him to fill a vacant
benefice. When the bishop is patron he. does not "present,"
but " collates." " Presentiment," foreboding, the feeling
of something impending, must be distinguished in ety-
mology; it is derived from the Lat. praesentire, to perceive
beforehand.
PRESENT ATIONISM (from Lat. prae-esse, praesens, present),
a philosophical term used in various senses deriving from the
general sense of the term " presentation." According to G. F.
Stout (cf. Manual of Psychology, i. 57), presentations are " what-
ever constituents or our total experience at any moment directly
determine the nature of the object as it is perceived or thought of
at that moment." In Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, vol. ii.,
a presentation is " an object in the special form under which it
is cognized at any given moment of perceptual or ideational
process." This, the widest definition of the term, due largely
to Professor James Ward, thus includes both perceptual and
ideational processes. The term has, indeed, been narrowed
so as to include ideation, the correlative " representation "
being utilized for ideal presentation, but in general the wider
use is preferred. When the mind is cognizing an object, the
object " presents " itself to the senses or to thought in one
of a number of different forms (e.g. a picture is a work of art, a
saleable commodity, a representation of a house, &c.). Pre-
sentation is thus essentially a cognitive process. Hence the
most important use of the term " presentationism," which is
defined by Ward, in Mind, N.S. (1893), ii. 58, as " a doctrine
the gist of which is that all the elements of psychical life are
primarily and ultimately cognitive elements." This use takes
precedence of two others: (i) that of Hamilton, for presentative
as opposed to representative theories of knowledge, and (2) that
of some later writers who took it as equivalent to phenomenon
(q.v.). Ward traces the doctrine in his sense to Hume, to whom
the mind is a " kind of theatre " in which perceptions appear
and vanish continually (see Green and Grose edition of the
Treatise, i. 534). The main problem is as to whether psychic
activity is " presented " or not. Ward holds that it is not
presented or presentable save indirectly.
For the problems connected with Presentation and Presenta-
tionism see especially the article PSYCHOLOGY and authorities there
quoted.
PRESIDENCY, an administrative unit of the Indian empire.
The word is derived from the title of president or chief of the
council of a principal factory under the early East India Company
a title which lasted until governors were appointed under act
of parliament in 1784. It thence came to be applied to the three
original provinces of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. It is now
restricted to Madras and Bombay, in distinction to the lieu-
tenant-governorships. In Anglo-Indian usage, " presidency "
was also applied to the capital city as opposed to the country
beyond, termed the " mofussil "; and this usage lingers in such
phrases as " presidency town," " presidency magistrate," and
" presidency college."
PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-
Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to
sit in front of, preside), a style or title of various connotation,
but always conveying the sense of one who presides. In classical
Latin the title praeses, or president, was given to all governors
of provinces, but was confined in the time of Diocletian to the
procurators who, as lieutenants of the emperor, governed the
smaller provinces. In this sense it survived in the middle ages.
Du Cange gives instances from the capitularies of Charlemagne
of the style praeses provinciae as applied to the count; and later
examples of praeses, or praesidens, as used of royal seneschals and
other officials having jurisdiction under the Crown.
In England the word survived late in this sense of royal
lieutenant. Thus, John Cowell, in his Interpreter of Words
(1607) defines " President " as " used in Common Law for the
King's lieutenant in any province or function; as President of
Wales, of York, of Berwick. President of the King's Council."
In some of the British North American colonies (New Hamp-
shire, Pennsylvania, South Carolina) there was a president of
the council, usually elected by the council; and when Pennsyl-
vania and New Hampshire became states, one member of the
Executive Council was called president. The chief (and single)
executive head in Delaware, South Carolina and New Hamp-
shire (1784-1792) was called president.
During the revolutionary struggle in America from 1774
onwards, the presiding officer of the Continental Congress was
styled " President " and when the present constitution of the
United States was framed in 1787 (in effect 1789) the title of
President was transferred to the head of the Federal government.
" President " thus became the accepted style for the elected
chief of a modern republic, the example of the United States
being followed by the South American republics, by France in
1849, and by Switzerland.
In the simple sense of " one who presides " the word " president "
preserved its meaning alongside the technical use implying royal
delegation. . In this sense the New English Dictionary quotes its use
by Chaucer (Troylus, iv. 185) in 1374. In ecclesiastical terminology
praesidens was sometimes used for the head of cathedral chapters,
instead of dean or provost; and it was sometimes the title given to
the principal visitor of monasteries, notably in the reformed congre-
gation of Cluny (Du Cange). In the United Kingdom the heads
of many colleges are styled "president," the title being of consider-
able antiquity in the case of one college at Cambridge (Queens',
founded in 1448) and four at Oxford (St John's, Magdalen, Corpus
Christi, Trinity). At five Cambridge colleges (Pembroke, Gonville
and Caius, St Catherine's, St John's, Magdalene) the title " president"
is borne by the second in authority, being the equivalent of " vice-
master." In the United States " president " is the usual style of
the head of a college and also of a university wherever this has
developed out of a single college. " President ' is also the style of
persons elected to preside over the meetings of learned, scientific,
literary and artistic academies and societies, e.g. the president of the
Royal Academy (P.R.A.) in London; the title of the president of
the Royal Society (P.R.S.) dates from its foundation in 1660. In
the United States the style " president " is also given to the person
who presides over the proceedings of financial, commercial and
industrial corporations (banks, railways, &c.), in Great Britain usually
styled " chairman," but in the case of the Bank of England and
certain other banks "governor."
In Great Britain the title " president " is also borne by certain
ministers of the Crown and certain judges, and preserves some of
the ancient connotation of a royal lieutenancy explained above.
Thus the style of " president " applied to the heads of the board of
agriculture, local government board, board of education, board of
trade, &c., which are all committees of the privy council, is derived
from that of the lord president of the council, the representative
of the king. The presidents of the court of session in Scotland, and
of the probate and divorce division, &c. in England, also bear this
style ultimately as representatives of the Crown.
In France, besides the president of the republic, there are presi-
dents of the senate and of the chamber of deputies. In Germany
the word Prdsident is used in most of the English senses of
" president," e.g. of a corporation, society, assembly or political body.
As a judicial title President is confined to the head of any one of the
corporations (Kollegien) on the basis of which the judicial system
of the empire is organized (Landgericht, Oberlandesgericht, Reichs-
gericht), and must be distinguished from that of Vorsitzender (literally
also praesidens), i.e. the judge (who may or may not be the Prdsident)
selected to preside over a division of the court appointed to try
particular cases.
In Prussia Prdsident also retains its old sense of " governor,"
Oberprasident being the title of the chief of the administration of a
province, Prdsident that of the head of a government district
(Regierungsbezirk). The consistories of the established Protestant
Church are also presided over by a Prdsident, who is a royal official.
PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative
of premere, to crush, squeeze, press), a word which appears in
English in the i3th and I4th centuries with three particular
1 The style "president " was in every case exchanged for that
of " governor " within a few years of the proclamation of the inde-
pendence of the United States. The title " president " is no longer
used for any governor under the British Crown, but relics of past
usage survive in the " presidencies " of Madras and Bombay.
PRESSBURG PRESS LAWS
299
meanings, viz. (i) crowd or throng, often used of the melte in
a battle, (2) a shelved cupboard for books or clothes, and (3)
an apparatus for exerting pressufe on various substances, and
for various purposes. The first meaning is still current, though
usually it has a literary air; a specific use is the nautical one of
" press of sail," i.e. as much sail as the wind will allow; cf. the
similar use of " crowd." The second use has given way to other
words, but is still the technical term in use in libraries, where the
books bear " press-marks " specifying the case or shelf where
they may be found. As a term for a machine or apparatus for
exerting pressure, there are innumerable examples, usually with
a qualifying word giving the purpose for which the pressure is
applied, either for attaining compression into a small space,
or a required shape, or for extracting juices or liquids, or the
methods adopted for exerting the pressure. The printing-press
has given rise to obvious transferred uses of the word " press ":
thus it is applied to an establishment for printing, e.g. the
Clarendon Press, at Oxford, or the Pitt Press, at Cambridge,
to a printing-house and to the staff which conduct the business,
to the issue of printed matter and especially to its daily or
periodical issue, hence newspapers and periodicals generally.
According to the New English Dictionary this use originated in
phrases such as " the liberty of the press," " to write for the
press," &c. The earliest quotation given is from the first
number of the Dublin Press, 1797. For the history of the liberty
or freedom of the press see PRESS LAWS; also NEWSPAPERS and
PERIODICALS. For the punishment of " pressing " see PEINE
FORTE ET DURE. It is now recognized that " press " in " press
gang," " to press," i.e. to force or compulsorily enlist men for
naval or military service, is a word distinct from the above. It
stands for the earlier " prest," and is ultimately due to French
prcler, to lend (see IMPRESSMENT).
PRESSBURG (Hung. Pozsony, Lat. Posonium), a town of
Hungary, capital of the county of the same name, 133 m.
N.\V. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 61,537, about half of
whom are Germans. Pressburg is picturesquely situated on
the left bank of the Danube, at the base of the outlying spurs
of the Little Carpathians, in a position of strategical importance
near the Porto. Hungarica. Pressburg was the capital of
Hungary from 1541 until 1784, while the Hungarian parliament
held its sittings here till 1848. One of the most conspicuous
buildings of the town is the royal palace, situated on the Schloss-
berg, a plateau 270 ft. above the Danube, which was destroyed
by lire in 1811 and has since been in ruins. Other noteworthy
buildings are the cathedral, a Gothic edifice of the I3th century,
restored in 1861-1880, in which many of the Hungarian kings
were crowned; the town hall, also a 13th-century building,
several times restored, and containing an interesting museum;
the Franciscan church, dating from 1272; and the law-courts,
erected in 1783, where the sittings of parliament were held from
1802 to 1848. The Grassalkowitch palace is now the residence
of an archduke, and there is an archiepiscopal palace. Educa-
tional establishments include an academy of jurisprudence, a
military academy, a Roman Catholic and a Protestant seminary,
a training school for female teachers, and several secondary and
technical schools. A large business is carried on in wooden
furniture, tobacco and cigars, paper, ribbons, leather wares,
chemicals, liqueurs, confectionery and biscuits. There is,
besides, a dynamite factory, which produces over 2,000,000 Ib
of explosives annually, a large cloth factory and several flour-
mills. Trade in grain and wine is active. Besides the extensive
traffic on the Danube, the town is also an important railway
junction. The first railway line in Hungary was that from
Pressburg to Tyrnau through the valley of the Waag. The
town has many points of interest in its environs. About
twenty-five minutes by steamer down the Danube, the exten-
sive ruins of the castle of Theben (Hung. Diveny), the former
gate of Hungary, are situated at the point where the March,
which forms the boundary between Austria and Hungary,
falls into the Danube. Opposite on the left, bank is Hainburg,
the gateway of Hungary from the Austrian side. Eastward
and southward of Pressburg stretches a long and fertile plain,
known as the Upper or Little Hungarian plain. It has an area
of 2825 sq. m., of which two-thirds lay on the right bank of the
Danube, and the whole is bounded by the rivers Neutra and
Raab. In the extreme south-west of this plain is situated the
lake of Ferto-Tava (Ger. Neusiedler See), which has an area
of about 100 sq. m., but it is of varying size, and sometimes
dries up in part. Eastward it is united with the extensive
marsh called the Hansag, through which it is in communication
with the river Raab and with the Danube. In the Roman
period it was known as Peiso or Pelso. In several places of
the dry bed traces of prehistoric lake-dwellings have been
discovered. In conjunction with the regulation of the river
Raab, and the drainage of the Hansag marsh, plans for the
drainage of the lake have been proposed.
Little is known of the early history of Pressburg, which was
founded about 1000. It was soon strongly fortified, though it
was captured by the king of Bohemia, Ottakar II., in 1271.
It received many privileges from the Hungarian kings, especi-
ally from the emperoj Sigismund, and its strategic situation
made it an important fortress. Sigismund held Imperial diets
in the town. After the battle of Mohacs in 1526 and the capture
of Buda by the Turks, Pressburg became the capital of Hungary.
Here in 1608 the Austrian and Hungarian malcontents concluded
a treaty with the archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor,
against their lawful sovereign, the emperor Rudolf II. In 1619
the town was taken by Bethlen Gabor, but it was recovered
by the Imperialists in 1621. In 1687 it was the scene of the
session of the estates of Hungary during which the Hungarians
renounced their right of choosing their own king and accepted
the hereditary succession of the Habsburgs. Here also was
held the diet of 1741 when the members swore to assist their
sovereign, Maria Theresa, against Frederick the Great. In
1784 Buda took the place of Pressburg as the capital of Hungary,
but the latter town continued to be the seat of the parliament
until 1848. On the 26th of December 1805 peace was signed
here between Napoleon and the emperor Francis I., and in 1809
the town was bombarded by the French.
See J. Kiraly, Geschichte des Donau- Mautk- und Urfahr-Rechts
der Freistadt Pressburg (Pressburg, 1890); T. Ortvay, Geschichte
der Stadt Pressburg (Pressburg, 1892), and Pressburgs Strassen und
Platze (Pressburg, 1905).
PRESSENSE, EDMOND DEHAULT DE (1824-1891), French
Protestant divine, was born at Paris on the 7th of January
1824. He studied at Lausanne under Alexander Vinet, and at
Halle and Berlin under F. A. G. Tholuck and J. A. W. Neandef,
and in 1847 became pastor in the Evangelical Free Church at
the chapel of Taitbout in Paris. He was a powerful preacher
and a good political speaker; from 1871 he was a member of the
National Assembly, and from 1883 a senator. In 1890 he was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. Pressense
laboured for the revival of biblical studies. He contended
that the Evangelical Church ought to be independent of the
power of the state. He died on the 8th of_April 1891.
He founded in 1854 the Revue chretienne, and in 1866 the Bulletin
theologique. His works include: Histoire des trois premier* siecles
de I'eglise chretienne (6 vols. 1856-1877; new ed. 1887-1889), L'glise
el la revolution franfaise (1864 ; 3rd ed., 1889), Jesus-Christ, son temps,
so. vie, son csuvre (against E. Renan, 1866; 7th ed. 1884), Les Origines,
le problbme de la connaissance; le probllme cosmohgique (1883; 2nd
ed. 1887). See T. Roussel, Notice sur la vie et les oeuvres de Pressense
(1894).
PRESS GANG, the popular name for the companies of officers
and men who were commissioned to execute the warrants for
the impressment of seamen in Great Britain (see IMPRESSMENT).
These bodies consisted of a captain, one or more lieutenants,
and a band of trustworthy men. They were sent to seaports,
or occasionally to inland towns where sailors were likely to be
met when going from one coast to another. A " rendezvous "
was opened, volunteers were enlisted, deserters arrested, and
such " able bodied persons " as were liable to be pressed for
service in the fleet were seized, and sent to the guard ships (q.v.).
PRESS LAWS, the laws concerning the licensing of books
and the liberty of expression in all products of the printing-press.
300
PRESS LAWS
especially newspapers. The liberty of the press has always
been regarded by modern political writers as of supreme import-
ance. " Give me liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely
according to conscience, above all other liberties," says Milton
in the Areopagitica.
At the present day the liberty of the press in English-speaking
countries is a matter of merely historical importance. But
this liberty was a plant of slow growth. Before the invention of
printing the Church assumed the right to control the expression
of all opinion distasteful to her. When the printing-press was
invented German printers established themselves at various
important centres of western Europe, where already numbers
of copyists were employed in multiplying manuscripts. In
1473 Louis XI. granted letters patent (giving the right of printing
and selling books) to " Uldaric Quering " (Ulrich Gering),
who three years earlier had set up a press in the Sorbonne (the
theological faculty of the university at Paris), and before long
Paris had more than fifty presses at work. The Church and
universities soon found the output of. books beyond their
control. In 1496 Pope Alexander VI. began to be restive,
and in 1 501 he issued a bull against unlicensed printing, which
introduced the principle of censorship. 1 Between 1524 and
1548 the Imperial Diet in Germany drew up various stringent
regulations; and in 1535 Francis I., in France, prohibited by
edict, under penalty of death, the printing of books. This
was too severe, however, and shortly afterwards the Sorbonne
was given the right of deciding, a system which lasted to the
Revolution.
In England the authority of parliament was invoked to aid
the ecclesiastical authority. There is an ordinance as early
as 1382, 5 Ric. II. st. 2, c. 5 (not assented to by the Commons,
but appearing upon the parliament roll), directed against
unlicensed preachers. After the invention of printing the
ecclesiastical censorship was still asserted, but only as collateral
with the censorial rights of the Crown, claimed by virtue of its
general prerogative. After the Reformation the greater part
of the rights of censorship passed to the Crown, which at the
same time assumed the power of granting by letters patent the
right of printing or selling books as a monopoly. The grant,
if made to the author himself, was an equivalent of copyright;
if made to a person other than the author, it seems to have
always been subject to the author's copyright as it existed at
common law.
Censorship was either restrictive or corrective, i.e. it interfered
to restrict or prevent publication, or it enforced penalties after
publication. Repression of free discussion was regarded as so
necessary a part of government that Sir Thomas More in his
Utopia makes it punishable with death for a private individual
to criticize the conduct of the ruling power. Under Mary print-
ing was confined to members of the Stationers' Company,
founded by royal charter in 1556. Under Elizabeth the Star
Chamber assumed the right to confine printing to London,
Oxford and Cambridge, to limit the number of printers and
presses, to prohibit all publications issued without proper
licence, and to enter houses to search for unlicensed presses
and publications (Order of 1585, Strype's Whitgift, app. 94).
The search for unlicensed presses or publications was entrusted
to an officer called the " messenger of the press." In 1637
was issued an order of the Star Chamber forbidding the importa-
tion of books printed abroad to the scandal of religion or the
1 The principle of the censorship is still uncompromisingly main-
tained by the Roman Catholic Church; and this, though in general
binding only in foro conscientiae, has necessarily had considerable
importance in states which recognize the papacy as an independent
power relations with which are established by concordat. Thus
in Italy, under the Sardinian constitution of 1848, Bibles, catechisms
and liturgical words had to be licensed by the bishop. The principle
of the censorship, consecrated anew in Pope Pius IX.'s Syllabus of
1864, was reaffirmed in the apostolic constitution Officiorum ef
Leo XIII. and in 1907 in the encyclical Pascendi of Pius X. This
last expresses " the highest esteem for this institution of censors "
and orders censors to be appointed in all episcopal curias for the
revision of books intended for publication, at the same time direct-
ing that their names shall not be made known to the authors of
the books condemned. (See also INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBITORUM.)
Church or the government, and the printing of any book not
first lawfully licensed. Law books were to be licensed by one
of the chief justices or the chief baron, books of history and
state affairs by one of the secretaries of state, of heraldry by the
earl marshal, of divinity, philosophy, poetry and other subjects
by the archbishop of Canterbury or the bishop of London,
or the chancellors or vice-chancellors of the universities.
There were to be only twenty master printers and four letter-
founders. The punishment was at the discretion of the court
(Rushworth, Historical Collections, voh iii. app. 306). The
same principle of press restriction was carried out by the Long
Parliament after the abolition of the Star Chamber, and it was
an ordinance of that body issued in 1643 that called forth
Milton's Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed
Printing, itself an unlicensed book. The parliament appointed
committees for printing, who appointed licensers, but the licens-
ing was really left in a great measure to the wardens of the
Stationers' Company. At the Restoration Sir John Birkenhead
acted as licenser, appointed apparently under the general
prerogative. It was, no doubt, too, under the general pre-
rogative that Charles II., by a proclamation in 1660, called in
and suppressed Milton's Defensio pro populo anglicano. Then
followed the Licensing Act of 1662 (1.3 & 14 Car. II. c. 33),
limited to two years. The provisions as to importation of books,
the appointment of licensers, and the number of printers and
founders were practically re-enactments of the similar pro-
visions in the Star Chamber order of 1637. Printing presses
were not to be set up without notice to the Stationers' Company.
A king's messenger had power by warrant of the king or a
secretary of state to enter and search for unlicensed presses
and printing. Severe penalties by fine and imprisonment were
denounced against offenders. The act was successively renewed
up to 1679. Under the powers of the act Sir Roger L'Estrange
was appointed licenser, and the effect of the supervision was that
practically the newspaper press was reduced to the London
Gazette. The objections made to lines 594-599 of the first book
of Paradise Lost by the archbishop of Canterbury's chaplain,
acting as Licenser, are well known. The act expired in 1679,
and for the remainder of the reign of Charles II., as in the reign
of George III., the restrictions on the press took the form of
prosecutions for libel. In 1685 the Licensing Act was renewed
for seven years (i Jac. II. c. 8, 15). No mention of the liberty
of the press was made in the Bill of Rights. On the expiration
of the Licensing Act in 1692 it was continued till the end of the
existing session of parliament (4 & 5 Will, and Mary, c. 24, 14).
In 1695 the Commons refused to renew it. The immediate
effect of this was to lay authors open to the attacks of literary
piracy, and in 1709 the first Copyright Act (8 Anne, c. 19)
was enacted for their protection. The power of a secretary
of state to issue a warrant, whether general or special, for the
pu rpose of searching for and seizing the author of a libel or the
libellous papers themselves a power exercised by the Star
Chamber and confirmed by the Licensing Act was still asserted,
and was not finally declared illegal until the case of Entick\.
Carrington in 1765 (St. Tr. xix. 1030). In 1776 the House of
Commons came to a resolution in accordance with this decision.
The compulsory stamp duty on newspapers was abandoned
in 1855 (18 Viet. c. 27), the duty on paper in 1861 (24 Viet. c.
20) , the optional duty on newspapers in 1870 (33 & 34 Viet. c. 38).
From that time the English press may be said to date its complete
freedom, which rests rather upon a constitutional than a legal
foundation. It is not confirmed by any provision of the supreme
legislative authority, as is the case in many countries. A
declaration in favour of the liberty of the press is usually a
prominent feature in the written constitutions of foreign states.
The few existing restrictions on the liberty of the press are pre-
sumed to be imposed for the public benefit. They are in some cases
of great historical interest. The rights of private persons are in
general sufficiently protected in one direction by the law of Libel
(g.v.), in another by the law of Copyright (g.i>.), while the criminal
law provides for the cases of press offences against morality, public
justice, &c. Thus the courts have power to punish summarily as
a contempt the publication of comments upon proceedings subjudice
PRESS LAWS
301
or reflections upon the conduct of judicial officers. (See CONTEMPT
OF COURT.) The last relic of the censorship before publication is
to be found in the licensing of stage plays. By 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68 no
new plays or additions to old plays can be acted for hire at any
theatre in Great Britain until they have been submitted to the lord
chamberlain, who may forbid any play or any part of a play. The
penalty for acting a play before it has been allowed or after it has
been disallowed is a sum not exceeding 50 for every offence and the
forfeiture of the licence of the theatre in which the offence occurred.
This jurisdiction is exercised by an official of the lord chamberlain's
department called the " examiner of stage plays." The last relic
of the monopoly of printing formerly granted to licensees of the
Crown is found in the exclusive right of the king's printer and the
universities of Oxford and Cambridge to print the Bible 1 and
the Book of Common Prayer, and of the king s printer to print acts
of parliament and other state documents. The privileges of
the universities are confirmed by 13 Eliz. c. 29. The rights of the
king's printer are protected by severe penalties. A maximum term
of seven years' penal servitude is incurred by any person who prints
any act of parliament or other government document, falsely pur-
porting to be printed by the king's printer or under the authority
of His Majesty's stationery office (8 & 9 Viet. c. 113; 45 Viet. c. 9).
The rights of the printers of the journals of either house of parliament
are protected by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 1 13. The publication of parliamentary
debates in any form by any other persons than the printers of the
journals of the two houses is still in theory a breach of privilege,
but in practice they have been fully reported since 1771. The other
restrictions upon the press are to [a great extent those imposed for
police purposes. By 32 & 33 Viet. c. 24 (confirming in part previous
enactments applying to Great Britain) the printer of any paper or
book for profit is required under penalties to print thereon his name
and address or the name of a university press, and is to keep a copy
of everything printed, with a few exceptions. Penalties must be
sued for within three months, and no proceeding for penalties can
be begun unless in the name of the attorney-general or solicitor-
general of England or the lord advocate of Scotland. By the News-
paper Libel and Registration Act 1 88 1 (44 & 45 Viet. c. 60), which
applies to England and Ireland, but not to Scotland, newspaper
proprietors are, except in the case of joint-stock companies, to be
registered and to make annual returns of the title of the newspaper
and the names of all the proprietors, with their occupations, places
of business and places of residence. By the Corrupt Practices
Prevention Acts 1883 and 1884 (46 & 47 Viet. c. 51, 1 8, and
47 & 48 Viet. c. 70, 14), the name and address of the printer must
be printed on all bills, placards, &c., referring to a parliamentary or
municipal election. By 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68, 7, the name and place
of abode of a manager of a theatre are to be printed on every play-bill
announcing a representation at such theatre. Offences against
decency by the press are provided for by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 83 ; 25 & 26
Viet. c. 101, 251 (for Scotland), and 2 & 3 Viet. c. 47, 54 (for the
metropolis). The importation of obscene literature into the United
Kingdom is forbidden by 39 & 40 Viet. c. 36, 42. By the Larceny
Act 1861, any person who prints or publishes an advertisement
offering a reward for the return of stolen goods without questions
asked is subject to a penalty (24 & 25 Viet. c. 96, 102). This penalty
cannot, however, be sued for without the sanction of the attorney-
general or solicitor-general of England or Ireland (33 & 34 Viet. c. 65).
The advertisement in the United Kingdom of foreign or illegal
lotteries is prohibited by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 66, betting advertisements
by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 119, 7, and 37 Viet. c. 15.
The right of an author or publisher to the full profits of his under-
taking was at one time restricted by the Copyright Act of Anne
(8 Anne, c. 19, 4), by which the archbishop of Canterbury and other
authorities were empowered to lower the price of a book upon com-
plaint that the price was unreasonable. The only restriction of
the kind now existing is the obligation of delivering (without request)
to the British Museum a copy of any work published within the
United Kingdom, and of delivering (on request) copies for the use
of the university libraries at Oxford and Cambridge, the library of
the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh, and the library of Trinity
College, Dublin (5 & 6 Viet. c. 45, 6-10).
Scotland. Printing became, as in England, a royal monopoly.
The exclusive right of printing was granted by James IV. to Walter
Chepman, who printed the first book in Scotland. The monopoly
of printing acts of the Scottish parliament was granted by James V.
to the printer chosen by the clerk register and specially licensed by
the king (1540, c. 127). Printers are forbidden by 1551, c. 27, to
print, whether in Latin or English, without licence from ordinaries
deputed in that behalf by the Crown. No book treating of religion
or of the kirk was to be "printed without a licence from the general
assembly (1646, c. 164), or of the kingdom without a licence from
one of the judges or the secretary (c. 165). The council were
empowered to prohibit presses at their discretion by the order of
the 30th of March 1655. The importation of " famous " books and
libels in defence of the pope was prohibited by 1581, c. 1 06. Press
1 The monopoly of the king's printer does not extend to any
translation other than the Authorized Version, and not to that if
it be accompanied by new notes or marginal readings.
offences were treated with the utmost severity. By 1585, c. I, the
author of a libellous writing against the king was punishable with
death. It is scarcely necessary to say that since the union the press
of Scotland has enjoyed no less liberty than that of England.
In the case of Bibles, Old and New Testaments, Psalm Books,
the Book of Common Prayer, the Confession of Faith, and the Larger
and Shorter Catechisms a licence for printing is still required. The
licensing authority is the lord advocate, but all proposed publications
are submitted for approval to the body officially known as " His
Majesty's sole and only Master Printers in Scotland," consisting
of the lord advocate, the solicitor-general, the moderator of the
general assembly, and four other members. A licence is also required
for printing acts of parliament; but a general licence granted in 1848
to a firm of printers in Edinburgh is still .operative, and their publica-
tions are not submitted for approval. As its work is practically
confined to Bibles and the other religious publications enumerated,
the above-mentioned body commonly receives the name of the Bible
Board.
Ireland. By the Prevention of Crime Act 1882 (45 & 46 Viet,
c. 25), the lord-lieutenant was empowered to order the seizure of
any newspaper appearing to contain matter inciting to the commis-
sion of treason or of any act of violence or intimidation ( 13). He
may also by warrant direct the search for and seizure of any papers
or documents suspected to be used or to be intended to be used for
the purpose of or in connexion with any secret society existing for
criminal purposes ( 14).
The British Dominions. In the British colonies the press is as
free as it is in England. Each colony has its special legislation on
the subject for police and revenue purposes. Where there is a
government printer, his monopoly is protected by the Documentary
Evidence Act 1868 (31 & 32 Viet. c. 37), which imposes a maximum
penalty of five years' penal servitude upon any person printing a
copy of any proclamation, order, or regulation which falsely purports
to have been printed by the government printer, or to be pnnted
under the authority of the legislature of any British colony or
possession. The act is, however, subject to any law made by the
colonial legislature.
India. During the governor-generalship of Lord Lytton was
passed the " Act for the better control of publications in Oriental
languages," Act ix. of 1878. (l) By this act copies of newspapers
published out of British India were liable to forfeiture and seizure
by warrant throughout the whole of British India if the papers
contained any words, signs or visible representations likely to excite
disaffection to the government established by law in British India,
or antipathy between any persons of different races, castes, religions
or sects in British India. The governor-general might by notifica-
tion in the Gazette of India, exclude newspapers, books, &c., from
British India. (2) In places to which the act was extended by order
of the governor-general in council a magistrate might require the
printer and publisher of a newspaper to enter into a bond, with a
deposit, not to publish a newspaper containing " any words, signs,"
&c. (as in I ), or to use or attempt to use it for the purpose of extortion
or threat. The consequences of offending were forfeiture of the
deposit, papers, press, &c. Books used for the illegal purposes above
mentioned were subject to forfeiture, but no bond or deposit was
required previous to publication of books, as in the case of news-
papers.
This act, which remained in force until 1910, was found, owing
principally to the restriction of its operation to newspapers published
in the vernacular, to be ineffective in coping with the spread of news
sheets exciting disaffection amongst the natives towards the govern-
ment of India. It was consequently repealed and replaced by an
act of February 1910, which applies to all newspapers published after
the act. The deposit requiring to be made is now obligatory on all
new printing-presses, whether issuing a newspaper or not, and
independently of the deposit on the newspaper. The requirement
of a formal bond has been abolished. There are provisions for
forfeiture of the deposit and confiscation of the press on repetition
of the offence. The 1910 act gives po % wer to the authorities to open
postal packets, other than letters, suspected of containing seditious
matter, and requires the printer of a newspaper to deposit with the
government two copies of each issue at the time of publication. It
includes a long list of offences incitement to which is punishable
under the act, and in giving power to stop a seditious newspaper
after conviction, and in fixing responsibility on the actual printers
of seditious matter, has considerably strengthened the power of
the law.
Egypt. The press is subject to a special law (The Press Law of
1881) and to certain articles of the penal code which define press
offences and prescribe penalties (both fine and imprisonment) for
them. Owing to the capitulations, which are in force in Egypt as
part of the Ottoman Empire, the penal code cannot be applied to
foreign subjects, and its application had not (up to 1910) been found
sufficient to repress abuses. The probable result of strengthening
the law would be that conductors of native papers desirous of
indulging in violent language or sedition would engage a foreign
subject as nominal proprietor or editor and thereby escape local
jurisdiction. The Press Law of 1881 is a more powerful instrument
than the penal code, inasmuch as there are decisions of the mixed
302
PRESS LAWS
tribunals that that law is, in principle, applicable to foreigners.
By this law registration of newspapers is obligatory, and the govern-
ment has power of control, denned in art. 13 as follows: "In the
interests of public order, of religion or of morality, every newspaper
or periodical can be suspended or suppressed by order of the minister
of the interior after two warnings, or, without previous warning,
by a decision of the council of ministers. Each warning may be
accompanied by a fine of from 5 to E2O." If a newspaper or
periodical which has been suppressed continues to appear, the
responsible parties can be fined, and the printing-press which issues
the suppressed publication can be closed by order of the minister
of the interior. The closure or seizure of the printing-press would,
however, in the case of a foreigner require the co-operation of his
consul.
This law was from about 1900 allowed to fall into disuse. Owing
to the excesses of the Arabic newspapers the law was revived in the
early part of 1909, but was applied with great moderation. During
the year two native papers were warned and one was suppressed.
The tribunals remained alone competent to inflict any penalty (apart
from suppression and seizure of the printing-press) more severe than
a fine of E2O, and in 1909 under the penal code the editor of one
native paper was sentenced to a year's imprisonment and the editor
of another to three months' imprisonment. (See Sir Eldon Gorst's
reports on Egypt for 1908 and 1909, specially Egypt No. I, /pop,
PP- 3-5-)
The United States. The first constitutions of Pennsylvania, Dela-
ware, Maryland and North Carolina, enacted in 1776, are interesting
as containing the earliest declarations of any legislative authority
in favour of the liberty of the press. The same principle was after-
wards adopted in the constitution of the United States. The acts
of Congress dealing with the press are not numerous, as each state
has for the most part its own legislation on the subject, dealing
generally with, among other matters, the registration of newspapers,
the monopoly of the state printer, and the right of giving the truth
in evidence in defence to proceedings for libel. The act of the i8th
of August 1856 forbids diplomatic or consular officers of the United
States to correspond with any foreign newspaper in regard to the
affairs of a foreign state. The act of the 3rd of March 1873 prohibits
the printing and circulation of obscene literature. Legislation by
Congress has provided that all printing (unless otherwise ordered
by law) for the Senate and House of Representatives and the
executive and judicial departments, shall be done by the govern-
ment printer.
Austria-Hungary. In the Austrian Empire, which from 180410
1867 embraced Hungary also, the press laws under Metternich's
regime were extremely severe. By the penal code of 1808 all
printing had to be licensed, under heavy penalties, and in 1810 two
censors were appointed. In short, the press had no shadow of liberty.
During the revolution of 1848-1849 the principle of the freedom of
the press was established, but the censorship was restored in 1852 and
not abolished until 1863. The actual press laws of Austria are based
on the press law of the 1 7th of December 1862 as modified by later
supplementary enactments. In principle the freedom of the press
was secured by art. 13 of the constitution of the 2 1st of December
1867. In practice, however, it was still restricted by the obligation
on newspaper proprietors to deposit " caution money " (Kautions-
zwang) with the authorities, and the retention of the government
stamp on newspapers. The caution money was abolished by a press
law of the gth of July 1894, and the stamp by that of the 27th of
December 1899. The police, however, still have the right, either
on their own initiative or under the instructions of the public
prosecutor (Staatsanwalt) , " provisionally " to confiscate printed
matter which in their opinion offends against the terms of the press
law or is contrary to the public interest. The public prosecutor has,
within eight days, to justify this action in court, either by proceeding
against those responsible for the publication, or by proving the
published matter is offensive and ought to be suppressed. This
latter " objective " procedure (objektives Verfahren) is peculiar to
Austria and obviously places vast powers of control in the hands
of the authorities. In 1902 the government introduced a bill
greatly modifying these and other provisions of the press law in a
liberal sense, but the bill was postponed to more urgent matters.
In Hungary the liberty of the press was secured by art. 1 8 of
the constitution of 1848, which was restored in 1867. Under this
the censorship was abolished; but, in addition to provision for the
cases of libel, incitement to violence and crime, &c., the law also
provided penalties for certain political press offences ( 6-8), i.e.
attacks on the king or members of his family, incitements to (a) the
dissolution of the territorial unity of the state or of the dynastic
link with Austria; (b) the forcible alteration of the constitution;
(c) disobedience to lawful authorities; (d) commission of crime.
Press offences are tried by special jury courts. Under the Criminal
Code of 1878 ( 170-174) further offences were made subject to
penalty, including " direct incitement of one class of the popu-
lation, one nationality or religious denomination to hatred of
another," instigation against the constitution and parliament, and
glorification of any one who has suffered punishment for such
offences. " Direct incitement " ( 172), was subsequently inter-
preted by the curia to mean " any spoken or written word . . .
which is capable of producing in another hatred against a
nationality, &c."
The result of these provisions has been that liberty of the press
has existed in practice only for the Magyars, constant prosecutions
having been directed against the editors and proprietors of publica-
tions giving voice to the grievances of the other Hungarian races,
conviction being all but inevitable owing to the special juries (due
to the high property qualification) being almost exclusively composed
of members of the dominant race.
In Transylvania, where the old stringent Austrian press law of
1852 is still in force, the public prosecutor has discretionary powers
to confiscate obnoxious literature, powers freely used against the
Rumanian press. (See R. W. Seton Watson, Racial Problems in
Hungary, London, 1908, pp. 293 sqq.)
Belgium. It was the prosecution of political writers by the Dutch
government that directly led to the independence of Belgium in
1830. By the Belgian constitution of the 7th of February 1831, art.
1 8, it is declared that the press is free, that censorship shall never
again be established, that sureties cannot be exacted from writers,
editors or printers, and that when the author is known and domiciled
in Belgium the printer or bookseller cannot be prosecuted. By
art. 98 press offences are to be tried by jury. The penal law of the
press is contained in the decree of the 2Oth of July 1831, made
perpetual in 1833. By this law it is made an offence, apart from
the penal code, (l) to incite to the commission of a crime by placards
or printed writings in a public meeting; (2) to attack the obligatory
force of the laws, or to incite to disobedience of them ; (3) to attack
the constitutional authority or inviolability of the king, the con-
stitutional authority of the dynasty, or the authority and rights
of the chambers. Every copy of a journal must bear the name of
the printer and the indication of his domicile in Belgium. Proceed-
ings for offences against the law must be taken in some cases within
three months, in others within a year.
Denmark. Press offences were at one time punished with great
severity. By the code of Christian V. (1683) libel was punished with
infamy and hard labour for life : and, if against a magistrate, with
death. Censorship was abolished and the press declared free by
art. 86 of the constitution granted' by Frederick VII. on the 5th of
Tune 1849 and confirmed by Christian IX. in 1866. Art. 81
forbids the search for or seizure of printed matter in a dwelling-house,
unless after judicial proceedings.
France. The government began early to impose stringent restric-
tions upon printing. An edict of Henry II. in 1559 made it punish-
able with death to print without authority. The university of Paris
originally claimed the right of licensing new theological works, a
jurisdiction vested in the Crown by an ordinance of 1566.
Offences against religion were severely punished by the secular
authorities. Thus the parliament of Toulouse sent Vanini to
the stake in 1619 for the crime of publishing a heretical work.
A few years later, in 1626, Cardinal Richelieu declared it a
capital offence to publish a work against religion or the state.
In 1723 appeared a regulation forbidding any but licensed
booksellers to deal in books. Many later regulations were
directed against unlicensed presses, the employment of more
than a certain number of workmen, &c. At the Revolution all
these restrictions were abolished, and the Assembly declared it
to be the right of every citizen to print and publish his opinions.
This new liberty quickly needed a check, which was attempted as
early as 1791, but no effectual restraint was imposed until the law
of the 5th of February 1810 established a direction of the press.
The charter of Louis XVIII. in 1814 gave liberty to the press in
express terms, but restrictions soon followed. In 1819 a system
of sureties (cautionnements} replaced the censorship. The Revolu-
tion of 1830 was caused by, inter alia, one of the ordinances of St
Cloud (July 25, 1830) for suspension of the liberty of the press.
Restrictions on the liberty were removed for the time in 1830 and
1852, only to be succeeded as usual by the press laws of 1835 and
1852. During the Second Empire government prosecutions for libel
were used as a powerful engine against the press. The proceedings
against Montalembert in 1858 are a well-known instance. Between
1858 and 1866 many newspapers were suppressed by proclamation.
With the republic liberty of the press was completely re-established.
A decree of the 27th of October 1870 submitted press offences to trial
by jury. 1 The law of the 29th of July 1881, by which the French
press is now regulated, begins by asserting the liberty of the press
and of bookselling. The principal limitations of this liberty are
the prohibition to publish criminal proceedings before hearing in
public, or lists of subscriptions for indemnifying an accused person,
and the power of forbidding the entrance of foreign newspapers under
certain circumstances. The order of responsibility for printed
matter is (l) the manager or editor, (2) the author, (3) the printer,
(4) the vender or distributor. The printer and the vender, however,
can only be punished for acts not falling within their proper functions.
Proceedings for breaches of the law must be taken within three
months. As to taxation, the decree of the 5th of September 1870
abolished the stamp duty upon newspapers, but it is still imposed
1 See Dalloz, Jurisprudence generale, s.v. " Presse " ; ibid. Titles
alphabeliques (1845-1877), s.v. " Presse."
PRESS LAWS
303
upon public notices (affiches) other than those of public authorities.
None but the notices of public authorities may be printed on white
paper.
Germany. Censorship was introduced by the diet of Spires in
1529. From that time till 1848 there were numerous restrictions
on the liberty of the press. One of the most important was a
resolution of the diet of the German confederation, passed on the
aoth of September 1819 as a sequel to the Carlsbad decrees (j.t>.),
by which ni-w snipers were subject to licence and police supervision
in each state. Liberty dates, as in Austria and Italy, from 1848.
Soon after that year, however, it became necessary to establish press
laws in most of the German states, as in Bavaria in 1850, Prussia and
I ;. K li-n in 1 85 1 . Since the establishment of the new empire censorship
lisuppeared. By art. 74 of the constitution of the empire (1871)
every one attacking the empire or its officers through the press is
liable to punishment in his own state. By art. 4 the laws relating
i the press are under imperial and not local control. The press
law of the 7th of May 1874 is therefore in force throughout the whole
empire. At its beginning it affirms the liberty of the press. Its
mam provisions are these: The name and address of the printer
must appear on all printed matter. Newspapers and periodicals
must in addition bear the name of some one person, domiciled in
the empire, as responsible editor, and a copy of every number must
be deposited with the police authorities of the district in which it
is published. Foreign periodicals may be excluded by proclamation
of the Imperial chancellor for two years, if twice within the year
they have been guilty of certain offences against the penal code.
Criminal proceedings are not to be reported while still subjudice.
The order of responsibility for offences is the same as in France.
Proceedings must be taken within six months. In certain cases
printed matter may be seized without the order of a court. This
may take place where (i) the publication does not bear the name of
printer or editor, (2) military secrets are revealed in time of war,
(3) justice would be defeated by the publication not being immedi-
ately seized. A judicial tribunal is to decide at once upon the legality
of the seizure. The press law is not to affect regulations made in
time of war or internal disturbance. A temporary law passed in
1878 gave the police large powers in the case of socialistic publica-
tions. Only offences involving heavy penalties are tried by jury.
The proposal of the Reichstag that all press offences should be so
tried was rejected by the governments, except as regards those states
(Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, Oldenburg) where this principle
was already in force.
Greece. Under King Otto censorship was exercised up to 1844.
By the constitution of the i8th of March 1844 every one may
publish his thoughts by means of the press, observing the laws of
the state. The press is free, and censorship (\o-yoKpiala) is not
permitted. Responsible editors, publishers and printers of news-
papers are not required to deposit money on the ground of surety.
Publishers of newspapers must be Greek citizens (art. 10). The
legislature may exclude reporters from its sittings in certain cases
(art. 48). Press offences are to be tried by jury, except when they
deal only with private life (art. 93).
Holland. The press has been free since the existence of the
present kingdom of the Netherlands, which dates from 1815.
Liberty of the press is expressly secured by art. 8 of the constitu-
tion of 1848. By art. 286 of the penal code seditious books and
newspapers may be seized. By art. 283 of the same code and by a
royal decree of the 25th of January 1814 the name of the printer
must appear upon newspapers. Press offences are not tried by
jury-
Italy. By art. 27 of the political code of Sardinia, granted by
Charles Albert on the 4th of March 1848, and still in force, the
press is free, but abuses of the liberty are restrained by law. The
present press law of Italy is contained in the law of the 26th of
March 1848, as altered by later enactments. Everything printed
in typographical characters, or by lithography or any similar means,
must indicate the place and the date of printing and the name of
the printer. A copy of everything printed must be deposited with
certain officials and at certain libraries. Before the publication of
any newspaper or periodical, notice of the intended publication
must be given at the office of the secretary of state for internal
affairs. The notice must contain (i) a declaration of the legal
qualification of the person intending to publish, whether as pro-
prietor or editor, (2) the nature of the publication, and (3) the name
and residence of the responsible editor. Every newspaper is bound
to insert gratuitously a contradiction or explanation of any charge
made against a person in its columns. For contravention of these
and other regulations there is a statutory penalty not exceeding
1000 lire (40). The publication of a newspaper may be suspended
until the payment of a fine. The publication of parliamentary
debates is permitted. Press offences are tried by a jury of twelve.
By a law of the nth of May 1877 it is forbidden to publish any
indication of the way in which individual judges or jurors voted in
their deliberations.
Norway. The liberty of the press is secured by art. loo of the
constitution of 1814. No one can be punished for any writing
unless he, or some one by his instigation, offend against the state,
law, religion or decency, or make infamous accusations against
.any one. Criticism of the government is expressly permitted.
Ottoman Empire. By art. 12 of the constitution of the 23rd of
December 1876 the press was recognized as free, subject to the
limits imposed by law. The constitution was, however, " sus-
pended," and a rigorous censorship was enforced, under the direction
of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II., until the revolution of 1908.
Portugal. It is stated by Braga and others that a free press
existed up to the establishment of the Inquisition, and that Gil
Vicente (d. 1536) was the last writer who dared to express his
thoughts freely. At a later period Bocage was imprisoned for
writings displeasing to the authorities. Boards of censorship
under the names ofthe " Real mesa censoria," or the " Mesa do
desembargo do paco," assumed to license publications. Liberty
of the press was, however, finally secured, and censorship limited,
by art. 7 of the constitution granted by John VI. in 1821. By
art. 8 a special tribunal was constituted in both Portugal and
Brazil to protect the liberty of printing. The censorship was con-
fined to that exercised by the bishops over theological or dogmatic
works. The debates in the legislature and proceedings in the courts
of justice are not generally reported.
Rumania. By the constitution of the 3oth of June 1866, art. 5,
Rumanians enjoy liberty of the press. By art. 24 the constitution
guarantees to all the liberty of communicating ana publishing ideas
through the press, every one being liable for abuse in cases deter-
mined by the penal code. Press offences are to be tried by jury.
Censorship is abolished, and is never to be re-established. No
previous authorization is necessary for the publication of newspapers.
No sureties are to be demanded from journalists, writers, editors
or printers. The press is not to be subjected to regulation of ad-
vertisements. No newspaper or publication is to be suspended or
suppressed. Every author is responsible for his writings; in default
of the author, the manager or editor is responsible. Every news-
paper must have a responsible manager in the possession of civil
and political rights.
Russia. The position of the Russian press generally was, previously
to the revolution of 1905, regulated by a law of the 6th of April 1865.
The effect of that law was to exempt from preventive censorship (if
published in St Petersburg or Moscow) all newspapers, periodicals
and original works and translatjons not exceeding a certain number
of pages, and (wherever published) all government publications,
matter printed by academies, universities and scientific bodies,
and maps, plans, and charts. Everything printed and published
that did not fall within any of these categories had, before issue
to the public, to be submitted for the approval of government
censors stationed in different parts of the empire. The minister
of the interior had power to dispense with the preventive censorship
in the case of provincial newspapers and periodicals. In St Peters-
burg and Moscow the periodical press was subject to corrective
censorship for infringement of the numerous restrictive regulations
contained in the code, and supplemented at times by secret instruc-
tions from the minister of the interior to editors and publishers.
Apart from the code, the sustained display of a spirit hostile to the
government rendered the publisher of a periodical liable to punish-
ment. The penalties established by the law of 1865 for offences
against the press regulations consisted in the infliction of a series
of warnings published in the Official Gazette. A first warning
merely enjoined more care for the future; a second was followed by
suspension for a certain period, sometimes by a prohibition to insert
advertisements; a third by suppression, and perhaps prosecution of
the offending conductor. By Imperial ukaz of the 2nd of June 1872
the jurisdiction of the judicial tribunals over press offences was
practically transferred to the minister of the interior, except in the
case of violation of private rights, as by libel. The law of 1865 was
modified in 1874 by a regulation to the effect that all publications
appearing at longer intervals than one week should be submitted
to the central board of censors. This applied to all periodicals that
had been formerly published without preventive censorship. By a
ukaz issued in 1881 a committee of four members was entrusted with
the decision of all matters relating to the press submitted to it by
the minister of the interior. The strictest supervision was exercised
over the foreign press, periodical and otherwise. None but a few
privileged individuals, such as members of the royal family, foreign
diplomatists, and editors of newspapers in the capital, might receive
foreign publications free of censorship. The censorship consisted
in blackening out, and sometimes in the excision, of whole columns
and sheets of publications that might be deemed pernicious. Only
such periodicals as were placed on a list approved by the board of
censors were allowed to be received througn the post office by non-
privileged persons. Telegraphic messages to newspapers were
subject to strict censorship. The Russian telegraphic press agency
is under official management.
Full liberty of the press was guaranteed by the Imperial ukaz of
the I7th of October 1905, and though no special legislation followed
the censorship was for a time de facto abolished. With the progress
of the reaction, however, the old conditions were to a certain extent
re-established. In St Petersburg, for instance, the newspapers were
in 1909 again under the absolute jurisdiction of chief of police and
were forbidden to -publish any reference to members of the Imperial
family or to the affairs of Poland (except official notices). In iox>8
as many as 73 newspapers and periodicals were suppressed, of which
28 were in St Petersburg alone.
PRESTEIGN PRESTER JOHN
34
Spain. There was probably no country where restrictions on the
liberty of the press were at one time more stringent than in Spain.
From the first use of printing up to 1521 censorship was exercised
by the Crown; after that date the Inquisition began to assume the
right, and continued to do so up to its suppression in 1808. In
1558 Philip II. denounced the pnalty of death against even the
possessor of a book upon the Index expurgatorius of the Inquisition.
Some of the greatest names in Spanish literature were sufferers:
Castillejo, Mendoza, Mariana and Quevedo incurred the displeasure
of the Inquisition; Luis Ponce de Leon was imprisoned for his
translation of the Song of Solomon. The last Index appeared in
1790.' In 1812 the constitution promulgated by the regency in
the name of Ferdinand VII. provided by art. 371 that all Spaniards
should have liberty to write, print and publish their political ideas
without any necessity for licence, examination or approbation pre-
vious to publication, subject to the restrictions imposed by law.
Art. 13 of the constitution of the 3Oth of June 1876, promul-
gated on the accession of Alphonso XII., practically re-enacts this
provision.
Sweden. The press law of the i6th of July 1812 is one of the
fundamental laws of Sweden. It is an expansion of art. 86 of the
constitution of the 6th of June 1809. Liberty of the press is declared
to be the privilege of every Swede, subject to prosecution for libellous
writing. Privileges of individuals as to publication are abolished.
The title and place of publication of every newspaper or periodical
must be registered, and every publication must bear the name of
the printer and the place of printing. Press offences are tried by
a jury of nine, chosen respectively by the prosecutor, the prisoner,
and the court. The verdict of two-thirds of the jury is final.
Switzerland. Liberty of the press is secured by art. 45 of the
constitution of 1848, re-enacted by art. 55 of the constitution of
the 29th of May 1874. Each canton has its own laws for the repres-
sion of abuse of the liberty, subject to the approbation of the federal
council. The confederation can impose penalties on libels directed
against itself or its officers.
PRESTEIGN, a market town, urban district, and assize and
county town of Radnorshire, Wales, situated on the Lug amidst
beautiful scenery. Pop. (1901), 1245. Presteign is the terminus
of a branch of the Great Western railway running north from
Titley Junction in Herefordshire. The old-fashioned town
contains the fine parish church of St Andrew, dating chiefly
from the isth century, and an interesting old inn, the " Radnor-
shire Arms," once the residence of the Bradshaw family in the
1 7th century. To the west rises the Warden, a wooded hill laid
out as a public park. Presteign is the most easterly spot on
the Welsh border, a circumstance that is noted in the Cymric
expression to mark the extreme breadth of the Principality
o Tyddewi i LLanandras (" from St Davids to Presteign ").
Although the Welsh name of Llanandras is said to denote a
foundation by St Andras ap Rhun ap Brychan in the sth
century, the place seems to have been an obscure hamlet in the
lordship of Moelynaidd until the I4th century, when Bishop
David Martyn of St Davids (1290-1328) conferred valuable
market privileges upon this his native place, which on doubtful
authority is said to derive its English name from this priest.
In 1542 Presteign was named as the meeting place of the
county sessions for Radnorshire in conjunction with New
Radnor, and it has ever since ranked as the county town.
Although an ancient borough by prescription, Presteign was
not included in the Radnor parliamentary district until the
iQth century, and of this privilege it was deprived by the
Redistribution Act of 1885.
PRESTER JOHN, a fabulous medieval Christian monarch of
Asia. The history of Prester John no doubt originally gathered
round some nucleus of fact, though what that was is extremely
difficult to determine. But the name and the figure which it
suggested occupied so prominent a place in the mind of Europe
for two or three centuries that a real history could hardly have a
stronger claim to exposition. Before Prester John appears upon
the scene we find the way prepared for his appearance by a
kindred fable, which entwined itself with the legends about him.
This is the story of the appearance at Rome (1122), in the
pontificate of Calixtus II., of a certain Oriental ecclesiastic,
whom one account styles " John, the patriarch of the Indians,"
and another " an archbishop of India." This ecclesiastic related
wonderful stories of the shrine of St Thomas in India, and of
the miracles wrought there by the body of the apostle, including
1 See Ticknor, Hist, of Span. Lit. i. 422 seq., iii. 366
the distribution of the sacramental wafer by his hand. We
cannot regard the appearance at Rome of the personage who
related these marvels in presence of the pope as a mere popular
fiction: it rests on two authorities apparently independent (one
of them a letter from Odo of Reims, abbot of St Remy from
1118 to 1151), for their discrepancies show that one was not
copied from the other, though in the principal facts they agree.
Nearly a quarter of a century later Prester John appears
upon the scene, in the character of a Christian conqueror and
potentate who combined the characters of priest and king, and
ruled over vast dominions in the Far East. This idea was uni-
versal in Europe from about the middle of the I2th century
to the end of the i3th or beginning of the I4th. The Asiatic
story then died away, but the name remained, and the royal
presbyter was now assigned a locus in Ethiopia. Indeed, it
is not improbable that from a very early date the title was
assigned to the Abyssinian king, though for a time this identifi-
cation was overshadowed by the prevalence of the Asiatic
legend. At the bottom of the double allocation there was, no
doubt, that confusion of Ethiopia with India which is as old as
Virgil and perhaps older.
The first mention of Prester John occurs in the chronicle of
Otto, bishop of Freisingen. This writer states that when at
the papal court in 1 145 he met with the bishop of Gabala (Jibal
in Syria), who related how "not many years before one John,
king and priest (rex et sacerdos), who dwelt in the extreme
Orient beyond Persia and Armenia, and was, with his people,
a Christian but a Nestorian, had made war against the brother
kings of the Persians and Medes, who were called Samiards
(or Sanjards), and captured Ecbatana their capital. After
this victory Presbyter John for so he was wont to be styled
advanced to fight for the Church at Jerusalem; but when he
arrived al the Tigris and found no means of transport for his
army, he turned northward, as he had heard that the river in
that quarter was frozen over in winter-time. After halting on
its banks for some years in expectation of a frost he was obliged
to return home. This personage was said to be of the ancient
race of the Magi mentioned in the Gospel, to rule the same
nations that they ruled, and to have such wealth that he used
a sceptre of solid emerald. Whatever impression was made by
this report, or by other rumours of the event on which it was
founded, was far exceeded, about 1165, by the circulation of a
letter purporting to be addressed by Prester John to the
emperor Manuel. This letter, professing to come from
" Presbyter Joannes, by the power and virtue of God and of the
Lord Jesus Christ, Lord of Lords," claimed that he was the
greatest monarch under heaven, as well as a devout Christian.
The letter dealt at length with the wonders of his empire. It
was his desire to visit the Holy Sepulchre with a great host,
and to subdue the enemies of the Cross. Seventy-two kings,
reigning over as many kingdoms, were his tributaries. His em-
pire extended over the three Indies, including that Farther India,
where lay the body of St Thomas, to the sun-rising, and back
again down the slope to the ruins of Babylon and the tower of
Babel. All the wild beasts and monstrous creatures commemo-
rated in current legend were to be found in his dominions, as
well as all the wild and eccentric races of men of whom strange
stories were told, including those unclean nations whom Alex-
ander Magnus walled up among the mountains of the north,
and who were to come forth at the latter day and so were the
Amazons and the Bragmans. His dominions contained the
monstrous ants that dug gold and the fish that gave the purple;
they produced all manner of precious stones and all the famous
aromatics. Within them was found the Fountain of Youth; the
pebbles which give light, restore sight, and render the possessor
invisible; the Sea of Sand was there, stored with fish of wondrous
savour; and the River of Stones was there also; besides a
subterranean stream whose sands were of gems. His territory
produced the worm called " salamander," which lived in fire,
and which wrought itself an incombustible envelope from which
were manufactured robes for the presbyter, which were washed
in flaming fire. When the king went forth to war thirteen
PRESTER JOHN
great crosses made of gold and jewels were carried in wagons
before him as his standards, and each was followed by 10,000
knights and 100,000 footmen. There were no poor in his
dominions, no thief or robber, no flatterer or miser, no 'dissen-
sions, no b'es, and no vices. His palace was built after the plan
of that which St Thomas erected for the Indian king Gondo-
pharus. Of the splendour of this details are given. Before
it was a marvellous mirror erected on a many-storeyed pedestal
(described in detail); in this speculum he could discern every-
thing that went on throughout his dominions, and detect
conspiracies. He was waited on by 7 kings at a time, by
60 dukes and 365 counts; 12 archbishops sat on his right
hand, and 20 bishops on his left, besides the patriarch of
St Thomas's, theprotopope of the Sarmagantians (Samarkand?),
and the archprotopope of Susa, where the royal residence was.
There was another palace of still more wonderful character,
built by the presbyter's father in obedience to a heavenly
command, in the city of Bribric. Should it be asked why,
with all this power and splendour, he calls himself merely
" presbyter," this is because of his humility, and because it
was not fitting for one whose sewer was a primate and king,
whose butler an archbishop and king, whose chamberlain a
bishop and king, whose master of the horse an archimandrite
and king, whose chief cook an abbot and king, to be called by
such titles as these.
How great was the popularity and diffusion of this letter
may be judged in some degree from the fact that Zarncke in his
treatise on Prester John gives a list of close on 100 MSS.
of it. Of these there are 8 in the British Museum, 10 at
Vienna, 13 in the great Paris library, 15 at Munich. There
are also several renderings in old German verse. Many
circumstances of the time tended to render such a letter accept-
able. Christendom would welcome gladly the intelligence
of a counterpoise arising so unexpectedly to the Mahommedan
power; while the statements of the letter itself combined a
reference to and corroboration of all the romantic figments con-
cerning Asia which already fed the curiosity of Europe, which
figured in the world-maps, and filled that fabulous history of
Alexander which for nearly a thousand years supplanted the real
history of the Macedonian throughout Europe and western Asia.
The only other surviving document of the I2th century bearing
on this subject is a letter of which MS. copies are preserved in the
Cambridge and Paris libraries, and which is also embedded in the
chronicles of several English annalists, including Benedict of Peter-
borough, Roger Hovedon and Matthew Paris. It purports to have
been indited from the Rialto at Venice by Pope Alexander III. on
the 5th day before the calends of October (Sept. 27), data which
fix the year as 1177. The pope addresses it, carissimo in Christo
filio Johanni, illustro el magmfico indorum regi [Hovedon's copy here
inserts sacerdoti sanctissimo}. He recites how he had heard of the
monarch's Christian profession, diligence in good works and piety,
by manifold narrators and common report, but also more particularly
from his (the pope's) physician and confidant (medicus et familians
nosier), Master Philip, who had received information from honourable
persons of the monarch's kingdom, with whom he had intercourse in
those (Eastern) parts. Philip had also reported the king's anxiety for
instruction in Catholic discipline and for reconciliation with the
apostolic see in regard to all discrepancies, and his desire to have a
church in Rome and an altar at Jerusalem. The pope goes on to say
that he found it too difficult, on account of the length and obstructions
of the way, to send any one (of ecclesiastical position?) a latere,
but he would despatch Philip to communicate instruction to him.
And on accepting Philip's communications the king should send back
honourable persons bearing letters sealed with his seal, in which
his wishes should be fully set forth. " The more nobly and
magnanimously thou conductest thyself, and the less thou vauntest
of thy wealth and power, the more readily shall we regard thy wishes
both as to the concession of a church in the city and of altars in the
church of SS. Peter and Paul, and in the church of the Lord's
Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and as to other reasonable requests."
There is no express mention of the title " Prester John " in what
seem the more genuine copies of this letter. But the address and
the expression in the italicized passage just quoted (which evidently
alludes to the vaunting epistle of 1165) hardly leave room for doubt
that the pope supposed himself to be addressing the author of that
letter. We do not know how far the imaginations about Prester
John retained their vitality in 1221, forty-four years after the letter
of Pope Alexander, for we know of no mention of Prester John in
the interval. But in that year again a rumour came out of the East
that a great Christian conqueror was taking the hated Moslems in
305
reverse and sweeping away their power. Prophecies current among
the Christians in Syria of the destruction of Mahomet's sect after
six centuries of duration added to the excitement attending these
rumours. The name ascribed to the conqueror was David, and
some called him the son or the grandson of Prester John of India.
He whose conquests and slaughters now revived the legend was in
[act no Christian or King David but the famous Jenghiz Khan.
The delusion was dissipated slowly, and even after the great Tatar
invasion and devastation of eastern Europe its effects still influenced
the mind of Christendom and caused popes and kings to send
missions to the Tatar hordes with a lingering feeling that their
khans, if not already Christians, were at least always on the verge
of conversion.
Before proceeding further we must go back to the bishop of
Gabala's story. M. d'Avezac first showed to whom the story
must apply. The only conqueror whose career suits in time and
approximates in circumstances is the founder of Kara-Khitai,
which existed as a great empire in Central Asia during the latter
two-thirds of the I3th century. This personage was a prince of the
Khitai or Khitaian dynasty of Liao, which had reigned over northern
China and the regions beyond the Wall during a great part of the
loth and nth centuries, and from which came the name Khitai
(Cathay), by which China was once known in Europe and still is
known in Russia. On the overthrow of the dynasty about 1125
this prince, who is called by the Chinese Yeliu Tashi, and had gone
through a complete Chinese education, escaped westward with a
body of followers. Being .well received by the Uighurs and other
tribes west of the desert, 'subjects of his family, he gathered an
army and commenced a course of conquest which eventually
extended over eastern and western Turkestan. He took the title
of Gur Khan or Kor Khan, said to mean " universal " or " supreme "
khan, and fixed at Balasaghun, north of the T'ian Shan range, the
capital of his empire, which became known as that of Kara-Khitai
(Black Cathay). In 1141 the assistance of this Khitaian prince
was invoked by the shah of Kharezm against Sanjar, the Seljuk
sovereign of Persia, who had expelled the shah from his kingdom
and killed his son. The Gur Khan came with a vast army of Turks,
Khitaians, and others, and defeated Sanjar near Samarkand (Sept.
1141) in a battle which the historian Ibn al-Athir calls the greatest
defeat that Islam had ever undergone in those regions. Though
the Gur Khan himself is not described as having extended his con-
quests into Persia, the shah of Kharezm followed up the victory by
invading Khorasan and plundering the cities and treasuries of
Sanjar. In this event the defeat of Sanjar, whose brother's son,
Mas'ud, reigned over western Persia occurring four years before
the story of the Eastern conqueror was told at Rome to Bishop Otto,
we seem to have the destruction of the Samiardi fratres or Sanjar
brothers, which was the germ of the story of Prester John.
There is no evidence of any profession of Christianity on the part
of the Gur Khan, though the daughter of the last of his race is
recorded to have been a Christian. The hosts of the Gur Khan are
called by Moslem historians Al-Turk-al-Kuffar, the kafir or infidel
Turks; and in later days the use of this term " kafir " led to mis-
apprehensions, as when Vasco da Gama's people were led to take
for Christians the Banyan traders on the African coast, and to
describe as Christian sovereigns so many princes of the Farther East
of whom they heard at Calicut. How the name John arose is one
of the obscure points. Oppert supposes the title " Gur Khan "
to have been confounded with Yukhanan or Johannes; and it is
probable that even in the Levant the stories of John the patriarch
of the Indies," repeated in the early part of this article, may have
already mingled with the rumours from the East.
The failure in the history of the Gur Khan to meet all points in
the story of the bishop of Cabala led Professor Bruun of Odessa
to bring forward another candidate for jdentity with the original
Prester John, in the person of the Georgian prince John Orbelian,
the " sbasalar," or generalissimo under several kings of Georgia in
that age. He shows instances, in documents of the 15th century,
of the association of Prester John with the Caucasus. In one at
least of these the title is applied to the king of Abassia, i.e. of the
Abhasians of Caucasus. Some confusion between Abash (Abyssinia)
and Abhas seems to be possibly at the bottom of the imbroglio.
An abstract of Professor Bruun's argument will be found in the
2nd edition of Sir H. Yule's Marco Polo, ii. 539-542. As regards any
real foundation for the titje of " Presbyter we may observe
that nothing worth mentioning has been alleged on behalf of any
candidate.
When the Mongol conquests threw Asia open to Frank travellers
in the middle of the I3th century their minds were full of Prester
John; they sought in vain for an adequate representative, nor was
it in the nature of things that they should not find some repre-
sentative. In fact they found several. Apparently no real tradition
existed among the Eastern Christians of such a personage; the
myth had taken shape from the clouds of rumour as they rolled
westward from Asia. But the persistent demand produced a supply;
and the honour of identification with Prester John, after hovering
over one head and another, settled for a long time upon that of
the king of the Nestorian tribe of Kerait, famous in the histories
of Jenghiz under the name of Ung or Awang Khan.
In Carpini's (1248) single mention of Prester John as the king
306
PRESTER JOHN
of the Christians of India the Greater, who defeats the Tatars by
an elaborate stratagem, Oppert recognizes Jalaluddin of Kharezm
and his brief success over the Mongols in Afghanistan. In the
Armenian prince Sempad's account (1248), on the other hand, this
Christian king of India is aided by the Tatars to defeat and harass
the Saracens, and becomes the vassal of the Mongols. In the nar-
rative of William Rubruquis (1253), though distinct reference is
made to the conquering Gur Khan under the name of Coir Cham of
Caracatay, the title of " King John " is assigned to Kushluk, king
of the Naimans, who had married the daughter of the last lineal
representative of the gur khans. 1 And from the remarks which
Rubruquis makes in connexion with this King John, on the habit
of the Nestorians to spin wonderful stories out of nothing, and of
the great tales that went forth about King John, it is evident that
the intelligent traveller supposed this king of the Naimans to be
the original of the widely spread legend. He mentions, however,
a brother of this John called Unc who ruled over the Crit and
Merkit (or Kerait and Mekrit, two of the great tribes of Mongolia),
whose history he associates with that of Jenghiz Khan. Unc Khan
reappears in Marco Polo, who tells much about him as " a great
prince, the same that we call Prester John, him in fact about whose
great dominion all the world talks." This Unc was in fact the
prince of the Kerait, called by the Chinese Tuli, and by the Persian
historians of the Mongols Toghral, on whom the Kin emperor of
north China had conferred the title of " wang " or king, whence
his coming to be known as Awang or Ung Khan. He was long
the ally of Jenghiz, but a breach occurred between them, and they
were mortal enemies till the death of Ung Khan in 1203. In the
narrative of Marco Polo " Unc Can," alias Prester John, is the liege
lord of the Tatars, to whom they paid tribute until Jenghiz arose.
And this is substantially the story repeated by other European
writers of the end of the I3th century, such as Ricold of Monte-
croce and the sieur de Joinville, as well as by one Asiatic, the
famous Christian writer, Gregory Abulfaraj. We can find no
Oriental corroboration of the claims of Ung Khan to supremacy
over the Mongols. But that his power and dignity were consider-
able appears from the term " Padshah," which is applied to him
by the historian Rashiduddin.
We find Prester John in one more phase before he vanishes from
Asiatic history, real or mythical. Marco Polo in the latter part
of the I3th century, and Friar John of Montecorvino, afterwards
archbishop of Cambaluc, in the beginning of the I4th, speak of the
descendants of Prester John as holding territory under the great
khan in a locality which can be identified with the plain of Kuku-
Khotan, north of the great bend of the Yellow river and about
280 m. north-west of Peking. The prince reigning in the time of
these two writers was named King George, and was the " 6th in
descent from Prester John," i.e. no doubt from Awang Khan.
Friar Odoric, about 1326, visited the country still ruled by the
prince whom he calls Prester John; "but," he says, "as regards
him, not one-hundredth part is true that is told of him." With
this mention Prester John ceases to have any pretension to histori-
cal existence in Asia (for we need not turn aside to Mandeville's
fabulous revival of old stories or to the barefaced fictions of his
contemporary, John of Hese, which bring in the old tales of the
miraculous body of St Thomas), and his connexion with that quarter
of the world gradually died out of the memory of Europe. 2
When next we begin to hear his name it is as an African, not
as an Asiatic prince; and the personage so styled is in fact the
Christian king of Abyssinia. Ludolf has asserted that this applica-
tion was an invention of the Portuguese and arose only in the 15th
century. But this is a mistake; for in fact the application had
begun much earlier, and probably long before the name had ceased
to be attached by writers on Asia to the descendants of the king
of the Kerait. It is true that the Florentine Simone Sigoli, who
visited Cairo in 1384, in his Viaggio al Monte Sinai still speaks of
" Presto Giovanni " as a monarch dwelling in India; but it is the
India which is conterminous with the dominions of the soldan of
Egypt, and whose lord is master of the Nile, to close or open its
discharge upon Egypt. Thirty years earlier (c. 1352) the Franciscan
Giovanni de' Marignolli, apostolic legate in Asia, speaks in his
Chronica of Ethiopia where the Negroes are, and which is called the
land of Prester John. 3 Going back still further, Friar Jordanus
1 It has been pointed out by Alexander Wylie that Kushluk was
son of a powerful king of the Naimans, whose name Ta- Yang-Khan
is precisely " Great King John " as nearly as that could be expressed
in Chinese.
2 The stories of Khitai as a Christian empire, which led the Jesuits
at the court of Akbar to despatch Benedict Goes in search of it
(1601), did, however, suggest to Jerome Xavier, their chief, that the
country in question " was the Cathay of Marco Polo, and its Christian
king the representative of the famous Prester John " a jumble of
inaccuracy.
* In_ a Spanish work of about the same date, by an anonymous
Franciscan, we are told that the emperor called " Abdeselib, which
means ' servant of the Cross,' is a protestor of Preste Juan, who is
the patriarch of Nubia and Ethiopia, and is lord of many great
lands, and many cities of Christians, though they be black as
" Catalan!," who returned from the East before 1328, speaks of
the emperor of the Ethiopians " quern vos vocatis Prestre Johan."
But, indeed, we shall have strong probability on our side if we
go back much further still, and say that, however vague may have
been the ideas of Pope Alexander III. respecting the geographical
position of the potentate whom he addressed from Venice in 1177,
the only real person to whom the letter can have been sent was the
king of Abyssinia. Let it be observed that the " honourable per-
sons of the monarch's kingdom " whom the leech Philip had met
with in the East must have been the representatives of some real
power, and not of a phantom. It must have been a real king who
professed to desire reconciliation with the Catholic Church and the
assignation of a church at Rome and of an altar at Jerusalem.
Moreover, we know that the Ethiopic Church did long possess a
chapel and altar in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and, though
we have been unable to find travellers' testimony to this older than
about 1497, it is quite possible that the appropriation may have
originated much earlier. 4 We know from Marco Polo that about a
century after the date of Pope Alexander's epistle a mission was
sent by the king of Abyssinia to Jerusalem to make offerings on
his part at the Church of the Sepulchre. It must be remembered
that at the time of the pope's letter Jerusalem, which had been taken
from the Moslem in 1099, was still in Christian possession. Abys-
sinia had been going through a long period of vicissitude and dis-
traction. In the loth century the royal line had been superseded
by a dynasty of Falasha Jews, followed by other Christian families;
but weakness and disorder continued till the restoration of the
" House of Solomon " (c. 1268). Nothing is more likely than that
the princes of the " Christian families " who had got possession of
the throne of northern Abyssinia should have wished to strengthen
themselves by a connexion with European Christendom, and to
establish relations with Jerusalem, then in Christian hands. We
do not know whether the leech Philip ever reached his destination,
or whether a reply ever came back to the Lateran. 6
Baronius, who takes the view for which we have been arguing, sup-
poses it possible that the church in Rome possessed in his own
time by the Abyssinians (St Stephen's in the Vatican) might have
been granted on this occasion. But we may be sure that this was
a modern concession during the attempts to master the Ethiopian
Church early in the l6th century. Ludolf intimates that its occu-
pancy had been taken from them in his own time after it had been
held " for more than a century."
In the legendary history of the Translation of the three Blessed
Kings by John of Hildesheim (c. 1370), of which an account and
extracts are given by Zarncke (Abhandl. li. 154 seq.), we have an
evident jumble in the writer's mind between the Asiatic and the
African location of Prester John; among other matters it is stated
that Prester John and the Nubians dug a chapel out of the rock
under Calvary in honour of the three kings: " et vocatur ilia
capella in partibus illis capella Nubiyanorum ad reges in praesentem
diem, sed Sarracini . . . ob invidiam obstruxerunt " (p. 158).
From the I4th century onwards Prester John had found his
seat in Abyssinia. It is there that Fra Mauro's great map (1459)
presents a fine city with the rubric, " Qui il Preste Janni fa residentia
principal." When, nearer the end of the century (1481-1495), King
pitch, and brand themselves with the sign of the cross in token of
their baptism " (Libra del conocimiento de todos reynos, &c., printed
at Madrid, 1877).
4 Indeed, we can carry the date back half a century further by the
evidence of a letter translated in Ludolf (Comment, p. 303). This
is addressed from Shoa by the king Zara Jacob in the eighth year of
his reign (1442) to the Abyssinian monks, dwellers at Jerusalem.
The king desires them to light certain lamps in the Church of the
Sepulchre, including " three in our chapel.' In the Pilgerfahrt des
Ritters Arnold von Harff (1496^-1499: Cologne, 1860, p. 175), we
find it stated that the Abyssinians had their chapel, &c., to the
left of the Holy Sepulchre, between two pillars of the Temple, whilst
the Armenian chapel was over theirs, reached by a stone staircase
alongside of the Indians (or Abyssinians). This exactly corresponds
with the plan and reference given in Sandys's Travels (1615), p. 162,
which show the different chapels. The first on the south, t.e. the
left looking from the body of the church, is " No. 35. The chappell
of the Abisines, over which the chappell of the Armenians. A
reference to Jerusalem, which we procured through the kindness
of Mr Walter Besant, shows that the Abyssinians no longer have
a chapel or privileges in the Church of the Sepulchre. Between the
Armenians and the Copts they have been deprived of these, and
even of the keys of their convent. The resentment of King Theodore
at the loss of these privileges was one of the indirect causes which
led to the war between him and England in 1867-68.
6 Matthew Paris gives a letter from Philip, prior of the Dominicans
in Palestine, which reached the pope in 1237, and which speaks of
a prelate from whom he had received several letters, "qui pracest
omnibus quos Nestoriana haeresis ab ecclesia separavit (cujus
praelatio per Indiam Majorem, et per regnum sacerdotis Johannis,
et per regna magis proxima Orient! dilatatur)." We have little
doubt that Abyssinia was the " regnum " here indicated, though it
was a mistake to identify the Abyssinian Church with the Nestonans.
PRESTIDIGITATION PRESTON
307
John II. of Portugal was prosecuting inquiries regarding access to
India his first object was to open communication with " Prester
John of the Indies," who was understood to be a Christian potentate
in Africa. And when Vasco da Gama went on his voyage from
Mozambique northwards he began to hear of " Preste Joham " as
reigning in the interior or rather, probably, by the fight of his
preconceptions of the existence of that personage in East Africa he
thus interpreted what was told him. More than twenty years
later, when the first book on Abyssinia was composed that of
Alvarez the title designating the king of Abyssinia is " Prester
John," or simply " the Preste. '
On the whole subject in its older aspects, see Ludolf's Historia
Acihiopica and its Commentary, passim. The excellent remarks of
M. d'Avezac, comprising a conspectus of almost the whole essence
of the subject, are in the Recueil de voyages et de memoires pub-
lished by the Societe de G6ographie, iv. 547-564 (Paris, 1839).
Two German works of importance which have been used in this
art irk- are the interesting and suggestive Der Presbyter Johannes in
Sage und Geschichte, by Dr Gustav Oppert (2nd ed., Berlin, 1870),
and, most important of all in its learned, careful and critical collec-
tion and discussion of all the passages bearing on the subject, Der
Priester Johannes, by Friedrich Zarncke of Leipzig (1876-1879).
See also Sir H. Yule's Cathay and the "Way Thither, p. 173 scq., and
in Marco Polo (and ed.), i. 229-233, ii. 539-543. (H. Y.)
PRESTIDIGITATION (from Lat. praesto, ready, and digitus,
finger), the art of conjuring by nimble-fingered dexterity,
particularly as opposed to the use of mechanical devices (see
CONJURING). The Latin praesligium, illusion, praesligiae
tricks, and praestigiator, juggler (from prae, before, and stingere,
to prick), cover the same meaning though differently derived.
PRESTIGE, influence and authority exercised by reason of
high reputation. It is one of the few words which have gained
a meaning superior to that of original usage. The word in
French, from which it has been borrowed by English, as in
Latin praesligium or praestigiae, meant jugglers' tricks, deceit,
imposture, and so is found in the i6th century. The Latin
stands for praestrigium, from praestringere, to bind or fasten
tight, hence to blindfold; others derive from praestinguere, to
darken, obscure, deceive. The word was at first generally used
as foreign and italicized; thus the New English Dictionary
quotes Sir Walter Scott (Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolk, 1815)
for the earliest example in English of the modern usage,
" Napoleon needed the dazzling blaze of decisive victory to
renew the charm or prestige . . . once attached to his name
and fortunes." Other words derived from praestigium through
the French retain the original meaning of juggling or conjuring
(see PRESTIDIGITATION).
PRESTON, JOHN (1587-1628), English Puritan divine, was
born at Heyford in Northamptonshire and was educated at
Queens' College, Cambridge (fellow 1609). He took orders,
and on becoming dean of his college drew large crowds to hear
his preaching. On the duke of Buckingham's advice he was
appointed chaplain to Prince Charles in 1620; in 1622 he became
preacher at Lincoln's Inn and master of Emmanuel College,
Cambridge. After the accession of Charles I. he worked hard
on behalf of the Puritan cause, but could accomplish little or
nothing against Archbishop Laud. In theology he was a stanch
Calvinist and his writings had considerable popularity.
PRESTON, a municipal, county, and parliamentary borough
and port, of Lancashire, England, on the river Kibble, 209 m.
N.W. by N. from London by the London & North-Western
railway, served also by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway.
Pop. (1891), 107,573; (1901), 112,989; at the beginning of the
i oth century it was about 1 7 ,000. The nucleus of its site consists
of a ridge rising sharply from the north bank of the river, while
the surrounding country, especially to the west about the estuary,
is flat. Among the numerous parish churches that of St John,
built in Decorated style in 1855, occupies a site which has
carried a church from early times. Among several Roman
Catholic churches, that of St Walpurgis (1854) is a handsome
building of Early Decorated character. Of public buildings
the most noteworthy is the large town hall, with lofty tower
and spire, in Early English style, built in 1867 from designs by
Sir Gilbert Scott.
The free public library and museum were established in 1879
by the trustees of E. R. Harris, a prominent citizen. A new
building was opened in 1893. Here is placed Dr Shepherd's library
founded in 1761, of nearly 9000 volumes, as well as a collection of
pictures, &c., valued at 40,000, bequeathed by the late R. Newsham.
The Harris Institute, endowed by the above-named trustees with
40,000, is established in a building of classical style erected in 1849,
wherein are held science and art classes, and a chemical laboratory
is maintained. For the grammar school, founded in 1550, a building
in the Tudor style was erected in 1841 by private shareholders,
but in 1860 they sold it to the corporation, who now have the
management of the school. The blue-coat school, founded in 1701,
was in 1817 amalgamated with the national schools. A Victoria
Jubilee technicaj school was established under a grant from the
Harris trustees in 1897. There is also a deaf and dumb school.
Preston is well supplied with public recreation grounds, including
Avenham Park, the Miller Park, with a statue of the 141)1 earl
of Derby (d. 1869), the Moor Park, the Marsh, and the Deepdale
grounds, with an observatory. Preston is one of the principal seats
of the cotton manufacture in Lancashire. There are also iron and
brass foundries, engineering works, cotton machinery works, and
boiler works, and some shipbuilding is carried on. In 1826 Preston
became a creek of Lancaster, in 1839 it was included in the new
port of Fleetwood, and in 1843 it was created an independent port.
The trade of the port was insignificant until the construction of
spacious docks, in conjunction with the deepening of the river
from the quays of Preston to its outfall in the Irish Sea, a distance
of 16 m., was begun in 1884, and was carried out at a cost of over
one million sterling. The main wet dock, opened in 1892, is 3240 ft.
long and 600 ft. wide. The total quayage is over 8500 lineal feet.
The channel of the river has been made straighter, and from docks
to sea deepened, so that the dock is accessible for vessels of 17 ft.
draught on ordinary spring tides. A canal connects Preston with
Lancaster.
The parliamentary borough, which returns two members, falls
between the Blackpool and Darwen divisions of the county. The
corporation consists of a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors.
Area of municipal borough, 3971 acres.
Preston, otherwise Prestune, was near the minor Roman
station at Walton-le-Dale and the great Roman road running
from Warrington passed through it. It is mentioned in Domes-
day Book as one of Earl Tostig's possessions which had fallen
to Roger of Poictou, and on his defection it was forfeited to the
Crown. 1 Henry II. about the year 1179 granted the burgesses
a charter by which he confirmed to them the privileges he had
granted to Newcastle-under-Lyme, the chief of which were a
free borough and a gild merchant. This is the first of fourteen
royal charters which have been granted to Preston, the chief of
which are as follows: John in 1199 confirmed to Preston -all
the rights granted by Henry II. 's charter and also " their fair
of eight days" from the Assumption (Aug. 15) and a three
days' fair from the eve of Saints Simon and Jude (Oct. 28).
Henry III. in 1217 confirmed the summer fair, but for five days
only, and granted a weekly market on Wednesday. Edward III.
(1328), Richard II. (1379). Henry IV. (1401), Henry V. (1414),
Henry VI. (1425) and Philip and Mary (1557) confirmed the
previous charters. The weekly market, though granted for
Wednesday, was held as early as 1292 on Saturday. Elizabeth
in 1566 granted the town its great charter which ratified and
extended all previous grants, including the gild merchant,, the
weekly market on Saturday and the two annual fairs, in August
for eight days and in October for seven days. Charles II. in
1662 and 1685 granted charters, by the latter of which an
additional weekly market on Wednesday was conceded and a
three days' fair beginning on the i6th of March. The most
important industry used to be woollen weaving. Elizabeth's
charter granted to the corporation all fees received from the
sealing of cloth within the borough, and in 1571 the mayor
reported that the cloths usually made near Preston were " narrow
white kearses." Other early industries were glove-making
and linen cloth. The first cotton-spinning mill was built in 1777
in Moor Lane, and in 1791 John Horrocks built the Yellow
Factory. In 1835 there were forty factories, chiefly spinning,
yielding 70,000 lb of cotton yarn weekly. A gild existed
perhaps in Saxon times, but the grant of a gild merchant dates
from Henry II. 's charter, about 1179. The first gild of which
there was any record was celebrated in 1328, at which it was
decided to hold a gild every twenty years. Up to 1542, however,
they do not appear to have been very regularly celebrated, but
1 The Court leet was held twice a year up to 1835.
3 o8
PRESTONPANS PRESTWICH, SIR J.
since that year they have been and still are held at intervals o
twenty years. A special gild mayor is appointed on each occa
sion. The first mention of a procession at the gild is in 1500
One of the most important items of business was the enrolling
of freemen, and the gild rolls are records of the population. In
1397 the gild roll contained the names of over 200 in-burgesses
and 100 foreign burgesses; in 1415 the number of in-burgesses
was 188, which in 1459 had declined to 72. In 1582 there were
over 500 in-burgesses and 340 out-burgesses. There is no
evidence for, but rather against, the common statement that
Preston was burnt or razed to the ground during the Scottish
invasion of 1322. The town suffered severely from the Black
Death in 1349-1350, when as many as 3000 persons are saic
to have died, and again in the year November 1630 to November
1631, i loo died of pestilence. During the Civil War Preston
sided with the king and became the headquarters of the Royalists
in Lancashire. In February 1643 Sir John Seaton with a
Parliamentary force marched from Manchester and successfully
assaulted it. A strong Parliamentary garrison was established
here and its fortifications repaired, but in March the earl ol
Derby recaptured the tojvn. The Royalists did not garrison it,
but after demolishing the greater part of the works left it un-
fortified. After the battle of Marston Moor Prince Rupert
marched through Preston in September 1644 and carried the
mayor and bailiffs prisoners to Skipton Castle, where they were
confined for twelve months. On the I7th of August 1648 the
Royalist forces under the duke of Hamilton and General Langdale
were defeated at Preston by Cromwell with a loss of 1000 killed
and 4000 taken prisoners. During the Rebellion of 1715 the
rebel forces entered Preston on the gth of November, and after
proclaiming the Chevalier de St George king at the cross in the
market-place, remained here for some days, during which the
government forces advanced. The town was assaulted, and on
the 1 4th of November General Forster surrendered his army of
about 1400 men to the king's forces. In 1745 Prince Charles
Edward marched through on the way south and north, but the
town took no part in the rebellion. The borough returned two
members from 1295 to 1331, then ceased to exercise the privilege
on account of poverty till 1529, but since that date (except in
1653) it_ has always sent two representatives to parliament.
The curious institution of the mock mayor and corporation
of Walton, which was at its foundation in 1701 a Jacobite
association, ceased after 1766 to be of any political significance
and lapsed in 1800. There was probably a church here in
Saxon times and it is believed to be one of the three churches in
Amounderness mentioned hi Domesday Book. In 1094 it is
named in a charter of Roger de Poictou. The early dedication
was to St Wilfrid, but probably about 1531, when it was rebuilt,
it was re-dedicated to St John. At the time of the Reformation,
many, especially among the neighbouring gentry, clung to the
old faith, and there is still a large Roman Catholic population.
There were two monastic foundations here: a hospital dedicated
to St Mary Magdalene, which stood on the Maudlands, and a
Franciscan convent of Grey Friars situated to the west of
Friargate. In the i8th century Preston had a high reputation
as a centre of fashionable society, and earned the epithet still
familiarly associated with it, " proud."
See H. Fishwick, History of the Parish of Preston (1900).
PRESTONPANS, a police burgh and watering-place of
Haddingtonshire, Scotland, on the Firth of Forth, 9^ m. E. of
Edinburgh by the North British railway. Pop. (1901), 2614.
A mile to the east of the village is the site of the battle of the
2ist of September 1745, in which Prince Charles Edward and
his highlanders gained a complete victory over the royal forces
under Sir John Cope. Colonel James Gardiner was mortally
wounded after an heroic stand, and an obelisk in the grounds
of his house at Bankton, close to the battlefield, commemorates
his valour, while the ballad of Adam Skirving (1719-1803),
" Hey, Johnnie Cope!" has immortalized the rout of Cope.
Until the beginning of the igth century, the salt trade was
prosecuted with great success, the pans having been laid down as
long ago as 1185, but the industry has declined. There are manu-
factures of fire-bricks, tiles and pottery, besides brewing and soap-
making. In the vicinity there is an extensive coal-field. Fisheries
are still of importance, although the bed of Pandore oysters (an
esteemed variety) has lost something of its former fertility. There
are harbours at Morrison's Haven to the west and at Cockenzie
and Port Seton to the north-east, which practically form one
village, with a population of 1687. The cross of the barony of
Preston dates from 1617. Schaw's Hospital Trust, at one time
intended for the education and maintenance of the children of
poor parents, has been modified, and the bequest is used to provide
free education and bursaries, while the building has been leased
by the trustees of Miss Mary Murray, who bequeathed 20,000
(afterwards increased to 30,000) for the training of poor children
as domestic servants.
PRESTWICH, SIR JOSEPH (1812-1896), English geologist,
was born at Clapham, Surrey, on the i2th of March, 1812. He
was educated in Paris, Reading and at University College,
London, where under Dr D. Lardner and Edward Turner, he
paid special attention to natural philosophy and chemistry,
and gained some knowledge of mineralogy and geology. Circum-
stances compelled him to enter into commercial life, and until
he was sixty years of age he was busily engaged in the City as
a wine merchant. He devoted all his leisure to geology. His
business journeys enabled him to see and learn much of the
general geology of England, Scotland and France, and this so
effectively that at the time of his death he ranked as the most
eminent of British geologists. As early as 1831 he commenced,
during holiday visits, to make a study of the coal-field of Coal-
brookdale in Shropshire, and the results of his observations
were communicated to the Geological Society of London in
1834 and 1836, and embodied in a memoir published in 1838.
His name is, however, especially known in connexion with his
researches on the Eocene strata of the London and Hampshire
Basins (1846-1857): he defined the Thanet Sands and the
Woolwich and Reading Beds, and studied the sequence of
deposits and of organic remains and the method of formation
of these and the succeeding strata of London clay and Bagshot
Beds. So highly appreciated were his essays on the subject
that in 1849 he was awarded the Wollaston Medal by the
Geological Society of London; and in 1853 he was elected F.R.S.
In the course of his observations he was led to study questions
of water supply and published in 1851 A Geological Inquiry
respecting the Water-bearing Strata of the Country around London,
a work that at once became a standard authority; and his
extensive knowledge in that respect procured him a seat on the
Royal Commission on Water Supply, appointed in 1866. From
1858 the question of the antiquity of man engaged his attention.
On various occasions statements had been made as to the
association of flint implements formed by man with the bones
of extinct mammals which belonged to more remote periods
than those generally assigned for the appearance of the human
race on this earth, but the evidence adduced had usually been
disregarded by geologists as not affording sufficient proof of
:he point. Prestwich, together with Dr Hugh Falconer and
Sir John Evans, saw the desirability of a closer examination
of the facts, particularly in regard to the implements discovered
by Boucher de Perthes in the gravels of the Somme valley;
and their investigations in France and England yielded evidence
which proved that man existed contemporaneously, with the
Pleistocene mammalia (Phil. Trans. 1861 and 1864). In 1865
a Royal Medal was awarded to Prestwich by the Royal Society.
In 1866 he was chosen one of the commissioners appointed to
nquire into the several matters relating to coal in the United
kingdom; and he subsequently contributed an important
Report on the Quantities of Coal, wrought and unwrought, in the
Coalfields of Somersetshire and part of Gloucestershire, and another
Report on the Probabilities 0} finding Coal in the South of England
1871). His researches on the Crag Beds of Suffolk and Norfolk,
his report on Brixham Cave, his papers on the Channel Tunnel
and the Chesil Bank, among others published during the years
1868-1875, rnay be mentioned.
In 1870 he married Grace Anne McCall (n6e Milne), niece of
Dr H. Falconer, and author of the Harbour Bar and other
works (see Essays Descriptive and Biographical, by Grace, Lady
PRESTWICH PRETORIUS
309
Prestwich; edited by L. E. Milne, 1901). Prestwich retired
from business in 1872, and two years later he was invited to
take the chair of geology at Oxford, vacant through the death
of John Phillips. This post he occupied until 1887. During
his professorship he wrote his great work entitled Geology:
Chemical, Physical and Stratigraphical (vol. i., 1886; vol. ii.,
1888).
On leaving Oxford Prestwich spent his remaining years in
his country house, Darent-Hulme, Shoreham, Kent, erected by
him in 1869. There, although seventy-six years of age, he
maintained marvellous activity in geological research, devoting
his attention to the superficial deposits of the Darent valley, to
the occurrence of palaeolithic flint implements in the valleys
and of an earlier type since called eolithic, on the chalk
plateau of Kent; he likewise dealt generally with the raised
beaches and rubble-drift of the south of England and their
relation to recent changes of level. His latest publications were
Collected Papers on some Controverted Questions of Geology, and
On Certain Phenomena belonging to the Close of the Last Geological
Period and on their Bearing upon the Tradition of the Flood (1895).
He was knighted in 1896, and died on the 23rd of June in the
same year, at Shoreham in Kent.
See Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Prestwich, edited by his wife
(1899)-
PRESTWICH, an urban district in the Prestwich parlia-
mentary division of Lancashire, England, 5 m. N.N.W. of Man-
chester on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901),
12,839. It possesses cotton manufactures, but consists chiefly
of handsome mansions and villas inhabited by Manchester
merchants.
PRETORIA, the administrative capital of the Union of South
Africa and of the province of the Transvaal, 46 m. by rail N. by
E. of Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 36,839, of whom 21,114 were
whites. Pretoria is situated on the banken veld or northern
slopes of the high veld, on both banks of the Aapies tributary
of the Limpopo, and is 4470 ft. above the sea, being 1300 ft.
lower than Johannesburg. Built in a hollow surrounded by
hills, the aspect of the town with the river flowing through it and
its broad streets lined with willows is picturesque. In summer
the heat and moisture are excessive, and the Aapies (which is
spanned by four bridges) is liable to floods.
The town is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks of uniform
width. The older part lies on the west side of the Aapies River
and between it and a smaller stream known as the Spruit. In
the centre of this part of Pretoria is Church Square, so named
from the Dutch Reformed Church which stood in it, but was
demolished in 1905. Government buildings on the south side
of the square contain the chambers of the Provincial Council
and other public offices. They were erected in 1892 and are a
handsome block in Renaissance style, three-storied, with a cen-
tral tower surmounted by a statue of Liberty. On the north
side of the square are the law courts, on the west side the Post
Office. The chief banking offices are also in the square.
Running east and west from Church Square is Church Street,
the chief business thoroughfare. A little east of Church Square
this street opens on to Market Square, with commodious market
buildings. The former Presidency, the residence of Paul Kruger,
is at the western end of the street near the Spruit. Opposite it
is the Dopper Church, in which Kruger used occasionally to preach.
Other churches in the heart of the town include the Anglican cathe-
dral, dedicated to St Alban, and the Presbyterian Church, both
in Schoemans Street, the Roman Catholic Church in Koch Street
with schools, convent buildings and extensive grounds, and the
new Dutch Reformed Church in Vermeulen Street. In the north
of the town is the National Museum and adjacent are the Zoological
Gardens. Other public buildings are the government library, the
University College and the opera house. East of the Aapies and
on the slopes of the hills are the residential districts of Arcadia,
Sunnyside and Muckleneuk. Bryntirion, a suburb on the northern
slopes of the hills, contains the residences of the chief officials,
including Government House. Here is Meinties Kop, with a broad
natural shelf midway below the summit. This shelf was chosen
in 1909 as the site of the public offices of the Union. The designs
of Mr Herbert Baker were accepted for two large blocks of identical
design connected by a semicircular colonnade (passing behind the
narrow kloof which bisects the shelf). Besides other open spaces
there is Burger's park, originally planned, during the first British
occupation, as a botanical garden. It is beautifully wooded and
through it runs the Spruit. A park and sports ground at the western
end of the town contains the pedestal for a statue of President
Kruger. The statue itself remained for years at Lourenco Marques
and appears to have been lost. Adjoining this park on the north
is the cemetery. Among those buried there are Kruger and many
of the British who fell during the war of 1899-1902. Signal Hill,
which rises 400 ft. above the plain, is ^yest of the park. The plateau
at its foot was the site of the English laager during the war of
1880-81, and is now occupied by the central railway station and
workshops. North of the cemetery is the prison, a building
which replaces a notoriously insanitary gaol used during the
republican regime.
The water supply of Pretoria is drawn from the source of the
Aapies River, where rise magnificent springs. The Fountains, as
they are called, are 3 m. west of Pretoria. Some 3 m. north of
the town is the Wonderboom, an enormous wild fig-tree, the only
one of its kind in the district. At West Fort, 7 m. from the town,
is a leper asylum; at Waterval, 15 m. north, the British prisoners
captured by the Boers up to the fall of Pretoria were confined.
Thirty miles east by north of Pretoria is the Premier Diamond mine.
Brpnkhorst Spruit, where in December 1880 a detachment of
British soldiers was ambushed by the Boers, lies about 30 m. east by
south of the town.
History. Pretoria was founded in 1855, the ground on which
it stands being purchased by the Boer government from Mar-
thinus Pretorius. It was made the centre of a new district
created at the same time, both town and district being named in
honour of Andries Pretorius. By treaty between the South
African Republic (then comprising the districts of Potchef-
stroom, Rustenburg, Pretoria and Zoutpansberg) and the re-
public of Lydenburg, concluded at Pretoria in 1860, the two
republics were united and Pretoria chosen as the capital of the
whole state, and in September of that year the Volksraad held
its first meeting in the new capital. Until 1864, however, when
the civil war in the Transvaal ended, Potchefstroom remained
the virtual capital of the country. From that year the seat
of government has always been at Pretoria. There in 1877 Sir
Theophilus Shepstone proclaimed the annexation of the Trans-
vaal to Great Britain. In December 1880 it was invested by
the Boers, but held out until the conclusion of peace. In 1881
the convention restoring self-government to the Transvaal was
signed at Pretoria. From that time until 1900 the dominating
figure in the town was that of the president Paul Kruger. As
revenue flowed in from the gold-mines on the Rand many fine
buildings were erected in the capital, which was placed in rail-
way communication with Cape Town in 1893 and with Lourenco
Marques and Durban in 1895. To Pretoria Dr Jameson and his
troopers were brought prisoners (January 1896) after the fight at
Doornkop (to be handed over in a few days to the British govern-
ment), and thither also were brought the Reform Committee
prisoners from Johannesburg. In May 1900 Kruger fled from
the town, which on the sth of June surrendered without re-
sistance to Lord Roberts, despite its formidable encircling forts,
which however were never effectively armed. On the 3ist of
May 1902 the articles of peace whereby the Boer leaders re-
cognized British sovereignty were signed at Pretoria, and five
years later there assembled in the capital the first parliament
of the Transvaal as a self-governing state of the British Empire.
On the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910
Pretoria became its administrative capital, the seat of the legis-
lature being however at Cape Town. The Transvaal parlia-
ment was replaced by a Provincial Council (see TRANSVAAL:
History).
The town is governed by a municipality, which since 1903
has acquired control of the sanitary service, water supply,
electric lighting and tramways. In 1909 the proportional
representation system was adopted for the election of tov/n
councillors.
PRETORIUS, the family name of two of the early leaders of
the " Trek " Boers Andries Wilhelmus Jacobus Pretorius
and Marthinus Wessels Pretorius, father and son.
i. ANDRIES PRETORIUS (1799-1853), a Dutch fanner of
Graaff-Reinet, Cape Colony, and a descendant from one of the
earliest Dutch settlers in South Africa, left his home in the Great
310
PRETORIUS
Trek, and by way of what is now the Orange Free State crossed
the t)rakensberg into Natal, where he arrived in November
1838, at a time when the emigrants there were without a re-
cognized leader. Pretorius was at once chosen commandant-
general and speedily collected a force to avenge the massacre
of Piet Relief and his party, who had been treacherously killed
by the Zulu king Dingaan the previous February. Pretorius's
force was attacked on the i6th of December (" Dingaan's Day ")
by over 10,000 Zulus, who were beaten off with a loss of 3000
men. In January 1840 Pretorius with a commando of 400
burghers helped Mpande in his revolt against his brother Dingaan
and was the leader of the Natal Boers in their opposition to
the British. In 1842 he besieged the small British garrison
at Durban, but retreated to Maritzburg on the arrival of re-
inforcements under Colonel (subsequently Sir) Josias Cloete
and afterwards exerted his influence with the Boers in favour
of coming to terms with the British. He remained in Natal as
a British subject, and in 1847 was chosen by the Dutch farmers
there to lay before the governor of Cape Colony the grievances
under which they laboured owing to the constant immigration
of natives, to whom locations were assigned to the detriment
of Boer claims. Pretorius went to Grahams Town, where Sir
Henry Pottinger (the governor) then was; but Sir Henry re-
fused to see him or receive any communication from him.
Pretorius returned to Natal determined to abandon his farm and
once more trek beyond the British dominions. With a con-
siderable following he was preparing to cross the Drakensb
when Sir* Harry Smith, newly appointed governor of the Cape,
reached the emigrants' camp on the Tugela (Jan. 1848). Sir
Harry promised the farmers protection from the natives and
persuaded many of the party to remain, but Pretorius departed,
and on the proclamation of British sovereignty up to the Vaal
fixed his residence in the Magalisberg, north of that river. He
was chosen by the burghers living on both banks of the Vaal
as their commandant- general. At the request of the Boers at
Winburg Pretorius crossed the Vaal in July and led the anti-
British party in their " war of freedom," occupying Bloem-
fontein on the 2oth of the same month. In August he was de-
feated at Boomplaats by Sir Harry Smith and thereupon re-
treated north of the Vaal, where he became leader of one of the
largest of the parties into which the trans- Vaal Boers were
divided, and commandant-general of Potchefstroom and Rust-
enburg, his principal rival being Commandant-General A. H.
Potgieter. In 1851 he was asked by the Boer malcontents in
the Orange River Sovereignty and by the Basuto chief Moshesh
to come to their aid, and he announced his intention of crossing
the Vaal to " restore order " in the Sovereignty. His object,
however, was rathei to obtain from the British an acknowledg-
ment of the independence of the Transvaal Boers. The British
cabinet having decided on a policy of abandonment, the pro-
posal of Pretorius was entertained. A reward of 2000 which
had been offered for his apprehension after the Boomplaats
fight, was withdrawn, Pretorius met the British commissioners
at a farm near the Sand River, and with them concluded the
convention (Jan. 17, 1852) by which the independence of the
Transvaal Boers was recognized by Great Britain. Pretorius
recrossed the Vaal and at Rustenburg on the i6th of March was
reconciled to Potgieter, the followers of both leaders approving
the convention, though the Potgieter party was not represented
at the Sand River. In the same year Pretorius paid a visit to
Durban with the object of opening up trade between Natal and
the new republic He also in 1852 attempted to close the road
tc the interior through Bechuanaland and sent a commando to
the western border against Sechele. During this expedition
David Livingstone's house at Kolobeng was looted. Pretorius
died at his home at Magalisberg on the 23rd of July 1853. He
is described by Theal as " the ablest leader and most perfect
representative of the Emigrant Farmers." In 1855 a new dis-
trict and a new town were formed out of the Potchefstroom and
Rustenburg districts and named Pretoria in honour of the late
commandant-general.
2. MARTHINIUS PRETORIUS (1819-1901), the eldest son of
Andries, was appointed in August 1853 to succeed his father as
commandant-general of Potchefstroom and Rustenburg, two
of the districts into which the Transvaal was then divided. In
1854 he led his burghers against a chief named Makapan, who
had murdered a party of twenty-three Boers, including ten
women and children. The natives were blockaded in a great
cave in the Zoutpansberg and about 3000 were starved to death
or shot as they attempted to escape. Having thus chastised
Makapan's clan, Pretorius turned his energies to the creation of a
strong central government, and from 1856 onward his dominating
idea appears to have been the formation of one Boer state to
include the Orange River burghers. In December 1856 repre-
sentatives of the districts of Potchefstroom, Rustenburg and
Pretoria met and drew up a constitution and on the 6th of
January the "South African Republic" was formally constituted,
Pretorius having been elected president on the previous day.
Though the Boers of the Lydenburg, Utrecht and Zoutpans-
berg districts refused to acknowledge the new republic, Pretorius,
with the active co-operation of Commandant Paul Kruger (after-
wards President Kruger), endeavoured (1857) to bring about
the union of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, and a
commando crossed the Vaal to support Pretorius. The attempt
at coercion failed, but in December 1859 the partisans of Pre-
torius in the Free State secured his election as president-of that
republic. Pretorius had just effected a reconciliation of the
Lydenburg Boers with those of the other districts of the Trans-
vaal, and hoping to complete his work of unification he accepted
the presidency of the Free State, assuming office at Blocmfon-
tein in February 1860. But the condition of anarchy into
which the Transvaal fell shortly afterwards effectually weaned
the Free State burghers from any thought of immediate amal-
gamation with their northern neighbours. Pretorius however
continued to intervene in the affairs of the Transvaal and at
length (April 15, 1863) resigned his Free State presidency.
Acting as mediator between the various Transvaal parties Pre-
torius in January 1864 succeeded in putting an end to the civil
strife and in May following once more became president of the
South African Republic now for the first time a united com-
munity. Conciliation was a marked feature of his character
and to Pretorius more than any other man was due the welding
of the Transvaal Boers into one nation. Pretorius shared the
ideas of his father and the Emigrant Farmers generally con-
cerning the title of the state to indefinite expansion north, east
and west. Although he had much difficulty in maintaining
the authority of the republic over the natives within its recog-
nized borders, yet in April 1868, on the report of gold discoveries
at Tati, he issued a proclamation annexing to the Transvaal on
the west the whole of Bechuanaland and on the east territory
up to and including part of Delagoa Bay. As to Delagoa Bay
Portugal at once protested and in 1869 its right to the bay was
acknowledged by Pretorius, who in the same year was re-elected
president. The right of the Boers to the whole of Bechuana-
land was not pressed by Pretorius in the face of British op-
position, but in 1870, when the discovery of diamonds along the
lower Vaal had led to the establishment of many diggers' camps,
an attempt was made to enforce the claims of the Transvaal to
that district. Pretorius aroused the hostility of the diggers by
granting an exclusive concession to one firm. Realizing his
mistake, the concession was cancelled and in September 1870
he issued a proclamation notable as offering to the diggers very
large powers of self-government. Pretorius went to the western
frontier and in repeated conferences with the Bechuana chiefs
attempted to get them to acknowledge the Boer contention and
by joining the Transvaal to " save " their territory from the
British. His diplomacy failed, and finally, without consulting his
colleagues, he agreed to refer the question of the boundary to
the arbitration of Mr R. W. Keate, then lieutenant-governor
of Natal. The award, given on the i7th of October 1871,
was against the Boer claims. Pretorius loyally accepted the
decision, but it aroused a storm of indignation in the Transvaal.
The Volksraad refused to ratify the award and Pretorius
resigned the presidency (November 1871).
PRETTY PREVOST, A. F.
From this time Pretorius took little further part in public
affairs until after the first annexation of the state by Great
Britain. In 1878 he acted as chairman of the committee of Boer
leaders who were seeking the restoration of the independence of
their country, and for his action in that capacity he was arrested
in January 1880 by order of Sir Garnet Wolseley on a charge
of treason. (See the BLUE BOOK [C. 2584] of 1880 for details
of this charge.) He was admitted to bail and shortly afterwards
urged by Wolseley to accept a seat on the executive council.
This offer Pretorius declined, but he consented to tour the
country with a proclamation by Wolseley counselling the Boers
to submit, and promising them self-government. In December
of the same year he was appointed, with Paul Kruger and P.
Joubert, to carry on the government on the part of the insurgent
Boers. He was one of the signatories to the Pretoria Conven-
tion and continued to act as a member of the Triumvirate until
the election of Kruger as president in May 1883. He then with-
drew from public life; but lived to see the country re-annexed
to Great Britain, dying at Potchefstroom on the igth of May
IQOI. He is stated to have disapproved the later developments
of Krugerism, and within four months of his death visited Louis
Botha and Schalk Burger, on behalf of Lord Kitchener, with
the object of bringing the war to an end.
For the elder Pretorius see G. M. Theal, Compendium of the
History and Geography of South Africa, 3rd ed. (London, 1878),
and History of South Africa, vol. iv. [1834-1854] (London, 1893).
For the younger Pretorius see vol. v. of the same series.
PRETTY, a word usually applied in the sense of pleasing in
appearance, without connoting those qualities which are
described as beautiful or handsome. In Old English praettig
meant tricky, cunning or wily, and is thus used to translate
the Latin sagax, aslulus, callidus,\n a vocabulary of about 1000.
Praelt meant a trick, and this word is seen in many forms in
Dutch, cf . the 1 words pretlig, sportive, part, trick. A connexion
has been suggested with the Greek irpa.KTt.Kfa, wparrtiv, to do,
make, through Latin practica, practice, performance; but the New
English Dictionary rejects these, as also Celtic sources, as un-
founded. From " cunning " to skilful, and thence to its use as
a term of general appreciation as is so often used by Pepys,
the development is easy.
PREVARICATION, a divergence from the truth, equivoca-
tion, quibbling, a want of plain-dealing or straightforwardness,
especially a deliberate misrepresentation by evasive answers,
often used as a less offensive synonym for a lie. The Latin
praevaricatio was specifically applied to the conduct in an
action at law in which an advocate (praevaricator) in collusion
with his opponent put up a bad case of defence. Praevari-
care meant literally to walk with the legs very wide apart, to
straddle, hence to walk crookedly, to stray from the direct road,
varicus, straddling, being derived from varus, bow-legged, a
word which has been connected etymologically with German
quer, transverse, across, and English "queer."
PREVEZA, or PREVESA, a seaport of Albania, European
Turkey, in the vilayet of lannina; at the entrance to the Gulf
of Arta, an inlet of the Ionian Sea. Pop. (1905), 650x3, of whom
about four-fifths are Christian Albanians or Greeks, and one-
fifth Moslems. The town is surrounded by dense olive groves,
and most of its houses stand in their own gardens. The har-
bour is small, and closed to large vessels by a bar of sand; but
it is a port of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and
annually accommodates about 1500 small vessels, the majority
of which are engaged in the coasting trade. Preveza exports
dairy produce, valonia, hides and wool, olives and olive oil.
The yearly value of its trade varies from about 70,000 to 80,000.
About 3 m. north are the ruins of Nicopolis (?..).
PRfiVOST, ANTOINE FRANCOIS (1697-1763), French author
and novelist, was born at Hesdin, Artois, on the ist of April
1697. He first appears with the full name of Prevost d'Exiles
in a letter to the booksellers of Amsterdam in 1731. His father,
LieVin Prevost, was a lawyer, and several members of the family
had embraced the ecclesiastical estate. PrSvost was educated
at the Jesuit school of Hesdin, and in 1713 became a novice of
the order in Paris, pursuing his studies at the same time at the
college of La Fleche. At the end of 1716 he left the Jesuits to
join the army, but he soon tired of life in barracks, and returned
to Paris in 1719 with the idea, apparently, of resuming his
novitiate. He is said to have travelled in Holland about this
time; in any case he returned to the army, this time with a
commission. Some of his biographers have assumed that he
suffered some of the misfortunes assigned to his hero Des Grieux.
However that may be, he joined in 1710-1720 the learned com-
munity of the Benedictines of St Maur, with whom he found
refuge, he himself says, after the unlucky termination of a love
affair. He took the vows at Jumieges in 1721 after a year's
novitiate, and received in 1726 priest's orders at St Germer
de Flaix. He resided for seven years in various houses of the
order, teaching, preaching and studying. In 1728 he was at the
abbey of St Germain-des-Pres, Paris, where he was engaged on
the Gallla Christiana, the learned work undertaken by the monks
in continuation of the works of Denys de Sainte-Marthe, who
had been a member of their order. His restless spirit made
him seek from the Pope a transfer to the easier rule of Cluny;
but without waiting for the brief, he left the abbey without
leave (1728), and, learning that his superiors had obtained a
lettre de cachet against him, fled to England.
In London he acquired considerable knowledge of English history
and literature, traceable throughout his writings. Before leaving
the Benedictines PreVost had begun his most famous romance,
Memcires et avantures d'un homme de qualite qui s'est retire du monde,
the first four volumes of which were published in Paris in 1728,
and two years later at Amsterdam. In 1729 he left England for
Holland, where he began to publish (Utrecht, 1730) a romance,
the material of which, at least, had been gathered in London Le
Philosophe anglais, ou Histoire de Monsieur Cleveland, fils naturel
de Cromwell, ecrite par lui-mesme, et traduite de I'anglois (Paris
1731-17391 8 vols., but most of the existing sets are partly Paris
and partly Utrecht). A spurious fifth volume (Utrecht, 1734)
contained attacks on the Jesuits, and an English translation of
the whole appeared in 1734. Meanwhile, during his residence at
the Hague, he engaged on a translation of the Historic of De Thou,
and, relying on the popularity of his first book, published at Amster-
dam a Suite in three volumes, forming volumes v., vi., and vii. of
the original Memoires et avantures dun homme de qualM. The
seventh volume contained the famous Manon Lescaut, separately
published in Paris in 1731 as Les Aventures du chevalier des Grieux
et de Manon Lescaut, par Monsieur D.... The book was eagerly
read, chiefly in pirated copies, as it was forbidden in France. In
'733 he left the Hague for London in company with a lady whose
character, as given by PreVost's enemies, was far from desirable.
In London he edited a weekly gazette on the model of Addison's
Spectator, Le Pour et centre, which he continued to produce, with
short intervals, until 1740.
In the autumn of 1734 Pr6vost was reconciled with the Bene-
dictines, and, returning to France, was received in the Bene-
dictine monastery of La Croix-Saint-Leufroy in the diocese of
Evreux to pass through a new, though brief, novitiate. In
1735 he was dispensed from residence in a monastery by
becoming almoner to the prince de Conti, and in 1754 obtained
the priory of St Georges de Gesnes. He continued to pro-
duce novels and translations from the English, and, with the
exception of a brief exile (1741-1742) spent in Brussels and
Frankfort, he resided for the most part at Chantilly until his
death, which took place suddenly while he was walking in the
neighbouring woods on the 23rd of December 1763. Hideous
particulars have been added, but the cause of his death, the
rupture of an aneurism, has been definitely established. Stories
of crime and disaster were related of Pr6vost by his enemies, and
diligently repeated, but they have proved to be as apocryphal
as the details given of his death.
Manon ^Lescaut, one of the greatest novels of the century, is very
short; it is entirely free from improbable incident, it is penetrated
by the truest and most cunningly managed feeling; and almost
every one of its characters is a triumph of that analvtic portraiture
which is the secret of the modern novel. The chevalier des Grieux,
the hero, is probably the most perfect example of the carrying
out of the sentiment " All for love and the world well lost " that
exists in fiction, at least where the circumstances are those of ordinary
and probable life. Tiberge, his friend, is hardly inferior in the
difficult part of mentor and reasonable man. Lescaut, the heroine's
brother, has vigorous touches as a bully and Bohemian; but the
triumph of- the book is Manon herself. Animated by a real affection
312
for her lover, and false to him only because her love of splendour,
comfort and luxury prevents her from welcoming privation with
him or for him, though in effect she prefers him to all others, perfectly
natural and even amiable in her degradation, and yet showing the
moral of that degradation most vividly, Manon is one of the most
remarkable heroines in all fiction. She had no literary ancestress;
she seems to have sprung entirely from the imagination, or perhaps
the sympathetic observation, of the wandering scholar who drew
her. Only the Princesse de Cloves can challenge comparison with
her before or near to her own date, and in Manon Lescaut the
plot is much more complete and interesting, the sentiments less
artificial, and the whole story nearer to actual life than in
Madame de la Fayette's masterpiece. Prevost's other works
include: Le Doyen de Killerine, histoire morale, composee sur les
memoires d'une illustre famttle d' Ireland (Paris, 1735; 2nd part,
the Hague, 1730, 3rd, 4th and 5th parts, 1740); Tout pour Vamour
(1735)1 a translation of Dryden's tragedy; Histoire d'une Grecque
moderne (Amsterdam [Paris] 2 vols., 1740); Histoire de Marguerite
d'Anjou (Amsterdam [Paris] 2 vols., 1740); Memoires pour servir a
I'histoire de Malte (Amsterdam, i74i);'Campagnes philosophiques,
ou memoires . . . contenant I'histoire de la guerre d Irelande
(Amsterdam, 1741); Histoire de Guillaume le Conquerant (Paris,
1742); Histoire generate des voyages (15 vols., Pans, 1746-1759),
continued by other writers; translations from Samuel Richardson,
Pamela (4 vols., 1742), Letlres anglaises ou Histoire de Miss Clarisse
Harlowe (6 vols., London, 1741); Nouvelles lettres anglaises, ou Histoire
du cltevalier Grandisson (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1755); Memoires pour
servir a I'histoire de la vertu (Cologne, 4 vols., 1762), from Mrs
Sheridan's Memoires of Miss Sidney Bidulph ; Histoire de la maison
de Stuart (3 vols., 1740) from Hume's History of England to 1688;
Le Monde morale, ou Memoires pour servir a I'histoire du caur
humain (2 vols., Geneva, 1760), &c.
For the bibliography of Prevost's works, which presents many
complications, and for documentary evidence of the facts of his
life see H. Harrisse, L'Abbe Prenost (1896); also a thesis (1898) by
V. Schroeder.
PREVOST, CONSTANT (1787-1856), French geologist, was
born in Paris on the 4th of June 1787, and was son of Louis
Prevost, receiver of the rentes of that city. He was educated
at the Central Schools, where, inspired by the lectures of G.
Cuvier, Alexandre Brongniart and A. Dumeril, he determined
to devote himself to natural science. He took his degree in
Letters and Sciences in 1811, and for a time pursued the study
of medicine and anatomy. Mainly through the influence of
Brongniart he turned his attention to geology, and during the
years 1816-1819 made a special study of the Vienna Basin where
he pointed out for the first time the presence of Tertiary
strata like those of the Paris Basin, but including a series of
later date. His next work (1821) was an essay on the geology
of parts of Normandy, with special reference to the Secondary
strata, which he compared with those of England. From 1821-
1829 he was professor of geology at the Athenaeum at Paris,
and he took a leading part with Ami Boue, G. P. Deshayes and
Jules Desnoyers in the founding of the Geological Society of
France (1830). In 1831 he became assistant professor and after-
wards honorary professor of geology to the faculty of sciences.
Having studied the volcanoes of Italy and Auvergne, he
opposed the views of von Buch regarding craters of elevation,
maintaining that the cones were due to the material succes-
sively emipted. Like Lyell he advocated a study of the causes
or forces now in action in order to illustrate the past. One of
his more important memoirs was De la Chronologie des terrains
et du synchronisme des formations (1845). He died in Paris
on the 1 7th of August 1856.
Memoir with portrait, by J. Gosselet, Ann. soc. geol. du nord,
tome xxv. 1896.
PROVOST, EUGENE MARCEL (1862- ), French novelist,
was born in Paris on the ist of May 1862. He was educated
at Jesuit schools in Bordeaux and Paris, entering the Ecole
Polytechnique in 1882. He published a story in the Clairon
as early as 1881, but for some years after the completion of
his studies he applied his technical knowledge to the manu-
facture of tobacco. He published in succession, Le Scorpion
(1887), Chonchette (1888), Mademoiselle Jau/re (1889), Cousine
Laura (1890), La Confession d'un amant (1891), Lettres defemmes
(1892), L'Automne d'une femme (1893), and in 1894 he made a
great sensation by an exaggerated and revolting study of the
results of Parisian education and Parisian society on young
PREVOST, C. PRIAM
girls, Les Demi-inerges, which was dramatized and produced
with great success at the Gymnase on the 2ist of May 1895.
Le Jardin secret appeared in 1897; and in 1900 Les Vierges
fortes, and a study of the question of women's education and
independence hi .two novels Frederique and Lea. L'Heureux
menage (1901), Les Lettres a Franc.oise (1902), La Princesse
d'Erminge (1904), and L'Accordeur aveugle (1905) are among his
later novels. An amusing picture of modern German manners
is given in his Monsieur el Madame Moloch (1906). He had a
great success in 1904 with a four act play La Plusfaible, produced
at the Comedie Francaise. In 1909 he was elected to the
Academy.
PREVOST, PIERRE (1751-1839), Swiss philosopher and
physicist, son of a Protestant clergyman in Geneva, was born
in that city on the 3rd of March 1751, and was educated for a
clerical career. But he forsook it for law, and this too he quickly
deserted to devote himself to education and to travelling. He
became intimate with J. J. Rousseau, and, a little later, with
Dugald Stewart, having previously distinguished himself as a
translator of and commentator on Euripides. Frederick II.
of Prussia secured him in 1780 as professor of philosophy, and
made him member of the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Ber-
lin. He there became acquainted with Lagrange, and was thus
led to turn his attention to physical science. After some years
spent on political economy and on the principles of the fine
arts (in connexion with which he wrote, for the Berlin Memoirs,
a remarkable dissertation, on poetry) he returned to Geneva and
began his work on magnetism and on heat. Interrupted
occasionally in his studies by political duties, in which he was
often called to the front, he remained professor of philosophy
at Geneva till he was called in 1810 to the chair of physics.
He died at Geneva on the 8th of April 1839.
Prevost published muchl on philology, philosophy, and political
economy; but he will be remembered mainly for having published,
with additions of his own, the Traite de physique of G. L. Le Sage,
and for his enunciation of the law of exchange in radiation. His
scientific publications included De I'Origine des forces magnetiques
(1788), Recherches physico-mecaniques sur la chaleur (1792), and
Essai sur le calbrique rayonnant (1809).
PREVOST-PARADOL, LUCIEN ANATOLE (1820-1870),
French man of letters, was born in Paris on the 8th of August
1829. He was educated at the College Bourbon and entered the
Ecole Normale. In 1855 he was appointed professor of French
literature at Aix. He held the post, however, barely a year, re-
signing it to become a leader-writer on the Journal des debats. He
also wrote in the Courrier du dimanche, and for a very short
time in the Presse. His chief works are Essais de politique et de
littfrature (three series, 1859-1866), and Essais sur les moralistes
franfais (1864). He was, however, rather a journalist than a
writer of books, and was one of the chief opponents of the empire
on the side of moderate liberalism. He underwent the usual
difficulties of a journalist under that regime, and was once im-
prisoned. In 1865 he was elected an Academician. The ac-
cession of Emile Ollivier to power was fatal to Prevost-Paradol,
who apparently believed in the possibility of a liberal empire,
and consequently accepted the appointment of envoy to the
United States. This was the signal for the most unmeasured
attacks on him from the republican party. He had scarcely
installed himself in his post before the outbreak of war between
France and Prussia occurred. He shot himself at Washington
on the nth of July 1870, and died on the 2oth.
PREY (O. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from
prae and the root hed seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp),
booty, spoil, plunder taken in war, by robbery, or other violent
means; particularly the quarry, the animal killed for food by a
carnivorous animal; a beast or bird of prey. A particular usage
for that which is saved from any trial of strength or battle is
familiar from the Bible (Jer. xxi. 9) " his life shall be unto him
for a prey."
PRIAM (Gr. Ilpiajuos), in Greek legend, the last king of Troy,
son of Laomedon and brother of Tithonus. Little is known of
him before the Trojan War, which broke out when he was ad-
vanced in years. According to Homer (Iliad, iii. 184) in his
PRIAPEIA PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW
youth he fought on the side of the Phrygians against the Ama-
zons. He had fifty sons and fifty daughters, and possessed im-
mense wealth. He appears only twice on the scene of action
during the war to make arrangements for the duel between
Paris and Menelaus, and to beg the body of Hector for burial
from Achilles, whom he visits in his tent by night. He was said to
have been slain by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, during the sack
of Troy (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 512). See under TROY, on the legends.
PRIAPEIA, a collection of poems (about eighty in number)
in various metres on the subject of Priapus. It was compiled
from literary works and inscriptions on images of the god by
an unknown editor, who composed the introductory epigram.
From their style and versification it is evident that the poems
belong to the best period of Latin literature. Some, however,
may be interpolations of a later period. They will be found in
F. Bucheler's Petronius (1904), L. Miiller's Catullus (1870), and
E. Bahrens, Poetae latini minores, i. (1879).
PRIAPULOIDEA, a small group of vermiform marine crea-
tures; they have been usually placed in the neighbourhood of
the Gephyrea, but their position is uncertain and it is doubtful
if they are to be regarded as coelomate animals. They are
cylindrical worm-like animals, with a median anterior mouth quite
devoid of any armature or tentacles. The body is ringed, and
often has circles of spines, which are continued into the slightly
protrusible pharynx. The alimentary canal is straight, the
anus terminal, though in Priapulus one or two hollow ventral
diverticula of the body-wall stretch out behind it. The nervous
system, composed of a ring and a ventral cord, retains its
primitive connexion with the ectoderm.
There are no specialized sense-organs or
vascular or respiratory systems. There is
a wide body-cavity, but as this has no
connexion with the renal or reproductive
organs it cannot be regarded as a coelom,
but probably is a blood-space or haemo-
coel.
The Priapuloidea are dioecious, and
their male and female organs, which are
one with the excretory organs, consist of a
pairof branching tufts, each of which opens
to the exterior on one side of the anus.
The tips of these tufts enclose a flame-
cell similar to those found in Platyhel-
minths, &c., and these probably function
as excretory organs. As the animals
become adult, diverticula arise on the
tubes of these organs, which develop
either spermatozoa or ova. These pass
out through the ducts. Nothing is
known of the development. There are
three genera: (i.) Priapulus, with the
species P. caudatus, Lam., of the Arctic
and Antarctic and neighbouring cold
seas, and P. bicaudatus, Dan., of the
north Atlantic and Arctic seas; (ii.) Priapuloides australis,
de Guerne, of the southern circumpolar waters; and (iii.)
Halicryptus, with the species H. spinulosus, v. Sieb., of
northern seas. They live in the mud, which they eat, in
comparatively shallow waters up to 50 fathoms.
AUTHORITIES. Apel, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1885), vol xlii. ; Scharff ,
Quart. Journ. Mic. Set. (1885), vol. xxv. ; Ehlers, Zeitschr. wiss.
Zool. (1861), vol. xi.; Schauinsland, Zool. Am. (1886), vol. ix.; De
Guerne, Mission scientifique du Cap Horn (1891), vol vi. ; Michael-
sen, Jahrb. Hamburg-Aust. (1888), vol. vi. (A. E. S.)
PRIAPUS, in Greek mythology, son of Dionysus (or Adonis
or Hermes) and Aphrodite (or Chione) . He is unknown to Homer
and Hesiod. The chief seat of his worship was the coast of the
Hellespont, especially at Lampsacus, which claimed to be his
birthplace. Thence his cult extended to Lydia, and by way of
the islands of Lesbos and Thasos to the whole of Greece (es-
pecially Argolis), whence it made its way to Italy, together with
that of Aphrodite. Priapus is the personification of the fruit-
Priapulus caudatus
Lam. (Nat. size.) a,
Mouth, surrounded by
spines.
fulness of nature. Sailors invoked him in distress and fishermen
prayed to him for success. He gradually came to be regarded
as the god of sensuality. His symbol was the phallus, an em-
blem of productivity and a protection against the evil eye. The
first fruits of the gardens and fields, goats, milk and honey,
and occasionally asses, were offered to him. He was sometimes
represented as an old man, with a long beard and large genitals,
wearing a long Oriental robe and a turban or garland of vine-
leaves, with fruit and bunches of grapes in his lap. Amongst
the Romans, rough wooden images, after the manner of the
hermae, with phallus stained with vermilion, were set up in
gardens. His image was placed on tombs, as symbolizing the
doctrine of regeneration and a future life, and his name occurs
on sepulchral inscriptions. In his hand he carried a bill-hook or
club, while a reed on his head, shaking backwards and forwards
in the wind, acted as a scarecrow.
PRIBILOF ISLANDS (often called the Fur Seal Islands,
Russian equivalent, " Kotovi "), a group of four islands, part
of Alaska, lying in Bering Sea in about 56 50' N. and 170 W.,
about 200 m. N. of Unalaska and 203 m. S. of Cape Newenham,
the nearest point on the mainland. The principal islands are
St Paul (about 35 sq. m.; 13 m. long, from N.E. to S.W.; max-
imum width about 6 m.; named from St Peter and St Paul's
Day, on which it was discovered) and St George (about 27 sq.m.;
10 m. long, maximum width, 4 m.; probably named after Pri-
bilof 's ship) about 30 m. S.E. ; Otter and Walrus islets, the former
covering about 4 sq. m., and the latter merely a reef covering
about 64 acres, are near St Paul. In 1907 the native popula-
tion was 263 170 on St Paul and 93 on St George. Only agents
of the United States or employes of the lessees are permitted
as residents on the islands. The islands are hilly and vol-
canic Bogoslof, a crater on St Paul, is 600 ft. high without
harbours, and have a mean annual temperature of about 35-7 F.,
and a rainfall of about 35 in. There are only two seasons
rainy summers lasting from May to October, and dry winters
from November to April. The flora is restricted to ferns,
mosses and grasses, though there are some creeping willows and
small shrubs. The largest seal rookery, containing about 80 %
of the seals in the Pribilofs, is on St Paul. The seals found here
are a distinct variety (Callorhinus alascanus) with much better
fur than that of any other variety. Besides the fur seal there
are blue and grey foxes (more on St George than on St Paul),
and on St George Island and on the Walrus reef there are great
bird rookeries the breeding places of immense numbers of
gulls, sea-parrots, auks, cormorants and arries (Lomvia arra).
The islands were first sighted in 1 767 by Joan Synd, and were
visited in 1786 by Gerasim Pribiloff, who discovered the fur seal
rookeries for which they became famous. From Russia the
islands passed with Alaska to the United States in 1867. From
1870 to 1890 the United States government leased the islands
to the Alaska Commercial Company. In 1890-1910 the North
American Commercial Company held the monopoly. But the
industry shrank considerably owing to pelagic sealing. The
season during which land hunting is allowed on the islands
includes June, July, September and October. (See also SEAL
and v BERiNG SEA ARBITRATION. f
PRIBRAM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 39 m. S.W. of Prague
by rail. Pop. (1000), 13,576, together with the adjoining town-
ship of Birkenberg, 19,119, almost exclusively Czech. It lies
in a valley between the hills of Birkenberg and Heiliger Berg,
and in its neighbourhood are the lead and silver mines which
belong to the Austrian government and are worked in nine shafts,
two of which, the Adalbert shaft (3637 ft.) and the Maria shaft,
(3S7S ft-) are the deepest in the world. The mines have been
worked for several centuries, but their actual prosperity dates
from 1770, when the sinking of the Adalbert shaft began. They
yield yearly an average of 80,000 Ib of silver and 1000 tons of
lead. At the top of the Heiliger Berg (1889 ft.) is a church
with a wonder-working image of the Virgin, which is the chief
place of pilgrimage in Bohemia.
PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818-1898), English mathematician
and educationist, was born at Coin St Denis, Gloucestershire,
314
PRICE, BONAMY PRICE, R.
in 1818. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, of
which college (after taking a first class in mathematics in
1840 and gaining the university mathematical scholarship
in 1842) he became fellow in 1844 and tutor and mathematical
lecturer in 1845. He at once took a leading position in the
mathematical teaching of the university, and published trea-
tises on the Differential calculus (in 1848) and the Infinitesimal
calculus (4 vols., 1852-1860), which for long were the recognized
textbooks there. This latter work included the differential
and integral calculus, the calculus of variations, the theory of
attractions, and analytical mechanics. In 1853 he was ap-
pointed Sedleian professor of natural philosophy, resigning it
in June 1898. His chief public activity at Oxford was in con-
nexion with the hebdomadal council, and with the Clarendon
Press, of which he was for many years secretary. He was
also a curator of the Bodleian Library, an honorary fellow of
Queen's College, a governor of Winchester College and a visitor
of Greenwich Observatory. In 1891 he was elected Master of
Pembroke College, which dignity carried with it a canonry of
Gloucester Cathedral. He died on the 29th of December 1898.
See Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1899).
PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888), English political economist,
was born at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 22nd of May 1807.
He entered at Worcester College, Oxford, in 1825, where he took
a double first in 1829. From 1830 to 1850 he was an assistant
master at Rugby school. He then lived for some years in
London, being engaged in business and literary work, and was
appointed to serve on various royal commissions. He married
in 1864. In 1868 he was elected Drummond professor of politi-
cal economy at Oxford, and was thrice re-elected to the post,
which he held till his death. In 1883 he was elected an honorary
fellow of his college. In addition to his professorial work, he
was in much request as a popular lecturer on political economy.
He died in London on the 8th of January 1888. His principal
publications, exclusive of pamphlets, were: The Principles
of Currency (1869), Currency and Banking (1876), Chapters on
Practical Political Economy (1878).
PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791), English moral and political
philosopher, son of a dissenting minister, was born on the 23rd
of February 1723, at Tynton, Glamorganshire. He was educated
privately and at a dissenting academy in London, and became
chaplain and companion to a Mr Streatfield at Stoke Newington.
By the death of Mr Streatfield and of an uncle in 1756 his cir-
cumstances were considerably improved, and in 1757 he married
a Miss Sarah Blundell, originally of Belgrave in Leicestershire.
In 1767 he published a volume of sermons, which gained him
the acquaintance of Lord Shelburne, an event which had much
influence in raising his reputation and determining the char-
acter of his subsequent pursuits. It was, however, as a writer on
financial and political questions that Price became widely known.
In 1769, in a letter to Dr Franklin, he wrote some observations
on the expectation of lives, the increase of mankind, and the
population of London, which were published in the Philosophical
Transactions of that year; in May 1770 he communicated to
the Royal Society a paper on the proper method of calculating
the values of contingent reversions. The publication of these
papers is said to have exercised a beneficial influence in draw-
ing attention to the inadequate calculations on which many
insurance and benefit societies had recently been formed. In
1769 Price received the degree of D.D. from the university of
Glasgow. In 1771 he published his Appeal to the Public on
the Subject of the National Debt (ed. 1772 and 1774). This
pamphlet excited considerable controversy, and is supposed to
have influenced Pitt in re-establishing the sinking fund for the
extinction of the national debt, which had been created by
Walpole in 1716 and abolished in 1733. The means, however,
which Price proposed for the extinction of the debt are described
by Lord Overstone 1 as " a sort of hocus-pocus machinery," sup-
posed to work " without loss to any one," and consequently
unsound.
1 Lord Overstone reprinted in 1857, for private circulation, Price's
and other rare tracts on the national debt and the sinking fund.
Price then turned his attention to the question of the American
colonies. He had from the first been strongly opposed to the
war, and in 1776 he published a pamphlet entitled Observations
on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America.
Several thousand copies of this work were sold within a few
days; a cheap edition was soon issued; the pamphlet was ex-
tolled by one set of politicians and abused by another; amongst
its critics were Dr Markham, archbishop of York, John Wesley,
and Edmund Burke; and Price rapidly became one of the best-
known men in England. He was presented with the freedom of
the city of London, and it is said that his pamphlet had no in-
considerable share in determining the Americans to declare their
independence. A second pamphlet on the war with America,
the debts of Great Britain, and kindred topics followed in the
spring of 1777. His name thus became identified with the cause
of American independence. He was the intimate friend
of Franklin; he corresponded with Turgot; and in the winter
of 1778 he was invited by Congress to go to America and assist
in the financial administration of the states. This offer he
refused from unwillingness to quit his own country and his
family connexions. In 1781 he received the degree of D.D. from
Yale College.
One of Price's most intimate friends was Dr Priestley, in spite
of the fact that they took the most opposite views on morals
and metaphysics. In 1778 appeared a published correspon-
dence between these two liberal theologians on the subjects
of materialism and necessity, wherein Price maintains, in opposi-
tion to Priestley, the free agency of man and the unity and
immateriality of the human soul. Both Price and Priestley were
what would now vaguely be called " Unitarians," though they
occupied respectively the extreme right and the extreme left
position of that school. Indeed, Price's opinions would seem
to have been rather Arian than Socinian.
The pamphlets on the American War made Price famous.
He preached to crowded congregations, and, when Lord Shel-
burne acceded to power, not only was he offered the post of
private secretary to the premier, but it is said that one of the
paragraphs in the king's speech was suggested by him and even
inserted in his words. In 1786 Mrs Price died. There were no
children by the marriage, his own health was failing, and the
remainder of his life appears to have been clouded by solitude
and dejection. The progress of the French Revolution alone
cheered him. On the igth of April 1791 he died, worn out
with suffering and disease.
The philosophical importance of Price is entirely in the region
of ethics. The Review of the Principal Questions in Morals (1757,
3rd ed. revised 1787) contains his whole theory. It Ethical
is divided into ten chapters, the first of which, though Theory
a small part of the whole, completes his demonstration
of ethical theory. The remaining chapters investigate details
of minor importance, and are especially interesting as showing his
relation to Butler and Kant (ch. lii. and ch. vii.). The work is pro-
fessedly a refutation of Hutcheson, but is rather constructive than
polemical. The theory he propounds is closely allied to that of
Cudworth, but is interesting mainly in comparison with the sub-
sequent theories of Kant.
I. Right and wrong belong to actions in themselves. By this
he means, not that the ethical value of actions is independent of
their motive and end (see ch. vi), but rather that it is unaffected by
consequences, and that it is more or less invariable for intelligent
beings. II. This ethical value is perceived by reason or under-
standing (which, unlike Kant, he does not distinguish), which intui-
tively recognizes fitness or congruity between actions, agents and
total circumstances. Arguing that ethical judgment is an act of
discrimination, he endeavours to invalidate the doctrine of the
moral sense (see SHAFTESBURY and HUTCHESON). Yet, in denying
the importance of the emotions in moral judgment, he is driven
back to the admission that right actions must be " grateful " to
us ; that, in fact, moral approbation includes both an act of the under-
standing and an emotion of the heart. Still it remains true that
reason alone, in its highest development, would be a sufficient guide.
In this conclusion he is in close agreement with Kant; reason is
the arbiter, and right is (i) not a matter of the emotions and (2) not
relative to imperfect human nature. Price's main point of differ-
ence with Cudworth is that while Cudworth regards the moral
criterion as a vfnjfjLa or modification of the mind, existing in germ
and developed by circumstances, Price regards it as acquired from
the contemplation of actions, but acquired necessarily, immediately,
intuitively. In his view of disinterested action (ch. iii.) he adds
PRICE PRIDEAUX
nothing to Butler. III. Happiness he regards as the only end,
conceivable by us, 1 of divine Providence, but it is a happiness
wholly depenclcnt upon rectitude. Virtue tends always to happi-
ness, and in the end must produce it in its perfect form.
Works. Besides the above-mentioned, Price wrote an Essay on
the Population of England (2nd ed., 1780); two Fast -day Sermons,
published respectively in 1779 and 1781; and Observations on the
importance of the American Revolution and the means of rendering it
a benefit to the World (1784). A complete list of his works is given as
an api>endix to Dr Priestley's Funeral Sermon. His views on the
French Revolution are denounced by Burke in his Reflections on the
Revolution in France. Notices of Price's ethical system occur in
:intosh's Progress of Ethical Philosophy, Jouffroy's Introduction
to l-'.tint v, \\ he -veil's History of Moral Philosophy in England; Bain's
Menial and Moral Sciences. See also ETHICS, and T. Fowler's
monograph on Shaftesbury and Hutcheson. For Price's life see
memoir by his nephew, William Morgan. (J. M. M.)
PRICE, the equivalent in money for which a commodity is
sold or purchased, the value of anything expressed in terms of
a medium of exchange (see VALUE and WEALTH). The word
is a doublet of " praise," commendation, eulogy, Lat. laus, and
" prize," a reward of victory, the ultimate source of which is
the Lat. prctium; the Aryan root par-, to buy, is seen in
Skr. pana, wages, reward, Gr. irnrpao-Ktiv, to sell, &c. The
O. Fr. pris, mod. prix, was taken from a Late Latin form
precium, and had the various meanings of the English, " price,"
" prize," and " praise "; it was adapted in English as pris or
prise and was gradually differentiated in form for the different
meanings; thus " praise " was developed from an earlier verbal
form prcise or preyse in the isth century; the original meaning
survives in " appraise," to set a value to anything, cf. the cur-
rent meaning of " to prize," to value highly. " Prize," re-
ward, does not appear as a separate form till the i6th century.
In " prize-fight," a boxing contest for money, the idea of reward
seems clear, but the word appears earlier than the form " prize "
in this sense and means a contest or match, and may be a differ-
ent word altogether; the New English Dictionary compares the
Greek use of ad\ov, literally reward, hence contest. " Prize "
in the sense of that which is captured in war, especially at
sea, is a distinct word. It comes through the Fr. prise,
early Romanic presa for prensa, from Lat. praehendere, to
seize, capture. For the international law on the subject see
PRIZE.
PRICHARD, JAMES COWLES (1786-1848), English phy-
sician and ethnologist, was born on the nth of February 1786
at Ross in Herefordshire. His parents were of the Society of
Friends, and he was educated at home, especially in modern
languages and general literature. He adopted medicine as a
profession mainly because of the facilities it offered for anthro-
pological investigations. He took his M.D. at Edinburgh,
afterwards reading for a year at Trinity College, Cambridge,
whence, joining the Church of England, he migrated to St John's
College, Oxford, afterwards entering as a gentleman commoner
at Trinity College, Oxford, but taking no degree in either uni-
versity. In 1810 he settled at Bristol as a physician, and in
1813 published his Researches into the Physical History of Man,
in 2 vols., afterwards extended to 5 vols. The central principle
of the book is the primitive unity of the human species, acted
upon by causes which have since divided it into permanent
varieties or races. The work is dedicated to Blumenbach, whose
five races of man are adopted. But where Prichard excelled
Blumenbach and ah 1 his other predecessors was in his grasp
of the principle that people should be studied by combining
all available characters. One investigation begun in this work
requires special mention, the bringing into view of the fact,
neglected or contradicted by philologists, that the Celtic nations
are allied by language with the Slavonian, German and Pelas-
gian (Greek and Latin), thus forming a fourth European branch
of the Asiatic stock (which would now be called Indo-European
or Aryan). His special treatise containing Celtic compared with
Sanskrit words appeared in 1831 under the title Eastern Origin
of the Celtic nations. It is remarkable that the essay by Adolphe
Pictet, De I'Affiniti des langues celtiques avec le Sanscrit, which
was crowned by the French Academy and made its author's
reputation, should have been published in 1837 in evident
ignorance of the earlier and in some respects stricter inves-
tigations of Prichard.
In 1843 Prichard published his Natural History of Man, in
which he reiterated his belief in the specific unity of man, point-
ing out that " the same inward and mental nature is to be re-
cognized in all the races." Prichard may fairly be honoured
with the title of the founder of the English branch of the sciences
of anthropology and ethnology. In 1811 he was appointed
physician to St Peter's hospital, Bristol, and in 1814 to the
Bristol infirmary. In 1822 he published Treatise on Diseases of
the Nervous System (pt. i.), and in 1835 a Treatise on Insanity
and other Disorders affecting the Mind, in which he advanced the
theory of the existence of a distinct mental disease, " moral
insanity." In 1842, following up this suggestion, he published
On the dijferent forms of Insanity in relation to Jurisprudence
designed for the use of Persons concerned in Legal Questions '
regarding Unsoundness of Mind. In 1845 he was made a com-
missioner in lunacy, and removed to London. He died there
three years later, on the 23rd of December, of rheumatic fever.
At the time of his death he was president of the Ethnological
Society and a fellow of the Royal Society. Among his less
important works were : A Review of the Doctrine of a Vital
Principle (1829); On the Treatment of Hemiplegia (1831); On
the Extinction of some Varieties of the Human Race (1839);
Analysis of Egyptian Mythology (1819).
See Memoir by Dr Thomas Hodgkin (1798-1866) in the Journal
of the Ethnological Society (Feb. 1849); Memoir read before the
Bath and Bristol branch of the Provincial Medical and Surgical
Association (March 1849) by Dr J. A. Symonds (Journ. Eth. Soc.,
(1850) ; Prichard and Symonds in Special Relation to Mental Science,
by Dr Hack Tuke (1891).
PRICK POSTS, an old architectural name given sometimes
to the queen posts of a roof, and sometimes to the filling in
quarters in framing. (See POST and PANE.)
PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658), parliamentarian general in the
English Civil War, is stated to have been brought up by the
parish of St Bride's, London. Subsequently he was a drayman
and a brewer. At the beginning of the Civil War he served as
a captain under the earl of Essex, and was gradually promoted
to the rank of colonel. He distinguished himself at the battle
of Preston, and with his regiment took part in the military
occupation of London in December 1648, which was the first
step towards bringing the king to trial. The second was the
expulsion of the Presbyterian and Royalist elements In the
House of Commons, for which Pride is chiefly remembered.
This, resolved by the army council and ordered by the lord
general, Fairfax, was carried out by Colonel Pride's regiment.
Taking his stand at the entrance of the House of Commons with
a written list in his hand, he caused the arrest or exclusion of
the obnoxious members, who were pointed out to him. After
about a hundred members had been thus dealt with (" Pride's
Purge "), the mutilated House of Commons proceeded to bring
the king to trial. Pride was one of the judges of the king and
signed his death-warrant, appending to his signature a seal
showing a coat of arms. He commanded an infantry brigade
under Cromwell at Dunbar and Worcester. He took no con-
spicuous part in Commonwealth politics, except in opposing the
proposal to confer the kingly dignity on Cromwell. He was
knighted by the Protector in 1656, and was also chosen a mem-
ber of the new House of Lords. He died at Nonsuch House,
an estate which he had bought in Surrey, on the 23rd of October
1658. After the Restoration his body was ordered to be dug
up and suspended on the gallows at Tyburn along with those
of Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw, though it is said that the
execution of this sentence was evaded.
Noble, Lives of the Regicides; Bate, Lives of the Prime Actors and
Principal Contrivers of the Murder of Charles I. ; Carlyle, Cromwell's
Letters and Speeches.
PRIDEAUX, HUMPHREY (1648-1724), English divine and
Oriental scholar, was born of good family at Place, in Cornwall,
on the 3rd of May 1648, and received his early education at the
grammar schools of Liskeard and Bodmin. In 1665 he was
placed at Westminster under Busby, and in 1668 went on to
316
PRIE, MARQUISE DE PRIEST
Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degrees in the following
order: B.A., 1672; M.A., 1675; B.D., 1682; and D.D., 1686.
His account of the famous Arundel marbles just given to the
university appeared in 1676. In 1679 he was appointed to the
rectory of St Clement's, Oxford, and Hebrew lecturer at Christ
Church, where he continued until February 1686, holding for
the last three years the rectory of Bladon with Woodstock.
In 1686 he exchanged for the benefice of Sahara in Norfolk.
The sympathies of Prideaux inclined to Low Churchism in
religion and to Whiggism in politics, and he took an active part
in the controversies of the day, publishing the following pamph-
lets: " The Validity of the Orders of the Church of England "
(1688), " Letter to a Friend on the Present Convocation "
(1690), " The Case of Clandestine Marriages stated " (1691).
Prideaux was promoted to the archdeaconry of Suffolk in Decem-
ber 1688, and to the deanery of Norwich (he had long been one
of the canons) in June 1702. In 1694 he was obliged, through
ill health, to resign the rectory of Saham, and after having
held the vicarage of Trowse for fourteen years (1696-1710)
he found himself incapacitated from further parochial duty.
He died at Norwich on the ist of November 1724.
Many of the dean's writings were of considerable value. His
Life of Mahomet (1697) was really a polemical tract against the
deists and has now no biographical value. Both it and his Directions
to Churchwardens (1701) passed through several editions. Even
greater success attended The Old and New Testament connected in
the History of the Jews (1716), a work which not only displayed
but stimulated research. Biographical details of his numerous
publications and of his manuscripts are given in the Bibliotheca
Cornubiensis, ii. 527533, and iii. 1319. A volume of his letters to
John Ellis, some time under-secretary of state, was edited by
E. M. Thompson for the Camden Society in 1875; they contain a
vivid picture of Oxford life after the Restoration. An anonymous
life (probably by Thomas Birch) appeared in 1748; it was mainly
compiled from information furnished by Prideaux's son Edmund.
PRIE, JEANNE AGNES BERTHELOT DE PLENEUF,
MARQUISE DE (1698-1727), French adventuress, was the
daughter of a rich but unscrupulous father and an immoral
mother. At the age of fifteen she was married to Louis, marquis
de Prie, and went with him to the court of Savoy at Turin,
where he was ambassador. She was twenty-one when she
returned to France, and was soon the declared mistress of Louis
Henri, due de Bourbon. During his ministry (1723-1725) she
was in several respects the real ruler of France, her most notable
triumph being the marriage of Louis XV. to Marie Leszczynska
instead of to Mile de Vermandois. But when, in 1725, she
sought to have Bourbon's rival Fleury exiled, her ascendancy
came to an end. After Fleury's recall and the banishment of
Bourbon to Chantilly Mme de Prie was exiled to Courbepine,
where she committed suicide the next year.
See M. H. Thirion, Madame de Prie (Paris, 1905).
PRIE-DIEU, literally " pray God," strictly a prayer desk,
primarily intended for private use, but often found in churches
of the European continent. It is a small ornamental wooden
desk furnished with a sloping shelf for books, and a cushioned
kneeling piece. It appears not to have received its present
name until the early part of the i7th century. At that period
in France a small room or oratory was sometimes known by
the same name. A similar form of chair, in domestic furniture,
is called prie-dieu by analogy.
PRIEGO DE CORDOBA, a town of southern Spain in the
extreme S.E. of the province of Cordova, near the headwaters
of the river Guadajoz, and on the northern slope of the Sierra de
Priego. Pop. (1900), 16,902. The district abounds in cattle and
mules and agricultural products, especially wine and oil. The
local industries also include tanning and manufactures of esparto
fabrics, rugs and cotton goods. The oldest church was built
in the I3th century and subsequently restored; it has a fine
chapel. There are ruins of an old castle Priego having been a
fortified city of the Moors which was captured by the Christians
in 1226, lost again, and finally retaken in 1407.
PRIENE (mod. Samsun kale), an ancient city of Ionia on the
foot-hills of Mycale, about 6 m. N. of the Maeander. It was
formerly on the sea coast, but now lies some miles inland. It is
said to have been founded by lonians under Aegyptus, a son of
Neleus. Sacked by Ardys of Lydia, it revived and attained
great prosperity under its " sage," Bias, in the middle of the 6th
century. Cyrus captured it in 545; but it was able to send
twelve ships to join the Ionian revolt (500-494). Disputes
with Samos, and the troubles after Alexander's death, brought
Priene low, and Rome had to save it from the kings of Pergamum
and Cappadocia in 155. Orophernes, the rebellious brother of
the Cappadocian king, who had deposited a treasure there and
recovered it by Roman intervention, restored the temple of
Athena as a thankoffering. Under Roman and Byzantine
dominion Priene had a prosperous history. It passed into
Moslem hands late in the I3th century. The ruins, which lie
on successive terraces, were the object of missions sent out
by the English Society of Dilettanti in 1765 and 1868, and have
been thoroughly laid open by Dr Th. Wiegand (1895-1899) for
the Berlin Museum. The city, as rebuilt in the 4th and 3rd
centuries, was laid out on a rectangular scheme. It faced south,
its acropolis rising nearly 700 ft. behind it. The whole area was
enclosed by a wall 7 ft. thick with towers at intervals and three
principal gates. On the lower slopes of the acropolis was a shrine
of Demeter. The town had six main streets, about 20 ft. wide,
running east and west and fifteen streets about 10 ft. wide
crossing at right angles, all being evenly spaced; and it was thus
divided into about 80 insidae. Private houses were apportioned
four to an insula. The systems of water-supply and drainage
can easily be discerned. The houses present many analogies
with the earliest Pompeian. In the western half of the city, on a
high terrace north of the main street and approached by a fine
stairway, was the temple of Athena Polias, a hexastyle peripterial
Ionic structure built by Pythias, the architect of the Mausoleum.
Under the basis of the statue of Athena were found in 1870
silver tetradrachms of Orophernes, and some jewelry, probably
deposited at the time of the Cappadocian restoration. Fronting
the main street is a series of halls, and on the other side is the fine
market place. The municipal buildings, Roman gymnasium,
and well preserved theatre lie to the north, but, like all the other
public structures, in the centre of the plan. Temples of
Isis and Asclepius have been laid bare. At the lowest point
on the south, within the walls, was the large stadium, con-
nected with a gymnasium of Hellenistic times.
See Society of Dilettanti, Ionian Antiquities (1821), vol. ii.; Th.
Wiegand and H. Schrader, Priene (1904) ; on inscriptions (360)
see Hiller von Gartringen, Inschriften von Priene (Berlin, 1907), with
collection of ancient references to the city. (D. G. H.)
PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. prttre), the contracted form of
" presbyter " (Trpecr/Sitrepos, " elder "; see PRESBYTER), a name
of office in the early Christian Church, already mentioned in the
New Testament. But in the English Bible the presbyters of
the New Testament are called " elders," not " priests "; the latter
name is reserved for ministers of pre-Christian religions, the
Semitic 'Xp (kohanlm, sing, kohen) and D "'5? (kemarim),
or the Greek Uptis. The reason of this will appear more clearly
in the sequel; it is enough to observe at present that, before our
English word was formed, the original idea of a presbyter had
been overlaid with others derived from pre-Christian priest-
hoods, so that it is from these and not from the etymological
force of the word that we must start irt considering historically
what a priest is. The theologians of the Greek and Latin
churches expressly found the conception of a Christian priest-
hood on the hierarchy of the Jewish temple, while the names
by which the sacerdotal character is expressed Uptvs, sacerdos
originally designated the ministers of sacred things in Greek
and Roman heathenism, and then came to be used as transla-
tions into Greek and Latin of the Hebrew kohen. Kohen, Upevs,
sacerdos, are, in fact, fair translations of one another; they all
denote a minister whose stated business was to perform, on
behalf of the community, certain public ritual acts, particularly
sacrifices, directed godwards. Such ministers or priests existed
in all the great religions of ancient civilization. The term
PRIEST
" priest " is sometimes taken to include " sorcerer," but this
use is open to criticism- and may produce confusion.
The close inter-relation which existed in primitive society
between magic, priesthood and kingship has been indicated by
Frazer in his Early History of the Kingship. His remarks throw
some light on the early character of priesthood as well as king-
ship. " When once a special class of sorcerers has been segre-
gated from the community and entrusted by it with the dis-
charge of duties on which the public safety and welfare are
believed to depend, these men gradually rise to wealth and
power till their leaders blossom out into sacred kings." Ac-
cording to Frazer's view, " as time goes on the fallacy of magic
becomes more and more apparent and is slowly displaced by
religion; in other words the magician gives way to the priest.
Hence the king starting as a magician tends gradually to
exchange the practice of magic for the functions of prayer and
sacrifice." We are not concerned here with the debatable
question whether magic preceded religion. Probably magic
was always accompanied by some primitive form of animism
whether the Melanesian mana or fetishism (see Dr Haddon's
Magic and Fetishism, pp. 58-62, 64-90).
The investigations which have been carried on in recent years
by King, Tallquist and Zimmern, as well as by BrUnnow and
Craig, on the magic and ritual of Babylonia and Assyria have
been fruitful of results. The question, however, remains to
be settled how far the officials and their functions, which in the
much more highly developed civilization of Babylonia came' to
be differentiated and specialized, can be strictly included
under the functions of priesthood. The answer to this question
will be in many cases negative or affirmative according to
our strict adherence or the reverse to the definition of the
priest set forth above as " a minister whose stated business it
was to perform on behalf of the community certain ritual acts,
in some cases sacrifices (or the recitation of prayers), directed
Godwards." On the other hand the seer, diviner and prophet
is a minister whose function it is to communicate God's will
or word to man. This is not a distinction which governs
Zimmern and other writers. Our chief source of information
is Zimmern's Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Babylon: Religion,
pp. 81-95, from which Lagrange in his tudes sur les religions
semitiques 1 has chiefly derived his materials (ch. vi. p. 222 sqq.)
respecting Babylonia and Assyria. Zimmern's results are
summarized in K..A.T 3 . p. 589 sqq. Here we find magic and
soothsaying closely intertwined with priestly functions as, we
shall see, was the case in early Hebrew pre-xilian days with
the Kohen. It must be borne in mind that primitive humanity
is not governed by logical distinctions. Among the Babylonians
and Assyrians the baru (from baru to see, inspect) was a sooth-
saying priest who was consulted whenever any important
undertaking was proposed, and addressed his inquiries to Samas
the sun god (or Adad) as bel biri or lord of the oracle (accompanied
by the sacrifice of lambs). The signs were usually obtained
from the inspection of the liver (according to Johns, that of the
lamb that was sacrificed); or it took place through birds; hence
the name in this case given to the baru of dagil is.s.ure " bird in-
spector." Johns, however, is disposed to regard him as a distinct
functionary. Sometimes divination took place through vessels
filled with water and oil (see OMEN and DIVINATION).
As contrasted with the barA or soothsaying priest, as he is
called by Zimmern, we have the atipu, who was the priest-
magician who dealt in conjurations (siptu), whereby diseases
were removed, spells broken, or in expiations whereby sins were
expiated. Tallquist's edition of the Maklu series of incantations
and his explanations of the ritual, and also the publications
by Zimmern of the Surpu series of tablets in his Beitrage have
rendered us familiar with the functions of the aSipu. See article
" Magic " in Hastings's Diet. Bible, where examples are given of
incantations with magical by-play. Also compare Jastrow's
Religion of Babylonia (1898), ch. xvi., " The Magical Texts,"
where a fuller treatment will be found. Now, as the conjura-
tions were addressed to the deity, asipu, according to the
definition given above, comes more reasonably under the category
of priest. But the priest belongs to the realm of religion
proper, which involves a relation of dependence on the superior
power, whereas the aSipu belongs to the realm of magic, which is
coercive and seeks " to constrain the hostile power to give way "
(Lagrange).
There was also a third kind of priest called the zammaru,
whose function it was to sing hymns.
In the earlier period of the Assyrian monarchy we find the king
holding the office of pa-te-si or iiakku or (more definitely) the
Sangu, i.e. priest of Asur, the patron-deity of Assyria. This
high-priestly office towards the tutelary deity of the nation
appears to have belonged to the king by virtue of his royal
rank. In Babylonia under the last empire (except in the case
of Nebuchadrezzar, who calls himself palesi flri, "exalted
priest," K.I.B. iii. p. 60) no such high-priestly function
attached to the king, for in Babylonia the priesthoods were
endowed with great wealth and power, and even the king stood
in awe of them (see Johns, Babylonian and Assyrian Laws,
Contracts and Letters, p. 212 sqq). These powerfully-organized
priesthoods, as well as the elaborate nature of their ritual and
apparatus of worship, must have deeply and permanently
impressed the exiled Jewish community. Thus arose the more
developed system of Ezekiel's scheme (xl.-xlviii.) and of the
Priestercodex and the high dignity which became attached to the
person of the High Priest (reflected in the narrative of Uzziah's
leprosy in 2 Chron. xxvi. 16-20). Other parallels to the sacer-
dotal system of the Priestercodex may here be noted, (i)
According to Zimmern the baru and the aSipu formed close
gilds and the office passed from father to son. This is certainly
true of the Sangulu or priesthood, which was connected with a
special family attached to a particular temple and its worship.
(2) Johns also points out the existence of the rab-barti, chief
soothsayer, and the rab-maSmaSu or chief magician. (3) Bodily
defects (as squinting, lack of teeth, maimed finger) was disquali-
fications for priesthood (cf. Lev. xxi. 17 sqq.). (4) In the ritual
tablets for the alipu published in Zimmern's BeitrSge, No. 26,
col. iii. 19 sqq., we read " that the mama$u (priest's magician)
is to pass forth to the gateway, sacrifice a sheep in the palace
portal, and to smear the threshold and posts of the palace
gateway right and left with the blood of the lamb." We
are reminded of Exod. xii. 7 (P). (5) The Babylonian term
kuppuru (infin. Pael) is used of the magician-priest or asipu and
means " wipe out." This confirms the view that the Hebrew
kipper, which appears to be a late word (specially employed
in Ezek, and P.), originally had the meaning which belongs to
the Aramaic viz. " wipe off " and not " cover " as in Arabic.
Zimmern thinks that the meaning " atone " " expiate," which
belongs to the Pael form of the root k-p-r in both Aramaic
and Arabic was borrowed from the Babylonian (cf. Driver's
note in "Deuteronomy," Int. Commentary, p. 425 sqq, and
especially his article " Propitiation " in Hastings's Diet. Bible).
The Rev. C. H. W. Johns, to whom reference has already been
made, demurs (in a communication to the writer) to the fusion of
the priest and the magician, and to the custom of " calling every
unknown official a priest or a eunuch." " If a Babylonian said
Sangu he meant one thing, by iiiipu another, and by ramku another.
I do not deny that the same man might unite all three functions in
one person. Thus a Sangu had a definite share in the offerings, a
maSmaiu a different share. It seems to me that the priests belonged
to the old families who were descended from the original tribe or
clan, &c., that founded the city, and they could not admit outsiders
save by adoption into the family. If a new god had a temple set
up he had a new set of priests, but this priesthood descended in
its line, e.g. a Samas priest did not beget a man who became a priest
of Nabti. Further ' priest ' implied a peculiar relation to the god.
A soothsayer was a general practitioner in his art, not attached to
any one god or temple. Anyone could be a ramku who actually
poured out libations; that a priest usually did it was no exception
to that rule. The priest was only a sort of specialist in the practice.
The priest also offered prayer, interceded, &c. I cannot see that
he taught. An oracle of the god came through him. If the modus
operandi was akin to soothsaying it was only because that special
form of soothsaying was peculiar to the particular cult of that god,
and even this as a secondary development. I do not think that
early priests received oracles save in dreams, &c. That magic
early invaded religion is possible, but there are many traces of its
being a foreign element. This is not usually pointed out."
3 i8
PRIEST
Among the ancient Egyptians the local god was the protector
and lord of the district. Consequently it was the interest and
duty of the inhabitants to maintain the cultus of the patron-
deity of their city who dwelt in their midst. Moreover, in the
earlier times we find the prince of the nome acting as the High
Priest of the local god, but in course of time the state, repre-
sented by the king, began to an ever-increasing degree to take
oversight over the more important local cults. Thus we find
that the Egyptian monarch was empowered to exercise priestly
functions before all the gods. We constantly see him in the
wall-paintings portrayed as a priest in the conventional attitudes
before the images of the gods. In the chief sanctuaries the chief
priests possessed special privileges, and it is probable that those
in the immediate entourage of the king were elected to these
positions. The highest nobility in the nome sought the honour
of priesthood in the service of the local deity. One special class
called kher heb were charged with reciting the divine formulae,
which were popularly held to possess magical virtue. In the
middle empire (Vllth to Xllth Dynasties) the lay element main-
tains its position in religious cultus despite its complexity. But
under the new empire (Dynasties XVIIIth and following) the pro-
fessional priest had attained to ominous power. The temples
possessed larger estates and became more wealthy. Priests
increased in number and were divided into ranks, and we find
them occupying state offices, just as in Babylonia the priest
acts as judge or inspector of canals (Johns, Babyl. and Assyr.
Laws, &c., p. 213).
We now turn to the priesthood as we find it in ancient Greece
and Italy. Homer knows special priests who preside over ritual
acts in the temples to which they are attached; but his kings
also do sacrifice on behalf of their people. The king, in fact,
both in Greece and in Rome, was the acting head of the state
religion, and when the regal power came to an end his sacred
functions were not transferred to the ordinary priests, but either
they were distributed among high officers of state, as archons
and prytanes, or the title of " king " was still preserved as that
of a religious functionary, as in the case of the rex sacrorum at
Rome and the archon basileus at Athens. In the domestic
circle the union of priesthood and natural headship was never
disturbed; the Roman paterfamilias sacrificed for the whole
family. On the other hand, gentes and phratriae, which had no
natural head, had special priests chosen from their members;
for every circle of ancient society, from the family up to the
state, was a religious as well as a civil unity, and had its own gods
and sacred rites. The lines of religious and civil society were
identical, and, so long as they remained so, no antagonism could
arise between the spiritual and the temporal power. In point
of fact, in Greece and Rome the priest never attained to any
considerable independent importance; we cannot speak of
priestly power and hardly even of a distinct priestly class.
In Greece the priest, so far as he is an independent functionary
and not one of the magistrates, is simply the elected or hereditary
minister of a temple charged with " those things which are
ordained to be done towards the gods " (see Aristotle, Pol.
vi. 8), and remunerated from the revenues of the temple, or by
the gifts of worshippers and sacrificial dues. The position
was often lucrative and always honourable, and the priests
were under the special protection of the gods they served.
But their purely ritual functions gave them no means of estab-
lishing a considerable influence on the minds of men, and the
technical knowledge which they possessed as to the way in which
the gods could be acceptably approached was neither so intricate
nor so mysterious as to give the class a special importance. The
funds of the temples were not in their control, but were treated
as public moneys. Above all, where, as at Athens, the decision
of questions of sacred law fell not to the priests but to the college
of e7j77jTa, one great source of priestly power was wholly
lacking. There remains, indeed, one other sacred function
of great importance in the ancient world in which' the Greek
priests had a share. As man approached the gods in sacrifice
and prayers, so too the gods declared themselves to men by
divers signs and tokens, which it was possible to read by the
art of Divination (q.i>.). In many nations divination and priest-
hood have always gone hand in hand; at Rome, for example,
the augurs and the XV viri sacrorum, who interpreted the
Sibylline books, were priestly colleges. In Greece, on the other
hand, divination was not generally a priestly function, but it
did belong to the priests of the Oracles (see ORACLE) . The great
oracles, however, were of Panhellenic celebrity and did not
serve each a particular state, and so in this direction also the
risk of an independent priestly power within the state was
avoided. 1
In Rome, again, where the functions of the priesthood were
politically much more weighty, where the technicalities of religion
were more complicated, where priests interpreted the will of the
gods, and where the pontiffs had a most important jurisdiction
in sacred things, the state was much too strong to suffer these
powers to escape from its own immediate control: the old mon-
archy of the king in sacred things descended to th'e inheritors of
his temporal power; the highest civil and religious functions
met in the same persons (cf. Cic. De dom. i. i); and every priest
was subject to the state exactly as the magistrates were, referring
all weighty matters to state decision and then executing what
the one supreme power decreed. And it is instructive to
observe that when the plebeians extorted their full share of
political power they also demanded and obtained admission to
every priestly college of political importance, to those, namely,
of the pontiffs, the augurs, and the XV viri sacrorum.
The Romans, it need hardly be said, had no hereditary priests. 2
We can only glance briefly at the ancient religions of India
(Aryan). " In historical times the priesthood is rigidly confined
to members of the Brahman caste, who are regarded as the repre-
sentatives of God on earth. But there are indications that at an
earlier date the Kshatriya or warrior caste often became priests.
The power of the priesthood began with the delegation by the
king of his sacrificial duties to a ' president ' (purohita). This
power grew with the growing importance of the sacrifice and
the complication of its ceremonial. In the post-Vedic period
' right ' or ' wrong ' simply means the exact performance or
the neglect, whether intentional or unintentional of all the
details of a prescribed ritual, the centre of which was the sacri-
fice. At this period the priestly caste gained its unbounded
power over the minds of men " (Professor Rapson). For further
details as to. the development of the priestly caste and
wisdom in India the reader must refer to BRAHMINISM; here it
is enough to observe that among a religious people a priesthood
which forms a close and still more an hereditary corporation, and
the assistance of which is indispensable in all religious acts,
must rise to practical supremacy in society except under the
strongest form of despotism, where the sovereign is head of the
Church as well as of the state.
Among the Zoroastrian Iranians, as among" the Indian Aryans,
the aid of a priest to recite the sacrificial liturgy was necessary
at every offering (Herod, i. 132), and the Iranian priests (athra-
vans, later Magi) claimed, like the Brahmans, to be the highest
order of society; but a variety of conditions were lacking to
give them the full place of their Indian brethren. Zoroas-
trianism is not a nature religion, but the result of a reform
which never, under the old empire, thoroughly penetrated the
masses; and the priesthood, as it was not based on family tradi-
tion, did not form a strict hereditary caste. It was open to
any one to obtain entrance into the priesthood, while on the other
hand it was only as a priest that he could exercise sacerdotal
functions, for these were strictly reserved to priests. Accord-
ingly the clergy formed a compact hierarchy not inferior in
influence to the clergy of the Christian middle ages, had great
power in the state, and were often irksome even to the great king.
1 For the Greek priests, see, besides Schomann and other works on
Greek antiquities, Newton, Essays on Art and Archaeology, p. 136 seq.
(from epigraphic material). See also for Greek as well as Roman
priest, art. " Sacerdos " (Sacerdotium) in Warre Cornish's Concise
Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiquities.
- On the Roman priests, see in general Marquardt, Romische
Slaatsverwaltung, vol. in., and for the pontiffs in particular the art.
" Sacerdos " in Warre Cornish's Concise Diet., also Pontifex.
PRIEST
But the best established hierarchy is not so powerful as a caste,
and the monarchs had one strong hold on the clergy by retaining
the patronage of great ecclesiastical places, and another in the
fact that the Semitic provinces on the Tigris, where the capital
lay, were mainly inhabited by men of other faith. 1
The duties of the priests were not restricted to the services
of the temple, but they also took part in the household cults.
The ritual had a mechanical character and was by no means
attractive. It is impossible to enter into the manifold details
of the fire cultus which forms the main part of the worship in
the Avesta. They belong to an earlier period than the Zoroas-
trian, nor was this fire cultus restricted to the temples. Portable
fire altars were carried about and the worship could be celebrated
in any spot. It may be noted that in all the ceremonies in
the religion of the Avesta, incantations, prayers and confessions
play a very large part. The prevailing element in the incanta-
tions consists in the exorcism of devils. In fact, the Persian
religion throughout all its multitude of purifications, observances
and expiations was a constant warfare against impurity, death
and the devil. Amid all the ceremonialism of its priesthood
there were also high ideals set forth in Zoroastrian religion of
what a priest should be. Thus we read in Vendidad xviii.,
" Many there be, noble Zarathustra, who bear the mouth
bandage, who have yet not girded their loins with the law.
If such a one says ' I am an Athravan ' he lies, call him not
Athravan, noble Zarathustra, said Ahura Mazda, but thou
shouldst call him priest, noble Zarathustra, who sits awake the
whole night through and yearns for holy wisdom that enables
man to stand on death's bridge fearless and with happy heart,
the wisdom whereby he attains the holy and glorious world of
paradise."
In this rapid glance at some of the chief priesthoods of anti-
quity we have hitherto passed over the pure Semites, whose
priesthoods call for closer examination because of the profound
influence which one of them that of the Jews has exercised
on Christianity, and so on the whole history of the modern
world. But before we proceed to this it may be well to note
one or two things that come out by comparison of the systems
already before us. Priestly acts that is, acts done by one and
accepted by the gods on behalf of many are common to all
antique religions, and cannot be lacking where the primary
subject of religion is not the individual but the natural com-
munity. But the origin of a separate priestly class, distinct from
the natural heads of the community, cannot be explained by any
such broad general principle; in some cases, as in Greece, it is
little more than a matter of convenience that part of the religious
duties of the state should be confided to special ministers charged
with the care of particular temples, while in others the inter-
vention of a special priesthood is indispensable to the validity
of every religious act, so that the priest ultimately becomes a
mediator and the vehicle of all divine grace. This position,
we see, can be reached by various paths : the priest may become
indispensable through the growth of ritual observances and
precautions too complicated for a layman to master, or he may
lay claim to special nearness to the gods on the ground, it may
be, of his race, or, it may be, of habitual practices of purity and
asceticism which cannot be combined with the duties of ordinary
life, as, for example, celibacy was required of priestesses of
Vesta at Rome. But the highest developments of priestly
influence are hardly separable from something of magical
superstition, the opus operatum of the priest has the power of a
sorcerer's spell. The strength of the priesthood in Chaldaea
and in Egypt stands plainly in the closest connexion with the
survival of a magical element in the state religion, and Rome,
in like manner, is more priestly than Greece, because it is more
superstitious. In most cases, however, where an ancient
civilization shows us a strong priestly system we are unable to
make out in any detail the steps by which that system was
elaborated; the clearest case perhaps is the priesthood of the
Jews, which is not less interesting from its origin and growth
1 Cf. especially Noldeke's Tabari, p. 450 seq.
than from the influence exerted by the system long after the
priests were dispersed and their sanctuary laid in ruins.
Among the nomadic Semites, to whom the Hebrews belonged
before they settled in Canaan, there has never been any developed
priesthood. The acts of religion partake of the general simplicity
of desert life; apart from the private worship ol household gods
and the oblations and salutations offered at the graves of departed
kinsmen, the ritual observances of the ancient Arabs were visits to
the tribal sanctuary to salute the god with a gift of milk, first-fruits
or the like, the sacrifice of firstlings and vows (see NAZARITE and
PASSOVER), and an occasional pilgrimage to discharge a vow at
the annual feast and fair of one of the more distant holy places
(see MECCA). These acts required no priestly aid; each man slew
his own victim and divided the sacrifice in his own circle ; the share
of the god was the blood which was smeared upon or poured out
beside stone (nojfr, ghabghab) set up as an altar or perhaps as a
symbol of the deity. It does not appear that any portion of the
sacrifice was burned on the altar, or that any part of the victim
was the due of the sanctuary. We find therefore no trace of a
sacrificial priesthood, but each temple had one or more doorkeepers
(sddin, bajib), whose office was usually hereditary in a certain family
and who had the charge of the temple and its treasures. The
sacrifices and offerings were acknowledgments of divine bounty and
means used to insure its continuance; the Arab was the " slave "
of his god and paid him tribute, as slaves used to do to their masters,
or subjects to their lords; and the free Bedouin, trained in the
solitude of the desert to habits of absolute self-reliance, knew no
master except his god, and acknowledged no other will before which
his own should bend. The voice of the god might be uttered in
omens which the skilled could read, or conveyed in the inspired
rhymes of soothsayers, but frequently it was sought in the oracle
of the sanctuary, where the sacred lot was administered for a fee
by the sadin. The sanctuary thus became a seat of judgment, and
here, too, compacts were sealed by oaths and sacrificial ceremonies.
These institutions, though known to us only from sources belonging
to an age when the old faith was falling to pieces, are certainly
very ancient. The fundamental type of the Arabic sanctuary can
be traced through all the Semitic lands, and so appears to be older
than the Semitic dispersion ; even the technical terms are mainly the
same, so that we may justly assume that the more developed ritual
and priesthoods of the settled Semites sprang from a state of things
not very remote from what we find among the heathen Arabs.
Now among the Arabs, as we have seen, ritual service is the affair
of the individual, or of a mass of individuals gathered in a great feast,
but still doing worship each for himself and his own private circle;
the only public aspect of religion is found in connexion with divina-
tion and the oracle to which the affairs of the community are sub-
mitted. In Greece and Rome the public sacrifices were the chief
function of religion, and in them the priesthood represented the
ancient kings. But in the desert there is no king and no sovereignty
save that ofthe divine oracle, and therefore it is from the soothsayers
or ministers of the oracle that a public ministry of religion can
most naturally spring. With the beginning of a settled state the
sanctuaries must rise in importance and all the functions of revela-
tion will gather round them. A sacrificial priesthood will arise as
the worship becomes more complex (especially as sacrifice in
antiquity is a common preliminary to the consultation of an oracle),
but the public ritual will still remain closely associate^ with oracle or
divination, and the priest will still be, above all things, a revealer.
That this was what actually happened may be inferred from the
fact that the Canaanite and Phoenician name for a priest (kohen)
is identical with the Arabic kahin, a " soothsayer." Soothsaying
was no modern importation in Arabia; its characteristic form a
monotonous croon of short rhyming clauses is the same as was
practised by the Hebrew " wizards who peeped and muttered "
in the days of Isaiah, and that this form was native in Arabia is
clear from its having a technical name (saj'), which in Hebrew
survives only in derivative words with modified sense.* The
kahin, therefore, is not a degraded priest but such a soothsayer as
is found in most primitive societies, and the Canaanite priests
grew out of these early revealers. In point of fact some form of
revelation or oracle appears to have existed in every great shrine of
Canaan and Syria, 3 and the importance of this element in the
cultus may be measured from the fact that at Hierapolis it was the
charge of the chief priest, just as in the Levitical legislation. But
the use of " kahin for " priest " in the Canaanite area points to
more than this: it is connected with the orgiastic character of
Canaanite religion. The soothsayer differs from the priest of an
oracle by giving his revelation under excitement and often in a frenzy
allied to madness. In natural soothsaying this frenzy is the neces-
sary physical accompaniment of an afflatus which, though it seems
supernatural to a rude people, is really akin to poetic inspiration.
2 Mgshugga', 2 Kings ix. n, Jer. xxix. 26 a term of contempt
applied to prophets. (See HEBREW RELIGION.)
'For examples, see PALMYRA and PHILISTINES; see further,
Lucian, De dea syria, 36, for Hierapolis; Zosimus i. 58, for Aphaca;
Pliny, H. N. xxxvii. 58 (compared with Lucian, ui supra, and
Movers, Phoenizier, i. 655), for the temple of Melkart at Tyre.
320
PRIEST
But it is soon learned that a similar physical state can be pro-
duced artificially, and at the Canaanite sanctuaries this was done
on a large scale. We see from I Kings xviii., 2 Kings x., that
great Baal temples had two classes of ministers, kohanlm and nebhlim,
priests " and " prophets," and as the former bear a name which
primarily denotes a soothsayer, so the latter are also a kind of
priests who do sacrificial service with a wild ritual of their own.
How deeply the orgiastic character was stamped on the priesthoods
of north Semitic nature-worship is clear from Greek and Roman
accounts, such as that of Appuleius (Metam. bk. viii.).
The Hebrews, who made the language of Canaan their own, took
also the Canaanite name for a priest. But the earliest forms of
Hebrew priesthood are not Canaanite in character; the priest, as
he appears in the older records of the time of the Judges, Eli at
Shiloh, Jonathan in the private temple of Micah and at Dan, is
much liker the sadin than the kahin. 1 The whole structure of
Hebrew society at the time of the conquest was almost precisely
that of a federation of Arab tribes, and the religious ordinances are
scarcely distinguishable from those of Arabia, save only that the
great deliverance of the Exodus and the period when Moses, sitting
in judgment at the sanctuary of Kadesh, had for a whole generation
impressed the sovereignty of Jehovah on all the tribes, had created
an idea of unity between the scattered settlements in Canaan
such as the Arabs before Mahomet never had. But neither
in civil nor in religious life was this ideal unity expressed
in fixed institutions, the old individualism of the Semitic
nomad still held its ground. Thus the firstlings, first-fruits and
vows are still the free gift of the individual which no human
authority exacts, and which every householder presents and
consumes with his circle in a sacrificial feast without priestly aid.
As in Arabia, the ordinary sanctuary is still a sacred stone ('tjyj
= no^b) set up under the open heaven, and here the blood of the
victim is poured out as an offering to God (see especially I Sam.
xiv. 34, and cf. 2 Sam. xxiii. 1 6, 17). The priest has no place
in this ritual; he is not the minister of an altar, 2 but the guardian
of a temple, such as was already found here and there in the land
for the custody of sacred images and palladia or other consecrated
things (the ark at Shiloh, I Sam. iii. 3; images in Micah's temple,
Judges xvii. 5. ; Goliath's sword lying behind the " ephod " or plated
image at Nob, I Sam. xxi. 9; no doubt also money, a sin the Canaanite
temple at Shechem, Judges ix. 4). Such treasures required a guardian ;
but, above all, wherever there was a temple there was an oracle, a
kind of sacred lot, just as in Arabia (i Sam. xiv. 41, Sept.), which
could only be drawn where there was an " ephod " and a priest
(i Sam. xiv. 18, Sept., and xxiii. 6 seq.). The Hebrews had already
possessed a tent-temple and oracle of this kind in the wilderness
(Exod. xxxiii. 7 seq.), of which Moses was the priest and Joshua
the aedituus, and ever since that time the judgment of God through
the priest at the sanctuary had a greater weight than the word of
a seer, and was the ultimate solution of every controversy and claim
(i Sam. ii. 25; Exod. xxi. 6, xxii. 8, 9, where for " judge," " judges,"
of A.V. read " God " with R.V.). The temple at Shiloh, where the
ark was preserved, was the lineal descendant of the Mosaic sanctuary
for it was not the place but the palladium and its oracle that were
the essential thing and its priests claimed kin with Moses himself.
In the divided state of the nation, indeed, this sanctuary was hardly
visited from beyond Mt Ephraim; and every man or tribe that
cared to provide the necessary apparatus (ephod, teraphim, &c.)
and hire a priest might have a temple and oracle of his own at
which to consult Jehovah (Judges xvii., xviii.); but there was
hardly another sanctuary of equal dignity. The priest of Shiloh is
a much greater person than Micah's priest Jonathan; at the great
1 This appears even in the words used as synonyms for " priest "
, ion io7, which exactly corresponds to sadin and b&jib.
That the name of tna was borrowed from the Canaanites appears
certain, for that out of the multiplicity of words for soothsayers
and the like common to Hebrew and Arabic (either formed from a
common root or expressing exactly the same idea 'jjrj!, 'arraf;
Tjn, babir; njn, nxh, hazi; op'p, cf. istiksam) the two nations
should have chosen the same one independently to mean a priest is,
in view of the great difference in character between old Hebrew and
Canaanite priesthoods, inconceivable. Besides pa Hebrew has
the word TDD (pi. D-TDD), which, however, is not applied to priests
of the national religion. This, in fact, is the old Aramaic word for
a priest (with suffixed article, kumra). Its origin is obscure. In
the Aramaic papyri discovered near Assouan (Syene) TOO is priest
of the gods (Cowley and Sayce, Pap. E. line 15), presumably Khnum
and Set; and in Sachau's Pap. I. line 5, K~ea definitely mean
the priests of the god Hnflb. This coincides with the Hebrew use of
the term as idolatrous priests, Hos. x. 5 ; Zeph. i. 4 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 5.
2 It is not clear from I Sam. ii. 15 whether even at Shiloh the
priest had anything to do with sacrifice, whether those who burned
the fat were the worshippers themselves or some subordinate
ministers of the Temple. Certainly it was not the " priest " who did
so, for he in this narrative is always in the singular. Hophni and
Phinehas are not called priests, though they bore the ark and so
were priests in the sense of Josh. iii.
feasts he sits enthroned by the doorway, preserving decorum among
the worshippers; he has certain legal dues, and, if he is disposed
to exact more, no one ventures to resist (i Sam. ii. 12 seq., where
the text needs a slight correction). The priestly position of the
family survived the" fall of Shiloh and the capture of the ark, and
it was members of this house who consulted Jehovah for the early
kings until Solomon deposed Abiathar. Indeed, though priesthood
was not yet tied to one family, so that Micah's son, or Eleazar of
Kirjath-jearim (i Sam. vii. i), or David's sons (2 Sam. viii. 18)
could all be priests, a Levite that is, a man of Moses' tribe was
already preferred for the office elsewhere than at Shiloh (Judges
xvii. 13), and such a priest naturally handed down his place to his
posterity (Judges xviii. 30).
Ultimately, indeed, as sanctuaries were multiplied and the priests
all over the land came to form one well-marked class, " Levite "
and legitimate priest became equivalent expressions, as is explained
in the article LEVITES. But between the priesthood of Eli at
Shiloh or of Jonathan at Dan and the priesthood of the Levites as
described in Deut. xxxiii. 8 seq. there lies a period of the inner
history of which we know almost nothing. It is plain that the
various priestly colleges regarded themselves as one order, that
they had common traditions of law and ritual which were traced
back to Moses, and common interests which had not been vindicated
without a struggle (Deut., ut supra). The kingship had not deprived
them of their functions as fountains of divine judgment (cf. Deut.
xvii. 8 seq.); on the contrary, the decisions of the sanctuary had
grown up into a body of sacred law, which the priests administered
according to a traditional precedent. According to Semitic ideas
the declaration of law is quite a distinct function from the enforcing
of it, and the royal executive came into no collision with the purely
declaratory functions of the priests. The latter, on the contrary,
must have grown in importance with the unification and progress of
the nation, and in all probability the consolidation of the priesthood
into one class went hand in hand with a consolidation of legal
tradition. And this work must have been well done, for, though
the general corruption of society at the beginning of the Assyrian
period was nowhere more conspicuous than at the sanctuaries and
among the priesthood, the invective of Hos. iv. equally with the
eulogium of Deut. xxxiii. proves that the position which the later
priests abused had been won by ancestors who earned the respect of
the nation as worthy representatives of a divine Torah.
The ritual functions of the priesthood still appear in Deut. xxxiii.
as secondary to that of declaring the sentence of God, but they
were no longer insignificant. With the prosperity of the nation,
and especially through the absorption of the Canaanites and of
their holy places, ritual had become much more elaborate, and in
royal sanctuaries at least there were regular public offerings main-
tained by the king and presented by the priests (cf. 2 Kings xvi. 15).
Private sacrifices, too, could hardly be offered without some priestly
aid now that ritual was more complex; the provision of Deut.
xviii. as to the priestly dues is certainly ancient, and shows that
besides the tribute of first-fruits and the like the priests had a fee in
kind for each sacrifice, as we find to have been the case among
the Phoenicians according to the sacrificial tablet of Marseilles.
Their judicial functions also brought profit to the priests, fines
being exacted for certain offences and paid to them (2 Kings xii. 16;
Hos. iv. 8; Amos ii. 8). The greater priestly offices were therefore
in every respect very important places, and the priests of the royal
sanctuaries were among the grandees of the realm (2 Sam. viii. 18;
2 Kings x. II, xii. 2); minor offices in the sanctuaries were in the
patronage of the great priests and were often miserable enough,*
the petty priest depending largely on what " customers " he could
find (2 Kings xii. 7 [8] ; Deut. xviii. 8). That at least the greater
offices were hereditary as in the case of the sons of Zadok, who
succeeded to the royal priesthood in Jerusalem after the fall of
Abiathar was almost a matter of course as society was then con-
stituted, but there is not the slightest trace of an hereditary hierarchy
officiating by divine right, such as existed after the exile. The
sons of Zadok, the priests -of the royal chapel, were the Icing's
servants as absolutely as any other great officers of state; they owed
their place to the fiat of King Solomon, and the royal will was
supreme in all matters of cultus (2 Kings xii., xvi. 10 seq.) ; indeed
the monarchs of Judah, like those of other nations, did sacrifice in
perfon when they chose down to the time of the captivity (i Kings
ix. 25; 2 Kings xvi. 12 seq.; Jer. xxx. 2l). And as the sons of
Zadok had no divine right as against the kings, so too they had no
claim to be more legitimate than the priests of the local sanctuaries,
who also were reckoned to the tribe which in the 7th century B.C.
was recognized as having been divinely set apart as Jehovah's
ministers in the days of Moses (Deut. x. 8, xviii. i seq.).
The steps which prepared the way for the post-exile hierarchy,
the destruction of the northern sanctuaries and priesthoods by the
Assyrians, the polemic of the spiritual prophets against the corrup-
tions of popular worship, which issued in the reformation of Josian,
the suppression of the provincial shrines of Judah and the transference
of their ministers to Jerusalem, the successful resistance of the sons
' See i Sam. ii. 36, a passage written after the hereditary dignity
of the sons of Zadok at Jerusalem was well established.
PRIEST
321
of Zadok to the proposal to share the sanctuary on equal terms with
these new-comers, and the theoretical justification of the degradation
of the latter to the position of mere servants in the Temple
supplied by Ezekiel soon after the captivity, need not here be
dealt with. Further details respecting priestly offices and hereditary
priesthoods and the relation of Aaronids to Zadokids will be found
briefly discussed in Ency. Bib. vol. iii. cols. 3843-3845. Cf . Hastings's
Diet. Bible, iv. 72-75 ; Camb, Bib. Essays (1909), pp. 100 seq., 112 seq.
It is instructive to observe how differently the prophets of the
8th century speak of the judicial or " teaching " functions of the
priests and of the ritual of the great sanctuaries. For the latter
they have nothing but condemnation, but the former they acknow-
ledge as part of the divine order of the state, while they complain
that the priests have prostituted their office for lucre. In point of
fact the one rested on old Hebrew tradition, the other had taken
shape mainly under Canaanite influence, and in most of its features
was little more than the crassest nature-worship. In this respect
there was no distinction between the Temple of Zion and other
shrines, or rather it was just in the greatest sanctuary with the
most stately ritual that foreign influences had most play, as we see
alike in the original institutions of Solomon and in the innovations
of Ahaz (2 Kings xvi. 10 seq., xxiii. n seq.). The Canaanite
influence on the later organization of the Temple is clearly seen in
the association of Temple prophets with the Temple priests under
the control of the chief priest, which is often referred to by Jeremiah ;
even the viler ministers of sensual worship, the male and female
prostitutes of the Phoenician temples, had found a place on Mt
Zion and were only removed by Josiah's reformation. 1 All this
necessarily tended to make the ritual ministry of the priests more
important than it had been in old times; but it was in the reign of
Manasseh, when the sense of divine wrath lay heavy on the people,
when the old ways of seeking Jehovah's favour had failed and new
and more powerful means of atonement were eagerly sought for
(Micah vi. 6 seq.; 2 Kings xxi. ; and cf. MOLOCH), that sacrificial
functions reached their full importance. In the time of Josiah
altar service and not the function of " teaching " has become the
essential thing in priesthood (Deut. x. 8, xviii. 7) ; the latter, indeed,
is not forgotten (Jer. ii. 8, xviii. 18), but by the time of Ezekiel it
also has mainly to do with ritual, with the distinction between holy
and profane, clean and unclean, with the statutory observances
at festivals and the like (Ezek. xliv. 23 seq.). What the priestly
Torah was at the time of the exile can be seen from the collection
of laws in Lev. xvii.-xxvi., which includes many moral precepts,
but regards them equally with ritual precepts from the point of
view of the maintenance of national holiness. The holiness of
Israel ^centres in the sanctuary, and round the sanctuary stand
the priests, who alone can approach the most holy things without
profanation, and who are the guardians of Israel's sanctity, partly
by protecting the one meeting-place of God and man from profane
contact, and partly as the mediators of the continual atoning rites
by which breaches of holiness are expiated.
The bases of priestly power under this system are the unity of
the altar, its inaccessibility to laymen and to the inferior ministers
of the sanctuary, and the specific atoning functions of the blood of
priestly sacrifices. All these things were unknown in old Israel.
So fundamental a change as lies between Hosea and the Priestly
Code was only possible in the general dissolution of the old life of
Israel produced by the Assyrians and by the prophets; and indeed
the new order did not take shape as a system till the exile had made a
great change in old institutions. It was meant also to give expression
to the demands of the prophets for spiritual service and national
holiness, but this it did not accomplish so successfully; the ideas of
the prophets could not be realized under any ritual system, but only
in a new dispensation (Jer. xxxi. 31 seq.), when priestly Torah and
priestly atonement should be no longer required. Nevertheless,
the concentration of all ritual at a single point, and the practical
exclusion of laymen from active participation in it for the old
sacrificial feast had now shrunk into entire insignificance in compari-
son with the stated priestly holocausts ana atoning rites 1 lent
powerful assistance to the growth of a new and higher type of personal
religion, the religion which found its social expression not in material
acts of oblation, but in the language of the Psalms. In the best
times of the old kingdom the priests had shared the place of the
prophets as the religious leaders of the nation; under the second
Temple they represented the unprogressive traditional side of religion,
and the leaders of thought were the psalmists and the scribes,
who spoke much more directly to the piety of the nation.
But, on the other hand, the material influence of the priests
was greater than it had ever been before; the Temple was the only
visible centre of national life in the ages of servitude to foreign
power, and the priests were the only great national functionaries,
who drew to themselves all the sacred dues as a matter of right and
even appropriated the tithes paid of old to the king. When the
High Priest stood at the altar in all his princely state, when he poured
1 2 Kings xxiii. 7; cf. Deut. xxiii. 18, where "dogs" = the later
Galli ; cf . Corp. insc. sent. i. 93 seq.
1 Cf. the impression which the ritual produced on the Greeks,
Bernays's Theophrastus, pp. 85, in seq.
XXII. II
out the libation amidst the blare of trumpets, and the singers lifted
up their voice and all the people fell prostrate in prayer till he
descended and raised his hands in blessing, the slaves of the Greek
or the Persian forgot for a moment their bondage and knew that
the day of their redemption was near (Ecclus. 1.). The High Priest
at such a moment seemed to embody all the glory of the nation, as
the kings had done of old, and when the time came to strike a
successful blow for freedom it was a priestly house that led the
nation to the victory which united in one person the functions of
High Priest and prince. From the foundation of the Hasmonean
state to the time of Herod the history of the high-priesthood merges
in the political history of the nation ; from Herod onward the priestly
aristocracy of the Sadducees lost its chief hold over the nation
and expired in vain controversy with the Pharisees.
The influence of the Hebrew priesthood on the thought
and organization of Christendom was the influence not of a
living institution, for it hardly began till after the fall of the
Temple, but of the theory embodied in the later parts of the
Pentateuch. Two points in this theory were laid hold of
the doctrine of priestly mediation and the system of priestly
hierarchy. The first forms the text of the principal argument
in the Epistle to the Hebrews, in which the author easily demon-
strates the inadequacy of the mediation and atoning rites of
the Old Testament, and builds upon this demonstration the
doctrine of the effectual high-priesthood of Christ, who, in his
sacrifice of himself, truly " led His people to God," not leaving
them outside as He entered the heavenly sanctuary, but taking
them with Him into spiritual nearness to the throne of grace.
This argument leaves no room for a special priesthood in the
Christian Church, and in fact nothing of the kind is found in the
oldest organization of the new communities of faith. The idea
that presbyters and bishops are priests and the successors of
the Old Testament priesthood first appears in full force in the
writings of Cyprian, and here it is not the notion of priestly
mediation but that of priestly power which is insisted on.
Church office is a copy of the old hierarchy. Now among the
Jews, as we have seen, the hierarchy proper has for its necessary
condition the destruction of the state and the bondage of Israel
to a foreign prince, so that spiritual power is the only basis
left for a national aristocracy. The same conditions have
produced similar spiritual aristocracies again and again in
the East in more modern times, and even in antiquity more
than one Oriental priesthood took a line of development similar
to that which we have traced in Judaea. Thus the hereditary
priests of ]ozah (Koft) were the chief dignitaries in Idumaea
at the time of the Jewish conquest of the country (Jos. Ant.
xv. 7, 9), and the High Priest of Hierapolis wore the princely
purple and crown like the High Priest of the Jews (De dea syria,
42). The kingly insignia of the High Priest of the sun at Emesa
are described by Herodian (v. 3, 3), in connexion with the
history of Elagabalus, whose elevation to the Roman purple
was mainly due to the extraordinary local influence of his sacer-
dotal place. Other examples of priestly princes are given
by Strabo in speaking of Pessinus (p. 567) and Olbe (p. 672).
As no such hierarchy existed in the West, it is plain that if the
idea of Christian priesthood was influenced by living institu-
tions as well as by the Old Testament that influence must
be sought in the East (cf. Lightfoot, Philippians, p. 261). The
further development of the notion of Christian priesthood
was connected with the view that the Eucharist (q.v.) is a pro-
pitiatory sacrifice which only a consecrated priest can perform.
It is sufficient to remark here that the presentation of the
sacrifice of the mass came to be viewed as the essential priestly
office, so that the Christian presbyter really was a sacerdos in
the antique sense. Protestants, in rejecting the sacrifice of
the mass, deny also that there is a Christian priesthood " like
the Levitical," and have either dropped the name of "priest"
or use it in a quite emasculated sense. For further details
as to the history and doctrine of priesthood in Christendom the
reader is referred to the article, " Priest ertum: Priesterweihe in
der Christlichen Kirche," in P.R.E., 3rd ed., Bd. xvi. p. 47 sqq.
There is probably no nature religion among races above mere
savagery which has not had a priesthood; but an examination
of other examples would scarcely bring out any important
322
PRIESTLEY
feature that has not been already illustrated. Among higher
religions orthodox Islam has never had real priests, doing relig-
ious acts on behalf of others, though it has, like Protestant
churches, leaders of public devotion (imams) and an important
class of privileged religious teachers ('ulema). But a distinction
of grades of holiness gained by ascetic life has never been entirely
foreign to the Eastern mind, and in the popular faith of Mahom-
medan peoples something very like priesthood has crept in by
this channel. For where holiness is associated with ascetic
practices the masses can never attain to a perfect life, and
naturally tend to lean on the professors of special sanctity as
the mediators of their religious welfare. The best example, how-
ever, of a full-blown priestly system with a monastic hierarchy
grafted in this way on a religion originally not priestly is found
in Tibetan Buddhism (see LAMAISM), and similar causes undoubt-
edly had their share in the development of sacerdotalism in the
Christian Church. The idea of priestly asceticism expressed in the
celibacy of the clergy belongs also to certain types of heathen
and especially Semitic priesthood, to those above all in which
the priestly service is held to have a magical or theurgic quality.
(W. R. S.; O. C. W.)
PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH (1733-1804), English chemist and
Nonconformist minister, was born on the i3th of March 1733
at Fieldhead, a hamlet near Birstal in the West Riding of York-
shire. He was the eldest of a family of six. His father, Jonas
Priestley, a woollen-cloth dresser of moderate means, was the
son of a member of the Established Church, but both he and his
wife, the only daughter of a farmer named Swift, were Non-
conformists. Three years after the death of Mrs Priestley
in 1739, Joseph's father's sister, Mrs Keighley, took him to live
with her, and sent him at the age of twelve to a neighbouring
grammar school. In his holidays he learned Hebrew from Mr
Kirkby, a dissenting minister at Heckmondwike, who subse-
quently took entire charge of his education. From the age of
sixteen to nearly twenty his health was so unsatisfactory that
he attended neither school nor college, but worked at Chaldee
and Syriac, began to read Arabic, and mastered 'S Gravesande's
Natural Philosophy, together with various textbooks of logic
and metaphysics. An uncle having promised him a place in
a counting-house at Lisbon, he also learned French, German and
Italian to fit himself for the post. But his aunt was anxious
for him to be a minister, as he himself desired, and therefore
in 1752, when his health had improved, he went to Daventry
to attend the Nonconformist academy formerly carried on by
Dr P. Doddridge at Northampton. There he stayed three
years, exchanging his early Calvinism for a system of " neces-
sarianism " under the influence of D. Hartley's Observations
on Man and A. Collins's Philosophical Enquiry concerning Human
Liberty. In 1755 he was appointed to a small congregation at
Needham Market, in Suffolk, where he was not very successful.
In 1758 he obtained a more congenial congregation at Nant-
wich, where he opened a school at which the elementary lessons
were varied with experiments in natural philosophy. Three
years later he removed to Warrington as classical tutor in a
new academy, and there he attended lectures on chemistry by
Dr Matthew Turner of Liverpool and pursued those studies
in electricity which gained him the fellowship of the Royal
Society in 1766 and supplied him with material for his History
of Electricity. In 1762 he had married the daughter of Isaac
Wilkinson, a Wrexham ironmaster. In 1767 he was appointed
to the charge of Mill Hill Chapel at Leeds, where he again changed
his religious opinions from a loose Arianism to definite Socinian-
ism and wrote many political tracts hostile to the attitude of
the government towards the American colonies. He also began
his researches into " different kinds of airs," getting a plentiful
supply of " fixed air " from a brewery next door to his house.
By the end of 1771 his scientific reputation was such that he
was suggested for the post of " astronomer " to Captain Cook's
second expedition to the South Seas, but his unorthodox opinions
were objectionable to certain members of the board of longitude
and the appointment was not ratified. In 1772, the year in which
he was chosen a foreign associate of the French Academy of
Sciences, he accepted the position of librarian and literary
companion to Lord Shelburne (afterwards ist Marquess of
Landsdowne) at Calne, with a salary of 250 a year and a house.
With that nobleman he travelled on the Continent; the month
of October 1774 he spent in Paris, and meeting Lavoisier and
his friends, gave them an account of the experiment by which on
the previous ist of August he had prepared " dephlogisticated
air" (oxygen). In 1780 he parted company with his patron,
who allowed him an annuity of 150 for life, and settling at
Birmingham was appointed junior minister of the New Meeting
Society. There he continued his literary and scientific labours,
enjoying congenial intercourse with such men as Matthew
Boulton, James Keir, James Watt and Erasmus Darwin at
the periodical dinners of the Lunar Society. On the i4th of
July 1791 the Constitutional Society of Birmingham arranged a
dinner to celebrate the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille.
Priestley, according to his own account, " had little to do with
it." But his predilections in favour of the revolutionists were
notorious, and the mob seized the occasion to burn his chapel
and sack his house at Fairhill. He and his family escaped, but
his material possessions were destroyed and the labour of years
annihilated. He retreated to London, where he felt safe,
though he continued to be an object of " troublesome attention,"
and even the fellows of the Royal Society shunned him. But
he received an invitation to become morning preacher at Gravel
Pit Chapel, Hackney. This he accepted, and performed the
duties of the charge till 1794, when he determined to follow his
three sons, who had emigrated to America in the previous year.
On the 7th of April he embarked with his wife at Gravesend
and reached New York on the 4th of June. Finally settling
at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, he lived there for nearly
ten years, until on the 6th of February 1804, after clearly and
audibly dictating a few changes he wished made in some of his
writings, he quietly expired.
Priestley was a most voluminous writer, and his works (excluding
his scientific writings) as collected and edited by his friend J. T.
Rutt in 18171832 fill 25 octavo volumes. (The first volume, con-
taining his life and correspondence, was issued separately in two
parts, 1831-1832.) His first appearance as an author was in 1761,
when he published the Scripture Doctrine of Remission and the
Rudiments of English Grammar. His chief theological and philo-
sophical works were Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion
(3 vols., 1772-1774); History of the Corruption of Christianity
(2 vols., 1782); General History of the Christian Church to the Fall
of the Western Empire, vols. i. and ii. (1790), vols. iii.-and iv. (1802-
1803) ; Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit (1777), and various
essays and letters on necessarianism. But his theological writings
are forgotten, and he is chiefly remembered as a scientific investi-
gator who contributed especially to the chemistry of gases. Yet
judged by modern standards he had an inadequate conception of
the meaning of ordered research. In reference to his preparation
of oxygen he says, " It provides a striking illustration of a remark I
have more than once made in my philosophical writings and which
can hardly be too often repeated, viz. that more is owing to what
we call chance that is, philosophically speaking, to the observation
of events arising from unknown causes than to any proper design
or preconceived theory In this business." If in this sentence he
scarcely does justice to the powers of logical inference and inductive
reasoning displayed in much of his work, it remains true that
blind experiment heating a substance, or treating it with some
reagent, to see what would happen was his characteristic method
of inquiry. Thus by heating spirits of salt he obtained " marine
acid air " (hydrochloric acid gas), and he was able to collect it
because he happened to use mercury, instead of water, in his
pneumatic trough. Then he treated oil of vitriol in the same way,
but got nothing until by accident he dropped some mercury into
the liquid, when " vitriolic acid air " (sulphur dioxide) was evolved.
Again he heated fluorspar with oil of vitriol, as K. W. Scheele had
done, and because he was employing a glass vessel he got " fluor acid
air" (silicon fluoride). Heating spirits of hartshorn, he was able
to collect " alkaline air " (gaseous ammonia), again because he was
using mercury in his pneumatic trough; then, trying what would
happen if he passed electric sparks through the gas, he decomposed
it into nitrogen and hydrogen, and " having a notion " that mixed
with hydrochloric acid gas it would produce a " neutral air,"
perhaps much the same as common air, he synthesized sal ammoniac.
Dephlogisticated air (oxygen) he prepared in August 1774 by heating
red oxide of mercury with a burning-glass, and he found that in
it a candle burnt with a remarkably vigorous flame and mice lived
well. He concluded that it was not common air, but the substance,
" in much greater perfection," that rendered common air respirable
PRIEUR, P. PRIMAGE
323
and a supporter of combustion. Of the analogy between combustion
and respiration both true phlogistic processes in his view he ha<
convinced himself three years before, and his paper, " On Different
Kinds of Air " (Phil. Trans., 1772) described experiments which
.huwed that growing plants are able to " restore air which has
been vitiated, whether by being breathed or by having candles
burnt in it. Priestley displayed much ingenuity in devising ap-
paratus suited to his requirements and in carrying out and varying
his experiments; it was in the interpretation of results that he
was deficient. Had this not been the case he could scarcely have
remained a firm believer in the phlogistic doctrine. At one time
indeed, he found Lavoisier's views so specious that he was much
inelined to accept them, but he overcame this wavering, and so
l.ue as 1800 he wrote to the Rev. Theophilus Lindsey (1723-1808),
" I have well considered all that my opponents have advanced and
feel perfectly confident of the grouna I stand upon. . . . Though
nearly alone I am under no apprehension of defeat."
His chief books on chemistry were six volumes of Experiments
and Observations on different Kinds of Air, published between 1774
! 1786; Experiments on the Generation of Air from Water (1793);
Experiments and Observations relating to the Analysis of Atmospheric
Air, and Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston established ana
that of the Composition of Water refuted (1800). He also published
(1767) a treatise on the History and Present State of Electricity,
which embodies some original work, and (1772) a History of
Discoveries relating to Vision, Light and Colours, which is a mere
compilation.
PRIEUR, PIERRE (c. i626-c. 1676), French enamel painter.
He married Marie (1610-1677), sister of Jean Petitot, as
her second husband. In 1669 he was in England, painting a
miniature of Charles II. and another of Lady Castlemaine,
both after Cooper, for the king of Denmark. In 1670 he was
in Poland, painting for the Danish monarch a portrait of King
Michael, and in the following year was in Denmark executing a
remarkable series of portraits of the children of Frederick III.
All these, with some beautiful enamel badges for the Order of the
Elephant, are in the Danish royal collection. By Christian V.
he is said to have been sent to Spain and Russia, where several
examples of his work, dated 1676, are to be seen in the Hermitage.
In the following year he died in Denmark. He was a Huguenot,
and was said to possess secret colours in enamel, especially a
blue, which were not known to his Petitot relations. His work
in England is of great rarity, Lord Dartrey possessing the
finest example, and there are two remarkable works in the
Pierpont Morgan collection and one at Windsor Castle. Two
in the Propert collection have been lost sight of. (G.C.W.)
PRIEUR DE LA MARNE [PIERRE Louis PRIEUR] (1756-
1827), French politician, was born at Sommesous (Marne) on
the ist of August 1756. He practised as a lawyer at Chalons-
sur-Marne until 1789, when he was elected to the states-general.
He became secretary to the Assembly, and the violence of his
attacks on the ancicn regime won him the nickname of " Crieur
de la Marne." In 1791 he became vice-president of the criminal
tribunal of Paris. Re-elected to the Convention, he was sent
to Normandy, where he directed bitter reprisals against the
Federalists. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., and as
a member of the committees of national defence and of public
safety he was despatched in October 1793 to Brittany, where
he established the Terror. In May 1794 he became president
of the Convention. The counter-revolutionaries drove him into
hiding from May 1795 until the amnesty proclaimed in the
autumn of that year. He took no part in public affairs under
the directory, the consulate or the empire, and in 1816 was
banished as a regicide. He died in Brussels on the 3ist of
May 1827.
See Pierre Bliard, Le Conventional Prieur de la Marne en mission
dans I'ouest 1793-1794 d'apres des documents inedits (1906).
PRIEUR-DUVERNOIS, CLAUDE ANTOINE, COMTE (1763-
1832), French politician, was born at Auxonne on the 2nd of
December 1763, and was commonly known as Prieur de la C6te
d'Or, after his native department. As an officer of engineers
he presented to the National Assembly in 1790 a Me moire on
the standardization of weights and measures. In 1791 he was
returned by the C6te d'Or to the Legislative Assembly, and in
1792 to the Convention. After the revolution of the loth of
August 1792 he was sent on a mission to the army of the Rhine
to announce the deposition of Louis XVI., for whose death he
voted in the Convention. In 1 793 he was employed in breaking
up the Federalist movement in Normandy, but he was arrested
by the Federalist authorities of Caen, and only released in July
1793 after the defeat of their forces at Vernon. On the i4th of
August 1793 he became a member of the committee of public
safety, where he allied himself closely with Lazare Carnot in
the organization of national defence, being especially charged
with the provision of the munitions of war. Under the Direc
tory he sat in the Council of the Five Hundred, retiring after
the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799). In 1808
he was created a count of the empire, and in 1811 he retired
from the army with the grade of chef de brigade. He was one
of the founders of the Ecole Polytechnique, and shared in the
establishment of the Institute of France; the adoption of the
metric system and the foundation of the bureau of longitude
were also due to his efforts. Prieur died at Dijon on the nth
of August 1832.
See J. Gros, Le ComM de salut public (1893); and E. Charavay,
Correspondence de Carnot, vol. i., which includes some documents
drawn up by Prieur.
PRIM, JUAN, MARQUIS DE LOS CASTILLEJOS, COUNT DE
REUS (1814-1870), Spanish soldier and statesman, was the son of
Lieut.-Colonel Pablo Prim, and was born at Reus in Catalonia on
the izth of December 1814. He entered the free corps known as
the volunteers of Isabella II. in 1834, and in the course of the
Carlist War he rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel and had two
orders of knighthood conferred upon him. After the pacification
of 1839, as a progressist opposed to the dictatorship of Espartero,
he was sent into exile. However, in 1843 he was elected deputy
for Tarragona, and after defeating Espartero at Bruch he entered
Madrid in triumph with Serrano. The regent Maria Christina
promoted him major-general, and made him count of Reus.
Narvaez, the prime minister, failed to understand what
constitutional freedom meant, and Prim, on showing signs of
opposition, was sentenced to six years' imprisonment in the
Philippine Islands. The sentence was not carried out, and
Prim remained an exile in England and France until the amnesty
of 1847. He then returned to Spain, and was first employed
as captain-general of Porto Rico and afterwards as military
representative with the sultan during the Crimean War. In
1854 he was elected to the cortes, and gave his support to
O'Donnell, who promoted him lieutenant-general in 1856. In the
war with Morocco he did such good service at Los Castillejos
or Marabout, Cabo Negro, Guad al Gelu and Campamento
in 1860 that he was made marquis de los Castillejos and a
jrandee of Spain. He commanded the Spanish army in Mexico
when he refused to consent to the ambitious schemes of Napoleon
[II. On his return to Spain he joined the opposition, heading
pronunciamentos in Catalonia against Narvaez and O'Donnell.
All his attempts failed until the death of Narvaez in April 1868,
after which Queen Isabella fell more and more under the
nfluence of the Jesuits, and became increasingly tyrannical,
until at last even Serrano was exiled. In September 1868
Serrano and Prim returned, and Admiral Topete, commanding
:he fleet, raised the standard of revolt at Cadiz (see SPAIN).
In July 1869 Serrano was elected regent, and Prim became
jresident of the council and was made a marshal. On the
1 6th of November 1870 Amadeo, duke of Aosta, was elected king
of Spain, but Prim, on leaving the chamber of the cortes on
he 28th of December, was shot by unknown assassins and died
wo days later. The cortes took his children as wards of the
country; three days afterwards King Amadeo I. swore in the
>resence of the cornse to observe the new Spanish constitution.
Two biographies of Prim down to 1860 were published in that
rear by Gimenez y Guited and Gonzalez Llanos. See also L. Blairet,
^ Central Prim el la situation actuelle de I'Espagne (Paris, 1867);
iuillaumot, Juan Prim el I'Espagne (Paris, 1870); and Prim, by
H. Leonardon (in French, 1901), which contains a useful biblio-
graphy.
PRIMAGE (adopted from the Fr. primage, from prime,
ecompense, Lat. praemium, reward), a commercial term
324
PRIMATE PRIMATES
signifying originally a small customary payment over and above
the freight made to the master of the ship for his care and trouble.
It is now generally included in the freight, as an additional
percentage. It varies according to the usages of different ports
and particular trades.
PRIMATE (from Low Lat. primas = one who held the first
place, primas partes). During the 4th and 5th centuries A.D.
the title was applied to both secular and ecclesiastical officials.
The Theodosian Code mentions primates of towns, districts and
fortified places (Primates urbium, vicorum, castellorum) . The
Pragmatic Sanction of Justinian also mentions primates govern-
ing a district, primates regionis; and in this sense the title sur-
vived, under Turkish rule, in Greece until the ipth century.
An official called " primate of the palace " is mentioned in the
laws of the Visigoths. Primas also seems to have been used
loosely during the middle ages for " head " or " chief." Du Cange
cites primas castri. The title, however, has been more generally
used to denote a bishop with special privileges and powers.
It was first employed almost synonymously with metropolitan
to denote the chief bishop of a province having his see in the
capital and certain rights of superintendence over the whole pro-
vince. At the Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325) the metropolitan con-
stitution was assumed as universal, and after this the terms
" metropolitan," and " primate," to denote the chief bishop of a
province, came into general use. The title of primate was used
more generally in Africa, while elsewhere metropolitan was more
generally employed. The primates in Africa differed from those
elsewhere in that the title always belonged to the longest
ordained bishop in a province, who had not necessarily his see
in the capital, except in the case of the bishop of Carthage, who
was head also of the other five African provinces. There were
also three sorts of honorary primates: (i) primates aevo, the oldest
bishop in a province next to the primate, on whom power de-
volved when the primate was disabled or disqualified; (2) titular
metropolitans, the bishops of certain cities which had the name
and title of civil metropoles bestowed on them by some emperor;
(3) the bishops of some mother-churches which were honoured
by ancient custom but were subject to the ordinary metropolitan,
e.g. the bishop of Jerusalem, who was subject to his metropolitan
at Caesarea.
At a later date " primate " became the official title of certain
metropolitans who obtained from the pope a position of episcopal
authority over several other metropolitans and who were, at the
same time, appointed vicars of the Holy See. This was done in
the case of the bishops of Aries and Thessalonica as early as
the 5th century. Such primates were sometimes also called
patriarchs, primates diocesearum (political, not episcopal dioceses),
primates provinciae, summi primates, praesules omnium sacer-
dotum in partibus suis. In this sense the Western primate
was considered the equivalent of the Eastern patriarch. The
archbishop of Reims received the title of primas inter primates.
By the False Decretals an attempt was made to establish such
a primacy as a permanent institution, but the attempt was not
successful and the dignity of primate became more or less
honorary. The overlapping of the title is illustrated by the case
of England, where the archbishop of York still bears the title
of primate of England and the archbishop of Canterbury that
of primate of all England. A less general use of the title is its
application in medieval usage to the head of a cathedral school
or college (primas scholarum) and to the dignitaries of a cathedral
church. The abbot of Fulda received from the pope the title of
primas inter abbales. In the Episcopal Church of Scotland the
senior bishop is styled the primas.
Du Cangje, Glossarium; Hinschius, Kirchenrechl (Berlin, 1869);
Moeller, History of the Christian Church, translated from the German
by Andrew Rutherford, B.D. (London, 1902) ; Bingham, Origines
ecdesiasticae (1840).
PRIMATES (Lat. primus, first), the name given by Linnaeus
to the highest order of mammals (see MAMMALIA), which was
taken by him to include not only man, apes, monkeys and lemurs,
but likewise bats. The latter group is now separated as a
distinct order (see CHIROPTERA). It has also been proposed
to remove from the Primates the lemurs, constituting the group
Prosimiae, or Lemuroidea, to form an order by themselves;
but general opinion is now against this view, and they are accord-
ingly here regarded as representing a sub-order of Primates,
all the other members of which are included in a second sub-
ordinal group the Anthropoidea, or Simiae. Support to the
view that lemurs should be included in the order is afforded
by the discovery in Madagascar of an extinct species (Neso-
pithecus) presenting certain characters connecting it with
monkeys on the one hand and with lemurs on the other.
In this broader sense the Primates may briefly be defined
as follows. All the members of the order are plantigrade
mammals, normally with five fingers and five toes, which are
generally armed with broad flattened nails, although these are
rarely replaced on single digits, or on all the digits, by claws or
claw-like nails. The dental formula is i.\, c.\, d. f (), w.f (f);
all the teeth in advance of the molars being normally preceded
by milk-teeth. The molars are three-, four- or five-cusped,
but the cusps may in some cases coalesce into transverse
ridges. The thumb and great toe are, as a rule, opposable
to the other digits. The clavicles (collar-bones) are complete;
there is nearly always a free centrale bone in the wrist, or
carpus, in which the scaphoid and lunar are likewise generally
separate. The orbits (and the eyes) are directed more or less
forwards, and generally
surrounded by bone (fig. i),
while the lower jaw has
a vertical movement on
the upper. With a few
exceptions the stomach is
simple; and a duodeno-
jejunal flexure of the in-
testine and a caecum are
pi esent. The diet is gener-
ally vegetable, but may be
mixed, or, rarely Consisting
of insects. The uterus may
be either bicornuate or
simple; and the placenta
either discoidal and de-
ciduate, or diffuse and
non-deciduate, with a great
development of the allan-
tois. The clitoris may or
may not be perforate; the
penis is pendent; and the
testes are extra-abdominal,
situate either in a scrotum
behind the penis or in a
similarly situated fold of
the integument. At most
the teats are four in num-
ber, but generally only
two situated on the breast, FlG ,._ Lateral and lower views O f
although occasionally ab- t h e Skull of a Langur Monkey (Semno-
dominal or even inguinal, pithecus), to show the forward direction
As a rule only a single and complete closure of the orbits,
~A,,^^A ot o an d the characters of the dentition of
offspring is produced at a the Qld Wor , d Catarhini .
birth, such offspring being
always born in a completely helpless condition.
With the exception of man, who has adapted himself to exist
in all climates, the Primates are essentially a tropical and sub-
tropical group, although some of the monkeys inhabit districts
where the winter climate is severe. The great majority in fact
nearly all of the members of the order are arboreal in their
habits. In size there is great variation, the extremes in this
respect being represented by man and the gorilla on the one side,
and the marmosets and tarsiers, which are no larger than squirrels,
on the other.
As regards the proper meaning of the popular names
"'monkey," " baboon " and " ape," it appears that these are in
the main general terms which, with the exception of the second,
PRIMATES
325
may be applied indifferently to all the members of the first
sub-order. " Baboon " appears to be properly applicable to the
dog-faced African species, and may therefore be conveniently
restricted to the members of the genus Papio and their immediate
relatives. " Ape," on the other hand, may be specially used for
the tailless man-like representatives of the order; while the
term " monkey " may be employed for all the rest, other than
lemurs; monkeys being, however, divisible into sub-groups,
such as macaques, langurs, guerezas, mangabeys, &c. This
usage cannot, however, be universally employed, and the term
" monkeys " may be employed for the entire group.
Anthropoidea. The Primates, as already mentioned, are divisible
into two main groups, or sub-orders, of which the first includes man,
apes, baboons and monkeys. For this group Professor Max Weber
employs the name Simiae (in contradistinction to Prosimiae for
the lemurs). Since, however, to take as the title for a group which
im-luck's man himself the designation of creatures so much lower
in the scale is likely to be repugnant, it seems preferable to employ
the designation Anthropoidea for the higher division of the order.
As the essential features distinguishing the Anthropoidea from
the second sub-order may best be indicated under the heading of
the latter, reference may at once be made to some of the more
striking characters of the members of the former group. The
proportions of the body as regards the relative lengths of the two
pairs of limbs to one another and to that of the trunk vary con-
siderably. Both pairs may be much elongated, as in Ateles and
Hylobates, and either sub-equally, as in the first of these, or with
the arms greatly in excess, as in the second. The legs may be
excessively short, and the arms, at the same time, excessively long,
as in the orang-utan. Both pairs may be short and sub-equal, as
in many of the baboons (Papio). Only in Nyctipithecus and the
Hapalidae does the excess in length of the lower limbs over the upper
exceed or equal that which is found in man. The length of the
tail presents some noteworthy points. It is found at its greatest
absolute length, and also greatly developed relatively, being about
twice the length of the trunk, in such monkeys as the Indian
langurs; but its greatest relative length is attained in the spider-
monkeys (Ateles), where it reaches three times the length of the
trunk. The constancy of the degree of its development varies much
in different groups. In the greater number of genera it is long in
all the species, and in some (Simia, Anthropopithecus and Hylobates)
it is absent in all. In others it may be long or short, or completely
absent, as in macaques (Macacus).
The form of the head presents great differences it may be rounded,
as in Ateles', produced vertically, as in Simia; drawn out posteriorly
to an extreme degree, as in Chrysothrix; or anteriorly, as in the
baboons. A production of the muzzle, necessitated by the presence
of large teeth, exists in the chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus), but
in the baboons, not only is this prolongation carried farther, but
the terminal position of the nostrils gives a dog-like aspect to the
face.
The eyes may be small compared with the size of the head, as
in the baboons; but they may, on the contrary, attain a relatively
enormous size, as in Nyctipithecus. They are always forwardly
directed, and never much more separated one from another^ than
in man ; they may, however, be more closely approximated, as in the
squirrel-monkeys (Chrysothrix) of South America.
The ears are always well developed, and very generally have
their postero-superior angle pointed. They may be large and
small in the same genus, as in Anthropopithecus (chimpanzee and
gorilla); but only in the gorilla do we find, even in a rudimentary
condition, that soft depending portion of the human ear termed
the " lobule." The nose has scarcely ever more than a slight
prominence, and yet an enormous development is to be met with
in the proboscis-monkey (Nasalis) ; while in the snub-nosed monkeys
(Rhinopithecus) we find a sharply prominent, though smaller and
extremely upturned nose. The hoolock gibbon also possesses a
prominent but slightly aquiline nose. The terminal position of
the nostrils in the baboons has already been mentioned. These
apertures may be closely approximated, as in all the man-like
apes (Simiidae and Hylobatidae) , or they may be separated one from
the other by a broad septum, as in the Cebidae, its breadth, however,
varying somewhat in different genera, as in Ateles and Eriodes,
and Callithrix and Nyctipithecus. The lips are generally thin, but
may be very extensile, as in the orang-utan.
The hands are generally provided with thumbs, though these
organs (as in the African guerezas, Colobus, and the American
spider-monkeys, Ateles) may be represented only by small nailless
tubercles. The thumb is more human in its proportions in the
chimpanzee than in any other of the higher apes. As compared
with the length of the hand, it is most man-like in the lowest American
monkeys, such as Chrysothrix and Hapale. In spite of greater
relative length it may, however, little merit the name of thumb, as
it is but slightly opposable to the other digits in any of the American
monkeys, and is not at all so in the Hapalidae. The " great toe "
is never rudimentary and, except in man, in place of being the
longest digit of the foot, is constantly the shortest. As compared
with the entire length of the foot, it is most man-like in the chim-
panzee and some gibbons, and smallest of all in the orang-utan,
and next smallest in Hapale. Every digit is provided with a nail,
except the great toe of the orang-utan and the rudimentary tubercle
representing the thumb in Ateles and Colobus. The nail of the great
toe is flat in every species, but the other nails are never so flat as
are the nails of man. The lateral compression of the nails becomes
more strongly marked in some Cebidae, e.g. Eriodes, but attains
its extreme in the Hapalidae, where every nail, except that of the
great toe, assumes the form of a long, curved and sharply pointed
claw.
With the single exception of man, the body is almost entirely
clothed with copious hair, and never has the back naked. In the
gibbons, the langurs, the macaques and the baboons, naked spaces
(ischiatic callosities) are present on that part of the body which is
the main support in the sitting posture. These naked spaces are
subject to swelling at the season of sexual excitement. Such naked
spaces are never found in any of the American monkeys. No ape
or monkey has so exclusive and preponderating a development of
hair on the head and face as exists in man. As to the head, long
hair is found thereon in Hapale oedipus and in some of the langurs
and guerezas, whilst certain macaques, like the Chinese bonnet-
monkey (Macacus sinicusf, have the hair of the head long and radiat-
ing in all directions from a central point on the crown. A beard is
developed in the male orang-utan ; and the Diana monkey (Cercopi-
thecus diana) has long hair on the cheeks and chin. The wanderoo
(Macacus silenus) has the face encircled by a kind of mane of lone
hairs ; and many of the marmosets have a long tuft of hairs on each
side of the head. American monkeys exhibit some extremes
respecting hair-development. Thus in some of the howlers (as
in some of the guerezas of the Old World) the hair of the flanks
is greatly elongated. Some also have an elongated beard, but the
latter structure attains its maximum of development in thecouxio
(Pithecia satanas). Some of the species of the American genus
Pithecia have the hair of the body and tail very long, others have
the head of the female furnished with elongated hair; while the
allied Uacaria calva has the head bald. Long hair may be developed
from the shoulders as in Papio hamadryas and Theropilhecus
gelada. Very long hair is also developed on the back of the
snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus) in winter. The direction of
the hair may sometimes vary in nearly allied forms, the hairs on the
arm and fore-arm respectively being often so directed that the tips
converge towards the elbow. Such is the case in most of the
higher apes, yet in Hylobates agilis all the hair of both these segments
is directed towards the wrist. The hair presents generally no
remarkable character as to its structure. It may, however, be
silky, as in Hapale rosalia, or assume the character of wool, as in
the woolly spider-monkeys (Eriodes) and Macacus tibetanus, which
inhabits Tibet.
FIG. 2. Skeleton of Chacma Baboon (Papio porcarius), showing
the great relative length of the facial part of the Skull.
Great brilliance of colour is sometimes found in the naked patts
of the body, particularly in the baboons and some of the other
Cercopithecidae, and especially in the regions of the face and sexual
organs. Among these latter rose, turquoise-blue, green, golden-
yellow and vermilion appear, in various combinations, in one or
other or both of these regions, and become especially brilliant at
the period of sexual excitement.
The skeleton, more especially in the higher forms, is in the main
similar to that of man, so that only a brief notice is necessary. In
the skull considerable variation in regard to the proportionate
length of the face to that of the brain-case (cranial portion) exists
in the two sexes, owing to the general development of large tusks
in the males (other than in man, who is not now under consideration).
Generally speaking, the elongation of the facial portion, as compared
to the cranial, increases as we pass from the higher to the lower
forms. The increase does not, however, occur regularly, being
326
PRIMATES
greater in the orang-utan and chimpanzee than in some of the
langurs (Semnppithecus, fig. l); the maximum development of this
feature occurs in the dog-faced baboons (Papio, fig. 2). In American
monkeys, with the exception of the howlers (Alouata, fig. 3), the
facial part is relatively smaller than in Old World monkeys and
FIG. 3. Skull and Hyoid-bone of a Howler-Monkey (Alouata).
In nature the hyoid-bone, which is bladder-like, is placed between
the two branches of the lower jaw.
apes; while in the squirrel-monkeys (Chrysothrix) it is even smaller
than in man himself. In none of the Old World group does the
forehead present that rounded and elevated contour characteristic
of man, although the height of this region is great in the orang-utan
(fig. 4). Curiously enough, American monkeys, especially those
included in Pithecia, are the most man-like in this respect. The
skull of the male gorilla is characterized by the great development
of the crests for muscular attachment, one of these (superciliary)
overhanging the orbits, a second (sagittal) traversing the middle
line of the upper surface, while a third (lambdoid) forms an inverted
V on the occiput, and affords attachment for the muscles of the neck.
FIG. 4. Skull of adult male Orang-utan (Simia satyrus).
In the gorilla the orbits are much as in man, but in the orang-utan
they are more rounded. They become very large in Hylobates,
but attain an enormous size in the American Nyctipithecus. The
extent to which each orbit opens into the adjacent temporal fossa,
i.e. the size and shape of the sphenomaxillary fissure, varies con-
siderably ; this is narrow and much elongated in the gorilla and the
baboons, but short in the langurs and spider-monkeys. It is most
closed in the howlers, where it sometimes all but disappears entirely.
The mastoid process never attains the large relative size it has
in man; but it is prominent in the baboons and larger macaques,
as well as in the chimpanzee and gorilla, its development bear-
ing relation to the size and weight of the head. As the mastoid
diminishes, the under surface of the petrosal assumes a swollen or
bladder-like condition.
The plane of the foramen magnum, as compared with the basi-
cranial axis, varies with the projection of the occiput; it generally
forms a less open angle with that axis than in man, but in Chryso-
thrix the angle is yet more open than in the human skull. The
cheek, or zygomatic, arches bend outwards and upwards in the
gorilja and some baboons, but decrease in relative as well as absolute
size in the smaller forms notably in Chrysothrix. No long slender
styloid process is normally attached to the skull, though such may
be the case in the baboons. An external bony auditory meatus
(or tube) is present in Old World but 'absent in New World
monkeys. In all apes and monkeys the premaxillae have a distinct-
ness of development and a relative size not found in man; the
sutures separating them from the maxillae remaining visible, except
in the chimpanzee, after the adult dentition has been attained.
The maxillae develop great swollen tuberosities in the baboons
and the black ape of Celebes. The nasal bones are small, and
generally flatter than in man; being in the orang-utan quite flat.
They are convex in some langurs and all baboons ; but the proboscis-
monkey has its nasals no more developed than those of other species.
The nasals seem to attain their maximum of relative size in the
howlers. The lower jaw, or mandible, is always in one piece in
adults; and is most man-like in the siamang, which alone has
a slight chin. On the other hand, in other gibbons the angle is
produced downwards and backwards, as also in marmosets. Its
FIG. 5. Skeleton of South American Spider-Monkey (Ateles),
to illustrate the length of the limbs and tail, and the slenderness
of the former.
maximum of relative size is attained in the howlers (fig. 3), where
the broad ascending part serves to protect and shelter the enormously
developed body of the hyoid. Air-cells may be developed, as in
the gorilla, in the parts adjacent to the mastoid. Frontal sinuses
are generally absent in the Old World group, being replaced by
coarse cellular bone. In old age the sutures of the skull become
obliterated, the one between the two nasals disappearing at an
early age in Old World monkeys. In the spider-monkeys and
howlers the tentorium, or membrane dividing the hemispheres
of the brain from the cerebellum, becomes bony.
The spinal column of apes and monkeys always lacks the S-like
curvature of that of man, the nearest approach to this occurring
in the baboons (fig. 2). The number of dorsal vertebrae varies
from eleven in some species of Cercopithecus and Macacus to fourteen
in certain gibbons or fifteen in the American night-apes (Nycti-
bithecus). In the American Cebidae the number seldom falls
below thirteen ; in the orang-utan it is twelve, as in man, but thirteen
in the chimpanzee and gorilla. In most cases the dorsal and
umbar regions are about equal in length, but the lumbar region is
the shorter in the man-like group, and less than half the length
of the dorsal in the gorilla. The lumbar spinous processes are
vertical, or project backwards in the man-like apes, gibbons and
spider-monkeys; in the others they project forwards, especially
in Cebidae. The lumbar transverse processes project outwards,
more or less at right angles to the axis of the spine, or else forwards.
The sacrum attains its greatest absolute length in the gorilla, but
s relatively longer than in man in all the man-like group. Hylobates
las the relatively longest sacrum. The number of vertebrae
ncluded in the sacrum varies more or less with age; with the excep-
tion of the Simiidae and Hylobatidae, there are generally only two
or three; but in Aides, Hylobates, and Uacaria there may be four;
while in the Simiidae there are always five, and sometimes six. In
post apes the sacrum and lumbar vertebrae lie in one slightly curved
ine, the gorilla and champanzee presenting in this respect a great
contrast to the human structure. In the orang-utan the sacro-
vertebral angle is rather more marked; but in some baboons it is
so much so as almost to rival that of man.
PRIMATES
327
With the exception of the man-like apes and gibbons and the
Barbary ape (Macacus inuus), the caudal vertebrae of monkeys
exceed four in number; but the mandril, Papio (Maimon) maimon,
has sometimes only five. The short-tailed macaques and uakaris
have from about fifteen to seventeen, the shortness of the tail
being occasioned rather by a diminution in the size of the component
brae than by a decrease in number. In the other forms
the number varies between twenty and thirty-three, the latter being
the number attained in the spider-monkeys (fig. 5). The proportion
borne by this region of the spine to the more anterior parts is greatest
in the spider-monkeys of the genus Ateles, almost three to one; in the
iithrr longest-tailed genera it is rarely so large as two to one. The
( nt(t length of the tail is greatest in the langurs and guerezas,
where also the individual caudal vertebrae attain their greatest
length, namely two inches. The caudal vertebrae generally irttrease
in length from the sacrum till about the seventh, eighth or ninth,
which, with the tenth and eleventh, are the longest in most long-
tuili-d forms. In Ateles the eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth and
fourteenth vertebrae are the longest. In most members of the
sub-order the breast-bone, or sternum, is narrow, and consists of a
more or less enlarged upper portion, or manubrium, followed by a
chain of sub-equal elongated bones from three to six in number.
In man, man-like apes and gibbons there is, however, a broad
sternum; or one consisting of a manubrium, followed by one bone
only, as in Hylobates. In the orang-utan the breast-bone long
remains made up of ossifications arranged in pairs, side by side,
successively. The true ribs are seven in number on each side in
the highest forms, but in Hylobates there are sometimes eight; in
Ateles there are sometimes nine pairs; in Hapale the number varies
from six to eight, and from seven to eight in the other genera.
The " angles " of the ribs are never so marked as in man; most so
in Hylobates. Pithecia is distinguished by the greater relative
breadth of the ribs. In no ape or monkey is the thorax half as
broad again as it is deep from back to breast. Nevertheless, in
the Simiidae and Hylobatidae, its transverse diameter exceeds
its depth by from about one-fourth to a little under one-third of
the latter. In Ateles (and sometimes also in Alouata) the thorax is
wiiler than deep, but in the rest it is deeper than wide.
The greatest absolute length of the fore-limb occurs in the gorilla
(fig. 6) and the orang-utan. The humerus never has a perforation
(entepicondylar) on the inner side
of its lower extremity. Except in
the man-like apes, the ulna articu-
lates with the wrist (carpus). The
hand is capable of pronation and
supination on the fore-arm; and
except in man, the chimpanzee and
the gorilla there is a centrale in the
carpus. The phalanges are the same
in number in apes and monkeys
as in man, except that in Ateles
and Colobus the thumb may have
but one small nodular phalange or
none. The phalanges are generally
more curved than in man, and,
except in the Hapalidae, the
terminal ones are flattened from
back to front. In the Hapalidae
they are laterally compressed,
curved, and pointed to support the
claws characteristic of that family.
The length of the thumb with its
metacarpal bears a much greater
proportion to that of the spine in
Hylobates and Simia than in man.
With the exception of Aides and
Colobus, the shortest thumb, thus
estimated, is found in Nyctipithecus
and Chrysothrix.
The hind-limb, measured from
the summit of the femur to the tip
of the longest digit, is absolutely
greatest in the gorilla, and then in
the orang-utan and the chimpanzee.
If the foot be removed, the leg of
the chimpanzee is longer than that
FIG. 6. Skeleton of the of the orang-utan. The ankle, or
Gorilla (Anthropopithecus gor- tarsus, consists of the same seven
bones as in man, and these bones
are so arranged, or bound together
by ligaments, as to form a trans-
verse and an antero-posterior arch.
In no ape or monkey, however,
do the lower ends of the inner metatarsals form the anterior
point of support of the antero-posterior arch, as in man. The
calcaneum, except in the gorilla, is shorter compared with the
spine than in man. The phalanges of the foot are the same in
number as in man, except that the great toe of the orang-utan
has often but one. They are very like their representatives in the
hand, and are convex above, concave and flattened below. Only
Ola), to exhibit the flattened
sternum, the broad and shallow
thorax, and the great length of
the fore-limbs.
in the Hapalidae are the terminal phalanges laterally compressed
instead of flattened. The toes are never nearly so short relatively
in apes and monkeys as in man; yet the proportion borne by the
great toe, with its metatarsal, to the spine closely approximates
in the gorilla to the proportion existing in man, and this proportion
is exceeded in Hylobates and Ateles.
Omitting all reference to the muscles, we find that in apes and
monkeys the absolute size of the brain never approaches that of
man; the cranial capacity being never less than 55 cub. in. in any
normal human subject, while in the orang-utan and chimpanzee
it is but 26 and 271 cub. in. respectively. The relative size of the
brain varies inversely with the size of the whole body, as is the case
in warm-blooded vertebrates generally. The hemispheres of the
brain are almost always so much developed as to cover over the
cerebellum, the only exceptions being the howlers and the siamang
(Hylobates syndactylus). In the latter the cerebellum is slightly
uncovered, but it is considerably so in the former. In Chrysothrix
the posterior lobes are more largely developed relatively than in
man. As in mammals generally, much convoluted hemispheres
are correlated with a considerable absolute bulk of body. Thus
in Hapale (and here only) we find the hemispheres quite smooth,
the only groove being that which represents the Sylvian fissure.
In Simia and Anlhropopilhecus, on the contrary, they are richly
convoluted. A hippocampus minor is present in all apes and
monkeys, and in some Cebidae is larger relatively than in man, and
absolutely larger than the hippocampus major. Of all apes and
monkeys the orang-utan has a brain most like that of man ; indeed
it may be said to be like man's in all respects save that it is much
inferior in size and weight, and that the hemispheres are more
symmetrically convoluted and less complicated by minor foldings.
The human brain, as known by European specimens, has been
supposed to differ from that of apes and monkeys by the absence
of the so-called simian fold (Affenspalte) on the posterior portion
of the main hemispheres. On studying a large series of Egyptian
and Sudani brains, Professor G. Elliot Smith finds, however, that
this simian fold, or sulcus, can be distinctly recognized. " It
is easy," he writes, " to select examples from the series of Egyptian
and Sudanese brains in my possession, in which the pattern formed
by the occipital sulci on the lateral surface of the hemisphere in
individual anthropoid apes is so exactly reproduced that the identity
of every sulcus is placed beyond reasonable doubt. . . . And if we
take individual examples of gorilla-brains, it becomes still easier
to match the occipital pattern of each of them to numerous human
brains. ... It is easy to appreciate the difficulties which have
beset investigators of European types of brain, and to understand
the reasons for the common belief in the absence of the supposed
distinctly simian sulci in the lateral aspect of the occipital region
of the human brain."
In no ape or monkey does the series of teeth form so perfect an arch
as in man, the opposite series of cheek-teeth tending to become
more parallel. None has the teeth placed in one uninterrupted
series in each jaw, as is the case in the human species; but there
is always a small gap between the upper canine and the adjacent
incisor, and between the lower canine and the adjacent premolar.
This condition is due to the excessive size of the canines, the inter-
spaces giving passage to the tips of these teeth. This prolongation
of the canines into tusk-like weapons of offence and defence (especially
developed in the males) makes a great difference between the aspect
of the dentition in apes and man. The number of the teeth is the
same as in man in all Old World Primates. The New World
Cebidae have an additional premolar on each side of each jaw,
while the Hapalidae have a molar the less. The incisors are nearly
vertical, save in Pithecia and its allies, where their tips project
forward. The canines are considerably longer than the incisors,
except in Hapale, where the lower incisors equal them in length.
The premolars differ structurally from the molars much as in man,
except that the first lower one may be modified in shape to give
passage to the upper canine, as in the baboons. The grinding
surface of the molars consists generally of two incomplete transverse
ridges, the end of each ridge projecting more than the intermediate
part, jndicating the position of the four original tubercles. In the
man-like apes there is, however, in the upper molars a ridge running
obliquely from the front inner tubercle, or cusp, outwards and
backwards to the hind outer tubercle. In the Cercopithecidae this
ridge is wanting, but it reappears in Ateles and Alouata amongst the
Cebidae. In the Hapalidae the tubercles of the molars are more
produced and sharp-pointed, in harmony with the insectivorous
habits of the marmosets. The last lower molar may be reduced or
much enlarged as compared with the others. Thus in Cercopithecus
talapoin it has but three tubercles, while in the macaques and
baboons it is very large, and has five well-developed cusps. The
number of milk-teeth is as in man, except that American monkeys
have an additional one. In general the canines are the last teeth
to be cut of the permanent dentition, their cutting sometimes
causing such constitutional disturbance as to produce convulsions
and death. In the gibbons, however, the canines accompany, if
they do not precede, the appearance of the hindmost molar, while in
the orang-utan they at least sometimes make their appearance
before the latter.
The stomach is simple in all apes and monkeys except langurs,
328
PRIMATES
guerezas, and their allies. It is especially human in shape in
Hylobates, except that the pylorus is somewhat more elongated and
distinct. It is of a rounded form in Pithecia, and in Hapale the
cardiac orifice is exceptionally near the pylorus. In the langur
group it is sacculated, especially at the cardiac end, being, in fact,
very like a colon spirally coiled. The intestine is devoid of valvulae
conniventes, but provided with a well-developed caecum, which is,
however, short and conical in the baboons. Only in the man-like apes
is there a vermiform appendix. The colon may be much longer
relatively than in man, as in the man-like apes; it may be greatly
sacculated, as in Hylobates; or devoid of sacculations, as in Cebus.
The liver may be very like man's, especially in gibbons, the orang-
utan, and the chimpanzee; but in the gorilla both the right and
left lobes are cleft by a fissure almost as much as in the baboons.
In the langur group the liver is much divided, and placed obliquely
to accommodate the sacculated stomach. The lateral lobes in
Hapale are much larger than the central lobe. The caudate lobe
is very large in Cebidae, especially in A teles, and above all in Pithecia.
There is always a gall-bladder.
f The larynx in many members of the sub-order is furnished with
sac-like appendages, varying in different species as regards number,
size and situation. They may be dilatations of the laryngeal
ventricle (opening into the larynx below the false vocal chords),
as in the man-like apes; or they may open above the false vocal
chords so as to be extensions of the thyro-hyoid membrane, as in
gibbons. There may be but a single median opening in the front
part of that membrane at the base of the epiglottis, as in Cerco-
pithecidae, or there may be a single median opening at the back of
the trachea, just below the cricoid cartilage, as in spider-monkeys;
and while there is in some instances only a single sac, in other
instances, as in the howlers, there may be five. These may be
enormous, meeting in the middle line in front, and extending down
to the axillae, as in the gorilla and orang-utan. Finally a sac may
occupy the cavity of the expanded body of the hyoid-bone, as in
howlers (fig. 3). The hyoid has its basilar part generally somewhat
more convex and enlarged than in man; but in howlers it becomes
greatly enlarged and deeply excavated, so as to form a great bony
bladder-like structure (fig. 3). The cornua of the hyoid are never
entirely absent, but the anterior or lesser cornua may be so, as in
the howlers. The anterior cornua never exceed the posterior
cornua in length; but they may be (Cercopithecus) more developed
relatively than in man, and may even be jointed, as in Lagothrix.
The lungs are generally similar to those of man, although, as
in gibbons, the right one may be four-lobed. In the man-like
apes the great arteries are likewise of the human type; but in the
Hylobatidae and Cercopithecidae the left carotid may arise from the
innominate. The discoidal and deciduate placenta is generally
two-lobed, although single in the howlers; in the marmosets it is
unusually thick. American monkeys differ from their Old World
(From a sketch by Wolf from life.)
FIG. 7. An Immature Chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus troglodytes).
cousins in having two umbilical veins in place of a single one. In
the Cercopithecidae gestation lasts about seven months, but in
the marmosets is reduced to three. The young, which are generally
carried on the breast, are suckled for about six months in most
monkeys.
Man-like Apes. In common with man, the apes and monkeyL
of the Old World form a section Catarrhina of the sub-order
Anthropoidea, characterized by the following features: There are
only two pairs of premolar teeth, so that the complete dental
formula is i, {, c. {, p. f, m. f. The tympanum has an external
bony tube, or meatus ; but there is no tympanic bulla. A squamoso-
frontal suture causes the frontal and the alisphenoid bones to enter
largely into the formation of the orbital plate; and the orbito-
temporal foramen is small. Cheek-pouches and callosities on the
buttocks are frequently present. The nails are flat or rounded,
the descending colon of the intestine has an S-like (sigmoid) flexure;
5Y S
FIG. 8. Adult Male Gorilla (Anthropopithecus gorilla).
the caecum is simple, and there may be a vermiform appendix.
The inter-nasal septum is thin, and the nostrils are directed outwards.
The tail, which may be rudimentary, is never prehensile. The
ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal chamber are typically united.
Laryngeal sacs are commonly developed. In addition to the primary
discoidal placenta, a secondary, and sometimes temporary one is
developed.
It does not come within the province of this article to treat of man
(see ANTHROPOLOGY); but it may be mentioned that the distinctive
characteristics of the family Hominidae (including the single
genus Homo), as compared with those of the Simiidae, or man-like
apes, are chiefly relative. These are shown by the greater size of
the brain and brain-case as compared with the facial portion of the
skull, smaller development of the canine teeth of the males, more
complete adaptation of the structure of the vertebral column to
the vertical position, greater length of the lower as compared with
the upper extremities, and the greater length of the great toe,
with almost complete absence of the power of bringing it in
opposition to the other four toes. The last and the small size of
the canine teeth are perhaps the most marked and easily defined
distinctions that can be drawn between the two groups, so far as
purely zoological characters are concerned. The regular arch
formed by the series of teeth is, however, as already mentioned,
another feature distinguishing man from the man-like apes.
In common with the gibbons (Hylobatidae} the man-like apes, or
Simiidae, are distinguished from the lower representatives of the
present sub-order by the following features: The sternum is short
and broad, and the thorax wide and shallow (fig. 6), while the pelvis,
as shown in the same figure, is more or less laterally expanded, and
hollow on its inner-surface ; and the number of dorso-lumbar verte-
brae ranges from sixteen to eighteen. The arm is longer than
the leg; and while the hair on the fore-arm is directed upwards,
that of the upper-arm slopes downwards to meet it at the elbow.
Cheek-pouches are absent. The cusps of the molars are separate;
and five in number above and four below. The caecum has a vermi-
form appendix; and the secondary placenta merely forms a tem-
porary fold. The Simiidae are specially characterized by the
absence of callosities on the buttocks; the presence of sixteen or
seventeen dorso-lumbar vertebrae, and of twelve or thirteen pairs
of ribs; the wrinkling of the enamel of the cheek-teeth; the great
expansion and concavity of the iliac bones of the pelvis; and the
application of only the edge of the sole of the foot to the ground in
walking.
PRIMATES
The existing members of the family are referable to at least
two genera, the one African and the other Asiatic. The first genus,
Anthropopithecus, 1 is typified by the West African chimpanzee,
A. troglodytes (fig. 7), and is characterized by the absence of excessive
elevation in the skull, by the fore limb not reaching more than
half-way down the shin, the presence of thirteen pairs of ribs, the
well-developed great toe, the absence of a centrale in the carpus, and
the black or grey hair. There is a well-developed laryngeal sinus,
which may extend downwards to the axilla. Chimpanzees are
characterized by the large size of the ears, and typically by .the
small development of the supra-orbital ridges. The latter are,
however, more developed in the Central African A. tchego (of which
the kulu-kamba is a local phase) ; this form whether regarded as
a species or a race being thus more gorilla-like (see CHIMPANZEE).
The gorilla (Anthropopithecus gorilla, fig. 8), of which there are
likewise several local forms, ranging from the West Coast through
the forest-tract to East Central Africa, and apparently best regarded
as sub-species, is frequently made the type of a second genus
Gorilla; but is extremely close to the chimpanzee, from which it
is perhaps best distinguished by its much smaller ears. It is the
largest of the apes, although the females are greatly inferior in
stature and bulk to the males. The gorilla is also a much less
completely arboreal ape than the chimpanzee, in consequence of
which more of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground in walking.
The enormous supra-orbital ridges of the skull of the male, and like-
wise the large and powerful tusks in that sex are very characteristic.
A full-grown gorilla will stand considerably over six feet in height.
According to Dr A. Keith, in addition to its smaller and flatter
ears, the gorilla may be best distinguished from the chimpanzee by
the presence of a nasal fold running to t u e margin of the upper lip ;
by the large size and peculiar characters of the tusks and cheek-
teeth ; by its broad, short, thick hands and feet, of which the fingers
and toes are partially webl>ed ; by the long heel ; and by the relative
length of the upper half of the arm as compared with the fore-arm.
An important distinctive feature of the skull of the gorilla is the great
length of the nasal bones. Finally, in adult life the gorilla is sharply
differentiated from the chimpanzee by its sullen, untameable,
ferocious disposition.
As regards the relationship existing between the gorilla and the
chimpanzee, Dr Keith observes: "An examination of all the
structural systems of the African anthropoids leads to the inference
that the gorilla is the more primitive' of the two forms, and ap-
proaches the common parent stock more nearly than does the
chimpanzee. The teeth of the gorilla, individually and collectively,
form a complete dentition, a dentition at the very highest point
of development; the teeth of the chimpanzee show marked signs
of retrogression in development both in size and structure. The
muscular development and the consequent bony crests for muscular
attachment of the gorilla far surpass those of the chimpanzee.
The muscular development of the adult chimpanzee represents
that of the adolescent gorilla. Some of the bodily organs of the
gorilla belong to a simpler and earlier type than those of the
chimpanzee. But in one point the chimpanzee evidently represents
more nearly the parent form its limbs and body are more adapted
for arboreal locomotion; of the two, the gorilla shows the nearer
approach to the human mode of locomotion. On the whole the
evidence at pur disposal points to the conclusion that the chimpanzee
is a derivative from the gorilla stock, in which, with a progressive
brain development, there have been retrograde changes in most of
the other parts of the body. The various races of chimpanzee
differ according to the degree to which these changes have been
carried." (See GORILLA.)
From both the chimpanzee and the gorilla the orang-utan, or
mias (Simia satyrus), of Borneo and Sumatra is broadly distinguished
by the extreme elevation of the skull (fig. 4), the excessive length of
the fore limbs, which reach to the ankle, the presence of only twelve
pairs of ribs and of a centrale in the carpus, the short and rudi-
mentary great toe, and the bright-red cclour of the hair. Adult
males are furnished with a longish beard on the chin, and they
may also develop a large warty prominence, consisting of fibro-
cellular tissue, on each side of the face, which thus assumes an extra-
ordinary wide and flattened form. There is no vestige of a tail.
The hands are very long; but the thumb is short, not reaching the
end of the metacarpal bone of the index-finger. The feet have
exceedingly long toes, except the great toe, which only reaches to
the middle of the first joint of the adjacent toe, and is often destitute
not only of a nail, but of the second phalange also. It nevertheless
possesses an opponens muscle. The brain has the hemispheres
greatly convoluted, and is altogether more like the brain of man
than is that of any other ape. A prolongation is developed from
each ventricle of the larynx, and these processes in the adult become
enormous, uniting together in front over the windpipe and forming
one great sac which extends down between the muscles to the axilla.
The canine teeth of adult males are very large. In Borneo the
orang-utan displays great variability, and has accordingly been
divided into a number of local races, in some of which the males
1 It has been proposed to transfer the name Simia to the chim-
panzee, on the ground that it was originally given to that animal.
apparently lack the lateral expansion of the face. Whether tfc
Sumatran orang-utan should be regarded as a distinct species, with
two local races, may be left an open question. (See ORANG-UTAN).
Gibbons. The comparatively small, long-armed and_ tailless
Asiatic apes known as gibbons have been very generally included
in the same family as the man-like apes; but since they differ
in several important features to say nothing of their smaller
bodily size it has recently been proposed to refer them to a family
apart, the Hylobatidae. The distinctive features of this family
include the presence of small naked callosities on the buttocks,
the possession of eighteen dorso-lumbar vertebrae and thirteen
pairs of ribs, the absence of foldings in the enamel of the molar
teeth, the slight lateral expansion and concavity of the iliac bones
of the pelvis, and the application of the whole sole of the foot to
the ground in walking. The vertebral column presents no trace of
the sigmoid flexure which is developed partially in the Simiidae
and completely in the Hominidae. None of the gibbons have any
rudiment of a tail; and the canines are elongated and tusk-lilce.
When the body is erect, the arms are so long that they reach the
ground. The great toe is well developed, reaching to the middle
or end of the first joint of the adjacent toe; but the thumb only
attains to, or reaches a little beyond, the upper end of the first
joint of the index-finger. There is a centrale in the carpus. The
laryngeal sacs are no longer prolongations of the laryngeal ven-
tricles, but open into the larynx above the false vocal chords. The
group is distributed throughout the forest-regions of south-eastern
Asia, eastwards and southwards from Assam, and is represented
by a considerable number of species. Among these, the siamang,
Hylobates syndactylus, of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, diflers
from all the rest by the union of the index and third fingers up to
the base of their terminal joints, in consequence of which this
species is regarded as representing a sub-genus (Symphalangus) by
itself, while all the others belong to Hylobates proper. The general
colour of gibbons is either pale fawn or black, with or without .a
white band across the forehead. In a female from Hainan in the
menagerie of the Zoological Society of London, the colour of the
coat changed from black to fawn about the time full maturity was
attained. Apparently no such change takes place in the male.
According to Dr W. yolz, the two banks of the Lematang River.in
the Palembang district of Sumatra are respectively inhabited
by two different species of gibbons on the west bank is found the
siamang (Hylobates syndactylus), while the country to the east
of the river is the home of the agile gibbon, or waw-waw (H. agilis).
It is not necessary to capture, or even to see, specimens of the two
species in order to satisfy oneself as to their limitations, for they
may be readily distinguished by their cries: the siamang calling
in a single note, whereas the cry of the waw-waw forms two notes.
The remarkable thing about their distribution in Palembang .is
that the two species are found in company throughout the rest jpi
Sumatra; and even in Palembang itself they inhabit the mountain
districts, where the river is so narrow that they could easily leap
over it, and yet they keep to the opposite banks. Gibbons are
perhaps the most agile of all the Old World monkeys, rivalling .in
this respect the American spider-monkeys, despite their lack .of
the prehensile tails of the latter (see GIBBON).
Langur Group. The well-known long-tailed langur monkeys Tof
India and the adjacent regions are the first representatives of the
third family of apes and monkeys, which includes all the remaining
members of the sub-order now under consideration. In the Cercopt-
thecidae, as the family is called, the following features are distinctive:
The sternum, or breast-bone, is narrow and elongated, ana the
thorax compressed and wedge-shaped, while the iliac bones of the
pelvis are narrow, with the inner surface flat; the dorso-lumbar
vertebrae are nineteen or twenty in number. The front limbs are
shorter than the hind pair; the whole sole of the foot is applied .to
the ground in walking; and the hair on the arm is directed down-
wards from the shoulder to the hand. There are always bare
callosities on the buttocks, and very generally cheek-pouches.
The caecum is conical. Transverse ridges connect the cusps of
the molars. The secondary placenta is fully developed.
The first group of the family is represented by the langurs and
their allies, collectively forming the sub-family Semnopithecinae,
in which the tail and hind limbs are very long, and the body .is
slender; there are no cheek-pouches, but, on the other hand, the
stomach is complicated by sacculations or pouches, and the last
lower molar has a posterior heel, thus carrying five cusps. The
thumb is small or absent, the callosities on the buttocks are also
small, and the nails are narrow and pointed. The laryngeal sac
(or throat-sac) opens in the middle line of the front of the larynx,
and is formed by an- extension of the thyro-hyoid membrane. The
true langurs, of the genus Semnapithecus, in which a small thumb
is retained, form a large group confined to south-eastern Asia, where
it ranges from India and the Himalaya to Borneo and Sumatra
by way of Burma, Cochin China and the Malay Peninsula. A
well-known representative is the sacred hanuman monkey (5.
entellus) of India, which, like the larger Himalayan S. schistaceus,
is slate-coloured ; the Bornean 5. hosei, on the other hand, is wholly
maroon-red. Other species, like the Indian S.johni, have the head
crested. The allied genus Rhinopithecus, as typified by the orange
3.30
PRIMATES
snub-nosed monkey, 1?. roxellanae (fig. 9), of eastern Tibet and
Szechuen, is characterized by the curiously short and upturned
nose and the long silky hair of the back, especially in the winter coat.
In the typical species the predominating colour is orange, tending to
yellowish-olive on the back; but in R. bieti of the mountains border-
ing the valley of the Mekpn and R. brelichi of Central China it is
slaty-grey. The third Asiatic genus is represented by the proboscis
monkey (Nasalis larvatus) of Borneo, in which the nose is extra-
ordinarily elongated. The nose of the adult male is commonly
(From Mflne-Edwards.)
FlG. 9. The Orange Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopilhecus roxellanae) .
represented as projecting straight out from the face, but it really
bends down to overhang the upper lip; it is much shorter in the
female, and quite small and bent upwards in the young. (SeeLANGUR
and PROBOSCIS MONKEY.)
The African guerezas, forming the genus Colobus, differ from their
Asiatic cousins by the total loss of the thumb. Some of these
monkeys, like Colobus satanas of West Africa, are wholly black;
but in others, such as C. guereza (or abyssinicus), C. sharpei and
C. caudatus of North-east and East Africa, forming the sub-genus
Guereza, there is much long white hair, which in the species last-
named forms a mantle on the sides of the body and an elongated
fringe to the tail, thus assimilating the appearance of the animal
to the long lichens hanging from the boughs of the trees in which
it dwells. Most or all of the Semnopithecinae feed on leaves; a
circumstance doubtless correlated with the complex structure of
their stomach.
Cercopitheques, Mangabeys, Macaques and Baboons. The whole of
the remaining members of the family Cercopithecidae are included in
the sub-family Cercopithecinae, which presents the following charac-
teristics: The hind limbs are not longer than the front pair; the
tail may be either long, short or practically absent; cheek-pouches
are present; the stomach is simple; the callosities on the buttocks
are often very large; the last lower molar may or may not have a
posterior heel; and the thumb is well developed. Whereas all the
Semnopithecinae are completely arboreal, many of the Cercopithe-
cinae, and more especially the baboons, are to a great extent or
entirely terrestrial. The typical representatives of the group are
the African monkeys, forming the genus Cercopithecus, which in-
cludes a very large number of species with the following characters
in common: the tail, although shorter than in the Semnopithecinae,
is long, as are the hind limbs, while the general form is slender.
The jaw and muzzle are short and the cheek-pouches large; while
the nose is not prominent, with the nostrils approximated ; whiskers
and a beard of variable length are usually developed. The fingers of
the long hands are united by webs at the base; the thumb is small
in comparison with the great toe. The callosities are of moderate
size; and the hairs of the thick and soft fur are in most cases marked
by differently-coloured rings. For convenience of description the
numerous species of this genus may be arranged in a number of
groups or sub-genera. The first of these groups includes the
spot-nosed forms (Rhinosticlus), characterized by the presence
of a spot of white, red or blue on the nose ; well-known species,
being the lesser white-nosed guenon (C. petaurista) of West Africa
and the hocheur, C. nictitans, which is also West African. In the
typical group, as represented by the malbrouck monkey (C. cyno-
surus) of the West Coast, and the Abyssinian grivet (C. sabaeus),
the fur of the back is of a more or less olive-green hue, while the
under surface and whiskers are white and the limbs grey. The
large patas monkey (C. patas) of West Africa and the red-backed
monkey (C. pyrrhonotus) of Kordofan typify a third section (Erythro-
cebus), characterized by the red upper and white lower surface of
the body. A fourth section (Mona) includes the mona (C. mono)
of Western, and Sykes's monkey (C. albigularis) of Eastern Africa,
with a number of allied species, characterized by the presence of
a black band running from the outer angle of the eye to the ear,
and the black or dark-grey limbs. The bearded monkey (C. pogonias)
of Fernando Po and Guinea, with two sub-species, typifies a small
section (Otopithecus) , characterized by large rufous or yellowish
ear-tufts and the presence of three black stripes on the forehead.
Pogonocebus is another small section, including the well-known
Diana monkey (C. diana) of Western, and De Brazza's monkey
(C. neglectus) of Eastern Africa, easily recognized by the long
(generally white) beard and frontal crest. Finally, the little
talapoin (C. talapoin) of the Gaboon alone represents a group
(Miopithecus) broadly distinguished by having three, in place of
four, cusps on the crowns of the lower molars.
The next group is that of the African mangabeys (Cercocebus),
the more typical species of which are easily recognized by their
bare flesh-coloured eyelids, and the absence of rings of different
colours on the hair, or at least on that of the back. In these monkeys
the general form is intermediate between that of the cercopitheques
and the macaques, to be lext mentioned, the head being more oval
and the muzzle more produced than in the former, but less so than
in the latter. The limbs are longer and the body is more slender
than in the macaques, and the callosities are also smaller. On the
other hand, the thumb is smaller than in the guenons, and the tail is
carried curled over the back instead of straight ; while these monkeys
differ from the former in having a posterior heel to the last lower
molar, which is thus five-cusped, as in the macaques. The
laryngeal air sacs of the latter are, however, wanting. Well-known
representatives of the typical section of the group are the sooty
mangabey (C, fuliginosus) and the white-collared mangabey (C.
collaris) of West Africa, the latter easily recognized by the bright
red crown of the head. A second group of the genus, Lophocebus
(or Semnocebus) is typified by the white-cheeked mangabey (C.
albigena) of the equatorial forest-region, in which the head is crested
and the eyelids lack bare flesh-coloured rims. The rhesus monkey
(Macacus rhesus) of India is the typical representative of the
macaques, which may be regarded as the Asiatic representatives
of the mangabeys. From that group the macaques differ by their
heavier and stouter build (fig. 10), thicker limbs, the presence of
large laryngeal sacs, the larger size of the callosities, and the more
produced muzzle, while many of them have the tail (which may be
absent) much shorter. The nostrils are not terminal, and the hairs
are generally ringed. In habits the macaques are much more
terrestrial than the mangabeys, some of them being completely so.
In the typical group, which, in addition to the rhesus, includes
the Himalayan macaque (M. assamensis) , the brown macaque
(M. arctoides) of Burma and Tibet (fig. 10), the tail may be about
(From Milne-Edwards.)
FIG. 10. The Tibet Macaque (Macacus arctoides tibelanus).
equal to half the length of the body or less; but in the Barbary
ape, M. (Inuus) inuus, of North Africa and Gibraltar, this appendage
is wanting. In a third group (Nemestrinus), represented by the
pig-tailed macaque (M. nemestrinus), ranging from Burma to
Borneo, and the lion-macaque (M. leoninus) of Siam, the tail,
which is carried erect, is about one-third the length of the body.
The lion-tailed macaque (M. silenus) of southern India, often miscalled
the wanderoo, represents a group by itself (Vetulus) characterized by
PRIMATES
the long hair fringing the face and meeting under the chin, and
the tufted lion-like tail, which is from one-half to three-quarters
the length of the body. The last group (Cynomolgus) , now often
regarded as a distinct genus, is typified by the widely-spread crab-
eating macaque (M. cynomolgus), characterized by its produced
muzzle, short and stout limbs, and basally-swollen tail, which is
tu-arly as long as the body. It also includes the South Indian
bonnet-macaque (M. sinicus) and the Ceylon toque-macaque
jrileatus), taking their names from the elongated hair on the
crown, which are nearly allied, and with the rtrst-named species
approach the baboons in their elongated muzzles (see MACAQUE).
A still nearer approach to the baboons is made by the black ape
(Cynopithecus niger) of Celebes and the neighbouring islands, which
is represented by several sub-species, among them the so-called
FIG. II. The Yellow Baboon (Papio cynocephalus).
Moor-macaque (Macacus maurus). Some difference of opinion
exists as to the proper serial position of this species, which is in-
cluded in Macacus by several zoologists who separate Cynomolgus
as a genus. It is characterized by the marked elongation of the
muzzle, which, like the neck, hands and feet, is naked. The nostrils
are, however, directed outwards and downwards, as in the maca-
ques; but, on the other hand, there are baboon-like ridges on the
sides of the muzzle and heavy supra-orbital ridges. There are
large cheek-pouches; and the tail is a mere stump. The colour
is sooty-black. The weird-looking gelada baboon (Theropithecus
gelada) of southern, and the allied T. obscurus of eastern Abyssinia
represent a genus which is essentially baboon-like in general charac-
teristics, but has the nostrils of the macaque-type, while the facial
portion of the skull is shorter than the cranial. The preorbital
portion of the face is concave with the ridges rounded, and the tusks
are very long. The long tail is tufted at the tip, and the hair is
long and bushy, developing into a mantle-like mane on the fore-
quarters of old males, leaving the chest bare. The general colour
is dark-brown. The last representatives of the Cercopithecidae
are the baboons, or dog-faced baboons, of Africa and Arabia,
forming the genus Papio. These are for the most part large monkeys,
associating in herds under the leadership of an old male, and dwell-
ing chiefly among rocks, although they ascend trees in search of
gum. They are easily recognized by their long dog-like faces
(fig. ll), in which the nostrils open at the extremity of the greatly
elongated muzzle. On the sides of the muzzle are prominent
longitudinal ridges covered with bare skin which may be brilliantly
coloured. The callosities, which are also generally bright-coloured,
are large; and the tail is of moderate length or short. The hairs
are ringed with different colours, and the general colour is olive-
yellow, grey or brownish. The typical, and at the same time the
smallest representative of the group k is the yellow baboon (P.
cynocephalus or P. babuin) (fig. 11), ranging from Abyssinia to
Angola and Mozambique, and distinguished by its rather short and
grooved muzzle and longish tail, which is nearly as long as the body.
The majority of the species, such as the widely spread P. anubis
(with several local races), P. sphinx of West Africa, and the chacma
(P. porcarius) of South Africa, are included in the sub-genus Chaero-
pithecus, and have the muzzle longer and undivided and the tail
shorter, in most the colour is golden-olive with very distinct rings,
but in the chacma it is darker. The hamadryad baboon, P. hama-
dryas, of north-east Africa .and Arabia, and the closely allied
P. arabicus of southern Arabia, represent a sub-genus (Hamadryas)
characterized by the ashy-grey colour and the profuse mantle-like
mane of the adult males; the tail being slightly shorter than the
body. Lastly, the West African mandrill (P. maimon) and drill
(P. leucophaeus) form the sub-genus Maimon, distinguished by the
extremely short tail, and the great development of the facial ridges,
which are strongly fluted. In the mandrill, which is the most
brilliantly coloured of all mammals, the ridges are vermilion and
cobalt, while the callosities on the buttocks are of equal brilliance ;
but in the drill, which has white ear-tufts, the colouring is more
sombre (see BABOON and MANDRILL).
American Monkeys and Marmosets. The monkeys and
marmosets of tropical America constitute the Platyrrhina, or
second section of the Anthropoidea, and are characterized as
follows: An additional premolar is present in both jaws,
bringing up the number of these teeth to three pairs. The
tympanum is ring-like, with no external bony-tube, or meatus;
and a tympanic bulla exists. A parieto-zygomatic suture causes
the jugal bone to be included in the orbital plate; and the
orbito-temporal foramen is large. Cheek-pouches and callos-
ities on the buttocks are wanting. The descending colon does
not form a sigmoid flexure; and the caecum is generally bent
in a hook-like form, with, at most, very slight narrowing of its
terminal extremity. The cartilage forming the inter-nasal
septum is broad, and the nostrils are directed obliquely out-
wards. The tail, which never has fewer than fourteen verte-
brae, is generally as long as the body, and frequently prehensile.
The ethmoturbinals are originally separate; and the laryngeal
sac, when present, is of peculiar type. Usually there is only a
simple primary discoid placenta, but rudiments of a secondary
one have been recently described.
The first family, or Cebidae, includes the American monkeys, as
distinct from marmosets, which present the following character-
istics: The ears are more or less naked externally. The terminal
joints of the fingers and toes carry flat or curved nails; and the
thumb, when present, is opposable to the other fingers. Except
in the uakaris, the tail is long, generally short-haired, and frequently
with a terminal bare surface for prehension. Dentition i. f, c. \,
p. i, m, f. Generally a foramen (entepicondylar) in the inner
side of the lower end of the humerus. As a rule, only a single
offspring is produced at a birth. Ranging over tropical America,
the Cebidae have their headquarters in the vast Brazilian forests,
where so many of the animals are more or less arboreal in their
habits. These monkeys are completely arboreal, more so, indeed,
than the gibbons among the Catarrhina.
The first sub-family, Alouatinae, is represented only by the
howlers, Alouata (or Mycetes), characterized by the long prehensile
tail with the extremity naked below, the well-developed thumb,
and the extension of the hyoid-bone into an enormous bladder-like
chamber contained between the two branches of the lower jaw
(fig. 3). In this bony cup is received one of the three or five laryn-
geal sacs. There are about half a dozen species, with several
sub-species; three of the best known being A. seniculus, A. belzebul
and A. ursina. Several are brilliantly coloured, with bright or
golden hair on the flanks; but in the Amazonian A. nigra the male
is black and the female straw-coloured. The muzzle is longer
than in other Cebidae (see HOWLER).
FIG. 12. The White-cheeked Capuchin (Cebus lunatus).
The Cebinae include the typical members of the family, character-
ized by the large brain, of which the elongated hemispheres cover
the cerebellum; the brain-case of the skull being, of course, elongated
in proportion. The lumbar vertebrae are short, with upright
comb-like processes, instead of the rhomboidal ones of the howlers.
The lower jaw and hyoid are of normal form. In the first section
of the sub-family the tail is evenly haired throughout, the thumb
332
PRIMATES
well developed, the limbs of medium length, with the front not
longer than the hind pair, the nails curved, and the humerus with
an entepicondylar foramen. The typical genus Cebus includes the
numerous species of capuchins, many of which are so commonly
seen in captivity. They are stouter in build and smaller in size
than the spider-monkeys, and their tails are only prehensile to a
small extent, but are commonly carried spirally rolled. The
conical upper canines project below the upper lip, and the molars
have blunt low cusps. Well-known species are the white-cheeked
capuchin, C. lunatus (fig. 12), of south Brazil; the true capuchin,
C. capucinus, ranging from Guiana to Brazil ; and the brown capu-
chin, C. fatuellus, of Guiana; all of these showing the black crown
from which these monkeys take their popular name. The most
northern representative of the group is the white-throated C.
hypoleucus, which ranges to Costa Rica. The squirrel-monkeys,
Chrysothrix (or Saimins), of which C. sciureus is the most familiar
representative, are not unfrequently placed in the Nyctipithecinae,
although their true position seems to be here. They differ from
Cebus by their smaller size and more delicate build, by the tail
being scarcely at all prehensile, by the smaller canines, smaller
and more sharply cusped molars, and the large and closely-approxi-
mated orbits, whose inner walls are partly membranous (see CAPU-
CHIN and SQUIRREL-MONKEY).
The second section of the sub-family includes the spider-monkeys
(fig. 13), and is characterized by the completely prehensile tail,
FIG. 13. Geoffrey's Spider-Monkey (Ateles geoffroyi).
with the inner surface of the tip naked, the rudimentary condition
or absence of the thumb, the laterally compressed and more or less
pointed nails, and the absence of an entepicondylar foramen to
the humerus. The limbs, too, are very long and slender, with the
front pair of greater length than the hind ones. The caecum
approximates to that of the Catarrhina, having its terminal ex-
tremity pointed. The true spider-monkeys (Ateles) lack the thumb,
and have the nails but slightly compressed and pointed, the limbs
very long, the nasal septum of ordinary width, and the fur not
woolly. Nearly all have the hair on the head, except that of the
forehead, directed forwards. There are nearly a dozen species.
In these monkeys so powerful is the grasp of the tail that the whole
body can be sustained by this organ alone. It even serves as
a fifth hand, as detached objects, otherwise out of reach, can be
grasped by it, and brought towards the hand or mouth. Their
prehension is in other respects exceptionally defective, owing to
the loss of the thumb. Spider-monkeys are very gentle in dis-
position; and, by this and their long limbs and fitness for tree-life,
seem to represent the gibbons of the Old World. _ Nevertheless,
in spite of their admirable adaptation for arboreal life, their com-
paratively slow progression offers a marked contrast t the vigorous
agility of the gibbons (see SPIDER-MONKEY). The brown spider-
monkey (Brachyteles arachnoides) of south Brazil alone represents
a genus connecting the preceding in some degree with the next,
a rudimentary thumb being present, while the fur is woolly, the
rtails are much compressed, and the nostrils more approximated
than usual. In the woolly spider-monkeys of the genus Lagothrix
(fig. 14) not only is the fur woolly, but the thumb is fairly well
developed; the nails are like those of Brachyteles, but the nostrils
are normal. Humboldt's spider-monkey, L. humboldti (or L.
lagotrica) and the dusky spider-monkey, L. infumata, both of
which occur in Brazil and Amazonia, alone represent this genus.
FIG. 14. Humboldt's Woolly Spider-Monkey (Lagothrix humboldti).
Some half-dozen species of the monkeys known as sakis (Pithecia)
form the typical representatives of the sub-family Pithecinae, in
which the tail, even when long, is non-prehensile, while the lower
incisors are slender and inclined forwards in a peculiar manner,
with a gap on each side separating them from the long canine.
The hemispheres of the brain cover the cerebellum, the brain-case
is elongated, and, despite the absence of a laryngeal sac, the lower
jaw is deep with a large angle, thus recalling that of the howlers.
There is no caecum. In all cases the thumb is well developed.
The arrangement of the hair is very variable. From the other
members of the group the sakis are sufficiently distinguished by
the long and bushy tail; while they are further characterized by
having a large head. In some cases the hair on the crown of the
FIG. 15. Lemur-like Douroucouli (Nyctipithecusfelinus).
head is divided by a transverse parting, so as to overhang the upper
part of the face. P. satanas of Para and P. chiropotes of Guiana
are well-known species. The uakaris (Uacaria or Cothurus) of
Amazonia are broadly distinguished from all other Cebidae by their
short or rudimentary tails ; Ua. calva being remarkable for its brilliant
red jaw and pale chestnut hair (see UAKARI).
PRIMATES
333
The last and lowest representatives of the Cebidae constitute
the sub-family Nyctipithectnae, the members of which are cat-like
monkeys, with woolly or bushy hair, short, conical muzzles, non-
prehensile tails and well-developed thumbs. The brain-case of
the skull is not elongated, and the hemispheres of the brain do
not cover the cerebellum. The lumbar vertebrae are elongated,
with long, sharp, backwardly directed spinal processes; the hinder
part of the lower jaw is tall; and there is no laryngeal sac. The
FIG. 16. The Moloch Titi (Callithrix moloch).
long and hooked caecum has its terminal portion constricted. In
accordance with their nocturnal habits, the douroucoulis (Nycti-
pithecus) are easily recognized by their large and closely approxi-
mated eyes, which are, however, separated by a complete septum,
the comparatively narrow nasal septum, small ears buried in the
FIG. 17. The Golden Marmoset (Hapale chry solemn).
woolly fur, and lonij bushy tail. Well-known species are the
lemur-like douroucouh (N. felinus, fig. 15) of Amazonia, Peru and
Ecuador, and N. vociferans, with a nearly similar distribution.
The titis, Callithrix (or Callicebus*), are smaller monkeys (fig. 16),
1 Apparently the name Callithrix was originally given to the
marmosets, and if transferred to that group should be replaced
by Callicebus.
with more forwardly directed eyes, which are not surrounded by a
radiating fringe of hair and a wider nasal septum. The titis are
represented by about ten species, of which C. moloch is represented
in fig. 16. Most of them are confined to Amazonia, but a few
among them C. moloch, reach the east coast. Like the marmosets,
they feed largely upon insects and grubs.
The second and last family of the Platyrrhina is represented
by the marmosets or oust it is (Hapalidae), all of which are small
monkeys, with the ears hairy externally, and the nails, except that
of the great toe, claw-like, the thumb non-opposable, the tail long,
bushy and non-prehensile, and only two molars in each jaw, the
dental formula thus being i. j, c. {, p. |, m. f. The humerus
has no entepicondylar foramen. Three young are produced at a
birth. Marmosets are divided into two genera, those in which the
lower canines are not markedly larger than the incisors constituting
the typical Hapale, while such as have the lower canines taller than
the teeth between them form the genus Midas. These squirrel-like
little monkeys, in which the great toe can be opposed to the other
toes, range as far north as 15 N., where they are represented by
Midas geoffroyi, and as far in the opposite direction as the southern
tropic, where M. chrysopygus and M. rosalia occur. The colour
and the length of the hair are very variable, some species having
long silky pale-chestnut hair (fig. 17) and tufted ears, while in others
the hair is comparatively short and black, or black with brown
bars, while the ears are not tufted (see MARMOSET).
Lemurs, Prosimiae. Although the likeness generally takes
the form of a more or less grotesque caricature, the faces of
all monkeys and apes present, in greater or less degree, some
resemblance to the human countenance. In the lower group
of Primates, commonly known as lemurs, or lemuroids, this
resemblance is wholly lost, and the face assumes an elongated
and fox-like form, totally devoid of that " expression " which
is so characteristic of man and the higher apes and monkeys.
FIG. 18. Skull of Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur coo)Xf.
lie, Upper canine. pm, Premolars.
Ic, Lower canine. m, True molars.
Lemurs, Prosimiae or Lemuroidea, which form a group con-
fined to the tropical regions of the Old World and more numer-
ously represented in Madagascar than elsewhere, are arboreal
and for the most part crepuscular or nocturnal Primates, feeding
on insects or fruits, or both together and collectively character-
ized as follows. The tail, which is generally long and thickly
haired, is never prehensile. As a rule, there is a single pair of
pectoral teats, but an additional abdominal or even inguinal pair
may be present. The thumb and great toe are opposable to the
other digits, the former being provided with a flat nail, while
the second toe is always furnished with a claw; the fourth toe
is longer than all the rest, and the second, or index, finger is
small or rudimentary. In the skull (fig. 18) the orbital ring
is formed by the frontal and jugal bones, and, except in the
Tarsiidae, there is a free communication between the orbit and
the temporal fossa; the lachrymal foramen is situated outside
the orbit (fig. 18) ; the tympanic either forms a free semicircle
in the auditory bulla or enters into the formation of the latter;
and the foramen rotundum is generally fused into the sphenoidal
fissure. Interparietal bones are frequently developed, and the
two halves of the lower jaw are generally welded together in
front. Except in the genus Perodictkus, the humerus is fur-
nished with an entepicondylar foramen at the lower end; the
centrale of the carpus is generally free; and the femur is usually
provided with a third trochanter. The cerebellum is only
partially covered by the hemispheres of the brain, which in the
medium-sized and larger species conform to the general type
of the same parts in monkeys and apes. The normal dental
334
PRIMATES
formula is t. -f , c. \, p. , m. f , or the same as in American
monkeys; but the upper incisors are small and separated from
each other, while the lower ones are large and approximated
to the incisor-like canine; the molars have three or four cusps.
In all cases the stomach is simple and a caecum present. The
testicles are contained in a scrotum, the penis has a bone, the
uterus is bicornuate and the urethra perforates the clitoris.
The placenta may be either diffuse, with a large allantoic
portion, and non-deciduate, or discoidal and deciduate. As a
rule, only a single offspring is produced at a birth. Very note-
worthy is the occurrence in the females of the Asiatic lorisis
of what appears to be the vestige of a marsupial apparatus,
attached to the front of the pelvis. Lemur catta also possesses
the rudiment of a marsupial fold; while in both sexes of the
aye-aye occurs a skin-muscle corresponding to the sphincter
marsupii of marsupials.
The distribution of existing lemurs is very peculiar, the
majority of the species inhabiting Madagascar, where they for
the most part dwell in small patches of forest, and form about
one-half the entire mammalian fauna of the island. The remain-
ing species inhabit Africa south of the Sahara and the Indo-Malay
countries.
Tarsier. The tiny little large-eyed Malay lemuroid known as
the tarsier, Tarsius spectrum (or T. tarsius), of the Malay Peninsula
and islands, together with its Celebean and Philippine representa-
tives, alone constitutes the section Tarsiina (and the family Tar-
siidae), which has the following distinctive characteristics: The
lower incisor is vertical and the canine of normal form, while the
upper incisors are in contact; the orbit is cut off from the temporal
fossa by a bony plate, leaving only a small orbital fissure; the
tympanum enters into the formation of the auditory meatus, through
which passes the canal for the internal carotid artery; the tibia
and fibula in the hind-leg are fused together, and the calcaneum
and nayicular of the tarsus elongated. The tarsier seems to be
a primitive form which makes a certain approximation to the
Anthropoidea, and differs from other lemuroids in the structure
of its placenta. The dental formula isi. f, c. \, p. jj, m. f, total 34.
Tarsiers have enormous eyes, occupying the whole front of the orbital
region, and are purely nocturnal in their habits, living in trees on
the branches of which they move by hopping, a power they possess
owing to the elongation of the tarsal bones (see TARSIER).
Malagasy Lemurs. AH the other Prosimiae may be grouped in
a second section, the Lemurina, characterized as follows: The
lower incisors and the canine are similar in form and inclined
forwards (fig. 18); the upper incisors are small and separated by
an interval m the middle line; the orbits communicate largely with
the temporal fossae; the internal carotid artery enters the skull
in advance of the auditory meatus through the foramen lacerum
anterius; and the tibia and fibula are separate. The Malagasy
lemurs are now all included in the single family Lemuridae, which
is confined to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, and character-
ized by the tympanic ring lying free in the auditory bulla.
The typical sub-family Lemurinae, which includes the majority of
the family group, is characterized by all the fingers except the index
having flat nails, the elongation of the facial portion of the skull,
the large hemispheres of the brain not covering the cerebellum,
the occasional presence of two inguinal in addition to the normal
pectoral teats, the dental formula *'. f, c. {, p. |, m. |, with the
first upper incisor generally small and sometimes wanting, and the
hinder cusps of the upper molars smaller than the front ones. These
lemurs are woolly-haired animals, often nearly as large as cats,
with the legs longer than the arms, the tail long and bushy, and the
spinal processes of the last dorsal and the lumbar vertebrae inclined.
In the typical genus Lemur (fig. 19), the tarsus is of normal length,
the tail at least half as long as the body, the ears are tufted, there
are no inguinal teats, the last premolar is not markedly broader
than -the others, and the upper molars have a conspicuous cingulum.
These lemurs have long fox-like faces, and habitually walk on the
ground or on the branches of trees on all fours, although they can
also jump with marvellous agility. They are gregarious, living
in small troops, are diurnal in their habits, but most active towards
evening, when they make the woods resound with their loud cries,
and feed, not only on fruits and buds, but also on eggs, young birds
and insects. When at rest or sleeping, they generally coil their
long, bushy tails around their bodies, apparently for the sake of the
warmth it affords. They have usually a single young one at a birth,
which is at first nearly naked, and is carried about, hanging close
to and almost concealed by the hair of the mother's belly. After
a while^ the young lemur changes its position and mounts upon the
mother's back, where it is earned about until able to climb and leap
by itself. One of the most beautiful species is the ring-tailed
lemur (L. catta, fig. 19), of a delicate grey colour, and with a long
tail marked with alternating rings of black and white. This is said
by G. A. Shaw to be an exception to other lemurs in not being
arboreal, but living chiefly among rocks and bushes. Pollen,
however, says that it inhabits the forests of the south-west parts
of Madagascar, living, like its congeners, in considerable troops,
and not differing from them in its habits. He adds that it is ex-
tremely gentle, and active and graceful in its movements, and utters
at intervals a little plaintive cry like that of a cat. All the others
have the tail of uniform colour. The largest is L. varius, the ruffed
lemur, sometimes black and white, and sometimes reddish-brown,
the variation apparently not depending on sex or age, but on
the individual. In L. macaco the male is black and the female
red L. mongoz, L. fulvus and L. rubriventer are other well-known
species.
FIG. 19. The Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta).
In all these lemurs the small upper incisors are not in contact
with one another or with the canine, in front of which they are
both placed. In the species of Hapalemur, on the other hand,
the upper incisors are very small, sub-equal and separated widely
in the middle line; those of each side in contact with each other
and with the canine, the posterior one being placed on the inside,
and not in front of the latter. Muzzle very, short and truncated.
Two inguinal teats, in addition to the normal pectoral pair, are
present. The last premolar is broader than those in front, and the
upper molars lack a distinct cingulum. The typical H. griseus is
smaller than any of the true lemurs, of a dark-grey colour, with
round face and short ears. It is quite nocturnal, and lives chiefly
among bamboos, subsisting on the young shoots. The second
species has been named H. simus. In Hapalemur there is no free
centrale to the carpus, and the same is the case with the six or
seven species of Lepidolemur (Lepilemur), in which the first upper
incisor is rudimentary or wanting, while the second may also be
wanting in the adult. There are small lemurs, with small pre-
maxillae, short snouts, tails shorter than the body, bladder-like
mastoid processes, and the upper molars with an inconspicuous
cingulum and the hind-cusps of the last two rudimentary; the fourth
upper premolar being relatively broad. Mixocebus caniceps is an
allied generic type (see LEMUR).
The small Malagasy lemurs of the genera Chirogale, Microcebus
and Opolemur differ from the preceding in the elongation of the
calcaneum and navicular of the tarsus, on which grounds they have
been affiliated to the African galagos. The difference in the struc-
ture of the tympanum in the two groups indicates, however, that
the elongation of the tarsus has been independently developed in
each group. These lemurs have short, rounded skulls, large eyes,
long hind limbs and tail, large ears, the first upper incisor larger
than the second, the last upper premolar much smaller than the
first molar and furnished with only one outer cusp, and the mastoid
not bladder-like. Some are less than a rat in size, and all are
nocturnal. One of the largest, Microcebus furcifer, is reddish : grey,
and distinguished by a dark median stripe on its back which divides
on the top of the head into two branches, one of which passes
forwards above each eye The most interesting peculiarity of these
PRIMATES
335
lemurs is that certain species (Opolemur samati, Chirogale milii, &c.)
during the dry season coil themselves up in holes of trees, and pass
into a state of torpidity, like that of the hibernating animals in
the winter of northern climates. Before this takes place an immense
deposit of fat accumulates upon certain parts of the body, especially
the basal portion of the tail. The smallest species, M. pusillus,
lives among the slender branches on the tops of the highest trees,
{ceding on fruit and insects, and making nests like those of birds.
In the sub-family Indrisinae the dentition of the adult consists
of thirty teeth, usually expressed by the formula i. f , c. {, p. |,
m. |; but possibly i. f, c. J, *. 1, m. |. In the milk-dentition
there are twenty-two teeth, the two additional teeth in the fore
part of the lower jaw having no successors in the permanent scries.
Hind limbs greatly developed, but the tarsus normal, the great toe
of large size, and very opposable; the other toes united at their base
by a fold of skin, which extends as far as the end of the first phalange.
The thumb is but slightly opposable; and all the fingers and toes
are hairy. The length of the tail is variable Two pectoral teats.
nm very large, and colon extremely long and spirally coiled.
The brain is large and the thorax wide.
The animals of this group are essentially arboreal, and feed
exclusively on fruit, leaves, buds and flowers. When they descend
(From Milne-Edwards and Grandidier.)
FIG. 20. The Indri (Indris brevicaudatus).
to the ground, which is but seldom, they sit upright on their hind
legs, and move from one clump of trees to another by a series of
short jumps, holding their arms above them in the air. Among
them are the largest members of the order. The genus Indris has
the upper incisors sub-equal in size; upper canine larger than the
first premolar, muzzle moderately long, ears exserted. Carpus
without an os centrale. Tail rudimentary. Vertebrae: C-7, D.I2,
L.9, 8.4, Ca-9- The indri (/. brevicaudatus, fig. 20), discovered by
Sonnerat in 1780, is the largest of the group, and has long woolly
hair, partly brown and partly white. In the stfakas, Propithecus,
of which there appear to be three species, with numerous local
races, the second upper incisor is much smaller than the first.
Upper canine larger than the first premolar. Muzzle rather short.
Ears short, concealed by the fur. An os centrale in the carpus.
Tail long. Vertebrae: C.y, D.I2, L.8, 8.3, Ca.28. In Avahis,
represented only by A. laniger, the second upper incisor is larger
than the first. Upper canine scarcely larger than the first premolar.
Muzzle very short. Ears very small and hidden in the fur, which
is very short and woolly. Carpus without os centrale. Tail long.
Vertebrae: .7, D.II, L.o, 8.3, Ca.23 (see INDRI and SIFAKA).
The last sub-family, Chiromyinae (formerly regarded as a family),
is represented only by the aye-aye, Chiromys (or Daubentonia)
madagascariensis, and has the following characteristics: Dentition
of adult, t. {, c. %, p. J, m. |, total 18. Incisors (fig. 21) very large,
compressed, curved, with persistent pulps and enamel only in front,
as in rodents. Teeth of cheek-series with flat indistinctly tuber-
culated crowns. In the young, the first set of teeth more resemble
those of normal lemurs, being . |, c. J, m. \, all very small. Four
teats, inguinal in position, a feature peculiar to this species. All
the digits of both feet with pointed, rather compressed claws, except
the great toe, which has a flattened nail; middle digit of the hand
excessively attenuated. Vertebrae: C-7, D.I2, L.6, 8.3, Ca.2y
(see AYE-AYE).
FIG. 21. Skull of the Aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis). X j.
Galagos and iortses. The lemurs of Africa and the Indo-Malay
countries commonly miscalled sloths differ from the Lemuridae
in that the tympanic enters into the formation of the auditory
meatus, in consequence of which they are referred to a family by
themselves, the Nycticebidae, which is in turn divided into two
sub-families, Galaginae and Nycticebinae. The African galagos or
Galaginae, which have the same dental formula as the Lemuridae,
are distinguished by the elongation of the calcaneum and navicular
of the tarsus. In the single genus Galago, with the sub-genera
Otolemur and Hemigalago, the last upper premolar, which is nearly
as large as the first molar, has two large external cusps. Verte-
brae: C.7, D.I3, L.6, 8.3, Ca.22-26. Tail long, and generally bushy.
Ears large, rounded, naked and capable of being folded at the will
of the animal. Teats four, two pectoral and two inguinal (see
GALAGO). The lorises, Nycticebinae (Lorisinae), are distinguished
as follows: Index-finger very short, sometimes rudimentary and
nailless. Fore and hind limbs nearly equal in length. Tarsus not
specially elongated. Thumb and great toe diverging widely from
the other digits, the latter especially being habitually directed
backwards. Tail short or rudimentary. Teats two or four.
Lorises and pottos (as the African representatives of the group are
called) are essentially nocturnal, and remarkable for the slowness
of their movements. They are completely arboreal, their limbs
being formed only for climbing and clinging to branches, not for
jumping or running. They have rounded heads, very large eyes,
short ears and thick, short, soft fur. They feed, not only on veget-
able substances, but, like many of the Lemuridae, also on insects,
eggs and birds, which they steal upon while roosting at night.
One of the greatest anatomical peculiarities of these animals is the
breaking up of the large arterial trunks of the limbs into numerous
small parallel branches, constituting a rete mirabile, which is
found also in the sloths, with which the lorises are sometimes
confounded on account of the slowness of their movements. The
Asiatic lorises, which are divided into two genera, are characterized
by the retention of the normal number of phalanges in the small
index-finger, and the presence of a pair of minute abdominal teats
(From A. Milne-Edwards.)
FIG. 22. The Slow Loris (Nyciicebus tardigradus).
(the existence of which has only recently been discovered by Messrs
Annandale and Willey). In the slow lorises, forming the genus
Nycticebus (fig. 22), the first upper incisor is larger than the second,
which is often early deciduous. Inner margin of the orbits
separated from each other by a narrow flat space. Nasal and
33^
PRIMATES
premaxillary bones projecting but very slightly in front of the maxillae.
Body and limbs stout. No tail. Vertebrae: C.y, D.I7, L.6, 8.3,
Ca.i2. The single species N. tardigradus, with several races, in-
habits eastern Bengal, the Malay countries, Sumatra, Borneo,
Java, Siam and Cochin China. These lorises lead solitary lives in
the recesses of large forests, chiefly in mountainous districts, where
they sleep during the day in holes or fissures of large trees, rolled
up into a ball, with the head between the hind legs. On the
approach of evening they awake, and during the night ramble among
the branches of trees slowly, in search of food, which consists of
leaves and fruit, small birds, insects and mice. When in quest
of living prey they move noiselessly till quite close, and then sud-
denly seize it with one of their hands. The female produces but
one young at a time. In the second genus, represented only by
the slender loris (Loris gracilis) of southern India and Ceylon,
the upper incisors are very small and equal. Orbits very large,
and only separated in the middle line above by a thin vertical
plate of bone. Nasals and premaxillae produced forwards con-
siderably beyond the anterior limits of the maxillae, and support-
ing a pointed nose. Body and limbs slender. No external tail.
Vertebrae: C-7, D.I4, L.o, 8.3, Ca.6. The slender loris is about
the size of a squirrel, of a yellowish-brown colour, with large,
prominent eyes, pointed nose, long thin body, long, angularly bent,
slender limbs and no tail. Its habits are like those of the rest of
the group. The Indian and Ceylon races are distinct (see LORIS).
The African pottos, Perodicticus, differ by the reduction of the
index-finger to a mere nailless tubercle, and apparently by the
absence of abdominal teats. In the typical section of the genus
there is a short tail, about a third of the length of the trunk. Two
or three of the anterior dorsal vertebrae have very long slender
spinous processes which in the living animal project beyond the
general level of the skin forming distinct conical prominences, covered
only by an exceedingly thin and naked integument. P. potto, the
potto, is one of the oldest known members of the lemuroids
having been described in 1705 by Bosman, who met with it in his
voyage to Guinea. It was, however, lost sight of until 1835, when
it was rediscovered in Sierra Leone. It is also found in the
Gaboon and the Congo, and is strictly nocturnal and slower in
its movements even than Nycticebus tardigradus, which otherwise
it much resembles in its habits. A second species, P. batesi, in-
habits the Congo district. A third species, the awantibo (P.
calabarensis), rather smaller and more delicately made, with smaller
hands and feet and rudimentary tail, constitutes the sub-genus
Arctocebus. It is found at Old Calabar, and is very rare. Vertebrae :
C.7, D.is, L.7, 8.3, Ca. 9 .
EXTINCT PRIMATES
The most interesting of all the extinct representatives of the
order is Pithecanthropus erectus (q.v.), which is represented by the
imperfect roof of a skull, two molars and a femur, discovered
in a bed of volcanic ash in Java. The forehead is extremely
low, with beetling brow-ridges, and the whole calvarium presents
a curiously gibbon-like aspect. The capacity of the brain-case
is estimated to have equalled two-thirds that of an average
modern man. The creature is regarded as transitional between
the higher apes, more especially the Hylobatidae and the lowest
representatives of the genus Homo, such as the Neanderthal
men. From the Lower Pliocene of India has been obtained the
palate of a chimpanzee-like ape, which by some is referred to
the existing Anthropopithecus, while by others it is considered
to represent a genus by itself Palaeopithecus. The same
formation has yielded the canine tooth of a large ape, apparently
referable to the existing Asiatic genus Simla. From the Miocene
of Europe has been described the genus Dryopithecus, typified
by D. fontani, a generalized ape of the size of a chimpanzee,
related, perhaps, both to the Simiidae and the Hylobatidae.
The Lower Pliocene of Germany has yielded other remains
referred 'to a distinct genus under the name of Paidopithex
rhenanus. From the Miocene of the Vienna basin Dr O. Abel
has described certain ape-remains under the name of Gripho-
pithecus suessi, as well as others regarded as representing a
species of Dryopithecus with the. name D. darwini. As regards
the first, all that can be said is that it indicates a member of
the group to which Dryopithecus belongs. It has been suggested
that the latter genus is closely related to man, but this idea
is discountenanced by the great relative length of the muzzle
and the small space for the tongue. Teeth of another man-like
ape from the Tertiary of Swabia, described under the pre-
occupied name Anthropodus, have been re-named Neopithecus.
The genus Anthropodus is represented by remains of an ape
of doubtful position from the French Pliocene. Pliopithecus
from the French Miocene is certainly a gibbon, perhaps not
distinguishable from Hylobates.
Oreopithecus, from the Miocene of Tuscany, is perhaps in-
termediate between gibbons and baboons (Papio), the latter
of which, as well as Macacus, are represented in the Indian
Pliocene. Mesopithecus, of the Grecian Lower Pliocene, presents
some characters connecting it with Sewnopithecus and others
with Macacus. An allied type from the Lower Pliocene of
France is Dolichopithecus, taking its name from the elongated
skull; while Macacus occurs in the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene
of several parts of Europe. Cryptopithecus, from the Swiss
Oligocene, appears to be the oldest known Old World monkey.
From the Miocene of Patagonia are known certain monkeys
described as Homunculus, Anthropops, &c., apparently more
akin to the Cebidae but perhaps representing an extinct
family.
Passing on to the lemurs, it may be mentioned in the first
place that G. Grandidier has described an extinct lemur from
the Tertiary of France, which he believes to be nearly related
to the slow lorises, and has accordingly named Pronycticebus
gaudryi. If the determination be correct the discovery is of
interest as tending to link the modern faunas of southern India
and West Africa (which possess many features in common) with
the Tertiary fauna of Europe. Certain remarkable extinct
lemuroids of large size have been discovered in the superficial
deposits of Madagascar, in one of which (Megaladapis) the upper
cheek-teeth are of a tritubercular type (fig. 23), while in the
second and smaller form (Nesopithecus) the dentition makes
a notable approximation to that of the Cercopithecidae, Each
FIG. 23. Skull and Hinder Right Upper Cheek-teeth of
Megaladapis madagascariensis.
of these genera, which probably survived till a very late date,
is generally regarded as typifying a family group. In Megala-
dapis the skull is distinguished by its elongation and the small
size of the eye-sockets, the tritubercular upper molars presenting
considerable resemblance to those of the living Lepidolemur.
The brain is of a remarkably low type. In one species the
approximate length of the skull is 250, and in the second 330
millimetres. Even more interesting are the two large species
of Nesopithecus, one of which was at first described as Globilemur.
They show a very complicated type of brain, and were at first
regarded as indicating Malagasy representatives of the Anthro-
poidea. In regard to the character of the tympanic region of
the skull this genus shows several features characteristic of
the more typical Malagasy lemuroids; and the eye-sockets are
open behind, while the dentition is numerically the same as
in some of the latter. On the other hand, in several features
Nesopithecus resembles the' Anthropoidea; the upper incisors
are not separated in the middle line, and the upper molars
PRIME PRIME MINISTER
337
present the pattern found in the Cercopithecidae, while in one
species the lachrymal bone and foramen are within the orbit.
The resemblances to apes are not confined to the skull, but are
found in almost all the bones. Probably the genus may be
regarded as a specialized lemuroid. The Oligocene and Eocene
formations of Europe and North America have yielded remains
of a number of primitive lemuroids, grouped together under
the name of Mesodonta or Pseudolemures, and divided into
families severally typified by the genera Hyopsodus, Notharclus,
Anaptomorphus and Microchoerus (N ecrolemur) , of which the
last two are European and the others American. To particu-
larize the characteristics of the different families would occupy
too much space, and only the following features of the group
can be mentioned. The dental formula is *.f , c.\, p.% or $, m.%.
The canines are often large; the upper molars carry from three
to six cusps, while the lower ones are of the tuberculo-sectorial
type with either four or five cusps. The lachrymal foramen
may be either within or without the orbit, which is in free
communication with the temporal fossa, with or without a
complete bony ring. The humerus has an entepicondylar
foramen. It is specially noteworthy that Adapis resembles
the Lemuridae in the form and relations of the tympanic
ring. Anaptomorphus has large orbits and tritubercular
molars. Certain Middle and Lower Eocene North American
genera, such as Mixodecles and Pelycodus, together with the
European Plesiadapis and Protoadapis, which have been
regarded as lemuroids, are now frequently referred to the
RODENTIA (q.v.). On the other hand, Metachiromys, of the
Bridger Eocene of America, originally described as a relative
of Chiromys, has been stated to be an armadillo.
LITERATURE. The above article is based on the articles APE
and LEMUR in the gth edition of this encyclopaedia. The following
are the chief works on the subject: H. O. Forbes, " A Handbook
to the Primates," Allen's Naturalists' Library (2 vols., 1904);
A. A. W. Hubrecht, " The Descent of the Primates " (New York,
1897); " Furchung und Keimblatt-bildung bei Tarsius spectrum,"
Verh. Ac. Amsterdam (1902); C. J. Forsyth Major, "Our Know-
ledge of Extinct Primates from Madagascar," Geol. Magazine,
decade 7, vol. vii. (1900); "Skulls of Foetal Malagasy Lemurs,"
Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1899); "The Skull in Lemurs and
Monkeys," ibid. (1904); H. Winge, " Jordfundne og nulevende
Aber " (Primates), E. Mus. Lundi (1895); C. Earle, " On the Affini-
ties of Tarsius," American Naturalist (1897); W. Leche, " Unter-
suchungen iiber das Zahnsystem lebender und fossiler Halbaffen,"
Gegenbaurs Festschrift (Leipzig, 1896); E. Dubois, " Pithecanthropus
erectus, eine menschenahnliche Uebergangsform aus Java " (Batavia,
1894); A. Keith, "On the Chimpanzees and their relationship to
the Gorilla," Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1899); W. Rothschild,
"Notes on Anthropoid Apes," ibid. (1905); O. Schlaginhaufen,
" Das Hautleistensystem der Primatenplanta," Morphologisches
Jahrbuch, vols. iii. and xxxiv. (1905) ; G. E. Smith, " The Morphology
of the Occipital Region of the Cerebral Hemisphere in Man and
Apes," Analomischer Anzeiger, vol. xxiv._(io,O4); H. F. Standing,
>l. Soc., 1908, 18, pp.
(R. L.'J
" Primates from Madagascar," Trans. Zoo>
59-216.
PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING. These three words are to
be referred to Lat. primus, first, " prime," in O. Eng. prim,
occurs first in the ecclesiastical sense of the Latin prima hora,
the first hour, one of the lesser canonical hours of the Roman
Church (see BREVIARY). Hence the word " primer " (Med.
Lat. primarius), i.e. a book of hours. This was a book for the
use of the laity and not strictly a service book. These books
originally contained parts of the offices for the canonical hours,
the penitential and other psalms, the Litany, devotional prayers
and other matter. There were several " Primers " printed
in the reign of Henry VIII.; the King's Primer of 1545 contained
the Calendar, the Commandments, Creed, Lord's Prayer, the
penitential psalms, Litany and prayers for special occasions.
The primer of William Marshall, the printer and reformer,
iS34> is entitled The Prymer in Englyshe, with certeyn prayers
and godly meditations, very necessary for all people thai understande
not the Latyne Tongue. Later these primers contained the
Catechism, graces before and after meals, and the A. B. C. They
were published for children, like the earlier Sarum Primer
( I 537). and became educational in purpose, as reading books.
The earlier primers were also used in this way, as is shown
by the " litel child " of Chaucer's Prioress's Tale, who sitting
" at his prymer, redemptorie herde synge." Thus " primer "
or " primmer " became the regular name for an elementary
book for learners. For the type known as " great primer " and
" long primer," see TYPOGRAPHY.
Apart from the use of " prime " as the period of greatest
vigour of life, the first of the guards in fencing, and for those
numbers which have no divisors except themselves and unity
(see ARITHMETIC), the principal use is that of the verb, in the
sense of to insert in the pan of an old-fashioned small arm, the
" primer," containing powder which, on explosion by percussion,
fires the charge. This use seems to be due to " priming " being
the first stage in the discharge of the weapon. Finally " prim-
ing " is the first coat of size or colour laid on a surface as a
preparation for the body colour.
PRIME MINISTER, or PREMIER, in England, the first minister
of the Crown. Until 1905 the office of prime minister was
unknown to the law, 1 but by a royal warrant of the and of
December of that year the holder of the office, as such, was given
precedence next after the archbishop of York. The prime
minister is the medium of intercourse between the cabinet and
the sovereign; he has to be cognizant of all matters of real
importance that take place in the different departments so as
tc exercise a controlling influence in the cabinet; he is virtually
responsible for the disposal of the entire patronage of the Crown;
he selects his colleagues, and by his resignation of office dissolves
the ministry. Yet he was until 1905, in theory at least, but
the equal of the colleagues he appointed. The prime minister
is nominated by the sovereign. " I offered," said Sir Robert
Peel on his resignation of office, " no opinion as to the choice
of a successor. That is almost the only act which is the personal
act of the sovereign ; it is for the sovereign to determine in whom
her confidence shall be placed." Yet this selection by the Crown
is practically limited. No prime minister could carry on the
government of the country for any length of time who did not
possess the confidence of the House of Commons. The prime
minister has no salary as prime minister, but he usually holds
the premiership in connexion with the first lordship of the
treasury, the chancellorship of the exchequer, a secretaryship
of state or the privy seal. Sir Robert Walpole must be regarded
as the first prime minister that is, a minister who imposed
harmonious action upon his colleagues in the cabinet. This
was brought about partly by the capacity of the man himself,
partly by the lack of interest of George I. and II. in English
home affairs. This creation, as it were, of a superior minister
was so gradually and silently effected that it is difficult to realize
its full importance. In previous ministries there was no prime
minister except so far as one member of the administration
dominated over his colleagues by the force of character and
intelligence. In the reign of George III. even North and Adding-
ton were universally acknowledged by the title of prime minister,
though they had little claim to the independence of action of
a Walpole or a Pitt.
British Prime Ministers.
Sir R. Walpole . . 1721-1742 Earl of Shelburne
John, Lord Carteret (afterwards Mar-
Afterwards Earl quess of Lans-
Granville) . . . 1742-1744 downe) . . . 1782-1783
Henry Pelham . . 1744-1754 Lord North (after-
Duke of Newcastle . 1754-1756 wards Earl of Guil-
William Pitt and .ford .... 1783
Duke of Newcastle 1756-1762 W. Pitt . 1783-1801
Earl of Bute . . 1762-1763 H . Addington (after-
George Grenville . 1763-1765 war d s Viscount
Marquess of Rock- Sidmouth) . . 1801-1804
1765-1766 w Pitt .... I8 o 4 -i8o6
1807-1809
1809-1812
ingham
Chatham
Duke of Grafton
Lord North
Marquess of Rock-
rqu
ngh
,766-1767
. 1767-1770
. 1770-1782 Spencer Perceval
of Portland
ingham
1782
Earl of Liverpool
G. Canning . .
1812-1827
1827
1 The first formal mention in a public document appears to be
in 1878, where, in the opening clause of the treaty of Berlin, the
earl of Beaconsfield is referred to as " First Lord of Her Majesty's
Treasury, Prime Minister of England."
338 PRIMERO PRIMITIVE METHODIST CHURCH, THE
Viscount Goderich
(afterwards Earl
of Ripon) . . . 1827-1828
Duke of Wellington . 1828-1830
Earl Grey . . . 1830-1834
Viscount Melbourne 1834
Sir R. Peel . . . 1834-1835
Viscount Melbourne 1835-1841
Sir R. Peel . . . 1841-1846
Lord John Russell
(afterwards Earl
Russell) . . . 1846-1852
Earl of Derby . .1852
Earl of Aberdeen . 1852-1855
Viscount Palmerston 1855-1858
Earl of Derby . . 1858-1859
Viscount Palmerston 1859-1865
Earl Russell . . 1865-1866
Earl of Derby . . 1866-1868
B. Disraeli (after-
wards Earl of
Beaconsfield) . . 1868
W. E. Gladstone . 1868-1874
B. Disraeli (Beacons-
field) .... 1874-1880
W.E.Gladstone. . 1880-1885
Marquess of Salis-
bury .... 1885-1886
W. E. Gladstone. . 1886
Marquess of Salis-
bury .... 1886-1892
W.E.Gladstone. . 1892-1894
Earl of Rosebery . 1894-1895
Marquess of Salis-
bury .... 1895-1902
A. J. Balfour . . 1902-1905
Sir H. Campbell-
Bannerman . . 19051908
H. H. Asquith . . 1908-
PRIMERO (Span, first), a card game of Spanish origin, which
Strutt calls " the oldest game of cards played in England." It
is described as having a close resmblance to Ombre (q.v.), by
which it had been superseded. In both games the spadillo or
ace of spades was the best card, but Primero was played with
six cards and Ombre with nine. The exact method of play is
uncertain.
PRIME VERTICAL, in astronomy, the vertical circle passing
east and west through the zenith, and intersecting the horizon
in its east and west points (see ASTRONOMY).
PRIMITIVE METHODIST CHURCH, THE, a community of
nonconformists, which owes its origin to the fact that Methodism
as founded by the Wesleys tended, after the first generation,
to depart from the enthusiasm that had marked its inception
and to settle down to the task of self-organization. There were,
however, some ardent spirits who continued to work along the
old lines and whose watchword was revivalism, and out of their
efforts came the Bible Christian, the Independent Methodist
and the Primitive Methodist denominations. These enthusiastic
evangelists esteemed zeal a higher virtue than discipline and
decorum, and put small emphasis on church systems as compared
with conversions. One of the men to whom Primitive Methodism
owes its existence was Hugh Bourne (1772-1852), a millwright
of Stoke-upon-Trent. He joined a Methodist society at Burslem,
but business taking him at the close of 1800 to the colliery
district of Harrisehead and Kidsgrove, he was so impressed by
the prevailing ignorance and debasement that he began a religious
revival of the district. His open-air preaching was accompanied
by prayer and singing, a departure from Wesley's practice and
the forerunner of the well-known " Camp Meeting." A chapel
was built at Harrisehead, and a second revival occurred in
September 1804, largely the result of a meeting held at Congleton
by some enthusiasts from Southport. One of the after-fruits
of this revival was the conversion (Jan. 1805) of the joint
founder of Primitive Methodism, William Clowes (1780-1851),
a native of Burslem, who had come to Tunstall. Clowes was a
man of fine appearance and open disposition, with a compelling
personality that found expression in a steady glance and a thrill-
ing voice. He was a potter by trade, and had a national reputa-
tion as a dancer. He joined a Methodist class, threw his house
open for love-feasts and prayer-meetings, and did a great deal
of itinerant evangelization among the cottages of the country-
side. Lorenzo Dow (i 7 7 7-1834), an eccentric American Methodist
revivalist, visited North Staffordshire and spoke of the camp-
meetings held in America, with the result that on the 3ist of
May 1807 the first real English gathering of the kind was held on
Mow Cop, since regarded as the Mecca of Primitive Methodism.
It lasted from 6 a.m. to 8 p.m., and Bourne and his friends
determined to continue the experiment as a counterblast to the
parish wakes of the time, which were little better than local
saturnalia. Opposition from a master potter of the district, who
threatened to put the Conventicle Act in force, was overcome,
but more serious difficulties were presented by the antagonism of
the Wesleyan Methodist circuit authorities. But Bourne and his
friends persisted against both Conference and the local super-
intendent, who issued bills declaring that no camp-meeting would
be held at Norton in August 1807. The meeting was held and
ten months later Bourne was expelled by the Burslem Quarterly
Meeting, ostensibly for non-attendance at class (he had been
away from home, evangelizing), really, as the Wesleyan super-
intendent told him " because you have a tendency to setup other
than the ordinary worship " which was precisely the reason
why, fifty years earlier, the Anglican Church had declined to
sanction the methods of John Wesley. The camp-meetings
went steadily on, and their influence is reflected in the writings of
George Eliot, George Borrow and William Howitt. The societies
which Bourne formed were for a time allowed to go under
(Wesleyan) Methodist protection, but the crisis came in 1810.
when the Stanley class of ten members declined to wash theii
hands of the Camp-Meeting Methodists, and so were refused
admission. About this time, too (1809), Bourne appointed James
Crawfoot, a Wesleyan local preacher who had been removed from
the list for assisting the Independent Methodists, as a travelling
preacher at los. a week, instructing him to give his whole time
to evangelization and to get his converts to join the denomina-
tions to which they were most inclined. Clowes, who, in spite
of his revivalist sympathies, was more attached to Methodism
than Bourne, was cut off from his church for taking part in
camp-meetings at Ramsor in 1808 and 1810. His personality
drew a number of strong men after him, and a society meeting
held in a kitchen and then in a warehouse became the nucleus
of a circuit, a chapel being built at Tunstall in July 1811, two
months after the fusion of the Bourne and Clowes forces. Clowes,
like Crawfoot, was set apart as a preacher to " live by the
gospel," and in February 1812 the name "Primitive Methodist"
was formally adopted, although for nearly a generation the name
" Clowesites " survived in local use.
The first distinct period in the history of Primitive Methodism
proper is 1811-1843. It was a time of rapid expansion, marked
by great missionary fervour, and may be called the Circuit
Period, for even after the circuits were grouped into districts
in 1821 they did not lose their privilege of missionary initiative.
The line of geographical progress first followed the valley of
the Trent. The original circuit at Tunstall no sooner felt its
feet than it favoured consolidation rather than extension. But
irrepressibles like John Benton broke through the " non-mission
law," and pressed forward through the " Adam Bede " country
to Derby (which became the 2nd circuit in 1816); Nottingham,
where a great camp-meeting on Whit Sunday 1816 was attended
by 12,000 people; Leicestershire, where Loughborough became
the 3rd circuit, with extensions into Rutland, Lincolnshire and
Norfolk; and ultimately to Hull, which became the 4th circuit,
and where a meeting which deserves to be called the First
Conference was held in June 1819. The Hull circuit during
the next five years, through its Yorkshire, Western, North-
Western and Northern Missions, carried on a vigorous campaign
with great success, especially among the then semi-savage
colliers of Durham and Northumberland. During the five years
1810-1824 there had been made from Hull 17 circuits with a
membership of 7600, and Hull itself had 3700 more.
Simultaneously with this work in the north, Tunstall circuit,
having thrown off its lethargy at the Wrine Hill camp-meeting
on the 23rd of May 1819, was carrying on an aggressive evan-
gelism. In the Black Country, Darlaston circuit was formed in
1820, and John Wedgewood's Cheshire Mission, begun in 1810,
led to work in Liverpool on the one hand and in Salop on the
other. From Macclesfield a descent was made on Manchester;
from Oakengates in South Shropshire came extensions to Here-
fordshire, Glamorganshire and Wiltshire, where the famous
Brinkworth circuit was established. The succeeding years,
however, 1825-1828, showed a serious set-back, due to the lack
of discipline. But drastic measures were taken, and in one year
thirty preachers were struck off the list. Thenceforward, while
the Oxford Movement was awakening one section of the people
of England the Primitive Methodists were making themselves
felt among other classes of the population. John Oxtoby, who
evangelized Filey and became known as " Praying Johnny,"
PRIMOGENITURE
339
was known to spend six hours at a time in intercession. Robert
Key at Saham Tony in 1832 won over a young woman who
converted her brother, Robert Eaglen, who, eighteen years
later at Colchester, proved so decisive a factor in the life
of Charles Haddon Spurgeon.
The Times of the 27th of December 1830, referring to the
disaffected state of the southern counties, said: " The present
population must be provided for in body and spirit on more
liberal and Christian principles, or the whole mass of labourers
will start into legions of banditti banditti less criminal than
those who have made them so, and who by a just and fearful
retribution will soon become their victims." These were the
classes the Primitive Methodists tried to reach, and in doing
so they found themselves between two fires. On the one hand
there was the mob violence that often amounted to sheer
ruffianism, especially in Wessex and the home-counties. On
the other hand there was legal persecution all over the country,
and the preachers suffered many things from the hands of rural
clergy and county magistrates. There are a score of cases of
serious imprisonment, and a countless number of arrests and
temporary detention. Local preachers received notice to quit
their holdings, labourers were discharged, those who opened
their cottages for meetings were evicted, and to show any
hospitality to a travelling preacher was to risk the loss of
home and employment. But the spirit of the evangelists was
unquenchable.
At the Conference of 1842 both Clowes and Bourne became
supernumeraries with a pension of 25 a year each. Clowes,
indeed, had been free from circuit work since 1827, and he
continued to pray and preach as he was able till his death in
March 1851. Bourne, who worked at his trade more or less
all through life, spent his last ten years in advocating the temper-
ance cause; he died in October 1852. The years 1842-1853
mark a transition period in the history of Primitive Methodism.
It was John Flesher who chiefly guided the movement from a
loosely jointed Home Missionary Organization on to the lines
of a real Connexionalism. One of the first steps was to move
the Book Room and the meeting place of the executive committee
from Bemersley to London. Soon after came the gradual
process by which the circuits handed over their mission-work
to a central Connexional Committee. The removal to London
was proof that the leaders were alive to the necessity of
grappling with the rapid growth of towns and cities, and that
the Connexion, at first mainly a rural movement, had also urban
work to accomplish. The famous Hull circuit long retained
a number of powerful branches, a survival of the first period,
but by 1853 it had come into line with what was by that time
regarded as the normal organization.
The period 1853-1885 (where typical names are W. and S.
Antliff, Thomas Bateman and Henry Hodge) finds Primitive
Methodism as a connexion of federated districts, a unity which
may be described as mechanical rather than organic. The
districts between 1853 and 1873 were ten in number, Tunstall,
Nottingham, Hull, Sunderland, Norwich, Manchester, Brink-
worth, Leeds, Bristol and London. Conference the supreme
assembly was a very jealously guarded preserve, being attain-
able only to preachers who had travelled 18 and superintended
12 years, and to laymen who had been members 12 and officials
10 years. This exclusiveness naturally strengthened the popular-
ity and power of the districts, where energy and talent found
a scope elsewhere denied. Thus Hull district inaugurated
a bold policy of chapel-buildings; Norwich that of a foreign
mission; Sunderland and Manchester the ideal of a better-
educated ministry, Sunderland institute being opened in 1868;
Nottingham district founded a middle-class school; Leeds
promoted a union of Sunday-schools, and the placing of chapel
property on a better financial footing. The period as a whole
had some anxious moments; emigration to the gold-fields
and the strife which afflicted Wesleyan Methodism brought loss
and confusion between 1853 and 1860. Yet when Conference
met at Tunstall in the latter year to celebrate its jubilee it could
report 675 ministers and 1 1 ,384 local preachers, 132,114 members,
2267 chapels, 167,533 scholars and 30,988 teachers. Over-seas,
too, there was much activity and success. Work begun in
Australia and New Zealand prospered, and the former country
finally contributed over 11,000 members to the formation of
the United Methodist Church of Australia, New Zealand with
its 2600 members preferring to remain connected with the home
country. In the United States there had been a quiet but steady
growth since the first agents went out in 1829 and Hugh Bourne's
advisory visit in 1844. There are now three Conferences the
Eastern, Pennsylvania and Western, with about 70 ministers,
100 churches and 7000 members. The Canadian churches had
a good record, consummated in 1884 when they contributed
8000 members and 100 ministers to the United Methodist Church
of the Dominion. In January 1870 the first piece of real foreign
missionary work was begun at Fernando Po, followed in Decem-
ber of the same year by the mission at Aliwal North on the
Orange River in South Africa. This station is the centre of a
polyglot circuit or district 1 50 m. by 50 m., and there is a member-
ship of 1731 and an efficient institution for training teachers,
evangelists and artisans. In 1899 another South African mission
was started, ultimately locating itself at Mashukulumbwe, and
a few years later work was begun in Southern Nigeria.
Since 1885 Primitive Methodism has been developing from a
" Connexion " into a " Church," the designation employed since
1902. At home a Union for Social Service was formed in 1906,
the natural outcome of Thomas Jackson's efforts for the hungry
and distressed in Clapton and Whitechapel, and of similar work
at St George's Hall, Southwark. Other significant episodes
have been the Unification of the Funds, the Equalization of
Districts and the reconstruction of Conference on a broader
basis, the Ministers' Sustentation Fund and the Church Exten-
sion Fund, and the enlargement and reorganization of the college
at Manchester. This undertaking owes much to the liberality
of Sir William P. Hartley, whose name the college, which
is a school of the Victoria University, now bears. The Christian
Endeavour movement in Great Britain derives, perhaps, its
greatest force from its Primitive Methodist members; and the
appointment of central missions, connexional evangelists and
mission-vans, which tour the more sparsely populated rural
districts, witness to a continuance of the original spirit of the
denomination, while the more cultured side is fostered by the
Hartley lecture. In celebration of the centenary of the Church,
a fund of 250,000 was launched in 1007, and this was brought
to a successful issue. Statistics for 1909 show 1178 ministers,
16,158 local preachers, 212,168 members, 4484 chapels, 465,531
Sunday scholars, 59,557 teachers. In the United States there
were, in 1906, 101 church edifices and a total membership of
7SS8.
See H. B. Kendall, The Origin and History of the Primitive Method-
ist Church (2 vols., 1906) ; and What hath God Wrought ? A Cente-
nary Memorial of the P.M. Church (1908). (A. J. G.)
PRIMOGENITURE (Lat. primus, first, and genitus, born,
from gignere, to bring forth), a term used to signify the preference
in inheritance which is given by law, custom or usage, to the
eldest son and his issue, or in exceptional cases to the line of
the eldest daughter. The practice is almost entirely confined
to the United Kingdom, having been abolished by the various
civil codes of the European states, and having been rejected
in the United States as contrary to the spirit of the constitution.
The history of primogeniture is given in the article SUCCESSION,
while the existing English law will be found in the articles HEIR;
INHERITANCE; WILL, &c. But it may be briefly said here
that the English law provided that in ordinary cases of inherit-
ance to land of intestates the rule of primogeniture shall prevail
among the male children of the person from whom descent
is to be traced, but not among the females; and this principle
is applied throughout all the degrees of relationship. There
are exceptions to this rule, as in the cases of " gavelkind " and
" borough-English," and in the copyhold lands of a great number
of manors, where customs analogous to those of gavelkind and
borough-English have existed from time immemorial. In
another class of exceptions the rule of primogeniture is applied
340
PRIMROSE
to the inheritance of females, who usually take equal shares
in each degree. The necessity for a sole succession has, for
example, introduced succession by primogeniture among females
in the case of the inheritance of the Crown, and a similar necessity
led to the maxim of the feudal law that certain dignities and
offices, castles acquired for the defence of the realm, and other
inheritances under " the law of the sword," should not be
divided, but should go to the eldest of the co-heiresses (Bracton,
De Legibus, ii. c. 76; Co. Litt., 1650). There are also many other
special customs by which the ordinary rule of primogeniture
is varied. It may be remarked that the English law of inherit-
ance of land creates a double preference, subject to certain
exceptions and customs, in favour of the male over the female
and of the first-born among the males. This necessitates the
rule of representation by which the issue of children are regarded
as standing in the places of their parents, called " representative
primogeniture." The rule appears to have been firmly established
in England during the reign of Henry III., though its application
was favoured as early as the i2th century throughout the
numerous contests between brothers claiming by proximity
of blood and their nephews claiming by representation, as in
the case of King John and his nephew Prince Arthur (Glanvill,
vii. c. 3; Bracton, De Legibus, ii. c. 30).
See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, K. E. Digby,
History of the Law of Real Properly; Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law and
Early History of Institutions; C. S. Kenny, Law of Primogeniture
in England.
PRIMROSE. 1 The genus Primula contains numerous species
distributed throughout the cooler parts of Europe and Asia, and
found also on the mountains of Abyssinia and Java; a few are
American. They are herbaceous perennials, with a permanent
stock from which are emitted tufts of leaves and flower-stems
which die down in winter; the new growths formed in autumn
remains in a bud-like condition ready to develop in spring. They
form the typical genus of Primulaceae (q.v.), the floral conforma-
tion of which is very interesting on several accounts independently
of the beauty of the flowers. The variation in the length of
the stamens and of the style in the flowers of Primula has
attracted much attention since Charles Darwin pointed out
the true significance of these varied arrangements. Briefly
it may be said that some of the flowers have short stamens and
a long style, while others have long stamens, or stamens inserted
so high up that the anthers protrude beyond the corolla tube,
and a short style. Gardeners and florists had for centuries been
familiar with these variations, calling the flowers from which
the anthers protruded " thrum-eyed " and those in which the
stigma appeared in the mouth of the tube " pin-eyed." Darwin
showed by experiment that the most perfect degree of fertility,
as shown by the greatest number of seeds and the healthiest
seedlings, was attained when the pollen from a short-stamened
flower was transferred to the stigma of a short-styled flower,
or when the pollen from the long stamens was applied to the long
style. As in any given flower the stamens are short (or low
down in the flower-tube) and the style long, or conversely, it
follows that to ensure a high degree of fertility cross fertih'zation
must occur, and this is effected by the transfer of the pollen
from one flower to another by insects. Incomplete fertility arises
when the stigma is impregnated by the pollen from the same
flower. The size of the pollen-grains and the texture of the
stigma are different in the two forms of flower (see figure under
PRIMULACEAE). The discovery of the physiological significance
of these variations in structure, which had long been noticed,
was made by Darwin, and formed the first of a series of similar
observations and experiments by himself and subsequent
observers (see Darwin, Different Forms of Flowers, &c.). Among
British species may be mentioned the Common Primrose (P.
vulgaris); the cowslip (P. veris); the true Oxlip (P. elatior), a
rare plant only found in the eastern counties; and the common
1 Lat. primula; Ital. and Span, primavera; Fr. primevere, or in
some provinces primerole. Strangely enough, the word was
applied, according to Dr Prior, in the middle ages to the daisy (Bellis
perennis), the present usage being of comparatively recent origin.
oxlip, the flowers of which recall those of the common primrose,
but are provided with a supporting stem, as in the cowslip; it
is, in fact, a hybrid between the cowslip and the primrose. In
addition to these two other species occur in Britain, namely,
P. farinosa, found in Wales, the north of England and southern
Scotland, and P. scotica, which occurs in Orkney and Caithness.
These two species are found also in high Arctic latitudes,
and P. farinosa, or a very closely allied form, exists in
Fuegia.
The Auricula (q.v.) of the gardens is derived from P. Auricula,
a yellow-flowered species, a native of the Swiss mountains. The
Polyanthus (q.v.), a well-known garden race, is probably derived
from a cross between the primrose and cowslip. The Himalayas
are rich in species of primrose, often very difficult of determination
or limitation, certain forms being peculiar to particular valleys.
Of these P. denliculata, Stuartii, sikkimmensis, nivalis, floribunda,
may be mentioned as frequently cultivated, as well as the lovely
rose-coloured species P. rosea.
The Royal Cowslip (P. imperialist resembles P. japonica, but
has leaves measuring 18 in. long by 5 in. wide. It grows at
an elevation of 9000 ft. in Java, and has deep yellow or orange
flowers.
The primrose is to be had in cultivation in a considerable variety
of shades of colour, ranging from the palest yellow to deep crimson
and blue. As the varieties do not reproduce quite true from seed, it
is necessary to increase special kinds by division. The primrose is
at its best in heavy soils in slight shade, and with plenty of moisture
during the summer.
One of the most popular of winter and early spring decorative
plants is the Chinese primrose, Primula sinensis, of which some
superb strains have been obtained. For ordinary purposes young
plants are raised annually from seeds, sown about the beginning
of March, and again for succession in April and, if needed, in May.
The seed should be sown in well-drained pots or pans, in a compost
of three parts light loam, one part well-rotted leaf-mould, and one
part clean gritty sand, as it does not germinate freely if the soil
contains stagnant moisture, afterwards placing a sheet of glass
over the pans to prevent evaporation of moisture. When the
seeds germinate, remove the glass and place the pans in a well-
lighted position near the glass, shading them from the sun with
thin white paper, and giving water moderately as required. When
the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them out in pans
or shallow boxes, and, as soon as they have made leaves an inch
long, pot them singly in 3-in. pots, using in the soil a little rotten
dung. They should then be placed in a light frame near the glass
in an open situation, facing the north. When their pots are filled
with roots they should be moved into 6-in. or 7-in. pots. The soil
should now consist of three parts good loam broken with the hand,
one part rotten dung and leaf-mould, and as much sand as will
keep the whole open. They should be potted firmly, and kept
in frames close up to the glass till September, excess in watering
being carefully avoided. In the autumn they should be transferred
to a light house and placed near the glass, the atmosphere being
kept dry by the occasional use of fire-heat. The night temperature
should be kept about 45. When the flowering stems are growing
up, manure water once or twice a week will be beneficial. The
semi-double varieties are increased from seeds, but the fully-
double ones, and any particular sort, can only be increased by
cuttings. Primula japonica, a bold-growing and very beautiful
Japanese plant, is hardy in sheltered positions in England. P.
cortusoides, var. Sieboldii (Japan), of which there are many lovely
forms, is suitable for outdoor culture and under glass. There are
several small-growing hardy species which should be accommodated
on the best positions on rockeries where they are secure from ex-
cessive dampness during winter; excess of moisture at that season
is the worst enemy of the choice Alpine varieties. They are propa-
gated by seed and by division of the crowns after flowering. P.
Forrestii is a quite new orange-yellow flowered species from China;
as is also P. Bulleyi. They are probably hardy at least in favoured
spots.
Evening primrose belongs to the genus Oenothera (natural order
Onagraceae), natives of temperate North and South America.
The common evening primrose, Oe. biennis, has become naturalized
in Britain and elsewhere in Europe; the form or species known as
var. grandiflora or Oe, Lamarckiana is a very showy plant with larger
flowers than in the common form. Other species known in gardens
are Oe. missouriensis (macrocarpa) , 6 to 12 in., which has stout
trailing branches, lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms;
Oe. taraxacifolia, 6 to 12 in., which has a stout crown from which
the trailing branches spring out, and these bear yery large white
flowers changing to delicate rose; this perishes in cold soils, and
should therefore be raised from seed annually. Of erect habit
are Oe. speciosa, I to 2 ft., with large white flowers; Oe. fruticosa,
2 to 3 ft., with abundant yellow flowers.
The name of Cape Primrose has been given by some to the hybrid
forms of Streptocarpus, a South African genus belonging to the
natural order Gesneraceae.
PRIMROSE LEAGUE, THE PRIMULACEAE
PRIMROSE LEAGUE, THE, an organization for spreading
Conservative principles amongst the British democracy. The
primrose is associated with the name of Lord Beaconsfield (?..),
ing preferred by him to other flowers. On a card affixed
to the wreath of primroses sent by Queen Victoria to be placed
upon his coffin was written in Her Majesty's own handwriting:
" His favourite flowers: from Osborne: a tribute of affectionate
regard from Queen Victoria." On the day of the unveiling of
Lord Beaconsfield's statue all the members of the Conservative
party in the House of Commons were decorated with the primrose.
A small group had for some time discussed the means for obtain-
ing for Conservative principles the support of the people. Sir
H. D. Wolff therefore said to Lord Randolph Churchill, " Let
us found a primrose league." The idea was accepted by several
gentlemen in the habit of working together, and a meeting was
held at the Carlton Club shortly afterwards, consisting Lord
Randolph Churchill, Sir H. Drummond Wolff, Mr (afterwards
Sir John) Gorst, Mr Percy Mitford, Colonel Fred Burnaby and
some others, to whom were subsequently added Mr Satchell
Hopkins, Mr J. B. Stone, Mr Rowlands and some Birmingham
supporters of Colonel Fred Burnaby, who also wished to return
Lord Randolph Churchill as a Conservative member for that
city. These gentlemen were of great service in remodelling the
original statutes first drawn up by Sir H. Drummond Wolff.
The latter had for some years perceived the influence exercised
in benefit societies by badges and titular appellations, and he
further endeavoured to devise some quaint phraseology which
would be attractive to the working classes. The title of Knight
Harbinger was taken from an office no longer existing in the
Royal Household, and a regular gradation was instituted for
the honorific titles and decorations assigned to members. This
idea, though at first ridiculed, has been greatly developed since
the foundation of the order; and new distinctions and decorations
have been founded, also contributing to the attractions of the
league. The League was partially copied from the organization
of the Orange Society in Ireland. In lieu of calling the different
subsidiary associations by the ordinary term " Lodges," the name
was given of " Habitations," which could be constituted with
thirteen members. These were intended as a substitute for the
paid canvassers, about to be abolished by Mr Gladstone's Reform
Bill. The principles of the League are best explained in the
declaration which every member is asked to sign: " I declare
on my honour and faith that I will devote my best ability
to the maintenance of religion, of the estates of the realm,
and of the imperial ascendancy of the British Empire;
and that, consistently with my allegiance to the sovereign of
these realms, I will promote with discretion and fidelity the
above objects, being those of the Primrose League." The
motto was " Imperium et libertas "; the seal, three primroses;
and the badge, a monogram containing the letters PL, sur-
rounded by primroses. Many other badges and various articles
of jewellery have since been designed, with this flower as an
emblem.
A small office was first taken on a second floor in Essex Street,
Strand; but this had soon to be abandoned, as the dimensions
of the League rapidly increased. Ladies were generally included
in the first organization of the League, but subsequently a
separate Ladies' Branch and Grand Council were formed. The
founder of the Ladies' Grand Council was Lady Borthwick
(afterwards Lady Glenesk), and the first meeting of the committee
took place at her house in Piccadilly on the 2nd of March 1885.
The ladies who formed the first committee were: Lady Borth-
wick, the dowager-duchess of Marlborough (first lady president),
Lady Wimborne, Lady Randolph Churchill, Lady Charles
Beresford, the dowager-marchioness of Waterford, Julia
marchioness of Tweeddale, Julia countess of Jersey, Mrs (subse-
quently Lady) Hardman, Lady Dorothy Nevill, the Honourable
Lady Campbell (later Lady Blythswood), the Honourable
Mrs Armitage, Mrs Bischoffsheim, Miss Meresia Nevill (the first
secretary of the Ladies' Council).
When the League had become a success, it was joined by Lord
Salisbury and Sir Stafford Northcote, who were elected Grand
Masters. Its numbers gradually increased to a marvellous
extent, as may be seen by the following figures:
Year.
Knights.
Dames.
Associates.
Total.
Habita-
tions.
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1901
1910
747
8071
32.645
50,258
54.580
58,180
6o.795
63.251
75.26o
87.235
153
1381
23,381
39.215
42,791
46,216
48,796
50,973
64,906
80,038
57
1914
181,257
476,388
575.235
705.832
801,261
887,068
1,416,473
1,885,746
957
11,366
237.283
565,861
672,606
810,228
910,852
i ,001 ,292
1,556,639
2,053,019
46
169
1 200
1724
1877
1986
2081
2143
2392
2645
See an article in the Albemarle of January 1892, written by Miss
Meresia Nevill; and the Primrose League Manual, published at the
offices at Westminster. The latter publication is interesting as
a history of the organization. (H. D. W.)
PRIMULACEAE, in botany, an order of Gamopetalous
Dicotyledons belonging to the series Primulr.les and containing
28 genera with about 350 species. It is cosmopolitan in dis-
tribution, but the majority of the species are confined to the tem-
perate and colder parts of the northern hemisphere and many are
arctic or alpine. Eight genera are represented in the British flora.
The plants are herbs, sometimes annual as in pimpernel
(Anagallis arvensis) (fig. i), but generally perennial as in Primula,
(After Wossidlo.
Fischer.)
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch dcr Bolanik, by permission of GusUv
FIG. i. Anagallis arvensis (pimpernel).
i , Flowering branch. 3, Capsule.
2, A flower cut through longi- 4, Seed.
tudinally, showing the central 2, 3, 4, Enlarged.
placenta.
where the plant persists by means of a sympodial rhizome, or
in Cyclamen by means of a tuber formed from the swollen
hypocotyl. The leaves form a radical rosette as in Primula
(primrose, cowslip, &c.), or there is a well-developed aerial stem
which is erect, as in species of Lysimachia, or creeping, as in
Lysimachia Nummularia (creeping jenny or money- wort).
Hottonia (water violet) is a floating water plant with submerged
leaves cut into fine linear segments. The leaves are generally
simple, often with a toothed margin; their arrangement is
alternate, opposite or whorled, all three forms occurring in one
and the same genus Lysimachia. The flowers are solitary in
the leaf-axils as in pimpernel, money-wort, &c., or umbelled as
in primrose, where the umbel is sessile, and cowslip, where it is
stalked, or in racemes or spikes as in species of Lysimachia.
Each flower is subtended by a bract, but there are no bracteoles,
and corresponding with the absence of the latter the two first
developed sepals stand right and left (fig. 2).
The flowers are hermaphrodite and regular with
parts in fives (pentamerous) throughout,
though exceptions from the pentamerous
arrangement occur. The sepals are leafy and
persistent; the corolla is generally divided into
a longer or shorter tube and a limb which is
spreading, as in primrose, or reflexed, as in
Cyclamen; in Soldanella it is bell-shaped; in
Lysimachia the tube is often very short, the
petals appearing almost free; in Glaux the petals are absent.
The five stamens spring from the corolla-tube and are
FIG. 2.
Diagram of s typical
flower of Primula-
ceae.
342
PRIMULINE PRINA
opposite to its lobes; this anomalous position is generally
explained by assuming that an outer whorl of stamens opposite
the sepals has disappeared, though sometimes represented by
scales as hi Samolus and Soldanella. Another explanation is
based on the late appearance of the petals in the floral develop-
ment and their origin from the backs of the primordia of the
stamens; it is then assumed that three alternating whorls only
are present, namely, sepals, stamens bearing petal-like dorsal
outgrowths, and carpels. The superior ovary half-inferior
in Samolus bears a simple style ending in a capitate entire
stigma, and contains a free-central placenta bearing generally
a large number of ovules, which are exceptional in the group
Gamopetalae in having two integuments. The fruit is a capsule
dehiscing by 5 sometimes 10 teeth or valves, or sometimes
transversely (a pyxidium) as in Anagallis.
Cross pollination is often favoured by dimorphism of the
flower, as shown in species of Primula (fig. 3). The two forms
have long and short styles repectively, the stamens occupying
corresponding positions half-way down or at the mouth of the
corolla-tube; the long-styled flowers have smaller pollen-grains,
which correspond with smaller stigmatic papillae on the short
styles.
The order is divided into five tribes by characters based on
differences in position of the ovules which are generally semi-
anatropous so that the seed is peltate with the hilum in the centre
on one side (or ventral), but sometimes, as in Hottonia and
(From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanit.)
FIG. 3. Primula sinensis.
L, Long-styled flowers. P, Pollen grains, and N, stig-
K, Short-styled flowers. matic papillae of long-styled
G, Style. form.
S, Anthers. p, n. Ditto of short-styled form.
(P,N,p,n, X no.)
Samolus, anatropous with the hilum basal together with the
method of dehiscence of the capsule and the relative position
of the ovary. The chief British genera are Primula, including
P. vulgaris, primrose, P. veris, cowslip, P. elatior, oxlip, and the
small alpine species P. farinosa, with mealy leaves; Lysimachia,
loose strife, including L. Nummularia, money- wort; Anagallis,
pimpernel; and Hottonia, water violet.
PRIMULINE, a dye-stuff containing the thiazole ring system
conjointly with a benzene ring. The primulines are to be
considered as derivatives of dehydrothiotoluidine (aminoben-
zenyltoluylmercaptan), which is obtained when para-tolui-
C 6 H 4 .NH,(p)
Primuline.
dine is heated with sulphur for eighteen hours at 180-190 C.
and then for a further six hours at 200-220 C. (P. Jacobson,
Ber., 1889, 22, p. 333; L. Gattermann, ibid. p. 1084). Dehy-
drothiotoluidine is not itself a dye-stuff, but if the heating be
carried out at a higher temperature in the presence of more
sulphur, then a base is formed, which gives primuline-yellow
on sulphonation (A. G. Green, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1888,
i, p. 194). Primuline-yellow is a mixture of sodium salts and
probably contains in the molecule at least three thiazole rings
in combination. It is a substantive cotton dye of rather
fugitive shade, but can be diazotized on the fibre and then
developed with other components, so yielding a series of ingrain
colours.
Thioflavine T is obtained by the methylation of dehydro-
thiotoluidine with methyl alcohol in the presence of hydrochloric
acid [German Patent 51738 (1888)]. Thioflavine S results from
the methylation of dehydrothiotoluidine sulphonic acid. This
sulphonic acid on oxidation with bleaching powder or with lead
peroxide, in alkaline solution yields Moramine yellow, which
dyes cotton a beautiful yellow.
PRIMUS, MARCUS ANTONIUS, Roman general, was born
at Tolosa in Gaul about A.D. 30-35. During the reign of Nero
he was resident in Rome and a member of the senate, from which
he was expelled for forgery in connexion with a will and was
banished from the city. He was subsequently reinstated by
Galba, and placed in command of the 7th legion in Pannonia.
During the civil war he was one of Vespasian's strongest sup-
porters. Advancing into Italy, he gained a decisive victory
over the Vitellians at Bedriacum (or Betriacum) in October 69,
and on the same day stormed and set fire to Cremona. He then
crossed the Apennines, and made his way to Rome, into which
he forced an entrance after considerable opposition. Vitellius
was seized and put to death. For a few days Primus was
virtually ruler of Rome, and the senate bestowed upon him the
rank and insignia of a consul. But on the arrival of Licinius
Mucianus he was not only obliged to surrender his authority,
but was treated with such ignominy that he left Rome. Primus
must have been alive during the reign of Domitian, since four
epigrams of Martial are addressed to him. Tacitus describes
him as brave in action, ready of speech, clever at bringing others
into odium, powerful in times of civil war and rebellion, greedy,
extravagant, in peace a bad citizen, in war an ally not to be
despised.
See Tacitus, Histories, ii., iii., iv. ; Dio Cassius Ixv. 9-21.
PRINA, GIUSEPPE (1768-1814), Italian statesman. He
gave early proofs of rare talent, and after studying at the
university of Pa via he passed as doctor of law in 1789. He was
a firm adherent of Napoleon Bonaparte, and when Eugene
Beauharnais became viceroy of Italy, was appointed minister
of finance. Genial in private life, he was harsh and unyielding
in his official capacity, and his singular skill in devising fresh
taxes to meet the enormous demands of Napoleon's government
made him the best-hated man in Lombardy, the more so that,
being a Piedmontese, he was regarded as a foreigner. The news
of the emperor's forced abdication on the nth of April 1814
reached Milan on the i6th, and roused hopes of independence.
The senate assembled on the igth and Prina's party moved that
delegates should be despatched to Vienna to request that Eugene
Beauharnais should be raised to the throne of a free Italian
kingdom. In spite of precautions this fact became public and
provoked the formidable riot styled " The battle of the um-
brellas " that broke out the next day. A furious mob burst
into the senate, pillaged its halls and sought everywhere for the
execrated Prina. Not finding him there, the rioters rushed to
his house, which they wrecked, and seizing the doomed minister,
who was discovered in a remote chamber donning a disguise, dur-
ing four hours dragged him about the town, until wounded,
mutilated, almost torn to pieces, he received his death-blow.
The mob then insulted his miserable remains, stuffing stamped-
paper into his mouth. These horrors were enacted by day, in
a thoroughfare crowded with " respectable " citizens sheltered
from the rain by umbrellas. The authorities were passive, and
although some courageous persons actually rescued the victim
at an early stage and concealed him in a friendly house, the blood-
thirsty mob soon discovered his refuge and were about to force
an entrance, when the dying man surrendered to save his
deliverer's property. The riots directly contributed to the
re-establishment of Austrian rule in Milan.
See M. Fabi, Milano ed il ministro Prina (Novara, 1860); F.
Lemmi, La Restaurazione austriaca a Milano nel 1814 (Bologna,
PRINCE
343
1902); Ugo Foscolo, Alcune parole intorno alia fine del reeno d' Italia.
The story of the murder of Prina forms the subject of a play by
G. Rovetta, entitled Principle di secolo.
PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to
take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince), a title implying either political
power or social rank. The Latin word princeps originally
signified " the first " either in place or action (cf. Ger. Ftirst;
O.H.G. /orwto = English " first ") As an honorary title it was
applied in the Roman republic to the princeps senatus, i.e. the
senator who stood first on the censor's list, and the princeps
juventulis, i.e. the first on the roll of the equestrian order. The
assumption of the style of princeps senatus by Augustus (q.v.)
first associated the word with the idea of sovereignty and
dominion, but throughout the period of the empire it is still used
as a title of certain civil or military officials (e.g. princeps officii,
for the chief official of a provincial governor, in the Theodosian
code, leg. I., De offic. reel. prov. i. 7; princeps militiae, i.e. the
commander of a cohort or legion); while in the middle ages the
term is still applied vaguely in charters to the magnates of
the state or the high officials of the palace, principes being
treated as the equivalent of proceres, optimates or seniores. Yet
the idea of sovereignty as implied in the word princeps, used as
a title rather than as a designation, survived strongly. In the
Visigothic and Lombard codes princeps is the equivalent of
rex or imperator; and when, after the overthrow of the Lombard
kingdom by the Franks, Arichis II. (d. 787) of Beneventum
wished to assert his independent sovereignty, he had himself
anointed and crowned, and exchanged his style of duke for that
of prince.
From Italy the use of the title spread first, with the Crusaders,
to the Holy Land, where Bohemund, son of Tancred, took the
style of prince of Antioch; next, with the Latin conquerors, into
the East Roman Empire, where in 1 205 William de Champlette,
a cadet of the house of Champagne, founded the principality
of Achaea and the Morea. This example was followed by lesser
magnates, who styled themselves loosely, or were so styled by
the chroniclers, " princes," even though they had little claim
Fnace to '"dependent sovereignty. From the East the
fashion was carried back to France; but there the
erection of certain fiefs into " principalities," which became
common in the isth and i6th centuries, certainly implied no
concession of independent sovereignty, and the title of " prince "
thus bestowed ranked below that of " duke," being sometimes
borne by cadet branches of ducal houses, e.g. the princes of Leon
and of Soubise, cadets of the house of Rohan. On the other
hand, the title of " prince " was borne from the time of Charles
VII. or Louis XL by the sons of the royal house, so-called " princes
of the blood " (princes du sang), who took precedence in due
order after the king. To these were added, from the time of
Louis XIV., the princes Ugitimis, recognized bastards of the
sovereign, who ranked next after the princes of the blood. Thus,
e.g. the princes of Conde, Conti and Lamballe owed their exalted
precedence, not to their principalities, but to their royal descent.
In Germany, Austria and other countries formerly embraced
in the Holy Roman Empire the title of " prince " has had a some-
Oermmay. wnat different history. During the first period of
the empire, the " princes " were the whole body of
the optimates who took rank next to the emperor. In the nth
century, with the growth of feudalism, all feudatories holding
in chief of the Crown ranked as " princes," from dukes to simple
counts, together with archbishops, bishops and the abbots of
monasteries held directly of the emperor. Towards the end of
the 1 2th century, however, the order of princes (Fiirstenstand)
was narrowed to the more important spiritual and temporal
feudatories who had a right to a seat in the diet of the empire
in the " college of princes " (Ftirslenbank). Finally, in the
I3th century, seven of the most powerful of these separated
themselves into a college which obtained the sole right of electing
the emperor. These were called " prince electors " (Kurfiirstcn) ,
and formed the highest rank of the German princes (see ELECTOR).
The formal designation of " prince " (Ftirst) was, however,
extremely rare in' Germany in the middle ages. Examples are
the princes of Mecklenburg (Prilislav I., prince of the Holy
Roman Empire in 1 1 76) and RUgen, the latter title now belonging
to the kings of Prussia. In the i7th century some half-dozen
more principalities were created, of which that of Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen (1697) survives as a sovereign house. The i8th
century increased their number, and of the princely houses of this
period those of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1710), Waldeck (1712)
and Reuss, elder branch (1778), have preserved their sovereignty.
Of the other sovereign " princes " in Germany, Reuss, cadet
branch, obtained the title in 1806, Schaumburg-Lippe in 1807.
Outside the German Empire the prince of Liechtenstein, whose
title dates from 1608, still remains sovereign.
Thus, in Germany, with the decay of the empire the title
"prince" received a sovereign connotation, though it ranks,
as in France, below that of " duke." There are, however, in
the countries formerly embraced in the Holy Roman Empire
other classes of " princes." Some of these inherit titles, sovereign
under the old empire, but " mediatized " during the years of
its collapse at the beginning of the igth century, e.g. Thurn and
Taxis (1695), Hohenlohe (1764), Leiningen (1779); others
received the title of " prince " immediately before or after the
end of the empire as " compensation " for ceded territories,
e.g. Metternich-Winneburg (1803). Besides these mediatized
princes, who transmit their titles and their privilege of " royal "
blood to all their legitimate descendants, there are also in Austria
and Germany " princes," created by the various German
sovereigns, and some dating from the period of the old empire,
who take a lower rank, as not being " princes of the Holy Roman
Empire " nor entitled to any royal privileges. Some of these
titles have been bestowed to give a recognized rank to the
morganatic wives and children of royal princes, e.g., the princes
of Battenberg, or the title of " princess " of Hohenberg borne by
the consort of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand d'Este; others
as a reward for distinguished service, e.g. Hardenberg, Bliicher,
Bismarck. In this latter case the rule of primogeniture has
been usual, the younger sons taking the title of " count " (Graf).
These non-royal princes are ranked in the Almanack de Gotha
with British and French dukes and Italian princes. All these
various classes of princes are styled Ftirst and have the predicate
" Serene Highness " (Durchlauchf). The word Prinz, actually
synonymous with Ftirst, is reserved as the title of the non-reigning
members of sovereign houses and, with certain exceptions (e.g.
Bavaria), for the cadets of mediatized ducal and princely families.
The heir to a throne is " crown prince " (Kronprinz), " hereditary
grand duke " (Erbgrossherzog) or " hereditary prince " (Erbprinz).
The heir to the crown of Prussia, when not the son of the monarch
has the title of " prince of Prussia " (Prinz von Preussen). 1
In Italy the title " prince " (principe) is also of very unequal
value. In Naples, following the precedent set by Arichis II.,
" much affecting the glory of a greater name than
duke," it ranked above that of duke. In other parts ltaty '
of Italy the heads of great families sometimes bear the title
of "prince," e.g. Prince Corsini, duke of Casigliano; sometimes
that of " duke," e.g. the Caetani, princes of Teano, whose chief is
styled " duke of Sermoneta," the title of " prince of Teano " being
borne by his eldest son. The title of "prince of Naples " is attached
to the eldest son of the king of Italy. The excessive multipli-
cation of the title has tended to deprive it of much social value in
itself, and under the democratic constitution of Italy it confers
neither power nor precedence.
" Prince " is also the translation of the Russian title knyaz,
though veliky knyaz, the style of the Imperial princes, is rendered
" grand duke." Some of the Russian, or Polish-
Russian, princely families are of great importance
e.g.the Czartoryskis,the Swiatopolk-Czetwertynskis,or the Russian
1 Furst may or may not be a sovereign or territorial title, but it
is only borne by the head of the family, e.g. Heinrich XIV., regie-
render Furst (reigning prince) von Reuss or Furst Bismarck. Prinz
always implies cadetship, e.g. Prinz Heinrich XLV. Reuss. The
title Prinz von Preussen, therefore, excludes any idea of territorial
sovereignty, whereas the correct German rendering of that of prince
of Wales, which originally at least implied such sovereignty, would
be Furst von Wales.
Russia.
344
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND
Britain
branch of the Lubomirskis. But, in general, though the title
" prince " implies descent from one or other of the ruling
dynasties of Russia, it is in itself of little account, being exceed-
ingly common owing to its being borne by every member of
the family. The predicate of " Serene Highness," though borne
by certain magnates who were princes before they became
Russians as in the case of the families mentioned above is
not attached to the Russian title of "prince." In some cases,
however, it is conferred with the title by imperial warrant (e.g.
Lieven, 1826).
The title of " prince " is also borne by the descendants of those
Greek Phanariot families (see PHANARIOTS), e.g. Mavrocordato,
Ypsilanti, Soutzo, who formerly supplied hospodars
r fy ' to the Turkish principalities on the Danube. In
the Ottoman Empire the rulers appointed to the quasi-inde-
pendent Christian communities subject to it have usually been
designated " prince, " and the title has thus come to signify in
connexion with the Eastern Question a sovereignty more or less
subordinate. As such it was rejected on behalf of the Bavarian
prince Otho, when he accepted the throne of Greece, in favour
of that of " king. " On the other hand, the substitution, in
1852, in Montenegro of the title of " prince and lord " (knyaz i
gospodar) for the ancient title of iiladika (archbishop) certainly
implied no such subordination. The only other
instance in Europe of " prince " as a completely
sovereign title is that of the prince of Monaco, the formal style
having been adopted by the Grimaldi lords in 1641.
In Great Britain " prince " and " princess " as titles are
confined to members of the royal family, though non-royal dukes
are so described in their formal style (see DUKE).
Nor is this use of great antiquity; the custom of
giving the courtesy title of " prince " to all male
descendants of the sovereign to the third and fourth generation
being of modern growth and quite foreign to English traditions.
It was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the king's sons began
to be styled " princes "; and as late as the time of Charles II.,
the daughters of the duke of York, both of whom became queens
regnant, were called simply the Lady Mary and the Lady Anne.
The title of " princess royal, " bestowed on the eldest daughter
of the sovereign was borrowed by King George II. from Prussia.
Until recent years the title " prince " was never conferred on
anybody except the heir-apparent to the Crown, and his princi-
pality is a peerage. Since the reign of Edward III. the eldest
sons of the kings and queens of England have always been dukes
of Cornwall by birth, and, with a few exceptions, princes of
Wales by creation. Before that Edward I. had conferred the
principality on his eldest son, afterwards Edward II., who was
summoned to and sat in parliament as prince of Wales. But
Edward the Black Prince was the original grantee
of the principality as well as of the dukedom, under
the special limitations which have continued in
force to the present day. The entail of the former was " to
him and his heirs the kings of England " and of the latter " to
him and his heirs the first-begotten sons of the kings of England. "
Hence when a prince of Wales and duke of Cornwall succeeds
to the throne the principality in all cases merges at once in the
Crown, and can have no separate existence again except under
a fresh creation, while the dukedom, if he has a son, descends
immediately to him, or remains in abeyance until he has a son
if one is not already born. If, however, a prince of Wales and
duke of Cornwall should die in the lifetime of the sovereign,
leaving a son and heir, both dignities are extinguished, because
his son, although he is his heir, is neither a king of England
nor the first-begotten son of a king of England. But, if instead
of a son he should leave a brother his heir, then as was
decided in the reign of James I. on the death of Henry, prince
of Wales, whose heir was his brother Charles, duke of York
the dukedom of Cornwall would pass to him as the first-begotten
son of the king of England then alive, the principality of Wales
alone becoming merged in the Crown. It has thus occasionally
happened that the dukes of Cornwall have not been princes of
Wales, as Henry VI. and Edward VI., and that the princes
Prince ot
Wales.
of Wales have not been dukes of Cornwall, as Richard II. and
George III.
But even now the cadets of the reigning family can only by
royal intervention legally be saved from merging, as of old, in
the general untitled mass of the people. The children of the
sovereign other than his eldest son, though by courtesy
" princes " and " princesses, " need a royal warrant to raise
them de jure above the common herd; and even then, though
they be dubbed " Royal Highness " in their cradles, they remain
" commoners " till raised to the peerage. In 1905 King
Edward VII. established what appears to be a new precedent,
by conferring the titles of "princess" and "highness" upon the
daughters of the princess Louise, duchess of Fife, created
'' princess royal. "
This use of the word " prince " which has in England so lofty
a connotation to translate foreign titles of such varying impor-
tance and significance naturally leads to a good deal of confusion
in the public mind. It is not uncommon in English society to
see, e.g. a Russian prince, who may be only the cadet of a family
not included in the Almanack de Gotha, given precedence as such
over the untitled members of a great English ducal family,
and treated with some of that exaggerated deference paid to
" royalty. " On the other hand, the insular complacency of
many Englishmen is apt to regard all German princes with a
certain contempt, whereas the title is in Germany sometimes
associated with sovereign power, sometimes with vast territorial
possessions, and always with high social position.
See, Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. " Princeps," ed. G. A. L. Henschal
(Niort, 1883); John Selden, Titles of Honour (London, 1672);
Almanack de Gotha (1906) ; H. Schulze, Die Hausgesetze der regie-
renden deutschen Furstenhduser (3 vols., Jena, 1862-1883); H.
Rehm, Modernes Fiirstenrecht (Munich, 1904). (W. A. P.)
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, a province of the Dominion of
Canada, lies between 45 58' and 47 7' N. and 62 and 64
27' W. The underlying geological formation is Permian, though
outliers of Triassic rock occur. The coal seams supposed to
underlie the Permian formation are apparently too deep down
to be of practical value. The rocks consist of soft red micaceous
sandstone and shales, with interstratified but irregular beds of
brownish-red conglomerates containing pebbles of white quartz
and other rocks. There are also beds of hard dark-red sandstone
with the shales. Bands of moderately hard reddish-brown
conglomerate, the pebbles being of red shale and containing
white calcite, are seen at many points; and then greenish-grey
irregular patches occur in the red beds, due to the bleaching out
of the red colours by the action of the organic matter of plants.
Fossil plants are abundant at many places. Beds of peat, dunes
of drifted sand, alluvial clays and mussel mud occur in and
near the creeks and bays.
Physical Features. The island lies in a great semi-circular
bay of the Gulf of St Lawrence, which extends from Point
Miscou in New Brunswick to Cape North in Cape Breton. From
the mainland it is separated by Northumberland Strait, which
varies from 9 to 30 miles in width. It is extremely irregular in
shape, and deep inlets and tidal streams almost divide it into
three approximately equal parts; from the head of Hillsborough
river on the south to Savage Harbour on the north is only one
and a half miles, while at high tide the distance between the
heads of the streams which fall into Bedeque and Richmond
Bays is even less. North of Summerside the land nowhere rises
more than 175 ft. above sea-level; but between Summerside and
Charlottetown, especially near north Wiltshire, is a ridge of hills,
running from north to south and rising to a height of nearly
500 ft. From Charlottetown eastwards the land is low and
level. The north shore, facing the gulf, is a long series of beaches
of fine sand, and is a favourite resort in summer. On the south,
low cliffs of crumbling red sandstone face the strait. The climate
is healthy, and though bracing, milder than that of the neighbour-
ing mainland. Fogs are much less common than in either New
Brunswick or Nova Scotia.
Area and Population. The greatest length of the island is
145 m., its greatest breadth 34 m., its total area 2184 sq. m.
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND
345
The population in 1901 was 103,259, having sunk from 109,078
in 1891. It is thus much the most densely populated province
in Canada, there being nearly fifty-two persons to the sq. m.
Though very large families are not so common as in the province
of Quebec, the agricultural character of the population makes
the average number of persons to a family greater (5-51) than in
any other province. As in all the maritime provinces, there
is a steady immigration to the Canadian West and to the United
States. The population is mainly of British descent, but also
comprises descendants of the French Acadians and of the
American loyalists. About 200 Indians of the Mic-Mac tribe
remain, and have slightly increased in numbers since 1891. In
1901 the origin of the people was: Scots, 41,753; English, 24,043;
Irish, 21,992; French, 13,867; all other nationalities, 1604. The
principal religious denominations and the number of their
adherents were as follows: Church of Rome, 45,796; Presby-
terians, 30,750; Methodists, 13,402; Anglican, 5976; Baptists,
5905. The Irish and French are almost entirely Roman Catholic,
the Scots about two-thirds Presbyterian and one third Roman
Catholic. Jurisdiction over the Catholics is held by the bishop
of Charlottetown, and over the Anglicans by the bishop of Nova
Scotia. The Presbyterians form part of the synod of the
Maritime Provinces.
Administration, &c. Five members of the House of Commons
and four senators are sent to the federal legislature. At its
entry into federation in 1873, the number of members was six,
and the reduction to five in 1901 was bitterly denounced. The
local government now consists of a lieutenant-governor and of
a legislative assembly. This conducts not only the general
affairs of the province, but most of those of the towns and villages;
legal provision has, however, been made for the establishment of
a municipal system, and Charlottetown and Summerside are
incorporated municipalities, though with powers of self-govern-
ment much more limited than those of any other incorporated
Canadian towns. The provincial revenues, which tend to prove
inadequate, are largely made up of the subsidy paid by the federal
government, though there are numerous taxes, which bear
heavily on the small industrial population. But for the increase
in 1907 of the federal subsidy, financial exigencies might have
forced the adoption of direct taxation, in spite of its unpopularity
among the farmers.
Education. Primary education in the province has been given
free since 1852. Since 1877 it has been under the control of a
minister of education with a seat in the provincial cabinet.
At Charlottetown is the Prince of Wales College, really a rather
advanced secondary school, with which is affiliated the Normal
School. St Dunstan's College, another advanced high school
in Charlottetown, is under Roman Catholic control. Advanced
university education is not given in the province. Attendance
at the primary schools is by law compulsory, but the exigencies
of a farming population and the lack of adequate means of
enforcement render the law inoperative. The salaries of the
teachers are, as a rule, low, and the school buildings cheerless
and ill-maintained.
Agriculture. The soil, an open sandy loam, deep red in
colour, which was slightly exhausted at the beginning of the
century by repeated crops of cereals, has been renewed by the
application of mussel mud dredged from the bays and tidal
streams. All the staple crops are grown especially oats,
potatoes and turnips. Wheat is raised only for local consump-
tion. Cattle and hogs flourish. In the last years of the igth
century the introduction of co-operation gave a great impetus
to the manufacture of butter and cheese. The first cheese factory
was opened in 1892, and the first creamery in 1894. Of over 1 5,000
farmers all, save about 900, own their own farms, and are in
nearly all cases well-to-do. Large quantities of animal and
vegetable food, amounting to about one-half of the total product,
are exported, chiefly to Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and the
New England states. Fruit is raised less extensively than in
Nova Scotia, but enough is grown to supply the local market,
and apples of good quality are exported.
Fisheries. Though smaller in value than those of any other
sea-board province, the fisheries of Prince Edward Island are,
in proportion to the total population, extremely productive.
Of the catch of about 200,000, lobsters, most of which are
canned, are worth about 90,000, and oysters 20,000, in the latter
case about half the total value of the catch of the Dominion,
which is compelled to import largely from the United States.
There are signs of the approaching exhaustion of the oyster beds,
but no adequate remedy or new source of supply has been found.
Herring, cod, mackerel and smelts are also caught in large
quantities in the coast waters.
Other Industries. About one-third of the province is covered
with birch, beech, maple, pine, spruce, cedar and other woods,
but though a little lumber is exported, the industry is declining.
The building of wooden ships, a flourishing trade till about 1886,
is now almost extinct. The packing of pork and of lobsters is
actively pursued near Charlottetown, and small factories have
been established for the manufacture of boots and shoes, tobacco,
condensed milk, &c., but the great bulk of the manufactured
goods used are imported from the other provinces.
Communications. The Prince Edward Island branch of the
Intercolonial railway, owned and worked by the federal govern-
ment, runs from Souris in the east to Tignish in the north-west,
with branches to Georgetown, Murray Harbour, Charlottetown
and Cape Traverse. Good wagon roads intersect each other
everywhere, and nearly all the villages and country districts
are connected by telephone. During spring, summer and autumn
Charlottetown has daily communication with Pictou in Nova
Scotia and Shediac in New Brunswick, and a frequent service
to other ports in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Massachusetts.
The harbour of Charlottetown and the Northumberland Straits
are closed by ice from about the middle of December to the
beginning of April, after which there is a service by specially
constructed ice-breaking boats between Georgetown and Pictou.
The ice is often too thick to make a regular service possible, and
the island has long agitated for federal construction of a railway
tunnel between Cape Traverse in Prince Edward Island and the
neighbouring shore of New Brunswick, 9 m. distant.
History. Jacques Carder sighted Prince Edward Island on
his first voyage in June 1 534, but mistook it for part of the main-
land. Succeeding voyagers discovered his mistake, and toward
the end of the i6th century it was called Isle St Jean, which
name it retained till 1798, when it was given its present name
out of compliment to the duke of Kent, at that time commanding
the British forces in North America. In 1603 Champlain took
possession of it for France, and in 1663 it was granted by the
company of New France to Captain Doublet, an officer in the
navy whose failure to make permanent settlements soon brought
about the loss of his grant. Little attention was paid to the
island until after the Peace of Utrecht, when the French made
efforts to colonize it. In 1719 it was granted, en franc alleu noble,
to the count of St Pierre, who tried to establish fisheries and a
trading company. He spent large sums on his enterprise, but
the scheme proved unsuccessful and his grant was revoked.
In 1758, soon after the capture of Louisbourg, Isle St Jean was
occupied by a British force under Lord Rollo (see Annual
Register, 1758). Its population at this time numbered about
4000, under a military governor with his headquarters at Port
la Joie (Charlottetown). After its final cession to Great Britain
in 1763 it was placed under the administration of Nova Scotia,
but later was made a separate government, its first parliament
meeting in 1773.
In 1764-1765 it was surveyed, and most of the present names
given; in 1767 it was divided into townships of about 20,000
acres each, grants of which were made to individuals with claims
on the government. They were to pay a small sum as quit
rents, and the conditions imposed provided for the establishment
of churches and wharves and bona-fide settlement. On these
terms practically the whole island was granted away in a single
day. The grantees were in most cases mere speculators, and
the lands fell into the hands of a large number of non-residents.
A continual agitation against the absentees was kept up by the
settlers, who rapidly increased in numbers. During the early
PRINCES' ISLANDS PRINCETON
i pth century many Scottish immigrants settled in the island. A
commission appointed in 1860 advised the compulsory purchase
of the lands, and their sale in smaller holdings to genuine settlers,
but a bill passed with this intent was disallowed by the imperial
authorities.
In 1864 a conference to consider the question of maritime
union met at Charlottetown. The visit of delegates from Canada
widened it into a general conference on federation, from which
sprang the Dominion of Canada. Prince Edward Island's local
patriotism forced its representatives to withdraw from the later
conferences, but the abrogation in 1866 by the United States
of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, financial difficulties connected
with the building of an island railway, and the offer of better
terms by the Dominion government, brought it into federation
in 1873. A bill on the lines of that formerly disallowed was soon
afterwards passed, and the land difficulty was finally settled.
Since then the main political issues have been the quarrel with
the federal government over the construction of a tunnel and
the control of the liquor traffic, which has been prohibited but
by no means suppressed.
AUTHORITIES. Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology (1891);
Report of Dr R. W. Ells, Geological Survey (1882-1884); Report
of R. Chalmers, Geological Survey (1894); Rev. G. Sutherland,
Manual of History of Prince Edward Island (1861); D. Campbell,
History of Prince Edward Island (1875); Special Reports on Educa-
tional Subjects, vol. iv. (London, 1901); articles in J. C. Hopkins's
Canada, an Encyclopaedia (Toronto, 1898-1900). (W. L. G.)
PRINCES' ISLANDS (anc. Demonesi; Byzantine, Papadonisia;
Turkish, Kizil Adalar, or " Red Islands," from the ruddy colour
of the rocks), a cluster of nine islands in the Sea of Marmora,
forming a caza of the prefecture of Constantinople. They figure
in Byzantine history chiefly as places of banishment. A convent
in Prinkipo (now a mass of ruins at the spot called Kamares)
was a place of exile for the empresses Irene, Euphrosyne, Zoe
and Anna Dalassena. Antigone was the prison of the patriarch
Methodius, and its chapel is said to have been built by the
empress Theodora. In Khalki the monastery of the Theotokos
(originally of St John), which since 1831 has been a Greek
commercial school, was probably founded by John VI. or VII.
Palaeologus, was rebuilt about 1680, and again in the i8th
century by Alexander Ypsilanti, hospodar of Moldavia. Close
beside it is the tomb of Edward Barton, second English
ambassador to the Porte. Hagia Trias (a school of theology
since 1844) was rebuilt by the patriarch Metrophanes. On Prote
were the monasteries to which Bardanes (Philippicus), Michael I.
Rhangabes, Romanus I., Lecapenus and Romanus IV. Diogenes
were banished. The islands are a favourite summer resort; four
are inhabited and noted for the mildness and salubrity of their
ch'mate. Prinkipo (Pityusa), altitude 655 ft.; Khalki (Chalcitis;
Turkish Heibeli), 445 ft.; Prote (Turkish Kinali), 375 ft.; and
Antigone (Panormus; Turkish Burgaz Adasi), 500 ft. The
buildings on all the islands were injured by the earthquake of
1894, especially the naval college, and monastery of St George
on Khalki, and the monastery of Christ on Prinkipo. The
population is about 10,500, half being Greek. Khalki contains
an Ottoman naval school and Greek theological and commercial
colleges.
See G. Schlumberger, Les lies des Princes (Paris, 1884); A. Grise-
bach, Rumelien und Brussa (Gottingen, 1839).
PRINCETON, a city and the county-seat of Gibson county,
Indiana, U.S.A., about 27 m. N. of Evansville. Pop. (1900),
6041, 628 being of negro descent and 198 foreign-born; (1910)
6443. It is served by the Evansville & Terre Haute and the
Southern railways (the latter of which has shops here), and by
the Evansville & Southern Indiana traction line (electric). It
has a considerable trade in oil and coal and in the agricultural
products of the surrounding region, and has various manufactures.
Princeton was first settled in 1814, and was chartered as a city
in 1884.
PRINCETON, a borough of Mercer county, New Jersey, on
Stony Brook, and the Delaware & Raritan canal, 49 m. S.W.
of New York City. Pop. (1905) 6029; (1910) 5136. Princeton
is served by the Pennsylvania railroad, and by two electric lines
to Trenton (10 m.), passing through Lawrenceville (in Lawrence
township; until 1816 called Maidenhead; pop., 2522 in 1910),
the seat of the Lawrenceville school (1882), for boys, which was
endowed by the residuary legatees of John Cleve Green (1800-
1875), and is probably the first endowed secondary school for
boys in the Middle States.
Princeton is situated 210 ft. above sea-level, and the county
to the east, north and west is rocky and hilly. The borough
is the seat of Princeton University (?..), and of " The Theo-
logical Seminary of the Presbyterian Church in the United States
of America," commonly known as Princeton Theological Semi-
nary, which was opened in 1812, and was chartered in 1824.
The seminary was for one year under the sole care of Archibald
Alexander (?..), and among its teachers and representative
theologians have been Samuel Miller (1769-1850), who was
professor of ecclesiastical history and church government here
(1813-1849), Charles Hodge, Joseph Addison Alexander and
James Waddel Alexander, William Henry Green, Archibald
Alexander Hodge, Francis L.Patton,who became president in 1902
and Benjamin B. Warfield (b. 1851), professor of didactic and
polemic theology from 1887. Under such leaders Princeton
theology has been distinctly conservative, supporting the old
standards of the Westminster Confession and Catechisms. The
seminary is well endowed, so that there is no charge for tuition
or room rent ; among its principal benefactors were James Lenox
(1800-1880), Robert Leighton Stuart (1806-1882), his widow
and his brother Alexander (1810-1879), John Cleve Green, men-
tioned above, and Mrs Mary J. Winthrop (d. 1902). It has a
fine campus south-west of the business centre of the borough;
in the Lenox Library and the Lenox Reference Library, built
in 1843 and 1879 respectively, and gifts of James Lenox, there
were 82,200 bound volumes and 31,500 pamphlets in 1909;
Stuart Hall (1876) contains lecture-rooms; Miller Chapel is the
place of worship; and the three dormitories are Alexander Hall
(the " Old Seminary "), first used for this purpose in 1817, Brown
Hall, built in 1864-1865, and Hodge Hall (1893). In 1908-
1909 the faculty numbered 16 and the students 153, of whom
8 were fellows and 17 graduate students.
Princeton became in 1897 the home of Grover Cleveland, who
died there; and from 1898 until his death it was the residence
of Laurence Hutton (1843-1904), a well-known writer on the
history of the stage. Besides its fine residences and buildings
of the seminary and of the university, the only notable buildings
are the handsome Princeton Inn, about midway between the
campus of the university and that of the seminary, and " Mor-
ven," the homestead of the Stocktons, built in the first decade
of the 1 8th century. In the Princeton Cemetery are buried
presidents and professors of the university.
The first settlers were the companions of Richard Stockton,
the grandfather of Richard Stockton, signer of the Declaration
of Independence. The removal hither in 1756 from Newark
of the College of New Jersey, later Princeton University, gave
the place its first educational prominence. At the time of the
War of Independence town and gown were both strongly
patriotic. The first state legislature of New Jersey met here
on the 27th of August 1776; and in Nassau Hall, the first of the
college buildings, erected in 1 7 54-1 756, which was then the largest
edifice in the colonies, the Continental Congress sat from the
30th of June to the 4th of November 1873, and on the 3ist of
October Congress received the news of the signature of the
definitive treaty of peace with Great Britain. After the battle
of Trenton Cornwallis's troops were hurried to that place, three
regiments and three companies of light-horse being left at Prince-
ton when the mam body, on the 2nd of January 1777, passed
through. Washington, unable to retreat or to meet the British
attack, turned Cornwallis's left flank and advanced on the
weak British garrison in Princeton. A detachment under General
Hugh Mercer (c. 1720-1777), ordered to destroy the Stony Brook
bridge, and so cut off escape to Trenton, met two of the three
regiments,led by Lieut.-Colonel Charles Mawhood,near the bridge,
and, though doing great execution with its rifles at a distance,
was unable, being unequipped with bayonets, to hold its ground
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
347
in hand-to-hand fighting, and fled through an orchard, leaving
Mercer there mortally wounded; he died on the i2th in a farm-
house (still standing) on the battlefield. Washington's main
army now came to the assistance of the retreating Americans,
and forced the retreat of the other British regiments (the 55th
and 40th) to Princeton, where they either surrendered or fled
towards New Brunswick. The British losses were heavy and
the Americans lost many officers. The bridge was destroyed
by the American troops just before the approach of General
Alexander Leslie (c. 1740-1794) with reinforcements from Corn-
wallis. Washington's flank movement at Trenton and his engage-
ment with the British at Princeton made necessary the withdrawal
of the British from West Jersey. In the autumn of 1783 Wash-
ington, summoned to Princeton by Congress, then in session
there, made his headquarters at Rocky Hill, about 4 m. north
of Princeton in Montgomery township, Somerset county,
whence on the and of November he issued his farewell address
to the army; his headquarters is preserved as a museum. A
battle monument in Princeton, designed by MacMonnies and
paid for by the Federal Congress, the state of New Jersey and
the borough of Princeton, has been projected.
See J. R. Williams, Handbook of Princeton (New York, 1905);
I. F. Hageman, History of Princeton and its Institutions (2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1879) ; W. S. Stryker, The Battles of Trenton and Prince-
ton (Boston, 1898); and V. L. Collins, The Continental Congress at
Princeton (Princeton, 1908).
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, an American institution of
higher learning in Princeton, New Jersey, until 1896 called
officially the college of New Jersey. Its campus consists of 539
acres comprised in three tracts of ground adjoining each other.
The main campus, one of the mbst beautiful in the country, is
on the south side of Nassau Street, the old country road
between Philadelphia and New York, and is principally con-
tained in a block of about 225 acres, which on its west side
has an almost continuous row of English collegiate Gothic
buildings: Blair Hall, Stafford Little Hall and the gymnasium.
Nassau Hall, which was built in 1756, nearly destroyed by
fire in 1802, rebuilt in 1804, and damaged by fire in 1855, is
a squarely built edifice "in the Georgian style. Originally hous-
ing the whole college, it is familiariy known as North College, in
a quadrangle arrangement of which West College, built in 1836,
is the only other remainder; the south side having been occupied
since 1838 by Clio Hall and Whig Hall, -the homes of the two
literary societies, founded respectively in 1765 and 1769, and
since 1893 housed in white marble buildings of classical type;
and East College, having given place to the main building of
the University Library (1897), in Oxford Gothic of Longmeadow
stone, the gift of Mrs Percy Rivington Pyne. Besides West
College, the dormitories are Reunion Hall (1870), commemo-
rating the reconciliation of the Old and New schools of the
Presbyterian Church; University Hall (1876), formerly an hotel
and now housing on its lower floors the university dining halls
for all freshmen and sophomores; Witherspoon Hall (1877), in
Victorian Gothic of grey stone trimmed with brown; Edwards
Hall (1880), a brown stone Gothic building; Albert B. Dod Hall
(1890), a granite limestone-trimmed Italian building; David
Brown Hall (1891), granite and Pompeian brick, in Florentine
Renaissance; the Pyne Buildings (1896) in half-timbered Chester
style; Blair Hall (1897), built in English Collegiate Gothic of
white Germantown stone, on the south-western margin of the
campus; the Stafford Little Hall (1899 and 1901), in the same
style as Blair Hall, and joining it on the south; Seventy-nine
Hall (1904), the gift of the class of 1879, another Tudor Gothic
building of red brick trimmed with Indiana limestone; and
Patton Hall (1906); Campbell Hall (1909), the gift of the class
o 1877; and a new group of buildings, chiefly dormitories, oc-
cupying the entire north-west corner of the main campus, front-
ing on Nassau and University Place, three sections of which
(two being the gift of Mrs Russell Sage) were completed in
1910. These buildings are in the same architectural style and
of the same materials as Blair and Little Halls. There is
accommodation for about 90% of the undergraduates of the
university in the campus dormitories, including the new
buildings.
The recitation halls are: Dickinson (1870; remodelled in
1876) and McCosh Hall (1007), for the academic department;
and the school of science building (1873), a gift of John C. Green,
on the north-east corner of the main block of the campus.
The Halsted Observatory (1869) and the Observatory of In-
struction (1878) are well known for the work done in them
by the astronomer Charles Augustus Young (1834-1908) ; among
the laboratories are the biological (1887), the chemical (1891),
the civil engineering (1904), the Palmer physical (1908), and,
for natural science, Guyot Hall (1909), which also houses the
natural science museum, including valuable fossils. There is a
museum of historic art (1887) which includes the finds of the
Princeton archaeological expedition to Syria, and in Nassau
Hah 1 there 'is a psychological laboratory. There are two audi-
toriums, the Marquand chapel (1881), the gift of Henry G.
Marquand, and Alexander Hall (1892), used for commencement
exercises. Also on the campus are the dean's house (1756),
until 1878 the president's residence; Prospect (1849), bought
by the college in 1878, which is the president's residence; the
university offices (1803); and Dodge Hall (1900) and Murray
Hall (1879), which are the home of the college Y.M.C.A., the
Philadelphian Society, founded in 1825.
The university library is housed in a large building already
described, built (1896) on to the Chancellor Green library
building (1872), given by John C. Green in memory of his
brother Henry Woodhull Green, chancellor of the state of New
Jersey, and now the reading room and reference library. In
1910 the library had a collection of 257,800 volumes and about
58,000 unbound pamphlets. There are two athletic fields:
one, the university, two blocks east of the main campus, and
the other, the Brokaw field, in the south-west corner of the
main campus; immediately north of the latter are the Brokaw
Memorial gateway and building (1892), with a swimming pool,
and the university gymnasium (1903). South-east of the
Campus is Lake Carnegie, an artificial widening of Millstone
River, the gift of Andrew Carnegie; it is used for boating.
A notable feature of the university is its upper-class club-houses.
The upper-class clubs have in the social life of Princeton somewhat
the place of the Greek letter societies elsewhere. There are no
fraternities at Princeton: each entering student pledges himself to
" have no connexion whatever with any secret society, nor be present
at the meetings of any secret society " so long as he is a member of
the university, " it being understood that this promise has no refer-
ence to the American Whig and Cliosophic Societies." These two
societies, the object of which is particularly to cultivate skill in debate
and public speaking, are affiliated with the English department of
the faculty.
A peculiarity of the university is its system of student government,
which is most markedly developed in the Princeton " honour system "
in examinations and written recitations, under which every student
signs a pledge on his paper that he has " neither given nor received
assistance," and there is no faculty or monitorial watch over students
in examinations; the system is administered by a student committee,
to which any dishonesty in examinations is to be reported, and which
then investigates the charge, and if it finds it true reports the offender
to the faculty for dismissal.
The university in 1910 included an academic department,
leading to the degree of A.B.,or Litt. B.;the John C. Green school
of science (1873), offering courses leading to the degree of B.S. and
C.E. ;a school of electrical engineering; and a graduate depart-
ment (1877), with courses leading to master's and doctor's degrees.
Entrance requirements are largely in accordance with the recommen-
dations of the National Educational Association and the college
entrance examination board; students entering the academic
department must offer Greek if they are candidates for the degree
of A.B.; students (not offering Greek for entrance) who concentrate
in mathematics or science in junior and senior year are candidates
for the B.S. degree, and those who concentrate in other departments
during those years, for the Litt. B. degree. The entrance require-
ments for the B.S. and Litt. B. degree are the same, and they differ
from those for the A.B. degree (and agree with those for the C.E.
degree) in including more mathematics, i.e. solid geometry and plane
trigonometry. The school of electrical engineering is graduate
and professional in its scope. The graduate school (1871) is only
slightly developed, and this development has been almost entirely
since 1900; a bequest of more than $300,000 in 1906 provided for
the John R. Thomson Graduate College; and the estate of Isaac
Chauncey Wyman (d. 1910), of the class of 1848, valued at about
348
PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL AND AGENT
$3,000,000, was left to the university for the establishment of the
graduate school.
A notable feature of the scheme of instruction is the preceptorial
(or tutorial) system, introduced in 1905; it somewhat resembles
Jowett's method at Balliol College, Oxford; the preceptors, usually
young men (many of them domiciled in the dormitories), have " con-
ferences " each with a certain number of students on prescribed
reading, especially in the departments of philosophy, history and
politics, art and archaeology, and the languages. The preceptorial
system has been a great success, and seems to have given the univer-
sity a greater intellectual vitality. In 1909-1910 the university
faculty numbered 169, of whom 51 were preceptors. In the same
year there were 1400 students of whom 134 were in the graduate
school, 13 in the school of electrical engineering, 521 in the A.B.
course, 440 in the Litt.B. and B.S. courses, 203 in the C.E. course,
and 89 not in regular courses.
The corporate title of the university is " The Trustees of Princeton
University," and the university is governed by the trustees, of whom
the governor of the state of New Jersey is ex officio president. The
president of the university is president of the board in the absence
of the governor. The Board consists of twenty-five " life trustees,"
a self-perpetuating body, two ex officio trustees, and (since 1900)
five alumni trustees, elected by the graduates of the university for a
five-year term, one each year.
The tuition fee is $160 a year in all undergraduate courses. There
are many scholarships and prizes, a fund for the remission of tuition
to students of insufficient means, and funds for the assistance of
students for the ministry. In July 1909 the assets of the university
were $4,749,482, of which $4,168,900 was invested for endowment;
of the endowment $3,410,907 was special, $330,445 general, $60,000
historical, $122,643 was for scholarships and $244,905 was for pro-
fessorships; and in this fiscal year the gifts for current expenses and
special purposes amounted to $199,294 and the gifts for endowment
to $1,508,283.
The university owes its origin to a movement set on foot
by the Synod of Philadelphia in 1739 to establish in the Middle
Colonies a college to rank with Harvard and Yale in New Eng-
land and William and Mary in Virginia. Owing to dissension in
the Church, no progress was made until 1746, when the plan
was again broached by the synod of New York, recently formed
by the secession of the presbytery of New York and the pres-
bytery of New Brunswick, radical (New School) presbyteries
of the Synod of Philadelphia. The synod of New York was led
by Ebenezer Pemberton (1704-1779), a graduate of Harvard
(1721), and Jonathan Dickinson (1688-1747), a graduate of
Yale (1706). Together they had attempted to make peace
between the conservatism of the presbytery of Philadelphia
and the radicalism of the presbytery of New Brunswick. Most
of the leaders of the presbytery of New Brunswick had been
educated at the Log College, a school with restricted curriculum,
situated about 20 m. N.N.E. of Philadelphia, but recently closed.
The students of the Log College were almost without exception
preparing for the Presbyterian ministry, and on the closing of
the Log College, the opportunity was taken by the synod of
New York to found a larger and better institution of higher
learning, broader in scope and training, and to transfer to the
new project the Log College interests. On October 22nd 1746,
John Hamilton, acting governor of New Jersey, granted a
charter for erecting a college in New Jersey. The college of
New Jersey was opened in May 1747 at Elizabeth, New Jersey,
with the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson as president. Little was
accomplished until 1748, when, on the I4th of September, a
second charter was granted to the " trustees of the College of
New Jersey," thirteen in number. The college under the ad-
ministration of Jonathan Dickinson, held its exercises from the
last of May 1747 to the 7th of October 1747, when Dickinson
died. Upon the succession of Aaron Burr to the presidency,
the school removed to Newark, where the first commencement
was held in 1748 and where Burr began the work of organizing
the college and its curriculum; but the situation was unsuit-
able, and in 1752 the trustees voted to remove the college to
Princeton, where land was given for the Campus by Nathaniel Fitz
Randolph. While funds were being collected in Great Britain,
work was begun in Princeton in 1754 on the first college build-
ing, which, at Governor Belcher's request, was named Nassau
Hall, in honour of King William. A year after the completion
of this single college building and the removal of the students
to Princeton, Burr died and was succeeded by his father-in-law,
Jonathan Edwards, who died after five weeks in office (1738).
He was succeeded (1759-1761) by Samuel Davies, and Davies
(in 1761-1766) by Samuel Finley (1715-1766). John Wither-
spoon (q.v.) was president from 1768 until his death in 1794,
and more than any of his predecessors influenced the college.
The presidents immediately succeeding Witherspoon were: his
son-in-law, Samuel Stanhope Smith (1750-1819), who resigned
in 1812; Ashbel Green (1762-1848), who resigned in 1822; James
Carnahan (1775-1859), who held office for thirty-one years (1823-
1854), and in whose presidency there was, in 1846-1852, a de-
partment of law in the college; and John Maclean (1800-1886),
who was president from 1854 to 1868. Up to the outbreak of
the Civil War, the college was largely attended by Southerners,
and the Civil War thus dealt it a doubly heavy blow, from
which it began to recover under the long presidency (1868-1888)
of James McCosh, who, like his successor, Francis Landey Patton
(q.v.), president from 1888 to 1902, greatly advanced the material
welfare of the college. Fourteen new buildings were erected
during Dr McCosh's administration, and the John C. Green
School of Science was established in 1873 by the gift of John
Cleve Green; and during Dr Patton's administration the en-
rolment of students more than doubled, as did the number of
members of the faculty. In October 1896, on the isoth anni-
versary of its founding, the official name of the College of New
Jersey, long popularly displaced by Princeton, was dropped,
and the corporation became " The Trustees of Princeton Uni-
versity," although the institution did not become, in the usual
American use of the term, a university, having no professional
schools whatever, and only a small post graduate department.
On Dr Patton's resignation in 1902 he was succeeded by
Woodrow Wilson (<?.!>.), the first layman to become president,
who introduced the preceptorial system already described.
PRINCIPAL, a person or thing first, or chief in rank or im-
portance, or, more widely, prominent, leading. The Lat. adj.
principalis, first, chief, original, also princely, is formed from
princeps, the first, chief, prince, from primus, first, and capere
to hold. In Late Lat. principalis was used as a substitute for
an overseer or superintendent, and also for the chief magistrate
of a municipality (Symmachus, Ep. 9, i). It is a common title
for the head of educational institutions, universities, colleges
and schools. It is thus used of the director, of some of the
heads of newer universities in England, e.g. London and Bir-
mingham, always so in Scotland, and frequently combined
with the vice-chancellorship. At the university of Oxford
the name occurs twice as the title of the head of a college, viz.
of Brasenose and Jesus. It was always used of the heads of
halls, of which St Edmund Hall alone remains. It is also the
designation used of the head of the newer theological or
denominational colleges, and also of the women's colleges.
At Cambridge it does not occur. In law, it is used in distinction
from " accessory," for the person who actually commits the
crime, " principal in the first degree," or who is present, aiding
and abetting at the commission of the crime," principal in the
second degree;" and also for the person for whom another
acts by his authority (see PRINCIPAL AND AGENT below) . Finally
as a shortened form of " principal sum," " principal money,"
&c., the term is used of the original sum lent or invested upon
which interest is paid, and so, widely of any capital sum, as
opposed to interest or income derived from it.
PRINCIPAL AND AGENT. In law an agent is a person
authorized to do some act or acts in the name of another, who
is called his principal. The law regulating the relations of
principal and agent has its origin in the law of mandate among
the Romans, and in England the spirit of that system of juris-
prudence pervades this branch of the law. The law of agency
is thus almost alike throughout the whole British Empire, and
a branch of the British commercial code, in which it is of great
importance that different nations should understand each other's
system, differs only slightly from the law of the rest of Europe.
In a general view of the law of agency it is necessary to have
regard to the rights and duties of the principal, the agent, and
the public. The agent should not do what he has no authority
PRINGLE
349
for; yet if he be seen to have authority, those with whom he
deals should not be injured by secret and unusual conditions.
The employer is bound by what his agent does in his name, but
the public are not entitled to take advantage of obligations
which arc known to be unauthorized and unusual. The agent is
entitled to demand performance by the principal of the obliga-
tions undertaken by him within the bounds of his commission, but
he is not entitled to pledge him with a recklessness which he
would certainly avoid in the management of his own affairs.
It is in the regulation of these powers and corresponding checks
in such a manner that the legal principle shall apply to daily
practice, that the niceties of this branch of the law consist.
Agents are of different kinds, according to their stipulated
or consuetudinary powers. The main restraint in the possible
powers of an agent is in the old maxim, delegatus non palest
delegare, designed to check the complexity that might be created
by inquiries into repeatedly-deputed responsibility. The agent
cannot delegate his commission or put another in his place; but
in practice this principle is sometimes modified, for it so may
arise from the nature of his office that he is to employ other
persons for the accomplishment of certain objects. Thus, there
is nothing to prevent a commercial agent from sending a por-
tion of the goods entrusted by him to his own agent for disposal.
In the general case agency is constituted by the acceptance
of the mandate or authority to act for the principal, and the evi-
dence of this may be either verbal or in writing. The English
statute of frauds requires an agent to have authority in writing
for the purposes of its ist, 2nd and 3rd clauses relating to leases.
" And it is a general rule, that an agent who has to execute a
deed, or to take or give livery or seisin, must be appointed by
deed for that purpose. Moreover, as a corporation aggregate
can in general act only by deed, its agent must be so appointed,
though it would seem that some trifling agencies, even for cor-
porations, may be appointed without one." (Smith's Mercantile
Law, B. I. ch. iv.). It is a general rule that those obligations
which can only be undertaken by solemn formalities cannot
be entered on by a delegate who has not received his authority
in writing. But it is often constituted, at the same time that
its extent is defined, by mere appointment to some known and
recognised function as where one is appointed agent for a
banking establishment, factor for a merchant, broker, super-
cargo, traveller, or attorney. In these cases, usage defines the
powers granted to the agent; and the employer will not readily
be subjected to obligations going beyond the usual functions of
the office; nor will the public dealing with the agent be bound
by private instructions inconsistent with its usual character.
While, however, the public, ignorant of such secret limitations,
are not bound to respect them, the agent himself is liable for the
consequences of transgressing them. Agency may also be
either created or enlarged by implication. What the agent has
done with his principal's consent the public are justified in
believing him authorized to continue doing. Thus, as a familiar
instance, the servant who has continued to purchase goods
for his master at a particular shop oa credit is presumed to
retain authority and trust, and pledges his master's credit in
further purchases, though he should, without the knowledge
of the shopkeeper, apply the articles to his own uses. The law is
ever jealous in admitting as accessories of a general appoint-
ment to any particular agency the power to borrow money in
the principal's name, to give his name to bill transactions,
and to pledge him to guaranties; but all these acts may be author-
ized by implication, or by being the continuation of a series of
transactions, of the same kind and in the same line of business,
to which the principal has given his sanction. Thus an employer
may, by the previous sanction of such operations, be liable for
the bills or notes drawn, indorsed and accepted by his clerk or
other mandatary; nay, may be responsible for the obligations
thus incurred after the mandatary's dismissal, if the party
dealing with him knew that he was countenanced in such trans-
actions, and had no reason to suppose that he was dismissed.
In questions of this kind the distinction between a general and
a special agent is important. A general agent is employed to
transact all his principal's business of a particular kind, at a
certain place as a factor to buy and sell; a broker to nego-
tiate contracts of a particular kind ; an attorney to transact
his legal business; a shipmaster to do all things relating to the
employment of a ship. Such an agent's power to do every-
thing usual in the line of business in which he is employed is
not limited by any private restriction or order unknown to the
party with whom he is dealing. On the contrary, it is incum-
bent on the party dealing with a particular agent, i.e. one
specially employed in a single transaction, to ascertain the
extent of his authority. The law applicable to a mercantile
agent's power to pledge or otherwise dispose of the goods
entrusted to him being in an unsatisfactory state, a statutory
remedy was applied to it by an act of 1825 (6 Geo. IV. c. 94),
amended in 1842 (5 & 6 Viet. c. 39) and replaced by the Factors
Act 1889.
The obligations of the principal are: to pay the agent's re-
muneration, or, as it is often called, commission, the amount
of which is fixed by contract or the usage of trade; to pay all
advances made by the agent in the regular course of his em-
ployment; and to honour the obligations lawfully undertaken
for him. The agent is responsible for the possession of
the proper skill and means for carrying out the functions which
he undertakes. He must devote to the interests of his em-
ployer such care and attention as a man of ordinary prudence
bestows on his own a duty capable of no more certain defini-
tion, the application of it as a fixed rule being the function
of a jury. He is bound to observe the strictest good faith;
and the law even interposes to remove him from temptation
to . sacrifice his employer's interests to his own (see COM-
MISSION: Secret). Thus, when he is employed to buy, he must
not be the seller. When an agent is employed to sell, he must
not be the purchaser. He ought only to deal with persons in
good credit, but he is not responsible for their absolute solvency
unless he guarantee them. A mercantile agent guaranteeing
the payments he treats for is said to hold a del credere com-
mission.
See also AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS; BROKER ;FACTOR; GUARAN-
TEE, &c. ; also Smith's Mercantile Law (nth ed., 1905); Bowstead,
On Agency (4th ed., 1909).
PRINGLE, SIR JOHN (1707-1782), British physician, was
the younger son of Sir John Pringle, of Stitchel, Roxburghshire,
and was born on the loth of April 1707. He was educated
at St Andrews, at Edinburgh, and at Leiden. He took the
degree of doctor of physic at the last-named university, where
he was an intimate friend of G. van Swieten and A. von Haller.
He settled in Edinburgh at first as a physician, but after 1734
also acted as professor of moral philosophy in the university.
In 1742 he became physician to the earl of Stair, then com-
manding the British army in Flanders, and in 1744 was appointed
by the duke of Cumberland physician-general to the forces in
the Low Countries. In 1749, having settled in London, he was
made physician in ordinary to the duke of Cumberland; and
in 1752 he married a daughter of Dr William Oliver (1695-
1764) of Bath, the inventor of " Bath Oliver " biscuits. Sub-
sequently he received other court appointments as physician,
and in 1766 was made a baronet. His first book, Observations
on the Nature and Cure of Hospital and Jayl Fevers, was pub-
lished in 1750, and in the same year he contributed to the
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society three papers
on " Experiments on Septic and Antiseptic Substances," which
gained him the Copley medal. Two years later he published
his important work, Observations on the Diseases of the Army in
Camp and Garrison, which entitles him to be regarded as the
founder of modern military medicine. In November 1772 he
was elected president of the Royal Society. In this capacity
he delivered six " discourses," which were afterwards collected
into a single volume (1783). After passing his seventieth year
he resigned his presidency and removed to Edinburgh in 1780,
but returned to London ia September 1781, and died on the
1 8th of January following. There is a monument to him in
Westminster Abbey, executed by Nollekens.
350
PRINGSHEIM PRINTING
A Life of Pringle by Andrew Kippis is prefixed to the volume
containing the Six Discourses. The library of the College of Physi-
cians of Edinburgh possesses ten folio volumes of his unedited MSS.
including an essay " On Air, Climate, Diet and Exercise." There are
floges on him by Vicq d'Azyr and Condorcet.
PRINGSHEIM, NATHANAEL (1823-1894), German botanist,
was born at Wziesko in Silesia, on the 3oth of November 1823.
He studied at the universities of Breslau, Leipzig, and Berlin
successively. He graduated in 1848 as doctor of philosophy
with the thesis De forma et incremento stratorum crassiorum in
plantarum cellula, and rapidly became a leader in the great
botanical renaissance of the igth century. His contributions
to scientific algology were of striking interest. Pringsheim
was among the very first to demonstrate the occurrence of a
sexual process in this class of plants, and he drew from his
observations weighty conclusions as to the nature of sexuality.
Together with the French investigators G. Thuret and E. Bornet,
Pringsheim ranks as the founder of our scientific knowledge
of the algae. Among his researches in this field may be men-
tioned those on Vaucheria (1855), the Oedogoniaceae (1855-1858),
the Coleochaeteae (1860), Hydrodictyon (1861), and Pandorina
(1869); the last-mentioned memoir bore the title Beobachtungen
iiber die Paarung de Zoosporen. This was a discovery of
fundamental importance; the conjugation of zoospores was
regarded by Pringsheim, with good reason, as the primitive
form of sexual reproduction. A work on the course of mor-
phological differentiation in the Sphacelariaceae (1873), a family
of marine algae, is of great interest, inasmuch as it treats of
evolutionary questions; the author's point of view is that of
Naegeli rather than Darwin. Closely connected with Pring-
sheim's algological work was his long-continued investigation
of the Saprolegniaceae, a family of algoid fungi, some of which
have become notorious as the causes of disease in fish. Among
his contributions to our knowledge of the higher plants, his
exhaustive monograph on the curious genus of water-ferns,
Savinia, deserves special mention. His career as a morphol-
ogist culminated in 1876 with the publication of a memoir on
the alternation of generations in thallophytes and mosses. From
1874 to the close of his life Pringsheim's activity was chiefly
directed to physiological questions: he published, in a long
series of memoirs, a theory of the carbon-assimilation of green
plants, the central point of which is the conception of the
chlorophyll-pigment as a screen, with the main function of
protecting the protoplasm from light-rays which would neu-
tralize its assimilative activity by stimulating too active re-
spiration. This view has not been accepted as offering an ade-
quate explanation of the phenomena. Pringsheim founded
in 1858, and edited till his death, the classical Jahrbuch fur
wissenschaflliche Botanik, which still bears his name. He was also
founder, in 1882, and first president, of the German Botanical
Society. His work was for the most part carried on in his
private laboratory in Berlin; he only held a teaching post of
importance for four years, 1864-1868, when he was professor at
Jena. In early life he was a keen politician on the .Liberal
side. He died in Berlin on the 6th of October 1894.
A fuller account of Pringsheim's career will be found in Nature,
(1895) vol. li., and in the Berichte derdeutschen botanischenGesellschaft,
(1895) vol. xiii. The latter is by his friend and colleague, Ferdinand
Cohn. (D. H. S.)
PRINSEP, JAMES (1799-1840), Anglo-Indian scholar and
antiquary, was born on the zoth of August 1799. In 1819
he was given an appointment in the Calcutta mint, where he
ultimately became assay-master, succeeding H. H. Wilson,
whom he likewise succeeded as secretary of the Asiatic Society.
Apart from architectural work (chiefly at Benares), his leisure
was devoted to Indian inscriptions and numismatics, and he is
remembered as the first to decipher and translate the rock edicts
of Asoka. Returning to England in 1838 in broken health, he
died in London on the 22nd of April 1840. Prinsep's Ghat, an
archway on the bank of the Hugli, was erected to his memory
by the citizens of Calcutta.
PRINSEP, VALENTINE CAMERON (1838-1904), English
artist, was born on the 4th of February 1838. His father, Henry
Thoby Prinsep, who was for sixteen years a member of the
Council of India, had settled at Little Holland House, which
became a centre of artistic society. Henry Prinsep was an
intimate friend of G. F. Watts, under whom his son first studied.
Val Prinsep also worked in Paris in the atelier Gleyre; and
" Taffy " in his friend Du Maurier's novel Trilby, is said to
have been sketched from him. He was an intimate friend
of Millais and of Burne-Jones, with whom he travelled
in Italy. He had a share with Rossetti and others in the
decoration of the hall of the Oxford Union. He first exhibited
at the Royal Academy in 1862 with his " Bianca Capella,"
his first picture, which attracted marked notice, being a portrait
(1866) of General Gordon in Chinese costume; the best of his later
exhibits were " A Versailles," " The Emperor Theophilus chooses
his Wife," " The Broken Idol " arid " The Goose Girl." He was
elected A.R.A. in 1879 and R.A. in 1894. In 1877 he went to
India and painted a huge picture of the Delhi durbar, exhibited
in 1880, and afterwards hung at Buckingham Palace. He
married in 1884 Florence, daughter of the well-known col-
lector, Frederick Leyland. Prinsep wrote two plays, Cousin
Dick and Monsieur le Due, produced at the Court and the St
James's theatres respectively; two novels; and Imperial India:
an Artist's Journal (1879). He was an enthusiastic volunteer,
and one of the founders of the Artists' Corps. He died on the
nth of November 1904.
PRINT, the colloquial abbreviation used to describe printed
cloths generally, though it is most commonly applied to the
staple kinds of cotton goods. The word must be distinguished
from " printer," which refers to the regular kinds of cotton
cloths intended for printing. (See TEXTILE PRINTING.)
PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre), the art
or practice of transferring by pressure, letters, characters or
designs upon paper or other impressible surfaces, usually by
means of ink or oily pigment. As thus defined, it includes three
entirely different processes: copperplate printing, lithographic
or chemical stone-printing, and letterpress printing. The differ-
ence between the three lies in the nature or conformation of the
surface which is covered with the pigment and afterwards
gives a reproduction in reverse on the material impressed.
For the nature and method of preparing these surfaces see
respectively ENGRAVING (and allied articles), LITHOGRAPHY and
TYPOGRAPHY. In copperplate printing the whole of the plate
is first inked, the flat surface is then cleaned, leaving ink in the
incisions or trenches cut by the engraver, so that, when dampened
paper is laid over the plate and pressure is brought to
bear, the paper sinks into the incisions and takes up the ink,
which makes an impression in line or lines on the paper. In
lithographic printing the surface of the stone, which is practi-
cally level, is protected by dampening against taking the ink
except where the design requires. In letterpress printing the
printing surface is in relief, and alone receives the ink, the
remainder being protected by its lower level. Before the inven-
tion of typography, pages of books, or anything of a broadside
nature, were printed from woodcuts, i.e. blocks cut with a knife
on wood plankwise, as distinct from wood engravings which are
cut with a burin on the end grain, a more modern innovation.
These woodcuts, like the lithographic or engraved surface,
served one definite purpose only, but in typography the types
can be distributed and used again in other combinations.
The term " printing " is often used to include all the various
processes that go to make the finished product; but in this
article it is properly confined to " press-work," i.e. to the work
of the printing-press, by which the book, newspaper, or other
printed article, when set up in type and ready as a surface to
be actually impressed on the paper, is finally converted into the
shape in which it is to be issued or published.
History of Printing-press.
Before dealing with modem machinery it will be necessary
to consider the historical evolution of the printing-press, especi-
ally since the middle of the igth century, from which point
printing machinery has developed in a most remarkable manner.
PRINTING
35 1
1 1 is not clear how the first printers struck off their copies, but
without doubt Gutenberg did use at an early period in his career
a mechanical press of some kind, which was constructed of
wood. In fact he could not have produced his famous forty-two
lim- Hible without such aid.
The earliest picture of a press shows roughly the construction
to have been that of an upright frame, the power exerted
Wooden by a movable handle, placed in a screw which was
Hand- tightened up to secure the requisite impression, and
presses. was i oosene( j again after the impression was obtained.
The type pages were placed on a flat bed of solid wood or stone,
ami it was quite a labour to run this bed into its proper position
FIG. I. Blaeu's Wooden Hand-press,
under the hanging but fixed horizontal plane, called the platen,
which gave the necessary impress when screwed down by the
aid of the movable bar. This labour had to be repeated in
order to release the printed sheet and before another copy
could be struck off. This same press, with a few modifications,
was apparently still in general use till the early part of the iyth
century, when Willem Janszon Blaeu (1571-1638) of Amsterdam,
who was appointed map maker to the Dutch Republic in 1633,
made some substantial improvements in it. Our first authority
on printing, Joseph Moxon, in his Mechanick Exercises, as
Applied to the Art of Printing (vol. i., 1683), says, " There are
two sorts of presses in use, viz. the old fashion and the new
fashion," and he gives credit to Blaeu for the invention of the
new and decidedly improved press (fig. i).
Blaeu's improvement consisted of putting the spindle of the
screw through a square block which was guided in the wooden
frame, and from this block the platen was suspended by wires
or cords. This block gave a more rigid platen, and at the same
time ensured a more equal motion to the screw when actuated
by the bar-handle. He also invented a device which allowed
the bed on which the type pages were placed to run in and out
more readily, thus reducing the great labour involved in that
part of the work of the older form of press, and he also used a
new kind of iron lever or handle to turn the screw which applied
the necessary pressure. The value of these various improve-
ments, which were in details rather than in principles, was
speedily recognized, and the press was introduced into England
and became known as the " new fashion."
From this it will be observed that in a general way there
had only been two kinds of wooden presses in use for a period
of no less than three hundred and fifty years, and when the work
of some of the early printers is studied, it is marvellous how
often good results were obtained from such crude appliances.
The iron press (fig. 2) invented by Charles, 3rd earl Stanhope
(1753-1816), at the end of the i8th century was a decided
advance on those made of wood. Greater power was obtained
at a smaller expenditure of labour, and it allowed of larger and
heavier surfaces being printed. The chief points of the iron
press consisted of an improved application of the
power to the spindle. The main part of it was
the upright frame or staple, of iron; the feet of
this staple rested upon two pieces of substantial timber dove-
tailed into a cross, which formed a base or foundation for the
Iron Hand-
presses.
FIG. 2. The Stanhope Iron Hand-press.
complete press to stand upon. The staple was united at the
top and bottom, but the neck and body were left open, the former
for the mechanism and the latter for the platen and the bed
when run in preparatory to taking the impression. The upper
part of the staple, called the nut, answered the same purpose as
the head in the older kind of wooden press, and was in fact a box
with a female screw in which the screw of the spindle worked.
The lower portion of the neck was occupied by a piston and cup,
in and on which the toe of the spindle worked. On the near
side of the staple was a vertical pillar, termed the arbor, the
lower end of which was inserted into the staple at the top
of the shoulder the upper end passing through a top-plate,
which being screwed on to the upper part of the staple held it
firmly. The extreme upper end of the arbor, which was hex-
agonal, received a head, which was really a lever of some length;
this head was connected by a coupling-bar to a similar lever or
head, into which the upper end of the spindle was inserted.
The bar by which the power was applied by the pressman was
fixed into the arbor, and not into the spindle, so that the levtr
was the whole width of the press, instead of half, as in Blaeu's
wooden press, and it was better placed for the application of the
worker's strength. There was also another lever to the arbor
head in addition to that of the spindle head; and lastly, the screw
itself was so enlarged that it greatly increased the power. The
platen was screwed on to the under surface of the spindle; the
table or bed had slides underneath which moved in, and not on,
ribs as in the older form of press, and was run in and out by means
of strips of webbing fastened to each end and passed round a
drum or wheel. As the platen was very heavy the operator
was assisted in raising it from the type-forme by a balance
weight suspended upon a hooked lever at the back of the press.
This somewhat counterbalanced the weight of the platen, raised
it after the impression had been taken, and brought the bar-
handle back again to its original position, ready for another
pull.
The Stanhope press, which is still in use, was soon followed by
other hand-presses made of iron, with varying changes of details.
The most successful of these were the Albion and Columbian
presses, the former of English manufacture, and the latter
invented (1816) by an American, George Clymer (1754-1834),
of Philadelphia.
The Albion press (fig. 3), which was designed by Richard
Whittaker Cope, was afterwards much improved upon by John
Hopkinson (1849-1898). It is still used where hand printing
prevails, and it was this form of press which was employed by
William Morris at his famous, but short-lived, Kelmscott Press,
352
PRINTING
in the production of many sumptuous books, the most celebrated
of which was the Chaucer, a large folio volume, illustrated by
Sir Edward Burne-Jones. The chief characteristics of the
Albion are its lightness of build and its ease in running; the pull
is short, the power great, and the means whereby .it is attained
so simple that the press does not readily get out of order. It is
easily taken to pieces for cleaning, and readily re-erected. The
power is obtained by pulling the bar-handle across, which causes
L - _
FIG. 3. Payne & Sons' Albion Hand-press.
an inclined piece of wedge-shaped steel, called the chill, to
become perpendicular; in so doing the platen is forced down, and
the impression takes place at the moment the chill is brought
into a vertical position. On the return of the bar the platen is
raised by a spiral spring, placed in a box and fixed at the head
of the press. The larger sizes of these presses usually print a
sheet of double crown, measuring 30X20 in.
Although the Columbian is not so much in demand as the
Albion, it is still employed for heavy hand-work because of its
greater stability and power. This power is acquired by a very
massive lever, moving on a pivot bolt in the top of the near side
of the staple, and passing across the press to the further side of
the frame, at which end the power is applied through the coup-
ling-bar by a bar-handle working from the near side. The
platen is attached to the centre of the lever by a square bar of
iron, and its vertical descent is assured by two projecting guides,
one from each cheek; it is then raised from the type-forme, and
the iron bar carried back by two levers the one attached to
and above the head and weighted with the eagle; the other
behind the press, attached to the arm to which the coupling-bar
is fixed, and which also has a weight at the end. The great
power of this press adapts it to the working of large and solid
formes in printing, but it is somewhat slower in action than the
Albion press, which is both lighter in construction and quicker
in working.
The average output of the modern hand-press, when all is
made ready for running, is about two hundred and fifty impres-
sions per hour. This number, it should be said, is the product
of two men who work together as " partners." One inks the
type-forme and keeps a sharp look-out for any inequality of
inking, and sees generally that the work is being turned out in a
workmanlike manner. The other lays on the sheet to certain
marks, runs the carriage in under the platen, and pulls the bar-
handle across to give the necessary impression. He then runs
back the carriage and takes out the printed sheet, which he
replaces by another sheet, and repeats the different operations
for the next impression. During the interval between taking
off the printed sheet and laying on the next one his partner inks
the type surface with a roller which carries just sufficient ink
properly distributed to preserve uniformity of " colour."
Having dealt with hand-presses, we must now go back to the
end of the i8th century, when the first experiments were made
to devise some mechanical means of producing larger printed
sheets, and at a quicker rate. In England the broad distinction
between " presses " and " machines " is generally considered
to rest in the fact that the former are worked by hand, and the
latter by steam, gas or electricity; and the men who work by
these two methods are called respectively " pressmen " and
" machine minders " or " machine managers." But in America
the terms " presses " and " pressmen " are universally applied
to machines and the men who operate them. For the purposes of
this article presses and machines are used as synonymous terms.
Various schemes had been propounded with a view of
increasing the output of the hand-press, and in 1790 William
Nicholson (1753-1815) evolved his ideas on the TheFirst
subject, which were suggestions rather than definite Cylinder
inventions.' Nicholson was not a printer, but, as he Machine.
was an author and editor, it is presumed that he had some
knowledge of printing. His proposals were to print from type
placed either on a flat bed or a cylinder, and the impression was
to be given by another cylinder covered with some suitable
material, the paper being fed in between the type and the
impression cylinder, and the ink applied by rollers covered with
cloth or leather, or both. While Nicholson's schemes did not
bear any practical result they certainly helped others later on.
His suggestion to print from type made wedge-shaped (that is,
smaller at the foot and wider at the top) to allow of its being
so fixed on a cylinder that it would radiate from the centre and
thus present an even printing surface, was adopted later by
Applegath and others, and really was the first conception of
printing on the rotary principle which has now been brought to
such perfection.
It was left to Friedrich Konig (1774-1833), a German, to
produce the first really practical printing machine. His inven-
tion was to print type placed on a flat bed, the impression being
given by a large cylinder, under which the type passed, but his
inking appliances were not satisfactory. He induced the
proprietor of The Times (London) to take two of these machines,
and in 1814 that newspaper was printed with steam power at
the rate of noo impressions per hour, a great advance on the
number produced up to that time. Both Nicholson's and
Konig's machines printed only one side at a time the second
or backing printing being a separate and distinct operation
but they really embodied the general principles on which all
other machines have been constructed or modelled.
It will be understood that Nicholson's theories were to print
both from the flat and from type arranged in circular or cylinder
form. These two principles are defined as reciprocating, for
the flat bed which travels backwards and forwards; and rotary,
for that which continuously revolves or rotates. Konig's inven-
tion was a reciprocating one.
Two other classes of presses of somewhat different design
were largely in operation in the middle of the ipth century
the " double platen," which still printed only one side at each
impression from each end, and the " perfecting machine," which
was made with two large cylinders and printed from two type-
formes placed on separate beds. Although the latter machine
turned out sheets printed on both sides before it delivered them
(hence its name), the second impression was still a distinct
operation. The double platen press was somewhat Double
analogous to the hand-press, both the type beds Platen
and impressions being flat. A machine of this kind, Machine.
if it printed a sheet of double demy, which measures 35X225 in.,
was about 13 ft. in length, and the platen itself, of very massive
construction, was placed in the centre. This platen had a
perpendicular motion, being guided in grooves and worked by a
connecting rod fixed to a cross beam and crank, which acquired
its motion from the main shaft. There were two type beds and
two inking tables, which travelled backwards and forwards,
and one platen only, situated in the middle of the machine,
PRINTING
353
which in turn gave the needful impression as the type-formes
passed underneath. The sheets were laid or fed to certain
marks between the frisket and tympan, and when these were
closed together the carriage was propelled under the platen and
the impression was given to that portion of the machine, while
at the other end another sheet was being fed in ready to receive
its impression in due course.
It was once thought that the finest work could not be produced
(by a cylinder impressing a surface in the progress of its recipro-
cating motion, but that it was likely to give a slurred or blurred
impression. This is why machines of flat construction were so
long employed for the best class of work. But cylinder presses
now made so truly turned, and geared to such nicety, that
this idea no longer prevails. The cylinder press is able to
produce generally quite as good work as the double platen, its
speed is much greater, and it requires a smaller amount of power
to drive it.
The perfecting machine has had a great vogue, and has been
much improved from time to time, especially in America,
though the two-revolution machine in recent years
superseded it, whether temporarily or not being
still uncertain. We shall deal with it more fully
below in relation to the modern and more complicated class of
machinery; and this also applies to the ordinary stop or single
cylinder, and small platen machines, both of which have been
in use many years, and are still in demand.
Before the general introduction of rotary machines which
print from curved stereotype plates from an endless web or reel
Type f paper (see below), several other presses of a revol-
Rfvoiviag ving character were made, to some extent based on
Machines. Nicholson's ideas. The first printing surface used
was ordinary type, because the difficulty of curving the stereo-
type plates had not been surmounted. This type was fixed,
both in vertical and in perpendicular positions, upon a cylinder,
round which rotated other cylinders, which held and compressed
the sheets against the larger one, which also revolved and carried
the printing surface. These machines were made to print
several sheets at a time, and were called four-, six-, eight- or
ten-feeders, according to the number of sheets fed in and printed.
They necessitated a great deal of labour, because each feed
required a separate layer-on and taker-off besides the superin-
tending printer, and other hands to carry away the sheets as
fast as they accumulated at the different taking-off boards.
Besides, these sheets all had to be folded by hand. In this class
of machine various improvements were made from time to time
by different manufacturers, each profiting by the experiences of
the others, and two kinds of such revolving presses may now be
given as examples.
After many experiments Augustus Applegath (1789-1871) in
1848 constructed for The Times (London), a machine which was
an eight-feeder, built entirely on the cylindrical principle, the
cylinders placed not in a horizontal but in a vertical position.
The type was fixed on a large cylinder, and instead of the printing
surface presenting a complete circle, the different columns were
each arranged so as to form a polygon. Around this large type
cylinder were eight smaller ones, all upright, for taking the
impression for each of the eight sheets fed in separately, and
rollers were so arranged as to apply the ink to the type as it
passed alternately from one impression cylinder to the other.
The sheets were laid in from eight different feed-boards, placed
horizontally, and they passed through tapes, when they were
seized by another series of tapes and then turned sideways
between their corresponding impression and type cylinder, thus
obtaining sheets printed on one side only. The impression
cylinder then delivered the sheets separately (still in a vertical
position) into the hands of the boys employed as takers-off.
The results from this press were, at the time, considered fairly
satisfactory, the number of copies (about 8000) printed per hour
from one type-forme having been materially increased by the
employing of the eight different stations to feed the sheets in,
all of which in turn were printed from the same single type
surface.
XXII. 12
About 1845 Robert Hoe & Co. of New York, and subsequently
of London, had constructed, to meet the increased demands of
newspapers, the " Hoe Type Revolving Machine," one good point
of which was an apparatus for securely fastening in the type on a
large central cylinder fixed horizontally. This was accomplished
by the construction of cast-iron beds, one for each separate
page (not column, as in Applegath's machine). The column
rules were made tapering towards the feet of the type, and the
type was securely locked in on these beds so that it could be held
firmly in the required position to form a complete circle, thus
allowing the cylinder to revolve at a greater speed than Apple-
gath's, which was polygonal. Around the large type cylinders
were placed the smaller impression cylinders, the number of
these being governed by the output required. Hoe's first presstc
were four-feeders, but as many as ten feeds were supplied, as
in the case of the two presses built to replace the Applegath
machine for The Times, each of which produced about 2000
impressions from each feed, making a total of 20,000 per hour,
printed on one side, or from two machines 20,000 sheets printed
on both sides. As will be observed, the only differences in
principle between these two type revolving machines were in
the positions of the respective cylinders, and the fixing of the
type to form a printing surface.
It was Sir Rowland Hill who first suggested the possibilities
of a press which should print both sides at once, from a roll or
reel of paper. This was about 1825, but it was William A.
Bullock (1813-1867) of Philadelphia who in 1865 invented the
first machine to print from a continuous web of paper. This
machine had two pairs of cylinders, that is, two type or stereotype
cylinders, and two others which gave the impression as the web
passed between. The second impression cylinder was made
somewhat larger so as to give a greater tympan surface, to lessen
the off-set from the side first printed. In his machine the stereo-
type plates were not made to fill the whole periphery of the forme
cylinders so as to allow of the sheets being cut before printing,
a difficulty which the first machines did not satisfactorily over-
come. The sheets were severed by knives placed on the cylin-
ders, and when cut were carried by grippers and tapes; and
delivery was made by means of automatic metal fingers fixed
upon endless belts at such distances apart as to seize each sheet
in succession as it left the last printing cylinder. These presses
were not at first reliable in working, especially in the cutting and
delivery of the sheets after printing, but were finally so far
improved that the Bullock press came into quite general use.
The inventor was killed by being caught in the driving belt of
one of his own presses.
Modern Presses.
The machines invented during the second half of the igth
century and still in general use, are best classified as follows:
1. The iron hand-press, such as the Albion or the Columbian,
used for the pulling of proofs, or for the printing of limited
editions de luxe. atuinct-
2. Small platen machines (worked by foot or tioa of
power) used for the printing of cards, circulars and Modem
small jobbing or commercial work. Presses and
3. Single cylinder machines (in England generally ***"**
called " Wharfedales "), usually built on the " stop " cylinder
principle, and printing one side of the sheet only.
4. Perfecting machines, usually with two cylinders, and prin-
ting or " perfecting " both sides of a sheet before it leaves the
machine, but with two distinct operations.
5. Two-revolution machines, which, although with but one
cylinder, have largely superseded perfecting machines, as their
output has been increased and the quality of their work compares
favourably with that of the average two-cylinder.
6. Two-colour machines, usually made with one feed, that is,
with only one cylinder, but with two printing surfaces, and two
sets of inking apparatus one at each end of the machine. Occa-
sionally these machines are made with two cylinders.
7. Rotary machines, printing from an endless web of paper
from curved stereotype or electrotype plates, principally used
354
PRINTING
for newspaper or periodical work. They are made to print
upon a single reel, or upon two, four, six or even eight reels,
in both single or double widths, i.e. two or four pages wide.
The hand-press has already been sufficiently described, and
we may proceed to deal with the other classes.
The small but useful platen machine (fig. 4) is very largely
employed in those printing-houses that make commercial work
Pl-iten a speciality. The smaller machines can be worked
Jobbing w ' t ' 1 the f. oot ' but if the establishment is equipped with
Machines. P owe r it is customary to gear them for driving. The
larger machines require power. As its name implies,
the type bed and impression platen are both flat surfaces as in the
hand-press, but as they are self-inking and are easily driven, the
average output is about
1000 copies per hour, and
but one operator is required,
whereas two men at a hand-
press can produce only 250
copies in the same time. In
design these platen presses
usually consist of a square
frame with a driving shaft
fixed horizontally across the
centre of it. This shaft is
attached to a large fly-wheel
which gives impetus to the
press when started and
assists in carrying over the
impression when the platen
is in contact with the print-
ing surface. The type-forme
is usually fixed in an almost
vertical and stationary posi-
tion, and it is the platen on
which the sheet is laid which
rises from the horizontal
position to the vertical in
order to give the necessary
impact to produce a printed
impression from the type-
forme. Practically this
platen is, as it were, hinged
at the off side, nearest the
type bed, and its rise and
fall is effected by the use of
two arms, one on each side
of the platen, which derive
an eccentric motion from
FIG. 4. The Golding Jobber Platen
Machine.
Cams geared in connexion with the shaft. When the sheet is printed
and the platen falls back to the horizontal the operator removes it
with one hand and with the other lays on a fresh sheet. Generally
the larger of these machines will print a sheet up to 21 X 16 in.
The modern single or " stop " cylinder, quite different in construc-
" Wharfe- t ' on f rom the old single cylinder machines, largely suc-
dale " ceeded the double platen machine. The principle of the
Machines. st P cylinder was really a French invention, but it has
been more commonly adopted in Great Britain, where
the machines are known as " Wharfedales " (fig. 5). They are much
used for the printing of books and commercial work. The average
production is about 1000 copies per hour. The type bed travels
with a reciprocating motion upon rollers or runners made of steel,
the bed being driven by a simple crank motion, starting and stopping
without much noise or vibration. All the running parts are made of
hard steel. The cylinder is " stopped " by a cam motion while the
bed is travelling backward, and during this interval the sheet to be
printed is laid against the " marks," and the gripper closes on it
before the cylinder is released, thus ensuring great accuracy of lay,
and consequent good register. After the impression is made the
sheet is seized by another set of fingers and is' transferred to a second
and smaller cylinder over the larger one, and this smaller cylinder
or drum delivers the sheet to the-" flyer," or delivery apparatus,
which in turn deposits it upon the table. The inking arrangements
are usually very good, for, by a system of racks and cogs which may
be regulated to a nicety, the necessary distribution of ink and rolling
of the printing surface runs in gear with the travelling type bed
or coffin. All the accessories for inking are placed at the end of the
machine, the ink itstlf being supplied from a ductor, which can be
so regulated by the keys attached to it as to let out the precise
amount of pigment required. The ink passes to a small solid metal
roller, and is then conveyed by a vibrating roller made of composi-
tion to a larger and hollow metal cylinder or drum which distributes
the ink for the first time. This revolves with the run of the machine
and at the same time has a slight reciprocating action which helps
the distribution. A second vibrating composition roller conveys the
ink from this drum to the distributing table or ink slab, on which
other rollers, called distributors, still further thin out the ink. As the
type bed travels, larger composition rollers, called inkers, placed
near the cylinder, adjusted to the requisite pressure on the type,
pick up the necessary amount of ink for each impression and convey
it to the type as it passes under them. Usually three or four such
rollers are required to ink the forme.
The perfecting machine is so named because it produces sheets
printed on both sides or, in technical language, " perfected." This
operation is performed by two distinct printings. This
class of machine has been in use a great many years,
although both the stop-cylinder and the two-revolution
press have to some extent superseded it. It is perhaps best adapted
for the printing of newspapers or magazines having circulations
that do not require rotary machines intended for long runs. Although
some perfecting machines have been made with one cylinder only,
which reverses itself on the old " tumbler " principle, they now are
made with two cylinders, and it is with this class that we are par-
ticularly concerned. There are various makes of perfecting machines
of which the Dryden & Foord is shown in fig. 6; among the best
recent typed is the Huber Perfecter.
Although the two-type beds have a reciprocating motion, as in
the ordinary one-sided press, the two cylinders rotate towards each
other. The frame of the machine, owing to the fact that it contains
two carriages and a double inking apparatus, is long, the exact size
depending on the size of the sheet to be printed. Close to the large
cylinders are the inking rollers, which take the necessary amount of
ink, each set from its own slab as it passes under, and these rollers
convey the requisite ink to the printing surface as the forme-carriage
runs under its own cylinder. The distinctive feature is the ingenious
manner in which the sheets are printed first on one side, and then
on the other. This is performed by cam-ing them over a series of
smaller cylinders or drums, by means of tapes. The pile of sheets
FIG. 5. Payne & Sons' Wharfedale Stop-Cylinder Machine.
PRINTING
355
to be fed in stands on a high board at one end. The sheet is laid
to its mark and is conveyed round an entry drum; thence it is
carried round the first impression cylinder, and under this, moving
at the same speed as the cylinder, is the type bed containing the inner
of broad tapes which lie on the laying-on board and are fastened to
a small drum underneath it. This drum has a series of small cogs
which move the web or tapes in the same direction. The sheet is
laid to a back mark on the tapes, and is propelled between two rollers
V A
FIG. 6. Dryden & Foord's Perfecting (two-cylinders) Machine
forme already inked. The paper then receives its impression on the
first siilf. In the older type of machine it is next led up to the right-
hand one of the two reversing drums, which are placed above the
large printing cylinders, and over which it passes with the printed
side downwards. It is then brought under the second or left-hand
drum, and so on to the other large impression cylinder, with the
blank side of the sheet exposed to the type of the outer forme on the
table underneath. Thus it will be seen that the sheet is reversed
in its travel between the first and second large cylinders which -give
the impression. The sheet is then finally run out and delivered in
the space between the two large cylinders, and laid on the delivery
board usually with the aid of flyers. In the more recent type of
direct into the machine. Another variety employs grippers some-
what after the manner of the ordinary single cylinder. The Anglo-
French perfecting machine is one of that class. As a rule most
double-cylinder presses produce on an average about 1000 copies
per hour, printed both sides.
The two-revolution machine is another one-cylinder machine
built on the reciprocating principle. Its speed is greater than the
stop cylinder (it may be geared to produce from 1500 to _,
2000 copies per hour, printed one side only). The R ~
Miehle (fig. 7), which is of American design but now made
also in Great Britain, is a good example of this kind of
machine and is much used, especially for illustrated work. It has
FIG. 7. The Miehle Two-revolution Cylinder Machine.
perfecting machines the sheet is fed directly into grippers, change
taking place when grippers on each cylinder meet, the outer forme
grippers taking the sheet from the inner forme grippers.
This is a general description of the principles on which these
machines are built, but, as in other classes, there are many variations
in details. For example, there are the drop-bar, the web and the
gripper methods of feeding these presses. In the first case a bar
descends upon the paper after it is laid to point marks, and this bar,
having a rotary motion, runs the sheet between a roller and a small
drum into the machine. The web arrangement consists of a series
the high over-feedboard, and the taking-off apparatus is automatic
but on a different plan from that of the ordinary Wharfedale, the
sheets being carried over tapes with the freshly-printed side upper-
most, thus preventing smearing; they are then carried on to the heap
or pile by the frame or long arms placed at the end of the machine.
A recent feature of this machine is the tandem equipment, whereby
two, three or even four machines may be coupled together for colour
work. Only one layer-on is required and register is obtained auto-
matically throughout.
The principle of the two-revolution press is that the cylinder
PRINTING
always rotates in the same direction, and twice for each copy given,
once for the actual impression, and again to allow of the return of
the forme-carriage in its reciprocating action. This also allows time
for the feeding in of the next sheet to be printed. Among other
advantages claimed for this press one is that the movement which
governs the action of the type bed in reversing is so arranged that the
strain which sometimes occurs in other reciprocating machines is
considerably reduced; another is that the registering or correct
backirg of the pages on the second side in printing is uncommonly
good ; but this depends much upon the layer-on. In many of the old
kinds of two-revolution machines, owing to the cylinder being geared
separately from the type bed, it was apt to be occasionally thrown out,
but in the Miehle, for instance, it is only out of gear in reversing,
and in gear while printing. Great strength is imparted to the frame,
and the type bed is particularly rigid. These points, together with
a truly turned and polished cylinder, with carefully planned means of
adjustment, much simplify the preparation of making-ready of
any kind of type-forme or blocks for printing, which is carried
out much in the same way as on the ordinary single cylinder, but in
a more convenient manner. Many of these machines are made to
print four double crowns, 60 X 40 in., or even larger.
continuously rotate, the web of paper travelling in and out,
serpentine manner, between various cylinders of two characters
one (the type cylinders) carrying the surface to be impressed, usually
curved stereotype plates, and the other (the impression cylinders)
giving the desired impression. Such a press, if driven by electric
power, is set in motion by merely pushing a button or small switch,
a bell first giving warning of the press being about to move. The
number of duplicate sets of stereotype plates to be worked from by
these presses is determined by the size and number of the pages to
be printed, and this in turn is regulated by the capacity of the
machine.
As already explained, the forerunners of the rotary presses of the
present day were the type-revolving printing-machines, and, whilst
they were still being used, experiments were being made to cast
curved stereotype plates which would facilitate and simplify the
work of producing newspapers. This was successfully accomplished
by the use of flexible paper matrices, from which metal plates
could be cast in shaped moulds to any desired curve. These plates
were then fixed on the beds of the Hoe type revolving machine,
which were adapted to receive them instead of the movable type-
formes previously used. This new method enabled the printers
FIG. 8. Payne & Sons' Two-colour Single Cylinder Machine.
The two-colour machine is generally a single cylinder (fig. 8)
with one feed only, and the .bed motion reciprocating. The two
.^ colours are printed each at one revolution from the two
7Vo-Co/our t yp e _f ormes as ^ey p ass un( j er the cylinder, which
"* rotates twice in its travel. A double inking apparatus
is of course necessary, and the inking arrangements are placed at the
two extreme ends of the machine. In comparison with the ordinary
single cylinder the two-colour machine is built with a longer frame,
as is necessary to allow the two type-formes to pass under the
cylinder, both in its travel forward and on its return. This
cylinder on its return is stationary, in fact it might be called a
double or rather an alternative stop-cylinder machine, with the ink-
ing facilities arranged somewhat on the same plan as on either a
two-feeder or a perfecting machine. These two-colour presses are
intended only for long runs, short runs may be worked to advantage
separately on the ordinary single-colour machine. Generally, with
the exception just mentioned, the machine is much the same as the
ordinary stop or Wharfedale.
Before leaving the subject of printing with the reciprocating bed-
motion, it may be mentioned that although in all modern machines
of that kind the printed sheet is self-delivered, the imprinted paper
has generally been fed in by hand, and for some classes of work this
is still done. But many automatic feeders have been invented
from time to time, which for the many purposes for which they are
suitable must be reckoned part of a modern printing establishment.
As distinct from flat bed printing with a reciprocating motion,
printing on rotary principles is a most interesting study, and it is
this department of printing mechanics which has
r? developed so very much in recent years. It seems
les - almost as though this branch had reached its limit,
and as though any further developments can only be a question of
duplication of the existing facilities so as to print from a greater
number of cylinders than, say, an octuple machine. This would
be merely a matter of building a higher machine so as to take a
larger number of reels arranged in decks. As the name implies,
these presses are so constructed that both printing surfaces and paper
to duplicate the type pages and to run several machines at 'the same
time, thus producing copies with far greater rapidity. In some large
offices as many as five machines were in constant use. About this
period the English stamp duty on printed matter was repealed, and
this materially aided the development of the newspaper press.
Subsequently the proprietors of The Times made various experi-
ments with a view to making a rotary perfecting press, and as a
result started the first one about 1868. It was somewhat similar
in design to the Bullock press, so far as the printing apparatus was
concerned, except that the cylinders were all of one size and placed
one above the other. The sheets were severed after printing,
brought up by tapes, and carried down to a sheet flyer, which moved
backwards and forwards, and the sheets were alternately " flown "
into the hands of two boys seated opposite each other on either side
of the flyers. Hippolyte Marinpni (1823-1904), of Paris, also devised
a machine on a somewhat similar principle, making the impression
and type cylinders of one size and placing them one over the other.
About 1870 an English rotary machine called the " Victory " was
invented by Messrs Duncan & Wilson. It printed from the web,
and had a folder attached. An improved form of this machine is
still in use. This machine had separate fly-boards for the delivery
of the sheets. In 1871 Messrs Hoe & Co. again turned their atten-
tion to the construction of a rotary perfecting press to print from the
reel or continuous web of paper, and from stereotype plates fastened
to the cylinder.
The rotary presses in use at the present time are indeed wonderful
specimens of mechanical ingenuity, all the various operations of
damping (when necessary), feeding, printing (both sides), cutting,
folding, pasting, wrapping (when required) and counting being
purely automatic. These machines are of various kinds, and are
specially made to order so as to cope with the particular class of
work in view. They may be built on the " deck " principle of two,
three, four, or even more reels of paper, and either in single width
(two pages wide), or double width (four pages wide). Single and
two-reel machines are generally constructed on the " straight line "
principle, i.e. arranged with the paper at one end of the machine,
PRINTING
357
and passing through the cylinders to the folder at the other end
where the copies are delivered. Three- and four-reel machines
have also been constructed on the same principle, but the more
usual arrangement of the four-reel press is to place two reels ateither
end, with the folders and delivery boards in the centre. This makes
it |Kiv.ti>le to operate them as independent machines, or to run in
combination with each other.
When presses are made in double width a two-reel machine is
known as a quadruple, a three-reel as a sextuple, and a four-reel as
an octuple machine. Double sextuple and double octuple machines
are made, having six and eight reels respectively. The quadruple
machine is a favourite one and is perhaps most in demand for news-
paper work. This press prints from two reels of the double width.
The first reel is placed to the right of the machine near the floor,
and the second at the back of the machine and at right angles to it.
A quadruple machine will produce 48,000 copies per hour of four,
six or eight pages; and proportionately less of a greater number of
pages ; all folded, counted and pasted if required. The four cylinders,
which are on the right-hand side of the press, are respectively the
plates, four pages on each type cylinder, making a total of thirty-two
pages in all. Each press produces of that number of pages 50,000
copies per hour, printed both sides, cut, folded and Q,^,-^
counted off in quires complete; by increasing the sets of u 0<a/ y
stereotype pages the same machine will produce 100,000 Machine*.
copies per hour of sixteen pages, and by duplicating the
folding and delivery apparatus, 200,000 copies of eight pages of the
same si2e. This mammoth press measures 54 ft. in length, 19 ft.
in height and 12 ft. across; its dead weight is about no tons, and
roughly 100,000 different pieces of metafwere used in its construc-
tion. The rough cost of such a machine is probably about 18,000.
Such a press requires two 55 h.p. motors, one at each end, to drive it.
The press is practically four quadruple machines built together,
each of which can be worked independently of the other. The
paper is fed from reels placed at the two ends in decks, one above
the other, each reel containing about five miles of paper, and weighing
about fourteen hundredweight. The process of unwinding these
long reels of paper in the course of printing takes only half an hour;
they are arranged on a revolving stand so that directly they are
FIG. 9. Hoe's Double Octuple Rotary Machine.
printing and impression cylinders the two inside ones being those
giving the impression, and the two outer ones bearing the printing
surfaces. The inking arrangements are placed at the two extreme
ends of these four drums or cylinders, thus being near the type
surfaces in each case. As the paper is unwound from the reel below
it travels between the first two cylinders when it is printed on the
first side; it then passes to the third and fourth cylinders, which give
it the second backing side, thus " perfecting " the printed sheet.
From this point the long sheet is carried overhead to the left-hand
side of the machine, where it is cut longitudinally and divided, and
then associated with the other web similarly printed by the other
half of the press. They then descend into the two different folders,
where they are folded and cut the copies being discharged on to
the delivery boards situated at the two sides of the left-hand portion
of the machine, and each quire is counted or told off by being jogged
forward. This description applies to one half of the machine only,
for while this is in operation the same thing is being repeated.by the
other half situated at the back.
Another machine, somewhat complex but quite complete in itself,
is tnat constructed by Messrs Robert Hoe & Co. in London from
drawings and patterns sent over from New York, for weekly papers
of large circulation. Double sets of plates are placed on the main
machine, which is capable of taking twenty-four pages, but by using
narrower rolls the number of pages may be reduced to either sixteen
or twenty if a smaller paper is desired. In addition to the body of
the paper it prints a cover, and is capable of producing 24,000
complete copies per hour, folded, insetted, cut, pasted and covered.
That portion of the machine which prints the cover is fed from a
narrower reel of a different colour of paper from that used for the
inside pages. The printing surface for one side of the cover is placed
at one end of the cylinder and the reverse side is placed at the other
end. This ingenious combination results in the printing of one
cover for every copy of the paper.
The double octuple machines (fig. 9) erected by the same firm for
the printing of Lloyd's Weekly News were probably, in 1908, the
latest development in rotary printing. These presses print from
eight different reels of the double width, four placed at each end of
the machine, the delivery being in the centre, and from eight sets of
spent the stand is turned half way round, and four other full reels
already in position are presented ready to be run into the press.
This ingenious arrangement, whereby the reels can be changed in
about three minutes, obviates the loss of time previously incurred
by the press being kept standing while the empty spindles were
removed and replaced with four full reels.
Having described some representative types of the different
classes of printing-presses in use, we may now treat of the
methods employed by the workmen in securing fbePrf
the best results in printing. The real art of printing, paration or
as far as presswork is concerned, lies in the careful Making-
preparation of the printing surface for printing before JJjf^ '
running off any number of impressions. This
preparation is technically called " making-ready," and is an
operation requiring much time and care, especially in the case
of illustrated work, where artistic appreciation and skill on the
part of the workman is of great assistance in obtaining satisfac-
tory and delicate results. Theoretically, if both type and press
were new, little or no preparation should be necessary, but
practical experience proves that this need of preparation has
not yet been entirely obviated and still remains an important
factor. Single proofs of type, stereotype, electrotype or blocks
of any description can often be struck off without making-ready
with fairly good results, but if precision of " colour " (that is,
inking) and uniformity of impression throughout a volume axe
desired, it is necessary to put the forme, whether type or blocks
or both, into a proper condition before starting the printing of
an edition, whatever its number. And this applies to all good
work produced from whatever presses or machines other than
those built on the rotary principle. In these, even if time
permitted, little can be done in the way of making-ready; nor
358
PRINTING
is it really necessary for newspapers, printed and read one day,
and then generally thrown away the next. But for finely printed
works this preparation is essential; the actual results vary with
the operator, both as regards quality and, what is very important
to the employer, in the length of time taken. Some men labour
more at it than others, and it is considered that a press is only
really paying while it is actually running.
The system of making-ready employed now is quite different from
that in use when it was necessary to dampen paper before it could
be satisfactorily printed. It was then customary to print with a
good deal of packing, usually consisting of a thick blanket together
with several thicknesses of paper, all of which intervened between
the printing and the impression surface, whether the latter was flat
or cylindrical. There was much in favour of this system, because a
good firm impression could be obtained, and the " nutmeg-grater "
effect on the reverse, when the impression was too heavy, could,
after the sheets were dry, be removed by cold-pressing in a hydraulic
press. It is still the best method for obtaining first-rate results in
fine work, where hand-made or other rough paper is used. But the
demand for cheap literature required quicker means of production,
and the introduction of process blocks, especially those made by
the half-tone process, necessitated the use of smooth paper and a
faster drying ink, both of which are to be deplored, because to
calender the paper to the degree requisite for this kind of printing
practically means destroying its natural surface, and in rendering
the ink quicker in drying the pigment undoubtedly suffers. On
the other hand, there has been a compensating advantage in the fact
that improved machinery has been demanded for this class of work,
and the British manufacturer has been stimulated by the American
manufacturers, who have taken the initiative in the change of
methods in printing. Cylinders are now turned s.o truly and ground
to such a nicety that very little packing is required between type
and sheet to be impressed, so that a new system of making-ready,
termed " hard-packing," has been resorted to. The fact that the
iron impression cylinder was nearer the type forbade the large
amount of soft-packing formerly used, besides which process blocks,
whether line or half-tone, could not be rendered properly by a
soft impression. Although less packing is necessary, greater care is
required in preparing type or blocks for printing by this new method.
The method in making-ready ordinary plain formes is as follows.
The type-forme is pjaced on the coffin or bed of the press and fixed
into its proper position the precise position being regulated by the
exact size of the sheet of paper on which the work is to be printed.
The cylinder is first dressed with a fine and thin calico drawn tightly
over and fastened securely, which serves as a base on which to
fasten sheets. A sheet of some hard paper, such as manila, is then
placed over it to form, as it were, a foundation.
The printer next proceeds to pull a sheet, without ink, to test the
impression. We take it that the machine has already been regulated
by means of the impression screws at the respective ends of the cylin-
der for all-round or average work, and that any inequality of impres-
sion can be remedied by adding or taking away from the sheets on
the cylinder. Now, supposing the forme to be dealt with consists
of thirty-two pages to be printed on quad crown paper, measuring
40X30 in., on a suitable size of single cylinder machine of the
Wharfedale class, it would be found, although both the machine
and type were fairly new (that is, not much worn), that there was
some amount of inequality in the impression given to the whole
sheet. This is easily detected by examining the sheet the reversed
side in a strong side-light. Although the greater part may be fairly
even, some pages, or portions of pages, would show up too strongly,
the jmpress almost cutting through the paper, while in other portions
the impression would be so faint that it could hardly be seen. These
differences of impression are called respectively " high " and " low."
All these difficulties have to be rectified by the printer either over-
laying or cutting away pieces in this first trial sheet. If the " set "
of the cylinder is about correct, and the impression sheet has been
taken with neither too many nor too few sheets on the cylinder, it
will be a matter rather of overlaying, or " patching up," than of
cutting away from this trial sheet. As soon as this first sheet has
been levelled up it is fixed on to the cylinder to its exact position,
so that it will register or correspond with the type when the press is
running, and another trial sheet is struck off, which is treated pre-
cisely in the same manner, and is then fastened up on the cylinder
on top of the first sheet. It may even be necessary for fine printing
to repeat this a third time, especially if the forme includes blocks of
any kind. When this preparation is completed, the whole is covered
up by a somewhat stouter sheet, which forms a protection to the
whole making-ready, but which can easily be lilted should it be
necessary to give any finishing touches to it before beginning to
run.
If the forme to be printed consists of both type and blocks mixed,
a somewhat different treatment has to be employed in order to put
the blocks into a relative position with the type for printing. This
is done by the usual trial impression sheet, and, as blocks are
found to vary much in height and are generally low as compared
with type, this deficiency has to be remedied by underlaying the
blocks so that they are brought to the height of the type, or a shade
higher. This is usually done by pasting layers of thickish paper,
or even thin cards, underneath the blocks. This must be caretully
done so as to make them stand squarely and firmly on their base,
in order that they may not rock and give a slur in printing. After
underlaying, and to emphasize the respective degrees of light and
shade in the illustrations, a separate and careful overlaying is re-
quired for the blocks before anything is done to the main torme. This
is particularly necessary if the blocks are woodcuts, or electrotypes of
woodcuts, which require a different cutting of perhaps three different
thicknesses, all on thin hard paper, to give their full effect. But with
half-tone process illustrations very little overlaying is required
provided the blocks have been brought up to the proper height by
underlaying in the first instance the various tones being already
in the block itself and it is little more than a matter of sharp, hard
impression to give full effect to these, if both paper and ink are
suitable. For line process blocks a still different treatment in
making-ready is desirable, so as to get rid of the hard edges which are
nearly always found in this kind of block. Here too it is essential
that the preliminary underlaying be done with extreme care if good
work is desired. The originals and the engraver's proofs are of great
assistance to the workman in bringing out the details of an illustra-
tion when he is preparing it for printing. In rotary printing from
the curved stereotype plate and from the endless web of paper
much can be done to assist the printer if good stereotype plates are
supplied to him, and, if the forme contains any illustrations, both
the -artist and the engraver can help him if they keep in mind the
particular character of illustration which they are preparing for the
press. The artist can accentuate the high lights or solids in the
original drawing or photograph, and the stereotyper can emphasize
points in the picture by thickening the plate in the parts necessary
to stand out.
The past generation has seen many improvements in printing
machinery, all tending to an increased production, and generally to
the betterment of the work turned out. This is particu-
larly true of three-colour printing (see PROCESS), jv-hich KeceatDe -
for commercial purposes has been brought to a high vel P ments -
degree of perfection. Only what may be fairly considered as
representative presses have been dealt with in this article, but there
are many others, some of which have been most ingeniously con-
structed for special purposes. Process engraving has practically
superseded wood engraving, and the new processes have brought
new conditions, requiring a different making-ready, paper and ink.
Some of these altered conditions are to be regretted. For instance!
it is unfortunate that the quality and surface of papers have to be
sacrificed to the demands for cheap literature, and this especially
applies to illustrated work.
The introduction of the autoplate is of great advantage to those
using rotary presses, because it allows the production of a large
number of duplicate stereotype plates of satisfactory quality
speedily. This is all important in a newspaper office, where the
margin of time between the caseroom and machine department is
usually so limited, for it permits several machines being quickly
equipped with duplicate sets of the same pages.
Power is another matter that is changing fast. Electricity is
supplanting both steam and gas, and is being installed in most large
printing-houses, including newspaper offices. Suction gas is being
tried in some offices as a supplanter of electricity and is said to be
much cheaper as a power producer. The independent system of
motors is generally adopted, because it is found more economical
and better for driving purposes, besides dispensing with the overhead
shafting and belting, always unsightly, and dangerous to the work-
people. Speeds can be regulated to a nicety for each separate
machine, and any machine can be set in motion by pressing a button.
A printing-house of average size, which makes book printing a
speciality, consists of many departments under the supreme control
of a general manager. His deputy may be said to be
the works manager, who is responsible for all work '
being produced in a proper manner by the different a ^f"
departments. The progress of the work is as follows. *
The MS., or " copy " as it is called, is handed, with all
instructions, to the overseer of the caseroom, who gives it out to the
compositors in instalments as they finish the work already in hand.
Formerly the greater bulk of composition was done on the piece-work
system, but as machine composition has largely superseded hand
labour for the more ordinary class of work, piece-work is declining,
and there is a greater tendency to have the work done on " establish-
ment " (" 'stab "), i.e. fixed weekly wages. When the copy is in type
a proof is struck off and sent to the reading closet, where, the corrector
of the press (see PROOF-READING), with the aid of a reading-boy,
will compare it with the original MS. or copy, and mark all errors
on the proof, so that they may be amended by the compositor at
his own cost before it is despatched to the author or customer, who
in turn revises or corrects it for the general improvement of the
work. The proof is then returned to the printer, and if these
corrections are at all heavy, another proof, called the " revise," is
submitted, together with the first marked one, so that the author
may see that his emendations have been made. This may even be
repeated, but when finally corrected the proof is marked " press"
PRIOR, M. PRIOR
359
and is sent to the printer with the necessary instructions as to
printing. After another reading or revision in the reading closet
it is sent to the compositors, who make the final corrections in the
type and hand the forme to the printing department to deal with.
It is this department which contributes most to the success of any
priming firm, and it requires a really good man at its head. He
must lie a thoroughly practical printer familiar with the different
kinds of printing machinery. To make the department pay, the
inrs must be kept fully employed with the many classes of work
that a large concern has to deal with; the wheels must be kept
running as much as possible, and the time for making-ready curtailed
ir as is consistent with the proper preparation of the forme.
Hire aj;ain it is most important that a sharp eye be kept on the
materials used. Ink forms a large item in the total expenses of this
department, besides which there are: oil for lubricating, turpentine
and other solvents for cleaning, paper for proofs and making-ready,
When the work is printed it is handed to the warehousemen,
who arc responsible both for unprinted and printed paper. Lastly,
the counting-house deals with all accounts, both departments' and
mers'.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following books and periodicals may be
specially referred to: Books J. Southward (and subsequently
A. Powell), Practical Printing, a handbook of the art of typography
(2 vols. 8vo, London, 1900); J. Southward, Modern Printing, a
treatise on the principles and practice of typography, &c. (large 8vo,
London, 1900); C. T. Jacob!, Printing, a practical treatise on the
art of printing, &c. (8vo, 4th ed., London, 1908) ; W. J. Kelly, Press-
work, a practical handbook for the use of pressmen and their appren-
tices (8vo, 2nd ed., Chicago, 1902); C. T. Jacob!, The Printer's
Handbook of Trade Recipes, &c. (8vo, 3rd ed., London, 1905);
F. J. F. Wilson and D. Grey, Modern Printing Machinery and Letter-
press Printing (jarge 8vo, London, 1888); Robert Hoe, A Short
History of the Printing Press (410, New York, 1902) ; T. L. de Vinne,
The Invention of Printing (New York, 1876). Periodicals The
British and Colonial Printer and Stationer (London, bi-weekly) ; The
British Printer (Leicester, alternate months) ; The Printer's Register
(London, monthly) ; The Printing World (London, monthly) ; The
Caxton Magazine (London, monthly) ; The Printing Art (Cambridge,
Mass., U.S.A., monthly); The Inland Printer (Chicago, monthly);
The American Printer (New York, monthly); The International
Printer (Philadelphia, monthly). See also the bibliography attached
to the article TYPOGRAPHY. (C. T. J.)
PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721), English poet and diploma-
tist, was the son of a Nonconformist joiner at Wimborne-Minster,
East Dorset, and was born on the zist of July 1664. His
father moved to London, and sent him to Westminster, under
Dr Busby. At his father's death he left school, and fell to the
care of his uncle, a vintner in Channel Row. Here Lord Dorset
found him reading Horace, and set him to translate an ode.
*He acquitted himself so well that the earl offered to contribute
to the continuance of his education at Westminster. One of
his schoolfellows and friends was Charles Montagu, afterwards
earl of Halifax. It was to avoid being separated from Montagu
and his brother James that Prior accepted, against his patron's
wish, a scholarship recently founded at St John's College. He
took his B.A. degree in 1686, and two years later became a
fellow. In collaboration with Montagu he wrote in 1687 the
City Mouse and Country Mouse, in ridicule of Dryden's Hiiid and
Panther. It was an age when satirists were in request, and sure
of patronage and promotion. The joint production made the
fortune of both authors. Montagu was promoted at once, and
Prior three years later was gazetted secretary to the embassy
at the Hague. After four years of this employment he was
appointed one of the gentlemen of the king's bedchamber.
Apparently, also, he acted as one of the king's secretaries, and in
1697 he was secretary to the plenipotentiaries who concluded
the peace of Ryswick. Prior's talent for affairs was doubted by
Pope, who had no special means of judging, but it is not likely
that King William would have employed in this important
business a man who had not given proof of diplomatic skill and
grasp of details. The poet's knowledge of French is specially
mentioned among his qualifications, and this was recognized
by his being sent in the following year to Paris in attendance
on the English ambassador. At this period Prior could say with
good reason that " he had commonly business enough upon his
hands, and was only a poet by accident." To verse, however,
which had laid the foundation of his fortunes, he still occasionally
trusted as a means of maintaining his position. His occasional
poems during this period include an elegy on Queen Mary in
1695; a satirical version of Boileau's Ode sur le prise de Namur
(1695); some lines on William's escape from assassination in
1696; and a brief piece called The Secretary. After his return
from France Prior became under-secretary of state and suc-
ceeded Locke as a commissioner of trade. In 1701 he sat in
parliament for East Grinstead. He had certainly been in
William's confidence with regard to the Partition Treaty; but
when Somers, Orford and Halifax were impeached for their
share in it he voted on the Tory side, and immediately on
Anne's accession he definitely allied himself with Harley and
St John. Perhaps in consequence of this for nine years there is
no mention of his name in connexion with any public transaction.
But when the Tories came into power in 1710 Prior's diplomatic
abilities were again called into action, and till the death of Anne
he held a prominent place in all negotiations with the French
court, sometimes as secret agent, sometimes in an equivocal
position as ambassador's companion, sometimes as fully accredi-
ted but very unpunctually paid ambassador. His share in
negotiating the treaty of Utrecht, of which he is said to have
disapproved, personally led to its popular nickname of " Matt's
Peace." When the queen died and the Whigs regained power
he was impeached by Sir Robert Walpole and kept in close
custody for two years (1715-1717). In 1709 he had already pub-
lished a collection of verse. During this imprisonment, main-
taining his cheerful philosophy, he wrote his longest humorous
poem, Alma; or, The Progress of the Mind. This, along with his
most ambitious work, Solomon, and other Poems on several
Occasions, was published by subscription in 1718. The sum
received for this volume (4000 guineas), with a present of 4000
from Lord Harley, enabled him to live in comfort; but he did
not long survive his enforced retirement from public life, although
he bore his ups and downs with rare equanimity. He died at
Wimpole, Cambridgeshire, a seat of the earl of Oxford, on the
i8th of September 1721, and was buried in Westnrnster Abbey,
where his monument may be seen in Poet's Corner. A History
of his Own Time was issued by J. Bancks in 1740. The book
pretended to be derived from Prior's papers, but it is doubtful
how far it should be regarded as authentic.
Prior had very much the same easy, pleasure-loving disposition
as Chaucer (with whose career his life offers a certain parallelism),
combined with a similar capacity for solid work. His poems
show considerable variety, a pleasant scholarship and great
executive skill. The most ambitious, i.e. Solomon, and the
paraphrase of the Nut-Brown Maid, are the least successful.
But Alma, an admitted imitation of Butler, is a delightful
piece of wayward easy humour, full of witty turns and well-
remembered allusions, and Prior's mastery of the octo-syllabic
couplet is greater than that of Swift or Pope. His tales in
rhyme, though often objectionable in their themes, are excellent
specimens of narrative skill; and as an epigrammatist he is
unrivalled in English. The majority of his love songs are
frigid and academic, mere wax-flowers of Parnassus; but in
familiar or playful efforts, of which the type are the admirable
lines To a Child of Quality, he has still no rival. " Prior's"
says Thackeray, himself no mean proficient in this kind " seem
to me amongst the easiest, the richest, the most charmingly
humorous of English lyrical poems. Horace is always in his
mind, and his song and his philosophy, his good sense, his happy
easy turns and melody, his loves and his Epicurianism, bear a
great resemblance to that most delightful and accomplished
master."
The largest collection "of Prior's verses is that by R. Brimley
Johnson in the " Aldine Poets " (2 vols., 1892). There is also a selec-
tion in the " Parchment Library," with introduction and notes
by Austin Dobson (1889). (A. D.)
PRIOR (from Lat. prior former, and hence superior,
through O. Fr. priour), a title applied generally to certain monas-
tic superiors, but also in the middle ages to other persons in
authority. Under the Roman Empire the word prior is found
signifying " ancestor." In the early middle ages it was com-
monly applied to secular officials and magistrates, and it remained
all though the middle ages as the title of certain officials in the
3 6
PRISCIAN PRISCILLIAN
Italian city states. Noteworthy among these were the famous
priores artis at Florence. These were appointed governors
of the Florentine republic when the Companies of the Arts seized
the government in 1282.
The term prior was most commonly used to denote the
superiors in a monastery, at first with an indefinite significance,
but later, as monastic institutions crystallized, describing certain
definite officials. In the Rule of St Benedict and other early
rules the titles praepositus and praelatus (see PRELATE) are
generally used, but prior is also found signifying in a general
way the superiors and elders in a monastery. When used by
St Benedict in the singular number it seems (according to the
commentator Menard) to denote the abbot himself. At a later
date in the order of St Benedict the title was applied to the
monk next in authority to the abbot, though this usage was
not adopted technically until the I3th century. In some
monasteries several priors were to be found and generally at
least two. Thus we find the terms prior, sub-prior, tertius prior,
quartus prior, quintus prior. The first prior was sometimes
called prior major, sometimes prior clauslralis. Occasionally
both titles are found in one house, the latter ranking below the
former. The first prior acted as vicar in all matters in the
absence of the abbot, and was generally charged with the details
of the discipline of the monastery. With the foundation of the
order of Cluny in the loth century there appeared the conventual
prior who ruled as head of a monastery, but was subject in some
degree to the archiabbas of the mother-house of Cluny. The
Regular Canons later gave this title of prior to the heads of their
houses, as did also the Carthusians and the Dominicans. It was
in houses of these orders that the sub-prior became a regular
official. Among the Dominicans the head of a province is
known as the " prior provincial." In the order of St John of
Jerusalem (q.v.) a priory was a group of commanderies ruled
by a " grand prior."
The term prior was applied also in the middle ages in a very
general manner. Thus there was the prior scholae or leader of
the choir, prior scriniariorum, &c.
See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae el infimae latinitatis, new edition
by L. Fayre (Niort, 1883, &c.) ; Sir VVilliam Smith and S. Cheetham,
edd. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities (1875-1880). (E. O'N.)
PRISCIAN [PRISCIANUS CAESARIENSIS], the celebrated Latin
grammarian, lived about A.D. 500, i.e. somewhat before Justinian.
This is shown by the facts that he addressed to Anastasius,
emperor of the East (491-518), a laudatory poem, and that the
MSS. of his Institutiones grammaticae contain a subscription
to the effect that the work was copied (526, 527) by Flavius
Theodorus, a clerk in the imperial secretariat. Three minor
treatises are dedicated to Symmachus (the father-in-law of
Boetius). Cassiodorus, writing in the ninety-third year of his
age (560? 573?), heads some extracts from Priscian with the
statement that he taught at Constantinople in his (Cassiodorus's)
time (Keil, Gr. Lai. vii. 207). His title Caesariensis points,
according to Niebuhr and others, to Caesarea in Mauretania.
Priscian's teacher was Theoctistus, who also wrote an Institutio
artis grammaticae. Priscian was quoted by several writers
in Britain of the 8th century Aldhelm, Bede, Alcuin and was
abridged or largely used in the next century by Hrabanus Maurus
of Fulda and Servatus Lupus of Ferrieres. There is hardly a
library in Europe that did not and does not contain a copy of
his great work, and there are about a thousand MSS. of it. The
greater part of these contain only books i.-xvi. (sometimes
called Priscianus major); a few contain (with the three books
Ad Symmachum) books xvii., xviii. (Priscianus minor); and a
few contain both parts. The earliest MSS. are of the gth
century, though a few fragments are somewhat earlier. All are
ultimately derived from the copy made by Theodorus. The
first printed edition was in 1470 at Venice.
The Institutiones grammaticae is a systematic exposition of
Latin grammar, dedicated to Julian, consul and patrician,
whom some have identified with the author of a well-known
epitome of Justinian's Novellae, but the lawyer appears to be
somewhat later than Priscian. It is divided into eighteen books,
of which the first sixteen deal mainly with sounds, word-forma-
tion and inflexions; the last two, which form from a fourth to a
third of the whole work, deal with syntax. Priscian informs
us in his preface that he has translated into Latin such precepts
of the Greeks Herodian and Apollonius as seemed suitable, and
added to them from Latin grammarians. He has preserved to
us numerous fragments which would otherwise have been lost,
e.g. from Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Cato and Varro.
But the authors whom he quotes most frequently are Virgil, and,
next to him, Terence, Cicero, Plautus; then Lucan, Horace,
Juvenal, Sallust, Statius, Ovid, Livy and Persius. His industry
in collecting forms and examples is both great and methodical.
His style is somewhat heavy, but sensible and clear; it is free,
not of course from usages of Late Latin, but from anything that
can be called barbarism. Its defects may be referred in the
main to four heads, (i) Priscian avowedly treats Greek writers
on (Greek) grammar as his supreme authorities; and bears too
little in mind that each has a history of its own and is a law to
itself. (2) There had been no scientific study of phonetics, and
consequently the changes and combinations of languages are
treated in a mechanical way: e.g. i passes into a, as genus,
generis, generatum; into o, as savi, saxosus; q passes into 5, as
torqueo, torsi, &c. (3) The resolution of a word into root or stem
and inflexional or derivative affixes was an idea wholly unknown,
and the rules of formation are often based on unimportant
phenomena; e.g. Venus, like other names ending in us, ought to
have genitive Veni, but, as this might be taken for a verb, it
has Veneris. Ador lias no genitive because two rules conflict;
for neuters in or have a short penult (e.g. aequor, aequoris), and
adoro, from which it is derived, has a long penult. (4) The
practical meaning of the inflexionsjis not realized, and syntactical
usages are treated as if they were arbitrary or accidental associa-
tions. Thus, after laying down as a general rule for declinable
words that, when they refer to one and the same person, they
must have the same case, gender and number, Priscian adds that
when there are transitive words we may use different numbers,
as doceo discipulos, docemus discipulum. He often states a
rule too broadly or narrowly, and then, as it were, gropes after
restrictions and extensions.
His etymologies are of course sometimes very wild: e.g. caelebs
from caelestium vitam ducens, b being put for consonantal u
because a consonant cannot be put before another consonant;
deterior from the verb detero, deteris; potior (adj.) from polior,
potiris; arbor from robur; tierbum from verberatus aeris, &c. Nor
is he always right in Greek usages.
Priscian's three short treatises dedicated to Symmachus are
on weights and measures, the metres of Terence, and some
rhetorical elements (exercises translated from the UporyviuiaaiMTa.
of Hermogenes). He also wrote De nomine, pronomine, et verbo
(an abridgment of part of his Institutiones), and an interesting
specimen of the school teaching of grammar in the shape of
complete parsing by question and answer of the first twelve lines
of the Aeneid (Partitiones xii. versuum Aeneidos principalium) .
The metre is discussed first, each verse is scanned, and each
word thoroughly and instructively examined. A treatise on
accents is ascribed to Priscian, but is rejected by modern
writers on the ground of matter and language. He also wrote
two poems, not hi any way remarkable, viz. a panegyric on
Anastasius in 312 hexameters with a short iambic introduction,
and a faithful translation into 1087 hexameters of Dionysius's
Periegesis or geographical survey of the world.
The best edition of the grammatical works is by Hertz and Keil,
in Keil's Grammatici latini, vols. ii., iii. ; poems in E. Bahrens*
Poetae latini minores, the " Periegesis " also, in C. W. Muller,
Geographi graeci minores, vol. ii. See J. E. Sandys, History of
Classical Scholarship (ed. 1906), pp. 272 sqq.
PRISCILLIAN (d. 385), Spanish theologian and the founder of
a party which, in spite of severe persecution for heresy, continued
to subsist in Spain and in Gaul until after the middle of the 6th
century. He was a wealthy layman who had devoted his life
to a study of the occult sciences and the deeper problems of
philosophy. He was largely a mystic and regarded the Christian
PRISCUS PRISON
361
life as continual intercourse with God. His favourite idea is
that which St Paul had expressed in the words " Know ye not
that ye are the temple of God? " and he argued that to make
himself a fit habitation for the divine a man must, .besides
holding the Catholic faith and doing works of love, renounce
marriage and earthly honour, and practise a hard asceticism.
It was on the question of continence in, if not renunciation of,
marriage, that he came into conflict with the authorities.
Priscillian and his sympathizers, who were organized into bands
of splritales and abstinentes, like the Cathari of later days,
indignantly refused the compromise which by this time the
Church had established in the matter (see MARRIAGE: Canon
Law). This explains the charge of Manichaeism levelled against
Priscillian (Jerome, for his talk of the Sordes nuptiarum, had been
similarly accused, and to escape popular indignation had retired
to Bethlehem), 1 and to this was added the accusation of magic
and licentious orgies. Among the more prominent of Priscillian's
friends were two bishops, named Instantius and Salvianus, and
Hyginus of Cordova also joined the party; but, through the
exertions of Idacius of Emerita, the leading Priscillianists, who
had failed to appear before the synod of Spanish and Aquitanian
bishops to which they had been summoned, were excommuni-
cated at Saragossa in October 380. Meanwhile, however,
Priscillian was made bishop of AvUa, and the orthodox party
found it necessary to appeal to the emperor (Gratian), who
issued an edict threatening the sectarian leaders with banishment.
Priscillian, Instantius and Salvianus succeeded, however, in
procuring the withdrawal of Gratian's edict, and the attempted
arrest of Ithacius of Ossonuba. On the murder of Gratian and
accession of Maximus (383) Ithacius fled to Treves, and in conse-
quence of his representations a synod was held (384) at Bordeaux,
where Instantius was deposed. Priscillian appealed to the
emperor, with the unexpected result that with six of his com-
panions he was burned alive at Treves in 385. The first instance
of the application of the Theodosian law against heretics had the
approval of the synod which met at Treves in the same year,
but Ambrose of Milan and Martin of Tours can claim the glory
of having in some measure stayed the hand of persecution. The
heresy, notwithstanding the severe measures taken against it,
continued to spread in France as well as in Spain; in 412 Lazarus,
bishop of Aix in Provence, and Herod, bishop of Aries, were
expelled from their sees on a charge of Manichaeism. Proculus,
the metropolitan of Marseilles, and the metropolitans of Vienne
and Narbonensis Secunda were also followers of the rigorous
tradition for which Priscillian had died. Something was done
for its repression by a synod held by Turibius of Astorga in 446,
and by that of Toledo in 447; as an openly professed creed it
wholly disappeared after the second synod of Braga in 563.
" The official church," says F. C. Conybeare, " had to respect
the ascetic spirit to the extent of enjoining celibacy upon its
priests, and of recognizing, or rather immuring, such of the laity
as desired to live out the old ascetic ideal. But the official
teaching of Rome would not allow it to be the ideal and duty of
every Christian. Priscillian perished for insisting that it was
such; and seven centuries later the Church began to burn the
Cathari by thousands because they took a similar view of the
Christian life."
The long prevalent estimation of Priscillian as a heretic and
Manichaean rested upon Augustine, Turibius of Astorga, Leo
the Great and Orosius, although at the Council of Toledo in 400,
fifteen years after Priscillian's death, when his case was reviewed,
the most serious charge that could be brought was the error of
language involved in rendering iyivrfros by innascibttis. It was
long thought that all the writings of the " heretic " himself had
perished, but in 1885, G. Schepss discovered at Wurzburg
eleven genuine tracts, since published in the Vienna Corpus.
" They contain nothing that is not orthodox and commonplace,
1 Cf . the outbreak at Rome in 384 against the gymnosophists,
emaciated monks who walked the streets and vehemently denounced
marriage. The epistles of Pope Siricius (who wished to stand well
with the people) are full of scorn for these ascetics, and the Leonine
sacramentary contains prayers which severely denounce them.
nothing that Jerome might not have written," and go far to
justify the description of Priscillian as " the first martyr burned
by a Spanish Inquisition."
See E. Ch. Babut, Priscillian et k Prifcittianisme (Paris, 1909).
(A. J. G.)
PRISCUS, of Panium in Thrace, Greek sophist and historian,
lived during the sth century A.D. He accompanied Maximin,
the ambassador of Theodosius the Younger, to the court of
Attila (448). During the reign of Marcian (450-457) he also took
part in missions to Arabia and the Egyptian Thebaid. Priscus
was the author of an historical work in eight books (Buf tanivLKri
'laropla), probably from the accession of Attila to that of Zeno
(433-474). Only fragments of the work remain, but the descrip-
tion of Attila and his court and the account of the reception
of the Roman ambassadors is a most valuable piece of con-
temporary history. Priscus's style is pure, and his impartiality
and trustworthiness entitle him to an honourable place among
the writers of his time.
Fragments and life in C. W. Mtiller, Fragmenta historicorum
graecorum, iy. 69-110; v. 24-26, ed. B. G. Niebuhrin Bonn, Corpus
scriptprum hist, byzantinae (1829), vol. vi., and L. Dindorf in Historici
graeci minores (1870), vol. i. For the embassy to Attila see Gibbon,
Decline and Fall, ch. 34.
PRISCUS, a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher, of the school
of lamblichus and Aedesius. He died about the year 398 at
the age of ninety. The emperor Julian frequently invited him
to court on the strength of his reputation in connexion with
theurgy. Eunapius says that he was a man of dignified and
austere habit. Unlike Maximus, he used his influence over
Julian with great moderation. He died during the Gothic
invasion of Greece (A.D. 396-98). He is important partly as
maintaining the best traditions of philosophy during a period
when Neoplatonism as a whole was a parasite of imperial power,
and partly as being a connecting link between lamblichus and
Plutarch of Athens.
See Zeller's Hist, of Greek Phil.
PRISHTINA, PRICHTINA, or PRISTINA, the chief town of a
sanjak in the vilayet of Kossovo, Albania, European Turkey;
on a small tributary of the river Sitnf tza, an affluent of the Ibar,
and 3 m. E. of the Prishtina station on the Salonica-Mitrovitza
railway. Pop. (1905), about 11,000. Prishtina is the seat of a
governor-general and of a general of division, and possesses
many mosques, a military hospital and a higher class school.
The trade is considerable, the exports including chrome, wheat,
maize, barley, skins, wine and timber from the magnificent
beech forests in the sanjak. The plain of Kossovo (Kossovopolye,
" Field of Blackbirds "), to the west, was the scene of the battle
in which the Servian empire was destroyed by the Turks in 1389.
To the south-east lies the partly ruined monastery of Grachanitza
founded by King Milutin of Servia (1275-1321). Among the
frescoes are a remarkable head of Christ in the dome, and
portraits of the founder and his queen Simonida, daughter of
Andronicus II. Palaeologus.
See G. M. M. Mackenzie and A. P. Irby, Travels in the Slavonic
Provinces of Turkey (1877),
PRISM (Gr. xpi<7/ia, properly a thing sawn, rpiffiv, to saw),
in geometry a solid enclosed by plane surfaces, two of which,
termed the ends, are parallel, equal, similar and similarly
situated polygons, and the faces connecting the ends are parallelo-
grams, equal in number to the sides of the polygon. If the
faces be perpendicular to the ends the prism is a " right prism,"
and the faces are rectangles; otherwise the prism is " oblique."
The axis is the line joining the centres of the ends. It may be
generated by moving a plane (corresponding to an end or base)
parallel to itself. A prismoid differs from a prism in having for
its ends two dissimilar parallel figures. For illustrations see
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, and for the mensuration see that article.
In optics the word denotes a triangular prism, i.e. one having
a triangle for base, used to decompose white light. (See
REFRACTION and DISPERSION.)
PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio,
seizure), a place for the confinement or compulsory restraint of
362
PRISON
Early
Penalties.
persons after arrest or sentence by arbitrary authority or process
of law.
The earliest object sought in imprisonment was to secure
the person of the accused to ensure his appearance before his
judges for trial, and after conviction to produce him
to take his punishment. They were applied to other
uses less justifiable or defensible; they served to
execute the will of the despotic master upon all who set them-
selves in opposition to his authority, or were decreed, more or
less wisely but still arbitrarily, by a government in the best
interests of society, organized for the general good. Coercion
and intimidation slowly came to be leading ideas, the infliction
of a lesser penalty than the capital. The deprivation of liberty
under irksome circumstances, rough lodging, hard fare and
perpetual labour was after all a milder measure than death,
although long years elapsed before the prison was so used.
Penal codes depended rather upon shorter and more cruel
methods; the scaffold was in constant use, with all manner of
physical pain, torture before and after sentence, shameful
exposure, hideous mutilation, exile, selling into bondage as
slaves. Incarceration was no doubt practised by irresponsible
masters, regardless of personal rights, callous to the sufferings
of their victims, to which death by starvation or horrible neglect
was a welcome relief. But consignment to a prison for length-
ened periods was, as a penalty, of more recent introduction, and
of still later date is the recognition of the duties incumbent upon
the authority to use its powers mercifully by humane endeavours
to reform and improve those on whom it laid hands.
The progress made can only be realized by considering what
prisons once were. The shocking picture drawn by John Howard
Howard's of the state of prisons at the latter end of the i8th
Reforms la century will last for all time. They were for the
England. mos t part pestiferous dens, overcrowded, dark,
foully dirty, not only ill ventilated, but deprived altogether of
fresh air. The wretched inmates were dependent for food upon
the caprice of their gaolers or the charity of the benevolent;
water was denied them except in the scantiest proportions; their
only bedding was putrid straw. Every one in durance, whether
tried or untried, was heavily ironed. All alike were subject
to the rapacity of their gaolers and the extortions of their fellows.
Gaol fees were levied ruthlessly " garnish " also, the tax or
contribution paid by each individual to a common fund to be
spent by the whole body, generally in drink. Idleness, drunken-
ness, vicious intercourse, sickness, starvation, squalor, cruelty,
chains, awful oppression and everywhere culpable neglect in
these words may be summed up the state of the gaols at the time
of Howard's visitation.
At this time prisons were primarily places of detention, not
of punishment, peopled by accused persons, still innocent in
the eyes of the law, and debtors guilty only of breaches of the
financial rules of a commercial country, framed chiefly in the
interest of the creditor. Freedom from arrest was guaranteed
by Magna Carta, save on a criminal charge, yet thousands were
committed to gaol on legal fictions and retained indefinitely for
costs far in excess of the original debt. The impecunious were
locked up and deprived of all hope of earning means to obtain
enlargement; while their families and persons dependent on
them shared their imprisonment and added to the overcrowding.
The prisons were always full. Gaol deliveries were of rare
occurrence, even when tardy trial ended in acquittal release was
delayed until illegal charges in the way of fees had been satisfied.
In the article DEPORTATION it is shown how the discoveries
in the southern seas led to the adoption of penal exile in prefer-
ence to other suggested improvements in the English prison
systems. The penitentiary scheme proposed by Howard was
not, however, abandoned. It was revised and kept alive by
Jeremy Bentham in his fanatical scheme for a " panopticon
or inspection house," described as " a circular building, an
iron cage glazed, a glass lantern as large as Ranelagh, with the
cells on the outer circumference." His plan was to keep every
inmate of every cell under constant close observation, and all
were to be reformed by solitude and seclusion while constantly
employed in remunerative labour, in the profits of which they
were to share. The scheme hung fire, owing, it was alleged, to
the personal hostility of George III. to Bentham as an advanced
radical. Lands were, however, purchased which were eventually
taken over by the government and utilized for the erection of
Millbank penitentiary, begun in 1813 and partially completed
in 1816. It was now fully recognized that the reformation of
prisoners could best be attempted by seclusion, " employment
and religious instruction." Millbank, as a new and most
enlightened undertaking in prison affairs, was opened with much
eclat. It was to be governed by a specially appointed committee
of distinguished personages, the chairman being the Speaker of
the House of Commons. The sum total expended upon the
buildings amounted to half a million of money, and the yearly
charges of the establishment were a heavy burden on the
exchequer.
The erection of Millbank was a step in the right direction.
The energy with which it was undertaken was the more
remarkable because elsewhere throughout the United Kingdom
the prisons, with few exceptions, remained deplorably bad.
J. Neild, who in 1812 followed in the footsteps of John Howard,
found that the old conditions remained unchanged. " The
great reformation produced by Howard," to use Neild's own
words, " was merely temporary . . . prisons were relapsing into
their former horrid state of privation, filthiness, severity and
neglect." Yet the legislature was alive to the need for prison
reform. Besides the building of Millbank it had promulgated
many acts for the amelioration of prisoners. Gaol fees were
once more distinctly abolished; the appointment of chaplains
was insisted upon, and the erection of improved prison buildings
was rendered imperative upon local authorities. But these,
with other and much older acts, remained in abeyance. Thus
an act which provided for the classification of prisoners had
remained a dead letter; even the separation of the males from
the females was not a universal rule. Roused by" these crying
evils, a small band of earnest men formed themselves into an
association for the improvement of prison discipline. They
perambulated the country inspecting the prisons; they issued
lengthy interrogatories to prison officials; they published
periodical reports giving the result of their inquiries, with their
views on the true principles of prison management, and much
sound advice, accompanied by elaborate plans on the subject
of prison construction. The labours of this society brought out
into strong relief the naked deformity of the bulk of the British
gaols. Speaking of St Albans from his personal observation
Mr (afterwards Sir T. F.) Buxton, a most active member of the
society, said: " All were in ill health; almost all were in rags;
almost all were filthy in the extreme. The state of the prison,
the desperation of the prisoners, broadly hinted in their conversa-
tion and plainly expressed in their conduct, the uproar of oaths,
complaints and obscenity, the indescribable stench, presented
together a concentration of the utmost misery and the utmost
guilt." The reports of the society laid bare the existence of
similar horrors in numbers of other gaols. Yet this was in 1818,
when the legislature was setting a praiseworthy example when
half a million had been spent in providing large airy cells for a
thousand prisoners. Even in London itself, within easy reach
of the palatial Millbank penitentiary, the chief prison of the city,
Newgate, was in a disgraceful condition. This had been exposed
by a parliamentary inquiry as far back as 1814, but nothing
had been done to remedy the evils laid bare. The state of the
female side had already attracted the attention of that devoted
woman, Mrs Fry, whose ministrations and wonderful success
no doubt encouraged, if they did not bring about, the formation
of the Prison Society. Mrs Fry went first to Newgate in 1813,
but only as a casual visitor. It was not until 1817 that she
entered upon the noble work with which her name will ever be
associated. She worked a miracle there in an incredibly short
space of time. The ward into which she penetrated was like a
den of wild beasts; it was filled with women unsexed, fighting,
swearing, dancing, gaming, yelling and justly deserved its name
of " hell above ground." Within a month it was transformed.
icy
PRISON
363
and presented, says an eyewitness, " a scene where stillness and
propriety reigned." The wild beasts were tamed. Movements
similar to that which Mrs Fry headed were soon set on foot both
in Kngland and on the Continent, and public attention was
generally directed to the urgent necessity for prison reform.
Stimulated by the success achieved by Mrs Fry, the Prison
Discipline Society continued its labours. Hostile critics were
not wanting; many voices were raised in protest against the
ultra-humanitarianism which sought to make gaols too comfort-
able and tended to pamper criminals. But the society pursued
its objects, undeterred by sarcasm. Many of these are now
;i opted as axioms in prison treatment; for instance, that
female officers only should have charge of female prisoners,
that prisoners of both sexes should be kept apart and constantly
employed. Yet these principles were unacknowledged at that
time and were first enunciated in acts such as the 4 Geo. IV. c. 65
and the 5 Geo. IV. c. 85 (1823-1824), the passing of which were
mainly due to the strenuous exertions of the Prison Discipline
Society. It was laid down in these that over and above safe
custody it was essential to preserve health, improve morals,
and enforce hard labour on all prisoners sentenced to it. Irons
were strictly forbidden except in cases of " urgent and absolute
necessity," and it was ruled that every prisoner should have
a bed to himself if possible a separate cell, the last being the
first formal statement of a principle upon which all future prison
discipline was to be based.
The importance of these acts cannot be over-estimated as
supplying a legal standard of efficiency by which all prisons
could be measured. Still the progress of improvement was
extremely slow, and the managers of gaols still evaded or ignored
the acts. Many local authorities grudged the money to rebuild
or enlarge their gaols; others varied much in their interpretation
of the rules as to hard labour and the hours of employment.
One great drawback to general reform was that a large number
of small prisons lay beyond the reach of the law. Those under
small jurisdictions in the boroughs and under the petty corporate
bodies continued open to the strongest reprobation, and thus
remained until they were swept away by the measure which
brought about the reform of the municipal corporations in 1835.
But by this time a still more determined effort had been made to
establish some uniform and improved system of prison discipline.
In 1831 a select committee of the House of Commons went into
the whole subject of secondary punishment and reported that,
as the difficulties in the way of an effective classification of
prisoners were insurmountable, they were strongly in favour of
the confinement of prisoners in separate cells, recommending
that the whole of the prisons should be altered accordingly and
the expense borne by the public exchequer. There can be little
doubt that this committee was greatly struck by the superior
methods of prison discipline pursued in the United States. The
best American prisons had recently been visited by two eminent
Frenchmen, J. A. de Beaumont and A. de Tocqueville, who
spoke of them in terms of the highest praise. It was with the
object of appropriating what was best in the American system
that Mr W. Crawford was despatched across the Atlantic on a
special mission of inquiry. His exhaustive report, published
in 1834, was a valuable contribution to the whole question of
penal discipline. Another select committee, this time of the
House of Lords, returned to the subject in 1835, and after a long
investigation re-enunciated the theory that all prisoners should
be kept separate from one another. It also urged in strong
terms the necessity for one uniform system of treatment, more
especially as regarded dietaries, labour and education, and
strongly recommended the appointment of official inspectors
to enforce obedience to the acts. These recommendations were
eventually adopted and formed the basis of a new departure.
For fifty years transportation (see DEPORTATION) had been in
England the principal form of secondary punishment for crime.
Primary or capital punishment still existed, but to a
greatly modified extent. The pious Quakers of Penn-
sylvania at the end of the i8th century had realized
a deeper duty towards the offenders than their extinction,
and sought to amend and reform the living. The note
struck first in the Walnut Street penitentiary began a new era
in prison treatment, and the methods adopted were destined to
extend over the whole world. This was the germ of the nearly
universal principle of individual confinement, and the origin of
what some advanced thinkers have denounced as the greatest
crime of the present age, the invention of the separate cell. It
was and still is held by many that the criminal may be best and
most effectually weaned from his evil ways by shutting him up
for lengthy periods between four walls, and subjecting him,
when most susceptible, to curative processes, to constant
exhortation and searching introspection, changing his nature
and restoring him to society a reformed man.
It must be at once admitted that the system of isolation has
produced no remarkable results. Solitary confinement has
neither conquered nor appreciably diminished crime, even
where it has been applied with extreme care, as in Belgium,
and more recently in France, where it obtains strict and unbroken
for long terms of years. Cloistered seclusion is an artificial
condition quite at variance with human instincts and habits,
and the treatment, long continued, has proved injurious to
health, inducing mental breakdown. A slow death may be
defended indeed on moral grounds if regeneration has been com-
passed, but it is only another form of capital punishment.
Still the measures introduced in the United States and the action
taken upon them fill a large page in prison history and must be
recorded here.
Several states in the Union followed the le.ad of Pennsylvania.
That of New York built the great Auburn penitentiary in 1816 to
carry out the new principles. There every prisoner was kept
continuously in complete isolation. He saw no one, spoke to no
one, and did no work. Within a short period very deplorable
results began to show themselves. Many prisoners became
insane; health was generally impaired and life greatly endangered.
Mr Crawford, whose mission to the United States has been
already referred to, was in favour of solitary confinement, but
he could not deny that several cases of suicide followed this
isolation. Some relaxation of the disastrous severity seemed
desirable, and out of this grew the second great system, which
was presently introduced at Auburn and afterwards at the no
less renowned prison of Sing Sing. It was called the silent
system. While the prisoners were still separated at night or
meals, they were suffered to labour in association, but under a
rule of silence ruthlessly and rigorously maintained. The
latter, entrusted to irresponsible subordinates, degenerated
into a despotism which brought the system into great discredit.
All discipline officers were permitted to wield the whip
summarily and without the slightest check. Under such a
system the most frightful excesses were possible and many cases
of brutal cruelty were laid bare. Reviewing the merits and
demerits of each system, Mr Crawford gave his adhesion to that
of unvarying solitude as pursued in the Eastern penitentiary
in Pennsylvania.
Mr Crawford came back from the United States an ardent
champion of the solitary system. He saw, however, great
difficulties in making this the universal rule, chief
... ., Cellular
among which was the enormous expense of provid- separation.
ing suitable prisons. Some modification of the rule
of unbroken solitude would be inevitable; but he strongly urged
its adoption for certain classes, and he was equally convinced
of the imperative necessity for giving every prisoner a separate
sleeping cell. It is clear that the government endorsed Mr
Crawford's views. Where it was possible they gave effect to
them at once. At Millbank, with its spacious solitary cells, the
rule of seclusion was more and more strictly enforced. Ere
long permissive legislation strove to disseminate the new
principles. In 1830 Lord John Russell had given it as his
opinion that cellular separation was desirable in all prisons.
But it was not until 1839 that an act was passed which laid it
down that individuals might be confined separately in single
cells. Even now the executive did not insist upon the con-
struction of prisons on a new plan. It only set a good example
PRISON
by undertaking the erection of one which should serve as a model
for the whole country. In 1840 the first stone of Pentonville
prison was laid, and after three years of considerable outlay,
its cells, 520 in number, were occupied on the solitary, or
more exactly the separate system the latter being somewhat
less rigorous and irksome in its restraints. To the credit of
many local jurisdictions, they speedily followed the lead of the
central authority. Within half a dozen years no fewer than
fifty-four new prisons were built on the Pentonville plan, which
now began to serve generally as a " model " for imitation, not
in England alone, but all over the world. Sir Joshua Jebb,
who presided over its erection, may fairly claim indeed to be
the author and originator of modern prison architecture.
The building of Pentonville was epoch-making. The modern
prison dates from it. The penal discipline of to-day, much
modified and varied it is true, may be largely traced to it. The
" cell " scheme of individual separation holds the ground, and
countries which can afford the outlay have built or are building
cellular prisons. France has made steady progress in this
respect. Great additions have been made to La Sante prison
in Paris, and a new prison on gigantic lines has been opened at
Fresnes les Rungis, on the outskirt of the metropolis, to replace
the obsolete Mazas, and to give cellular accommodation to the
large numbers always on hand in Paris. Germany has embarked
on penitentiary reforms with the provision of several new
prisons; it is the same with the United States, Austria, Holland,
Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Sweden. In Italy a com-
prehensive scheme has been drawn up so that cellular imprison-
ment may become a general rule. In Belgium, where penal
administration has received the closest attention for a number
of years, the regime of cellular imprisonment has been long
carried to its farthest limits, and solitary confinement ranging
over ten years and in some cases much more has been strictly
enforced. Of late years however a new school has arisen in
Belgium which expresses strong doubts of the wisdom or efficacy
of prolonged cellular confinement. In England, moreover,
which, if not the first to adopt separation in principle, certainly
gave the largest effect to it in practice, continuous cellular con-
finement for short terms is ceasing to be the inevitable rule;
and although it has been retained in cases of penal servitude for
the first six months, it was in 1899 practically abandoned for
lesser sentences, and all prisoners after the first month work
together in association under surveillance. In July 1910 the
home secretary announced his intention to reduce it to one month
in all cases, except those of recidivists (see RECIDIVISM). The
bias of modern practice, in short, is towards milder methods, not
only in treatment, but in those anticipatory processes which
may render imprisonment unnecessary.
To understand the existing British prison system it is
necessary to consider its gradual growth and the steps taken to
establish it. Its foundations were laid by Sir George Grey,
The Modem home secretary, when transportation ended rather
British abruptly by the refusal of the chief colonies to
System. continue to be the dumping ground for British
convicts. Sir George Grey sought to deal with the difficulty
as a whole, and to provide for all classes of criminals, the most
heinous deserving severe correction and the minor offenders
in the earliest stages of misconduct. For the first there was
some urgency, the latter was still the business of the local
jurisdictions. The system now introduced consisted of three
principal parts: (i) of a limited period of separate confinement
in a home prison or penitentiary, accompanied by industrial
employment and moral training; (2) of hard labour at some
public works prison either at home or abroad; and (3) of exile
to a colony with a conditional pardon or ticket-of -leave (?..).
No pains were spared to give effect to this plan. Pentonville
was available for the first phase; Millbank was also pressed into
the service, and accommodation was hired in some of the best
provincial prisons, as at Wakefield and Leicester. Few facilities
existed for carrying out the second stage, but they were speedily
improvised. Although the hulks at home had been condemned,
convict establishments in which these floating prisons still
formed the principal part were organized at Bermuda and
Gibraltar. Neither of these was a conspicuous success; they
were too remote for effective supervision; and although they
lingered on for some years they were finally abolished. The
chief efforts of the authorities were directed to the formation
of public works prisons at home, and here the most satisfactory
results were soon obtained. The construction of a harbour of
refuge at Portland had been recommended in 1845; in 1847 an
act was passed to facilitate the purchase of land there, and a
sum of money was taken in the estimates for the erection of a
prison which was begun next year. At another point, Dartmoor,
a prison already stood available, although it had not been
occupied since the last war, when ten thousand French and
American prisoners had .been incarcerated in it. A little re-
construction made Dartmoor into a modern gaol, and in the waste
lands around there was ample labour for any number of convict
hands. Dartmoor was opened in 1850; two years later a convict
prison was established at Portsmouth in connexion with the
dockyard, and another of the same class at Chatham in 1856.
The third stage in Sir George Grey's scheme contemplated the
enforced emigration of released convicts, whom the discipline
of separation and public works was supposed to have purged
and purified, and who would have better hopes of entering on
a new career of honest industry in a new country than when
thrown back among vicious associations at home. The theory
was good, the practice impossible. No colony would receive
these ticket-of-leave men. Van Diemen's Land positively
refused to do so, even though this denial cut off the supply of
labour, now urgently needed. The appearance of a convict
ship at the Cape of Good Hope nearly produced a revolt.
Although Earl Grey addressed a circular letter to all colonial
governments offering them the questionable boon of transporta-
tion, only one, the comparatively new colony of Western
Australia, accepted. But this single receptacle could not
absorb a tithe of the whole number of convicts awaiting exile.
It became necessary therefore to find some other means for
their disposal. Accordingly, in 1853 the first Penal Servitude
Act was passed, substituting certain shorter sentences of penal
servitude for transportation. It was only just to abbreviate
the terms; under the old sentence the transporteeknew that if well
conducted he would spend the greater part of it in comparative
freedom. But although sentences were shortened it was not
thought safe to surrender all control over the released convict;
and he was only granted a ticket-of-leave for the unexpired
portion of his original sentence. No effective supervision was
maintained over these convicts at large. They speedily relapsed
into crime; their numbers, as the years passed, became so great
and their depredations so serious, especially in garrotte robberies,
that a cry of indignation was raised against the system, which
led to its arraignment before a select committee of the House
of Commons in 1863.
Meanwhile prison discipline in the elementary stage, as inflicted
on lesser offenders, was continually discussed. The subject
was referred to many committees for inquiry, and it was shown
that there was a lamentable want of uniformity in the enforce-
ment of legal penalties. The processes and treatment varied
with the localities. Dietaries differed, here too ample, there
meagre to starvation. The amount of exercise allowed varied
greatly; there was no universal rule as to employment. In
some prisons hard labour was insisted upon, and embraced
tread- wheels or the newly-invented cranks; in some it did not
exist at all. The cells inhabited by prisoners (and separate
cellular confinement was now very general) were of different
dimensions variously lighted, warmed and ventilated. The
time spent in these cells was not invariably the same, and as
yet no authoritative decision had been made between the
solitary and silent systems. The first named had been tried
at Pentonville, but the period had been greatly reduced. The
duration had been at first fixed at eighteen months, but it was
proved that the prisoners' minds had become enfeebled by this
long isolation, and the period was limited to nine months. In
many jurisdictions however the silent system, or that of associated
PRISON
labour in silence, was still preferred; and there might be prisons
within a short distance of each other at which two entirely
different systems of discipline were in force. In 1849 Mr
Charles Pearson, M.P., moved for a select committee to report
upon the best means of securing some uniform system which
should be at once punitive, reformatory and self-supporting.
He urged that all existing plans were inefficacious, and he
advocated a new scheme by which the labour of all prisoners
should be applied to agriculture in district prisons. The resuk
of a full inquiry was the reiteration of views already accepted
in theory but not yet generally adopted in practice. Thirteen
more years elapsed and still no such steps had been taken. A
new committee sat in 1863, and in its report again remarked in
no measured terms upon the many and wide differences that
still existed in the gaols of Great Britain as regards construction,
diet, labour and general discipline, " leading to an inequality,
uncertainty and inefficiency of punishment productive of the
most prejudicial results." Matters could only be mended by
the exercise of legislative authority, and this came in the Prison
Act of 1865, an act which consolidated all previous statutes on
the subject of prison discipline, many of its provisions being still
in force. Yet the years passed and uniformity was still far
from secured; it was impossible indeed while prison administra-
tion was still left to a number of local authorities, no two of
which were often of the same mind. The legislature had tried
its best, but had failed. It had exercised some supervision
through its inspectors, had forbidden cells to be used until duly
certified as fit, and had threatened to withhold exchequer
contributions from prisons of which unfavourable reports were
received. Such penalties had exercised no sufficient terrors.
It began to be understood, moreover, that the prisons under
local jurisdictions were not always conveniently and economic-
ally situated. Crime, with the many facilities offered for rapid
locomotion to those who committed it, had ceased to be merely
local, and the whole state rather than individual communities
ought to be taxed; prison charges should be borne by the public
exchequer and not by local rates. These considerations gained
strength and led at length to the introduction of the Prison Bill
which became law in 1877, by which the control of all gaols
was vested in a body of prison commissioners appointed by and
responsible to the home secretary. These commissioners had
power to consolidate by closing superfluous prisons, to establish
one system of discipline, and generally by watchful supervision,
aided by the experience of specialists, to maintain that much-
desired uniformity which had been so long and unsuccessfully
sought. At the same time the co-operation of the local
magistrates was invited so far as advice and assistance were
concerned; but all real power and control has passed from their
hands into that of the commissioners of prisons. The system
established by the act of 1877 is that now in force.
As for penal servitude, the punishment reserved for the
gravest offences, great changes had been introduced. We left
this branch of the subject at a parliamentary inquiry. The
verdict given was in the main satisfactory; but doubts were
expressed as to the severity of the discipline inflicted, the prin-
cipal features of which were moderate labour, ample diet and
substantial gratuities. The first was far less than the work free
men did for a livelihood, the second larger, the third excessive,
so that convicts often left prisons with thirty, forty, even
eighty pounds in their pockets. Penal servitude, to use the
words of the lord chief justice Sir Alexander Cockburn, one of
the members of the committee, " was hardly calculated to pro-
duce on the mind of the criminal that salutary dread of the
recurrence of the punishment which may be the means of
deterring him and, through his example, others from the commis-
sion of crime." The chief recommendation put forward to mend
the system comprised lengthening of all sentences, a diminution
in the dietaries, the abolition of large gratuities, and, speaking
broadly, a general tightening of the reins. The most notable
change however was in regard to labour, the quantity and
value of which was to be regulated in future by the so-called
" mark-system." This plan had originated with Captain
Maconochie, at one time superintendent in Norfolk Island,
who had recommended that the punishment inflicted upon
criminals should be measured, not by time, but by the amount
of labour actually performed. In support of his theory he
devised an ingenious system of recording the convicts' daily
industry by marks, which on reaching a given total would
entitle them to their release. This mark system had already
been tried with good results in Ireland, where the Irish system,
as it was called, introduced by Sir Walter Crofton, had attracted
widespread attention. There had been a very marked diminu-
tion in crime, attributable it was supposed to this system,
which was in almost all respects the same as the English, although
the Irish authorities had invented an " intermediate stage "
in which convicts worked in a state of semi-freedom and thus
practised the self-reliance which in many produced reform.
As a matter of fact the diminution in crime was traceable to
general causes, such as a general exodus by emigration, the
introduction of a poor law and an increase in the facilities for
earning an honest livelihood. It may be added here that judged
by later experience the Irish system had no transcendent merits,
and it is now extinct. But we owe something to the Irish prac-
tice which first popularized the idea of maintaining a strict
supervision over convicts in a state of conditional release, and it
reconciled us to a system which was long wrongfully stigmatized
as espionage. The mark system, as recommended by the com-
mittee of 1863 and as subsequently introduced, had however
little in common with either Maconochie's or the Irish plan.
It was similar in principle and that was all. According to the
committee, every convict should have it in his power to earn
a remission in other words, to shorten his sentence by his in-
dustry. This industry was to be measured by marks earned by
hard labour at the public works, after a short probational term
of close " separate " confinement. But the remission gained
did not mean absolute release. All males were to be sent, during
the latter part of their sentence, " without disguise to a thinly
peopled colony," to work out their time and their own re-
habilitation. The committee still clung to the old theory of
transportation, and this in spite of the lively protests of some
of its members. The one outlet remaining, however, that of
Western Australia, was soon afterwards (1867) closed to con-
vict emigrants; and this part of the committee's recommenda-
tions became a dead letter. Not so the mark system, or the
plan of earning remission by steady industry. This was carried
out on a broad and intelligent basis by officials prompt to avail
themselves of the advantages it offered. Thus in 1877-1878
efforts were made to minimize contamination by segregating
the worst criminals and restricting conversation at exercise.
A special class was formed in 1880, in which all convicts " not
versed in crime," first offenders and comparatively innocent
men, are now kept apart from the older and more hardened
criminals. The committee last quoted gave it as their opinion
that " penal servitude as at present administered is on the
whole satisfactory; it is effective as a punishment and free from
serious abuses ... a sentence of penal servitude is now
generally an object of dread to the criminal population."
Since then, steps have been taken in the classification of
convicts when undergoing sentence with a view to dealing more
effectually with habitual criminals.
Having thus traced the history of secondary punishments and
prison discipline in England, it will be well to de- Latest
scribe the system now actually in force. This will Measures
be best understood if we follow those who break '^ g E ^
the law through all the stages from that of arrest, Discipline
through conviction, to release, conditional or ia England.
complete.
After a short detention in a police cell, an offender, unless
disposed of summarily, passes into one of His Majesty's prisons,
there to await his trial at sessions or assizes. The period thus
spent in the provinces will never exceed three months; in London,
with the frequent sitting at Clerkenwell and of the Central
Criminal Court, it is seldom more than one month. While
awaiting trial the prisoner may wear his own clothes, provide
3 66
PRISON
his own food, see and communicate with his friends and legal
adviser so as to prepare fully for his defence. His fate after
conviction depends on his sentence. If this be " imprison-
ment," so called to distinguish it from " penal servitude,"
although both mean deprivation of liberty and are closely akin,
it is undergone in one of the " local " prisons the prisons till
1878 under local jurisdiction, but now entirely controlled by the
state through the home secretary and the commissioners of
prisons. The regime undergone is cellular; able-bodied pri-
soners are kept in strict separation for at least a month, and
during that time subjected to severe labour; although the term
of first-class hard labour and of purely penal character no longer
exists. The tread-wheel has also been abolished. A system
of progressive stages based on the mark system has been adopted
in the local prisons, and the prisoner's progress through each
depends on his own industry and good conduct. During the
first month he sleeps on a plank bed, a wooden frame raised
from the floor, with bedding but without mattress. When he
has earned the proper number of marks, which at the earliest
cannot be until one month has elapsed, he passes into the second
stage and is allowed better diet and a mattress twice a week.
The third stage, at the end of the third month, gives him further
privileges as regards diet and bed. The fourth stage concedes
to the prisoner a mattress every night, and the privilege, if well
conducted, to communicate by letter or through visits with
his friends outside. These stages are applicable to females
except as regards the plank bed; youths under sixteen and old
men above sixty are also allowed mattresses. A small gratuity
may be earned during the second and three .following stages,
amounting in the aggregate to ten shillings. The labour, too,
may be industrial, and include instruction in tailoring, shoe-
making, basket-making, bookbinding, printing, and many more
handicrafts. Throughout the sentence the prisoner has the
advantage of religious and moral instruction; he attends divine
service regularly, and whatever his creed is visited by a chap-
lain professing it, and receives educational assistance according
to his needs. His physical welfare is watched over by competent
medical men; close attention is paid to the sanitary condition
of prisons; strict rules govern the size of cells, with their light-
ing, warming and ventilation. Dietaries are everywhere the
same; they are calculated with great nicety according to the
time of durance, and afford variety and ample nutrition without
running into excess. In a word, as regards discipline, labour,
treatment, exactly the same system obtains in the " local "
prisons throughout the United Kingdom.
Where the sentence passes beyond two years it ceases to be
styled imprisonment and becomes penal servitude, which may
be inflicted for any period from three years to life. The
prisoner becomes a convict and undergoes his penalty in one
or more of the convict prisons. These are entirely under state
management. A sentence of penal servitude as now admin-
istered . consists of three distinct periods or stages: (i) that
of probation endured in separate confinement at a so-called
" close " prison; (2) a period of labour in association at a public
works prison; and (3) conditional release for the unexpired
portion of the sentence upon licence or ticket-of-leave.
1. In the first stage, which was limited to six months, but
which it is proposed to reduce to one month, the convict passes
his whole time in his cell apart from other prisoners, engaged
at some industrial employment. He exercises and goes to
chapel daily in the society of others, but holds no communica-
tion with them; his only intercourse with his fellow-creatures
is when he is visited by the governor, chaplain, schoolmaster
or trade instructor. This period of almost unbroken solitude
is of a painful character, and its duration has therefore been
wisely limited.
2. The second is a longer stage and endures for the whole or
a greater part of the remainder of the sentence, its duration
being governed by the power a convict holds in his own hands
to earn a remission. It is now passed at a public works
prison; either at Aylesbury (females), Borstal, Dartmoor, Park-
hurst or Portland. While cellular separation, except at work,
at prayers or exercise, is strictly maintained, labour is in
ciation under the close and constant supervision of officials. Inter-
communication no doubt takes place; men working together
in quarry, brickfield or barrow-run, and out of earshot of their
guardians, may and do converse at times. But the work is
too arduous to allow of long and desultory conversation; the
chance of contamination is now minimized by the careful
separation of the less hardened from the old offenders. There
is no reason to suppose that any great evils arise from this
association, and without it the execution of the many important
national public works which now attest its value would have
been impossible. Among these may be mentioned the follow-
ing: the quarrying of stone for the great Portland breakwater,
nearly 2 m. in length and between 50 and 60 ft. deep in the
sea, with the defensive works on the Verne, batteries, case-
ments and barracks intended to render the island of Portland
impregnable, and the enlargement and extension of the dock-
yards at Chatham and Portsmouth. At Borstal a line of forts
intended to protect Chatham on the south and west have
been erected by convicts; they have also built magazines at
Chattenden on the left bank of the Medway. Besides this,
convict labour has been usefully employed in the erection of
prison buildings at new points or in extension of those at the
old. In all cases the bricks have been made, the stone quarried
and dressed, the timber sawn, the iron cast, forged and wrought
by the prisoners. The great merit of this system is the skill
acquired in handicrafts by so many otherwise idle and useless
hands. Convict mechanics are rarely found ready made. It
is a fact that a large percentage of the total number employed
at trades learnt them in prison. These results are no doubt
greatly aided by the judicious stimulus given to the highest
effort of the mark system. The chief objection to enforced labour
has been the difficulty in ensuring this; but the convict nowa-
days eagerly tries his best, because only thus can he win privi-
leges while in prison and an earlier release from it. Every
day's work is gauged and marks recorded according to its
value; upon the total earned depends his passage through the
stages or classes which regulate his diet and general treatment,
and more especially his interviews and communications with
his relations and friends. Yet more; steady willing labour
continuously performed will earn a remission of a fourth of the
sentence. It must be borne in mind that the marks thus earned
may be forfeited at any time by misconduct, but affect remission
to this extent only. The full remission in a five years' sentence
is one year and ninety-one days; in seven years, one year two
hundred and seventy-three days; in fourteen, three years one
hundred and ninety-seven days; in twenty, four years one
hundred and ninety days. " Lifers " cannot claim any remis-
sion, but their cases are brought forward at the end of twenty
years and then considered on their merits.
3. Having earned his remission the convict enters upon the
third stage of his punishment. He is released, but only con-
ditionally, on licence or ticket-of-leave. This permission to be
at large may easily be forfeited by fresh breaches of the law.
Stringent conditions are endorsed upon the licence and well
known to every licence holder (see TICKET-OF-LEAVE).
Further modifications have been introduced from time to
time in the British penal system, tending mostly to milder
discipline, more intelligent classification of prisoners and a
certain amelioration of their lot. In its general outlines the
system as set forth above has been maintained, but the depart-
mental committee appointed in 1895 made some important
recommendations which were presently adopted in part. The
committee was dissatisfied with the moral results achieved
and thought that more attention should be paid to reformatory
processes. They believed that " few inmates left prison better
than when they came in." Recommittals were frequent and
recidivism on the increase. Imprisonment was not sufficiently
deterrent to the habitual criminal class, and small attention
was paid to the reclamation of less hardened offenders. The
views of this committee were embodied in a Penal Servitude
bill which was long debated, but became law in 1898. It
PRISON
3 6 7
emphasized the excellence of the system devised in 1879 for the
segregation of the comparatively innocent from convicts hardened
in crime. The system of the " star " class as originally estab-
lished provided that the prisoner never previously convicted
should be kept absolutely apart, at chapel, labour, exercise and
in quarters, from his less fortunate fellows who had already been
imprisoned. The rule was strictly enforced and with the most
conspicuous results, so that little more than i % of " stars "
have been re-convicted when once more at large. The privilege
of the " star " is only accorded after careful inquiry and reason-
able proof that the individual has never before been sent to
prison. Reference is made to the police at the time of con-
viction, and the duty of looking into previous and present
character is very strictly performed. The inquiry is continuous
may be prolonged into the sentence; then, if necessary,
correction is applied. But as a matter of fact very few mistakes
made. It is obvious that wrongful admission into the
r " class might be fraught with mischievous consequences,
and it is well known that a first sentence does not necessarily
mean absolute unacquaintance with crime. For administrative
convenience the " stars " whose name comes from the scrap
of crimson cloth worn on cap and jacket sleeve have been
generally concentrated at Portland, and employed in labours
specially allotted to them, for the most part demanding a higher
rate of intelligence than the general average shown by convicts.
Mmilders, blacksmiths, carpenters, tinsmiths, stonemasons,
bookbinders, painters and various other trades and handicrafts
are the peculiar province of the " stars."
The Prison Act of 1898 made some marked changes in penal
discipline. One was the strict limitation of corporal punishment
to offences of mutiny and gross personal violence to officers,
where previously it might be inflicted for many forms of mis-
conduct, and it can only now be adjudged under great restrictions.
It was feared that the removal of this powerful deterrent would
adversely affect discipline, but on the contrary, the yearly average
of prison offences has diminished from 147 to 131 per thousand
prisoners, and it has been felt by the authorities that the limita-
tion was salutary and wise. Another change was the power given
to courts of law to differentiate between offenders by ordering
them one of three classes of treatment ranging from severe to
less rigorous. The first of these divisions was akin to that of
former first-class misdemeanants; the second division was
allotted to persons guilty of trivial offences not amounting to
moral depravity, the third division was apportioned to serious
crime calling for severe repression, involving strict separation for
the first twenty-eight days with " hard labour " (now an obso-
lete expression, since all prison labour is nowadays accounted
" hard "). The scheme was judicious, but courts have been slow
to make use of its provisions. Yet a third improvement was
permission conceded to prisoners locked up in default of pay-
ment of fine, to obtain a reduction of time proportionate to part
payment of the fine. The numbers under both categories are
considerable, and taken together show a steady increase in the
ten years from 1892 (when the acts first came into effect) to
1902, the figures being 33,802 in 1892 and 51,302 in 1902.
Imprisonment, albeit somewhat modified and diluted, con-
tinues to be used as the chief penalty and most trusted panacea
for all crime. The medicine is so simple in application and
so easily available that it is served out almost automatically
and indifferently to every law-breaker; the pickpocket and the
burglar are locked up next door to the clergyman at variance
with his bishop; the weak-kneed and self-indulgent drunkard
rubs shoulders with the political zealot who has endangered
the peace of nations. There is an enormous mass of so-called
crime in England which is not crime at all, and still is perpetually
penalized by ar infliction of imprisonment for such short periods
as to be perfectl> futile. The bulk of the offences for which
it is meted out are trivial and unimportant. Eighty-three per
cent of the annual convictions, summarily and on indictment,
followed by committal to gaol, are for misconduct that is dis-
tinctly non-criminal, such as breaches of municipal by-laws and
police regulations, drunkenness, gaming and offences under the
vagrancy acts. The leniency of the sentences indicates the com-
paratively trilling character of the wrongdoing. Forty per cent,
of the males and 39% of the females were sent to prison for
periods of a week or less; on the other hand, no more than 4%
were sentenced to six months and under, only 2 % were imprisoned
for terms between six months and one year; and -75% to more
than one year. The question will arise some day whether it
is really necessary to maintain fifty-six local prisons, with all
their elaborate paraphernalia, their imposing buildings and
expensive staff, to maintain discipline in daily life and insist
upon the proper observance of customs and usages, many of them
of purely modern invention. Of course there is in most cases
the alternative of a fine, the non-payment of which entails the
imprisonment; yet a penalty imposed on the pocket is so clearly
the proper retribution for such misdeeds that better methods
should be devised for the collection of fines.
The chief aim of penal legislation should indeed be either
to keep gaols empty or to use them only where distinct reduction
in the number of offenders, whether by regeneration or by con-
tinuous withdrawal from noxious activity, can be obtained. An
axiom based upon this view has been formulated, and although
paradoxical it may well be quoted here. The great aim and
object of all penal processes, it has been said, should be the
recognition of the general principle of dividing all offenders
into two categories: (i) those who ought never to enter a gaol,
and (2) those who ought never to be allowed to leave it. Praise-
worthy efforts to compass the first end have been made in recent
legislation. The First Offenders Act in 1887 had the effect of
postponing sentence and sparing these offenders from incar-
ceration subject to their good conduct. An average of about
4500 thus escaped imprisonment in the five years between 1893
and 1897, and an average of 5500 the five following years.
The gain in this was great, seeing that no more than 6 to
8% were actually sent to gaol after the commission of a
second offence, and that there was therefore a very distinct
saving in expense of maintenance of prisoners incarcerated.
The value of this act is to be seen in its wide adoption. It is
in force in some of the states of the American Union. It was
adopted in France by the Berenger law of 1891, and in Belgium,
where 14% of sentences of imprisonment in one year and a-half
were postponed. In some countries the concession has been
accompanied by admonition. The Summary Jurisdiction Acts,
by which large numbers of minor offenders were discharged on
bail, or subjected to fines or very brief terms of imprisonment,
have also tended to diminish the prison population enormously.
The number annually discharged increased from 33,000 in
1893 to 51,302 in 1 002. This excellent system has commended
itself to many countries and it is now adopted by the bulk of
governments and jurisdictions owing allegiance to the British
Crown.
Two new systems of applying imprisonment have commended
themselves to English administrators, and both have been
effected by the Prevention of Crime Act 1908. The first is a
new method for educating and reforming young offenders,
already on the frontiers of habitual crime, no longer children,
but at an age still susceptible of permanent improvement; the
second is the legal acceptance of the principle of indefinite
detention, the willingness to inflict an indeterminate sentence
on those who have already forfeited the right to be at large.
Both these measures originated in the United States. The
Borstal scheme of a juvenile-adult reformatory has been to
some extent planned on the institutions of Elmira reformatory
in the state of New York and of Concord in Massachusetts (see
JUVENILE OFFENDERS). Side by side with the new processes
introduced, the idea of the indeterminate sentence was started
and put in practice, by which release was made to depend upon
reasonable hope of amendment and sentences were prolonged
until it was more or less certain that the treatment had resulted
in cure.
Other measures are set forth in the new classification of
convicts, prescribed by the secretary of state in the rules sub-
mitted by him to the House of Commons in 1904. All convicts
3 68
PRISON
are classed in three categories, viz. (A) the Ordinary division;
(B) the Habitual Offenders' division; and (C) the Long Sentence
division.
The " A " or Ordinary division comprises all ordinary con-
victs under old rules who are still separated into the three classes
of " star," intermediate and recidivist, as provided by the act
of 1898. The qualifications for each class are clearly laid down.
Only those never previously convicted, or known as of not
habitually criminal or corrupt habits, are eligible for the " star "
class. The intermediate class takes those not previously con-
victed but deemed unsuitable as " stars " from antecedents
and generally unsatisfactory character. The recidivist class
is for those previously sentenced to penal servitude or whose
record shows them to have been guilty of grave and persistent
crime.
These three classes begin with cellular confinement, but for
varying periods; the first for three months, the second six
months and the third for nine months, in all cases subject to
a medical report upon mental and physical condition. Female
convicts pass the first three months of their sentence in separate
cells.
The " B " division indicates the worst penalties to be inflicted
upon habitual criminals. There is no recognition whatever of
the principle of the indeterminate sentence. The law merely
prescribes the forfeiture of all remission. The convict is not
eligible for release or licence, but when the time of conditional
liberation would have formerly arrived the case is submitted
to the authorities and dealt with on its merits. Early release
depends upon the reports on industry and conduct, and the
prospect of his keeping straight if set free. He may have to
" do " his whole time but not an hour beyond it.
Certain privileges are conceded to the " B " division to com-
pensate those in it for the loss of remission. They wear a special
dress, a band of blue cloth on the left arm; they may earn an
extra gratuity and spend a part of it in buying extra food or
articles of comfort and relaxation; they may take their meals
in association, converse at them or at exercise, but not at
labour.
The " C " division has been designed for convicts serving long
sentences, who have gained all possible privileges in the early
years of sentence and have little or nothing to expect further
until the last year of their sentence, when they may earn an
additional gratuity. But after ten years they may enter the
" C " division, earn a special gratuity therein, and enjoy the
various privileges accorded to the " B " or habitual criminals'
division with the additional advantage that there is no inter-
ference with their remission.
Still milder and more humanitarian prison treatment was
that put forward by the home secretary in 1910 in his speech
already referred to. In it he suggested that the following
reforms should be carried out, some by administrative order
and some by future legislation: (i) time for the payment of
fines inflicted for minor offences; (2) disciplinary treatment
outside prison for all offenders under 21 years of age; (3)
punishment of those guilty of offences not involving moral
turpitude to be relieved of all degrading features; (4) the
reduction of the period of solitary confinement to a maximum
of one month; (5) and the abolition of the ticket-of -leave
system. It was also proposed to give four lectures or
concerts a year in convict prisons.
Prisons in other Countries. The general progress made in prison
treatment will be best realized by a brief survey of penal institutions
in the principal countries of the world. It will be convenient to take
them alphabetically.
i. Austria-Hungary. The regime of cellular confinement has not
been universally adopted ; only six prisons are built on that principle
and no more than 15% of the whole number of prisoners can be
subjected to the system. Cellular separation is not inflicted for
long periods, the minimum being six months and the maximum
three years. The bulk of the prisoners live and labour in common.
A great feature has been the execution of public works by prisoners
in a state of semi-liberty beyond prison walls the practical adoption
of the so-called " Irish " or intermediate prison-^and good results
are seen in road-making and the improvement of river courses.
2. Belgium. This country has spared neither pains nor money
in carrying out penal processes, and the Belgian prisons are examples
of the cellular system prolonged to the utmost limits of human
endurance. There is a minimum of ten years, but the individual
may elect to continue in separation, or be transferred to partial
association. A new school of Belgian criminologists has been headed
by M. Prins, the chief of the prison department, who has protested
that to hope the vicious, hardened offender, after a long detention,
" surrounded with every attention, soaked with good counsel, will
leave his cell regenerated," is a Utopian dream.
3. British Dominions beyond the Sea. The principle of cellular
separation was accepted as far back as 1836 and the model prison of
Pentonville, opened in 1842, has since been copied throughout the
civilized world. The cellular system has been adopted in all British
colonies with various modifications, and prisons built on modern
principles are to be found in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and
the Cape of Good Hope. India retains association as the system
most suitable for its criminal classes, with other methods generally
abandoned in Great Britain, such as the employment of weil-
conducted prisoners as auxiliaries in prison discipline and service;
deportation is still the penalty for the worst offences and is carried
out on a large scale and with satisfactory results in the Andaman
Islands. In Egypt since the establishment of British control a very
marked change has been introduced in prison affairs.
4. Denmark. In Denmark all convicted prisoners pass through
several stages, from cellular treatment to the intermediate prison
and conditional liberty. Two new prisons on the latest model have
been erected at Copenhagen, one for males and the other for females.
The smaller gaols for short terms are mostly on the cellular plan.
5. France. France has devoted very considerable attention to
prison matters and is now practising the two extremes of treatment,
the strict cellular isolation of the Belgian system and the penal exile
or transportation which was long the English rule.
6. Germany. The unified German Empire has not as yet adopted
one system of prison treatment, and its various component kingdoms
still retain independence in views and practice.
Baden has a well-known cellular prison at Bruchsal, but separation
is not imposed for more than four years and associated labour is
carried out in another quarter of the prison.
Bavaria has four cellular prisons, the chief being at Munich and
Nuremberg, but the collective system also obtains.
Prussia having declared for the cellular system constructed the
well-known Moabit prison in Berlin, also those of Ratibor in Silesia
and of Herford in Westphalia, while those of Graudenz, Breslau,
Werden and Cologne have been added since. The total number of
separate cells to-day is 11,041 against 3247 in 1869. Two new
cellular prisons, Luttringhausen and Saarbruck, have recently been
added. Frankfurt has a good prison on the Pentonville (London)
plan; so has Hamburg; and new buildings have been erected at
Wohjan, Siegburg, Breslau and Munster. Separate cells in Prussia
had increased in 1896 from 3247 to 6573. The cellular regime is
applicable to prisoners between 1 8 and 30, and to first offenders of
50 years of age, the term being fixed by the governor of the gaol,
but never exceeding three years.
Saxony established a penitentiary at Zwickau in 1850 and in its
earlier management exhibited exaggerated kindness to its inmates.
Both the cellular and the associated systems obtain.
Wurttemberg has accepted the cellular system. There are
prisons for females at Heilbronn, and for males at Ludwigsburg and
Stuttgart; in Wurttemberg itself the regime is collective.
7. Holland has followed her nearest neighbour Belgium and has
now at command separate cells sufficient to receive the whole
number of her prison population. The system of unbroken seclusion,
prolonged to five years, is maintained with strictness.
8. Italy. Although accepting the principle of cellular imprison-
ment, Italy has not adopted it largely, partly from want of funds
and not a little because the current of thought has set against it.
The really penal establishments are 77 in number, the great ergastolo
of San Stefano being one. Agricultural labour for convicts has been
tried in colonies of coatti (or those provisionally released) planted
out in the islands of the Italian archipelago.
9. Norway. The separation of Norway, as an independent state,
from Sweden has produced no great change in its prison institutions,
which still follow the lines of the neighbouring country.
10. Portugal. There are three or more cellular prisons at Lisbon,
Coimbra and Santarem, and the system of strict separation when
first adopted in 1884 was expected both to amend and deter.
11. Sweden. Prince Oscar of Sweden was one of the earliest
adherents of cellular imprisonment, and at his urgent representation
penitentiary reform was warmly espoused in 1841. His influence
is still felt, and the system in force in Norway and Sweden is progres-
sive from strict separation to working outside the cell. Sweden,
which adopted the cellular system in 1842, has now cells sufficient
for prisoners sentenced to two years and less. There are three
principal central prisons, one at Langholm near Stockholm, a second
at Malmo and a third at Mya Varfet near Gothenburg.
12. United States. The penal system of the United States varies
between being the most advanced and the most backward in the
civilized world. At one end of the scale are the numerous bad
PRISONERS' BASE PRITCHARD, C.
369
county gaols and the horrors of the convict lease system in the
southern states, now nearly extinct ; at the other such modern and
well-equipped reformatories as Elmira and Concord (see JUVENILE
OFFENDERS). The worst feature is the indiscriminate association
sometimes seen of all inmates, bond and free, the convicted and
accused ; even witnesses against whom there is no shadow of a charge
are sometimes imprisoned among felons. Nor is it only in distant
corners of the great continent that this criticism applies, though
constant improvements are removing the grounds for it. It is only
a short time since the local gaol in the city of New York, " the
Tombs," a house of detention for prisoners awaiting trial, was
described in an official report to the state legislature as a disgrace.
... It is defective in every modern appliance. It is dark, damp and
ill-ventilated . . . worst of all is the hideous system of keeping two
or three men in a cell ; . . . a means of indescribable torture to a decent
man and a prolific source of vice and crime to a criminal. Such
ment of dogs would be gross cruelty." This building has, how-
t-vi-r, now been pulled down, and a new and better one has taken its
place. The administration of prisons rests mainly with the various
state authorities, and there is no federal or general system which
would introduce uniformity of treatment. The federal government
has no influence or control except for offences against the federal
laws, regulating coinage, postal service, the revenue and so forth.
Prison management is essentially a local concern, but some general
features are common to all states, such as the rule that while petty
offenders and prisoners awaiting trial are under county and city
jurisdiction, the state takes charge of all persons convicted of
serious crimes. The state prisons receive by far the largest propor-
tion of the criminal population, more than half the general total
being imprisoned therein. Some of them are models of cleanliness
and good order, built on the best and most imposing lines with large
comfortable cells and an abundance of light and air. The earnest
desire of most prison administration is to develop industrial training
and trade profits side by side with mildness of treatment. The latter
sometimes lapses into methods which are not usually thought
compatible with prison discipline, such as the permission to play on
musical instruments, the holding of concerts, the privilege of smoking
and chewing tobacco, of receiving baskets of provisions, novels and
newspapers from friends outside.
It is worthy of note that prison architecture in the United States
misses many of the gloomy features common to such constructions.
The newest prisons are generally lighter, more roomy, better venti-
lated and on the whole more comfortable than even the best British
prisons. In 1900 Sir E. Ruggles Brise, the English expert on prisons,
declared that " the purity of the air and the cleanliness of the Ameri-
can prisons are admirable, and under a very elaborate system of
warming by hot air, a regular and uniform temperature is sustained
throughout the year, which, considering the varying nature of the
climate from extreme heat to cold many points below zero, is a
considerable engineering triumph."
Prison Industries. It is an axiom in prison science that enforced
labour cannot easily be made productive. No doubt the problem
has been in a measure solved in England by that usefuj incentive
to industry, the mark system. But the more substantial returns
cannot always be expected with the sedentary employments and
single-handed effort inseparable from the regime of cellular imprison-
ment. England for many years past, in adopting the principle of
Public Works Prisons after a certain short period spent in separa-
tion, has pronounced in favour of open-air employment in association.
Although the system still has many hostile critics its value cannot be
contested. It has been said by a trustworthy authority, 1 " We are
convinced also that severe labour on public works is most beneficial
in teaching criminals habits of industry and training them to such
employments as digging, road-making and brick-making work of a
kind which cannot be carried or. in separate confinement." A good
proof of the value of the system as remunerative and healthful,
morally and physically, is seen in the growing desire of other coun-
tries to follow our lead. Very similar operations have been carried
out in Austria-Hungary, where large tracts of land have been brought
into cultivation, and watercourses have been diverted successfully
despite serious difficulties, climatic and physical ; in Russia convict
labour has been largely used in the construction of the Trans-siberian
railway ; the military operations in the Sudan were greatly aided by
convict labourers engaged in useful work at the base and all along
the line; Italy passed_ a law in 1904 enacting outdoor labour for the
reclamation and draining of waste lands by prisoners under long
sentence; and France, although much wedded to cellular imprison-
ment, is beginning to favour extra-mural employment of prisoners
under strict regulations. The subject was discussed at the Peniten-
tiary Congress at Budapest in 1905, and a resolution passed recom-
mending extra-mural employment for prisoners of rural origin,
vagrants and drunkards, and those subject to tuberculous disease,
" so largely the concomitant of cellular confinement."
Prison industries continue to be largely sedentary in character;
they cover a wide range, although the conditions of life are for the
most part artificial. Most trades and handicrafts are practised,
such as shoemaking, tailoring, carpentry, the work of white- and
1 Report of the Royal Commission on Penal Servitude (1878-1879).
blacksmiths; skilful and intelligent workmen, such as the French and
Japanese, find a wide outlet for their versatile and artistic talent.
The well-known products, styled articles de Paris, prison-made, find
a large sale, and many objects of high art, fine paintings, cloisonnS
enamels and gold lacquer are among the beautiful products from
Japanese prisoners. The indoor manufactures followed in British
prisons are not so varied as the foregoing and have been limited by
the protests and objections raised by free or outside labour against
alleged unfair competition. Accordingly, the production of goods
has been largely curtailed for the open market and prison labour is
restricted nowadays to supplying articles required for current use
by public departments such as the navy, army, post office and, of
course, all prison establishments. Prison labour has found an
outlet, therefore, in such work as service blanket making, hammock
making, mail-bag making, the manufacture of cartridge cases, flags,
chopping firewood for barracks and so on, having been diverted
almost entirely from mat-making, once an exclusive prison trade
originally invented indeed by prison task-masters. The total
annual value of the labour applied in English prisons has varied.
In 1896-189^7 the total accruing from manufactures, farm operations
and the ordinary service of the prison was 213,812, the prison
population in local and convict prisons being 17,614; in 1903-1904
the total amounted to 244,518, the prison population on the 3ist
of March 1904 being 21,1 17. The gross expenditure was 524,289 for
1896-1897, as against 615,656 for 1903-1904. Figures are not avail-
able for any exact comparison of outlay and return in other countries,
but the earnings in European countries generally run to about half
the expenditure. In the United States the policy varies between the
two extremes of making prisoners self-supporting and of leaving
them in .idleness so that the whole weight of expense falls upon the
state. In some states economic considerations have carried the
day ; in others the stringency of labour laws under the pressure of
labour associations has paralysed all prison industry. In the first
mentioned, the contract system, by which a contractor hires the
prisoner's labour from the state, has proved very profitable, but at
the sacrifice of discipline and neglect of reformatory processes upon
the individual. This leasing-out system has been carried further in
some of the southern states, and has produced the convict camps,
which have been muph criticized and condemned from the harshness
of the discipline enforced, the many abuses that exist and the meagre
results other than monetary that have been obtained.
The modern movement in favour of industrial employment
combined with humane and intelligent considerations has swept
away the more or less barbaric method of enforcing labour by auto-
matic machinery such as the treadmill, crank and shot drill (see
TREADMILL).
AUTHORITIES. John Howard, State of Prisons in England and
Wales (1784); Cesare Lombroso, L' Uomo delinquent, &c. (1899);
Beaumont and A. de Tocqueville, Systeme penitentiaire aux Etats-
Unis (1837); Crawford, Report on Penitentiaries (U.S.A., 1838);
Maconochie, Prison Discipline (1856); Dr Guillaume, Progress of
Prison Discipline in Switzerland (1872); Arthur Griffiths, Memorials
of Millbank (1873), Chronicles of Newgate (1882) ; Armingol y Cornet,
Prisons and Prison Discipline tn Spain (1874); Stevens, Regime des
etablissements penilentiaires en Belgique (1875); F. V. Holtzendorf
and von Jagemann, Handbuch des uefdngniswesens (1877); Scaglia
Beltrani, Reforma penitenzaria in Italia (1879); Sir Edmund F. Du
Cane, Punishment and Prevention of Crime (1885); Braco, Estudos
penitenciarios e criminaes (Lisbon, 1888); Garofalo, Studio sul
delitto, sulle sui cause e sui mezzi di repressions (1890); Adolphe
Guillot, Les Prisons de Paris (1890); Tallack, Preventive and Peno-
logical Principles (1896) ; Salillas, Vida penal en Espana (Madrid).
(A. G.)
PRISONERS', BASE (PRISONERS' BARS), an ancient game
much affected by children. The players are divided into two
sides, each standing within a base or home marked off at some
distance apart. After preliminary songs and war-like challenges,
a player on "one side runs out and is pursued by one of " the
enemy "; if touched he becomes a prisoner of the side to which
his captor belongs. If another player from the side of the
pursued runs between him and his pursuer, the latter has to
follow him, but the last to leave his base is privileged to touch
any one of the enemy who left his base before him. The rules
of the game are, however, traditional, and necessarily somewhat
elastic. The end comes, of course, when all of one side have
been captured by the other.
PRITCHARD, CHARLES (1808-1893), British astronomer,
was born at Alberbury, Shropshire, on the 29th of February
1808. At the age of eighteen he was enrolled as a sizar at St
John's College, Cambridge, whence he graduated in 1830 as
fourth wrangler. In 1832 he was elected fellow of his college,
and in the following year he was ordained, and became head
master of a private school at Stockwell. From 1834 to 1862
he was headmaster of Clapham grammar school. He then
370
PRITCHARD, H. PRIVET
retired to Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, and took an active
interest in the affairs of the Royal Astronomical Society, of
which he became honorary secretary in 1862 and president in
1866. His career as a professional astronomer began in 1870,
when he was elected Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford.
At his request the university determined to erect a fine equatorial
telescope for the instruction of his class and for purposes of
research, a scheme which, in consequence of Warren de la Rue's
munificent gift of instruments from his private observatory
at Cranford, expanded into the establishment of the new univer-
sity observatory. By De la Rue's advice, Pritchard began his
career there with a determination of the physical libration of
the moon, or the nutation of its axis. In 1882 Pritchard com-
menced a systematic study of stellar photometry. For this
purpose he employed an instrument known as the " wedge
photometer" (see PHOTOMETRY, CELESTIAL, and M'em. R.A.S.
xlvii. 353), with which he measured the relative bright-
ness of 2784 stars between the North Pole and about 10
declination. The results were published in 1885 in his Uranome-
tria Nova Oxoniensis, and their importance was recognized by
the bestowal in 1886 upon him, conjointly with Professor
Pickering, of the Royal Astronomical Society's gold medal.
He now resolved to try the experiment of applying photography
to the determination of stellar parallax. With the object of
testing the capabilities of the method, he took for his first
essay the well-known star 61 Cygni, and his results agreed so
well with those previously attained that he undertook the
systematic measurement of the parallaxes of second-magnitude
stars, and published the outcome in the third and fourth
volumes of the Publications of the Oxford University
Observatory. Although some lurking errors impaired the
authority of the concluded parallaxes this work ranks as a
valuable contribution to astronomy, since it showed the possi-
bility of employing photography in such delicate investigations.
When the great scheme of an international survey of the heavens
was projected, the zone between 25 and 31 north declination
was allotted to him, and at the time of his death some progress
had been made in recording its included stars. Pritchard became
a fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1883, and an honorary
fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, in 1886. He was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1840, and in 1892 was
awarded one of the royal medals for his work on photometry
and stellar parallax. He died on the 28th of May 1893.
See Proc. Roy. Soc. liv. 3; Month. Notices, Roy. Astr. Soc. liv.
198; W. E. Plummer, Observatory, xvi. 256 (portrait); Astr. and
Astrophysics, xii. 592; J. Foster, Oxford Men and their Colleges,
p. 206; Hist. Register of the Univ. of Oxford, p. 95 ; The Times (May 30,
1893) ; C. J. Robinson's Register of Merchant Taylors' School, ii. 210;
Charles Pritchard, D.D., Memoirs of his Life, by Ada Pritchard
(London, 1897).
PRITCHARD, HANNAH (1711-1768), English actress, whose
name before her early marriage to an actor was Vaughan,
first attracted attention as a singer at Bartholomew's Fair in
1733. She was soon playing a wide variety of parts, mostly
comedy, at the Haymarket, Drury Lane and Covent Garden.
When Garrick became patentee of Drury Lane in 1747 she
joined his company and played with him for twenty years,
her last appearance being as Lady Macbeth one of her greatest
roles in April 1768, a few months before her death. Her
talents were highly thought of by the critics of the day. Her
daughter, who had studied under Garrick, and whose beauty
created a sensation when she made her debut (as " Miss Prit-
chard ") in October 1756, did not live Up to the expectations
then raised. She married in 1762 the actor John Palmer,
retired from the stage at the same time as her mother, and after
her husband's death married a political writer named Lloyd.
PRITTLEWELL, a residential parish in the borough of
Southend-on-Sea, and in the S.E. parliamentary division of
Essex, England; lying i% m. inland (N.N.W.) from Southend,
with a station on the Southend branch of the Great Eastern
railway. The church of St Mary the Virgin has fine Perpen-
dicular work and traces of Norman work. There are fragments
of a Cluniac priory of the i2th century. Pop. (1901), 27,245.
PRIVAS, a town of south-eastern France, capital of the depart-
ment of Ardeche, 95 m. S. by W. of Lyons on a branch line of
the railway from that city to Nimes. Pop. (1906), town, 3495;
commune, 7000. Privas is situated near the Ouveze, here joined
by the Mezayon and Chazalon. The town is the seat of a pre-
fecture, a court of assizes and a tribunal of first instance. Other
institutions are training colleges for both sexes, a communal
college and a lunatic asylum for the departments of Ardeche
and Dr6me. Silk-milling is carried on. The rearing of silk-
worms and the cultivation of the mulberry are widespread
industries. There are mines of iron ore in the vicinity. Trade
is in silk, tanned leather, game, chestnuts and fruit preserves.
Privas is first heard of in the i2th century, as a possession
of the counts of Valentinois, and subsequently became the seat
of a separate barony. One of the strongholds of the Reformed
Faith, it suffered terribly during the Wars of Religion. In-
effectually besieged by the royal troops in 1574, it passed in 1619,
by the marriage of the heiress of the barony, Paule de Chambaud,
into the possession of the vicomte de Lestrange, a Roman Catholic
noble. A general rising followed, and in 1629 it was besieged
and taken by Louis XIII. It was reduced to ruins, and the
king decreed that it should not be again inhabited; but in 1632,
some of the townspeople having fought against Lestrange,
who had joined Montmorency's rebellion, the inhabitants were
allowed to return. Some ancient houses, which escaped the
general destruction, are still standing.
PRIVATEER, an armed vessel belonging to a private owner,
commissioned by a belligerent state to carry on operations of
war. The commission is known as letters of marque. Accep-
tance of such a commission by a British subject is forbidden
by the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870. Privateering is now a
matter of much less importance than it formerly was, owing
to the terms of art. i of the Declaration of Paris, April 16, 1856,
" Privateering is and remains abolished." The declaration
binds only the powers who are signatories or who afterwards
assented, and those only when engaged in war with one another.
The United States and Spain have not acceded to it, but though
it did not hold as between them in the war of 1898, they both
observed it. Privateers stand in a position between that of
a public ship of war and a merchant vessel, and the raising of
merchant vessels to the status of warships has in recent wars
given rise to so much difficulty in distinguishing between volun-
teer war-ships and privateers that the subject was made one of
those for settlement by the Second Hague Conference (1907).
The rules adopted are as follows:
1. A merchant-ship converted into a war-ship cannot have
the rights and duties appertaining to vessels having that status
unless it is placed under the direct authority, immediate control
and responsibility of the power the flag of which it flies.
2. Merchant-ships converted into war-ships must bear the
external marks which distinguish the war-ships of their nation-
ality.
3. The commander must be in the service of the state and
duly commissioned by the proper authorities. His name must
figure on the list of the officers of the fighting fleet.
4. The crew must be subject to military discipline.
5. Every merchant-ship converted into a war-ship is bound
to observe in its operations the laws and customs of war.
6. A belligerent who converts a merchant-ship into a war-
ship must, as soon as possible, announce such conversion in the
list of its war-ships.
In connexion with the conversion of the " Peterburg " and
" Smolensk " on the high seas during the Russo-Japanese
War, and the ruse by which they came through the Bosporus
and the Dardanelles, it was agreed, after a vain attempt to solve
the question in a way satisfactory to all parties, that the subject
of whether the conversion may take place upon the high seas
should remain outside the scope of the convention. (T. BA.)
PRIVET, in botany, the vernacular name of Ligustrum, l a.
genus of Oleaceae, containing about thirty-five species, natives
1 Other vernacular names for the. common species are prim,
primprint, primwort and primrose.
PRIVILEGE PRIVY COUNCIL
of temperate and tropical Asia; only the common privet
is a native of Europe. They are shrubs or low trees
with evergreen or nearly evergreen opposite entire leaves,
and dense clusters of small, white, tubular four-parted flowers,
enclosing two stamens and succeeded by small, globular,
usually black berries, each with a single pendulous seed.
The best-known species is the common European privet,
L. vuigare, which makes good hedges; L. ovalifolium (a
native of Japan) thrives by the seaside and even in towns;
there is a yellow-leaved variety (var. variegatum), the leaves
becoming white as they get older. L. lucidum (China) is taller
and handsomer. There are numerous varieties of L. vuigare in
cultivation; var. buxifolium has broader and more persistent
leaves; var. fructu-luteum has bright yellow fruit; var. pendulum
has long weeping branches; and var. variegatum has the leaves
variegated with bright yellow. L. japonicum, L. Massalon-
gianum (Khassia Hills) and other species are also cultivated.
Mock-privet is Phillyrea, a member of the same order and a
small genus of ornamental hardy evergreen shrubs, natives of
the Mediterranean region and Asia Minor.
PRIVILEGE, in law, an immunity or exemption conferred
by special grant in derogation of common right. The term is
derived from privilegium, a law specially passed in favour of
or against a particular person. In Roman law the latter sense
was the more common; in modern law the word bears only the
former sense. Privilege in English law is either personal or
real that is to say, it is granted to a person, as a peer, or to a
place, as a university. The most important instances at present
existing in England are the privilege of parliament (see PARLIA-
MENT), which protects certain communications from being
regarded as libellous (see LIBEL AND SLANDER), and certain
privileges enjoyed by the -clergy and others, by which they are
to some extent exempt from public duties, such as serving on
juries. Privileged copyholds are those held by the custom of
the manor and not by the will of the lord. There are certain
debts in England, Scotland and the United States which are
said to be privileged that is, such debts as the executor must
first apply the personal estate of the deceased, in payment,
for example, of funeral expenses or servants' wages. In English
law the term " preferred " rather than " privileged " is generally
applied to such debts. There are certain deeds and summonses
which are privileged in Scots law, the former because they require
less solemnity than ordinary deeds, the latter because the
ordinary induciae are shortened in their case (see Watson, Law
Diet., s.v. " Privilege ").
In the United States the term privilege is of considerable
political importance. By art. iv. 2 of the constitution, " the
citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and im-
munities of citizens in the several states." By art. xiv. i of
the amendments to the constitution (enacted July 28, 1868),
" no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge
the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States."
It will be noticed that the former applies to citizens of the states,
the latter to citizens of the United States. " The intention
of this clause (art. iv.) was to confer on the citizens of each
state, if one may so say, a general citizenship, and to communicate
all the privileges and immunities which the citizens of the
same state would have been entitled to under the like circum-
stances " (Story, Constitution of the United Slates, 1806).
The clauses have several times been the subject of judicial
decision in the Supreme Court. With regard to art. iv., it was
held that a state licence tax discriminating against commodities
the production of other states was void as abridging the privi-
leges and immunities of the citizens of such other states (Ward v.
Stale of Maryland, 12 Wallace's Reports, 418). With regard
to art. xiv. i, it was held that its main purpose was to protect
from the hostile legislation of the states the privileges and
immunities of citizens of the United States, looking more especi-
ally to the then recent admission of negroes to political rights.
Accordingly it was held that a grant of exclusive right or privi-
lege of maintaining slaughter-houses for twenty-one years,
imposing at the same time the duty of providing ample con-
veniences, was not unconstitutional, as it was only a police
regulation for the health of the people (The Slaughter-House
Cases, 16 Wallace, 36). The same has been held of a refusal
by a state to grant to a woman a licence to practise law (Bradwell
v. The Stale, 16 Wallace, 130), of a state law confining the rights
of suffrage to males (Minor v. Happersetl, 21 Wallace, 162), and
of a state law regulating the sale of intoxicating liquors (Bartc-
meyer v. Iowa, 18 Wallace, 129). Suits to redress the depriva-
tion of privilege secured by the constitution of the United States
must be brought in a United States court. It is a crime to
conspire to prevent the free exercise and enjoyment of any
privilege, or to conspire to deprive any person of equal privileges
and immunities, or under colour of law to subject any inhabitant
of a state or territory to the deprivation of any privileges or
immunities. (Revised Statutes of United Stales, 5507, 5510,
SSiQ)-
PRIVY COUNCIL. The origin of the privy council dates
back substantially to the Norman period of English history.
The commune concilium, the assembly, in theory, of all the
tenants-in-chief of the Crown, had attached to and included
in it a group of officers of state and of the royal household,
who with a staff of clerks and secretaries carried on the executive,
judicial and financial business of government. This group,
of necessity permanent, it is suggested, formed the curia regis;
and appears to have consisted of the chancellor, the chief
justiciary (so long as the office lasted), the treasurer, the steward,
the chamberlain, the marshal and the constable, together with the
two archbishops and any other persons the king might choose
to appoint. Their duties were to advise the king in matters
of legislation and administration, to see justice done and
generally to execute the royal will. Such a blend of advisory,
executive and judicial power could exist only in a simple con-
dition of affairs, and therefore it was to be expected that as
government became more settled, and so more complicated,
a separation of powers would inevitably follow. The change
came quickly. Quite early finance was dealt with by a small
section of the court convened at the exchequer chamber; this
soon developed into a separate department controlled by the
treasurer, managing the revenue and deciding all suits connected
with its administration. A little later the court of king's bench
and the court of common pleas grew into being, and by the end
of the reign of John these two courts were finally separated
from one another and from the curia. The establishment of
separate courts of justice, although relieving the curia of much
of its work, did not deprive it of all judicial power. The king
was the fountain of justice, and where redress could not be
obtained in the ordinary way, either from the greatness of the
disputants, through private oppression, or because no other
means existed, resort still remained to the Crown, either in the
first instance or when all other courses had failed the petitioner.
Relieved of financial detail and the bulk of its judicial work,
the curia continued to develop on the lines of an advisory and
administrative council. Becoming prominent as a council of
regency during the minority of Henry III., it quickly assumed
definite form as the concilium regis. Under Edward I. " its
members take an oath; they are sworn of the council swearing
to give good advice, to protect the king's interests, to do justice
honestly, to take no gifts" (Maitland, Const. Hist. p. 91). At
this period in addition to the great officers of state the judges
and a number of bishops appear among the members. One of
the most important duties of the council was to advise the
Crown in matters of legislation. During the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, ordinances in subordinate matters appear to
have been made regularly by the king in council and accepted as
legal by parliament and by the judges. In early parliamentary
days it was also part of the council's duty to put into legis-
lative form the petitions sent up by the Commons. Frequently
the statute in its final form did not correspond with the petition,
and the Commons were continually complaining of the council's
unwarrantable interference. Eventually by the reign of Henry
VII. the council had ceased to interfere, the petitions being
drawn in the form of a bill, and enacted without alteration.*
372
PRIVY COUNCIL
During the i4th century the concilium regis had become
definitely distinct as well from parliament as from the courts
of law. Under Henry IV. in 1404 the council numbered
nineteen three bishops, nine peers and seven commoners. The
members held office at the king's pleasure, they are sworn to give
their best advice and are well paid for their work. They meet
continually, though the king is often absent, but their proceed-
ings are committed to writing. Maitland (Const. Hist. p. 199)
sums up the work as follows: " The function of the Council
is to advise the King upon every exercise of the royal power.
Every sort of ordinance, licence, pardon, that the King can issue
is brought before the Council. Sometimes Parliament trusts
it with extraordinary powers of legislation and taxation; to raise
loans and the like. It is to the advice of the Council that the
King looks in all his financial difficulties." The powers of
the council naturally varied with the character of the king.
Quiescent and obedient under a strong king, its influence was
re-asserted under a weak one; and when infant kings sat on
the throne, for all practical purposes it became the ruler of the
land.
In spite of the existence of regular courts of law the council
continually interfered with affairs of justice. Many attempts
were made by it to set aside or to disregard the judgments of
the ordinary courts, but by the beginning of the i5th century
parliament had forcibly intervened, and the council gave in.
Repeatedly statutes were passed during the reign of Edward
III. with a view to checking the council's original jurisdiction
in criminal matters, but without effect, as in the reigns of Henry
IV. and his son the Commons are found still petitioning against
the practice. Yet during the period under review parliament
is continually enacting that certain offenders are to be punished
by and at the discretion of the council. Evidently such a
tribunal, quickly and informally constituted, bound by no legal
rules and maxims, proved a useful engine for sharp and speedy
punishment. In 1487 was passed an act (3 Hen. VII. c. i) which
is accounted the creator of the Court of Star Chamber. Perjury,
riot, bribery of jurors and misconduct of officials had grown
rife, and the act authorizes certain members of the council to
call offenders before it, to examine them, and if satisfied of
their guilt, to punish them. In later years a committee of the
council appear to have sat and exercised a widely extended
criminal jurisdiction, inflicting every kind of punishment short
of the dea^h penalty. This body became known as the Court
of Star Chamber and remained in existence until its abolition
by act of parliament in 1641.
During the i4th century many petitions relating to civil
disputes were presented to the council and were frequently
taken into consideration by it on the ground that extraordinary
remedies were required, either from lack of legal form or owing
to influential private oppression. Eventually where the courts
could decide, it became the practice of the council not to inter-
fere, but where no relief could be obtained the council passed
the petition on to the chancellor. In course of time the petitions
went direct to the chancellor, and in this manner the equity
jurisdiction of the court of chancery was established. The
act of 1641, which abolished the Court of Star Chamber, also
formally forbade the council to meddle with civil causes.
During the Tudor period the council grew in importance; it
became useful to the Crown as a vehicle for straining prerogative
to the utmost. By the act 31 Hen. VIII. the king's procla-
mation acquired the force of law, and for a short period the
king in council had concurrent legislative power with parlia-
ment. Henry's statute was repealed by i Edw. VI. c. 1 2 and the
legislative supremacy of parliament re-established. In 1553 the
council numbered forty members four bishops, fourteen peers
and the rest commoners. The increase in the number of its mem-
bers, the direct and often independent communication between
the Crown and its secretaries, and the strong personality of the
Tudor sovereigns quickly reacted on the work of the council.
It had become too large for consultative purposes and the
sovgreign began a practice, which quickly grew, of consulting
only its important members. In this way, within the council
itself, there appears a small inner ring a true privy council
the parent of the cabinet of later days.
The struggle of James I. and Charles I. for absolute power
and finally the Rebellion, ended by leaving the council for the
time being impotent. The act of 1641 had not only abolished
its special criminal jurisdiction but forbade its interference
in civil cases, while the growth of the Secretariat had gradually
removed the bulk of its administrative powers. In the end
there was little left for it but occasional meetings to give legal
sanction to orders it had no concern with, and on the judicial
side to act as a court of final resort in Admiralty matters and
for all civil and criminal appeals from the courts of the Crown's
dominions beyond the seas.
In the reign of Charles II. an attempt was made to revive the
usefulness of the council. A scheme was prepared by Sir William
Temple in 1679 and accepted by the king. A representative
council of thirty members came into being and attempted to
carry out the new scheme, but the king, after a short trial,
held to his old opinion that the numbers of the council made
it " unfit for the secrecy and despatch which are necessary
in many great affairs." Once more the king returned to his
confidential committee, his cabal, out of which the cabinet of the
future grew. Under William III. faction flourished and made
general agreement at the council board impossible. George I.,
ignorant of the English language, never appeared at its meetings,
with the result that the direction of affairs passed into the hands
of a committee of ministers the cabinet.
Although the true privy council is the cabinet, the name is
to-day given collectively to a large number of eminent people
whose membership and position are titular only. All members
of the cabinet if not already privy councillors become so on
appointment to cabinet office. Occasionally, subordinate
members of the ministry and some of its private supporters
are made privy councillors as a special distinction. The lord
chancellor, the lords of appeal in ordinary, the president of the
probate division, the lord president of the court of session in
Scotland, the lord justice clerk and the lord advocate of Scotland
are always privy councillors, as are the archbishops of Canterbury
and York and the bishop of London. In 1897 all the premiers
of the self-governing colonies were made privy councillors. Of
recent years, retired ambassadors, judges, retired civil servants
and persons distinguished in science, letters and arts have been
appointed. The custom seems also to be growing of using
the honour of privy councillor to reward political supporters
who do not wish for hereditary titles. The collective title of
the council is " the Lords and others of His Majesty's Most
Honourable Privy Council." The members are addressed as
" Right Honourable " and wear a state uniform. The appoint-
ment is informal, the new privy councillor simply being invited
by the king to take his seat at the board. He is then sworn in,
and his name placed on the list. Office lasts for the life of the
sovereign and six months after, but it is the modern custom for
the new sovereign to renew the appointment.
Meetings of the whole council are held at the beginning of
a new reign or when the reigning sovereign announces his or her
marriage. The lord mayor of London is then summoned to
attend. The whole council might also be summoned on other
occasions of state and ceremony.
The formal meetings of the council are attended by the few
councillors concerned with the orders to be issued. These are
generally ministers or officials. The chief officer of the council
is the lord president, now a cabinet minister of the highest
rank, but without departmental duties. The office of clerk of
the council dates from 1 540 and his signature is necessary to
authenticate all orders.
The administrative work of the council has always been done
through committees, and during the last two centuries in spite
of changed conditions this rule has been preserved in theory.
The board of trade, the local government board, the education
department and the board of agriculture were all committees of
the council. Now, of course, these so-called committees are
state departments presided over by ministers responsible to
PRIVY PURSE PRIZE
373
parliament. The existing jurisdiction of the council is both
administrative and judicial.
Administrative. This jurisdiction depends chiefly upon statutory
authority, which practically makes of tne privy council a subordinate
legislature. It is found impossible for parliament to enact long and
intricate measures dealing with departmental detail, hence a general
mi-.isure is passed and the privy council is authorized under the act
to draw up orders in council which of course have the full force of
law. This power is exercised usually by committees to which
matters are referred by the Crown in council, the departments of
state concerned settling the details. Other examples of administra-
tive work are the universities committee, with temporary powers
under the Universities Act (1877), and the committee of council
for the consideration of charters of incorporation under the Municipal
Corporations Act (1882), the latter a work of considerable difficulty
and delicacy and usually carried out in close consultation with the
local government board. Cases affecting the constitutional rights
of the Channel Islands are referred to a committee for the affairs of
Jersey and Guernsey. The committees report to the Crown in council ,
and their report is adopted and enforced by an order in council
published in the Gazette. Among other acts conferring administra-
tive powers on the privy council are the Pharmacy Act (1852), as
amended by 31 & 32 Viet. c. 121, the Medical Act (1858), the
Foreign Enlistment Act (1870), the Destructive Insects Act (1877),
the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act (1878), the Dentists Act (1878)
the Veterinary Surgeons Act (1881).
Judicial. By the 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 a judicial committee
of the council was constituted. It consists of all the members of the
council holding or having held the office of lord president or lord
chancellor or certain high judicial offices enumerated in the act.
By the Appellate Jurisdiction Acts of 1876 and 1887 other high
judicial offices are included. All the lords of appeal in ordinary are
members of the committee. Under the act of 1833 the king may also
appoint any other two persons, being councillors. By the acts of
1833 and 1887 two persons having been Indian or Colonial judges
may be appointed, and such appointments carry an annual salary
of 400. By an act of 1895 any of the chief justices of certain colo-
nies who are also privy councillors may be appointed to the com-
mittee, but not more than five such appointments may be made.
Under this act certain colonial chief justices now sit. In appeals
under the Clergy Discipline Acts three bishops sit as assessors. In
colonial Admiralty appeals two nautical assessors attend. These
assessors are merely technical advisers, and have no part in any
derision. Appeals also lie from consular courts and prize courts.
The decisions of ecclesiastical courts are subject to review by
the committee, the sovereign being the " supreme governor " of the
Church, but no appeal is competent where the case is one for the
exercise of the bishop's discretion. In these ecclesiastical cases
the committee does not profess to expound and settle doctrine with
ecclesiastical authority : it merely interprets the laws of the Church.
In matters relating to ritual history and precedents are taken into
account. Appeals also lie from vice-admiralty courts abroad, the
Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, India and all the colonies. As a
rule they lie as of right when the value of the matter at issue is of a
certain amount (the amount varying according to the appeal rules
of the different foreign possessions) and in a few other cases. Recent
legislation, at the instance of the colonies, has to some extent
further restricted the right to appeal. Appeals lie at the discretion
of the committee on leave being obtained by petition for special
leave to appeal. All proceedings are by petition (see PETITION)
which is addressed to the Crown in council in the first instance. The
judicial proceedings of the council are in reality conducted like an
ordinary case in the courts of law. Counsel are heard, and the
ordinary rules of law and legal practice followed, and costs taxed.
Judgment is given by motion which takes the form of advice to
the Crown, and whatever may have taken place privately in discus-
sion between the members, outwardly the committee is unanimous.
Within recent years it has been suggested that the appellate juris-
diction of the House of Lords and the privy council should be
coalesced, and thus constitute one final court of appeal for the whole
empire. Besides the appellate there exists in the sovereign in
council an original jurisdiction in questions concerning boundaries
between dependencies, the extent of charters and the like. Until
recently the council dealt with the petitions to extend the time
patents were protected, but this work has now been given by
statute to the controller-general of patents.
Ireland has its own privy council. The lord-lieutenant takes the
place of the Crown. There is little real work and the distinction of
membership is titular as in England. Scotland has had no privy
council since the Act of Union which provided for one council for
Great Britain. British colonies with parliamentary government
have cabinets or committees of ministers, borrowed from the
English model, but no privy council. In France, before the
Revolution, the king had a council which bore some resemblance to
the English type (see FRANCE: Law and Institutions). In Germany
a " pnvy council " (Geheimes Rats-Kollegium, Gekeimes Conseit,
Staatsrat), which under the prince formed the supreme organ of
government, formerly existed in the various states of the empire,
and out of this the ministries developed in the I7th century. These
were originally committees of the council (Geheime Konferenz,
Geheimes Kabinett, &c.) which, as in England, gradually absorbed its
functions. In some of the German states, however, it still survives
as the " council of state " (Staatsrat) and in Wttrttemberg as " privy
council " (Geheimer Rat). The title Wirklicher Geheimer Rat (real
privy councillor), with the predicate Excellenz is given to the highest
officials. That of Geheimer Rat simply is very generally, e.g. in
Prussia, given to high officials, usually with the addition of the
branch of the service to which they belong, e.g. Geheimer Finanzrat,
Geheimer Justizrat. The title is also sometimes purely honorary,
e.g. that of Geheimer Commerzienrat, bestowed on eminent men of
business. (G. E.*)
PRIVY PURSE, is the amount set apart in the civil list (q.v.)
for the private and personal use of the sovereign in England.
During the reign of Queen Victoria it was 60,000 a year, but
on the accession of Edward VII. the amount was fixed at
i 10,000 a year, which was the amount paid to the last sovereign
(William IV.) who had a queen consort. The official who is
charged with all payments made by the sovereign for his private
expenses or charities is termed the keeper of the privy purse.
The department of the keeper of the privy purse to the sovereign,
assumed its existing shape in the earlier part of the last century.
Under Queen Victoria the offices of keeper of the privy purse
and private secretary were combined. As now organized these
branches of the royal household consist of the private secretary
and the keeper of the privy purse, two assistant private secre-
taries and keepers of the privy purse, and a secretary, assistant
secretary and several clerks of the privy purse. These officials,
though of the royal household, are not in the department of the
lord steward or the lord chamberlain, but are of the king's
personal staff.
PRIVY SEAL, a seal of the United Kingdom, next in impor-
tance to the great seal, and occupying an intermediate position
between it and the signet. The authority of the privy seal was
principally of a two-fold nature. It was a warrant to the lord
chancellor to affix the great seal to such patents, charters, &c.,
as must necessarily pass the great seal (more particularly letters
patent (<?..). It was also the authority required for the issue of
money from the exchequer, and was appended to documents
of minor importance which did not require the great seal.
Previous to the Great Seal Act 1884, all letters patent conferring
any dignity, office, monopoly, franchise or other privilege were
always passed under the privy seal before passing under the
great seal.
Lord Privy Seal is the title of the officer who had the custody
of the privy seal. He was originally known as the " keeper of
the privy seal." The importance of the office was due to the
desire of the privy council and the parliament in the I4th and
1 5th centuries to place some check on the issue of public money,
as well as to prevent the use of the great seal by the sovereign
without any intermediary except the lord chancellor. The lord
privy seal first appears as a minister of state in the reign of
Edward III. Until 1537 he was always an ecclesiastic, but is
now more usually a temporal lord. He is the fifth great officer
of state, and takes rank next after the president of the council
and before all dukes.
See Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (1896).
PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take),
a vessel or cargo captured by a belligerent on the high seas;
also the act of capture. Under BLOCKADE, CONTRABAND, and
NEUTRALITY will be found details of existing practice as regards
infringements of international law which expose neutrality
vessels and cargoes to capture and trial in a prize court. Under
WAR will be found the application of international law in rela-
tion to the private property of subjects and citizens of belligerent
states as between them. We treat here of the manner of
dealing with prizes after they have been brought into the juris-
diction of the prize court.
Under the law in force at the beginning of 1910 the subject
was governed by the following English acts : the Naval Prize
Act 1864 (27 & 28 Viet. c. 25); the Colonial Courts of Admiralty
Act 1800 (53 & 54 Viet. c. 27); the Supreme Court of Judicature
Act 1891 (54 & 55 Viet. c. 53, s. 4), and the Prize Courts Act
1894 (57 & 58 Viet c 39). A new Naval Prize Act was,
374
PRIZE
however, already in contemplation, repealing the acts of 1864
and 1894, consolidating and re-enacting their main provisions
and making such statutory provisions as will permit of the
ratification of a convention adopted at the second Hague
Conference (1907) for the establishment of an International
Prize Court.
The Convention referred to above contains an elaborate scheme
of 50 articles setting out the constitution and procedure of the
court. It begins with the following declaration of its objects:
Animated by the desire to settle in an equitable manner the
differences which sometimes arise in the course of a naval war in
connexion with the decisions of national prize courts :
Considering that, if these courts are to continue to exercise their
functions in the manner determined by national legislation, it is
desirable that in certain cases an appeal should be provided under
conditions conciliating, as far as possible, the public and private
interests involved in matters of prize :
Whereas, moreover, the institution of an international court,
whose jurisdiction and procedure would be carefully defined, has
seemed to be the best method of attaining this object:
Convinced, finally, that in this manner the hardships consequent
on naval war would be mitigated; that, in particular, good relations
will be more easily maintained between belligerents and neutrals, and
peace better assured
It prescribes that the court shall be composed of fifteen mem-
bers out of the whole panel (art. 14). Of these Great Britain,
France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy, the United
States and Japan each appoint one (art. 15). A schedule of the
other powers is appended to the Convention, under which they
take their turn to sit to the number of seven, making up together
the prescribed fifteen. As composed under the first year's
distribution, the other judges would be appointed by Argentina,
Colombia, Spain, Greece, Norway, Holland and Turkey.
There are also full provisions as to the procedure and conduct
of the proceedings in the court, but the only provisions of concern
to general readers are those relating to international law, which
are as follows:
1. The validity of the capture of a merchant-ship or its cargo is
decided before a prize court in accordance with the present conven-
tion when neutral or enemy property is involved.
2. Jurisdiction in matters of prize is exercised in the first instance
by the prize courts of the belligerent captor.
The judgments of these courts are pronounced in public or are
officially notified to parties concerned who are neutrals or enemies.
3. The judgments of national prize courts may be brought before
the international prize court :
i. When the judgment of the national prize courts affects the
property of a neutral power or individual ;
ii. When the judgment affects enemy property and relates to:
(a) Cargo on board a neutral ship;
(b) An enemy ship captured in the territorial waters of a
neutral power, when that power has not made the
capture the subject of a diplomatic claim ;
(c) A claim based upon the allegation that the seizure has been
effected in violation, either of the provisions of a con-
vention in force between the belligerent powers, or of an
enactment issued by the belligerent captor.
The appeal against the judgment of the national court can be
based on the ground that the judgment was wrong either in fact or
in law.
4. An appeal may be brought :
i. By a neutral power, if the judgment of the national tribunals
injuriously affects its property or the property of its
nationals (art. 3 [(i.)]), or if the capture of an enemy vessel
is alleged to have taken place in the territorial waters of
that power (art. 3 (ii.) (b));
ii. By a neutral individual, if the judgment of the National Court
injuriously affects his property (art. 3 (i.)), subject, how-
ever, to the reservation that the power to which he be-
longs may forbid him to bring the case before the court,
or may itself undertake the proceedings in his place;
iii. By an individual subject or citizen of an enemy power, if
the judgment of the national court injuriously affects his
property in the cases referred to in art. 3 (ii.), except that
mentioned in paragraph (b).
5. An appeal may also be brought on the same conditions as in
the preceding article, by persons belonging either to neutral states
or to the enemy, deriving their rights from and entitled to represent
an individual qualified to appeal, and who have taken part in the
proceedings before the national court. Persons so entitled may
appeal separately to the extent of their interest.
The same rule applies in the case of persons belonging either to
neutral states or to the enemy who derive their rights from and are
entitled to represent a neutral power whose property was the subject
of the decision.
6. When, in accordance with the above art. 3, the inter-
national court has jurisdiction, the national courts cannot deal
with a case in more than two instances. The municipal law of the
belligerent captor shall decide whether the case may be brought
before the international court after judgment has been given in first
instance or only after an appeal.
If the national courts fail to give judgment within two years from
the date of capture, the case may be carried direct to the inter-
national court.
7. If a question of law to be decided is covered by a treaty in force
between the belligerent captor and a power which is itself or whose
subject or citizen is a party to the proceedings, the court is governed
by the provisions of the said treaty.
In the absence of such provisions, the court shall apply the rules
of international law. If no generally recognized rule exists, the
court shall give judgment in accordance with the general principles
of justice and equity.
The above provisions apply equally to questions relating to the
order and mode of proof.
If, in accordance with art. 3 (ii.) (<:), the ground of appeal is the
violation of an enactment issued by the belligerent captor, the court
shall enforce the enactment.
The court may disregard failure to comply with the procedure laid
down in the legislation of the belligerent captor, when it is of opinion
that the consequences of complying therewith are unjust and
inequitable.
8. If the court pronounces the capture of the vessel or cargo to be
valid, they shall be disposed of in accordance with the laws of the
belligerent captor.
If it pronounces the capture to be null, the court shall order
restitution of the vessel or cargo, and shall fix, if there is occasion,
the amount of the damages. If the vessel or cargo have been sold
or destroyed, the court shall determine the compensation to be given
to the owner on this account.
If the national prize court pronounced the capture to be null, the
court can only be asked to decide as to the damages.
9. The contracting powers undertake to submit in good faith to
the decisions of the international prize court, and to carry them out
with the least possible delay.
The British delegates, in their report on the work of the
Conference, wrote that it was to them a subject of satisfaction
that they had been able to accomplish the task thus laid upon
them, " not, indeed, in the form of an adaptation of the machinery
of the existing court, but in the form of a new institution" ;
and that the convention drawn appeared to them to be " a very
noteworthy step in the history of law as the first attempt to
constitute a really international court, and as the first device
to produce uniformity in any branch of international law." Here,
however, the delegates overstated the scope of the work done,
and in order to obtain that uniformity a further conference was
held in London (Dec. igoS-Feb. 1909) " to arrive at an agreement
as to what are the generally recognized rules of international
law within the meaning of art. 7 " of the Convention. The
London Conference drew up a series of rules which it declared
" correspond in substance with the generally recognized prin-
ciples of international law " on Blockade (q.v.), Contraband of
War (q.v.), Unneutral service, Destruction of Neutral Prizes,
Transfer to a Neutral Flag, Enemy Character, Convoy (q.v.),
Resistance to Search and Compensation. These rules, if ratified,
will bind the international court.
The proposal to submit captures in war to a special inter-
national jurisdiction has often been made, and in fact it suggests
itself whenever there are two opinions concerning the justice
of a prize court's decision.
The Institute of International Law in 1887, after adopting
a very full code of prize law, consisting of no fewer than 122
articles and covering every branch of the subject, forwarded
them to the different European governments, with the expression
of a wish that " in the future reform might take a still more
complete shape by the institution of an international tribunal
for trial of prize cases. "
The subject was brought up at the session in 1905 at Chris-
tiania of the International Law Association. The discussion
showed that there was much to be said on both sides. Mr
Justice Phillimore inter olios seemed favourable to the insti-
tution of an independent court of appeal only.
This was the position of the discussion at the opening of the
PRIZREN PROA
375
second Hague Conference in June 1907, when the British and
(ierman delegates announced that they had been instructed
to present schemes for the establishment of an interna-
tional court of appeal in matters of naval prize. Two projects
were simultaneously presented on behalf of Great Britain and
Germany.
The original English idea was to " secure the adaptation "
of the machinery of the existing Hague Court to the purposes
of an " International Tribunal of Appeal " from decisions of
belligerent prize courts. The official instructions, published
in the correspondence respecting the Second Conference '
observed, in reference to the proposal, that the " judgments of
the tribunal in such cases would probably prove the most
rapid and efficient means which can, under existing conditions,
he devised for giving form and authority to the canons of inter-
national law in matters of prize." The instructions continue
that the advantages would far outweigh any difficulty which might
aribe from the fact that some alterations in the municipal laws
of this country, and probably also of other states, would be
required, and that " H.M. Government considered that if the
Hague Conference accomplished no other object than the con-
stitution of such a tribunal, it would render an inestimable
service to civilization and mankind."
The objection to the existing system is that the judge is ap-
pointed by the belligerent state whose interest it is to condemn
the capture; that his bias, if any, is against the neutral interest.
Hut will there be no room in an international prize court for
bias against the belligerent? " Representing as we do," said
Mr Choate at the sitting of the nth of July, " a widely extended
maritime nation, and a nation which hopes and confidently
expects always in the future to be a neutral nation, we deem the
establishment of an international court of prize by this Con-
ference to be a matter of supreme importance." The converse
may obviously be as important for a nation which, with its vast
dependencies, cannot with equal confidence expect to remain
a mere spectator among the rivalries of expanding states in
different quarters of the globe. The interests of the civilized
world in time of war are divisible into three groups, namely,
the respective interests of the two belligerents, and the interest
of the neutrals. In practice the interest of the neutrals is
against the making of captures. Under the system hitherto
prevailing it is the judge appointed by the captor who decides
whether the capture was a legitimate one or not. It may be
contended, however, that he hears the cause and gives his judg-
ment in the face of the whole neutral world, at all times the
larger part of civilized mankind, and one which has now infinitely
greater facilities for making its voice heard than it had a century
earlier, when a powerful belligerent maritime state was, out of
all proportion to any neutral combination, able to enforce its
views as regards neutral property. (T. BA.)
PRIZREN (also written Prisren, Prisrend, Prizrendi, Prezdra
and Perzerin), the capital of the sanjak of Prizren, in the vilayet
of Kossovo, Albania, European Turkey; 65 m. E. by N. of
Scutari, on the river Bistritza, a left-hand tributary of the
White Drin. Pop. (1905), about 30,000, chiefly Mahommedan
Albanians, with a minority of Roman Catholic Albanians,
Serbs and Greeks. Prizren is beautifully situated 1424 ft.
above sea-level, among the northern outliers of the Shar Planina.
To the north-west a fertile and undulating plain, watered by the
White Drin, extends as far as Ipek (42 m.). A good road con-
nects Prizren with the Ferisovich station on the Salonica-
Mitrovitza railway (37 m.). The city is the seat of a Roman
Catholic archbishop, a Greek bishop, and a Servian theological
seminary. Its chief buildings are the citadel and many mosques,
one of which is an ancient Byzantine basilica, originally a
1 Prince von Billow was credited with suggesting in his corre-
spondence on the question of the Bundesrath that a tribunal of
arbitration should be instituted to deal with all questions of capture.
At any rate, on the iqth of January 1900 he wrote that the German
government had proposed that all the points then in dispute should
be submitted to arbitration. The British government declared
their concurrence in the institution of a tribunal to arbitrate upon
claims for compensation.
Servian cathedral. In its bazaars an active trade in agricultural
produce, glass, pottery, saddlery, and copper and iron ware is
carried on; but the manufacture of fire-arms, for which Prizren
was long famous throughout European Turkey, has suffered
greatly from foreign competition.
Prizren has sometimes, though on doubtful evidence, been
identified with the ancient Tharendus or Theranda. In the
1 2th century it was the residence of the kings of Servia, and the
sanjak of Prizren forms part of the region still called Old Servia
(Stara Srbiya) by the Slavs. From the I3th century to the
1 6th Prizren had a flourishing export trade with Ragusa, and it
has always been one of the principal centres of commerce and
industry in Albania.
PRJEVALSKY [PRZHEVALSKY], NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH
(1830-1888), Russian traveller, born at Kimbory, in the govern-
ment of Smolensk, on the 3ist of March 1839, was descended
from a noble Cossack family. He was educated at the Smolensk
gymnasium, and in 1855 entered an infantry regiment as a
subaltern. In November 1856 he became an officer, and four
years later he entered the academy of the general staff. From
1864 to 1866 he taught geography at the military school at
Warsaw, and in 1867 he was admitted to the genera! staff and
sent to Irkutsk, where he started to explore the highlands on
the banks of the Usuri, the great southern tributary of the
Amur. This occupied him until 1869, when he published a
book on the Usuri region, partly ethnographical in character.
Between November 1870 and September 1873, accompanied
by only three men and with ridiculously small pecuniary re-
sources, he crossed the Gobi desert, reached Peking, and, pushing
westwards and south-westwards, explored the Ordos and the
Ala-shan, as well as the upper part of the Yangtsze-kiang. He
also penetrated into Tibet, reaching the banks of the Di Chu
river. By this remarkable journey he proved that, for resolute
and enduring men, travelling in the Central Asian plateaus was
easier than had been supposed. The Russian Geographical
Society presented him with the great Constantine medal, and
from all parts of Europe he received medals and honorary
diplomas. The work in which he embodied his researches was
immediately translated into all civilized languages, the English
version, Mongolia, the Tangut Country, and the Solitudes of
Northern Tibet (1876), being edited by Sir Henry Yule. On his
second journey in 1877, while endeavouring to reach Lhasa
through east Turkestan, he re-discovered the great lake Lop-nor
(q.v.), which had not been visited by any European since Marco
Polo. On his third expedition in 18791880 he penetrated, by
Hami, the Tsai-dam and the great valley of the Tibetan river
Kara-su, to Napchu, 170 m. from Lhasa, when he was turned
back by order of the Dalai Lama. In 1883-1885 he undertook
a fourth journey of exploration in the wild mountain regions
between Mongolia and Tibet. On these four expeditions he
made collections of plants and animals of inestimable value,
including nearly twenty thousand zoological and sixteen thousand
botanical specimens. Among other remarkable discoveries were
those of the wild camel, ancestor of the domesticated species, and
of the early type of horse, now known by his name (Equus
prjewalskii). Prjevalsky's account of his second journey, From
Kulja, across the Tian-Shan, to Lop-nor, was translated into
English in 1879. In September 1888 he started on a fifth
expedition, intending to reach Lhasa, but on the ist of November
he died at Karakol on Lake Issyk-kul. A monument was
erected to his memory on the shores of the lake, and the Russian
government changed the name of the town of Karakol to
Przhevalsk (q.v.) in his honour.
PROA (Malay, prau), the general term in the Malay language
for all vessels, from the sampan or canoe to the square-rigged
kapal, but in western usage confined to the swift-sailing craft
that the pirates of the Indian Ocean made familiar to sailors in
eastern waters. The chief points which characterize these
vessels are that while the weather-side is rounded the lee-side
is flat from stem to stern, that both stem and stern are exactly
similar in shape, and that there is a small similarly shaped hull
swung out from the side of the main hull on poles, which acts
37^
PROBABILISM PROBABILITY
as an outrigger and prevents the vessel heeling over. The main
hull carries the mast rigging and an enormous triangular-shaped
sail.
PROBABILISM (from Lat. probare, to test, approve), a term
used both in theology and in philosophy with the general
implication that in the absence of certainty probability is the
best criterion. Thus it is applied in connexion with casuistry
for the view that the layman in difficult matters of conscience
may safely follow a doctrine inculcated by a recognized doctor
of the church. This view was originated by the monk Molina
(1528-1581), and has been widely employed by the Jesuits.
In philosophy the term is applied to that practical doctrine which
gives assistance in ordinary matters to one who is sceptical in
respect of the possibility of real knowledge: it supposes that
though knowledge is impossible a man may rely on strong
beliefs in practical affairs. This view was held by the sceptics
of the New Academy (see SCEPTICISM and CARNEADES). Opposed
to " probabilism" is " probabiliorism" (Lat. probabilior, more
likely), which holds that when there is a preponderance of
evidence on one side of a controversy that side is presumably
right.
PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible), a term
which in general implies credibility short of certainty.
The mathematical theory of probabilities deals with certain
phenomena which are employed to measure credibility. This
Description measurement is well exemplified by games of chance.
andDMsioa If a pack of cards is shuffled and a card dealt, the
of the probability that the card will belong to a particular
Subject. suit j g measurec i by we may sa y ; i s the ratio 1:4,
or j; there being four suits to any one of them the card might
have belonged. So the probability that an ace will be drawn
is -fo, as out of the 52 cards in the pack 4 are aces. So the
probability that ace will turn up when a die is thrown is g. The
probability that one or other of the two events, ace or deuce, will
occur is -|. If simultaneously a die is thrown and a card is dealt
from a pack which has been shuffled, the probability that the
double event will consist of two aces is 1X4 divided by 6X52,
as the total number of double events formed by combining a
face of a die with a face of a card is 6X52, and out of these 1X4
consist of two aces.
The data of probabilities are often prima facie at least of a
type different from that which has been described. For example,
the probability that a child about to be born will be a boy is
about 0-51. This statement is founded solely on the observed
fact that about 51% of children born (alive, in European
countries) prove to be boys. The probability is not, as in the
instance of dice and cards, measured by the proportion between
a number of cases favourable to the event and a total number of
possible cases. Those instances indeed -also admit of the mea-
surement based on observed frequency. Thus the number of
times that a die turns up ace is found by observation to be about
16-6% of the number of throws; and similar statements are
true of cards and coins. 1 The probabilities with which the
calculus deals admit generally of being measured by the number
of times.that the event is found by experience to occur, in pro-
portion to the number of times that it might possibly occur.
The idea of a probable or expected number is not confined to
the number of times that an event occurs; if the occurrence of
the event is associated with a certain amount of money or any
other measurable article there will be a probable or expected
amount of that article. For instance, if a person throwing dice
is to receive, two shillings every time that six turns up, he may
expect in a hundred throws to win about 2X16-6 (about 33-3)
shillings. If he is to receive two shillings for every six and one
shilling for every ace, his expectation will be 2Xi6-6+iXi6-6
(50) shillings. The expectation of lifetime is calculated on
this principle. Of 1000 males aged ten say the probable number
who will die in their next year is 490, in the following year 397,
and so on; if we (roughly) estimate that those who die in the
first year will have enjoyed one year of life after ten, those who
die in the next year will have enjoyed two years of life, and so on;
1 Cf. note to par. 5 below.
then the total number of years which the 1000 males 2 aged ten
may be expected to live is
i X 1000 + 2 X (1000-490) + 3 (1000-490-397) +. . .
Space as well as time may be the subject of expectation. If
drops of rain fall in the long run with equal frequency on one
point or rather on one small interval, say of a centimetre or
two on a band of finite length and negligible breadth, the
distance which is to be expected between a point of impact in the
upper half of the line and a point of impact in the lower half has
a definite proportion to the length of the given line. 3
Expectation in the general sense may be considered as a
kind of average. 4 The doctrine of averages and of the deviations
therefrom technically called "errors" is distinguished from the
other portion of the calculus by the peculiar difficulty of its
method. The paths struck out by Laplace and Gauss have
hardly yet been completed and made quite secure. The doc-
trine is also distinguished by the importance of its applications.
The theory of errors enables the physicist so to combine discre-
pant observations as to obtain the best measurement. It may
abridge the labour of the statistician by the use of samples. 5
It may assist the statistician in testing the validity of inductions. 6
It promises to be of special service to him in perfecting the logical
method of concomitant variations; especially in investigating
the laws of heredity. For instance the correlation between the
height of parents and that of children is such that if we take a
number of men all of the same height and observe the average
height of their adult sons, the deviation of the latter average
from the general average of adult males bears a definite propor-
tion about a half to the similarly measured deviation of the
height common to the fathers. The same kind and amount of
correlation between parents and children with respect to many
other attributes besides stature has been ascertained by Professor
Karl Pearson and his collaborators. 7 The kinetics of free
molecules (gases) forms another important branch of science
which involves the theory of errors.
The description of the subject which has been given will
explain the division which it is proposed to adopt. In Part I.
probability and expectation will be considered apart from
the peculiar difficulties incident to errors or deviation from
averages. The first section of the first part will be devoted to
a preliminary inquiry into the evidence of the primary data and
axioms of the science. Freed from philosophical difficulties
the mathematical calculation of probabilities will proceed in the
second section. The analogous calculation of expectation will
follow in the third section. The contents of the first three
sections will be illustrated in the fourth by a class of examples
dealing with space measurements the so-called "local" or
"geometrical" probabilities. Part II. is devoted to averages
and the deviations therefrom, or more generally that grouping
of statistics which may be called a law of frequency. Part II.
is divided into two sections distinguished by differences in
character and extent between the principal generalizations
respecting laws of frequency.
PART I. PROBABILITY AND EXPECTATION
Section I. First Principles.
1. As in other mathematical sciences, so in probabilities, or even
more so, the philosophical foundations : are less clear than the
calculations based thereon. On this obscure and controversial
topic absolute uniformity is not to be expected. But it is hoped
that the following summary in which diverse authoritative judgments
are balanced may minimize dissent.
2. (i) How the Measure of Probability is Ascertained. The first
question which arises under this head is: on what evidence are the
facts obtained which are employed to measure probability ? A very
generally accepted view is that which Laplace has thus expressed :
1 It is more usual to speak of the mean expectation, the average
number of years per head.
s Below, par. 88.
4 For more exact definition see below, par. 95.
6 See Bowley's Address to Section F. of the British Association
' Edgeworth, " Methods of Statistics," Journal of the Statistical
Society (Jubilee volume, 1885).
7 See Biometrika, vol. iii. " Inheritance of Mental Characters.
FIRST PRINCIPLES]
PROBABILITY
377
" The probability of an event is the ratio of the number of cases
which favour it to the number of all the possible cases, when nothing
leads us to believe that one of these cases ought to occur rather than
the others; which renders them, for us, equally possible." * Against
this view it is urged that merely psychological facts can at best afford
a measure of belief, not of credibility. Accordingly, the ground of
ibility is sought in the observed fact of a class or series "
i hat if we take a great many members of the class, or terms of
the members thereof which belong to a certain assigned
ies compared with the total number taken tends to a certain
f mi tion as a limit. Thus the series which consists of heads and tails
obtained by tossing up a well-made coin is such that out of a large
umber of throws the proportion giving heads is nearly half.
3. These views are not so diametrically opposed as may at first
( )n the one hand, those who follow Laplace would of course
mit that the presumption afforded by the " number of favourable
with respect to the probability of throwing either five or six
with a die must be modified in accordance with actual experience
such as that below cited * respecting particular dice that they turn
up five or six rather oftener than once in three times. On the other
ha ml, the series which is regarded as the empirical basis of pro-
bability is not a simple matter of fact. There are implied conditions
which are not satisfied by the sort of uniformity which ordinarily
characterizes scientific laws; which would not be satisfied for instance
by the proportionate frequency of any one digit, e.g. 8, in the expan-
sion of any vulgar fraction, though the expression may consist of a
circulating decimal with a very long period. 4
4. The type of the series is rather the frequency of the several
digits in the expansion of an incommensurable constant such as
Vz, log ii, x, &c.* The observed fact that the digits occur with
equal frequency is fortified by the absence of a reason why one digit
should occur oftener than another.'
5. The most perfect types of probability appear to present the
two aspects: proportion of favourable cases given a priori and fre-
quency of occurrence observed a posteriori. When one of these
attributes is not manifested it is often legitimate to infer its existence
from the presence of the other. Given numerous batches of balls,
each batch numbering say loo and consisting partly of white and
partly of black balls; if the percentages of white balls presented by
the set of batches averaged, and, as it were, hovered about some
particular percentage, e.g. 50, though we knew as an independent
datum, or by inspection of the given percentages, that the series was
not obtained by simply extracting a hundred balls from a jar con-
taining a melange of white and black balls, we might still be justified
in concluding that the observed phenomenon resulted from a system
equivalent to a number of jars of various constitution, compounded
in some complicated fashion. So Laplace may be justified in postu-
lating behind frequencies embodied in vital statistics the existence
of a " constitution " analogous to games of chance, " possibilities "
or favourable cases which might conceivably be " developed " or
discussed. 7 On the other hand, it is often legitimate to infer from
the known proportion of favourable cases a corresponding frequency
of occurrence. The cogency of the inference will vary according to
the degree of experience. That one face of a die or a coin will turn
up nearly as often as another might be affirmed with perfect confi-
dence of the particular dice which Weldon threw some thousands of
times, 8 or the coins with which Professor Pearson similarly operated.*
It may be affirmed with much confidence of ordinary coins and
dice without specific experience, and generally, where fairplay is
presumed, of games of chance. This confidence is based not only
on experiments like those tried by Buffon, Jevons and many others, 10
but also on a continuous, extensive, almost unconsciously registered
experience in pari materia. It is this sort of experience which justi-
fies our expectation that commonly in mathematical tables one digit
will occur as often as another, that in a shower about as many drops
1 Laplace, Theorie analytique des probabililes, liv. II. ch. i. No. I.
Cf. Introduction, // principe.
1 The term employed by Venn in his important Logic of Chance.
* Below; par. 1 19.
4 E.g. T ^fj-i, in the expansion of which the digit 8 occurs once in
ten times in seemingly random fashion (see Mess, of Maths. 1864,
vol. 2, pp. i and 39).
'The type shows that the phenomena which are the object of
probabilities do not constitute a distinct class of things. Occur-
rences which perfectly conform to laws of nature and are capable of
exact prediction yet in certain aspects present the appearance of
chance. Cf. Edgeworth, " Law of Error, Cam. Phil. Trans., 1905,
p. 128.
Cf. Venn. op. cit. ch. v. 14; and v. Kries on the " Prinzipdes
mangelnden Grundes " in his Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung, ch. i. 4,
et passim.
7 In a passage criticized unfavourably by Dr Venn, Logic of
Chance, ch. iv. 14.
8 Below, par. 115.
Chances of Death, i. 44.
10 A summary of such experiments, comprising above 100,000
trials, is given by Professor Karl Pearson in his Chances of Death,
i-48.
will fall on one element of area as upon a neighbouring spot of equal
size. Doubtless the presumption must be extended with caution
to phenomena with which we are less familiar. For example, is a
meteor equally likely to hit one square mile as another of the earth's
surface ? We seem to descend in the scale of credibility from abso-
lute certainty that alternative events occur with about equal fre-
quency to absolute ignorance whether one occurs more frequently
than the other. The empirical basis of probability may appear to
become evanescent in a case like the following, which has been dis-
cussed by many writers on Probabilities." What is the probability
of drawing a white ball from a box of which we only know that
it contains balls both black and white and none of any other colour ?
In this case, unlike the case of an urn containing a mixture of white
and black balls in equal proportions, we have no reason to expect
that if we go on drawing balls from the urn, replacing each ball after
it has been drawn, that the series so presented will consist of black
and white in about equal numbers. But there is ground for believing
that in the long course of experiences in pari materia other urns of
similar constitution, other cases in which there is no reason to expect
one alternative more than another an event of one kind will
occur about as often as one of another kind. A " cross-series " u
is thus formed which seems to rest on as extensive if not so definite
an empirical basis as the series which we began by considering.
Thus the so-called " intellectual probability " " which it has been
sought to separate from the material probability verified by fre-
quency of occurrence, may still rest on a similar though less obvious
ground of experience. This type of probability not verified by
specific experience is presented in two particularly important
classes.
6. Unverified Probabilities. In applying the theory of errors to
the art of measurement it is usual to assume that prior to observation
one value of the quantity under measurement is as likely as another.
" When the probability is unknown," says Laplace, 14 " we may
equally suppose it to have any value between zero and unit." The
assumption is fundamentally similar whether the quantum is a ratio
to be determined by the theorem of Bayes, 16 or an absolute quantity
to be determined by the more general theory of error. Of this first
principle it is well observed by Professor Karl Pearson " : " There is an
element of human experience at the bottom of Laplace's assump-
tion." Professor Pearson quotes with approbation 16 the following
account of the matter: "The assumption that any probability-
constant about which we know nothing in particular is as likely to
have one value as another is grounded upon the rough but solid expe-
rience that such constants do as a matter of fact as often have one
value as another."
7. It may be objected, no doubt, that one value (of the object
under measurement) is often known beforehand not to be as likely
as another. The barometric height for instance is not equally
likely to be 29 in. or to be 2 in. The reply is that the postulate is
only required with respect to a small tract in a certain neighbour-
hood, some 2 in. above and below 29$ in. in the case of barometric
pressure.
8. It is further objected that the assumption in question involves
inconsistencies in cases like the following. Suppose observations
are made on the length of a pendulum together with the time of its
oscillation. As the time is proportional to the square root of the
length, it follows that if the values of the length occur with equal
frequency those of the time cannot do so; and, inversely, if the
proposition is true of the times it cannot be true of the lengths. 18
One reply to this objection is afforded by the reply to the former one.
For where we are concerned only with a small tract of values it will
often happen that both the square and the square root and any ordin-
ary function of a quantity which assumes equivalent values with
equal probability will each present an approximately equal distribu-
tion of probabilities. 19 It may further be replied that in general
the reasoning does not require the a priori probabilities of the
different values to be very nearly equal ; it suffices that they should
not be very unequal ;*> and this much seems to be given by experience.
Q. Whenever we can justify Laplace's first principle " that " pro-
bability is the ratio of the number of favourable cases to the number
of all possible cases " no additional difficulty is involved in his second
11 E.g. T. S. Mill, Logic, bk. III., ch. xviii. 2.
u Cf. Venn, Logic of Chance, ch. vi. 24.
1 Boole, Trans. Roy. Soc. (1862), ix. 251.
14 Op. cit. Introduction.
14 Below, par. 130.
11 Grammar of Science, ed. 2, p. 146.
17 From the article by the present writer on the " Philosophy of
Chance " in Mind, No. ix., in which some of the views here indicated
are stated at greater length than is here possible.
Cf. v. Kries, op. cit. ch. ii.
18 On the principle of Taylor's theorem; cf. Edgeworth, Phil. Mag.
(1892), xxxiv. 431 seq.
10 Cf. J. S. Mill, in the passage referred to below, par. 13, on the use
that may be made of an " antecedent probability," though " it
would be impossible to estimate that probability with anything
like numerical precision."
11 Op. cit. Introduction.
PROBABILITY
[FIRST PRINCIPLES
principle, of which the following may be taken as an equivalent.
If we distribute the favourable cases into several groups the pro-
bability of the event will be sura of the probabilities pertaining to
each group. 1
10. Another important instance of unverified probabilities occurs
when it is assumed without specific experience that one phenomenon
is independent of another in such wise that the probability of a double
event is equal to the product of the one event multiplied by the pro-
bability of the other as in the instance already given of two aces
occurring. The assumption has been verified with respect to " runs "
in some games of chance; 2 but it is legitimately applied far beyond
those instances. The proposition that very long runs of particular
digits, e.g. of 7, may be expected in the development of a constant
like TI e.g. a run of six consecutive sevens if the expansion of the
constant was carried to a million places of decimals may be given
as an instance in which our conviction greatly transcends specific
verification. In the calculation of probable, and improbable, errors,
it 3 has to be assumed without specific verification that the observa-
tions on which the calculation is based are independent of each other
in the sense now under consideration. With these explanations we
may accept Laplace's third principle " If the events are independent
of each other the probability of their concurrence (I'existence de leur
ensemble) is the product of their separate probabilities." 4
1 1 . Interdependent Probabilities. Among the principles of proba-
bilities it is usual to enunciate, after Laplace, several other pro-
positions. 6 But these may here be rapidly passed over as they do
not seem to involve any additional philosophical difficulty.
12. It has been shown that when two events are independent
of each other the product of their separate probabilities forms the
probability of their concurrence. It follows that the probability
of the double event divided by the probability of either, say the first,
component gives the probability of the other, the second component
event. The quotient, we might say, is the probability that when
the first event has occurred, the second will occur. The proposition
in this form is true also of events which are not independent of one
another. Laplace exemplifies the composition of such interdepen-
dent probabilities by the instance of three urns, A,B,C, about which it
is known that two contain only white balls and one only black balls.'
The probability of drawing a white ball from an assigned urn, say C,
is f. The probability that, a white ball having been drawn from C,
a ball drawn from B will be white, is J. Therefore the probability
of the double event drawing a white ball from C and also from B is
fXi, or J. The question now arises. Supposing we know only
the probability of the double event, which probability we will call
[BC], and the probability of one of them, say [C] (but not, as in the
case instanced, the mechanism of their interdependence) ; what can
we infer about the probability [B] of the other event (an event such
as in the above instance drawing a white ball from the urn B) the
separate probability irrespective of what has happened as to the urn
Cr We cannot in general say that [B] = [BC] divided by [C] but
rather that quotient Xfc, where k is an unknown coefficient which
may be either positive or negative. It might, however, be improper
to treat k as zero on the ground that it is equally likely (in the long
run of similar data) to be positive or negative. For given values
of [BC] and [C], k has not this equiprobabte character, since its
positive and negative ranges are not in general equal; as appears
from considering that [B] cannot be less than [BC], nor greater
than unity. 7
13. Probability of Causes and Future Effects. The first principles
which have been established afford an adequate ground for the
reasoning which is described as deducing the probability of a cause
from an observed event. 8 If with the poet 9 we may represent a
perfect mixture by the waters of the Po in which the " two Doras "
and other tributaries are indiscriminately commingled, there is no
great difference in respect of definition and deduction between the
probability that a certain particle of water should have emanated
from a particular source, or should be discharged through a particular
mouth of the river. " This principle," we may say with De Morgan,
" of the retrospective or ' inverse ' probability is not essentially
1 Bertrand on " Probabilit6s composes," op. cit. art. 23.
z In some of the experiences referred to at par. 5.
3 See below, pars. 132, 159.
4 Op. cit. Introduction.
6 There is a good statement of them in Boole's Laws of Thought,
ch. xvi. 7. Cf. De Morgan " Theory of Probabilities " (Encyc.
Metrop.), 12 seq.
Laplace, op. cit. Introduction, IV" Principe; cf. V Principe and
liv., Itch, i. | i.
7 In such a case there seems to be a propriety in expressing the
indeterminate element in our data, not as above, but as proposed
by Boole in his remarkable Laws of Thought, ch. xvii., ch. xviii., I
(cf. Trans. Edin. Roy. Soc., (1857), vol. xxi. ; and Trans. Roy. Soc.,
1862, vol. ix., vol. clii. pt. i. p. 251); the undetermined constant
now representing the probability that if the event C does not occur
the event B will. The values of this constant in the absence of speci-
fic data, and where independence is not presumable are, it should
seem, equally distributed between the values o and i. Cf. as to
Boole's Calculus, Mind, loc. cit., ix. 230 seq.
8 Laplace's Sixth Principle. Manzoni.
different from the one first stated (Principle I.)." 10 Nor is a new
first principle necessarily involved when after ascending from an
effect to a cause we descend to a collateral effect. 11 It is true that in
the investigation of causes it is often necessary to have recourse
to the unverified species of probability. An intance has already
been given of several approximately equiprobable causes, the several
values of a quantity under measurement, from one of which the
observed phenomena, the given set of observations, must have, so
to speak, emanated. A simpler instance of two alternative causes
occurs in the investigation which J. S. Mill 12 has illustrated whether
an event, such as a succession of aces, has been produced by a par-
ticular cause, such as loading of the die, or by that mass of " fleeting
causes " called chance. It is sufficient for the argument that the
" a priori " probabilities of the alternatives should not be very
unequal. 13
14. (2) Whether Credibility is Measurable. The domain of probabili-
ties according to some authorities does not extend much, if at all,
beyond the objective phenomena which have been described in the
preceding paragraphs. The claims of the science to measure the
subjective quantity, degree of belief, are disallowed or minimized.
Belief, it is objected, depends upon a complex of perceptions and
emotions not amenable 14 to calculus. Moreover, belief is not credi-
bility; even if we do believe with more or less confidence in exact
conformity with the measure of probability afforded by the calculus,
ought we so to believe ? In reply it must be admitted that many of
the beliefs on which we have to act are not of the kind for which
the calculus prescribes. It was absurd of Craig I6 to attempt to evalu-
ate the credibility of the Christian religion by mathematical calcula-
tion. But there seem to be a number of simpler cases of which we
may say with De Morgan 16 " that in the universal opinion of those
who examine the subject, the state of mind to which a person ought
to be able to bring himself " is in accordance with the regulation
measure of probability. If in the ordeal to which Portia's suitors
were subjected there had been a picture of her not in one only, but
in two of the caskets, then though the judgment of the principal
parties might be distorted by emotion the impartial spectator
would normally expect with greater confidence than before that at
any particular trial a casket containing the likeness of the lady
would be chosen. So the indications of a thermometer may not
correspond to the sensations of a fevered patient, but they serve to
regulate the temperature of a public library so as to secure the com-
fort of the majority. This view does not commit us to the quantita-
tive precision of De Morgan that in a case such as above supposed
we ought to " look three times as confidently upon the arrival as
upon the non-arrival " of the event." Two or three roughly dis-
tinguished degrees of credibility very probable, as probable as not,
very improbable, practically impossible suffice for the more
important applications of the calculus. Such is the character of
the judgments which the calculus enables us to form with respect to
the occurrence of a certain difference between the real value of any
quantity under measurement and the value assigned to it by the
measurement. The confidence that the constants which we have
determined are accurate within certain limits is a subjective feeling
which cannot be dislodged from an important part of probabilities. 18
This sphere of subjective probability is widened by the latest develop-
ments of the science 19 so far as they add to the number of constants
for which it is important to determine the probable and improbable
error. For instance, a measure of the deviation of observations
from an average or mean value was required by the older writers
only as subordinate to the determination of the mean, but now this
" standard deviation " (below, par. 98) is often treated as an entity
for which it is important to discover the limits of error. 20 Some of
the newer methods may also serve to countenance the measurement
of subjective quantity, in so far as they successfully apply the
calculus to quantities not admitting of a precise unit, such as colour
10 De Morgan, Theory of Probabilities, 19; cf. Venn, Logic of
Chance, ch. vii. 9; Edgeworth, "On the Probable Errors of
Frequency Constants," Journ. Stat. Soc. (1908), p. 653. The essential
symmetry of the inverse and the direct methods is shown by an
elegant proof which Professor Cook Wilson has given for the
received rules of inverse probability (Nature, 1900, Dec. 13).
11 Laplace's Seventh Principle.
12 Logic, book III., ch. xviii. 6.
" Cf . above, par. 8 ; below, par. 46.
14 Cf. Venn, Logic of Chance, p. 126.
15 See the reference to Craig in Todhunter, History ...of Probability.
16 Formal Logic, p. 173.
17 Ibid. Cf. " Theory of Probabilities " (Encyc. Metrop.), note
to 5, " Wherever the term greater or less can be applied there
twice, thrice, &c., can be conceived, though not perhaps measured
by us."
18 It is well remarked by Professor Irving Fisher (Capital and
Income, 1907, ch. xvi.), that Bernoulli's theorem involves a " sub-
jective " element a " psychological magnitude." The remark is
applicable to the general theory of error of which the theorem of
Bernoulli is a particular case (see below, pars. 103, 104).
19 In the hands of Professor Karl Pearson, Mr Sheppard and
Mr Yule. Cf. par. 149, below.
20 Cf. Edgeworth, Journ. Stat. Soc. (Dec. 1908).
METHODS OF CALCULATION]
PROBABILITY
379
of eye or curliness of hair. 1 A closer analogy is supplied by the older
writers who boldly handle " moral " or subjective advantage, as
will be shown under the next head.
15. (3) Axioms of Expectation. Expectation so far as it involve!
ibility presents the same philosophical questions. They occur
chiefly in connexion with two principles analogous to and deducible
proportions which have been stated with respect to probabi-
(i.) The expectation of the sum of two quantities subject to
- the sum of the expectations of each, (ii.) The expectation of
nxluct of two quantities subject to risk is the product of the
MS of each; provided that the risks are independent.
. iinple, let one of the fortuitously fluctuating quantities be the
winnings of a pU\cr at a game in which he takes the amount A if
he throws ace with a die (and nothing if he throws another face).
'1 Inii the expectation of that quantity is JA; or, in n trials (n being
lar.;e), the player may expect to win about nJA. Let the other
fortuitously fluctuating quantity be winnings of a player at a game
in which he takes the amount B when an ace of any suit is dealt from
an ordinary pack of cards. The expectation of this quantity is j^B;
or in n trials the player may expect to win about n^jB. Now
suppose a compound trial at which one simultaneously throws a die
and deals a card ; and let his winning at a compound trial be the sum
of the amounts which he would have received for the die and the card
respectively at a simple trial. In n such compound trials he may
t to win about wSA+n^B, or the expectation of the
winning at a compound trial is the sum of the separate expectations.
suppose the winning at a compound trial to be the product
of the two amounts which he would have received for the die and the
card if played at a simple trial. It is zero unless the player obtains
two aces. It is AXB when this double event occurs. But this
double event occurs in the long run only once in 78 times. Accord-
ingly the expectation of the winning at a compound trial at which
the winning is the product of the winnings at two simple trials is the
product of the separate expectations. What has been shown for
two expectations of the simplest type, where o is the probability of
an event which has been associated with a quantity a, may easily
be extended to several expectations each of the type
where a r a, is an expectation of the simplest type, above exemplified,
or of the type aidiXaja 2 XajojX ... or a mixture of these types.
For by the law which has been exemplified the sum of r expectations
can always be reduced to the sum of r I, and then the r I tor 2,
and so on ; and the like is true of products.
16. It should be remarked that the proviso as to the independence
of the probabilities involved is required only by the second of the two
fundamental propositions. It may be dispensed with by the first.
Thus in the example of interdependent probabilities given by Laplace'
three urns about which it is known that two contain only black
balls and one only white if a person drawing a ball first from C and
then from B is to receive x shillings every time he draws a white ball,
from one or other of the urns, he may expect if he performs the
compound operation n times to receive wXzXjx shillings. But the
expectation of the product of the number of shillings won by drawing
a w hite ball from C and the number of shillings won by afterwards
drawing a white ball from B is not ()***, but nji 2 .
17. The first of the two principles is largely employed in the
practical applications of probabilities. The second principle is
!> employed in the higher generalizations of the science * (the
laws of error demonstrated in Part II.); the requisite independence
of the involved probabilities being mostly of the unverified * species.
i.-i. Expectation of Utility. A philosophical difficulty peculiar to
expectation arises when the quantity expected has not the objective
character usually presupposed in the applications of mathematics.
The most signal instance occurs when the expectation relates to an
advantage, and that advantage is estimated subjectively by the
amount of utility or satisfaction afforded to the possessor. Mathe-
maticians have commonly adopted the assumption made by Daniel
Bernoulli that a small increase in a person s material means or
" physical fortune " causes an increase of satisfaction or " moral
fortune," inversely proportional to the physical fortune; and accord-
ingly that the moral fortune is equateable to the logarithm of the
physical fortune. 7 The spirit in which this assumption should be
employed is well expressed by Laplace when he says 8 that the expec-
1 Below, par. 152.
1 Consider the equivalent of Laplace's second principle given at
par 9, above, and his third principle quoted at par. 10.
3 Above, par. 12.
4 In the more familiar form ; that (of two independently fluctuating
quantities) the mean of the product is the product of the means (CK
Czuber, Theorie der Beobachtungsfehler, p. 133).
6 Above, par. 6.
* These peculiarities afford some justification for Laplace's restric-
tion of the term expectation to " goods." As to the wider definition
here adopted see below, par. 94 and par. 95, note.
7 Each fortune referred to is divided by a proper parameter.
See below, par. 69
8 Op. cit. liv. II. ch. xiii. No. 41. Cf. liv. II. ch. i. No.2.
tation of subjective advantage (I'esperance morale) " depends on a
thousand variable circumstances which it is almost always impossible
to define and still more to submit to calculation." " One cannot
give a general rule for appreciating this relative value," yet the
principle above stated in " applying to the commonest cases leads
to results which are often useful."
19. In this spirit we may regard the logarithm in Bernoulli's
(as in Malthus's) theory as representative of a more general
relation. Thus generalized the principle has been accepted by
economists and utilitarian philosophers whose judgment on the rela-
tion between material goods and utility or satisfaction carries weight.
Thus Professor Alfred Marshall writes: 9 " In accordance with a
suggestion made by Daniel Bernoulli, we may perhaps suppose that
the satisfaction which a person derives from his income may be
regarded as beginning when he has enough to support life and after-
wards as increasing by equal amounts with every equal successive
percentage that is added to his income; and vice versa for loss of
income." l The general principle is embodied in Bentham's utili-
tarian reasoning which has been widely accepted. 11 The possibility
of formulating the relation between feeling and its external cause
is further supported by Fechner's investigations. This branch of
Probabilities also obtains support from another part of the science,
the calculation sanctioned by Laplace, of the disutility'incident to
error of measurement. " Altogether it seems impossible to deny
that some simple mathematical operations prescribed by the calculus
of probabilities are sometimes serviceably employed to estimate
prospective benefit in the subjective sense of desirable feeling.
20. Single Cases and " Series." Analogous to the question regard-
ing the standard of belief which arose under a former head, a question
regarding the standard of action arises under the head of expectation.
The former question, it may be observed, arises chiefly with respect
to events which are considered as singular, not forming part of a
series. There is no doubt, there is a full belief, that if we go on
tossing (unloaded) dice the event which consists of obtaining either
a five or a six will occur in approximately 33'3% of the trials.
The important question is what is or should be our state of mind
with regard to the result of a trial which is sui generis and not to be
repeated, like the choice of a casket in the Merchant of Venice. 1 *
A similar difficulty is presented by singular events, with respect to
volition. Is the chance of one to a thousand of the prize 1000 at a
lottery approximately equivalent to i in the eyes of a person who
for once, and once only, has the offer of such a stake ? The question
is separable from one with which it is often confounded, the one
discussed in the last paragraph what is the " moral " value of the
prize ? The person might be a millionaire for whom i and 1000
both belong to the category of small change. The stake and the
prize might both be " moral." The better opinion seems that
apart from a system of transactions like that in which an insurance
company undertakes, or at least a " cross-series ' ' 14 of the kind which
seem largely to operate in ordinary life, expectations in which the
risks are very different are no longer equateable. So De Morgan with
regard to the " single case " (the solitary' transaction in question)
declares that the mathematical expectation is not a sufficient
approximation to the actual phenomenon of the mind when benefits
depend upon very small probabilities ; even when the fortune of the
player forms no part of the consideration " u [without making allow-
ance for the difference between " moral " and mathematical pro-
babilities]. So Condorcet, " If one considers a single man and a
single event there can be no kind of equality " u (between expecta-
tions with very different risks). It is only for the long run Iprsqu'on
embrasse la suite indefinie des tenements that the rule is valid:
To the same effect at greater length the logicians Dr Venn " and von
Kries. 18 Some of the mathematical writers have much to learn from
their logical critics u on this and other questions relating to first
principles.
Section II. Calculation of Probability.
21. Object of the Section. In the following calculations
the principal object is to ascertain the number of cases favourable
to an event in proportion to the total number of possible cases. 10
* Principles of Economics, book III., ch. vi. 6, p. 209, ed. 4.
10 Cf. below, par. 71.
11 Some further references bearing on the subject are given in a
paper by the present writer on the " Pure Theory of Taxation,"
No. III. Economic Journ. (1897), vii. 550-551.
11 Below, par. 131.
11 Above, par. 14.
14 Above, par. 5.
15 Article on " Probabilities " (Encyc. Metrop.), 40.
" Essai (1785), pp. 142 et seq.
17 Logic of Chance, ch. vi. 24-28.
8 Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung, pp. 184 seq.
u The relations of recent logicians to the older mathematical
writers on Probabilities may be illustrated by the relations of modern
" historical " economists to their more abstract predecessors.
" Of the two properties which have been found to characterize
probability (above, par. 5) proportionate (t) number of (equally)
favourable cases and (2) frequency of observed occurrence ;the
former especially pertain to the data and quaesita of this section.
3 8o
PROBABILITY
[METHODS OF CALCULATION
" The difficulty consists in the enumeration of the cases," as
Lagrange says. Sometimes summation is the only mathematical
operation employed; but very commonly it is necessary to apply
the theory of permutations and combinations involving multipli-
cation. 1
22. Fundamental Theorem. One of the simplest problems of this
sort is one of the most important. Given a melange of things con-
sisting of two species, if n things are taken at random what is the
probability that s out of these n things will be of a certain species ?
For example, the melange might be a well-shuffled pack of cards,
and the species black and red ; the quaesitum, what is the probability
that if n cards are dealt, s of them will be black ? There are two
varieties of the problem : either after each card is dealt it is returned
to the pack, which is reshuffled, or all the n cards are dealt (as in
ordinary games of cards) without replacement. The first variety
of the problem deserves its place as being not only the simpler, but
also the more important, of the two.
23. At the first deal there are 26 cases favourable to black, 26 to
red. When two deals have been made (in the manner prescribed),
out of 52 * cases formed by combinations between a card turned up
at the first deal and a card turned up at the second, 26X26 cases
are combinations of two blacks, 26X26 are combinations of two
reds, and the remainder 2(26X26) are made up of combinations
between one black and one red; 26X26 cases of black at the first
deal and red at the second, and 26X26 cases of red at the first and
black at the second deal. The number of cases favourable to each
alternative is evidently given by the several terms in the expansion
of (26+26) 2 . The corresponding probabilities are given by dividing
each term by the total number ojf cases, viz. 52 2 . Similarly, when we
go on to a third deal, the respective probabilities of the three possible
cases, three blacks, two blacks and one red, two reds and one
black, three blacks, are given by the successive terms in the binomial
expansion of (26+26)', and so on. The reasoning is quite general.
Thus for the event which consists of dealing either clubs or spades
(black) we might substitute an event of which the probability at a
single trial is not i, e.g. dealing hearts. Generally, if p and I p are
the respective probabilities of the event occurring or not occurring
at a single trial, the respective probabilities that in n trials the event
will occur n times, n I times . . . twice, once or not at all, are given
by the successive terms in the expansion of [p+(i p)]"', of which
expansion the general term is l s tt*_ s \t P"( l ~P) n ~'-
24. The probability may also be calculated as follows. Taking
for example the case in which the event consists of dealing hearts;
consider any particular arrangement of the n cards, of which s
are hearts, e.g. the arrangement in which the s cards first dealt
are hearts and the following n s all belong to other suits. The
probability of the first s cards being all hearts is (); the probability
that none of the last (n s) cards are hearts is (J) n ~*. Hence the
probability of that particular arrangement occurring is (i)*(|) n ~'.
But this arrangement is but one of many, e.g. that in which the 5
hearts are the last dealt, which are equally likely to occur. There are
as many different arrangements of this type as there are combina-
tions ofn things taken together s times, that isnl/sl(ns)l The
probability thus calculated agrees with the preceding result.
25. It follows from the law of expansion for [p+(i p)] n that
as n is increased, the value of the fractions which form the terms
at either extremity diminishes. When n becomes very large, the
terms which are in the neighbourhood of the greatest term of the
expansion overbalance the sum total of the remaining terms. 2 Thus
in the example above given, if we go on and on dealing cards (with
replacement) the ratio of the red cards dealt to all the cards dealt
tends to become more and more nearly approximate to the limit \.
These statements are comprised in the theorem known as James
Bernoulli's. Stated in its simplest form that " in the long run all
events will tend to occur with a relative frequency proportional to
their objective probabilities " 3 this theorem has been regarded
as tautological or circular. Yet the proofs of the theorem which
have been given by great mathematicians may deserve attention
as at least showing the consistency of first principles. 4 Moreover,
as usually stated, James Bernoulli's imports something more than
the first axiom of probabilities. 6
26. The generalization of the Binomial Theorem which is called
1 Cf. Bertrand's distinction between " Probabilites totales,"
and " Probabilit6s compos6es," Calcul des probabilites, ch. ii. arts.
23, 24.
2 Cf. Todhunter, History . . . of Probability, p. 360, and other
statements of James Bernoulli's Theorem, referred to in the index.
* Venn, op. cit. p. 91.
4 Some of these proofs are adduced, and a new and elegant one
added by Bertrand, op. cit. ch. v.
6 When the degree in which a certain range of central terms tends
to preponderate over the residue of the series is formulated with
precision, as in the statement given by Todhunter (op. cit. p. 548)
when he is interpreting Laplace, then James Bernoulli's theorem
presents a particular case of the law of error the case considered
below in par. 103.
the " Multinomial Theorem '' 6 gives the rule when there are more
than two alternatives at each trial. For instance, if there are three
alternatives, hearts, diamonds or a card belonging to a black suit,
the probability that if n cards are dealt there will occur i hearts,
t diamonds, and nst cards which are either clubs or spades is
n! /A (l\ ' M --'
s\tl(n-s-t)l \4/ W W
27. Applications of Fundamental Theorem. The peculiar interest
of the problem which is here placed first is that its solution represents
a law of almost universal application : the law assigning the frequency
with which different values assumed by a quantity, like most of the
quantities with which statistics has to do, depends upon several
independent agencies. It is remarkable that the problem in pro-
babilities which historically was almost the first belongs to the kind
which is first in interest. Of this character is a question which
occupied Galileo and before him Cardan, and an even earlier writer:
what are the chances that, when two or three dice are thrown, the
sum of the points or pips turned up should amount to a certain
number ? A particular case of this problem is presented by the old
game of " passedix ": what is the probability that if three dice are
thrown the sum of the pips should exceed ten ? 7 The answer is
obtained by considering the number of combinations that are favour-
able to each of the different alternatives, 18 pips, 17, 16 . . . . II pips,
which make up the event in question. Thus out of the total of
216 (6 3 ) combinations, one is favourable to 18, three to 17, and so
on. There are twenty-five chances, as we may call the permutations,
in favour of 12, twenty-seven in favour of n. 8 The sum of all these
being 108, we have for the event in question 108/216, an even chance.
More generally it may be inquired: what is the probability that,
if n dice are thrown, the number of points turned up will be exactly i ?
By an extension of the reasoning which was employed in the first
problem it is seen that the required probability is that of which
the index is i in the expansion of the expression
|7lV + (IV + (IV + (IV + (IV + (iVl n
LW h w h w h W h w ^wJ
The calculation may be simplified by writing this expression
form
i the
/i\nr /i\<n P il
(5) L 1 - W J L 1 - 6-J
The successive terms of the expansion give the respective probabilities
that the number in question should be n, n+i . . . 6n comprising
all the possible numbers among which .s is presumably included
(otherwise the answer is zero). Of course we are not limited to six
alternatives; instead of a die we may have a teetotum with any
number of sides. The series expressing the probabilities of the
different sums can be written out in general terms, as Laplace and
others have done ; but it seems to be of less interest than the approxi-
mate formula which will be given later. 9
28. Variant of the Fundamental Theorem. The second variety of
our first problem may next be considered. Suppose that after each
trial the card dealt (ball drawn, &c.) is not replaced in statu quo ante.
For instance, if r cards are dealt in the ordinary way from a shuffled
pack, what is the probability that i of them will be hearts (s<!3)?
Consider any particular arrangement of the r cards, whereof i are
hearts, e.g. that in which the i cards first dealt are all hearts, the
remaining r s belonging to other suits. The probability of the first
card being a heart is fc| ; the probability that, the first having been
a heart, the second'should be a heart is Jf (since a heart having been
removed there are now 12 favourable cases out of a total of 51 cases).
And so on. Likewise the probability of the (j-f-i)th card being
not a heart, all the preceding i having been hearts, is 39/(52-s),
the probability of the (s+2)th card being not a heart is similarly
reckoned. And thus the probability of the particular arrangement
considered is found to be
13. 12. ji3-(s-i)j . 39.38. (39-r-5-l)
52.51. |52-(i-i)j. (52-i|l52-(i + i)l ' I52-0--I)!'
Now consider any other arrangement of the r cards, e.g. t of the s
hearts to occur first and the remaining s t last. The denominator
in the above expression will remain the same ; and in the numerator
only the order of the factors will be altered. The probability of the
second arrangement is therefore the same as that of the first ; and the
probability that some one or other of the arrangements will occur
is given by multiplying the probability of any one arrangement and
the number of different arrangements, which, as in the simpler
case of the problem, 10 is the same as the number of combinations
formed by r things taken'together s times, that is rl/s! (r s) !. The
formula thus obtained may be generalized by substituting n for
See Chrystal, Algebra, ch. xxiii. 12; or other textbook of
algebra.
7 See Todhunter, History ... of Probability, art. 8 ; Bertrand,
Calcul des probabilites, p. vii., or the original documents.
8 As Galileo discerned. A friend of his had observed that 1 1
occurred 1080 times to 1000 times o< 12.
9 The law of error given below, par. 104.
10 Above, par. 24.
METHODS OF CALCULATION]
PROBABILITY
52, pn for 13, qn for 39 (where p+q=i; pn and qn are integers).
A formula thus generalized is proposed by Professor Karl Pearson '
as proper to represent the frequency with which different values
are assumed by a quantity depending on causes which are not
independent.
29. Miscellaneous Examples: Games of Chance. The majority of
the problems under this heading cannot, like the preceding two, be
regarded as conducing directly to statistical methods which are
required in investigating some parts of nature. They are at best
elegant exercises in a kind of mathematical reasoning which is
required in most of such methods. Games of chance present some
of the best examples. We may begin with one of the oldest, the
problem which the Chevalier de Mre put to Pascal when he ques-
tioned: How many times must a pair of dice be thrown in order that
it may be an even chance that double six the event called sonnez
may occur at least once? * The answer may be obtained by finding
a general expression for the probability that the event will occur
at least once in n trials; and then determining n so that this expres-
= J. The probability of the event occurring is the difference
between unity and the probability of its failing. Now the proba-
bility of " sonnez " failing at a single throw (of two dice) is 25 There-
fore the probability of its failing in throws is
. Whence we
obtain, to determine , the equation i I ) = J, which gives
24-605 nearly.
30. In the preceding problem the quaesitum was (unity minus)
the probability that out of all the possible events an assigned one
(" sonnez ") should fail to occur in the course of n trials. In the
following problem the quaesitum is the probability that out of all
the possible events one or other should fail that they should not
all be represented in the course of n trials. A die being thrown n
times, wnat is the probability that all three of the following events
will not be represented (that one or other of the three will not occur at
least once) ; viz. (a) either ace or deuce turning up, (b) either 3 or 4,
(c) either 5 or 6. The number of cases in which one at least of these
events fails to occur is equal to the number of cases in which (a)
fails, plus the number in which (b) fails, plus the number in which (c)
fails, minus the number of cases in which two of the events fail
concurrently (which cases without this subtraction would be counted
twice).' Now the number of cases in which (a) fails to occur in the
course of the n trials is (-J of all the possible cases numbering 3".
Like propositions are true of tb) and (c). The number of cases in
which both (a) and (b) fail is (-J of the total ; * and the like is true
of the cases in which both (a) and (c) fail and the cases in which both
(ft) and (c) fail. Accordingly the probability that one at least of
the events will fail to occur in the course of n trials is
31. One more step is required by the following problem: If n
cards are dealt from a pack, each card after it has been dealt being
returned to the pack, which is then reshuffled, what is the probability
that one or other of the four suits will not be represented? The
probability that hearts will fail to occur in the course of the n deals
is (2j ; ant j the like is true of the three other suits. From the sum
of these probabilities is to be subtracted the sum of the probabilities
that there will be concurrent failures of any two suits; but from this
subtrahend are to be subtracted the proportional number of cases
in which there are concurrent failures of any three suits (otherwise
cases such as that in which e.g. hearts, diamonds and clubs con-
currently failed ' would not be represented at all). Now the pro-
bability of any assigned two suits failing is ( -1 ; the probability of
any assigned three suits failing is (- j . Accordingly the required
probability is
;-<!;
The analogy of the Binomial Theorem supplies the clue to the solu-
tion of the general problem of which the following is an example.
1 Trans. Roy. Soc. (1895). See bciow, par. 165.
'Todhunter, History . . . of Probability, and Bertrand, Calcul
des probabiltifs, p. 9.
1 All three events cannot fail.
4 (c) occurring n times.
The reasoning may be illustrated by using the area of a circle
to represent the frequency with which hearts fail, another (equal)
circle for diamonds ; for the case in which both hearts and diamonds
fail the area common to the circles interlapping, and so on.
If a die is thrown n times the probability that every face will have
turned up at least once is
32. If in the (first) problem stated in paragraph 31 the cards are
dealt in the ordinary way (without replacement), we must substitute
forQ", the continued product g - jf ... g=g=g ; forg)'
26 25 26 (n l)
the continued product TJ'TJ ' ' ' S2 _)jj_ | (. and so on.
33. Still considering miscellaneous examples relating to games of
chance let us inquire what is the probability that at whist each of
thejtwo parties should have two honours ? ' If the turned-up card
is an honour, the probability that of the three other honours an
assigned one is among the twenty-five which are in the hands of
the dealer or his partner, while the remaining two honours are in
the hands of the other party, is ff , 2 , ||- But the assigned card
o* o^ 4y
may with equal probability be any one of three honours; and
accordingly the above written probability is to be multiplied by 3.
If the turned-up card is not an honour then the probability that an
assigned pair of honours is in the hands of the dealer or his partner,
while the remaining two honours are in the hands of their adver-
saries, is -5 -^ -- -s ; this probability is to be multiplied by six, as
5 1 5 49 4
the assigned pair may be any of the six binary combinations formed
by the four honours. Now the probability of the alternative first
considered the turned-up card being an honour is f-; and the
probability of the second alternative, ^. Accordingly the required
probability is
.4_.,.5 . 2 A 5_J_. 6 . 2 _5 . M . 6 . 2j =2 2j.
13 a 51 50 49^13 51 5 49 48 833
34. The probability that each of the four players should have an
honour may be calculated thus. 8 If the card turned up is an honour
then ipso facto the dealer has one honour and the probability that the
remaining players have each an assigned one of the three remaining
honours, is T* rg -2. Which probability is to be multiplied by 3!,
as there are that number of ways in which the three cards may be
assigned. If the card turned up is not an honour the probability
that each player has an assigned honour is r* rj* -* rg- Which
Accordingly the required
probability is to be multiplied by 4!.
probability is
? t_^ +-2..,
''5i -50. 49^13
12.13*
48. 51 -50 49
(the chance not being affected by the character of the card turned up).
35. The probability of all the trumps being held by the dealer is
!2 ..i.JLorS2J^- ! , w hi c h being calculated by means of
51 50 4* 4 5 2 *
tables for (logarithms of) factorials* or directly, 10 is 158,753,389,900.
36. There is a set of dominoes which goes from double blank to
double nine (each domino presenting either a combination which
occurs only once of two digits, or a repetition of the same digit).
What is the probability that a domino drawn from the set will prove
to be one assigned beforehand? The probability is the reciprocal
of the number of dominoes: which is 10X9/2 (the number of com-
binations of different digits) -fio (the number of doubles) =55.
37. Choice and Chance. When we leave the sphere of games of
chance and frame questions relating to ordinary life there is a danger
of assuming distributions of probability which are far from probable.
For example, let this be the question. The House of Commons
formerly consisting of 489 English members, 60 Scottish and 103
Irish, what was the probability that a committee of three members
should represent the three nationalities? An assumption of indiffer-
ence where it does not exist is involved in the answer that the required
probability is the ratio of the number of favourable triplets, viz.
489X60X103 to the total number of triplets, viz. 652X651 X 650X3!
A similar absence of selection is postulated by the ordinary
treatment of a question like the following. There being s candidates
See Whitworth, Exercises in Choice and Chance, No. 502 (p. 125) ;
referring to prop. xiv. of the same author's Choice and Chance.
7 Cf. Whitworth, Choice and Chance, question 143, p. 183, ed. 4.
Ibid.
There is such a table at the end of De Morgan's article in the
Calculus of Probabilities in the Ency. Brit. " Pure Sciences,"
vol. ii.
10 Cancelling factors common to the numerator and denominator.
3 82
PROBABILITY
[METHODS OF CALCULATION
at an examination and r optional subjects from which each candidate
chooses one (r>s), what is the probability that no two candidates
should choose the same subject? If the candidates be arranged
in any order, the probability that the second candidate should not
choose the same subject as the first candidate is (re 1)/. The pro-
bability that the third candidate will not choose either of the two
subjects taken by the aforesaid candidates is (n2)/n, and so on.
Thus the required probability is
n(-l) (re-2)...|n -(*-!)!/'.
38. When as in these cases the interest of the problem lies chiefly
in the application of the theory of combinations, or permutations,
there is a propriety in Whitworth's enunciation of the questions under
the head of choice rather than chance. It comes to the same whether
we say that there are x ways in which an event may happen, or that
the probability of its happening in an assigned one of those ways is
l/x. For example, suppose that there are n couples waltzing at a
ball; if the names of the men are arranged in alphabetical order,
what is the probability that the names of their partners will also be
in alphabetical order? The probability that the man who is first in
alphabetical order should have for partner the lady who is first
in that order is l/n. The probability that the man who is second
alphabetical order should have for partner the lady who is second
in that order is l/(n-l), and so on. Therefore the required proba-
bility is I /re!. Or it may be easier to say that the number of ways,
each consisting of a set of couples in which the party can be arranged,
is n ! ; of which only one is favourable.
39. The same principle governs the following question. For how
many days can a family of 10 continue to sit down to dinner in a
different order each day ; it not being indifferent who sits at the head
of the table what is the absolute, as well as the relative, position
of the members? The number of permutations, viz. 10!, is the
answer. If we are to attend to the relative position only as would
be natural if the question related to 10 children turning round a fly-
pole the number of different arrangements would be only 9!
40. Method of Equations in Finite Differences. The last question
may serve to introduce a method which Laplace has applied with
great eclat to problems in probabilities. Let y n be the number of
ways in which re men can take their places at a round table, without
respect to their absolute position; and consider how the number
will be increased by introducing an additional man. From every
particular arrangement of the original n men can now be obtained re
different arrangements of the re + l men (since the additional man
may sit between any two of the party of n). Hence y^+i^nyn, an
equation of differences of which the solution is C (n i)\ The con-,
slant may be determined by considering the case in which re is 2.
41. The following example is not quite so simple. If a coin is
thrown n times, what is the chance that head occurs at least twice
running? Calling each sequence of n throws a " case," consider
the number ot cases in which head never occurs twice running; let
n be this number, then 2 n u n must be the number of cases when
head occurs at least twice successively. Consider the value of
Un+i', if the last or (n+2)th throw be tail, ttn+2 includes all the
cases (n+i) of the re + i preceding throws which gave no succession
of heads; and if the last be head the last but one must be tail, and
these two may be preceded by any one of the favourable cases
for the first re throws. Consequently,
n + 2 = ttn+1 +U n .
If o, |3 are the roots of the quadratic x 2 x I =o, this equation
gives '
Here A and B are easily found from the conditions i =
viz.
_9 09
A =
whence
o -
\ i
(3 - a.'
<*)* 5 + &c . j .
The probability that head never turns up twice running is found
by dividing this by 2", the whole number of cases. This probability,
of course, becomes smaller and smaller as the number of trials (re)
is increased. This is a particular case of a more general problem
solved by Laplace 2 as to the occurrence i times running of an event
of which the probability at one trial is p.
42. In such problems where we now employ the calculus of finite
difference Laplace employed his method of generating functions.
A distinguished instance is afforded by the problem of points which
was put by the Chevalier de Mere to Pascal and has exercised genera-
tions of mathematicians. It is thus stated by Laplace. 3 Two
players of equal skill have staked equal sums; the stakes to belong
to the player who shall have won a certain number of games.
Suppose they agree to leave off playing when one player, A, wants
x " points " (games to be won) in order to complete the assigned
number, while the second player wants x' points: how ought they
1 Cf. Boole's Finite Differences, ch. vii. 5.
! Op. cit. liv. II. ch. ii., No. 12.
3 Op. cit. liv. II. ch. ii., No. 8.
to divide the stakes? This is a question in Expectation, but its
difficulty consists in determining the probability that one of the
players, say A, shall win the stakes. Let that probability be y f ,i'.
Then, after the next game, if A has won, the probability of his win-
ning the stakes will be y*-i,x'. But if A loses, B winning, the proba-
bility will be y,j'-i. But these alternatives are equally likely.
Accordingly the probability of A winning the stakes may be writ'
This is the same probability as that which was before written y x , x '.
Equating the two expressions we have, for the function y, an equation
of finite difference involving two variables, of which the solution is 4
v - l x \ | * ' | *U'+l) I I . I *(*+!) (x+x' 2)
y 2' 1 ) " r i 2~ 1 ~ 1-2 2 2 " 1 " 1-2 (x'~ i) 2 J
43. The problem of points is to be distinguished from anothei
classical problem, relating to a contest in which the winner has not
simply to win a certain number of games, but to win a certain number
of counters from his opponent. 6 Space does not admit even the
enunciation of other complicated problems to which Laplace has
applied the method of generating functions.
44. Probability of Causes Deduced from Observed Events. Problems
relating to the probability of alternative causes, deduced from
observed effects, are usually placed in the separate category of
" inverse " probability, though, as above remarked, 6 they do not
necessarily involve different principles. The difference principally
consists in the need of evidence, other than that which is afforded
by the observed event, as to the probability of the alternative
causes existing and operating. The following is an example free
from the difficulty incident to unverified a priori probabilities, which
commonly besets this kind of problem. A digit haying been taken
at random from mathematical tables (or the expansion of an endless
constant such as ir) ; a second digit is obtained by taking from a
random succession of digits one that added to the first digit makes
a sum greater than 9. Given a result thus formed, what are the
respective probabilities that the second digit should have been
o, I, 2, ... 8 or 9? In the long run the first digit assumes with equal
frequency the values o, I, 2 ... 8, 9. Accordingly the second digit
can never be o. There is only one chance of its being I, namely when
the first digit is 9 If the second digit is 2, and the first either 8 or 9,
the observed effect will be produced. And so on. If the second
digit is 9, the effect may occur in nine ways. Accordingly in the
long run of pairs thus formed it will occur that the cases or causes
which are defined by the circumstances that the second digit is
o, I, 2, ... 8, 9, respectively, will occur with frequencies in the
following ratios o : I : 2 ... 8 : 9. The probability of the observed
event having been caused by a particular (second) digit, e.g. 7, is
7/(o+i+2 + . . +9) =7/45-
45. The following example taken from Laplace 7 is of a more
familiar type. An urn is known to contain three balls made up of
white and black balls in some unknown proportion. From this urn
a ball is extracted m times (being each time replaced after extraction).
If a white ball is drawn every time, what are the respective proba-
bilities that the number of white balls in the urn are 3, 2, I or o?
By parity of reasoning it appears that in the first case the result is
certain, its probability I, in the second case the probability of the
observed event occurring is (|) m , in the third case that probability
is (i) m , in the fourth case zero. Accordingly the respective inverse
probabilities are in the ratios
provided that (as in the preceding example, with respect to the second
digits) the alternative causes, the four possible constitutions of the
urn, are (a priori) equally probable. This is rather a bold assump-
tion with respect to the contents of concrete urns 8 and similar group-
ings; but with regard to things in general may perhaps be justified
on the principle of cross-series.'
46. Often in the investigation of causes we are not thrown back
on unverified a priori probabilities. We have some specific evidence
though of a very rough character. An example has been cited from
Mill in a preceding paragraph. 10 Against the improbabilities cal-
culated by the methods of tne present section there has often to be
balanced an improbability evidenced by common sense, which does
not admit of mathematical calculation. Bertrand u puts the follow-
ing case. The manager of a gambling house has purchased a roulette
table which is found to give red 5300 times, black 4700 times, out of
10,000 trials. The purchaser claims an indemnity from the maker.
What can the calculus tell us as to the justice of the claim? Nothing
4 A clear and corrected version of Laplace's reasoning is given by
Todhunter, History. . . of Probability, art. 973, p. 528, with reference
to the more general cases in which the " skills " of each party
their chances of winning a single game are not equal but respect-
ively p and q (p-\-q = i). See also Czuber, Wahrscheinlichkeits-
theorie, pp. 30 seq.
6 See Todhunter, op. cit. art. 107, and other articles referring to
duration of play. See also Boole, Finite Differences, ch. xiv., art. 7,
ex. 6.
6 Above, par. 13. 7 Op. cit. liv. II. ch. i. No. i.
8 Cf. Bertrand, op. cit. 118. 9 Above, par. 5.
10 Par. 13. ll Op. cit. 134.
MKTHODS OF CALCULATION]
PROBABILITY
383
pn-cisc, yet something worth knowing. The a priori improbability
of the maker's inaccuracy must be very great to overcome the im-
probability of such an event occurring by chance if the machine is
lately made (accuracy being defined, say, by the condition
that the ratio of red to [red + white) would prove to be in the in-
definitely long run of trials between 0-499 and 0-501). The odds
against the so defined event occurring are found to be some millions
to one. 1
47. The difficulty recurs in more practical problems: for instance,
certain symptoms having been observed, to find the probability that
they are produced by a particular disease. Such concrete applica-
tions of probabilities are often open to the sort of objections which
have been urged against the classical use of the calculus to determine
the probability that witnesses are true, or judges just.
Probability of Testimony. The application of probabilities to
nony proceeds upon two assumptions: (l) that to each witness
there pertains a coefficient of probability representing the average
Ireijuency with which he speaks the truth or untruth, (2) that the
statements of witnesses are independent in the sense proper to proba-
bilities. Thus if two witnesses concur in making a statement
which must be either true or false, their agreement is a circumstance
which is only to be accounted for by one of two alternatives: either
that they are both speaking the truth, or both false. If the average
truthfulness the credibility of one witness is p, that of the other p',
then the probabilities of the two alternative explanations are to
other in the ratio pp' : (i p) (i p') ; the probability that the
statement is true is pp /\pp' + (l p) (l p')\. So far no account js
taken of the a priori probability of the statement. This evidence
may be treated as an independent witness. Thus, if a person whose
credibility is p asserts that he has seen at whist a hand consisting
entirely of trumps dealt from a well-shuffled pack of cards, there
are two alternative explanations of his assertion, with probabilities
in the ratio
/>Xo-ooo,ooo,ooo,oo63 : (i -p) X 0-999,999,999,993.
The truthfulness of the witness must be very great to outweigh the
a priori improbability of the fact. 2 These formulae are easily
extended to the case of three or more witnesses. The probability
of a statement made by three witnesses of respective credibilities
P, p', p" is
For r witnesses we have
Pipt.. -PrllPi fr... P,+(i -Pi) (I -pi) ... (i -p r )\.
Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by ptpi...p r ,
we see that the probability of the statement increases with the
number of the witnesses, provided that for every witness (i p)/p is
a proper fraction, and accordingly p>$. As an example of several
witnesses, let us inquire how many witnesses to a fact such as a
hand at whist consisting entirely of trumps would be required in
order to make it an even chance that the fact occurred, supposing
the credibility of each witness to be &.* Let x be the required num-
ber of witnesses. We have the l/(l +(J)* 0-000,000,000,006) = J, or
x log Q = I2'2. Whence, if x is 13, it is more than an even chance
that the statement is true.
49. When an event may occur in two or more ways equally
probable a priori, the formulae show that the probability of the state-
ment will depend on the credibility of the witnesses; and accordingly
the explicit consideration of a priori probabilities may, as in our
first instance, be omitted. One who reports the number of a ticket
obtained at a lottery ordinarily makes a statement against which
there is no a priori improbability ; but if the number is one which had
been predicted, there is an a priori improbability that an assigned
ticket should be drawn out of a melange of n tickets. Similar reason-
ing is applicable to the probability that the decisions of judgments,
the verdict of juries, is right.
50. The assumptions upon which all this reasoning is based are
open to serious criticisms. The postulated independence of wit-
nesses and judges is frequently not realized. The revolutionary
tribunal which condemned Condorcet was affected by ah identity
of illusions and passions which that mathematician had not taken
into account when he calculated " that the probability of a decision
being conformable to truth will increase indefinitely as the number
of voters is increased." 4
51. The use of coefficients based on the average truthfulness
or justice of each witness and judge involves the neglect of par-
ticulars which ought to influence our estimate of probability, such
as the consistency of a witness's statements and the relation of the
case to the interests, prejudices and capacities of the witness or the
judge.* Thus even in so simple a case as the alleged occurrence of
1 By a calculation based on the fundamental theorem (above, par.
23; cf. below, par. 103).
* But see below, par. 51.
' Morgan Crofton, loc. cit. p. 778, par. i.
* Essai, p. 6 (there is postulated a proviso analogous to that
which has been stated in par. 49 above, with reference to witnesses :
that the probability of any one voter being right is> J).
*See Mill's forcible remarks on this use of probabilities, which
an extraordinary hand at whist, the " truthfulness " of the witness
in the general sense of the term may not adequately represent his
liability to have made a mistake about the snuffling.' A neglect
of particulars, however, is sometimes practised with success in
the applications of statistics (insurance, for instance). Perhaps
there are broad results and general rules to which the mathematical
theory may be applicable. Perhaps the laborious researches of
Poisson on the " probability of judgments " are not, as they have
been called by an eminent mathematician, absolument rien. 1 More
than mathematical interest may attach to Laplace's investigation
of a rule appropriate to cases like the following. An event (suppose
the death of a certain person) must have proceeded from one of
n causes A, B, C, &c., and a tribunal has to pronounce on which
is the most probable. Professor Morgan Crofton's original proof
of Laplace's rule is here reproduced.*
52. Let. each member of the tribunal arrange the causes in the
order of their probability according to his judgment, after weighing
the evidence. To compare the presumption thus afforded by any
one judge in favour of a specified cause with that afforded by the
other judges, we must assign a value to the probability of the
cause derived solely from its being, say, the rth on his list. As he is
supposed to be unable to pronounce any closer to the truth than to
say (suppose) H is more likely than D, D more likely than L, &c.,
the probability of any cause will be the average value of all those
which that probability can have, given simply that it always
occupies the same place on the list of the probabilities arranged in
order of magnitude. As the sum of the n probabilities is always
I, the question reduces to this:
Any whole (such as the number i) is divided at random into n
parts, and the parts are arranged in the order of their magnitude
least, second, third, . . . greatest; this is repeated for the same
whole a great number of times; required the mean value of the
least, of the second, &c., parts, up to that of the greatest.
Let the whole in question be represented by a line AB=o, and
jet it be .divided at random into n parts by taking n i points
indiscriminately on it. Let the required mean values be
Vi, X 2 u, Xjo .... \ n a,
where Xi, X 2 , X, . . . must be constant fractions. As a great number
of positions is taken in AB for each of the n points, we may take
a as representing that number; and the whole number N of cases
will be
N=a"->.
The sum of the least parts, in every case, will be
Si = NXm = Xia".
Let a small increment, B6 = 5a, be added on to the line AB at
the end B; the increase in this sum is &S>i=n\ia n ~ l &a. But,
in dividing the new line Ab, either the n l points all fall on AB
as before, or n 2 fall on AB and i on B6 (the cases where 2 or
more fall on Bb are so few we may neglect them). If all fall on AB,
the least part is always the same as before except when it is the last,
at the end B of the line, and then it is greater than before by io;
as it falls last in n" 1 of the whole number of trials, the increase in
Si is n~ l a'~ l ba. But if one point of division falls on B6, the number
of new cases introduced is (n i)a*~ 1 &a; but, the least part being
now an infinitesimal, the sum Si is not affected; we have therefore
To find Xj, reasoning exactly in the same way, we find that
where one point falls on B6 and n 2 on AB, as the least part is
infinitesimal, the second least part is the least of the n I parts
made by the n2 points; consequently, if we put X/ for the
value of Xi when there are n l parts only, instead of ,
l =~ l "~ l
..nX, = -i + (-i)X,'; but X', = (-!)-*;
.-.nX, = n-> + (n-i)-'.
In the same way we can show generally that
nX, = n~ l + (n i ) X' r _, ;
and thus the required mean value of the rth part is
X r o=an-'ln-'+(-i)- 1 +(n-2)-'+ . . . ( n _ r+ i)-i[.
he places among the " misapplications of the calculus which have
made it the real opprobrium of mathematics " (Logic, Book III,
ch. xviii. 3). Cf. Bertrand, Calcul des probabililes ; Venn, Logic
of Chance, ch. xvi. 5-7; v. Kries, Princtpien der Wahrschcinlich-
keitsrechnung, ch. ix., preface, v., and ch. xiii. 12, 13; Laplace's
general reflections on this matter seem more valuable than his
calculations: " Tant de passions et d'interfits particuliers y me'lent
si souvent leur influence qu'il est impossible de soumettre au calcul
cette probabilite," op. cit. Introduction (Des Choix et decisions des
assemblers).
* As to the possibility of mistake in this respect, see Proctor,
How to play Whist, p. 121.
7 Bertrand, loc. cit.
8 Loc. cit. 43.
PROBABILITY
[METHODS OF CALCULATION
Thus each judge' implicitly assigns the probabilities
L, 1 (L + ! \ , I /i i i , i \ (
*' n \n n i/ ' w \M n i ' n 27 '
to the causes as they stand on his list, beginning from the lowest.
The values assigned for the probability of each alternative cause
may be treated as so many equally authoritative observations
representing a quantity which it is required to determine. Accord-
ing to a general rule given below l the observations are to be added
and divided by their number; but here if we are concerned only
with the relative magnitudes of the probabilities in favour of each
alternative it suffices to compare the sums of the observations. We
thus arrive at Laplace's rule. Add the numbers found on the
different lists for the cause A, for the cause B, and so on; that cause
which has the greatest sum is the most probable.
53. Probability of Future Effects deduced from Causes. Another
class of problems which it is usual to place in a separate category
are those which require that, having ascended from an observed
event to probable causes, we should descend to the probability
of collateral effects. But no new principle is involved in such
problems. The reason may be illustrated by the following modifi-
cation of the problem about digits which was above set 2 to illustrate
the method of deducing the probability of alternative causes.
What is the probability that if to the second digit which contributed
to the effect there described there is added a third digit taken at
random, the sum of the second and third will be greater than 10
(or any other assigned figure)? The probabilities the a posteriori
probabilities derived from the observed event (that the sum of the
first and second digit exceeds 9) each multiplied by 45, of the
alternatives constituted by the different values o, I, 2, . . . 8, 9
of the second figure are written in the first of the subjoined rows.
0123456789
0012345678
O O 2 6 12 2O 30 42 56 72
Below each of these probabilities is written the probability, X 10
that if the corresponding cause existed the effect under consideration
would result. The product of the two probabilities pertaining
to each alternative way of producing the event gives the probability
of the event occurring in that way. The sum of these products
which are written in the third row divided by 45X10, viz. Ii8 = ^r>
is the required probability. It may be expected that actual trial
would verify this result.
54. " Rule of Succession." One case of inferred future effects,
sometimes called the " rule of succession," claims special notice
as having been thought to furnish a test for the cogency of induction.
A white ball has been extracted (with replacement after extraction)
n times from an immense number of black and white balls mixed
in some unknown proportion; what is the probability that at the
(n + i)th trial a white ball will be drawn? It is assumed that
each constitution of the melange 3 formed by the proportion of
white balls (the probability of drawing a white ball), say p, is
a priori as likely to have any one value as another of the series
Ap,2Ap, 3Ap, . . . l2&p, i Ap, i.
Whence a posteriori the probability of any particular value of p
as the cause of the observed recurrence is p"/'Zp n , where p in the
denominator receives every value from Apto i. The probability
that this cause, if it exists, will produce the effect in question,
the extraction of a white ball at the (n + i)th trial, is p. The
probability of the event, obtained by summing the probabilities
of all the different ways in which it may occur, is accordingly
2" +l /2p n , where p both in the numerator and the denominator is
to receive all possible values between A p and i . In the limit we have
= (+ o/ (+2) .
In particular if n = i, the probability that an event which has
been observed once will recur on a second trial is f . These results
are perhaps not so absurd as they have seemed to some critics,
when the principle of " cross-series " 4 is taken into account. Among
authoritjes who seem to attach importance to the rule of succession,
in addition to the classical writers on Probabilities, may be men-
tioned Lotze 6 and Karl Pearson. 6
Section III. Calculation of Expectation.
55. Analogues of Preceding Problems. -This section presents
problems analogous to the preceding. If n balls are extracted
1 Below, pars. 135, 136. A difficulty raised by Cpurnot with
respect to the determination of several quantities which are con-
nected by an equation does not here arise. The system of values
determined for the several causes fulfils by construction the con-
dition that the sum of the values should be equal to unity.
1 Above, par. 44.
* It comes to the same to suppose the total number of balls in the
mixture to be N; and to assume that the number of white balls
is a priori equally likely to have any one of the values I, 2, . . .
N-i, N.
4 Above, par. 5. Logic, bk. ii. ch. ix. 5.
' Grammar of Science, ch. iv. 16. Cf. the article in Mind above
referred to, ix. 234.
from an urn containing black and white balls mixed up in the
proportions p: (ip), each ball being replaced after extraction,
the expected number of white balls in the set of n is by definition
np. 1 It may be instructive to verify the consistency of first prin-
ciples by demonstrating this axiomatic proposition. 8 Consider the
respective probabilities that in the series of n trials there will occur
no white balls, exactly one white ball, exactly two white balls,
and so on, as shown in the following scheme :
No. of white
balls
o,
Corresponding) (
probability. ^
i,
Bl
=fnn(l-#>->
n\
(n-2)!2l
To calculate the expectation of white balls it is proper to multiply
I by the probability that exactly one white ball will occur, 2 by
the probability of two white balls, and so on. We have thus for
the required expectation
. . . +np
=np [(i-
np[(i -p)+p]"- l =np.
The expectation in the case where the balls are not replaced not
similarly axiomatic may be found by approximative formulae. 9
56. Games of Chance. -With reference to the topic which occurred
next under the head of probabilities, a distinction must be drawn
between the number of trials which make it an even chance that all
the faces of a die will not have turned up at least once, and the
number of trials which are made on an average before that event
occurs. We may pass from the probability to expectation in such
cases by means of the following theorem. If i is the number of
trials in which on an average success (such as turning up every
face of a die at least once} is obtained, then s = i+/i+/2+. . . ;
where f, denotes the probability of failing in the first r trials. For
the required expectation is equal to I Xprobability of succeeding
at the first trial + 2 X probability of succeeding at the second
trial +&c. Now the probability of succeeding at the first trial is
i fi ; the probability of succeeding at the second trial (after
failing t the first) is fi(i fa); the probability of succeeding at
the third trial is similarly /z(i /s); and so on. Substituting
these values for the expression for the expectation, we have the
proposition which was to be proved. In the proposed problem
/.-!
Assigning to n in each of these terms, every value from i to oo
we have 6-|/(l f), =30, for the sum of the first set, with corre-
sponding expressions for the sets formed from the following terms.
Whence i = i + 30 30 + 20 V + f = H'7- By parity of
reasoning it is proved that on an average 7fJJ cards 10 must be
dealt before at least one card of every suit has turned up. 11
57. Dominoes are taken at random (with replacement after
each extraction) from the set of the kind described in a preceding
paragraph. 12 What is the difference (irrespective of sign) to be
expected between the two numbers on each domino? The digit 9,
according as it is combined with itself, or any smaller digit, gives
the sum of differences
o + i +2 +... + 9.
The digit 8 combined with itself or any smaller digit gives the sum
of differences + 1+2 + .. .+8 and so on. The sum of
the differences is Sjr. r+l, where r has every integer value
from I to 9 inclusive, = ? 9 3.- . = 165. And the number
of the differences is io-+ 9+8+. . .+2 + 1= 55. There-
fore the required expectation is 165/55=3.
58. Digits taken at Random. The last question is to be distin-
guished from the following. What is the difference (irrespective of
sign) between two digits, taken at random from mathematical
tables, or the expansion of an endless constant like IT? The com-
binations of different digits will now occur twice as often as the
repetitions of the same digit. The sum of the differences may now
be obtained from the consideration that the sum of the positive
differences must be equal to sum of the negative differences when
the null differences are distributed equally between the positive
and the negative set. The sum of the positive set is, as before,
7 See the introductory remarks headed " Description and Division
of the Subject."
8 Cf . above, par. 25.
See Pearson, Phil. Trans. (1895), A.
10 Whitworth, Exercises, No. 502.
u Ibid. No. 504, cf. above, par. 29.
12 Ibid. par. 36.
METHODS OF CALCULATION]
PROBABILITY
385
165. But the denominator of this numerator is not the same as
before, but less by half the number of null differences, that is 5.
.us obtain for the required expectation 165/50 = 3 3.
mple verification o f this prediction may thus be ob-
<l. In a table of logarithms note any two digits so situated as
iford no presumption of close correlation; for instance, in the
of the logarithm of loooQ the digit 7 and in the last
of the logarithm of 10019 the digit 4, and take the difference
i wo, viz. 3, irrespective of sign. Proceed similarly
with the similarly situated pair which form the last places of the
:ithms of 10029 and 10039; for which the difference is I, and
so on. The mean of the differences thus found ought to be approxi-
ty 3-3. Experimenting thus on the last digits of logarithms,
in Buttons tables extending to seven places, from the logarithm
of 10009 to the logarithm of 10909, the writer has found for the
n of 250 differences, 3-2.
Points taken at Random. By parity of reasoning it may be
11 thut if two different milestones are taken at random on a
miles long (there being a stone at the starting-point) their
ice apart is |(n+2).
If instead of finite differences as in the last two problems
the intervals between the numbers or degrees which may be selected
are indefinitely small, we have the theorem that the mean distance
between two points taken at random on a finite straight line is a
third of the length of that straight line.
(o. The fortuitous division of a straight line is happily employed
l>\ Professor Morgan Crofton to exhibit Laplace's method of deter-
mining the worth of several candidates by combining
' the votes of electors. There is a close relation between
this method and the method above given for deter-
' mining the probabilities of several alternatives by
combining the judgments of different judges. 1 But there is this
difference that the several estimates of worth, unlike those of
probability, are not subject to the condition that their sum should
be equal to a constant quantity (unity). The guaesita are now ex-
pectations, not probabilities. Professor Morgan Crofton's version * of
the argument is as follows. Suppose there are n candidates for an
office; each elector is to arrange them in what he believes to be
the order of merit; and we have first to find the numerical value
of the merit he thus implicitly attributes to each candidate. Fixing
on some limit a as the maximum of merit, n arbitrary values less
than a are taken and then arranged in order of magnitude least,
second, third, . . . greatest ; to find the mean value of each.
i
Take a line AB = a, and set off n arbitrary lengths AX, AY,
AZ . . . beginning at A; that is, n points are taken at random in
AB. Now the mean values of AZ, XY, YZ, . . . are all equal;
for if a new point P be taken at random, it is equally likely to be
1st, 2nd, 3rd, &c., in order beginning from A, because out of n + i
points the chance of an assigned one being 1st is (n+i) -1 ; of its
being 2nd (n + i) -1 ;and so on. But the chance of P being 1st
is equal to the mean value of AX divided by AB; of its being
2nd M(XY)-rAB; and so on. Hence the mean value of AX is
w + i)- 1 ; that of AY is 2AB (n + i)" 1 ; and so on. Thus the
mean merit assigned to the several candidates is
oCn + i)- 1 , 2o(n + l)- 1 , 3o(n+i)~ l . . .waf.n+i)- 1 .
Thus the relative merits may be estimated by writing under
the names of the candidates the numbers i, 2, 3, . . . n. The
same being done by each elector, the probability will be in favour
of the candidate who has the greatest sum.
Practically it is to be feared that this plan would not succeed,
because, as Laplace observes, not only are electors swayed by many
considerations independent of the merit of the candidates, but they
would often place low down in their list any candidate whom they
judged a formidable competitor to the one they preferred, thus
giving an unfair advantage to candidates of mediocre merit.
63. This objection is less appropriate to competitive examinations,
to which the method may seem applicable. But there is a more
fundamental objection in this case, if not indeed in every case, to
the reasoning on which the method rests: viz. that there is sup-
posed an a priori distribution of values which is in general not
supposable; viz. that the several estimates of worth, the marks
given to different candidates by the same examiner, are likely to
r evenly the whole of the tract between the minimum and
maximum, e.g. between o and 100. Experience, fortified by theory,
shows that very generally such estimates are not thus indifferently
disposed, but rather in an order which will presently be described
as the normal law of error.* The theorem governing the case
would therefore seem to be not that which is applied by Laplace
and Morgan Crofton, but that which has been investigated by Karl
Pearson, 4 a theorem which does not lend itself so readily to the
purpose in hand.*
1 Above, par. 52.
1 See Edgeworth, " Element*, . ^...c...
Journ. Slat. Soc. (1890). Cf. below, par. 124
1 Loc. cit. 45.
iments of Chance in Examinations,"
x--,-,. -f. below, par. 124.
Biometrika, \. 390.
* Moore, of Columbia University, New York, has attempted to
64. Expectation of Advantage. The general examples of ex-
pectation which have been given may be supplemented by some
appropriate to that special use of the term which Laplace has sanc-
tioned when he considers the subject of expectation as a " good ";
in particular money, or that for the sake of which money is desired,
"moral " advantage, in more modern phrase utility or satisfaction.
65. Pecuniary Advantage. The most important calculations of
pecuniary expectation relate to annuities and insurance; based
largely on life tables from which the expectation of life itself, as well
as of money value at the end, or at any period, of life is predicted.
The reader is referred to these heads for practical exemplifications
of the calculus. It must suffice here to point out how the calcula-
tions are facilitated by the adoption of a .law of frequency, the
Gompertz or the Gompertz-Makeham law, which on the one hand
can hardly be ranked with hypotheses resting on a vera causa, yet
on the other hand is not purely empirical, but is recommended, as
germane to the subject-matter, by colourable suppositions.*
66. There is space here only for one or two simple examples of
money as the subject of expectation. Two persons A and B throw
a die alternately, A beginning, with the understanding that the
one who first throws an ace is to receive a prize of i. What are
their respective expectations? 7 The chance that the prize should
be won at the first throw is J, the chance that it should be won
at the second throw is J j ; at the third throw (|)*J, at the fourth
throw (j) 1 J, and so on. Accordingly the expectation of A
expectation of B
=iXH 1 1 +(&)'+(!)'+. - .1.
XXII. 13
Thus A's expectation is to B's as i : |. But their expectations
must together amount to i. Therefore A's expectation is ft of
a pouud, B's /f.
67. There are n tickets in a bag, numbered i, 2, 3, ... n.
A man draws two tickets at once, and is to receive a number of
sovereigns equal to the product of the numbers drawn. What is
his expectation ? 8 It is the number of pounds divided by an
improper fraction of which the denominator is the number of
possible products, Jn(n i), and the numerator is the sum of all
possible products = i((i +2+3 . . . +n) (i +2 l + . . . + n\.
Whence the required number (of pounds) is found to be ^(n+i)
(3n+2). The result may be contrasted with what it would be
if the two tickets were not to be drawn at once, but the second
after replacement of the first. On this supposition the expectation
in respect of one of the tickets separately is J(n+i). Therefore,
as the two events are now independent, the expectation of the pro-
duct, 9 being the product of the expectations, is ji( + i)| l .
68. Peter throws three coins, Paul two. The one who obtains
the greater number of heads wins i. If the number of heads are
equal, they play again, and so on, until one or other obtains a
greater number of heads. What are their respective expectations? 18
At the first trial there are three alternatives: (o) Peter obtains
more heads than Paul, (fi) an equal number, (y) fewer. The cases
in favour of a are (i) Peter obtains three heads, (2) Peter, two
heads, while Paul one or none, (3) Peter one head, Paul none. The
cases in favour of /3 are (i) two heads for both, or (2) one head, or
(3) none, for both. The remaining case favours y. The probability
of a is t+fj+|l = i. The probability of /3 is fi+fj+ii = /,.
The probability of y is i \% =-f,. Alternative is to be split up
into three o', , y', of which the probabilities (when ft has occurred)
are as before, ff, ft, A. (?' is similarly split up, and so on. Thus
Peter's expectation is i 9 ,l I +A + (i |l j5 > + . . . |i=Ai. Paul's
expectation is -f^l.
An urn contains m balls marked i, 2, 3, . . . m. Paul extracts
successively the m balls, under an agreement to give Peter a shilling
every time that a ball comes out in its proper order. What is
Peter's expectation? The expectation with respect to any one
ball is , and therefore the expectation ; with respect to all is
i (shilling). 11
69. Advantage subjectively estimated. Elaborate calculations are
paradoxically employed by Laplace and other mathematicians
to determine the expectation of subjective advantage in various
cases of risk. The calculation is based on Daniel Bernoulli's
formula which may be written thus: If * denote a man's physical
fortune, and y the corresponding moral fortune
y = k log (*/*),
*, h being constants, x and y are always positive,andx>ft; forevery
trace Karl Pearson's theory in the statistics relating to the
efficiency of wages (Economic Journal, Dec. 1907; and Journ. Slot.
Soc., Dec. 1907).
Cf. below, par. 169.
7 |Whitworth, Choice and Chance, question 126.
' Whitworth, Exercises, No. 567.
9 According to the principle above enounced, par. 15.
1 Bertrand, id. 44, prob. xlvii.
11 Bertrand, id. 39, prob. xliii. It is not to be objected that
the probabilities on which the several expectations are calculated
are not independent (above, par. 16).
S
3 86
PROBABILITY
[GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS
man must possess some fortune, or its equivalent, in order to live. To
estimate now the value of a moral expectation. Suppose a person
whose fortune is a to have the chance p of obtaining a sum o, q of
obtaining /3, r of obtaining 7, &c., and let
P+q+r+ ... =1,
only one of the events being possible. Now his moral expectation
from the first chance that is, the increment of his moral fortune
multiplied by the chance is
= P k log
Hence his whole moral expectation is l
E^kplog (a+a)+kq log(o+0)+*rlog(a+7) + . . . -fcloga;
and, if Y stands for his moral fortune including this expectation,
that is, k log (a/h) + E, we have
\=kp \og(a+a)+kq log(a+0) + . . . -k log h.
To find X, the physical fortune corresponding to this moral one,
we have Y = k log X k log h.
Hence. X = (a+a)P(a+P)<l(a+y)',
and X o will be the actual or physical increase of fortune which
is of the same value to him as his expectation, and which he may
reasonably accept in lieu of it. The mathematical value of the
same expectation is 2
pa+g_P+ry+. . .
70. Gambling and Insurance. These formulae are employed,
often with the aid of refined mathematical theorems, to demonstrate
received propositions of great practical importance: that in general
gambling is disadvantageous, insurance beneficial, and that in
speculative operations it is better to subdivide risks not to " have
all your eggs in one basket."
71. These propositions may be deduced by the use of a formula
which perhaps keeps closer to the facts: viz. that utility or satis-
faction is a function of material goods not definitely ascertainable,
defined only by the conditions that the function continually in-
creases with the increase of the variable, but at a continually
decreasing rate (and some additional postulate as to the lower
limit of the variable), say y = <j/ (x) (if x as before denotes
physical fortune, and y the corresponding utility or satisfaction) ;
where all that is known in general of $ is that ^'(*) is positive, <l/"(x)
is negative; and ^(x) is never less, x is always greater than zero.
Suppose a gambler whose (physical) fortune is a, to have the chance
p of obtaining a sum a and the chance q( = I p) of losing the sum
ft. If the game is fair in the usual sense of the term pa = qf).
Accordingly the prospective psychical advantage of the party is
/V(a+a)+wMa-/3)=iKa+a) + ^{a - (plq)a\, say y*. When
a is zero the expression reduces to the first state of the man,
^(a), say y . To compare this state with what it becomes by the
gambling transaction, let a receive continually small increments
of Aa. When a is zero the first differential coefficient of (ya y<>),
viz. p*l>'(a)fif>'(a),=o. Also the second differential coefficient,
viz. /^"(a)+-^"(a), is negative, since by hypothesis ^* is con-
tinually negative. And as o continues to increase from zero, the second
differential coefficient of (ya >), viz. ^"(a+o)+^'''(a+^a),
continues to be negative. Therefore the increments received by the
first differential coefficient of (ya y<>) are continually negative;
and therefore (ya. y a \ is continually negative; y<t.<y * for finite
values of o (not exceeding qa./p).*
72. To show the advantage of insurance, let us suppose with
Morgan Crofton * that a merchant, whose fortune is represented
by I, will realize a sum if a certain vessel arrives safely. Let
the probability of this be p. To make up exactly for the risk run
by the insurance company, he should pay them a sum (l p)e.
If he does, his moral fortune becomes, according to the formula
now proposed if>(i+pe), since his physical fortune is increased by
the secured sum e, minus the payment (i p)f, while if he does
not insure it will be pi>(l+e) + (l P)'!' (i). We have then to
.compare \Ki +/>). say yi, with pt(i+e) + (ip)<l/(i), say y 2 . By
reasoning analogous to that of the preceding paragraph it appears
that (yiyi) is zero when = o and continually diminishes
as t increases up to any assigned finite (admissible) value. Simi-
larly it may be shown that it is better to expose one's fortune in
a number of separate sums to risks independent of each other than
1 It is important to remark that we should be wrong in thus
adding the expectations if the events were not mutually exclusive.
For the mathematical expectations it is not so.
2 This paragraph is taken from Morgan Crofton's article on
" Probability, in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit.
8 Cf. Marshall, Principles of Economics, Mathematical Appendix,
note ix.
4 Or should we rather say, not exceeding the limit at which
<fr(a.pa/q) becomes o ? (The value of ^(o) may be_ regarded as
oo.) Neither of the proposed limitations materially affects
the validity of the theorem.
6 Loc. cit. par. 25.
to expose the whole to the same danger. Suppose a merchant,
having a fortune, has besides a sum which he must receive if a
ship arrives in safety. Then, if the chance of the ship arriving
= p, and 2 = 1 p, his prospective advantage is pV'(i-(-e)-(-g^ (i).
Now instead of exposing the lump sum to a single risk, let
him subdivide e into n equal parts, each exposed to an inde-
pendent equal risk (q) of being lost. As n is made larger 6 it be-
comes more and more nearly a certainty that he will realize pt out
of the total e exposed to risk. Therefore his condition (in respect
of the sort of advantage which is under consideration) will be approxi-
mately ^(i+p). Then we have to compare ^ (i +/>), say jr lf
with pi}/{i-\-t)-\-g$ (i), say yi. By reasoning analogous to that
which has been above employed observing that (pp*) ^"(i) is
negative for all possible values of p we conclude that ys<yi.
73. The Petersburg Problem. The doctrine of " moral fortune "
was first formulated by Daniel Bernoulli ' with reference to their
celebrated " Petersburg Problem,'' which is thus stated by Tod-
hunter 8 : " A throws a coin in the air: if head appears at the first
throw he is to receive a shilling from B, if head does not appear
until the second throw he is to receive 2s., if head does not appear
until the third throw he is to receive 45., and so on, required the
expectation of A." So many lessons are presented by this problem
that there has been room for disputing what is the lesson. Laplace
and other high authorities follow Daniel Bernoulli. Poisson finds
the explanation in the fact that B could not be expected to pay
up so large a sum. Whitworth, who regards the disadvantage
of gambling as consisting mainly in the danger of becoming " cleaned
out," 9 finds this moral in the Petersburg problem. All have not
noticed what some regard as the principal lesson to be obtained
from the paradox: viz. that a transaction which cannot be regarded
as one of a series at least a " cross-series " 10 is not subject to
the general rule for expectations of advantage whether material
or moral."
Section IV. Geometrical Applications.
74. Under this head occur some interesting illustrations of
principles employed in the preceding sections; in particular of
a priori probabilities and of the relation between probability and
expectation.
75. Illustrations of a priori Probabilities. The assumption which
has been made under preceding heads that the probability of
certain alternatives is approximately equal appears to rest on evi-
dence of much the same character as the assumption which is made
under this head that one point in a line, plane or volume is as likely
to occur as another, under certain circumstances. Thus consider
the proposition: if a given area S is included within a given area A,
the chance of a point P, taken at random on A, falling on S is S/A.
In a great variety of circumstances such a size can be assigned to
the spaces, and " taking at random " can be so defined that the
proposition is more or less directly based on experience. The
fact that the points of incidence are equally distributed in space
is observed, or connected by inference with observation, in many
cases, e.g. raindrops and molecules. There is a solid substratum
of evidence for the premiss employed in the solution of problems
like the following: On a chess-board, on which the side of every
square is a, there is thrown a coin of diameter b(b<a) so as to be
entirely on the board, which may be supposed to have no border.
What is the probability that the coin is entirely on one square? 12
The area on which the coin can fall is (8a 6) 2 . The portion
of the area which is favourable to the event is 64 (a 6) 2 . There-
fore the required probability is (a 6) 2 /(o jb)*.
76. Random Lines. Speculative difficulties recur when we have
to define a straight line taken at random in a plane; for instance,
in the following problem proposed by Buffon. 18
A floor is ruled with equidistant parallel lines; a rod, shorter
than the distance between each pair, being thrown at random on
the floor, to find the chance of its falling on one of the lines. The
problem is usually solved as follows:
Let x be the distance of the centre of the rod from the nearest
line, 9 the inclination of the rod to a perpendicular to the parallels,
2a the common distance of the parallels, 2c the length of rod; then,
as all values of x and 6 between their extreme limits are equally
probable, the whole number of cases will be represented by
2 dxdO=ira.
6 See above, par. 25 (James Bernoulli's theorem).
7 Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis (16), translated
(into German) with notes by Pringsheim (1906).
Op. cit. art. 389.
'Choice and Chance, pp. 211, 232. The danger of a party to
a game of chance being ruined " (by losing more than his whole
fortune), which forms a separate chapter in some treatises, is readily
deducible from the theory of deviations from an average which
will be stated in pt. ii.
10 Above, par. 5. " Above, par. 20.
12 Whitworth, Exercises, No. 500.
18 Cf. Morgan Crofton, loc. cit.
GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS]
PROBABILITY
387
Now if the rod crosses one of the lines we must have c>x/coa 6;
so that the favourable cases will be measured by
P>f
J-*l* Jo
cosS
dx = 2c.
Thus the probability required is p = 2c/ra.
It may be asked why should we take the centre of the rod as
the point where distance from the nearest line has all its values
equally probable? Why not one extremity of the line, or some
other point suited to the circumstances of projection? Fortunately
it makes no difference in the result to what point in the rod we assign
this pre-eminence.
77. The legitimacy of the assumption obtains some verification
from the success of a test suggested by Laplace. If a rod is actually
thrown, as supposed in the problem, a great number of times, and
the frequency with which it falls on one of the parallels is observed,
that proportionate number thus found, say p, furnishes a value
fur the constant T. For T ought to equal 2c/pa. The experiment
l>een made by Professor Wolf of Frankfort. Having thrown
a needle of length 36 mm. on a plane ruled with parallel lines at
;unce from each other of 45 mm. 5000 times, he observed that
the needle crossed a parallel 2532 times. Whence the value of v
:. duced 3-1596, with a probable error 1 =*= -05.
78. More hesitation may be felt when we have to define a random
chord of a circle, 8 for instance, with reference to the question, what
is the probability that a chord taken at random will be greater
than the side of an equilateral triangle? For some purposes
it would no doubt be proper to assume that the chord is con-
structed by taking any point on the circumference and joining
it to another point on the circumference, the points from which
one is taken at random being distributed at equal intervals around
the circumference. On this understanding the probability in
question would be J. But in other connexions, for instance, if
the chord is obtained by the intersection with the circle of a rod
thrown in random fashion, it seems preferable to consider the chord
as a case of a straight line falling at random on a plane. Morgan
ion 3 himself gives the following definition of such a line:
If an infinite number of straight lines be drawn at random in a
plane, there will be as many parallel to any given direction as to
any other, all directions being equally probable; also those having
any given direction will be disposed with equal frequency all over
the plane. Hence, if a line be determined by the co-ordinates p, a,
the perpendicular on it from a fixed origin O, and the inclination
of that perpendicular to a fixed axis, then, if p, <a be made to vary
by equal infinitesimal increments, the series of lines so given will
represent the entire series of random straight lines. Thus the
number of lines for which p falls between p and p-\-dp, and u
between a and u+du, will be measured by dpdw, and the integral
fjdpda, between any limits, measures the number of lines within
those limits.
79. Authoritative and useful as this definition is, it is not en-
tirely free from difficulty. It amounts to this, that if we write
the equation of the random line
x cos a-fy sin o p = o,
we ought to take a and p as those rariables, of which the equi-
crescent values are equally probable the equiprobable variables,
may say. But might we not also write the equation in either
of the following forms
(0 x/a+y/b-i=o,
ax+by l=o,
and take a and b in either system as the equiprobable variables?
To be sure, if the equal distribution of probabilities is extended
to infinity we shall be landed in the absurdity that of the random
lines passing through any point on the axis of y a proportion differ-
ing infinitesimally from unity 100% are either (l) parallel or
(2) perpendicular to the axis of x. But the admission of infinite
values will render any scheme for the equal distribution of proba-
bilities absurd. If Professor Crofton's constant p, for example,
becomes infinite, the origin being thus placed at an infinite distance,
all the random chords intersecting a finite circle would be parallel!
80. However this may be, Professor Crofton's conception has
the distinction of leading to a series of interesting propositions,
of which specimens are here subjoined. 4 The number of random
lines which meet any closed convex contour of length L is measured
by L. For, taking O inside the contour, and integrating first for
p, from o to p, the perpendicular on the tangent to the contour,
we have y#A; taking this through four right angles for , we have
1 As recorded by Czuber, Geomelrische Wahrscheinlichkeiten,
p. 90.
1 Cf. Bertrand, Calcul des probabilitfs, pp. 4 seq. The matter has
been much discussed in the Educational Times. See Mathematical
Questions . . . from the Educational Times [a reprint], xxix. 17-20,
containing references to earlier discussions, e.g. x. 33 (by Woolhouse).
1 Loc. cit. 75.
4 The whole of p. 787 of Morgan Crofton's article is often
referred to, and parts of pp. 786, 788 are transferred here.
by Legendre's theorem on rectification, N being the measure of
the number of lines,
Thus, if a random line meet a given contour, of length L, the
chance of its meeting another convex contour, of length /, internal
to the former is p = l/L. If the given contour be not convex,
or not closed, N will evidently be the length of an endless string,
drawn tight around the contour.
81. If a random line meet a closed convex contour of length L,
the chance of it meeting
another such contour, ex-
ternal to the former, is * =
(X Y)/L, where X is the
length of an endless band
enveloping both contours,
and crossing between them,
and Y that of a band also
enveloping both, but not
crossing. This may be
shown by~means of Legen-
dre's integral above; or as
follows :
FIG. i.
Call, for shortness, N(A) the number of lines meeting an area
A; N(A, A') the number which meet both A and A'; then (fig. i)
N(SROQPH)+N(S'Q'OR'P'H') = N(SROQPH+ S'Q'OR'P'H')
+N(SROQPH, S'Q'OR'P'H'),
since in the first member each line meeting both areas is counted
twice. But the number of lines meeting the non-convex figure
consisting of OQPHSR and OQ'S'H'P'R' is equal to the band Y,
and the number meeting both these areas is identical with that of
those meeting the given areas Q, tt'; hence X = Y+N(Q, a').
Thus the number meeting both the given areas is measured by
X Y. Hence the theorem follows.
82. Two random chords cross a given convex boundary, of length
L, and area Q; to find the chance that their intersection falls
inside the boundary.
Consider the first chord in any position; let C be its length;
considering it as a closed area, the chance of the second chord
meeting it is 2C/L ; and the whole chance of its coordinates falling
in dp, du and of the second chord meeting it in that position is
2C dpdu
But the whole chance is the sum of these chances for all its positions ;
. ' . prob. =2
Now, for a given value of u, the value of fCdp is evidently the
area D; then, taking a from r to o, we have
required probability = 2TQL" 2 .
The mean value of a chord drawn at random'across the boundary
M
JfCdpd*^
Jfdpdw "L"
83. A straight band of breadth c being'traced on a floor, and a
circle of radius r thrown on it at random; to find the mean area of
the band which is covered by the circle. (The cases are omitted
where the circle falls outside the band.)'
If S be the space covered, the chance of a random point on the
circle falling on the band is p = M (Sj/xr 1 , this is the same as
5 This result also follows by considering that, if an infinite plane
be covered by an infinity of lines drawn at random, it is evident
that the number of these which meet a given finite straight line
is proportional to its length, and is the same whatever be its position.
Hence, if we take / the length of the line as the measure of this
number, the number of random lines which cut any element ds of
the contour is measured by ds, and the number which meet the con-
tour is therefore measured by iL, half the length of the boundary.
If we take 2/ as the measure for the line, the measure for the contour
will be L, as above. Of course we have to remember that each
line must meet the contour twice. It would be possible to rectify
any closed curve by means of this principle. Suppose it traced
on the surface of a circular disk, of circumference L, and the disk
thrown a great number of times on a system of parallel lines, whose
distance asunder equals the diameter, if we count the number
of cases in which the closed curve meets one of the parallels, the
ratio of this number to the whole number of trials will be ultimately
the ratio of the circumference of the curve to that of the circle.
[Morgan Crofton's note.]
1 Or the floor may be supposed painted with parallel bands, at
a distance asunder equal to the diameter; so that the circle must
fall on one.
3 88
PROBABILITY
[GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS
if the circle were fixed, and the band thrown on it at random.
Now let A (fig. 2) be a position of the random point; the
favourable cases are when HK, the bisector of the band, meets a circle,
centre A, radius \c\ and the whole number are when HK meets
a circle, centre O, radius r -\-\c\ hence the probability is
2w(r + jc) ~2r + c
This is constant for all positions of
A ; hence, equating these two values of
p, the mean value required is M(S)
The mean value of the portion of
the circumference which falls on the band
is the same fraction c/(2r+c) of the
whole circumference.
If any convex area whose surface is
fi and circumference L be thrown on
the band, instead of a circle, the mean
PIG. 2. area covered is
For as before, fixing the random point at A, the chance of a
random point in Q falling on the band is p = 2ir. Jc/L', where L'
is the perimeter of a parallel curve to L, at a normal distance \c
from it. Now
FIG. 3.
84. Buffon's problem may be easily deduced in a similar manner.
Thus, if 2r = length of line, a = distance between
the parallels, and we conceive a circle (fig. 3) of
diameter a with its centre at the middle O of the
line, 1 rigidly attached to the latter, and thrown
with it on the parallels, this circle must meet one
of the parallels; if it be thrown an infinite number
of times we shall thus have an infinite number of
chords crossing it at random. Their number is
measured by 2w.%a, and the number which meet
2r is measured by \r. Hence the chance that the line 2r meets one
of the parallels is p = 4r/ira.
85. To investigate the probability that the inclination of the line
joining any two points in a given convex area 2 shall lie within
given limits. We give here a method of
reducing this question to calculation, for
the sake of an integral to which it
leads, and which is not easy to deduce
otherwise.
First let one of the points A (fig.
be fixed ; draw through it a chord PQ =
at an inclination to some fixed line; put
AP r, AQ = r'; then the number of
cases for which the direction of the line
joining A and B lies between 8 and -\-dd
is measured by i(r 2 +r' 2 )<#.
Now let A range over the space between PQ and a parallel chord
distant dp from it, the number of cases for which A lies in this
space and the direction of AB from 8 to 6+dO is (first consider-
ing A to lie in the element drdp)
fi
FIG. 4.
Let p be the perpendicular on C from a given origin O, and
let w be the inclination of p (we may put da for d9), C will be a
given function of p, co; and, integrating first for o> constant, the
whole number of cases for which w falls between given limits u', w" is
the integral JC*dp being taken for all positions of C between two
tangents to the boundary parallel to PQ. The question is thus
reduced to the evaluation of this double integral, which, of course,
is generally difficult enough; we may, however, deduce from it a
remarkable result; for, if the integral \JfC s dpd<a be extended to
all possible positions of C, it gives the whole number of pairs of
positions of the points A, B which lie inside the area; but this
number is Q 2 ; hence
the integration extending to all possible positions of the chord C,
its length being a given function of its co-ordinates p , w. 2
1 The line might be anywhere within the circle without altering
the question.
'This integral was given by Morgan Crofton in the Comptes
rendus (1869), p. 1469. An analytical proof was given by Serret,
Annales scient. de I'ecole normale (1869), p. 177.
FIG. 5.
COR. Hence if L, n be the perimeter and area of any closed
convex contour, the mean value of the
cube of a chord drawn across it at random
is 3fl 2 /L.
86. Let there be any two convex boun-
daries (fig. S) so related that a tangent at
any point V to the inner cuts off a constant
segment S from the outer (e.g. two concentric
similar ellipses) ; let the annular area between
them be called A; from a point X taken at
random on this annulus draw tangents XA,
XB to the inner. The mean value of the
arc AB, M(AB) = LS/A, L being the whole
length of the inner curve ABV.
The following lemma will first be proved :
If there be any convex arc AB (fig. 6), and if NI be (the measure
of) the number of random lines which meet
it once, N 2 the number which meet it
twice, ----- ------------ 1
2 arc AB = Ni+2N 2 .
For draw the chord AB; the number of
lines meeting the convex figure so formed is Ni+N2 = arc+chord
'(the perimeter); but NI = number of lines meeting the chord =
2 chord;
.'. 2 arc + NI = 2N 2 + 2N 2 , .'. 2 arc = Ni+2N 2 .
Now fix the point X, in fig. 5, and draw XA, XB. If a random
line cross the boundary L, and pi be the
probability that it meets the arc AB once,
p2 that it does so twice,
VIS
*d
FIG. 6.
and if the point X range all over the
annulus, and pi, p 2 are the same probabilities
for all positions of X,
Let now IK (fig. 7) be any position of
the random line; drawing tangents at I, K, FlG. 7-
it is easy to see that it will cut the arc AB twice when X is in the
space marked a, and once when X is in either space marked 0;
hence, for this position of the line, i+2/> 2 = 2(a-HJ)/A =2S/A,
which is constant; hence M(AB)/L = S/A.
Hence the mean value of the arc is the same fraction of the peri-
meter that the constant area S is of the annulus.
If L be not related as above to the outer boundary, M(AB)/L =
M(S)/A, M(S) being the mean area of the segment cut off by a
tangent at a random point on the perimeter L.
The above result may be expressed as an integral. If .s be the
arc AB included by tangents from any point (x, y) on the annulus,
ffsdxdylS.
It has been shown (Phil. Trans., 1868, p. 191) that, if 8 be the
angle between the tangents XA, XB,
ffedxdy=*(A-2S).
The mean value of the tangent XA or XB may be shown to be
M(XA) = SP/2A, where P = perimeter of locus of centre of gravity
of the segment S.
87. When we go on to species of three dimensions further specu-
lative difficulties occur. How is a random line through a given
point to be defined ? Since it is usual to define a vector by two
angles (viz. <t> the angle made with the axis X by a vector r in the
plane XY, and 8 (or JTT 8) the angle made by the vector p with r
in the plane containing both p and r and the axis Z) it seems natural
to treat the angles <f and 8 as the equiprobable variables. In other
words, if we take at random any meridian on the celestial globe
and combine it with any right ascension the vector joining the centre
to the point thus assigned is a random line. 3 It is possible that
for some purposes this conception may be appropriate. For many
purposes surely it is proper to assume a more symmetrical distribu-
tion of the terminal points on the surface of a sphere, a distribution
such that each element of the surface shall contain an approxi-
mately equal number of points. Such an assumption is usually
made in the kinetic theory of molecules with respect to the direction
of the line joining the centres of two colliding spheres in a " mole-
cular chaos." 4 It is safe to say with Czuber, No discussion can
remove indeterminateness." Let us hope with him that " though
this branch of probability can for the present claim only a theoretic
interest, in the future it will perhaps also lead to practical results." 1
88. Illustrations of probability awrf expectation. The close relation
between probability and expectation is well illustrated by geo-
metrical examples. As above stated, when a given space S is
included within a given space A, if p is the probability that a point
Cf. Bertrand, op. cit. 135.
4 See e.g. Watson, Kinetic Theory of Casts, p. 2 ; Tait, Trans.
Roy. Soc., Edin. (1888), xxxiii. 68.
6 Wahrscheinlichkeitslheorie, p. 64.
GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS]
PROBABILITY
P, taken at random on A, falling on S, * = S/A. If now the
space S be variable, and M(S) be its mean value
For, if we suppose S to have n equally probable values Si, Si,
Sj . . ., the chance of any one Si being taken, and of P falling
on Si, is
now the whole probability p=pi+Pt+pi-\- . . . , which leads
at once to the above expression. The chance of two points falling
on S is, in the same way,
id so on.
In such a case, if the probability be known, the mean value
follows, and vice versa. Thus, we might find the mean value of the
th power of the distance XY between two points taken at random
in a line of length /, by considering the cnance that, if n more
points are so taken, they shall all fall between X and Y. This
chance is
for the chance that X shall be one of the extreme points, out of
the whole (n-f-2), is 2(n+2)~ l ; and, if it is, the chance that the
other extreme point is Y is (n+l)~*. Therefore
A line / is divided into n segments by n i points taken at ran-
dom; to find the mean value of the product of the segments.
Let a, b, c, ... be the segments in one particular case. If n
new points are taken at rancfom in the line, the chance that one
falls on each segment is
1.2.3 nabc . . . II";
hence the chance that this occurs, however the line is divided, is
Now the whole number of different orders in which the whole
2 i points may occur is (2n i)!; out of these the number in
which one of the first series falls between every two of the second
is easily found by the theory of permutations to be n\(n \)\.
Hence the required mean value of the product is
89. Additional examples of the relation between probability
and expectation appear in the following scries of propositions:
(i) If M be the mean value of any quantity depending on the
positions of two points (e.g. their distance) which are taken, one
in ;i space A, the other in a space B (external to A) ; and if M' be
the same mean when both points are taken indiscriminately in the
whole space A + B; M a , Mi, the same mean when both points are
taken in A and both in B respectively ; then
(A+B)'M'=2ABM+A 2 M a -r-B'M 6 .
If the space A = B, 4M' = 2M+M + Mj,; if, also, M = M&,
then 2M' = M+M a .
(2) The mean distance of a point P within a given area from a
fixed straight line (which does not meet the area) is evidently the
distance of the centre of gravity G of the area from the line. Thus,
if A, B are two fixed points on a line outside the area, the mean
value of the area of the triangle APB = the triangle AGB. From
this it will follow that, if X, Y, Z are three points taken at random
in three given spaces on a plane (such that they cannot all be cut
by any straight line), the mean value of the area of the triangle
XYZ is the triangle GG'G", determined by the three centres cf
gravity of the spaces.
(3) This proposition is of use in the solution of the following
problem :
Two points X, Y are taken at random within a triangle. What
is the mean area M of the triangle XYC, formed by joining them
with one of the angles of the triangle?
Bisect the triangle by the line CD; let MI be the mean value
when both points fall in the triangle ACD, and M 2 the value when
one falls in ACD and the other in BCD; then 2M=Mi + M.
But Mi = JM; and M 2 = GG'C, where G, G' are the centres of
gravity of ACD, BCD ; hence M 2 = JABC, and M = jSABC.
(4) From this mean value we pass to probabilities. The chance
that a new point Z falls on the triangle XYC is jV and the chance
that three points X, Y, Z taken at random form, with a vertex C, a
re-entrant quadrilateral, is f.
90. The calculation of geometrical probability and expectation
U much facilitated by the following general principle: If M be a
mean value depending on the positions of n points falling on a
space A; and if this space receive a small increment a, and M' be
the same mean when the n points are taken on A + o, and M the
same mean when one point falls on a and the remaining n I on
A; then, the sum of all the cases being M'(A+ o)", and this sum
consisting of the cases (i) when all the points are on A, (2) when one
is on a the others on A (as we piay neglect all where two or more
fall on a), we have
M'(A+o)" = MA"-fnMio"~ l ;
.-.(M'-M)A=nA(M,-M),
as M' nearly = M. For example, suppose two points X, Y are
taken in a line of length /, to find the mean value M of (XY)". If
/ receives an increment dl, IdM =2dl(Mi M). Now MI here =
the mean nth power of the distance of a single point taken at
random in / from one extremity of /; and this is /"(n + i) * (as is
shown by finding the chance of n other points falling on that dis-
tance) ; hence
l~ l .d. MP = 2 (n + i )-'/<#:
C being evidently o.
91. The corresponding principle for probabilities may thus be
stated : If p is the probability of a certain condition being satisfied
by the n points within A in art. 90, p' the same probability when
they fall on the space A+a, and p' the same when one point falls
on o and the rest on A, then, since the numbers of favourable cases
are respectively p'(A+o), p\ n , np t aA n ~ l , we find
Hence if p' = p then pi=p. For example, if we have to find
the chance of three points within a circle forming an acute-angled
triangle, by adding an infinitesimal concentric ring to the circle,
we have evidently p' = p\ hence the required chance is unaltered
by assuming one of the three points taken on the circumference.
Again, in finding the chance that four points within a triangle
shall form a convex quadri-
lateral, if we add to the triangle
a small band between the base
and a line parallel to it, the
chance is clearly unaltered.
Therefore we may take one of
the points at random on the
base (fig. 8), the others X,
Y, Z within the triangle. Now
the four lines from the vertex
B to the four points are as
likely to occur in any speci- jj yj c
fied order as any other. c, r a
Hence it is an even chance
that X, Y, Z fall on one of the triangles ABW, CBW, or that
two fall on one of these triangles and the remaining one on the
other. Hence the probability of a re-entrant quadrilateral is
where p l =prob. (WXYZ re-entrant), X, Y, Z in one triangle;
PJ= do., X in one triangle, Y in the
other, Z in either.
But />i=|. Now to find >; the chance of Z falling within the
triangle WXY is the mean area of WXY divided by ABC. Now
by par. 89, for any particular position of W, M(WXY)=\VGG',
where G, G' are the centres of gravity of ABW, CBW. It is easy
to see that WGG' = JABC = i, putting ABC = l. Now if Z
falls in CBW, the chance of WXYZ re-entrant is 2M(IYW), for Y
is as likely to fall in WXZ as Z to fall in WXY; also if Z falls in
ABW the chance of WXYZ re-entrant is 2M(IXW). Thus the
whole chance is p 2 = 2M(IYW + IXW) = i- Hence the proba-
bility of a re-entrant quadrilateral is
M+M-t.
That of its being convex is f.
From this probability we may pass to the mean value of
and
92.
the area XYZ, if M be" this mean,
the chance of a fourth point falling on
the triangle is M/A; and the chance of a
re-entrant quadrilateral is four times this,
or 4M/A. This chance has just been
shown to be J; and accordingly M = ^j A.
_ 93. The preceding problem is a par-
ticular case of a more general problem
investigated by Sylvester. For another
instance, let the given area A be a
circle; within such three points are
taken at random; 'and let M be the
mean value of the triangle thus formed.
Adding a concentric ring o, we have since M':
of the circles, M' = M(A+a)/A.
AMo/A=3a(M,-M); .-.M = iM,,
where M t is the value of M when one of the points is on the cir-
cumference. Take O fixed; we have to find the mean value of
OXY (fig. 9). Taking (p, 6)(p', 6') as co-ordinates of X, Y,
(OXY).
,,
M as the
areas
.M,=(,r<a')-;/#7jpp' sin (e-
39
PROBABILITY
[AVERAGES
putting r = OH, r' = OK; as r = 2a sin 6, r' = 20, sin 0',
i ao
TTtl* 9
Professor Sylvester has remarked that this double integral, by
means of the theorem
( a -y> a-x)dxdy,
is easily shown to be identical with
2 f" f* sinV sin0' cos O'dSdB' -if si ' Z ' '
Jo JO J
ir.
4'D-O
From this mean value we pass to the probability that four points
within a circle shall form a re-entrant figure, viz.
* I27T 2
94. The function of expectation in this class of problem appears
to afford an additional justification of the position here assigned
to this conception 1 as distinguished from an average in the more
general sense which is proper to the following Part.
PART II. AVERAGES AND LAWS OF ERROR
95. Averages. An average may be defined as a quantity
derived from a given set of quantities by a process such that,
if the constituents become all equal, 'the average will coincide
with the constituents, and the constituents not being equal,
the average is greater than the least and less than the greatest
of the constituents. For example, if Xi,Xt, . . . *n are the con-
stituents, the following expressions form averages (called respect-
ively the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means):
(x l X xi X . . . X x n )l.
The conditions of an average are likewise satisfied by innumer-
able other symmetrical functions, for example:
r.\ i.
The conception may be extended from symmetrical to unsym-
metrical functions by supposing any one or more of the constitu-
ents in the former to be repeated several times. Thus if in the
first of the averages above instanced (the arithmetic mean) the
constituent x r , occurs I times, the expression is to be modified
by putting lx r for x r in the numerator, and in the denominator,
for n, n+r-i. The definition of an average covers a still wider
field. The process employed need not be a function? One of
the most important averages is formed by arranging the con-
stituents in the order of magnitude and taking for the average
a value which has as many constituents above it as below it,
the median. The designation is also extended to that value
about which the greatest number of the constituents cluster most
closely, the " centre of greatest density," or (with reference to
the geometrical representation of the grouping of the constitu-
ents) the greatest ordinate, or, as recurring most frequently,
the mode. 3 But to comply with the definition there must be
added the condition that the mode does not occur at either
extremity of the range between the greatest and the least of the
constituents. There should be also in general added a definition
of the process by which the mode is derived from the given
constituents. 4 Perhaps this specification may be dispensed
1 See introductory remarks and note to par. 95.
1 A great variety of (functional) averages, including those which
are best known, are comprehended in the following general form
^"'(MK^Xi), <t>(xi), . . . <l>(xn)]\', where <i> is an arbitrary function,
<t>~ 1 is inverse (such that ^"'(^M) x), M is any (functional)
mean. When M denotes the arithmetic mean; if <t>(x) =
log x (<t>~ 1 (x)^e t ) we have the geometric mean; if <f>(x) = i/x,
we have the harmonic mean. Of this whole class of averages it
is true that the average of several averages is equal to the average
of all their constituents.
1 This convenient term was introduced by Karl Pearson.
4 E.g. some specified method of smoothing the given statistics.
with when the number of the constituents is indefinitely large.
For then it may be presumed that any method of determining
the mode will lead to the same result. This presumption pre-
supposes that the constituents are quantities of the kind which
form the sort of " series " which is proper to Probabilities. 5 A
similar presupposition is to be made with respect to the con-
stituents of the other averages, so far as they are objects of
probabilities.
96. The Law of Error. Of the propositions respecting
average with which Probabilities is concerned the most important
are those which deal with the relation of the average to its con-
stituents, and are commonly called " laws of error." Error is
defined in popular dictionaries as " deviation from truth " ;
and since truth commonly lies in a mean, while measurements
are some too large and some too small, the term in scientific
diction is extended to deviations of statistics from their average,
even when that average like the mean of human or barometric
heights does not stand for any real objective thing. A " law
of error" is a relation between the extent of a deviation and the
frequency with which it occurs: for instance, the proposition
that if a digit is taken at random from mathematical tables, the
difference between that figure and the mean of the whole series
(indefinitely prolonged) of figures so obtained, namely, 4-5, will
in the long run prove to be equally ofteno-5, 1-5,^=2- 5,^3- 5,
4.5.6 The assignment of frequency to discrete values as o,
i, 2, &c., in the preceding example is often replaced by a
continuous curve with a corresponding equation. The distinc-
tion of being the law of error is bestowed on a function which is
applicable not merely to one sort of statistics such as the digits
above instanced but to the great variety of miscellaneous
groups, generally at least, if not universally. What form is
most deserving of this distinction is not decided by uniform
usage; different authorities do not attach the same weight to
the different grounds on which the claim is based, namely the
extent of cases to which the law may be applicable, the closeness
of the application, and the presumption prior to specific experi-
ence in favour of the law. The term " the law of error " is here
employed to denote (i) a species to which the title belongs by
universal usage, (2) a wider class in favour of which there is the
same sort of a priori presumption as that which is held to justify
the more familiar species. The law of error thus understood
forms the subject of the first section below.
97. Laws of Frequency. What other laws of error may
require notice are included in the wider genus " laws of fre-
quency," which forms the subject of the second section. Laws
of frequency, so far as they belong to the domain of Probabilities,
relate much to the same sort of grouped statistics as laws of
error, but do not, like them, connote an explicit reference to an
average. Thus the sequence of random digits above instanced
as affording a law of error, considered without reference to the
mean value, presents the law of frequency that one digit occurs as
often as another (in the long run). Every law of error is a law
of frequency; but the converse is not true. For example, it is a
law of frequency discovered by Professor Pareto 7 that the
number of incomes of different size (above a certain size) is
approximately represented by the equation y=A./x, where x
denotes the size of an income, y the number of incomes of that
size. But whether this generalization can be construed as a law
of error( in the sense here defined) depends on the nice inquiry
whether the point from which the frequency diminishes as the
income x increases can be regarded as a " mode," y diminishing
as x decreases from that point.
6 See above, pt. i., pars. 3 and 4. Accordingly the expected
value of the sum of n (similar) constituents (xi+xi+. . . + x a )
may be regarded as an average, the average value of nxr where
XT is any one of the constituents.
6 See as to the fact and the evidence for it, Venn, Logic of Chance,
3rd ed., pp. in, 114. Cf. Ency. Brit., 8th ed., art " Probability,"
p. 592; Bertrand, op. cit., preface ii. ; above, par. 59.
7 See his Cours d'econoime politique, ii. 306. Cf. Bowley, Evidence
before the Select Committee on Income Tax (1906, No. 365, Question
1163 seq.); Benini, Metodologica statistica, p. 324, referred to in
the Journ. Slot. Soc. (March, 1909).
LAWS OF ERROR]
PROBABILITY
39 1
Section I. The Law of Error.
98. (i) The Normal Law of Error. The simplest and best recog-
nized statement of the law of error, often called the " normal
law," is the equation
z--
^
more conveniently written (i/Virc) exp (x )*/*! . where x
is the magnitude of an observation or " statistic," z is the pro-
portional frequency of observations measuring x, a is the arithmetic
mean of the group (supposed indefinitely 1 multiplied) of similar
statistics : c is a constant sometimes called the " modulus" 1
proper to the group; and the equation signifies that if any large
number N of such a group is taken at random, the number of
observations between x and x + AX is (approximately) equal to
the right-hand side of the equation multiplied by NAX. _ A
graphical representation of the corresponding curve sometimes
railed the " probability-curve " is here given (fig. 10), showing
the general shape of the curve, and how its dimensions vary with
the magnitude of the modulus c. The area being constant (viz.
unity), the curve is furled up when c is small, spread out when c
ige. There is added a table of integrals, corresponding to
areas subtended by the curve; in a form suited for calculations
of probability, the variable, T, being the length of the abscissa
referred to (divided by) the modulus. 3 It may be noted that the
points of inflexion in the figure are each at a distance from the
origin of I/V2 modulus, a distance equal to the square foot of
the mean square of error often called the " standard deviation."
Another notable value of the abscissa is that which divides the area
on either side of the origin into two equal parts; commonly called
the " probable error." The value of T which corresponds to this
point is 0-4769. . . .
FIG. 10.
99. An a priori proof of this law was given by Herschel 4 as
follows: " The probability of an error depends solely on its magni-
tude and not on its direction;" positive and negative
errors are equally probable. " Suppose a ball dropped
from a given height with the intention that it should
fall on a given mark," errors in all directions are equally probable,
and errors in perpendicular directions are independent. Accord-
ingly the required law, " which must necessarily be general and
apply alike in all cases, since the causes of error are supposed alike
unknown," 5 is for one dimension of the form <(**), for two dimcn-
1 On this conception see below, par. 122.
'E.g. in the article on " Probability " in the 9th_ed._of the Ency.
Brit.; also by Airy and other authorities. Bravais, in his article
Sur la probabilite ties erreurs. ..." Memoires presentes par clivers
savants " (1846), p. 257, takes as the " modulus or parameter "_the
inverse square of our c. Doubtless different parameters are suited
to different purposes and contexts; c when we consult the common
tables, and in connexion with the operator, as below, par. 160;
k( = Je 3 ) when we investigate the formation of the probability-curve
out of independent elements (below, par. 104); A( = I/C J ) when we
are concerned with weights or precisions (below, par. 134). If one
form of the coefficient must be uniformly adhered to, probably,
ff( = c'V2), for which Professor Pearson expresses a preference,
appears the best. It is called by him the " standard deviation."
* Fuller tables are to be found in many accessible treatises.
Burgess's tables in the Trans, of the Edin. Roy. 5oc._ for_ 1900 are
carried to a high degree of accuracy. Thorndike, in his Mental
and Social Measurements, gives, among other useful tables, one
referred to the standard deviation as the argument. New tables
of the probability integral are given by W. F. Sheppard, Biometrics,
ii. 174 seq.
4 Edinburgh Review (1850), xcii. 19.
'The italics are in the original. The passage continues: " And
T
I
T
I
T
I
T
1
O'OO
o-ooooo
2
22270
3
93401
24
99931
01
01128
3
32863
4
95229
25
99959
02
02256
'4
42839
5
966II
26
99976
3
03384
5
52050
6
97635
27
99986
04
04511
6
60386
7
98379
28
99992
f>5
05637
7
67780
8
98909
2-9
99996
06
06762
8
74210
9
99279
3-o
99998
07
07886
9
79691
2-0
99532
oo
I -OOOOO
08
09008
i-o
84270
2-1
99702
09
10128
i i
88020
2 '2
WI4
i
11246
1-2
9I03I
2'3
99886
sions <t>(x?+y*); and <t> (x 1 + y) SB 4, (*) X ^(y) ; a functional
equation of which the solution is the function above written.
A reason which satisfied Herschel is entitled to attention, especially
if it is endorsed by Thomson and Tait. 4 But it must be confessed
that the claim to universality is not, without some strain of inter-
pretation, 7 to be reconciled with common experience.
Table of the Valves of the Integral I =TJ Q
100. There is, however, one class of phenomena to which Herschel's
reasoning applies without reservation. In a " molecular chaos," such
as the received kinetic theory of gases postulates, if a molecule be
placed at rest at a given point and the distance which it travels
from that point in a given time, driven hither and thither by collid-
ing molecules, is regarded as an " error," it may be presumed that
errors in all directions are equally probable and errors in perpen-
dicular directions are independent. It is remarkable that a similar
presumption with respect to the velocities of the molecules was
employed by Clerk Maxwell, in his first approach to the theory
of molecular motion, to establish the law of error in that region.
101. The Laplace-Quetelet Hypottesis. That presumption has,
indeed, not received general assent ; and the law of error appears to
be better rested on a proof which was originated by Laplace. Accord-
ing to this view, the normal law of error is a first approximation
to the frequency with which different values are apt to be assumed
by a \ariable magnitude dependent on a great number of inde-
pendent variables, each of which assumes different values in random
fashion over a limited range, according to a law of error, not in
general the law, nor in general the same for each variable._ The
normal law prevails in nature because it often happens in the
world of atoms, in organic and in social lite that things depend
on a number of independent agencies. Laplace, indeed, appears
to have applied the mathematical principle on which this explana-
tion depends only to examples (of the law of error) artificially
generated by the process of taking averages. The merit of account-
ing for the prevalence of the law in rerum natura belongs rather
to Quetelet. He, however, employed too simple a formula 8 for
the action of the causes. The hypothesis seems first to have been
stated in all its generality both of mathematical theory and statistical
exemplification by Glaisher.'
102. The validity of the explanation may best be tested by first
(A) deducing the law of error from the condition of numerous
independent causes; and (B) showing that the law is ..._..
adequately fulfilled in a variety of concrete cases, in ( > ~*
which the condition is probably present. The con- !"
dition may be supposed to be perfectly fulfilled in games freticul
of chance, or, more generally, sortitions, characterized by Coaa f.
the circumstance that we have a knowledge prior to tioas
specific experience of the proportion of what Laplace
calls favourable cases 10 to all cases a category which includes,
for instance, the distribution of digits obtained by random extracts
from mathematical tables, as well as the distribution of the numbers
of points on dominoes.
103. The genesis of the law of error is most clearly illustrated by
the simplest sort of " game," that in which the sortition is between
two alternatives, heads or tails, hearts or not-hearts, or, gener-
ally, success or failure, the probability of a success being p and
that of a failure q, where + <?= I. The number of
such successes in the course of n trials may be con-
sidered as an aggregate made up of n independently
varying elements, each of which assumes the values o or I with
respective frequency q and p. The frequency of each value of the
g ameso t
a(x
it is on this ignorance, and not on any peculiarity in cases, that
the idea of probability in the abstract is formed." Cf. above,
par. 6.
* Natural Philosophy, pt. i. art. 391. For other a priori proofs
see Czuber, Theorie der Beobachtungsfehler, th. i.
7 Cf. note to par. 127.
8 He considered the effect as the sum of causes each of which
obeys the simplest law of frequency, the symmetrical binomial.
Memoirs of Astronomical Society (1878), p. 105. Cf. Morgan
Crofton, " On the Law of Errors of Observation," Trans. Roy. Soc.
(1870), vol. clx. pt. i. p. 178.
10 Above, par. 2.
392
PROBABILITY
[LAWS OF ERROR
aggregate is given by a corresponding term in the expansion of
(l+P)< and by a well-known theorem ' this term is approximately
i t T -v*/2npq
, f, e where v is the number of integers
by which the term is distant from np (or an integer close to np) ;
provided that v is of (cr <) the order V- Graphically, let the
sortition made for each element be represented by the taking or
not taking with respective frequency p and q a step of length i.
If a body starting from zero takes successively n such steps, the
point at which it will most probably come to a stop is at npi
(measured from zero) ; the probability of its stopping at any neigh-
bouring point within a range of =>= Vi is given by the above-
written law of frequency, vi being the distance of the stopping-
point from npi. Put vi = x and 2/>gi 2 =c 2 ; then the probability
may be written (I/VT c) exp * 2 /c 2 .
104. It is a short step, but a difficult one, from this case, in
which the element is binomial heads or tails to the general case,
in which the element has several values, according to the law
of frequency consists, for instance, of the number of points pre-
sented by a 'randomly-thrown die. According to the general
theorem, if Q is the sum 2 of numerous elements, each of which
assumes different magnitudes according to a law of frequency,
z=f r (x), the function / being in general different for differ-
ent elements, the number of times that Q assumes magnitudes
between x and x+Ax in the course of N trials is NzAx, if z =
(i/V2?r) exp (x o) 2 /2fe; where o is the sum of the arithmetic
means of all the elements, any one of which o, = |jx/ r (x)<fo;| , the
square brackets denoting that the integrations extend between the
extreme limits of the element's range, if the frequency-locus for each
element is continuous, it being understood that (f r (x)dx \ =I '
and k is the sum of the mean squares of error for each element,
= 2 f I at (a,+)dt I ' ^ tne f rec l uenc y'l ocus f r each element is con-
tinuous, where a, is the arithmetic mean of one of the elements,
and the deviation of any value assumed by that' element from a,,
S denoting summation over all the elements. When the frequency-
locus for the element is not continuous, the integrations which give
the arithmetic mean and mean square of error for the element
must be replaced by summations. For example, in the case of the
dice above instanced, the law of frequency for each element is that
it assumes equally often each of the values I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Thus the
arithmetic mean for each element is 3-5, and the mean square of
error {(3-5 - i) 2 + (3'5 - 2 ) 2 + &c -l / = 2-916. Accordingly, the
sum of the points obtained by tossing a large number, n, of dice
at random will assume a particular value * with a frequency which
is approximately assigned by the equation
z = (i/V*5-83n) exp-(x-3-5) 2 /5-83n.
The rule equally applies to the case in which the elements are not
similar; one might be the number of points on a die, another the
number of points on a domino, and so [on. Graphically, each
element is no longer represented by a step which is either null or i,
but by a step which may be, with an assigned probability, one or
other of several degrees between those limits, the law of frequency
and the range of i being different for the different elements.
105. Variant Proofs. The evidence of these statements can only
be indicated here. All the proofs which have been offered involve
some postulate as to the deviation of the elements from their respec-
tive centres of gravity, their " errors." If these errors extended to
infinity, it might well happen that the law of error would not be
fulfilled by a sum of such elements.* The necessary and sufficient
postulate appears to be that the mean powers of deviation for the
elements, the second (above written) and the similarly formed third,
fourth, &c., powers (up to some assigned power), should be finite. 4
106. (i) The proof which seems to flow most directly from this
postulate proceeds thus. It is deduced that the mean powers of
deviation for the proposed representative curve, the law of error
(up to a certain power), differ from the corresponding powers of the
actual locus by quantities which are negligible when the number of
the elements is large. 6 But loci which have their mean powers of
deviation (up to some certain power) approximately equal may be
considered as approximately coincident. 6
107. (2) The earliest and best-known proof is that which was
1 By the use of Stirling's and Bernoulli's theorems, Todhunter,
History. . . of Probability.
2 The statement includes the case of a linear function, since an
element multiplied by a constant is still an element.
3 E.g. if the frequency-locus of each element were i/ir(i+x s ),
extending to infinity in both directions. But extension to infinity
would not be fatal, if the form of the element's locus were normal.
4 For a fuller exposition and a justification of many of the state-
ments which follow, see the writer's paper on " The Law of Error "
in the Camb. Phil. Trans. (1905).
6 Loc. cit. pt. i. i.
6 On this criterion of coincidence see Karl Pearson's paper 'On
the Systematic Fitting of Curves," Biometrika, vols. i. and ii.
originated by Laplace and generalized by Poisson. 7 Some idea of
this celebrated theory may be obtained from the following free
version, applied to a simple case. The case is that in which all the
elements have one and the same locus of frequency, and that locus
is symmetrical about the centre of gravity. Let the locus be repre-
sented by the equation i)=<K), where the centre of gravity is the
origin, and <t>( +) =4>( ) ; the construction signifying that the
probability of the element having a value (between say JA and
+ $A) is 0()A|. Square brackets denoting summation between
extreme limits, put x(a) for [S^)^ la * A] where is an integer
multiple of A (or Ax)=pAx, say. Form the mth power of x().
The coefficient of e* * in (x(<0) m is the probability that the
sum of the values of the m elements should be equal to rAx; a
probability which is equal to Ax>, where y is the ordinate of the
locus representing the frequency of the compound quantity (formed
by the sum of the elements). Owing to the symmetry of the
function <f> the value of 3V, will not be altered if we substitute
fore*
, e
, nor if we substitute K
+
e ), that is cos arAx. Thus (x(a)) m becomes a sum of
terms of the form Ary r cos arAx, where y_,=y +r . Now multiply
(x(<0) m thus expressed by cos t&xa, where, t being an integer,
t&x = x, the abscissa of the "error" the probability of whose
occurrence is to be determined. The product will consist of a sum
of terms of the form bxy, J(cos a(r-H)Ax+cos a (r /)Ax). As
every value of[r / (except zero) is matched by a value [equal
in absolute magnitude, r+t, and likewise every value of
r+t is matched by value rt, the series takes the form
AxjvS cos qaAx+Axy,, where q has all possible integer values from I
to the largest value of |r| 8 increased by |/|; and the term free from
circular functions is the equivalent of Axy r cos a(r+t)Ax, when
r=t, together with Axy r cos a(r /)Ax, when r = +l. Now sub-
stitute for aAx a new symbol (3; and integrate with respect to /3,
the thus transformed (x(<)) m cos tAxa between the limits /3 = o and
/3 = ir. The integrals of all the terms which are of the form
Axjvcos g/3 will vanish, and there will be left surviving only irAxj',.
We thus obtain, as equal to ir&xy,, \ o r {xWAx)} m cos tpdf). Now
change the independent variable to o; then as df} = da&x,
) m cos <Axa.
Replacing /A* by x, and dividing both sides by Ax, we have
Now expanding the cos ax which enters into the expression for
we obtain
[S0(a)a 4 ]x 4 . . '
Performing the summations indicated, we express x(o) in terms of
the mean powers of deviation for an element. Whence x(<0 m is
expressible in terms of the mean powers of the compound locus.
First and chief is the mean second power of deviation for the com-
pound, which is the sum of the mean second powers of deviation for
the elements, say k. It is found that the sought probability may be
equated to
f"
Jo
' cos ax+-
lU.f/A*
VfaaV"
where ki is the coefficient defined below. 9 Here ir/Ax may be replaced
by oo, since the finite difference Ax is small with respect to unity
when the number of the elements is large; 10 and thus the integrals
involved become equateable to known definite integrals. If it
were allowable to neglect all the terms of the series but the first the
expression would reduce to-j-j r\ , the normal law of error.
But it is allowable to neglect the terms after the first, in a first
approximation, for values of x not exceeding a certain range, the
number of the elements being large, and if the postulate above
enunciated is satisfied. 11 With these reservations it is proved that
the sum of a number of similar and symmetrical elements conforms
to the normal law of error. The proof is by parity extended to the
case in which the elements have different but still symmetrical
frequency functions; and, by a bolder use of imaginary quantities,
to the case of unsymmetrical functions.
7 Laplace, Theorie analytique des probabilites, bk. ii. ch. iv. ;
Poisson, Recherches sur la probabilile des jugements. Good restate-
ments of this proof are given by Todhunter, History . . .<of Probability
art. 1004, and by Czuber, Theorie der Beobachtungsfehler,'art. 38 and
Th. 2, 4.
8 The symbol || is used to denote absolute magnitude, abstraction
being made of sign.
9 Below, pars. 159, 160. 10 Loc. cit. app. I.
11 Loc. cit. p. 53 and context.
LAWS OF ERROR]
PROBABILITY
393
108. (3) De Forest 1 has given a proof unencumbered by imagin-
aries of what is the fundamental proposition in Laplace's theory
that, if a polynomial of the form
A,+A,z+A,2 l + . . .
be raised to the nth power and expanded in the form
then the magnitudes of the B's in the neighbourhood of their maxi-
mum (say Bi) will be disposed in accordance with a " probability-
curve," or normal law of error.
109. (4) Professor Morgan Crofton's original proof of the law of
error is based on a datum obtained by observing the effect which the
introduction of a new element produces on the frequency-locus
for the aggregate of elements. It seems to be assumed, very properly,
that the sought function involves as constants some at least of the
mean powers of the aggregate, in particular the mean second power,
say k. We may without loss of generality refer each of the elements
(and accordingly the aggregate) to its respective centre of gravity.
Then if y, =f(x), is the ordinate of the frequency-locus for the aggre-
gate before taking in a new element, and y = dy the ordinate after that
operation, by a well-known principle, 1 y + dy = [S0 m (f)/(* )A{],
where TJ, =<,(), is the frequency-locus for the new element, and the
square brackets indicate that the summation is to extend over the
whole range of values assumed by that element. Expanding in
ascending powers of (each value of)and neglecting powers above the
second, as is found to be legitimate under the conditions specified,
we have (since the first mean power of the element vanishes)
From the fundamental proposition that the mean square for the
aggregate equals the sum of mean squares for the elements it follows
that [SgVm ({)&{] the mean second power of deviation for the mth
clement is equal to dk, the addition to k the mean second power of
deviation for the aggregate. There is thus obtained a partial
differential equation of the second order
A subsidiary equation is (in effect) obtained by Professor Crofton
from the property that if the unit according to which the axis of
x is graduated is altered in any assigned ratio, there must be a corre-
sponding alteration both of the ordinate expressing the frequency:
of the aggregate and of the mean square of deviation for the aggrega-
tion. By supposing the alteration indefinitely small he obtains a
second partial differential equation, viz. (in the notation here adopted)
From these two equations, regard being had to certian other condi-
tions of the problem, 3 it is deducible that y = Ce-*V*, where C is a
constant of which the value is determined by the condition that
/-
no. (5) The condition on which Professor Crofton's proof is based
may be called differential, as obtained from the introduction of a
single new element. There is also an integral condition obtained
from the introduction of a whole set of new elements. For let A
be the sum of mi elements, fluctuating according to the sought law
of error. Let B be the sum of another set of elements ntt in number
(nti and >HJ both large). Then Q a quantity formed by adding to-
gether each pair of concurrent values presented by A and B must also
conform to the law of error, since Q is the sum of m\+mt elements.
The general form which satisfies this condition of reproductivity is
limited by other conditions to the normal law of error. 4
in. The list of variant proofs is not yet exhausted,' but enough
has been said to establish the proposition that a sum of numerous
elements of the kind described will fluctuate approximately according
to the normal law of error.
112. As the number of elements is increased, the constant above
designated k continually increases; so that the curve representing
. the frequency of the compound magnitude spreads out
from its centre. It is otherwise if instead of the simple
sum we consider the linear function formed by adding the
m elements each multiplied by l/m. The spread " of
the average thus constituted will continually diminish as the
number of the elements is increased; the sides closing in as the
'The Analyst (Iowa), vols. v., vi., vii. passim; and especially
vi. 142 seq., vii. 172 seq.
1 Morgan Crofton, loc. cit. p. 781, col. a. The principle has been
used by the present writer in the Phil. Mag. (1883), xvi. 301.
1 For a criticism and extension of Crofton's proof see the already
cited paper on " The Law of Error," Camb. Phil. Trans. (1905),
pt. i. 2. Space does not permit the reproduction of Crofton's
proof as given in the 9th ed. of the Ency. Brit. (art. " Probability,"
548).
4 Loc. cit. pt. I. 4; and app. 6.
1 Loc. cit. p. 122 seq.
vertex rises up. The change in " spread " produced by the accession
of new elements is illustrated by the transition from the high to the
low curve, in fig. 10, in the case of a sum; in the case of an average
(arithmetic mean) by the reverse relation.
113. The proposition which has been proved for linear functions
may be extended to any other function of numerous variables,
each representing the value assumed by an independently
fluctuating element; if the function may be expanded Extea * la!>
in ascending powers of the variables, according to *
Taylor's theorem, and all the powers after the first
may be neglected. The matter is not so simple as it is FuactJoa *-
often represented, when the variable elements may assume large,
perhaps infinite, values; but with the aid of the postulate above
enunciated the difficulty can be overcome.*
114. All the proofs which have been noticed have been extended
to errors in two (or more) dimensions. 7 Let Q be the sum of a
number of elements, each of which, being a function-
of two variables, x and y, assumes different pairs of, .
values according to a law of frequency \z,=f r (x, y), the
functions being in general different for different elements.n/" 1 "
The frequency with which Q assumes values of the
variables between * and +A* and between y and y+Ay is zAxAy, if
, _ I _ m(x-a)*-2l(x - a)(q - b) + k(y - 6)
P p ~ 2(km-P) ~:
where, as in the simpler case, a = Za,, a, being the arithmetic mean
of the values of * assumed in the long run by one of the elements,
6 is the corresponding sum for values of y, and
= 2 \_Jfi* ~ ar)I/r( * >
- V)Mx,
the summation extending over all the elements, and the integration
between the extreme limits of each; supposing that the law of
frequency for each element is contin- j-
uous, otherwise summation is to be
substituted for integration. For ex-
ample, let each element be constituted
as follows: Three coins having been
tossed, the number of heads presented
by the first and second coins together
is put for x, the number of heads pre- '
sented by the second and third coins
together is put for y. The law of fre-
quency for the element is represented
in fig. n, the integers outside denoting
the values of x or y, the fractions in-
side probabilites of particular values t
of x and y concurring. -
If i is the distance from o to I and FIG. IJ -
from i to 2 on the abscissa, and i' the corresponding distance on the
ordinate, the mean of the values of x for the element Aa, as we may
say, is *', and the corresponding mean square of horizontal deviations
is i'v L . ikewise A6 = '; Am = Jt' s ; and A/ = i(+X-H'-X -')
= ftt . Accordingly, if n such elements are put together (if n steps
of the kind which the diagram represents are taken), the frequency
with which a particular pair of aggregates x and y will concur, with
which a particular point on the plane of xy, namely, x = ri and
ri, will be reached, is given by the equation
t
z = 2 ^P - (r ~ n)V ~ (r ~ n)(r ' - n) "'
115. A verification is afforded by a set of statistics obtained with
dice by Weldon, and here reproduced by his permission. A success
is in this experiment defined, not by obtaining a head when a coin
is tossed, but by obtaining a face with more than three points on it
when a die is tossed ; the probabilities of the two events are the same,
or rather would be if coins and dice were perfectly symmetrical.'
Professor Weldon virtually took six steps of the sort above described
when, six painted dice having been thrown, he added the number of
successes in that painted batch to the number of successes in another
batch of six to form his x, and to the number of successes in a third
batch of six to form his y. The result is represented in the annexed
table, where each degree on the axis of x and y respectively corre-
sponds to the and i' of the 'preceding paragraphs, and '= t'.
The observed frequencies being represented by numerals, a general
correspondence between the facts and the formula is apparent.
' Loc. cit. pt. ii. 7.
'.The second by Burbury, in Phil. Mag. (1894), xxxvii. 145;
the third by its author in the Analyst for 1881 ; and the remainder
by the present writer in Phil. Mag. (1896), xii. 247; and Cam*. Phil.
Trans. (1905), loc. cit.
* Compare the formula for the simple case above, 4.
9 On the irregularity of the dice with which Weldon experimented,
see Pearson, Phil. Mag. (1900), p. 167.
394
PROBABILITY
[LAWS OF ERROR
The maximum frequency is, as it ought to be, at the point x = 6i,
y = 6i'. The density is particularly great along a line through that
point, making 45 with the axis of x; particularly small in the
complementary direction. This also is as it ought to be. For if
the centre is made the origin by substituting x for (x a) and y for
(yb), and then new co-ordinates X and Y are taken, making an
angle 6 with * and y respectively, the curve which is traced on the
plane of zX by its intersection with the surface is of the form
z=J exp-X 2 [fe sin 2 0-2l cos 6 sin 6+m cos s 6]/2(km-P),
a probability-curve which will be more or less spread out according
as the factor k sin 2 2l cos sin B-\-m cos 2 8 is less or greater.
Now this expression has a minimum or maximum when (k m)
sin 02l cos 28=0; a minimum when (k m) cos 20+2 /sin 26 is
positive, and a maximum when that criterion is negative; that
is, in the present case, where k = m, a minimum when 6 = \v and a
maximum when = Jir.
1
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
12
11
i
i
5
I
i
10
2
6
28
27
19
2
9
i
2
II
43
76
57
54
15
4
8
6
18
49
116
138
118
59
25
5
7
12
47
109
208
213
118
71
23
i
6
9
29
77
199
244
198
121
32
3
5
3
12
51
119
181
200
129
69
18
3
4
2
16
55
IOO
117
91
46
19
3
3
2
H
28
53
43
34
17
I
2
7
12
13
18
4
i
I
1
2
4
i
2
i
116. Characteristics of the Law of Error. 1 As may be presumed
from the examples just given, in order that there should be some
approximation to the normal law the number of elements need not
be very great. A very tolerable imitation of the probability-curve
has been obtained by superposing three elements, each obeying a
law of frequency quite different from the normal one, 2 namely, that
simple law according to which one value of a variable occurs as
frequently as another between the limits within which the variation
is confined (y = i/2a, between limits x=+a, *= a). If the
component elements obey unsymmetrical laws of frequency, the
compound will indeed be to some extent unsymmetrical, unlike the
" normal " probability-curve. But, as the number of the elements is
increased, the portion of the compound curve in the neighbourhood
of its centre of gravity tends to be rounded off into the normal shape.
The portion of the compound curve which is sensibly identical with
a curve of the " normal " family becomes greater the greater the
number of independent elements ; caeteris paribus, and granted certain
conditions as to the equality and the range of the elements. It
will readily be granted that if one component predominates, it
may unduly impress its own character on the compound. But it
should be pointed out that the characteristic with which we are
now concerned is not average magnitude, but deviation from the
average. The component elements may be very unequal in their
contributions to the average magnitude of the compound without
prejudice to its " normal " character, provided that the fluctuation
of all or many of the elements is of one and the same order. The
proof of the law requires that the contribution made by each element
to the mean square of deviation for the compound, k, should be
small, capable of being treated as differential with respect to k.
It is not necessary that all these small quantities should be of the
same order, but only that they should admit of being rearranged,
by massing together those of a smaller order, as a numerous set of
1 Experiments in pari materia performed by A. D. Darbishire
afford additional illustrations. See " Some Tables for illustrating
Statistical Correlation," Mem. and Proc. Man. Lit., and Phil. Soc.,
vol. li. pt. iii.
1 Journ. Slot. Soc. (March 1900), p. 73, referring to Burton,
Phil. Mag. (1883), xvi. 301.
independent elements in which no two or three stand out as sui
generis in respect of the magnitude of their fluctuation. For example,
if one element consist of the number of points on a domino (the sum
of two digits taken at random), and other elements, each of either
i or o according as heads or tails turn up when a coin is cast, the
first element, having a mean square of deviation l6'5, will not be
of the same order as the others, each having 0-25 for its mean square
of deviation. But sixty-six of the latter taken together would con-
stitute an independent element of the same order as the first one;
and accordingly if there are several times sixty-six elements of the
latter sort, along with one or two of the former sort, the conditions
for the generation of the normal distribution will be satisfied. These
propositions would evidently be unaffected by altering the average
magnitude, without altering the deviation from the average, for any
element, that is, by adding a greater or less fixed magnitude to each
element. The propositions are adapted to the case in which the
elements fluctuate according to a law of frequency other than the
normal. For if they are already normal, the aforesaid conditions
are unnecessary. The normal law will be obeyed by the sum of
elements which each obey it, even though they are not numerous and
not independent and not of the same order in respect of the extent
of fluctuation. A similar distinction is to be drawn with respect
to some further conditions which the reasoning requires. A limita-
tion as to the range of the elements is not necessary when they are
already normal, or even have a certain affinity to the normal curve.
Very large values of the element are not excluded, provided they are
sufficiently rare. What has been said of curves with special
reference to one dimension is of course to be extended to the case
of surfaces and many dimensions. In all cases the theorem that
under the conditions stated the normal law of error will be generated
is to be distinguished from the hypothesis that the conditions are
fairly well fulfilled in ordinary experience.
117. Having deduced the genesis of the law of error from ideal
conditions such as are attributed to perfectly fair ._ ., ...
games of chance, we have next to inquire how far^ rf
these conditions are realized and the law fulfilled in
common experience.
118. Among important concrete cases errors of observation
occupy a leading place. The theory is brought to bear on this case
by the hypothesis that an error is the algebraic sum of _
numerous elements, each varying according to a law
of frequency special to itself. This hypothesis involves
two assumptions: (i) that an error is dependent on numerous
independent causes; (2) that the function expressing that dependence
can be treated as a linear function, by expanding in terms of ascend-
ing powers (of the elements) according to Taylor's theorem and
neglecting higher powers, or otherwise. The first assumption seems,
in Dr Glaisher's words, " most natural and true. In any observation
where great care is taken, so that no large error can occur, we can
see that its accuracy is influenced by a great number of circumstances
which ultimately depend on independent causes: the state of the
observer's eye and his physiological condition in general, the state
of the atmosphere, of the different parts of the instrument, &c.,
evidently depend on a great number of causes, while each contributes
to the actual error." 3 The second assumption seems to be frequently
realized in nature. But the assumption is not always safe. For
example, where the velocities of molecules are distributed according
to the normal law of error, with zero as centre, the energies must be
distributed according to a quite different law. This rationale is
applicable not only to the fallible perceptions of the senses, but also
to impressions into which a large ingredient of inference enters,
such as estimates of a man's height or weight from his appearance, 4
and even higher acts of judgment. 6 Aiming at an object is an act
similar to measuring an object, misses are produced by much the
same variety of causes as mistakes; and, accordingly, it is found
that shots aimed at the same bull's-eye are apt to be distributed
according to the normal law, whether in two dimensions on a target
or according to their horizontal deviations, as exhibited below
(par. 156). A residual class comprises miscellaneous statistics,
physical as well as social, in which the normal law of error makes
its appearance, presumably in consequence of the action M/ sce ;.
of numerous independent influences. Well-known t
instances are afforded by human heights and other statistics
bodily measurements, as tabulated by Quetelet 6 and
others. 7 Professor Pearson has found that " the normal curve
suffices to describe within the limits of random sampling the distri-
bution of the chief characters in man." 8 The tendency of social
phenomena to conform to the normal law of frequency is well
8 Memoirs of Astronomical Society (1878), p. 105.
4 Journ. Slat. Soc. (1890), p. 462 seq.
6 E.g. the marking of the same work by different examiners. Ibid.
f Lettres sur la theorie des probabilites and Physique sociale.
7 E.g. the measurements of Italian recruits, adduced in the Atlante
statisttco, published under the direction of the Ministero de Agricul-
tura (Rome, 1882); and Weldon's measurements of crabs, Proc.
Roy. Soc. liv. 321; discussed by Pearson in the Trans. Roy. Soc.
(1894), vol. clxxxv. A.
8 Biometrika, iii. 395. Cf. ibid. p. 141.
LAWS OF ERROR]
PROBABILITY
395
exemplified by A. L. Bowley's grouping of the wages paid to different
classes. 1
119. The division of concrete errors which has been proposed is
not to be confounded with another twofold classification, namely,
observations which stand for a real objective thing, and
eta Hlca- su statistics as are not thus representative of something
outside themselves, groups of which the mean is called
" subjective." This division would be neither clear nor
useful. On the one hand so-called real means are often only approxi-
mately equal to objective quantities. Thus the proportional
frequency with which one face of a die the MX suppose turns up
is only approximately given by the objective fact that the six
is one face of a nearly perfect cube. For a set of dice with which
Weldon experimented, the average frequency of a throw, presenting
either five or six points, proved to be not -3, but 0-3377.* The
difference of this result from the regulation 0-3 is as unpredictable
from objective data, prior to experiment, as any of the means called
subjective or fictitious. So the mean of errors of observation often
differs from the thing observed by a so-called "constant error."
So shots may be constantly deflected from the bull's-eye by a steady
wind or " drift."
1 20. On the other hand, statistics, not purporting to represent a
real object, have more or less close relations to magnitudes which
cannot be described as fictitious. Where the items averaged are
ratios, e.g. the proportion of births or deaths to the total population
in several districts or other sections, it sometimes happens that the
distribution of the ratios exactly corresponds to that which is ob-
tained in the simplest games of chance-^-" combinational " distribu-
tion in the phrase of Lexis.* There is unmistakably suggested a
sortition of the simplest type, with a real ascertainable relation
between the number of " favourable cases " and the total number of
cases. The most remarkable example ot this property is presented
by the proportion of male to female (or to total) births. Some
other instances are given by Lexis 4 and Westergaard. 5 A similar
correspondence between the actual and the " combinational " dis-
tribution has been found by Bortkevitch * in the case of very small
probabilities (in which case the law of error is no longer " normal ").
And it is likely that some ratios such as general death-rates not
presenting combinational distribution, might be broken up into
subdivisions such as death-rates for different occupations or age-
periods each distributed in that simple fashion.
121. Another sort of averages which it is difficult to class as sub-
jective rather than objective occurs in some social statistics, under
the designation of index-numbers. The percentage which repre-
sents the change in the value of money between two epochs is seldom
regarded as the mere average change in the price of several articles
taken at random, but rather as the measure of something, e.g. the
variation in the price of a given amount of commodities, or of a
unit of commodity. 7 So something substantive appears to be de-
signated by the volume of trade, or that of the consumption of the
working classes, of which the growth is measured by appropriate
index-numbers,* the former due to Bourne and Sir Robert Giffen,*
the latter to George Wood. 10
122. But apart from these peculiarities, any set of statistics
may be related to a certain quaesitum, very much as measurements
are related to the object measured. That quaesitum is the limiting
or ultimate mean to which the series of statistics, if indefinitely
prolonged, would converge, the mean of the complete group; this
conception of a limit applying to any frequency-constant, to " c,"
for instance, as well as " a " in the case of the normal curve." The
given statistics may be treated as samples from which to reason
up to the true constant by that principle of the calculus which
determines the comparative probability of different causes from
which an observed event may have emanated."
123. Thus it appears that there is a characteristic more essential
to the statistician than the existence of an objective quaesitum,
namely, the use of that method which is primarily, but not ex-
clusively, proper to that sort of quaesitum inverse probability."
1 Wages in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth Century; and art.
" Wages " in the Ency. Brit., loth ed., vol. xxxiii.
Phil. Mag. (1900), p. 168.
3 Cf. Journ. Stat. Soc., Jubilee No., p. 192.
4 Massenerscheinungen.
4 Grundzuge der m Statistik. Cf. Bowley, Elements of Statistics,
p. 302.
Das Gesetz der kleinen Zahlen.
I See for other definitions Report of the British Association (1889),
pp. 136 and 161, and compare Walsh's exhaustive Measurement of
General Exchange- Value.
8 Cf. Bowley, Elements of Statistics, ch. ix.
Journ. Stat. Soc. (1874 and later). Parly. Papers (C. 2247] and
[C. 3079]-
M " Working-Class Progress since 1860," Journ. Stat. Soc. (1899),
P- 639.
II On this conception compare Venn, Logic of Chance, chs. iii.
and iv., and Sheppard, Proc. Land. Math. Soc., p. 363 seq.
u Laplace's 6th principle, Theorie analytique, intro. x.
" See above, pars. 13 and 14.
Without that delicate instrument the doctrine of error can seldom
be fully utilized; but some of its uses may be indicated before the
introduction of technical difficulties.
124 Having established the prevalence of the law of error, 14 we go
on to its applications. The mere presumption that wherever three or
four independent causes co-operate, the law of error .
tends to be set up, has a certain speculative interest. 1 *
The assumption of the law as a hypothesis is legjti- * N -,
mate. When the presumption is confirmed by specific *
experience this knowledge is apt to be turned to "'
account. It is usefully applied to the practice of gunnery, 1 * to
determine the proportion of shots which under assigned con-
ditions may be expected to hit a zone of given size. The expendi-
ture of ammunition required to hit an object can thence be inferred.
Also the comparison between practice under different conditions is
facilitated. In many kinds of examination it is tound that the total
marks given to different candidates for answers to the same set of
?uestions range approximately in conformity with the law of error.
t is understood that the civil service commissioners have founded
on this fact some practical directions to examiners. Apart from
such direct applications, it is a useful addition to our knowledge
of a class that the measurable attributes of its members range in
conformity with this general law. Something is added to the truth
that " the days of a man are threescore and ten," if we may regard
that epoch, or more exactly for England, 72, as " Nature's aim, the
length of life for which she builds a man, the dispersion on each
side of this point being . . . nearly normal." 17 So Herschel says:
" An [a mere] average gives us no assurance that the future will be
like the past. A [normal] mean may be reckoned on with the most
complete confidence." 1 * The existence of independent causes, 19 in-
ferred from the fulfilment of the normal law, may be some guarantee
of stability. In natural history especially have the conceptions
supplied by the law of error been fruitful. Investigators aTe already
on the track of this inquiry: if those members of a species whose size
or other measurable attributes are above (or below) the average
are preferred by " natural " or some other kind of selection as
parents, how will the law of frequency as regards that attribute
be modified in the next generation! 1
125. A particularly perfect application of the normal law of
error in more than one dimension is afforded by the movements of
the molecules in a homogeneous gas. A general idea
of the rdle played by probabilities in the explanation """
of these movements may be obtained without entering * *"' " '
into the more complicated and controverted parts of v,. .
the subject, without going beyond the initial very **
abstract supposition of perfectly elastic equal spheres. For con-
venience of enunciation we may confine ourselves to two dimen-
sions. Let us imagine, then, an enormous billiard-table with
perfectly elastic cushions and a frictionless cloth on which millions
of perfectly elastic balls rush hither and thither at random colliding
with each other a homogeneous chaos, with that sort of uniformity
in the midst of diversity which is characteristic of probabilities.
Upon this hypothesis, if we fix attention on any n balls taken at
random they need not be, according to some they ought not to be,
contiguous if n is very large, the average properties will be approxi-
mately the same as those of the total mixture. In particular the
average energy of the n balls may be equated to the average energy
of the total number of balls, say T/N, if T is the total energy and
N the total number of the balls. Now if we watch any one of the
n specimen balls long enough for it to undergo a great number of
collisions, we observe that either of its velocity-components, say that
in the direction of x, viz. u, receives accessions from an immense
number of independent causes in random fashion. We may presume,
therefore, that these will be distributed (among the n balls) according
to the law of error. The law will not be of the type which was first
supposed, where the " spread " continually increases as the number
of the elements is increased." Nor will it be of the type which was
afterwards mentioned " where the spread diminishes as the number
of the elements is increased. The linear function by which the ele-
ments are aggregated is here of an intermediate type; such that the
mean square of deviation corresponding to the velocity remains
constant. The method of composition might be illustrated by the
process of taking r digits at random from mathematical tables adding
the differences between each digit and 4-5 the mean value of digits,
and dividing the sum by Vr. Here are some figures obtained by
taking at random batches of sixteen digits from the expansion
of IT, subtracting 16X4-5 from the sum of each batch, and
dividing the remainder by V 16:
14 Cf. above, par. 102.
11 Cf. Gallon's enthusiasm, Natural Inheritance, p. 66.
16 A lucid statement of the methods and results of probabilities
applied to gunnery is given in the Official Text-book of Gunnery
(1902).
17 Venn, Journ. Stat. Soc. (1891), p. 443.
w Ed. Rev. (1850), xcii. 23.
"Cf. Gallon, Phil. Mag. (1875), xlix. 44.
"Above, par. 112.
Ibid.
39 6
PROBABILITY
[LAWS OF ERROR
+1-25, +075, -i, -i, +5-5. -2-75- +0-75- -2,
+1-75. +3-25. +0-25, -2-75, -2-25, -o-s, +4-75, +0-25.
If, instead of sixteen, a million digits went to each batch, the general
character of the series would be much the same; the aggregate
figures would continue to hover about zero with a standard deviation
of 8-25, a probable error of nearly 2. Here for instance are seven
aggregates formed by recombining 252 out of the 256 digits above
utilized into batches of 36 according to the prescribed rule: viz.
subtracting 36X4-5 from the sum of each batch of 36 and dividing
the remainder by V36:
-0-5. +3-3, +2-6, -0-6, +1-5, -2, +i.
The illustration brings into view the circumstance that though the
system of molecules may start with a distribution of velocities other
than the normal, yet by repeated collisions the normal distribution
will be superinduced. If both the velocities and v are distributed
according to the law of error for one dimension, we may presume that
the joint values of and v conform to the normal surface. Or we
may reason directly that as the pair of velocities u and v is made
up of a great number of elementary pairs (the co-ordinates in each of
which need not, initially at least, be supposed uncorrelated) the
law of frequency for concurrent values of u and v must be of the
normal form which may be written l
= 2V(fe>n.l-r 2 ) ex P-
It may be presumed that r, the coefficient of correlation, is zero, for,
owing to the symmetry of the influences by which the molecular
chaos is brought about, it is not to be supposed that there is any
connexion or repugnance between one direction of u, say south to
north, and one direction of v, say west to east. For a like reason
k must be supposed equal to m. Thus the average velocity = 2k;
which multiplied by m, the mass of a sphere, is to be equated to the
average energy T/N. The reasoning may be extended with confi-
dence to three dimensions, and with caution to contiguous molecules.
126. Correlation cannot be ignored in another application of the
many-dimensioned law of error, its use in biological inquiries to
Normal investigate the relations between different generations.
Correlation ^ was f un d by Galton that the heights and other
in Biology. measura ble attributes of children of the same parents
range about a mean which is not that of the parental
heights, but nearer the average of the general population.
The amount of this " regression " is simply proportional to the
distance of the " mid-parent's " height from the general average.
This is a case of very general law which governs the relations not only
between members of the same family, but also between members
of the same organism, and generally between two (or more) coexistent
or in any way co-ordinated observations, each belonging to a normal
group. Let x and y be the measurements of a pair thus constituted.
Then 2 it may be expected that the conjunction of particular values
for x and y will approximately obey the two-dimensioned normal
law whichjhas been already exhibited (see par. 114).
127. Regression-lines. In the expression above given, put
//V km = r, and the equation for the frequency of pairs having values
of the attribute under measurement becomes
This formula is of very general application. 3 If two sets of measure-
ments were made on the height, or other measurable feature, of the
proverbial " Goodwin Sands " and " Tenterden Steeple," and the
first measurement of one set was coupled with the first of the other
set, the second with the second, and so on, the pairs of magnitudes
thus presented would doubtless vary according to the above-written
law, only in that case r would presumably be zero ; the expression for
z would reduce to the product of the two independent probabilities
that particular values of x and y should concur. But slight inter-
dependences between things supposed to be totally unconnected
would often be discovered by this law of error in two or more dimen-
sions. 4 It may be put in a more convenient form by substituting
for (* o)/V& and ri for (y 6)/V. The equation of the surface
then becomes 2 = (i/2irVi - r*) exp-[J* - 2ri; + rf}J2(i r 2 ).
If the frequency of observations in the vicinity of a point is repre-
sented by the number of dots in a small increment of area, when r = o
the dots will be distributed uniformly about the origin, the curves
of equal probability will be circles. When r is different from zero
'Above, par. 114, and below, par. 127.
2 Some plurality of independent causes is presumable.
* Herschel's a priori proposition concerning the law of error in two
dimensions (above, par. 99) might still be defended either as generally
true, so many phenomena showing no trace of interdependence, or on
the principle which justifies our putting J for a probability that
is unknown (above, par. 6), or 5 for a decimal place that is neglected ;
correlation being equally likely to be positive or negative. The
latter sort of explanation may be offered for the less serious contrast
between the a priori and the empirical proof of the law of error in
one dimension (below, par. 158).
4 Cf. above, par. 115.
the dots will be distributed so that the majority will be massed in
two quadrants : in those for which and >j are both positive or both
negative when r is positive, in those for which and i/ have opposite
signs when r is negative. In the limiting case, when r = I the whole
host will be massed along the line ij=, every deviation being
attended with an equal deviation TJ. In general, to any deviation
of one of the variables ' there corresponds a set or " array (Pearson)
of values of the other variable ; for which the frequency is given by
substituting ' for in the general equation. The section thus obtained
proves to be a normal probability-curve with standard deviation
V (i r 2 ). The most probable value of TJ corresponding to the assigned
value of is r'. The equation jj r, or rather what it becomes
when translated back to our original co-ordinates (y b)/<n =
r(x a)<ri, where <n, <r 2 are our -\lk, ^m respectively, 6 is often
called a regression-equation. A verification is to hand in the above-
cited statistics, which Weldon obtained by casting batches of dice.
If the dice were perfect, r ( = //Vfcm) would equal |, and as the dice
proved not to be very imperfect, the coefficient is doubtless approxi-
mately = J. Accordingly, we may expect that, if axes x and y
are drawn through the point of maximum-frequency at the centre of
the compartment containing 244 observations, corresponding to any
value of x, say 2vi (where i is the side of each square compartment),
the most probable value of y should be vi, and corresponding to
y = 2vi the most probable value of x should be vi. And in fact these
regression-equations are fairly well fulfilled for the integer values of v
(more than which could not be expected from discrete observations) :
e.g. when x= +41, the value of y, for which the frequency (25) is a
maximum, is as it ought to be +21; when x= 21 the maximum
(119) is at y= i; when x= \i the maximum (16) is at y= 2i;
when y is + 2i the maximum (138) is at x=+i; when y is 2*
the maximum (117) at *= , and in the two cases (x = -\-2i
and y=+4z), where the fulfilment is not exact, the failure is not
very serious.
128. Analogous statements hold good for the case of three
or more dimensions of error. 6 The normal law of error for any
number of variables, Xi Xt Xt, may be put in the form
z = (i(2r)n/2 VA) exp [Rn*i 2 + Rz2*2 2 + &c. + 2R K XiX t + &c.]/2A
where A is the determinant :
^ i > r, o * *
each r, e.g. r 2 j ( = r 3 i), is the coefficient of correlation between
two of the variables, e.g. x 2 , Xs; Rn is the first minor of the deter-
minant formed by omitting the first row and first column; R 22 is
the first minor formed by omitting the second row and the second
column, and so on;Ri2( = R 2 i) is the first minor formed by omitting
the first column and second row (or vice versa). The principle of
correlation plays an important r61e in natural history. It has re-
placed the notion that there is a simple proportion between the size
of organs by the appropriate conception that there are simple
proportions existing between the deviation from the average of one
organ and the most probable value for the coexistent deviation of the
other organ from its average. 7 Attributes favoured by " natural " or
other selection are found to be correlated with other attributes which
are not directly selected. The extent to which the attributes of an
individual depend upon those of his ancestors as measured by corre-
lation. 8 The principle is instrumental to most of the important
" mathematical contributions " which Professor Pearson has made
to the theory of evolution. 9 In social inquiries, also, the principle
promises a rich harvest. Where numerous fluctuating causes go
to produce a result like pauperism or immunity from small-pox,
the ideal method of eliminating chance would be to construct
"regression-equations" of the following type: "Change %
in pauperism [in the decade 1871-1881] in rural districts =
27-07%, +0-299 (change % out-relief ratio), +0-271 (change %
on proportion of old), + -064 (change % in population)." 10
129. In order to determine the best values of the coefficients
involved in the law of error, and to test the worth of
the results obtained by using any values, recourse must "
be had to inverse probability.
130. The simplest problem under this head is
where the quaesitum is a single real object and the j
data consist of a large number of observations,
Xi, Xt, . . . x n , such that if the number were indefinitely increased,
the completed series would form a normal probability-curve with
the true point as its centre, and having a given modulus c. It is
as if we had observed the position of the dints made by the fragments
6 Cf. note to par. 98, above.
6 Phil. Mag. (1892), p. 200 seq.; 1896, p. 211; Pearson, Trans.
Roy. Soc. (1896), 187, p. 302; Burbury, Phil. Mag. (1894), p. 145.
7 Pearson, On the Reconstruction of Prehistoric Races," Trans.
Roy. Soc. (1898), A, p. 174 seq.; Proc. Roy. Soc. (1898), p. 418.
8 Pearson, "The Law of Ancestral Heredity," Trans. Roy. Soc.;
Proc. Roy. Soc. (1898).
9 Papers in the Royal Society since 1895.
10 An example instructively discussed by Yule, Journ. Stat. Soc.
(1899).
LAWS OF ERROR]
PROBABILITY
397
of an exploding shell so far as to know the distance of each mark
measured (from an origin) along a right line, say the line of an
extended fortification, and it was known that the shell was fired
perpendicular to the fortification from a distant ridge parallel to the
Fortification, and that the shell was of a kind of which the fragments
are scattered according to a normal law ' with a known coefficient
of dispersion; the question is at what position on the distant ridge
was the enemy's gun probably placed ? By received principles
the probability, say P, that the given set of observations should
' .ve resulted from measuring (or aiming at) an object of which the
.1 position was between * and x +Ax is
A* J exp - [(x - *,)' + (x - x,) + &c.]/c' ;
here J is a constant obtained by equating to unity) Pdx
J 00
(since the given set of observations must have resulted from some
position on the axis of x). The value of x, from which the given
i observations most probably resulted, is obtained by making P
a maximum. Putting dP/dx = o, we have for the maximum
(tPP/dx* being negative for this value) the arithmetic mean of the
given observations. The accuracy of the determination is measured
by a probability-curve with modulus cj-^n. This in the course of a
very long siege if every case in which the given group of shell-marks
xi, xs, . . . x n was presented could be investigated, it would be
found that the enemy's cannon was fired from the position x', the
(point right opposite to the) arithmetic mean of xi, * 2 , &c., x n , with
a frequency assigned by the equation
z = (V / V :) exp - n(x - x')/*.
The reasoning is applicable without material modification to the
case in which the data and the quaesitum are not absolute quantities,
but proportions; for instance, given the percentage of white balls
in several large batches drawn at random from an immense urn con-
taining black and white balls, to find the percentage of white balls
in the urn the inverse problem associated with the name of Bayes.
131. Simple as this solution is, it is not the one which has most
recommended itself to Laplace. He envisages the quaesitum not so
much as that point which is most probably the real one, as that point
which may most advantageously be put for the real one. In our
illustration it is as if it were required to discover from a number
of shot-marks not the point 2 which in the course of a long siege
would be most frequently the position of the cannon which had
scattered the observed fragments but the point which it would
be best to treat as that position to fire at, say, with a view of
silencing the enemy's gun having regard not so much to the fre-
quency with which the direction adopted is right, as to the extent
to which it is wrong in the long run. As the measure of the detri-
ment of error, Laplace 8 takes "la valeur moyenne de Perreur a
craindre," the mean first power of the errors taken positively on
each side of the real point. The mean spare of errors is proposed
by Gauss as the criterion. 4 Any mean power indeed, the integral
of any function which increases in absolute magnitude with the
increase of its variable, taken as the measure of the detriment, will
lead to the same conclusion, if the normal law prevails. 6
132. Yet another speculative difficulty occurs in the simplest, and
recurs in the more complicated inverse problem. In putting P as
the probability, deduced from the observations that the real point
for which they stand is * (between x and x+Ax), it is tacitly
assumed that prior to observation one value of x is as probable as
another. In our illustration it must be assumed that the enemy's
gun was as likely to be at one point as another of (a certain tract of)
the ridge from which it was fired. If, apart from the evidence of
the shell-marks, there was any reason for thinking that the gun was
situated at one point rather than another, the formula would require
to be modified. This a priori probability is sometimes grounded on
our ignorance; according to another view, the procedure is justified
by a rough general knowledge that over a tract of * for which P is
sensible one value of * occurs about as often as another. 6
1 If normally in any direction indifferently according to the two-
or three-dimensioned law of error, then normally in one dimension
when collected and distributed in belts perpendicular to a horizontal
right line, as in the example cited below, par. 155.
2 Or small interval (cf. preceding section).
* " Toute erreur soit positive soit negative doit fitre considered
comme un d6savantage ou une perte nSelle a un jeu quelconque,"
Theorie analytique, art. 20 seq., especially art. 25. As to which
it is acutely remarked by Bravais (op. cit. p. 258), " Cette regie
simple laisse a desirer une demonstration rigoureuse, car Panalogue
du cas actuel avec celui des jeux de hasard est loin d'etre complete."
4 Theoria combinations, pt. i. 6. Simon Newcpmb is con-
spicuous by walking in the way of Laplace and Gauss in his prefer-
ence of the most advantageous to the most probable determinations.
With Gauss he postulates that " the evil of an error is proportioned
to the square of its magnitude " (American Journal of Mathematics,
vol. viii. No. 4).
'As argued by the present writer, Camb. Phil. Trans. (1885),
vol. xiv. pt. ii. p. 161. Cf. Glaisher, Mem. Astronom. Soc. xxxix.
108.
' The view taken by the present writer on the " Philosophy of
Chance," in Mind (1880; approved by Professor Pearson, Grammar
133. Subject to similar speculative difficulties, the solution which
has been obtained may be extended to the analogous problem in
which the quaesitum is not the real value of an observed magnitude,
but the mean to which a series of statistics indefinitely prolonged
converges.'
134. Next, let the modulus, still supposed given, not be the same
for all the observations, but c\ for xi, c t for x, &c. Then P becomes
proportional to
exp - K* - *i)'/ci' + (x - xtflct + &c.].
And the value of x which is both the most probable and the " most
advantageous" is (xi/ci t +x t /cf+&c.)/(l/ci t +i/cf+&c.);
each observation being weighted with the inverse vj
mean square of observations made under similar con-
ditions. 8 This is the rule prescribed by the " method
of least squares"; but as the rule in this case has been deduced
by genuine inverse probability, the problem does not exemplify
what is most characteristic in that method, namely, that a rule
deducible from the hypothesis that the errors of observations obey
the normal law of error is employed in cases where the normal law
is not known, or even is known not, to hold good. For example,
let the curve of error for each observation be of the form of
2= [i/V (0]X exp[ -/e - 2j(x/c - 2x'/y*)},
where j is a small fraction, so that z may equally well be equated to
(i/Virc)[i 2J(x/c 2x t /y')] exp x*/c 2 , a law which is actually
very prevalent. Then, according to the genuine inverse method,
the most probable value of x is given by the quadratic equation
2jlog P = o, where log P = const. - 2(x - x,) 1 /^ 1 - Z2J[(x - x,) /,' -
2(x x,)'/y r '], S denoting summation over all the observations.
According to the " method of least squares," the solution is the
weighted arithmetic mean of the observations, the weight of any
observation being inversely proportional to the corresponding
mean square, i.e. c r */2 (the terms of the integral which involve j
vanishing), which would be the solution if the j's are all zero. We
put for the solution of the given case what is known to be the solution
of an essentially different case. How can this paradox be justified?
135. Many of the answers which have been given to this question
seem to come to this. When the data are unmanageable, it is legiti-
mate to attend to a part thereof, and to determine the most probable
(or the " most advantageous ") value of the quaesitum, and the
degree of its accuracy, from the selected portion of the data as if it
formed the whole. This throwing overboard of part of the data in
order to utilize the remainder has often to be resorted to in the
rough course of applied probabilities. Thus an insurance office
only takes account of tha age and some other simple attribute? of
its customers, though a better bargain might be made in particular
cases by taking into account all available details. The nature of
the method is particularly clear in the case where the given set of
observations consists of several batches, the observations in any
batch ranging under the same law of frequency with mean x T
and mean square of error k,, the function and the constants different
for different batches; then if we confine our attention to those parts
of the data which are of the type x' r and fe. ignoring what else may
be given as to the laws of error we may treat the x' r 's as <so many
observations, each ranging under the normal law of error with its
coefficient of dispersion; and apply the rules proper to the normal
law. Those rules applied to the data, considered as a set of deriva-
tive observations each formed by a batch of the original observations)
averaged, give as the most probable (and also the most advantageous
combination of the observations the arithmetic mean weighted
according to the inverse mean square pertaining to each observation,
and for the law of the error to which the determination is liable
the normal law with standard deviation V (24/n) the very rules
that are prescribed by the method of least squares.
136. The principle involved might be illustrated by the proposal
to make the economy of datum a little less rigid : to utilize, not in-
deed all, but a little more of our materials not only the mean
square of error for each batch, but also the mean cube of error. To
begin with the simple case of a single homogenous batch: suppose
that in our example the fragments of the shell are no longer scattered
according to the normal law. By the method of least squares it
would still be proper to put the arithmetic mean to the given observa-
tions for the true point required, and to measure the accuracy of
that determination by a probability-curve of which the modulus is
V (2k), where k is the mean square of deviation (of fragments from
their mean). If it is thought desirable to utilize more of the data
there is available, the proposition that the arithmetic mean of a
of Science, 2nd ed. p. 146). See also " A priori Probabilities," Phil.
Mag. (Sept. 1884), and Camb. Phil. Trans. (1885), vol. xiv. pt. ii.
P- '47 seq-
7 Above, pars. 6, 7.
8 The mean square J"+* (xVV ) exp - x^dx = c*[a.
The standard deviation pertaining to a set of (n/r) composite
observations, each derived from the original n observations by
averaging a batch thereof numbering r, is V (*/r)/V (/) = V (k/n),
when the given observations are all of the same weight; mutatis
mutandis when the weights differ.
PROBABILITY
[LAWS OF ERROR
numerous set of observations, say x, x, . . . x (taken as a sample
from an indefinitely large group obeying any the same law of
frequency) varies from set to set approximately according to the
following law (to be established later)
~ V5t exp L"'
where c*/2 the mean square of deviation, and j = the mean
cube of deviation, and j/Cj, say j, is small. Then, by abstrac-
tion analogous to that which has just been attributed to the
method of least squares, we may regard the datum as a single
observation, the arithmetic mean (of a sample batch of obser-
vations) subject to the law of error z=/(x). The most probable
value of the quaesitum is therefore given by the equation /'(x x')
= O, where x' is the arithmetic mean of the given observations.
From the resulting quadratic equation, putting x = x' + e, and
recollecting that e is small we have = jc. That is the correction
due to the utilization of the mean cube of error. The most advan-
tageous solution cannot now be determined, 1 f(x) being unsymmetri-
cal, without assuming a particular form for the function of detriment.
This method of least squares plus cubes may easily be extended to
the case of several batches.
137. This application of probabilities not to the actual data but
to a selected part thereof, this economy of the inverse method, is
widely practised in miscellaneous statistics, where the object is to
determine whether the discrepancy between two sets of observation
is accidental or significant of a real difference. 2 For instance, let
the data be ages at death of individuals of two classes (e.g. temperate
or not so, urban or rural, &c.) who have been under observation,
since the age of, say, 20. Granted that the ages at death conform
to Gompertz's law; the determination of the modal age at death,
that age at which the proportion of the total observed dying (per
unit of time) is a maximum for each class, would most perfectly
be effected by the genuine inverse method. That method will also
enable us to determine the probability that the two modes should
have differed to the observed extent by mere accident. 3 According
to the abridged method it suffices to proceed as if our data con-
sisted of two observations x' and y', the average ages at death
of the two classes, each average obeying the normal law of error,
with respective moduli c\ = V"Rx' x,) 1 + (x' xtf + &c.]2~Jn,
a V [(/ yi) 2 + (/ ytf + &c.]2/n, where Xi, x 2 , &c., y\ y 2 , &c.,
are the respective sets of observed ages at death ; as follows from
the law of error, whatever the law of distribution of the given
observations. According to a well-known property of the normal
law, the difference between the averages of n and n' observations
respectively will range under a probability-curve with modulus
V ci 2 + cf, say c. Whence for the probability that a difference as
great as the observed one, say e, should have occurred by
chance we have $[IO(T)], where T = ejc, and 6(x) is the integral
2/V T f*(exp = Xz)dx, given in many treatises.
138. This sort of abridgment may be extended to other kinds of
average besides the arithmetic, in particular the median (that point
which has as many of the given observations above as
M ha below it). By simple induction we know that the
median of a large sample of observations is a probable
value for the true median; how probable is determined as follows
from a selection of our data. First suppose that all the observa-
tions are of the same weight. If x' were the true median,
the probability that as many as Jn + r of the observations should
fall on either side of that point is given by the normal law for which
the exponent is 2r 2 /. 4 This probability that the observed median
will differ from the true one by a certain number of observations is
connected with the probability that they will differ by a certain
extent of the abscissa, by the proposition that the number of obser-
vations contained between the true and apparent median is equal
to the small difference between them multiplied by the density of
observations at the median in the case of normal and generally
symmetrical curves the greatest ordinate. This is the second datum
we require to select. In the case of the normal curve it may be
calculated from the modulus itself, determined by induction from a
selection of data. If the observations are not all of the same worth,
weight may be assigned by counting one observation as if it occurred
oftener than another. This is the essence of Laplace's Method
of Situation. 6
1 The use of the cubes is also contrasted with that of the squares
(only) in this respect : that it is no longer a matter of indifference
how many of the original observations we assign to the batch of which
the mean constitutes the single (compound) observation.
1 The object of the writer's paper on " Methods of Statistics "
in the Jubilee number of the Journ. Stat. Soc. (1885).
* See on the use of the inverse method to determine the mode of
a group, the present writer's paper on " Probable Errors " in the
Journ. Stat. Soc. (Sept. 1908).
4 Above, par. 103.
1 Theorie analytique, 2nd supp. p. 164. Mecanique celeste,
bk. iii. art. 40; on which see the note in Bowdich's translation.
The method may be extended to other percentiles. See Czuber,
Beobachtungsfehler, 58. Cf . Phil. Mag. ( 1 886) , p. 375 ; and Sheppard ,
139. In its simplest form, where all the given observations are ol
equal weight, this method is of wide applicability. Compared
with the genuine inverse method, it is always more convenient,
seldom much less accurate, sometimes even more accurate. If the
given observations obey the normal law, the precision of the median
is less than the precision of the arithmetic mean by only some 25 %
a discrepancy not very serious where only a rough estimate of the
worth of an average is required. If the observations do not obey
the normal law especially if the extremities are abnormally diver-
gent the precision of the median may be greater than that of the
arithmetic mean. 6
140. Yet another instance of the contrast between genuine and
abridged inversion is afforded by the problem to determine the
modulus as well as the mean for a set of observations e<erm _.
known to obey the normal law; what the first problem 7
becomes when the coefficient of dispersion is not given, pnquency-
By inverse probability we ought in that case, in addition Constaa
to the equation dP/dx = o, to put dP/dc = o. Whence
c 2 = 2 [(*' - x,) 2 + (x' - x 8 ) 2 + &c. + (x' - x,) 2 ] /n, and x' =
(xi + Xj + &c. + x")/n. This solution differs from that which is
often given in the textbooks 8 in that there, in the expression for
c 2 , (n l) occurs in the denominator instead of n. The difference
is explained by the fact that the authorities referred to determine c,
not by genuine inversion, but by ordinary induction, by a condition
which certainly would be fulfilled in the long run, but does not
express the whole_of our data; a condition in this respect like the
equation of c to V ir(2e)/w, where e is the difference (taken positively,
without regard to its sign) between any observation and the arithme-
tic mean of all the observations. 9
141. Of course the determination of the most probable value is
subject to the speculative difficulties proper to a priori probability:
which are particularly striking in this case, as it appears equally
natural to take as that constant, of which the values are a priori
equally probable, (=c 2 /2), or even 10 h( = l/c 2 ), the measure of
weight, as in fact Laplace has done ; u yet no two of these assumptions
can be exactly true. 12
142. A more convenient determination is obtained from simple
induction by equating the modulus to some datum of the observed
group to which it would be equal if the group were complete^
in particular to the distance from the median of some percentile
(or point which marks off a certain percentage, e.g 25 of the given
observations) multiplied by a factor corresponding to the percentile
obtainable from a familiar table. Mr Sheppard has given an interest-
ing proof 13 that we cannot by way of percentiles obtain such good 14
results for the frequency-constants as by the use of " the average
and average square " [the method prescribed by inverse probability].
143. The same philosophical subtleties, with greater mathematical
complications, meet us when we pass on to the case of two or more
quaesita. The problem under this head which mainly Entanzled
exercised the older writers was to determine a number of j^gyg^.
unknown quantities, given a larger number, n, of equa-
tions involving them.
144. Supposing the true values approximately known, by substi-
tuting the approximate values in the given equations and expanding
according to Taylor's theorem, there will be obtained for the correc-
tions, say x, y. . . , n linear equations of the form
where each a and 6 is a known coefficient, and each / is a
fallible observation. Suppose tha-t the error to which each is
liable obeys the normal law, and that the modulus pertaining to each
observation is the same which latter condition can be secured by
multiplying each equation by a proper factor then if x' and y'
are the true values of the quaesita, the frequency with which
(oix' + b\y' /i) assumes different values is given by the equation
z= l/(V~:') exp [aix + b\y fi] 2 /ci 2 , where c t is a constant which,
s. Roy. Soc. (1889), 192, p. 135, ante, where the error incident
to this kind of determination is ascertained with much precision.
6 Cf . Phil. Mag. (1887), xxiv. 269 seq., where the median is pre-
scribed in case of " discordant " (heterogeneous) observations. If the
more drastic remedy of rejecting part of the data is resorted to
Sheppard's method of performing that operation may be recom-
mended (Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vol. 31). He prescribes for cases to
which the median may not be appropriate, namely, the determination
of other frequency-constants besides the mean of the observations.
7 Above, par. 134.
8 E.g. Airy, Theory of Errors, art. 60.
It is a nice point that the expression for c 2 , which has (n l)
instead of n for denominator, though not the more probable, may yet
be the more advantageous (supposing that there were any sensible
difference between the two). Cf. Camb. Phil. Trans. (1885), vol. xiv.
pt. ii. p. 165 ; and " Probable Errors," Journ. Stat. Soc. (June 1908).
10 Above, par. 96, note.
11 Theorie analytique, 2nd supp. ed. 1847, p. 578.
12 See the matter discussed in Camb. Phil. Trans., loc. cit.
13 Trans. Roy. Soc. (1899), A, cxcii. 135.
14 Good as tested by a comparison of the mean squares of errors
in the frequency-constant determined by the compared methods.
LAWS OF ERROR]
PROBABILITY
399
if not known beforehand, may be inferred, as in the simpler case,
from a set of observations. Similar statements holding for the
other equations, the probability that the given set of observations
/i i ft, & c -> should have resultea from a particular system of values
for x, y..is J exp [(a 1 x+b t y-(tf/cS + (a t x+b l y-f,)*/ct+&c.],
where J is a constant determined on the same principle as in the
analogous simpler cases. 1 The condition that P should be a
maximum gives as many linear equations for the determination
of x' y' . . . as there are unknown quantities.
145. The solution proper to the case where the observations are
known to arrange according to the normal law may be extended to
numerous observations ranging under any law, on the principles
which justify the use of the Method of Least Squares in the case of
a single quaesitum.
146. As in that simple case, the principle of economy will now
justify the use of the median, e.g. in the case of two quaenta, putting
for the true values of x and y that point for which the sum of the
perpendiculars let fall from it on each of a set of lines representing
the given equations (properly weighted) is a minimum. 1
147. The older writers have expressed the error in the determina-
tion of one of the variables without reference to the error in the
other. But the error of one variable may be regarded
, as correlated with that of another; that is, if the system
""x', y' . . . forms the solution of the given equations,
while *'+{, y +17 ... is the real system, the (small) values of
,?j.... which will concur in the long run of systems from which the
given set of observations result are normally correlated. From
this point of view Bravais, in 1846, was led to several theorems
which are applicable to the now more important case of correlation
in which and ij are given (not in general small) deviations from
the means of two or morejcorrelated members (organs or attributes)
forming a normal group.
148. To determine the frequency-constants of such a group it is
proper to proceed on the analogy of the simple case of one-dimen-
sioned error. In the case of two dimensions, for instance, the
probability pi that a given pair of observations (*i, y\) should
have resulted from a normal group of which the means are *' y'
respectively, the standard deviations a\ and at and the coefficient of
correlation r, may be written
A*AyA<7iAo- 2 Ar(l/2jr) \ViTj(l r j ) exp JE 1 ,
where E 2 = (x' - xtf/rf - 2r(x' - *,)(/ - y,)/<n ? . + (y' - ytf/rf.
A similar statement holds for each other pair of observations
(xtyt), (xtya). . .; with analogous expressions for fa, p t . .. Whence,
as in the simpler case, we have piXpsX&c.Xpn/J (a constant)
for P, the a posteriori probability that the given observations should
have resulted from an assigned system of the frequency-constants.
The most probable system is determined by making P a maximum,
and accordingly equating to zero each of the following expressions
dP dP dP dP dP
dx, dy, dai, dai, ~3f.
The values of the arithmetic mean and of the standard deviation
for each variable are what have been obtained in the simple case
of one dimension. The value of r is Z(x' x,)(y' y,)/am.* The
probable error of the determination is assigned on the assumption
that the errors to which it is liable are small. 4 Such coefficients
have already been calculated for a great number of interesting cases.
For instance, the coefficient of correlation between the Tiuman
stature and femur is 0-8, between the right and left femur is 0-96,
between the statures of husbands and wives is 0-28.'
149. This application of inverse probability to determine correla-
tion-coefficients and the error to which the determination is liable
has been largely employed by Professor Pearson 6 and other recent
writers. The use of the normal formula to measure the probable
and improbable-^errors incident to such determinations is justified
by reasoning akin to that which has been employed in the general
proof of the law of error. 7 Professor Pearson has pointed out a
circumstance which seems to be of great importance in the theory
of evolution: that the errors incident to the determination of
different frequency-coefficients are apt to be mutually correlated.
Thus if a random selection be made from a certain population, the
correlation-coefficient which fits the organs of that set is apt to differ
from the coefficient proper to the complete group in the same sense
as some other frequency-coefficients.
150. The last remark applies also to the determination of the
coefficients, in particular those of correlation, by abridged methods,
on principles explained with reference to the simple case; for instance
by the formula r = Zij/Sj|, where S{ is the sum of (some or all) the
1 Above, par. 130.
'SeeP/ti/. Mag. (1888), " On a New Method of Reducing
Observations " ; where a comparison in respect of convenience ana
accuracy with the received method is attempted.
1 Corresponding to the fe/Vlm of pars. 14, 127 above.
1 Pearson, Trans. Roy. Soc., A, 191, p. 234.
* Pearson, Grammar of Science, 2nd ed. p. 402, 431.
Trans. Roy. Soc. (1898), A, vol. 191 ; Biometrika, ii. 273.
7 Above, par. 107. Compare the proof of the " Subsidiary Law
of Error," as the law in this connexion may be called, in the paper
on " Probable Errors," Journ. Slat. Soc. (June 1908).
positive (or the negative) deviations of the values for one organ
or attribute measured by the modulus pertaining to that member,
and Zij is the sum of the values of the other member, which are
associated with the constituents of S{. This variety of this method
is certainly much less troublesome, and is perhaps not much less
accurate, than the method prescribed by genuine inversion.
151. A method of rejecting data analogous to the use of percentiles
in one dimension is practised when, given the frequency of observa-
tions for each increment of area, e.g. each A* Ay, we utilize only
the frequency for integral areas. Mr Sheppard has given an elegant
solution of the problem: to find the correlation between two
attributes, given the medians L, and M, of a normal group for each
attribute and the distribution of the total group, as thus.'
Below L,
Above L,
BelovfM,
P
R
Above M,
R
P
FIG. 12.
If cos D is put for r, the coefficient of correlation, it is found
that D = iR/(P+R). For example, let the group of statistics
relating to dice already 'cited from Professor Weldon be arranged
in four quadrants by a horizontal and a vertical line, each of which
separates the total groups into two halves: lines of which equa-
tions prove to be respectively y = 6-n and x = 6-i56. For R we
have 1360-5, and for P 687-5 roughly. Whence D = irXo-66; r =
cos p-66 XT = J nearly, as it ought ; the negative sign being
required by the circumstance that the lower part of Mr Sheppard's
diagram shown in fig. 12 corresponds to the upper part of Professor
Weldon's diagram shown in par. 115.
152. Necessity rather than convenience is sometimes the motive
for resort to percentiles. Professor Pearson has applied the median
method to determine the correlation between husbands and wives
in respect of the darkness of eye-colour, a character which does not
admit of exact graduation: "our numbers merely refer to certain
groupings, arranged, it is true, in increasing darkness of colour, but
in no way corresponding to equal increases in colour-intensity." 10
From data of this sort, having ascertained the number of husbands
with eye-colours above the median tint who marry wives with eye-
colour above the median tint, Professor Pearson finds for r the
coefficient of correlation +0-1. A general method for determining
the frequency-constants when the data are, or are taken to be,
of the integral sort has been given by Professor Pearson." Attention
should also be called to Mr Yule's treatment of the problem by a
sort of logical calculus on the lines of Boole and Jevons. 12
153. In the cases of correlation which have been so far considered,
it has been presupposed that the things correlated range according
to the normal law of error. But now, suppose the law
of distribution to be no longer normal : for instance, that
the dots on the plane of xy, 11 representing each a pair of
members, are no longer grouped in elliptic (or circular) rings of
equal frequency, that the locus of the maximum y deviation,
corresponding to an assigned x deviation, is no longer a right
line. How is the interdependence of these deviations to be
formulated? It is submitted that such data may be treated as if
they were normal : by an extension of the Method of Least Squares,
in two or more dimensions. 14 Thus when the amount of pauperism
together with the amount of outdoor relief is plotted in several unions
there is obtained a distribution far from normal. Nevertheless if
the average pauperism and average outdoor relief are taken for
aggregates say quintettes or decades-^-of unions taken at random, it
may be expected that these means will conform to the normal law,
with coefficients obtained from the original data, according to the
rule which is proper to the case of the normal law. 16 By obtaining
averages conforming to the normal law, as by the simple application
of the method of least squares, we should not indeed have utilized
the whole of our data, but we shall put a part of it in a very useful
Trans. Roy. Soc. (1899), A, 192, p. 141.
'Above, par. 115.
10 Grammar of Science, p. 432.
Trans. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 195. In this connexion reference
should also be made to Pearson's theory of " Contingency " in his
thirteenth contribution to the " Mathematical Theory of Evolution "
(Drapers' Company Research Memoirs).
11 Trans. Roy. Soc. (1900), A, 194, p. 257; (1901), A, 197,
p. 91.
11 Above, par. 127.
14 Above, par. 116.
15 If from the given set of n observations (each corresponding to a
point on the plane xy) there is derived a set of n/s observations
each obtained by averaging a batch numbering s of the original
observation; the coefficient of correlation for the derived system is
the same as that which pertains to the original system. As to
the standard deviation for the new system see note to par. 135.
400
PROBABILITY
[LAWS OF ERROR
shape. Although the regression-equations obtained would not
accurately fit the original material, yet they would have a certain
correspondence thereto. What sort of correspondence may be
illustrated by an example in games of chance, which Professor
Weldon kindly supplied. Three half-dozen of dice having been
thrown, the number of dice with
more than three points in that dozgn
which is made up of the first and
the second half-dozen is taken for y,
the number of sixes in the dozen
made up to the first and the third
half-dozen, is taken for x. Thus
each twofold observation (xy) is the
sum of six twofold elements, each of
which is subject to a law of fre-
quency represented in fig. 13 ; where *
the figures outside denote the num-
ber of successes of each kind, for the
ordinate the number of dice with
more than three points (out of a cast
FIG. 13. o f t wo dice), for the co-ordinate the
number of sixes (out of a cast of two dice, one of which is common
to the aforesaid cast) ; and the figures inside denote the comparative
probabilities of each twofold value (e.g. the probability of obtain-
ing in the first two cast dice each with more than three points, and
in the second cast two sixes, is 1/72). Treating this law of fre-
quency according to the rule which is proper to the normal law,
we have (for the element) if the sides of the compartments each=i
1
7
72
72
41
IO
72
7Z
IS
T2
3
72
O
Whence for the regression-equation which gives the value of the
ordinate most probably associated with an assigned value of the
abscissa we have y=*Xr<r 2 /ffi=o-3*; and for the other regression-
equation, x=y/6. Accordingly, in Professor Weldon's statistics,
which are reproduced in the annexed diagram, when x = 3 the
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
12
i
11
4
3
3
3
i
10
3
17
15
13
IO
4
3
i
9
12
5
59
61
36
H
5
3
8
36
135
154
150
64
21
5
2
I
7
74
195
260
179
112
35
5
I
6
90
248
254
170
75
26
3
5
93
220
230
124
5i
8
2
4
86
162
127
75
19
4
I
3
37
86
56
17
6
2
2
14
23
23
4
3
1
2
4
most probable value of y ought to be I. And in fact this expectation
is verified, x and y being measured along lines drawn through the
centre of the compartment, which ought to have the maximum of
content, representing the concurrence of one dozen with two sixes
and another dozen with six dice having each more than three points,
the compartment which in fact contains 254 (almost the maximum
content). In the absence of observations at *= 3* or V~ , 6 *'
the regression-equations cannot be further verified. At least they
have begun to be verified by batches composed of six elements,
whereas they are not verifiable at all for the simple elements. The
normal formula describes the given statistics as they behave, not
when by themselves, but when massed in crowds: the regression-
equation does not tell us that if x' is the magnitude of one member
the most probable magnitude of the other member associated there-
with is r* , but that if x' is the average of several samples of the first
member, then rx 1 is the most probable average for the specimens
of the other member associated with those samples. Mr Yule s
proposal to construct regression-equations according to the normal
rule " without troubling to investigate the normality of the distri-
bution "* admits of this among other explanations. 3 Mr Yules
own view of the subject is well worthy of attention.
>Cf. above, par. 115. * Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 60, p. 477-
* Below, par. 168.
154. In the determination of the standard-deviation proper to the
law of error (and other constants proper to other laws of frequency)
it commonly happens that besides the inaccuracy,
which has been estimated, due to the paucity of the
data, there is an inaccuracy due to their discrete charac-
ter: the circumstance that measurement, e.g. of human heights, are
given in comparatively large units, e.g. inches, while the real objects
are more perfectly graduated. Mr Sheppard has prescribed a remedy
for this imperfection. For the standard deviation let m be the
rough value obtained on the supposition that the observations
are massed at intervals of unit length (not spread out continuously,
as ideal measurements would be) ; then the proper value, the mean
integral of deviation squared, say (pu)=H2 &h 2 , where h is the size
of a unit, e.g. an inch. It is not to be objected to this correction
that it becomes nugatory when it is less than the probable error to
which the measurement is liable on account of the paucity of obser-
vations. For, as the correction is always in one direction, that of
subtraction, it tends in the long run to be advantageous even though
masked in particular instances by larger fluctuating errors. 4
155. Professor Pearson has given a beautiful application of the
theory of correlation to test the empirical evidence that a given
group conforms to a proposed formula, e.g. the normal ,
law of error. 6
Criterion at
Empirical
Verification.
Supposing the constants of the proposed function to
be known in the case of the normal law the arith-
metic mean and modulus we could determine the '
position of any percentile, e.g. the median, say a. Now the pro-
bability that if any sample numbering n were taken at random
from the complete group, the median of the sample, a', would lie at
such a distance from a that there should be r observations between
/*oo
a and a' is I V2/irn exp 2r 2 /n. *
If, then, any observed set has an excess which makes the above
written integral very small, the set has probably not been formed
by a random selection from the supposed given complete group.
To extend this method to the case of two, or generally n, percentiles,
forming (n + i) compartments, it must be observed thatthe excesses
say e and e', are not independent but correlated. To measure the
probability of obtaining a pair of excesses respectively as large as
e and e', we have now (corresponding to the extremity of the pro-
bability-curve in the simple case) the solid content of a certain
probability-surface outside the curve of equal probability which
passes through the points on the plane xy assigned by e, e' (and the
other data). This double, or in general multiple, integral, say P, is
expressed by Professor Pearson with great elegance in terms of
the quadratic factor, called by him x 2 . which forms the exponent of
the expression for the probability that a particular system of the
values of the correlated e, e', &c., should concur
i-3
1^-:
when n is odd; with an expression different in form, but nearly
coincident in result, when n is even. The practical rule derived
from this general theorem may thus be stated. Find from the given
observations the probable values of the coefficients pertaining to
the formula which is supposed to represent the observations.
Calculate from the coefficients a certain number, say n, of percentiles ;
thereby dividing the given set into n + 1 sections, any of which,
according to calculation, ought to contain say m of the observations,
while in fact it contains m'. Put e for m' m; then x 2 = 2e 2 /m.
Professor Pearson has given in an appended table the values of P
corresponding to values of n + i up to 20, and values of x 2 up to 70.
He does not conceal that there is some laxity involved in the circum-
stance that the coefficients employed are not known exactly, only
inferred with probability.'
156. Here is one of Professor Pearson's illustrations. The table
on next page gives the distribution of 1000 shots fired at a line in a
target, the hits being arranged in belts drawn on the target parallel
to the line. The " normal distribution " is obtained from a
normal curve, of which the coefficients are determined from the
observations. From the value of x 2 . v i z - 45'8, and of (n + i).
viz. II, we deduce, with sufficient accuracy from Professor Pearson's
table, or more exactly from the .formula on which the table is based,
that P = -ooo,ooi,5' . "In other words, if shots are distributed
on a target according to the normal law, then such a distribution
as that cited could only be expected to occur on an average some
15 or 16 times in 10,000,000 times."
157. " Such a distribution " in this argument must be inter-
preted as a distribution for which it is claimed that the The
observations are all independent of each other. Suppose Criterion
that there were only 500 independent observations, the Criticized.
remainder being merely duplicates of these 500. Then in the above
* Just as the removal of a tax tends to be in the long run beneficial
to the consumer, though the benefit on any particular occasion may
be masked by fluctuations of price due to other causes.
5 Phil. Mag. (July, 1900). 6 As shown above, par. 103.
7 Loc. cit. p. 166.
LAWS OF ERROR]
PROBABILITY
401
table the columns for the normal distribution and for the discrepancy
e should each be halved ; and accordingly the column for e*/m should
be halved. Thus e*jm being reduced to 22-9, P as found from Pro-
fessor Pearson's table is between 995 and 629. That is, such a
distribution might be expected to occur once on an average some
once or twice in a hundred times. If actual duplication of this sort
is not common in statistics, 1 yet in all such applications of the
Observed
Normal
Belt.
Frequency.
Distribution.
e.
<?lm.
i
i
i
o
2
4
6
. 2
0-667
3
10
27
-17
10-704
4
89
67
+22
7-224
5
190
162
+28
6
212
242
-30
3-7I9
8 7
2O4
193
240
157
-36
+36
5-400
8-255
9
79
70
+ 9
I-I57
10
16
26
10
3-846
ii
2
2
o
o
E
IOOO
IOOO
45-811
sonian criterion and in other calculations involving the num-
ber of observations, in particular the determinations of probable error
a good margin is to be left for the possibility that the n observa-
tions are not perfectly independent: e.g. the accidents of wind or
nerve which affected one shot may have affected other shots
immediately before or after.
158. (2) The Generalized Law of Error. That the normal law of
error should not be exactly fulfilled is not disconcerting to those who
ground the law upon the plurality of independent causes. On that
view the normal law would only be exact when the numbers of ele-
ments from which it is generated is very great. In general, when
that number is large, but not indefinitely great, 2 there is required a
correction owing to one or other of the following imperfections:
that the elements do not fluctuate according to the normal law of
frequency; that their fluctuations are not independent of each other;
that the function whereby they are aggregated is not linear. The
correction is formed by a series of terms descending in the order
of magnitude.
159. The first term of this series may be written
Second
uad Third
Approxima-
tions.
where c J /2 is the mean square of deviation for the compound and
also the sum of the mean squares of deviations for the component
elements, ki is the mean cube of deviations for the
compound and the sum of the mean cubes for the com-
ponents, and the elements are supposed to be such and
so numerous that fei/c 3 is of the order i/V n. This second
approximation, first given by Poisson, was rediscovered
by De Forest.* The present writer has obtained it 4 by a variety of
methods. By a further extension of these methods a third and
further approximations may be found. The corrected normal law
is then of the form 6
where k = fei/c", k 2 = fez/c 4 , fei and c are defined as above, h is the sum
of the respective differences for each element between its mean
fourth power of error and thrice its mean square of error,* and also
the corresponding difference for the compound. The formula may
be verified by the case of the binomial, considered as a simple case
of the law of great numbers. Here
c 2 = 2npq, ki = npq (qp~), k t = npq (i - 6pq). J
1 It is frequent in the statistics of wages.
* See on this subject, in addition to the paper on the " Law of
Error " already cited (Camb. Phil. Trans., 1905), another paper by
the present writer, on " The Generalized Law of Error," in the Journ.
Stat. Soc. (September, 1906).
1 The Analyst (Iowa), vol. ix.
*Phil. Mag (Feb.Ji896) and Camb. Phil. Trans. (1905).
'The part of the third approximation affected with k* may be
found by proceeding to another step in the method described (Phil.
Mag., 1896, p. 96). The remaining part of the third approxima-
tion is found by the same method (or the variant on p. 97) from the
new partial differential equation ^ = ^73^. where kj, is the differ-
ence between the actual mean fourth power of deviation and what it
would be if the normal law held good. Further approximations may
be obtained on the same principle.
*M4 3M 2 in the notation which Professor Pearson has made
familiar.
' Cf. Pearson, Trans. Roy. Soc. (1895), A, clxxxvi. 347.
These values beine substituted for the coefficients in the general
formula, there results an expression which may be obtained directly
by continuing 8 to expand the expression for a term of the binomial.
In virtue of the second approximation a set of observations
is not to be excluded from the affinity to the normal curve because,
like the curve of barometric heights, 9 it is slightly asymmetrical.
In virtue of the third approximation it is not excluded because,
like the group of shot-marks above examined, it is, though almost
perfectly symmetrical, in other respects apparently somewhat
abnormal.
160. If the third approximation is not satisfactory there is still
available a fourth, or a still higher degree of approximation. 10
The general expression for y which (multiplied by AX) . .
represents the probability that an error will occur at a ^p rox/m-
particular point (within a particular small interval) yfL
may be written
d\ 4 ... i /d\<+2
k is the
eX fl 2k
where yn is (the normal error-function) , ; i f
mean square of deviation; k\, kt,..., Sec., are coefficients formed
from the mean powers of deviation according to the rule that k, is the
difference between the tth mean power as it actually is and what it
would be if the (t i)th approximation were perfectly correct. Thus k\
is the difference between the actual mean third power and what the
third power would be if the first approximation, the normal law, were
perfectly correct, that is, the difference between the actual mean
third power, often written in, and zero, that is MJ- Similarly fe is
the difference between the actual mean fourth power of deviation,
say 114, and what that mean power would be if the second approxima-
tion were perfectly correct, viz. 3^. Thus k%=m 3& 1 . The series
ki, kt, k 6> &c., k, k 2 , ki, &c., form each a succession of terms descend-
ing in the order of magnitude, when each k, e.g. k t has been divided
by the corresponding power, i.e. the power (t-\-2) of the parameter or
modulus c = V (2k), which division is secured by the successive differ-
entiations of y<t, with which each k is associated, e.g. kt with ( T-J
Moreover, the first term of the odd series of k's when divided by
the proper power of the parameter, viz. c s is small in comparison
with the first term of the even series, viz. k, properly referred
divided by c 2 ( = 2k).
161. Whatever the degree of approximation employed, it is to be
remembered that the law in general is only applicable to a certain
range of the compound magnitude here represented by
the abscissa #. u The curve of error, even when general- '
ized as here proposed, coincides only with the central *
portion the body, as distinguished from the extremities ^?f
of the actual locus; a greater or less proportion.
162. The law thus generalized may be extended, with similar
reservations, to two or more dimensions. For example, the second
approximation in two dimensions may be written
20 ~
d 3 z<,
-
Extension
to Two or
More
Dimen-
sions.
where Zo is (the normal error-function)
I pxn (x 2 -2rxy+y 2 )
ir(l - I 2 ) exp ' (i - r 2 ) '
x and y are (as before) co-ordinates measured from the centre of
gravity of the group as origin, each referred to (divided by) its proper
modulus; r is the ordinary coefficient of regression; t,ok is the mean
value of the cubes x s , j,ik is the mean value of the products x^, and
so on; all these k's being quantities of an order less than unity.
This form lends itself readily to the determination of a second approxi-
mation to the regression-curve, which is the locus of that y, which
is the most probable value of the prdinate corresponding to an
assigned value of x. Form the logarithm of the above-written ex-
pression (for the frequency-surface) ; and differentiate that logarithm
with respect to x. The required locus is given by equating this
8 Above, 103, referring to Todhunter, History, art. 993. The
third (or second additional term of) approximation for the binomial,
given explicitly by Professor Pearson, Trans. Roy. Soc. (1895), A,
footnote of p. 347, will be found to agree with the general formula
above given, when it is observed that the correction affecting the
absolute term, his y<,, disappears in his formula by division.
Journ. Stat. Soc. (1899), p. 550, referring to Pearson, Trans. Roy.
Soc. (1898), A.
10 Practically no doubt the law is not available beyond the third
or fourth approximation, for a reason given by Pearson, with refer-
ence to his generalized probability-curve, that the probable error
incident to the determination of the higher moments becomes very
great.
11 This consideration does not present the determination of the
true moments from the complete set of observations if homogeneous,
according as the system of elements fulfils more or less perfectly
certain conditions.
402
PROBABILITY
[LAWS OF FREQUENCY
differential to zero (the second differential being always negative).
The resulting equation is of the form
y rx T ax 2 2|3xy -yy ! = o,
where T, a, /3, y are all small, linear functions of the k's. As y is
nearly equal to r x, it is legitimate to substitute r x for y, when y is
multiplied by a small coefficient. The curve of regression thus
reduces to a parabola with equation of the form
y-T = rx-qx 2 ;
where q is a linear function of the third mean powers and moments
of the given group.
163. Dissection of certain Heterogeneous Groups. Under the
head of law of error may be placed the case in which statistics
relating to two (or more) different types, each separately con-
forming to the normal law, are mixed together; for instance,
the measurements of human heights in a country comprising
two distinct races.
In this case the quaesita are the constants in a curve of the form :
i) exp-(x-a) 2 /c, 2 +0(i/V: 2 ) exp - (* - 6) 2 /c 2 2 ,
where a and /8 are the proportionate sizes of the two groups
(a+0= l) ; a and b are the respective centres of gravity; and ci, c
the respective moduli. The data are measurements each of which
relates to one or other of these component curves. A splendid
solution of this difficult problem has been given by Professor Pearson.
The five unknown quantities are connected by him with the centre
of gravity of the given observations, and the mean second, third,
fourth and fifth powers of their deviations from that centre of gravity,
by certain rational algebraic equations, which reduce to an equation
in one variable of the ninth dimension. In an example worked by
Professor Pearson this fundamental equation had three possible
roots, two of which gave very fair solutions of the problem, while the
third suggested that there might be a negative solution, importing that
the given system would be obtained by subtracting one of the normal
groups from the other; but the coefficients for the negative solution
proved to be imaginary. " In the case of crabs' foreheads, therefore,
we cannot represent the frequency curve for their forehead length as
the difference of two normal curves." In another case, which prima
facie seemed normal, Professor Pearson found that " all nine roots
of the fundamental nonic lead to imaginary solutions of the problem.
The best and most accurate representation is the normal curve."
164. This laborious method of separation seems best suited to
cases in which it is known beforehand that the statistics are a mix-
ture of two normal groups, or at least this is strongly suggested by
the two-headed character of the given group. Otherwise the less
troublesome generalized law of error may be preferable, as it is appro-
priate both to the mixture of two not very widely different normal
groups, and also the other cases of composition. Even when a
group of statistics can be broken up into two or three frequency
curves of the normal or not very abnormal type, the group may-
yet be adequately represented by a single curve of the " generalized '
type, provided that the heterogeneity is not very great, not great
enough to prevent the constants ki, k s , k a , &c., from being small.
Thus, suppose the given group to consist of two normal curves
each having the same modulus c, and that the distance between the
centres is considerable, so considerable as just to cause the central
portion of the total group to become saddle-backed. This pheno-
menon sets in when the distance between the centre of gravity of the
system and the centre of either component = V ic. 1 Even in this
case ki is only 0-125; k is 0-25 (the odd k's are zero).
Section II. Laws of Frequency.
165. A formula much more comprehensive than the corrected
normal law is proposed by Professor Pearson under the The
designation of the " generalized probability-curve." " Genera/-
The ground and scope of the new law cannot be better IzedProba-
stated than in the words of the author: " The slope of blllty
the normal curve is given by a relation the form Curve."
J_dy_ _x
ydx ci'
The slope of the curve correlated to the skew binomial, as the
normal curve to the symmetrical binomial, is given by a relation of
the form
__
ydx~
Finally, the slope of the curve correlated to the hypergeometrical
series (which expresses a probability distribution in which the
contributory causes are not independent, and not equally likely to
give equal deviations in excess and defect), as the above curves to
their respective binomials, is given by a relation of the form
1 Cf. Journ. Stat. Soc. (1899), Ixii. 131. A similar substitution of
the generalized law of error may be recommended in preference to
the method of translating a normal law of error (putting x=/(x),
where x obeys the normal law of error) suggested by the present
writer (Journ. Stat. Soc., 1898), and independently by Professor J. C.
Kapteyn (Skew Frequency Curves, 1903).
y dx ci-t-c^+csx 2 '
This latter curve comprises the two others as special cases, and, so
far as my investigations have yet gone, practically covers all
homogeneous statistics that I have had to deal with. Something
still _more general may be conceivable, but I have found no necessity
for it." ! The " hypergeometrical series," it should be explained,
had appeared as representative of the distribution of black balls, 1
in the following case. " Take n balls in a bag, of which pn are black
and qn are white, and let r balls be drawn and the number of black
be recorded. If r > pn, the range of black balls will lie between o and
pn; the resulting frequency-polygon is given by a hypergeometrical
series."
Further reasons in favour of his construction are given by Professor
Pearson in a later paper. 4 " The immense majority, if not the total-
ity, of frequency distributions in homogeneous material show, when
the frequency is indefinitely increased, a tendency to give a smooth
curve characterized by the following properties, (i.) The frequency
starts from zero, increases slowly or rapidly to a maximum and then
falls again to zero probably at a quite different rate-^-as the charac-
ter for which the frequency is measured is steadily increased. This
is the almost universal unimodal distribution of the frequency of
homogeneous series . . (ii.) In the next place there is generally
contact of the frequency-curve at the extremities of the range.
These characteristics at once suggest the following of frequency
curve, if ySx measure the frequency falling between * and x -\-&x:
dy_y(x+a)
Now let us assume that F(x) can be expanded by Maclaurin's theorem.
Then our differential equation to the frequency will be
J_dy_ x-\-a
y dx
Experience shows that the form (x) [" keeping b a , b\, by, only "]
suffices for certainly the great bulk of frequency distributions." '
166. The " generalized probability-curve " presents two main
forms 6
y=yo(i+x/ai)>">i) i-xfai)^,,
When oj, <jj, v are all finite and positive, the first form represents,
in general, a skew curve, with limited range in both directions; in
the particular case, when 01=02, a symmetrical curve, with range
limited in both directions. If 02 = 00, the curve reduces to
representing an asymmetrical binomial with v = 2/i2/M3, and
2i=2p2 2 /w OMS/M, Mz and MS. being respectively the mean second
and mean third power of deviation measured from the centre of
gravity. In the particular case, when /u s is small, this form reduces
to what is above called the " quasi-normal " curve; and when /j s is
zero, Oi becoming infinite, to the simple normal curve. The pregnant
general form yields two less familiar shapes apt to represent curves
of the character shown in figs. 14 and 15 the one occurring in a
FIG. 14.
FIG. 15.
good number of instances, such as infant deaths, the values of houses,
the number of petals in certain flowers; the other less familiarity
illustrated by Consumptivity and Cloudiness.'' The second solution
represents a skew curve with unlimited range in both directions.'
Professor Pearson has successfully applied these formulae to a number
of beautiful specimens culled in the most diverse fields of statis-
tics. The flexibility with which the generalized probability-curve
adapts itself to every variety of existing groups no doubt gives it a
freat advantage over the normal curve, even in its extended form,
t is only in respect of a priori evidence that the latter can claim
precedence. 9
167. Skew Correlation. Professor Pearson has extended his
2 Trans. Roy. Soc. (1895), A, p. 381. Ibid. p. 360.
4 " Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution "
(Drapers' Company Research Memoirs, Biometric Series II.), xiv. 4.
' p. 7, loc. cit. 6 Ibid. p. 367.
7 Pearson, loc. cit., p. 364, and Proc. Roy. Soc.
' A lucid exposition of Professor Pearson's various methods is
given by W. Palin Elderton in Frequency-curves and Correlation
(1906).
Journ. Stat. Soc. (1895), p. 506.
PROBATE
403
method to frequency-loci of two dimensions; 1 constructing for
the curve of regression (as a substitute for the normal right
line), in the case of " skew correlation," a parabola, 1 with
constants based on the higher moments of the given group.
168. In this connexion reference may again be made to Mr
Yule's method of treating skew surfaces as if they were normal.
It is certainly remarkable that the correlation should be so well
represented by a line the property of a normal surface in
cases of which normality cannot be predicated: for instance,
the statistics of the number of husbands (or wives) living at
each age who have wives (or husbands) living at different ages.*
It may be suggested that though in this case there is one dominant
cause, the continual decrease of the population, inconsistent
with the plurality of causes postulated for the law of error, yet
there is a sufficient degree of accidental variation to realize one
property at least of the normal locus.
169. There is possibly an extensive class of phenomena of
which frequency depends largely on fortuitous causes, yet not
Relations so completely as to present the genuine law of error. 4
between This mixed class of phenomena might be amenable
Frequency to a kind of law of frequency that would be different
and Proba- { ronl; y e t have some affinity to, the law of error.
The double character may be taken as the definition
of the laws proper to the present section. The definition of
the class is more distinct than its extent. Consider for example
the statistics which represent the numbers out of a million born
that die in each year of age after thirty of forty the latter
part of the column in a life-table. These are well represented by
a species of Professor Pearson's " generalized probability-curve," 6
his type iii. of the form
The statistics also lend themselves to the Gompertz-Makeham
formula for the number living at the age
The former law, the simplest species of the " generalized
probability-curve," may well be attributed in part to the
operation of a plexus of causes such as that which is apt to
generate the law of error. In fact, a high authority, Professor
Lexis, has seen in these statistics or continental statistics
in pari maleria a fulfilment of the normal law of error.' They
at least fulfil tolerably the generalized law of error above
described. But the Gompertz-Makeham formula is not thus to
be accounted for; at least it is not thus that it was regarded by
its discoverers. Gompertz justifies his law 7 by a " hypothetical
deduction congruous with many natural effects," such as the
exhaustion of air by a pump; and Makeham follows 8 in the same
track of explanation by way of natural laws. Of course it is
not denied that mortality is subject to accident. But the
Gompertz-Makeham law purports to be fulfilled in spite of, not
by reason of, fortuitous agencies. The formula is accounted
for not by the interaction of fleeting causes which is character-
istic of probability, but by causes of that ordinary kind of which
the investigation constitutes the greater part of natural science.
Laws of frequency thus conceLved do not belong to the theory of
Probabilities.
AUTHORITIES. As a comprehensive and masterly treatment
of the subject as a whole, in its philosophical as well as mathematical
character, there is nothing similar or second to Laplace's Theorie
analytique des probabilites. But this " ne plus ultra of mathematical
skill and power " as it is called by Herschel (Edinburgh Review,
1850) is not easy reading. Much of its difficulty is connected with
the use of a mathematical method which is now almost superseded,
" Contributions," No. xiv. (above cited).
1 Not the same parabola as that proposed at par. 162.
' Census of England and Wales General Report (cod. 2174), p. 226.
Cf. p. 70, as to the rationale of the phenomenon.
4 A good example of the suggested blend between law and chance
is presented by an hypothesis which Benine (in a passage referred to
above, par. 97) has proposed to account for Pareto's income-curve.
" Contributions, No. ii., Phil. Trans. (1895), vol. 186, A.
Lexis, Massenerscheinuneen, 46. Cf. Venn, cited above, par. 124.
7 Phil. Trans. (1-25).
8 Assurance Magazine (1866), xi. 315.
" Generating Functions." Not all parts of the book are as rewarding
as the Introduction (published separately as Essai philosophique des
probabilites) and the fourth and subsequent chapters of the second
book. Among numerous general treatises E. Czuber's Wahrschein-
lichkeitstheorie (1899) may be noticed as terse, lucid and abounding
in references. Other authorities may be mentioned in relation to
the different parts of the subject as above divided. First principles
are discussed with remarkable acumen by J. Venn in Logic of Chance
(ist ed., 1876, 3rd ed., 1888) and by J. v. Kries in Princtpien der
Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnuni (1886). As a repertory of neat prob-
lems involving the calculation of probability and expectation
W. A. Whitworth's Choice and Chance (sth ed., 1901), and DCC.
Exercises . . . in Choice and Chance (1897) deserve mention. But this
advantage is afforded in nearly as great perfection by more compre-
hensive works. Bertrand's Calcul des probabilites (1889) abounds
in choice examples, while it excels in almost every other branch
of the subject. Special mention is also deserved by H. Poincar6's
Calcul des probability (lemons professes, 1893-1894). On local or
geometrical probability Professor Morgan Crofton is one of the
highest authorities. His paper on " Local Probability " in Phil.
Trans. (1868), and on " Geometrical Theorems," Proc. Land. Math.
Soc. (1887), viii., should be read in connexion with the section on
" Local Probability " in his article on " Probability " in the gth
edition of the Ency. Brit., from which section several paragraphs
have been transferred en bloc to the section on Geometrical
Applications in the present article. The topic is treated ex-
haustively by Czuber in Geometrische Wahrscheinlichkeiten und
Mittelworten (1884). Czuber is also to be mentioned as the author
of Theorie der Beobachtungsfehler, in which he has reproduced, often
with improvement, or referred to, almost everything of importance
in the work of his predecessors. A. L. Bowley's Elements of Statistics,
pt. 2 (2nd ed., 1902), forms an introduction to the law of error which
leads the beginner easily, yet far. References to other writers are
given in Section I. of Part II. above. A list of writings on the cognate
topic, the method of least squares, has been given by Merriman (Con-
necticut Trans, vol. iv.). On laws of frequency, as above defined,
Professor Karl Pearson is the highest authority. His " Contributions
to the Mathematical Theory of Evolution,' of which twelve have
appeared in the Trans. Roy. Soc. (1894-1903) and others are being
published by the Drapers' Company, teem with new theories in
Probabilities. (F. Y. E.)
PROBATE, in English law, the " proving " (Lat. probatio) of
a will. The early jurisdiction of the English ecclesiastical
courts over the probate of wills of personality is discussed under
WILL. The Court of Probate Act 1857 transferred the juris-
diction both voluntary and contentious of all ecclesiastical,
royal peculiar, peculiar and manorial courts to the court of
probate thereby constituted, created a judge and registrars of
that court, abolished the old exclusive rights in testamentary
matters of the advocates of Doctors' Commons, and laid down
rules of procedure. Contentious jurisdiction was given to county
courts when the personal estate of the deceased was under 200
in value. The Judicature Act 1873 merged the old court of
probate in the probate divorce and admiralty division of the
High Court of Justice. The division now consists of the presi-
dent and one other judge. The practice of the division is mainly
regulated by the rules of the Supreme Court 1883. Appeals
lie to the court of appeal and thence to the House of Lords.
Probate may be taken out either in common or solemn form.
In the former case, which is adopted when there is no dispute as
to the validity of the will, the court simply recognizes the will
propounded as the last will of the deceased. This formality
is necessary to enable the executor to administer the estate of
his testator. Probate in this form is granted simply as a
ministerial act if the attestation clause declares that the formali-
ties of the Wills Act have been complied with, or if other evidence
to that effect is produced. Such grant is liable to revocation,
but it is provided that any person dealing with an executor
on the faith of a grant of probate in common form, shall not be
prejudiced by its revocation. The executor may within thirty
years be called upon to prove in solemn form, or a person who
doubts the validity of the will propounded may enter a caveat
which prevents the executor proving for six months and the
caveat may be renewed each six months. The executor may
however take out a summons to get the caveat " subducted " or
withdrawn, but if an appearance to the summons is entered
These initials do not apply to certain passages in the above
article, namely, the greater part of paragraphs 41, 52, 62 and 72, and
almost the whole of the 4th section of Part. I. (pars. 76-93), which
have been adopted from the article " Probability " in the 9th edition
of the Ency. Brit., written by Professor Morgan Crofton.
404
PROBATION
within six days to the summons the executor is then compelled
to prove in solemn form. Probate in solemn form is a judgment
of the court in favour of the will propounded, and is only revoc-
able by the discovery of a later will. In order, therefore, to
obtain such grant proceedings have to be taken by action, and
witnesses produced in support of the will, and the action
proceeds in the usual way.
The principal rules now obtaining as to probate are these.
Probate, which since the Land Transfer Act 1897 must be taken
out for wills of realty as well as wills of personalty, may be
granted either in the principal or in a district registry, and
should be obtained within six months after the testator's death.
When no executor is named the will is not now invalid, as was once
the case, but administration cum teslamento annexo is granted.
The same course is pursued where the executor renounces or
dies intestate before administering the estate of the deceased.
After probate, the probate itself (as the official copy of the will
is called) becomes evidence, the original will being deposited in
the principal registry at Somerset House, London. On grant
of probate, estate duty, denoted by a stamp on the affidavit
sworn for that purpose, is payable. It varies according to the
amount at which the estate of the deceased is fixed by the
oath of the executor (see ESTATE DUTY). The act of 1881
enables any officer of inland revenue to grant probate where the
personal estate does not exceed 300.
Ireland. In 1867 an act on lines similar to the English act was
passed for Ireland and under the Irish Judicature Act of 1877 the
then existing court of probate was merged in the High Court of
Justice.
Scotland. Confirmation includes both the probate and letters of
administration of English procedure. Without confirmation by
the court interference by the executor becomes a vitious intro-
mission. Originally confirmation of testaments of movables fell,
as in England, under the cognizance of the church courts. Such
jurisdiction certainly existed at the time of regiam majestatem.
This ecclesiastical right continued through the commissary court
at Edinburgh (constituted by Queen Mary in 1563), and the local
commissaries, until modern times when the jurisdiction of the courts
was at first transferred and then abolished by a series of enactments
from the Commissary Courts Act 1823 to the Sheriff Courts Act
1876. The act of 1823 placed the commissary jurisdiction in the
sheriff courts; by the act of 1876 the sheriffs sit as sheriffs in
testamentary matters, no longer as commissaries. Confirmation
of wills where the whole estate is under 300 is regulated by
the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1 88 1 and other acts. An
eik is an addition to a confirmation made on discovery of
additional effects of the deceased after confirmation.
United States. Probate is granted in some states by the
ordinary chancery or common law courts, but more frequently
by courts of special jurisdiction, such as the prerogative court
in New Jersey, the surrogates' court in New York, the orphans'
court in Pennsylvania.
" In a great majority of the states the original equitable juris-
diction over administrations is in all ordinary cases without any
special circumstances such as fraud, or without any other equitable
feature such as trusty-cither expressly or practically abrogated.
The courts of equity, in the absence of such special circumstances
or distinctively equitable features, either do not possess or will not
exercise the jurisdiction, but leave the whole matter of administra-
tions to the special probate tribunals "... so that " unless the
case involves some special feature or exceptional circumstances
of themselves warranting the interference of equity, such as
fraud, waste, and the like, or unless it is of such an essential
nature that a probate court is incompetent to give adequate
relief, or is one of which the probate court having taken
cognizance has completely miscarried and failed to do justice
by its decree, the courts of equity will refuse to interpose and to
exercise whatever dormant powers they may possess, but will
leave the subject matter and the parties to the statutory forum
which the legislature plainly regarded as sufficient and intended
to be practically exclusive " (Rice's Probate Law, pp. 4 and 5).
Probate courts are in most if not all the states courts of
record, having a public seal and a clerk (or the judge has authority
to act as clerk) ; they issue process and execute their decrees by
appropriate officers in the same manner as the common law and
chancery courts. They sit at stated terms. They have power
to punish for contempt, and to compel obedience to their orders
and decrees, and their judgments upon matters within their
jurisdiction are enforced usually by the same means as common
law and chancery courts (Noemen's Law of Administration,
i4S).
Jurisdiction as to wills and their probate as such is neither
included in nor excepted out of the grant of judicial power to
the courts of the United States (i.e. the Federal as distinguished
from the state courts). So far as it is ex parte and merely
administrative it is not conferred, and it cannot be exercised by
them at all until in a case at law or in equity.its exercise becomes
necessary to settle a controversy by reason of the (diverse)
citizenship of the parties. An action to set aside the probate of
a will of real estate may be maintained in a Federal court when
the parties on one side are citizens of a different state from the
parties on the other side (Ellis v. Davis, 109 U.S. Reports, 485).
Probate in solemn form, i.e. after due notice to all parties in
interest is the almost universal form in use in the United States.
One reason for this no doubt is that all documents affecting
title to real estate must be recorded and probate in solemn form
concludes all parties to the proceeding and thus tends to establish
the title to all real estate passing under the will.
In the United States wills of real property must be separately
proven in the proper probate court in each state in which the
real property is situated, unless statute dispenses with separate
probate (each state being " foreign " to every other for this
purpose). Copies of such will and probate should be filed also
in the office of the register of deeds of each county in the state
in which any real property belonging to the testator is situated.
In the state of New Jersey it has been held that an unprobated
will is capable of conveying an interest in the property devised, and
when a conveyance is made under a power in the will before probate
a subsequent probate validates the conveyance (1906, Mackey v.
Mackey, 63 Atl. Rep. 984).
In Illinois a court of equity has no inherent power to entertain
a bill to contest a will (1906; O'Brien v. Bonfield, 220 111. Rep. 219).
In Missouri a foreign (New York) will of real estate in Missouri,
probate of which was duly recorded in Missouri, cannot be collaterally
attacked, and cannot be set aside by direct proceeding after being
filed for record more than five years in Missouri (1907; Cohen v.
Herbert, 104 So. W. Rep. 84).
PROBATION. The probation system, in penology, is an
attempt to reform a prisoner outside prison, a special kind of
warder the probation officer supervising the prisoner in the
prisoner's own home. The state of Massachusetts in America
was the first to attempt " probation," and at first (1878) in a
tentative manner. As success crowned the efforts of the re-
formers the system was developed and applied to an increasing
number of cases; and gradually other American states followed
with some variations in their plans. The probation officers
attend the court and the judge officially gives up the prisoner
to the officer chosen to supervise him, generally explaining to
the prisoner that, if he is not obedient to all the rules made for
him by the officer, he will be returned to court and prison will
be his fate. An officer generally has from sixty to eighty cases
under his care. Women officers are in charge of women and
boys and girls under eighteen. A probation officer has a special
area of the town allotted to him and usually gets all prisoners
from that area. He acquires an intimate knowledge of the
physical, economic and social surroundings in which his prisoner
lives. He is therefore well fitted to watch him and to help him
to become once more a decent citizen. He gradually gives him
back his liberty and removes restrictions until he is capable of
living a decent life alone. The powers of the probation officer
are necessarily very great. The prisoner continues his work as
before, but the officer visits his factory or workshop and arranges
to receive his wages each week, passing over the greater part of
them to the wife to keep up the home, giving a very small sum
to the prisoner for personal expenses, and retaining a small
sum, which is paid back to the prisoner when he becomes a free
man.
The advantages claimed for the probation system are these,
that a number of independent well-paid probation officers,
chosen for their knowledge of human nature and their skill
in reforming it, can give personal attention to individual cases;
the stigma of prison is avoided, and while great care is taken
that the prisoner shall be strictly controlled and effectively
PROBOSCIDEA
405
restrained, his self-respect is carefully developed; the family
benefits, the home is not broken up, the wages still come in,
and if the prisoner is a mother and a wife, it is, of course, most
important that she should retain her place in the home; the
prisoner does not " lose his job " nor his mechanical skill if he
is a skilled workman. Lastly, the system is far cheaper than
imprisonment. The prisoner keeps himself and his family,
and one officer can attend to from 60 to 80 prisoners.
In the United Kingdom the probation system has been applied
to young offenders by the Prevention of Crime Act 1908. That
act empowered the prison commissioners to place offenders on
licence from the Borstal Institution (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS)
at anytime after six months (in the case of a female, three
months), if satisfied that there was a reasonable probability of
their abstaining from crime and leading a useful and industrious
life. The condition of their release is that they be placed under
the supervision or authority of some society or person (named
in the licence) willing to take charge of the case. This is, of
course, only a limited application of the system of probation,
for those detained in a Borstal Institution are offenders between
the ages of sixteen and twenty-one who have been convicted of
an indictable offence. It does not apply to those of full age,
nor to those under twenty-one years of age who have been com-
mitted to prison for minor offences. It has been long held by
English prison reformers that young persons under the age of
twenty-one should not be committed to prison, unless for serious
offences, but that they should be put under some system of
probation. Legislation to this effect was foreshadowed by the
home secretary in his speech on prison reform in the House of
Commons on the aoth of July 1910.
PROBOSCIDEA (animals "with a proboscis"), the scientific
name of the group of mammals represented at the present day
only by the two species of elephant. Although here regarded
as a sub-order of UNGULATA (q.v.), the group is sometimes
accorded the rank of an order by itself. 1 The existing elephants
are widely sundered from all other living mammals, and for
a long time palaeontology afforded but little clue as to their
ancestry. Discoveries made during the first few years of the
zoth century in the Lower Tertiary deposits of the Fayum
district of Egypt have, however, brought to light the existence
of several kinds of primitive proboscideans which serve to
link the group with other ungulates, and likewise apparently
indicate affinity with the Sirenia.
The following are some of the leading characteristics of existing
elephants. The combined upper lips and nose are produced
into a long muscular, flexible and prehensile proboscis, or trunk,
with the nostrils at its tip. The teeth consist of a pair of large
upper permanently growing incisors or tusks; and a set of cheek-
teeth having their crowns composed of a series of tall transverse
vertical plates gradually increasing in number from the first
to the last of the series; and only portions of two of these teeth
being in use at any one time. There are no clavicles; and the
limbs are stout, with their component segments placed nearly
in a vertical line, and the upper segment, especially in the hind-
limb, the longest; the radius and ulna are distinct, the latter
articulating extensively with the carpus; the fibula and tibia
also distinct; the astragalus very flat on both surfaces; and
both front and hind feet short, broad and massive, with five
toes (though the outer pair may be more or less rudimentary),
all encased in a common integument, though with distinct, broad,
short hoofs; third digit the largest. Two anterior venae cavae
entering the right auricle. Stomach simple. A capacious
caecum. Testes permanently abdominal. Uterus bicornuate.
Placenta deciduate and zonary. Teats two, pectoral.
In order to understand the peculiar nature of the dentition, it is
necessary to discuss to some extent those of the immediate ancestors
_ u . of the true elephants, such as the mastodons (see
MASTODON). As regards the incisors, or tusks, which
1 Cuvier's order Pachydermata (Gr. raxbs, thick and tepua, skin),
containing the elephants, hippopotami, rhinoceros, swine, tapirs,
hyraxes, &c., is now abandoned, its members now forming the
orders Proboscidea and Hyracoidea and the sub-order Parisso-
dactyla. A few Artiodactyla are also included.
project largely out of the mouth, and are of an elongated conical form
and generally curved, these are composed mainly of solid dentine,
the fine elastic quality and large mass of which renders it invaluable
as " ivory " for commerce and the arts. A peculiarity of the dentine
of the Proboscidea is that it shows, in transverse fractures or
sections, fine lines proceeding in the arc of a circle from the centre
M
(1
i
ii
7V
t
f
r
''
\
i
1
;
i
L
1
i
(j
1
i
Hi
li
f V
V
y
\
FIG. i. Longitudinal Sections of the Crowns of Molar Teeth of
various Proboscideans, showing stages in the gradual modification
from the simple to the complex form. The dentine is indicated
by transverse lines, the cement by a dotted surface, and the
enamel is black.
I, Mastodon americanus; III, Elephas afrtcanus;
II, Elepkas (Stegodon) insignis; IV, Elephas primigenius.
to the circumference in opposite directions, and forming by their
decussations curvilinear lozenges, as in the " engine-turning " of
the case of a watch. The enamel-covering in existing species is
confined to the extreme apex, and very soon wears off, but in some
extinct species it forms persistent longitudinal bands of limited
breadth. The tusks have small milk-predecessors, shed at an early
age.
As regards the cheek-teeth, these are composed in the mastodons
of a variable number of enamel-covered transverse ridges, often
divided into inner and outer columns, which may partially alternate,
and complicated by smaller additional columns; but in the unworn
tooth they stand out freely on the surface of the crown, with deep
valleys between (fig. i, I). In the elephants the ridges are increased
in number, and consequently become narrower from before back-
wards, while they are greatly extended in vertical height. In order
to give solidity to what would otherwise be a comb-like tooth, the
whole structure is enveloped and united in a large mass of cement,
which completely fills the valleys, and gives a general smooth appear-
ance to the unworn tooth; but as the wear consequent upon the
masticating process proceeds, the alternate layers of tissue of
different hardness cement, dentine and enamel which are
disclosed upon the surface form a fine and efficient grinding instru-
ment. The intermediate stages between the molar of a modern
elephant and that of a mastodon are so fully known that it is not
possible to draw a definite line between the two types of tooth-
structure (see fig. I, II, III, IV).
As regards the mode of succession, that of modern elephants
is very peculiar. During the complete lifetime of the animal there are
but six cheek-teeth, which it will be convenient to allude to as
molars, on each side of each jaw, with occasionally a rudimentary
one in front, completing the typical number of seven. The last
three represent the molars of ordinary mammals, those in front
are milk-molars, which are never replaced by permanent successors,
the whole series gradually moving forwards in the jaw, and the teeth
becoming worn away and their remnants cast out in front, while
development of others proceeds behind. The individual teeth
are so large, and the processes of growth and destruction by wear
take place so slowly, that not more than one, or portions of two,
teeth are ever in place and in use on each side of each jaw at one time,
and the whole series of changes coincides with the usual duration
of the animal's life. On the other hand, the earlier representations
of the proboscidean series referred to below have the whole
of the cheek-teeth in place and use at one time, and the milk-molars
vertically displaced by premoiars in the ordinary fashion. Among
mastodons transitional forms occur in the mode of succession as
well as in structure, many species showing a vertical displacement
of one or more of the milk-molars, and the same has been observed
406
PROBOSCIDEA
in one extinct species of true elephant (Elephas planifrons) as
regards some of these teeth.
Most proboscideans are animals of large dimensions, and some are
the most colossal of land mammals. The head is of great proportionate
size; and, as the brain-case increases but little in bulk
Character- during growth, while the exterior wall of the skull is
isiks. required to be of great superficial extent to support
the trunk and the ponderous tusks, and to afford space
for the attachment of muscles of sufficient size and strength to
(Flower's Osteology of Mammalia.')
FIG. 2. Section of the Skull of the African Elephant (Elephas
africanus) taken to the left of the middle line, and including the
vomer (Vo) and the mesethmoid (ME).
an, Anterior, pn, Posterior nasal aperture. OrV nat. size.)
wield the skull thus heavily weighted, an extraordinary develop-
ment of air-cells takes place in the cancellous tissue of nearly all the
bones of the cranium. These cells are not only formed in the walls
of the cranium proper, but are also largely developed in the nasal
bones and upper part of the premaxillae and maxillae, the bones
forming the palate and the basi-cranial axis, and even extend into
the interior of the ossified mesethmoid and vomer. Where two
originally distinct bones come into contact, the cells pass freely
from one to the other, and almost all the sutures become obliterated
in old animals. The intercellular lamellae in the great mass which
surrounds the brain-cavity superiorly and laterally mostly radiate
from the inner to the outer table, but in the other bones their
direction is more irregular. Like the similar but less developed air-
cells in the skulls of many other mammals, they all communicate
with the nasal passages, and they are entirely secondary to the
original growth of the bones, their development having scarcely
commenced in the new-born animal, and gradually enlarge as the
growth of the creature proceeds. The nasal bones are very short,
and the anterior nasal aperture situated high in the face. The
zygomatic arch is slender and straight, the jugal bone being small,
and forming only the middle part of the arch, the anterior part
of which (unlike that of true Ungulates) is formed only by the
maxilla. The maxillo-turbinals are rudimentary, the elongated
proboscis supplying their place functionally in warming and
clearing from dust the inspired air.
The neck is very short. The limbs, as already mentioned, are
long and stout, and remarkable for the great length of the upper
segment (especially the femur) as compared with the lower segment,
as represented by the foot. It is owing to this and the vertical
position of the femur that the knee-joint in the hind-leg is placed
much lower, and is more conspicuous externally than in most
quadrupedal mammals; and this having been erroneously compared
with the hock-joint or ankle of the 'more ordinary ungulates, gave
rise to the popular fallacy that the joints of the elephant's leg bend
in a contrary direction to that of other mammals. There is no
round ligament in the hip-joint, or third trochanter to the femur.
The radius and ulna are distinct, though fixed in a crossed or prone
position; and the fibula also is quite separated from the tibia.
The feet are short and broad, the carpal and tarsal bones being
very square, with flattened surfaces for articulation ; the astragalus
especially differs from that of the more typical ungulates in its
flatness, in the absence of distinct pulley-like articular surface at
either extremity, and in having no articular facet for the cuboid.
The fibula articulates with the calcaneum, as in the artiodactyle
sub-order of Ungulata. Of the five toes present on each foot, the
middle one is somewhat the largest, while the lateral ones are the
smallest, and generally lack (especially in the hind-foot) the
complete number of phalanges. The terminal phalanges are all
small, irregular in form, and late in ossification. The whole are
encased in a common integument, with a flat, subcircular, truncated
sole, the only external indication of the toes being the broad oval
nails or hoofs arranged in a semicircle around the front edge of the
sole. The hind foot is smaller and narrower than the front. The
liver is small and simple, and there is no gall-bladder. In form the
brain resembles that of the lower orders of mammals in that the
cerebellum is entirely behind and uncovered by the cerebrum, but
the hemispheres of the latter are richly convoluted.
Elephants are exclusively vegetable-feeders, living chiefly
on leaves and young branches of forest trees and various kinds
of herbage, or roots, which they gather and convey to their
mouth by a very mobile proboscis, an organ which combines
in a marvellous manner strength with dexterity of application,
and is a necessary compensation for the shortness and inflex-
ibility of the neck, as it is by this that many of the functions of
the lips of other animals are performed. By its means elephants
are enabled to drink without bending the head or limbs. The
end of the trunk being dipped, for instance, into a stream or pool,
a forcible inspiration fills the two capacious air-passages in its
interior with water, which, on the tip of the trunk being turned
upwards and inserted into the mouth, is ejected by a blowing
action, and swallowed. Or if the animal wishes to refresh and
cool its skin, it can throw the water in a copious stream over
any part of its surface. Elephants can also throw dust and
sand over their bodies by the same means and for the same
purpose, and they have frequently been observed fanning
themselves with boughs held in the trunk.
The following are the distinctive features of the genus Elephas,
the type_of the family Elephantidae: Dentition: i. J, c. J, m. f =26.
The incisors variable, but usually of very large size, especially in
the male sex, directed somewhat outwards, and curved upwards,
without enamel except on the apex before it is worn; preceded by
small milk-incisors. The molars succeed each other by horizontal
replacement from before backwards, never more than one or part
of two being in use on each side of each jaw at the same time; each
composed of numerous flattened enamel-covered plates or ridges of
dentine, projecting from a common many-rooted base, surrounded
and united together by cement. The number of plates increases
from the anterior to the posterior molar in regular succession,
varying in the different species, but the third and fourth (or the
last milk-molar and the first true molar), and these only, have
the same number of ridges, which always exceeds five. Skull of
adult very high and globular. Lower jaw ending in front in a
deflected, spout-like symphysis. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 19-21, L. 3-4,
S. 4, C. 26-33.
The two existing species of elephant are the Indian or Asiatic
(Elephas maximus), and the African (E. africanus), the distinctive
characteristics of which are given under ELEPHANT. See also
MAMMOTH and MASTODON.
EXTINCT PROBOSCIDEA
Elephas. The extinct representatives of the Proboscidea are
of the greatest importance and interest, since they serve to
connect the modern elephants with ungulates of more ordinary
type. The MAMMOTH (Elephas primigenius) is treated in a
separate article. Nearly allied is E. armeniacus of Asia Minor;
but E. antiquus, of which the remains are abundant in many of
the superficial formations of England and Europe generally,
approximates in the structure of its molar teeth to the African
elephant. It is represented in the Pleistocene of India by the
closely allied or identical E. namadicus. Affinity with the
African species is strongly marked in the case of the dwarf
elephants of Malta (E. melUensis) and Cyprus (E. Cypriotes);
and the gigantic E. meridionalis, of the " forest-bed " of the
east coast of England and the Upper Pliocene of the Val D'Arno,
has likewise molars showing the broad lozenges of enamel-
bordered dentine characteristic of the African type. These and
other species indicate, however, that, so far as dental characters
are concerned, generic separation of the African from the
Asiatic elephant is impossible. In North America the mammoth
occurs in the far north, E. columbi, more akin to E. antiquus
chiefly in the Central United States, and E. imperator (allied to
E. meridionalis) in the south. The oldest representatives of
this group are E. hysudricus and E. planifrons of the Lower
Pliocene of Northern India; the latter of which developed
premolars vertically replacing the anterior teeth of the molar
series.
From E. planifrons there is an almost complete transition
to the ridge-toothed elephants, such as E. ganesa, E. insignis.
PROBOSCIDEA
407
E. bombifrons and E. clifti, typically from the Lower Pliocene of
India and Burma, but some of which extend eastwards to Java,
Borneo, China and Japan. These constitute the group (or
genus) Stegodon, and are characterized by the lowness of the
crowns of the molar teeth, in which the tall plates of the more
typical elephants are reduced to low ridges with more or less
completely open valleys between them ; the number of
ridges in each tooth is always much lower than in
the corresponding teeth of the typical elephants.
Premolars, vertically replacing the anterior molars,
were often developed. These stegodont elephants
appear to have been confined to India and the
countries farther east, and exhibit an almost complete
transition, so far as dental characters are concerned,
to the mastodons of the same region.
Mastodon. The connexion between the stegodont
elephants and the mastodons (see MASTODON) is formed
by the Indian and Burmese Mastodon latidens and
M. cautleyi. In fact the main distinction between
these animals and the stegodont elephants is the
smaller number of ridges in the third, fourth and fifth
molars, which is usually four, and never exceeds five,
whereas in the stegodonts it is at least six and the
numbers are not the same in each of the three teeth.
In the two species named the transverse ridges are
more or less continuous. Many other species, such
as the European M. aniernensis (see fig. 2 in art.
MASTODON) and the Indian M. sivalensis, have, how-
ever, the ridges broken up into columns, or cones,
more or less alternately arranged, and thus blocking
the intermediate valleys. In these species, which
are of Pliocene age, there are four ridges in molars 3,
4 and 5; but in the Pleistocene North American
M . americanus (as well as in many other species) these are
reduced to three in each of the aforesaid teeth. The lower
jaw of the latter species frequently shows small tusks, which
are, however, generally shed in mature age. Premolars, which
vertically replace some of the anterior molars (milk-molars), are
developed in many species, although not in M. americanus.
Species of the genus are found over the greater part of the world,
inclusive of Europe, Asia and North and South America; M.
humboldli being the best known South American species. A
single tooth referable to this or the next genus has been ob-
tained from South Africa.
Tetrabelodon. The more primitive mastodons constitute
the genus Tetrabelodon, and are characterized by the presence
of a pair of short chisel-shaped tusks in the lower jaw, which
is prolonged into a trough-like chin for their support; tusks
being also present in the upper jaw. These animals were pro-
vided with a snout-like muzzle instead of a trunk (see MASTODON).
Their birthplace was Africa; the Miocene European M . angus-
tidens having been discovered in Egypt in strata overlying those
from which were obtained the remains of the under-mentioned
more primitive genera. Tetrabelodont mastodons were, how-
ever, by no means confided to the Miocene, Tetrabelodon longiros-
tris occurring in the Lower Pliocene of Europe, and T. pandionis
in that of India. Most of these four-tusked mastodons were
smaller animals than modern elephants.
Palaeomastodon. No proboscidean earlier than Tetrabelodon
occurs in Europe, but the group is represented in the Upper
Eocene of Egypt by a smaller and more primitive type known as
Palaeomastodon. This genus resembles Tetrabelodon in having
four pairs of tusks, but differs in the less elephant-like skull, and
the simpler character of the molar teeth, of which five pairs
were in use at one time, whereas in Tetrabelodon and Mastodon
there were never more than two pairs and a portion of a third
in simultaneous wear.
Moeritherium. The earliest representative of the proboscidean
stock at present known is Moeritherium, from the Middle Kocene
of Egypt, which includes still smaller animals, whose relation-
ship to Elephas would scarcely be realized were it not for the
intermediate links. All six pairs of cheek-teeth (pm. 2-m. 3,
fig. 3) were in use at once, and there was a comparatively full
series of teeth in the front of the jaws; while the premolars were
preceded by milk-molars in the normal manner. Very significant
is the enlargement of the second pair of incisors in each jaw,
thereby foreshadowing the tusks of Tetrabelodon. There was,
however, no lengthening of the chin, so that the muzzle was
(From the Geological Mosn:int. )
FlG. 3. Dentition of Moeritherium lyonsi. (\ nat. size.)
A, Upper teeth.
B, Front of snout, showing the tusk-like second incisors.
C, Left ramus of mandible from outer side.
probably of normal proportions. This animal was not larger
than a tapir.
Dinolherium. The huge proboscidean from the Lower Pliocene
and Middle Miocene strata of Europe and India, known as
Dinolherium, indicates a type off the line of descent of the
elephants. Upper tusks were apparently wanting, but the
FIG. 4. Skull of Dinotherium giganteum (Lower Pliocene.
Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt).
lower jaws carried a pair of large tusks bent downwards in a
peculiar manner (fig. 4). The cheek-teeth formed five pairs, all
in use at one time, and premolars vertically replacing milk-
molars in the ordinary fashion. The ridge-formula of the
permanent teeth of the cheek series was 2.2.3.1.2.
Barylhcrium and Pyrotherium. Very problematical are the
408
PROBOSCIS PROCESS
affinities of Barytherium of the Egyptian Eocene and Pyro-
therium of the Lower Tertiaries of Patagonia; although it is
possible that they may both be offshoots from the primitive
proboscidean stock. Pyrolherium had a pair of upwardly
directed tusks in the lower jaw. The cheek-teeth are five in
number and carry transverse ridges similar to those on the
molars of Dinotherium, although there are only two to each
tooth. If really related to the Proboscidea, Pyrotherium may
be derived from the African ancestral stock of that group which
reached South America by way of a former land-connexion
between that continent and Africa. So far as can be determined,
Barytherium approximates in many respects to Dinotherium, but
in others seems to approach Uintatherium of the North American
Tertiaries (see AMBLYPODA).
See C. W. Andrews, Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata
of the Fayum, British Museum, 1906. (R. L.*)
PROBOSCIS, the trunk of an elephant (Gr. 7rpo/3o(7K, irp6,
before, /36<r/ceii>, to feed), the long flexible snout of the order of
Mammalia called Proboscidea (q.v.), which embraces the elephant
and its extinct allies the mammoths and mastodons. The term
is also applied to the snout of the tapir and of the " kahan " or
proboscis-monkey (Nasalis laroatus), and more particularly
to the elongated parts of the mouth of various insects, such as
the rostrum or beak of a rhynchophorus beetle, the antlia of
Lepidoptera, the sucking mouth of the house-fly, &c. Various
worms possess a tubular structure which can be extended at
the anterior portion of the body, and some gastropods a sucking
tongue, to both of which the name " proboscis " is applied.
PROBOSCIS-MONKEY, a large, long-tailed, red Bornean
species characterized by the extraordinary prolongation of the
nose of the adult male, which hangs, however, down in front
of the upper lip and does not stand straight out from the face
in the manner commonly represented in pictures. From this
feature the species, which is the only representative of its genus,
derives its name of Nasalis lanatus. In females and young the
nose is much less developed, with a tendency to turn upwards
in the latter. This monkey is a leaf-eater, nearly allied to
the langurs, as typified by the sacred ape of India. (See
PRIMATES.)
PROBUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor A.D. 276
to 282, was a native of Sirmium in Pannonia. At an early age
he entered the army, where he distinguished himself under the
emperors Valerian, Claudius and Aurelian. He was appointed
governor of the East by the emperor Tacitus, at whose death
he was immediately proclaimed his successor by the soldiers.
Florianus, who had claimed to succeed his brother, was put
to death by his own troops, and the senate eagerly ratified the
choice of the army. The reign of Probus was mainly spent in
successful wars by which he re-established the security of all
the frontiers, the most important of these operations being
directed to clearing Gaul of the Germans. Probus had also
put down three usurpers, Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus.
One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to
be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful
works, such as the planting of vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia
and other districts. This increase of duties was naturally
unpopular, and while the emperor was urging on the draining
of the marshes of his native place he was attacked and slain
by his own soldiers. Scarcely any emperor has left behind him
so good a reputation; his death was mourned alike by senate and
people, and even the soldiers repented and raised a monument
in his honour.
Life by Vopiscus; Zosimus i. 64; Zonaras xii. 29; Aurelius
Victor, Goes, and Epit. 37; H. Schiller, Geschichte der rdmischen
Kaiserzeit (1883), vol. i. ; E. Lepaulle, tude historique stir M. A.
Probus d'apres la numismatique (1885); Pauly-Wissowa, Realency-
clopadie, ii. 2516 (Henze).
PROBUS, MARCUS VALERIUS, of Berytus, Roman gram-
marian and critic, flourished during the reign of Nero. He was
a student rather than a teacher,, and devoted himself to the
criticism and elucidation of the texts of classical authors (especi-
ally the most important Roman poets) by means of marginal
notes or by signs, after the manner of the Alexandrine gram-
marians. In this way he treated Horace, Lucretius, Terence and
Persius, the biography of the last-named being probably taken
from Probus's introduction to his edition of the poet. With
the exception of these texts, he published little, but his lectures
were preserved in the notes taken by his pupils. Some of his
criticisms on Virgil may be preserved in the commentary on the
Bucolics and Georgics which goes under his name. We possess
by him part of a treatise De nolis, probably an excerpt from
a larger work. It contains a list of abbreviations used in official
and historical writings (especially proper names), in laws, legal
pleadings and edicts.
The following works have been wrongly attributed to him.
(i) Catholica Probi, on the declension of nouns, the conjugation
of verbs, and the rhythmic endings of sentences. This is now
generally regarded as the work of the grammarian Marius Plotius
Sacerdos (3rd century). (2) Instituta artium, on the eight parts of
speech, also called Ars vaticana from its having been found in a
Vatican MS. As mention is made in it of the baths of Diocletian,
it cannot be earlier than the <jth century. It is possibly by a
later Probus, whose existence is, however, problematical. (3)
Appendix Probi, treating of the noun, the use of cases, rules of
orthography (valuable in reference to the pronunciation of Latin at
the time), and a table of Differentiae. As the author has evidently
used the Instituta, it also must be assigned to a late date. (4) De
nomine excerpta, a compilation from various grammatical works.
.See J. Steup, De Probis grammaticis (1871); Teuffel-Schwabe,
Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), 301.
PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-
ward) , in general, a method or course of action. In law, procedure
may be defined as the mode in which the successive steps in
litigation are taken. As a term in English law it dates only
from the passing of the Common Law Procedure Acts 1852-1860;
it is usually coupled with, or more often replaced by, the word
" practice." The procedure of the High Court of Justice in
England is governed by the rules of the supreme court, which
are published in the Annual Practice. Procedure has been
defined (per Lush, L.J., Poyser v. Minors, L. R. 7 Q.B.D. 329),
as " the mode of proceeding by which a legal right is enforced
as distinguished from the law which gives or defines the right,
and which by means of the proceeding the court is to administer;
the machinery as distinguished from the product." T. E.
Holland (Elements of Jurisprudence, 1906, p. 86) describes
procedure, or " adjective " law, as that part of law which
provides a method of aiding and protecting rights.
See the articles on the various branches of law, as ADMIRALTY
JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE, &c. ; also ACTION, APPEAL,
EVIDENCE, PLEADING, SUMMONS, TRIAL, &c.
PROCESS, a general term now technically employed for
the photo-mechanical processes by which illustrations are
reproduced in printing. Until the last quarter of the igth cen-
tury reproductive processes, save as regards line reproduction,
can hardly be said to have had an existence. Paintings, draw-
ings, and engravings, which it was desired to put into form which
by means of the printing-press could be multiplied indefinitely
had to go through a process of interpretation by an engraver
or draughtsman, who, on a metal plate, a block of wood or
stone, gave a rendering of the original subject. The means at
his disposal were lines and dots, which, varying in their thick-
ness and proximity, expressed dark or light passages in the scheme
of light and shade of the original. It will readily be understood
how such interpretations would vary. An engraver with fine
art instincts would produce a result as distinct in character as
an engraving as was the original as a painting or drawing, and
engravings were sought after as works of art, and treasured for
their artistic qualities. But engraving of this kind took time.
Years were devoted to the production of one steel- or copper-
plate, while wood engravers who were artists could only work
on a block when in the mood; and for that mood the publisher
had to wait, and he grew impatient and was willing to accept
rapid interpretation of originals by men who could produce them
under other than artistic conditions. But the pain of the artist
at the bad rendering of his original was often great, so that he,
not less than the publisher, though for another reason, hailed
PROCESS
409
the attempts that were being made to reproduce his work
mechanically without the intervention of the translator or
interpreter. The ideal of an artist would naturally be a repro-
duction of his work in facsimile, which retained all, or as many
as possible of, the individual characteristics of his work; and
to give him this was the aim of the school of wood engravers
which originated in the United States and made a last stand to
lintain the position of their art in the field of book illustration.
Jy a system of extremely fine work the American wood engravers
vere able to keep much closer to the tones of an original than had
previously been possible; but the result was obtained at the
sacrifice of the artistic rendering of the best old engravings, and
vas so mechanical in its character that when it had to compete
nth a real mechanical process the engraving could not hold
its ground, the enormous difference in the cost of production
eing a factor of sufficient importance in itself to make it im-
sible for the engraving to retain the field. A similar develop-
nent had been going on in the other branches of engraving.
The line engraver and the etcher, to whom had been entrusted
the interpreting of works of art first produced in other forms,
found themselves faced by mechanical reproductions in plate
form which, while preserving more of the character of the original
work, were produced in much less time and at a greatly reduced
cost. It has thus come about that the last quarter of the igth
century witnessed the dispossession of the hand engraver from
the field of interpretative engraving, and the occupation of his
position by the chemist and the mechanician.
The term " process," which has come to be applied to all
photo-mechanical reproductions, is a somewhat unfortunate
one, inasmuch as it is descriptive of nothing. From time to
time various names have been given to its varying forms, indica-
tive either of the name of the inventor or of some peculiarity
of method. Zincography, gillotype, photogravure, heliogra-
vure, heliotype, phototype, albertype, are illustrations of the
kind of name given often to very slightly varying applications
of the same principle, but usage has come to apply the term
" process " to any printing surface that is produced by chemical
and mechanical means. The whole of these processes may be
arranged under three heads: (i) relief; (2) intaglio; (3) piano-
graphic.
i. Relief Processes. An engraving in relief is one in which
the printing surface stands up above the surrounding ground.
The history of the development of relief processes is really the
history of photography (q.v.); for whilst attempts were made to
obtain results without the aid of photography, by drawing upon
plates with prepared chalk or ink, " rolling them up " with
printer's ink and etching away the ground with acid, as in the
case of zincography, the real progress of all process has been
upon the lines of photography; and to Niepce and Daguerre
may be attributed the origin of the modern mechanical and
chemical processes.
Speaking broadly, all the modern " processes " are the out-
come of a discovery by Mungo Ponton that a preparation of
albumen or other colloid substance and bichromate of potash
could be hardened and rendered insoluble and nonabsorbent in
water by exposure to light, and that as a photographic negative
permitted the passage through it of light in varying degrees
of intensity, so a film of the preparation placed under a negative
was liable to be hardened and rendered Insoluble in degrees
varying with the intensity of the light affecting it. This dis-
covery governs the production of process blocks or plates of all
kinds.
The methods of reproduction of pure line work differ greatly
from those for the reproduction of originals in tone. As the
first necessity in securing a good result is the suit-
ability of the original to be reproduced, it is desirable
to make clear the character of a good original.
This should be of one tone or degree of colour all through. It
may be all grey; it is better that it be all black. It may not
be black in parts only and grey in others. The lines of an original
may be of any variety of thickness. It is necessary, therefore,
for the draughtsman to see that he works with a good black
Urn-
Blocks.
ink, or ink that will tell as black when it is exposed to the photo-
graphic plate. Inks of a warm tone that is, inclining to red
or orange yield better results than cold inks which incline to
blue.
Most prepared liquid inks have a tendency to lose their blackness
by exposure to the atmosphere on the removal of the cork from
the bottle. The ideal ink is one freshly ground from a dry cake of
colour when beginning work. Indian ink is goodlif well ground and
kept sufficiently thick to assure the necessary olackness. It has
the advantage of not washing up when colour in washes is passed
over it, but it must be used freshly ground. The addition of a little
Indian yellow, burnt sienna or sepia, gives a warmth of tone to it
and renders it photographically more active. Bourgeois ink,
prepared by Bourgeois of Paris, appears to be prepared with the
admixture of some warm colour with the black base. It is a good ink
for the purpose, and is prepared both in solid and liquid form.
Lampblack gives good black lines; so does ivory black, which is
warmer in tone than lampblack. Higgins' Indian ink or American
drawing ink is an American ink made in liquid form which has the
reputation of not fading by exposure. Stephens's Ebony Stain is
a fine black medium which does not clog the pen; if it thickens and
dries, it cracks off and does not corrode the pen.
Besides the pen a brush brought to a fine point is much pre-
ferred by some artists, as it yields a line less monotonous than
that given by a pen, though the brush cannot be used so freely.
The paper used should be smooth and as white as possible. A
paper is made with a surface coating of white chalk, which
admits of the use of a [scraper to remove lines or to break
them up.
It is not possible to lay down a rule for the amount of reduction
to be made when photographing for the reproduction; the finer
the drawing the less should be the reduction made; but expe-
rience is the only guide. Sometimes, where the lines are very
fine and the drawing minute in character, an enlargement is
desirable. Where drawings are reduced too much, there is
a tendency for the spaces between the lines to fill up, and to
give a coarse, heavy result. Faulty drawing is not lessened
by reduction. On the contrary, the fault becomes more evident,
so it is desirable to make all necessary corrections in the drawing.
The original drawing which has to be reproduced is photo-
graphed to the size of the required block. The negative taken
is absolutely dense except where the lines of the drawing have
affected it, and these are absolutely clear, admitting the unre-
stricted passage of light through them. A piece of planished
copper or zinc is prepared or made sensitive to light by a pre-
paration of albumen or gelatin and bichromate of potash
spread upon its surface. The negative is laid upon the sensi-
tized metal and placed in the light in the way an ordinary photo-
graph is printed. The light passes through the transparent
lines of the negative and hardens the bichromated film beneath
them. Both negative and plate are then taken into a darkened
room, where the metal plate is rolled with an inked roller,
placed in a bath of cold water and allowed to soak until the
albumen and bichromate becomes so softened everywhere,
except where the light has hardened them, that they all wash
away, and nothing is left but the hardened lines. The lines
are dusted with asphalt, which by heat is melted on to them,
and makes a ground which resists the action of acid. A coat
of varnish is put over the back and edges of the plate, to protect
them from the acid also, and only the spaces between the lines
on the surface are left free to its action. The plate is then placed
in a bath of dilute nitric acid, which eats away the metal where-
ever it is exposed; but it leaves the lines of the drawing, which
are protected by the hardened film standing up above the eaten
or etched surface; and these lines, which correspond to those
of a wood engraving, are the printing surface of the plate. The
plate is mounted on a wood or metal block, made type-high,
and it can then be used along with type in the printing-press.
Various devices have been resorted to that effects of tone may
be obtained by means of the simple line process. Grained papers
with a surface of chalk, upon which are printed close-ruled lines
crossing at right angles, or rows of dots give the papers a heavy,
flat, " tone," upon which a drawing can be made in pencil, chalk
or ink, and gradations of tone introduced by means of scrapers,
which remove partially or entirely the black ruled lines or dots,
leaving, if desired, high lights of pure white. A drawing on such
PROCESS
Swelled
Gelatin
Process.
paper consists of lines or dots, a combination of the original fines
or dots of the paper and those of the drawing itself, the scraper
splitting up lines into dots or removing them altogether. The
result is quite easily reproduced by the line process. Another
method is by the use of what are known as Day's " shades," or
shading mediums. They are transparent films of gelatin which
have upon them lines or dots in varying combination in relief, so
that they can be inked up by a roller. When placed over a drawing,
their transparency enables the operator to see exactly what passage
he is dealing with, and he can by means of a burnisher impress the
lines or dots of the shade upon any passage of the drawing; these
lines or dots then become part of the drawing; and are reproduced
in the usual way.
Pencil or chalk drawings upon simple white-grained paper, where
the pencil or chalk passing over the ruts or hollows in the paper
makes a mark on the top of the grain only, are also reproducible by
the line process, but such drawings are apt to be unequal in colour
and difficult to deal with. The difficulty led to the invention of a
process by Henry Matheson, who, not having the capital to work it,
joined the late Mr Dawson, senior, whose sons continued to work
the process with Matheson under the name of the Swelled Gelatin
Process. It is based upon the fact that gelatin, sensi-
tized with bichromate of potash, swells when placed in
water, and swells in proportion to the amount of light
to which it has ben exposed. A negative taken from
a drawing which varies in tone, not being thoroughly black all
through, varies in the quality of its transparent lines and dots;
and when a piece of paper or glass coated with sensitized gelatin
is exposed to the action of such a negative it is affected according
to the amount of light the negative allows to pass. After making
a print on such paper or glass, it is placed in a dish of water and
the surface allowed to swell, which it does in varying degrees, the
portion unaffected by the light absorbing most water and swelling
most, the hardened lines of the drawing not swelling at all. This
swelled print is then placed in a frame, and a preparation of plaster
is poured upon it to make a mould of its surface. When this has
set and the gelatin has been removed, this mould is filled with a
preparation of wax, which sets in a few minutes sufficiently for it
to be released from its plaster mould. Additional wax is built
up when necessary upon the " whites," as they are technically
called that is, the passages which represent what will be the
hollows in the block so that these may be as deep as possible ; and
this wax mould is electrotyped in copper. The lines and dots of
this copper block, which when finished is backed up with metal and
mounted, vary slightly in height, the result being that the slightly
lower dots do not come so closely in contact with the inking roller or
with the paper, and so produce when printed a grey impression
corresponding to the greyness of the original drawing.
The drawback to the use of the process is that it is about three
times as costly as the ordinary process. It is a method much used
for the reproduction of line and stipple engravings, where fine
dots and lines are apt to be printed in delicate tones. The finest
results by this method are producible, however, by omitting the
plaster mould and wax-cast stages, and by coating the sensitized
gelatin with plumbago or other impalpable metal preparation which
will enable it to receive a copper deposit to qualify it to take its
place in the electrotyper's bath, and so to get the needed thin coating
of copper from the surface of the gelatin itself; but this needs to be
done with the greatest care, and is still more costly.
A non-photographic process of obtaining line blocks in relief has
been for a long time successfully worked by Messrs Dawson. A
brass plate is coated with a film or ground of wax upon
which a tracing of the drawing to be reproduced may
be rubbed down. By means of an etching needle the
lines of the drawings are incised upon the thin wax ground down
to the surface of the brass plate. A pencil of wax and a pencil of
hot metal are then used to produce a flow of melted wax which drops
from the wax pencil upon the ridges of wax between the lines and
builds them up until they are of sufficient height. The risk that
this wax may run into the incised lines has to be carefully guarded
against, but skilful treatment manages so that it stops at the edges
and does not run over. In maps and diagrams where lettering or
figures are necessary, type is impressed into the wax with a very
neat and precise result. By this means a mould is formed, an
electrotype from which gives a really good relief block which may
be printed with type.
The invention of line processes only stimulated the efforts
to find out some means whereby tones might be reproduced on
blocks or plates that could be printed along with
type in the ordinary rapid printing-press. It is
only possible to approximate to the printing of a flat
or graduated tone by producing a broken or granulated
surface which shall present a series of lines or dots that, when
inked and impressed upon paper, shall by the variations of
proximity and size give the impression of an unbroken tone.
This necessitates the lines or dots being so small that the eye
Half-tone
Processes.
shall not at a glance appreciate the broken-up character of the
surface of the block. Many efforts resulted in the production
of what is known as the screen, which itself was only made
possible by the invention of ruling machines of a delicacy
previously unknown.
A screen is made by coating a sheet of glass which must be
flawless both as to body and surface with a composition
analogous to the ground used by an etcher to coat his plate
before drawing upon it with his needle. The glass so coated
is placed in an automatic ruling machine, of which the ruling
point is a diamond, and which can be adjusted so as to rule any
number of lines from 50 to 300 to the inch. The lines are ruled
diagonally on the glass, and at mathematically equal distances
from each other. The sheet of glass, after ruling, is treated with
hydrofluoric acid, and the lines where the ground is cleared
away by the diamond point are etched or bitten into it. The
plate is cleaned up and an opaque dark pigment rubbed into the
lines. Two such ruled sheets of glass are sealed together face
to face with Canada balsam, with the diagonally ruled lines
crossing each other at right angles, the result being a grating or
screen containing innumerable little squares of clear glass
through which the light can pass, which it cannot do through
the ruled lines, which are filled by the opaque pigment.
To produce a half-tone block from a picture, a black and
white drawing in tone, or a photograph, a negative is exposed
in the camera in the usual way, with this screen quite close to it
but not in contact; and the subject is photographed on to the
negative through the screen, and what is termed a " screen
negative " is the result. It is a photograph of so much of the
original as could affect the negative through the little clear
squares of the screen, and represents the tones of it by in-
numerable dots and lines, the size and proximity of which are
regulated by the fineness or coarseness of the screen used.
In the early days zinc was the metal used for these half-tone
blocks; but experience showed that though more difficult to etch
to the necessary depth, the closer, denser texture of copper
rendered plates of this metal much more suitable for the produc-
tion of the best blocks, and zinc now is used only for inferior
blocks. Whichever metal may be used, a sheet of it, most
carefully planished, is sensitized with a coating of gelatin or
fish-glue and bichromate of potash, dried and exposed under
the screen negative to the action of light, as in the ordinary
method of photographic printing. The action of the light
hardens the gelatin film, the portion not so hardened being
soluble by water. The plate with the gelatin picture in lines
and dots is exposed to heat and the image is burnt in on the
surface of the metal like an enamel, which enables the photo-
graphic picture to resist the subsequent etching. The plate is
placed in a bath of iron perchloride and etched until sufficient
depth is obtained. Wherever the surface of the plate is free
from the lines and dots, it is bitten away by the perchloride,
and the lines and dots are left in relief. This first biting in the
bath produces a rather flat general impression of the original,
and is termed " rough etching." To produce finer results, and
to bring out the contrasts of black and white necessary to a good
reproduction, the block has to go through processes of stopping
out and rebiting similar to those of etching an intaglio plate.
This " fine etching " calls for the artistic taste and judgment of
the craftsman; and with a good photograph to work from the
final quality of a block will depend largely upon its treat-
ment by the fine etcher. A substitute for the acid bath has been
found in an acid blast. The acid is driven in the form of a
spray with some force on to the surface of the prepared plate,
which it etches more rapidly and more effectively than the
bath.
One risk to be guarded against is the underbiting of the lines
and dots which form the printing surface. As soon as the acid
has eaten its way downwards past the protecting surface film, it
will attack the sides of the upstanding dots as well as the ground
that supports them, with the result that they become weakened
and rendered liable to break off in the process of printing, as
well as to make the obtaining of electrotypes from the blocks a
PROCESS
A. GALLIREX JOHNSTON!. B.
The Turaco of Ruwenzori.
From a Drawing by Sir Harry Johnston, from "The Vgaivla Pmifrtoriite," by Permittim of Hutchineon <t Co.
-Colour Proettl.
, Ltd.. Engraven,
. Hertt.
SHOWING THE SEPARATE COLOURS EMPLOYED IN PHOTO-REPRODUCTION
BY THE THREE-COLOUR PROCESS
The three primary colours are separated out by photography, each colour sensation Is etched on copper, and when the Blocks representing
Yellow (A), Red (B). and Blue (C). as Illustrated above, are superimposed in the printing press, the result (D) Is a reproduction of the
original in all its combinations of colour.
PROCESS
411
matter of extreme difficulty, the underbitten points breaking
or tearing away in the moald. To avoid this underbiting a
fatty ground is laid over the surface of the block each time it is
etched; by exposure to heat this ground is sufficiently melted
to permit of its running down the sides of the upstanding points,
and so giving them the required protection. The acid blast is
less liable than the bath process to eat away the sides of the dots.
This method of making tone relief blocks is most generally
known as the " Meisenbach " process, from Meisenbach, of
Munich, who was the first to make it commercially successful,
but the history of its development is somewhat obscure. Fox
Talbot as early as 1852 took out a patent for using a screen of
crape or muslin; he also suggested dusting glass with a fine
powder to produce a grain screen. All the early ruled screens
wi-re single line, and the credit is due of suggesting the shifting
. of the single line screen during the operation and, by reversing it,
producing the effect of the double line, to Sir Joseph Swan, who
patented the process in 1879. Meisenbach's patent for a similar
method is dated 1882. The development of the screen was the
important factor in the development of the process. The
early screens were photographs of ruled plates and the great
advance was made by Max Levy of Philadelphia, who made it
possible by his ruling machines to produce screens of a fineness
and clearness not previously practicable. It was F. E. Ives
who, in 1886, introduced ruled screens placed face to face and
sealed up so as to produce cross-lined screens.
The chief objection to this process is its inability to reproduce
the extremes of expression employed by the artist in black and
white; actual white is impossible, and delicate tones, such as
are characteristic of skies, are destroyed by the cross-bar lines
of the screen, which cover down all light passages and rob the
reproduction of that brilliancy which characterized wood
engraving. It is true that the addition of hand engraving can
be resorted to in the case of the process block, and lights and
other varieties of tone and form introduced, but this can only
be done on blocks of very fine texture, and the cost of reproduc-
tion is greatly increased by the introduction of such handwork
by the engraver.
The most important development of the half-tone process
is in the direction of the reproduction of works in colour by means
Three of relief blocks. The theories of colour (q.v.) in
Colour light and in pigments enter largely into this develop-
Biocks. inent. White or solar light is composed of rays of
light of three distinct colours, red, green and violet, which are
called the primary or fundamental colours because by their
combination in various proportions all other tones of colour
are produced, but they cannot themselves be produced by any
combination of other coloured rays. The theory of pigmental
colour differs from this in that the primary or foundation colours
from which all others are produced, while being themselves
unproducible by any admixture, are blue, red and yellow, and
while the combination of the red, green and violet of the scientist
produces white, the combination of the primaries of pigments in
their full strength produces black.
Colour is the result of the absorption and reflection of the rays
of light which strike upon a body. The rays which are reflected
are those which affect the vision and produce the sense of colour.
Should the object absorb all the rays it appears black, should it
absorb none but reflect all it is white, and between these two
extremes lie an infinite variety of tones. Filters have been made
which absorb and refuse passage to certain coloured rays, while
permitting the passage of others, e.g. a photographic filter of a
certain colour will absorb and stop the passage of red and green
rays, while permitting the passage through it of the violet.
It will then be perceived how, when a picture or other coloured
object is placed before a camera, with one of these filters between
it and the exposed negative, the rays of light of the colour
which can pass through the filter to the negative will be the only
ones which can affect it, and that it is possible in this way to
secure on three separate negatives a record of the green, red
and violet rays which are reflected from its coloured surface by
any object placed before the camera.
These records are coloured photographs; they are simply
ordinary negatives, records of colour values which may be
translated into colour by the use of coloured inks. The principle
governing the process is analysis or separation followed by
recombination. Positives are made from these colour records,
from which by means of the rule screens already described
half-tone process blocks are made which, when printed one over
the other in coloured inks, combine again the colours which were
separated by the filtering process and give approximately a
reproduction of the original in its true colours. The colour
used with each block must have a relation to the filter used in its
production. It must represent a combination of the two colours
stopped out by the filter when making the negative from which
the block was made, that is to say, the colour used must be
complementary to the colours stopped out. Certain subjects
which are amenable to long exposures can be dealt with by
what is known as the " direct process," whereby the screen
negative and the colour record are made by one operation on
the same plate. By this means six of the fifteen otherwise
necessary operations are saved, but the method is not always
practicable.
As far back as 1861 the suggestion was made at the Royal
Institution by Clerk Maxwell to reproduce objects in their
natural colours by superimposing the three primary colours.
Later Baron Ransomut, of Vienna, Mr Collen, a gentleman who
taught drawing to Queen Victoria, and two Frenchmen, MM.
Chas. Cros and Ducos du Hauron, carried on the idea and
made experiments with the aid of photography, which were
still further developed in Germany by Professor Husnik, of
Prague, Dr Vogel, of Berlin, and others; but it was in America
that the first three-colour blocks for letterpress printing were
made, F. E. Ives, at Philadelphia, being their maker in 1881.
This three-colour relief process has made great advances in
recent years. The first great practical difficulty which had to
be overcome was to produce three screen blocks which could
be printed one over the other. Were the screens of each block
used at the same angle, the lines and dots would print on the
top of one another; but a great deal of the colour result depends
upon a considerable proportion of each colour being on the
white paper. Artists know well that much purer and more
brilliant results are produced by placing touches of colour side
by side than one over another; small patches of red and blue,
placed side by side, yield to the eye a purple of much greater
purity and beauty than the same touches of colour worked one
over the other. Consequently it was found necessary to turn
the screen at a different angle for each block, so that the lines
should not fall on each other but should cross each other; but
the risk of this is that, used at certain angles, the crossing of the
screen lines will produce what is known as the moiri antique
result. Vogel took out a patent in Great Britain for the process,
and he therein stated that the screens should be used at certain
stated angles. He also proposed to use single-line screens,
similar to those used by F. E. Ives at Philadelphia, instead of
cross-line; but it has since been found that the cross- or double-
line screens can be used successfully; and that the angle at
which they can be used is not a fixed one.
Filters are made in a dry or wet form. The dry filter is made by
spreading a film of gelatin or collodion, tinted by an aniline colour,
upon a piece of glass. The wet filter is a cell or
trough made of two sheets of glass, sealed all round
and filled with water tinted with an aniline dye or
colour. The accuracy of the tint of the colour-filter may be tested
by the spectroscope, or by an instrument invented by Sir William
Abney, and known as the Abney colour sensitometer. This is a
theoretical test. The practical test is by photographing through
them patches of blue, red, and yellow. If, for example, the filter
for blue records the full strength of blue with the full strength of the
colour of the negative, while giving slight or no record at all of the
red and yellow, it is practically a true filter. It is possible to treat
the negatives themselves so as to render them more sensitive to
the special colour they are intended to record. Indeed Dr Albert,
of Munich, has produced a collodion emulsion which is so sensitized
that the various colour sensations are directly obtained without
the interposition of a colour filter. Different makes of plates
demand different colour-filters. (For colour-filter making see Ives,
412
PROCESS
Photographic Journal, vol. xx. No. n). The preparation of these
colour-filters calls for great perfection of quality in the materials em-
Eloyed, and great accuracy in the using of them. The glass, whether
>r the dry or wet filter, must be absolutely flat as to its surface,
and its two sides must be absolutely parallel. In the wet filter the
glasses forming the sides of the cell or trough must be parallel to
each other.
Coloured glass is sometimes used in combination with the tinted
collodion, but there is no particular advantage in this, because two
glasses are always used in the making of a filter, and each one may,
if desired, be coated with different dyes and afterwards cemented
together with Canada balsam.
The following dyes or their equivalents form a basis for nearly all
three-colour filters :
For the red printing negative
blue
yellow
S Brilliant green.
Brilliant yellow.
( Cochineal red.
} Brilliant yellow.
( Methyl violet.'
( Naphthol green.
The first dye named is the base colour in each case, the second is
employed in small proportions to produce the required modification
of tint.
The theory of the three-colour process is that the same three
colours shall be used for the printing of every subject; and there is
no doubt that if the filtration were perfect and the printing inks
absolutely pure, the theory would work out fairly correctly in
practice; but there is room for improvement in both these matters,
and it is therefore often found desirable to print special subjects
with special pigments, which makes it difficult to print several
subjects together. Special care is called for on the part of the
printer. There must be the most perfect register of
Need of j. ne j^ree subjects, otherwise a blurred effect resu'.ts;
Pri <u there must be constant watchfulness to see that
g ' there is no excess of ink of any one colour, or the
whole scheme of colour will be destroyed. This three-colour
process has been a rather long time in establishing itself and nothing
has so tended to retard it as bad printing. Good blocks have been
obtainable, but in the hands of ordinary printers they have yielded
but indifferent results. It is hardly to be expected that the untrained
eye of the ordinary printer should be successful where the work
requires the cultivated judgment of an artist. There is one other
necessity for success in all tone relief work, and that is the use of
the right quality of paper and ink. The blocks are so delicate
they soon fill up if an excess of ink is used. Ink of a good quality
can be used in much less quantity than common kinds, but it must
be impressed upon paper that is sympathetic and will " bear out "
the ink.
The best results can be obtained only with the use of what is
known as " coated " paper. It is a paper which, after manufacture,
is passed through a bath of a preparation of china clay, which by
means of brushes is rubbed into the surface of the paper. When
dry the surface takes a high polish, and is sensitive to the smallest
amount of ink. The polish of this coated paper is objectionable
to many readers of illustrated books, and the clay adds considerably
to the weight. Paper makers are, however, supplying a dull-
surfaced highly calendered rag paper which is very good for artistic
and scientific illustrations and obviates both the glossy surface and
the supposed lack of permanency of chromo paper.
2. Intaglio Processes. An intaglio engraving is one in which
the printing surface is sunk below the surrounding portion's of
the plate; the lines or dots pressed, cut or bitten into the surface
holding the ink which is to "be impressed upon the paper when
the original surface of the plate is wiped clean. The old-
fashioned steel engraving may be taken as the type of an intaglio
plate, in which the lines which printed were cut into the surface
of the plate, instead of being left standing up in relief, as in the
case of a wood engraving.
" Photogravure " is the name by which the many processes
are generally known by means of which intaglio engravings
are made mechanically, " heliogravure " being another name for
the process, or special application of it. Photogravure repro-
duces the tones of photographs or drawings, and gives the
nearest approach to a facsimile reproduction that has yet been
arrived at. Gelatin bichromatized is the medium by means of
which the photogravure plate is produced ; but as the screen is not
used in ordinary work, it is necessary to produce an ink-holding
grain in some way upon the plate. This is done by allowing a
cloud of bitumen dust, raised inside a box, to settle upon the
surface of a copper plate; it is fixed by heat, which, though
insufficient to melt it, is enough to attach the fine grains to the
plate. Over this prepared surface is laid the film of bichroma-
tized gelatin, upon which is printed the subject through a glass
positive; the usual hardening process takes place by the action
of light, followed by a washing out of the unhardened portions of
the gelatin. The plate is exposed to the action of ferric chloride,
which attacks it most strongly in the least exposed parts,
but which cannot eat it away in broad flat masses of dark, even
in the non-exposed portions, owing to the existence of the
bitumen granulation, which ensures the keeping of a grained
surface even in the darkest passages.
Photogravure is a costly process to employ for illustration.
The plates have to be printed slowly, with much hand work, as
in the case of etchings. It is the printing that makes its use
expensive, rather than the making of the plates; and as each
plate must be printed separately and on special paper, it cannot
be employed with type, like relief blocks.
There is much uncertainty about the production of plates by
the photogravure method; and although great improvements
have been made in the process, it is often necessary to produce
several plates before a satisfactory one is obtained. In all these
reproductive processes the more artistic the workman the better
the result; this is especially true of photogravure, in which the
aim is to come very much nearer to the original work of the
artist designer than in the less perfect processes.
The method of Rousillon, which was adopted by Goupil
in the production of photogravure plates in the early days of
the process, was to prepare the surface of the plate with a secret
preparation of certain salts, which crystallized under the action
of light, so that when exposed under the negative the surface
was broken up by this crystallization more or less, according to
the amount of light the negative permitted to reach it. The
plate with its crystallized surface was then electrotyped, and the
electrotype was the plate used for printing. It was a deposit
process, as opposed to an etching process.
Photogravure plates are made also by the use of the giain
screen, in which the reticulations of the screen take the place
of the bitumen powder in producing a grain; it is the inversion
of the method by means of which points and lines are produced
in the relief block. It has not, however, come much into favour,
probably owing to the greater coarseness of the grain and the
consequent loss of softness in the tones. An application of
this method has, however, been made in the development
known as the Rembrandt intaglio process. It is a secret
process; but the secret lies more in the press by which Rembrandt
the plates are printed than in the plates themselves, intaglio
which are intaglio plates made with a very fine screen Process -
and bent to a cylinder. The attempt to print photogravure
plates by machinery was given up because the plates were so
shallow they would not stand the wear and tear, and their life
was too short and the results too indifferent; but the use of the
grain screen renders possible stronger, deeper plates, that will
stand harder wear. There is little doubt that the machine used
is some form of the machine used to print wall-papers, in which
there is a central cylinder engraved with the design, inked by
rollers with which it conies in contact. The ink not only fills
up the intaglio or sunk portion which has to print the design,
but covers as well the whole surface of the plate. To clean this
surface, leaving ink only in the sunk dots and lines, another
metal cylinder is employed, ground and grooved somewhat like
the shaft of the common steel of the dinner table used to sharpen
knives, the grooved surface of which, passing over the engraved
cylinder, scrapes clean its inked surface, leaving ink only in the
sunk portions, which will, as the cylinder comes in contact with
the paper, deposit itself and print the picture. The results
produced by the Rembrandt intaglio process are softer and
smoother than those given by photogravure, and they are free
from the gritty qualities which occasionally characterize photo-
gravure; but they lack the brilliancy and depth of the latter.
The process on the whole is less costly to use, mainly because
the printing is so much more rapid, and is turned out by a
machine instead of by hand.
A method of printing intaglio plates made from a screen
PROCESS
4*3
negative by the lithographic press was introduced and patented
by Sir Joseph Swan and his son, Donald Cameron-Swan. The
sunk surfaces are rendered receptive of lithographic ink while
the surface of the plate itself is kept damp w.ith water or glycerin
and water, and remains clean and free from ink when the plate is
rolled.
The monotype is not a new, but a revival of a somewhat old,
method of reproducing on paper a painting by an artist. The
Hoaotypt design is executed on a plate by means of brushes,
fingers or other tools, with paint or printer's ink.
the completion of the painting, paper is laid upon it, and
plate and paper are together passed through a press, when the
uk or colour is transferred to the paper. One impression only
possible, hence the name of the process. A method has been
devised by Sir Hubert von Herkomer for dusting the painting
vhile still wet with a fine metallic powder, which gives a tooth
and renders the surface sympathetic to a copper deposit
vhen it is placed in the galvanic bath, by which means an electro-
; of the painting, with its varying relief surfaces, is obtained,
forms a plate from which numerous impressions can be
:n.
The very large number of impressions it is often required to get
from the etched surface of a block has made it necessary to devise
means for preserving the original block, and to prepare
and work from duplicates, which can be renewed when
necessary. For this process the original is coated
with a film of the finest plumbago (black lead) powder before being
placed face to face with a bed of soft fine wax, into which it is
pressed. The plumbago prevents adhesion and facilitates the with-
drawal of the block after contact with the wax. The wax mould
which is thus obtained is suspended in a galvanic bath of sulphate
of copper. On passing a current of electricity through the liquid to
the mould, the copper at once begins to deposit itself in metallic
form .over the face of the wax mould, and in a short time the
deposit becomes thick enough, either by itself or when backed up
with other metal, to be used as a block in the place of the original.
The very fine nature of process blocks, and the necessity of obtain-
ing perfect impressions from them, has led to the introduction of
gutta-percha instead of wax as the medium for making a mould. It
is melted and poured in a liquid state upon the block, and when cold
can be removed without the risk attending the use of wax, which
is apt to give way in the course of the separation of the block from
the mould. Gutta-percha is much more tenacious, and being some-
what flexible, does not break and tear, as wax is liable to do. The
whole process requires the greatest care in its manipulation.
Steel-facing is resorted to where long numbers have to be printed
from photogravure plates. The finest film of steel is deposited by
an electric battery over the whole face of the plate,
which it hardens and protects. This steel face in time
begins to wear, through the constant pressure and
rubbing incidental to the process of printing, and the copper begins
to show through it. As soon as this happens the plate is placed in
an acid bath, in which the steel film disappears. The plate itself
being still intact, can be re-steeled for further work.
The changes which have taken place in the form of illustrations
have necessarily been accompanied by changes in the machinery
by which they are printed. Almost all the changes
and improvements have been initiated in the United
aery ' States of America. The vital change made in the
interest of process block-printing is what is technically known as
" hard packing." Before the introduction of process blocks the
" blanket " played an important part in all printing machines.
It was a soft woollen sheet, which came between the plate or cylinder
and the type and blocks, and modified the force of the contact
between them. Owing to the increased fineness of the texture of
the process block as compared with the wood engraving, it was
found that the blanket was too coarse and soft a material,
and that it interfered with the clearness and fineness of the
printed result. Blankets of finer material were tried, with im-
proved results; but at last the blanket was entirely superseded
by a glazed board, the machinery was more accurately con-
structed, and the hard, finely-polished steel cylinder, without
any intervening substance save the thin glazed board and the
sheet of paper to be printed, was brought in contact with the
type and blocks. The old soft blanket kept the cylinder or the
flat press in contact with the type, in spite of the weak con-
struction of much printing machinery. The new method of work
made no allowance for such construction; and the new machinery,
to meet the new conditions, had to be very perfect in manufacture.
About the old machines there was a lack of solidity, which allowed
vibration. Modern work demands absolute rigidity in the machine;
and a chief characteristic of the best modern printing machinery is
strength and solidity, admitting of precision of impression. Another
change has been in the nature and treatment of the printing paper.
Steel-
facing.
Most elaborate methods were adopted for the moistening of the
substance of paper before use. Most paper was printed on whilst
damp, but damp paper had to disappear with the soft blanket,
and a clay-surfaced or highly-calendered paper was introduced with
a glazed face in harmony with the polished steel cylinder which
pressed it against the type and blocks. It is essential to this paper
that it be dry when used ; to ensure the best results with it the paper
should be kept some weeks or months before use, so that it may be
absolutely dry, or seasoned. If printed on too soon, the clay surface
tears away when in contact with the " tacky " ink; and instead of the
ink being deposited on the paper, bits of the paper surface are left
on the forme, and white spots appear in the impression. The bits
of paper surface so deposited on the forme get inked as they pass
under the rollers, and impress black spots on the sheets that come
after. New and unseasoned paper accounts for much bad printing,
and this form of badness is due to the change in material due to
the necessities of modern process work.
3. Planographic processes are such as are printed from a flat
surface neither raised above the surrounding ground like a wood
engraving or type letter, nor sunk below the ground like an etch-
ing or steel engraving. Lithography (q.v.) with its flat stone or
plate may be taken as the type.
Woodbury type is a development rather than an invention by
Walter Woodbury. By an old nature-printing process leaves
and other things which lent themselves to the treatment were
by extreme pressure forced into a flat surface of soft metal, and
the mould so formed was used as a printing surface to reproduce
the forms of the impressed object. Woodbury found that a
film of bichromated gelatin exposed to the action of light under
a negative and the unaffected parts washed away gave him a
relief image which was so hardened by the action of light aided
by other hardening agents, that it could with no injury to the
film itself which could be used many times to make fresh moulds
be forced by hydraulic pressure into a thin flat plate of lead
or type metal, and that the mould so formed could be used in a
similar way to the mould formed in the old nature printing process.
But a Woodbury type print is rather a cast from the shallow
mould than a print in the true sense. It is obtained by filling
the mould with a warm solution of coloured gelatin and pressing
on it a piece of hard surfaced paper. The pressure forces the
solution away from the highest parts of this mould which come
in actual contact with the paper, so that none of it is left between
them and the surface of the paper which in these parts remains
uncoloured. These are the high lights of the print. The
pressure forces the colouring matter into the hollows of the
mould, and this amount is graduated according to the depth of
the hollows. The coloured gelatin gradually cools and hardens
and adheres to the paper which on its removal from the mould
retains a delicate cast of the impressed subject. The variety
of light and shade is the result of the varying depth of the
hollows and the consequent variation of the amount of colouring
matter taken up by the impressed paper. The white paper is
an important element in the result, the light reflected from it
through this coloured gelatin varying according to the thickness
of the gelatin film. A drawback to the use of the Woodbury
type for book illustration is that every print has to be trimmed
and mounted, and of course it cannot be printed with type.
Stannotype is a variation upon Woodbury type. It is an
attempt to do away with the need of the hydraulic press for the
making of the mould. A film of bichromated gelatin is exposed
to the action of light under a positive instead of a negative and
the unaffected parts washed away, by which means a mould is
obtained corresponding exactly to that obtained in metal by
pressure from a film exposed to light under a negative. This
mould was covered by a coating of tin foil to give it the necessary
metal surface, and good results were obtained from it, but for
some reason it has never come much into use.
Collotype or phototype is a process in which the film of isinglass,
gelatin or gum, treated with bichromate of potash with the addi-
tion of alum or some other hardening substance, becomes an
actual printing surface inked with an ordinary roller and printed
by an ordinary machine. A strong tough film made up of a first
coating of a simple gelatinous nature covered by a second film
of the sensitive bichromated gelatin is spread upon glass and
allowed to dry. Exposed to light under a reversed negative
414
PROCESS PROCESSION
the unprotected parts are hardened in proportion to the amount
of protection they receive from the negative. After exposure
under the negative the back of the film is exposed to the action
of sunlight through the glass at its back, so that the whole film
may be rendered as hard and tough and durable as possible to
stand the wear and tear of the process of printing. When in its
place in the printing press the film must be kept moistened.
The soft parts unacted upon by the light, but from which the
bichromate has been since washed, will absorb moisture in pro-
portion to the action the light has exercised upon it, the abso-
lutely hard parts refusing moisture altogether. The film may
now be inked with an ordinary inking roller, the ink being
freely taken up by the hard and unmoistened passages and by
the partly hardened in proportion to the amount of moisture
they are capable of absorbing; as in lithography, the constant
moistening of the printing surface is a necessity. Collotype
is largely used for postcards. It may be printed in a lithographic
or ordinary vertical press of the letterpress printer. Admirable
colour results are obtained by this process.
Heliotype is a variation of the method of producing the film
which is first spread as described upon waxed glass and then
stripped from the glass when dry. After hardening the back
of the film it is laid down upon a metal plate and firmly secured
to it by the use of an india-rubber cement. It is remarkable
the admirable results that are obtainable by so delicate a process.
The films have not a long life; a few hundreds only can be printed
from each, but the renewal of the film is a simple matter. The
result is very like a photograph. The use of heliotype is, however,
practically obsolete.
Photolithography. Zinc or aluminium plates are now fre-
quently used instead of the more cumbrous stones for all so
called lithographic printing. These plates have the same
affinity for fat ink as stone, the method of dealing with them
being practically the same as with stones, and the description
may be taken as applying to both. The stone itself may be
rendered sensitive by coating it with a thin film of bichromated
gelatin, exposing it under a reversed negative of the required
subject and treating the hardened film as it is treated in the case
of collotype. A better plan is to render sensitive a sheet of
unsized or transfer paper which is exposed under a negative,
moistened, and rolled with transfer ink, which is of a specially
fatty nature, and adheres only to the parts hardened by exposure
which are unaffected by the moistening and remain dry. This
inked sheet is laid upon the stone and the two together are
subjected to great pressure, passing through a lithographic
press. After further moistening the sheet of transfer paper is
peeled off, the stone leaving the inked drawing behind it. The
usual methods of lithography are then followed, the stone is
treated with a preparation of acid and gum, kept moist and
printed from in the ordinary lithographic method. Lithography
of all kinds can only deal with lines or solid blocks. Tints
present difficulties which are best dealt with by other methods
of reproduction, but attempts have been made to obtain tints
lithographically by breaking up the solid surfaces of the gelatin
print with a -grain before rolling it with ink and transferring it
to the stone.
One of the most successful of such attempts is known as the
Ink Photo process, which is more or less of a secret process
worked by Messrs Sprague. None of them, however, yield so
sound a result as a good drawing made in line, as the grain has
a tendency to fill up. Transfers may also be made on to zinc
plates which will take the lithographic ink equally well with
stones. The plates may be etched as the inked surfaces resist
the action of acid and by this means a relief plate made, which
when mounted on a block, type-high, may be printed typographi-
cally. It is known in this form as zincography.
AUTHORITIES. Eugene Michel Chevreul, Considerations sur la
reproduction par les precedes de M. Niepce de Saint Victor des images
gravees dessinees ou imprimees (Paris, 1847); Niepce de Saint Victor,
Memoire sur la gravure heliographique sur acier et sur verre (Batig-
noljes, 1854); Niepce de Saint Victor, Trails pratique de la gravure
heliographique sur acier et sur verre (Paris, 1856); Alexander de
Courcy Scott, On Photo- Zincography and other Photographic ^.,
employed at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton (London, 1862)^
G. Field, Chromotography (London, 1885); C. Motteroz, Essai sur
les gravures chimiques en relief (Paris, 1871) ; Dr H. Vogel and
J. R. Sawyer, Das photographische Pigment Verfahren oder der
Kohledruck (Berlin) ;W. von Bezold, Theory of Colours, 1876; (Boston,
U.S.A., 1891) ; J. Husnik, Das Gesammtgebiet des Lichtdrucks (Vienna,
1880, and editions); Ceymet, Traite pratique de phototypie (Paris,
1883, and editions); W. T. Wilkinson, Photo-Engraving on Zinc
and Copper, in Line and Half -Tone (London, 1886); Alexander
Leslie, The Practical Instructor of Photo-Engraving and Zinc-Etching
Processes (New York, and editions) ; E. Leitze, Modern Heliographic
Processes (New York, 1899); W. T. Wilkinson, Photo-Engraving
(London, and editions); Professor Church, Colour (London, 1891);
W. de W. Abney, Colour Measurement and Mixture (London, 1891);
R. Meldola, The Chemistry of Photography (London, 1891); Colonel
Waterhouse, Practical Notes on the Preparation of Drawings for
Photographic Reproduction (London, 1890); Carl Schraubstaedler,
Photo-Engraving; a Practical Treatise on the Production of Printing
Blocks by Modern Photographic Methods (St Louis, U.S.A., 1892);
Dr H. Vogel, The Chemistry of Light (London, 1892); S. R. Koehler,
Museum of Fine Arts: a Catalogue of an Exhibition illustrating
Reproduction Methods down to the Latest Times (Boston, U.S.A.,
1892); Jules Adeline, Les Arts de reproduction vulgarises (Paris);
Sir J. Norman Lockyer, Studies in Spectrum Analysis (London,
1894); H. D. Farquhar, The Grammar of Photo-Engraving, trans,
from the German (London); C. G. Zander, Photo-Trichromatic
Printing (Leicester, 1896) ; H. W. Singer and William Strang, Etching,
Engraving, and other Methods of Printing Pictures (London, 1897);
W. Gamble, " The History of the Half-tone Dot," (The Photographic
Journal, Feb. 20, 1897); T. D. Bolas and others, A Handbook of
Photography in Colours (London, 1900) ; W. de W. Abney, Photo-
graphy, Penrose's Process Annual contains each year a list of the
latest works dealing with the development and progress of mechanical
photo processes. (E. BA.)
PROCESS, in law, in the widest sense of the word, any means
by which a court of justice gives effect to its authority. In the
old practice of the English common law courts process was
either original or judicial. Original process was a means of
compelling a defendant to compliance with an original writ
(see WRIT). Judicial process was any compulsory proceeding
rendered necessary after the appearance of the defendant.
Process was also divided in civil matters into original, mesne and
final. Original process in this sense was any' means taken to
compel the appearance of the defendant. A writ of summons
is now the universal means in the High Court of Justice. Mesne
process was either any proceeding against the defendant taken
between the beginning and the end of the action, such as to
compel him to give bail, or was directed to persons not parties
to the action, such as jurors or witnesses. Arrest on mesne
process was abolished in England by the Debtors Act 1869.
Final process is practically coexistent with execution. In
criminal matters process only applies where the defendant does
not appear upon summons or otherwise. A warrant is now the
usual form of such process.
Stet processus~was a technical term used in old common law
practice. It consisted of an entry on the record by consent of the
parties for a stay of proceedings. Since the Judicature Acts there
has been no record, and the stet processus has disappeared with it.
In Scots law process is used in a much wider sense, almost equiva-
lent to practice or procedure in English law. Where papers forming
steps of a process are borrowed and not returned, the return of the
borrowed process may be enforced by caption (attachment). The
Scottish process is very much akin to the French dossier.
In the United States process is governed by numerous statutes,
both of Congress and of the state legislatures. The law is founded
upon the English common law.
PROCESSION 1 (M. Eng., processioun, Fr., procession, Lat,
processio, from procedere, to go forth, advance, proceed), in
general, an organized body of people advancing in a formal or
ceremonial manner. This definition covers a wide variety of
such progresses: the medieval pageants, of which the Lord
1 In classical Latin the word generally used for a procession was
pompa, a formal march or progress of persons to some particular
spot, to celebrate some event, or for some public or religious purpose.
Processio is used by Cicero in the sense of " a marching forward, an
advance," any public progress, such as the formal entrance of the
consul upon his office (Du Cange, s.v. Processio), or the public
appearance of the emperor. In Late Latin processio is generally
used of a religious procession, the word having come to be used of
the body of persons advancing or proceeding.
PROCESSION
Mayor's show in London is the most conspicuous survival; the
processions connected with royal coronations and with court
ceremonies generally; the processions of friendly societies, so
popular in Great Britain and America; processions organized
as a demonstration of political or other opinions; processions
forming part of the ceremonies of public worship. In a narrower
sense of " going forth, proceeding," the term is used in the
technical language of theology in the phrase " Procession of
the Holy Ghost," expressing the relation of the Third Person in
the Triune Godhead to the Father and the Son.
Processions have in all peoples and at all times been a natural
form of public celebration, as forming an orderly and impressive
Greek and way in which a number of persons can take part in
Roman Pro- some ceremony. They are included in the celebra-
tfjs/ons. tions of many religions, and in many countries, both
in the East and West, they accompany such events as weddings
and funerals. Religious and triumphal processions are abun-
dantly illustrated by ancient monuments, e.g. the religious
processions of Egypt, those illustrated by the rock-carvings of
Boghaz-Keui (see PTERIA), the many representations of pro-
cessions in Greek art, culminating in the great Panathenaic
procession of the Parthenon frieze, and Roman triumphal
reliefs, such as those of the arch of Titus.
Processions played a prominent part in the great festivals
of Greece, where they were always religious in character. The
games were either opened or accompanied by more or less
elaborate processions and sacrifices, while processions from the
earliest times formed part of the worship of the old nature gods
(e.g. those connected with the cult of Dionysus, &c.), and later
formed an essential part of the celebration of the great religious
festivals (e.g. the processions of the Thesmophoria, and that of
the Great Dionysia), and of the mysteries (e.g. the great pro-
cession from Athens to Eleusis, in connexion with the Eleusinia).
Of the Roman processions, the most prominent was that of
the Triumph, which had its origin in the return of the victorious
army headed by the general, who proceeded in great pomp from
the Campus to the Capitol to offer sacrifice, accompanied by
the army, captives, spoils, the chief magistrate, priests bearing
the images of the gods, amidst strewing of flowers, burning of
incense and the like (Ovid, Trist. iv. 2, 3 and 6). Connected
with the triumph was the pompa circensis, or solemn procession
which preceded the games in the circus; it first came into use at
the ludi romani, when the games were preceded by a great pro-
cession from the Capitol to the Circus. The praetor or consul who
appeared in the pompa circensis wore the robes of a triumphing
general (see Mommsen, Slaatsrecht I. 397 for the connexion of
the triumph with the ludi). Thus, when it became customary
for the consul to celebrate games at the opening of the consular
year, he came, under the empire, to appear in triumphal robes
in the processus consularis, or procession of the consul to the
Capitol to sacrifice to Jupiter. After the establishment of
Christianity, the consular processions in Constantinople retained
their religious character, now proceeding to St Sophia, where
prayers and offerings were made; but in Rome, where Christ-
ianity was not so widely spread among the upper classes, the
tendency was to convert the procession into a purely civil
function, omitting the pagan rites and prayers, without substitu-
ting Christian ones (Dahremberg and Saglio, s.v. " Consul ").
Besides these public processions, there were others connected
with the primitive worship of the country people, which remained
unchanged, and were later to influence the worship of the Christ-
ian Church. Such were those of the Ambarvalia, Robigalia,
&c., which were essentially rustic festivals, lustrations of the
fields, consisting in a procession round the spot to be purified,
leading the sacrificial victims with prayers, hymns and cere-
monies, in order to protect the young crops from evil influences.
(See Preller, Rom. Mythologie, pp. 370-372.)
As to the antiquity of processions as part of the ritual of the
Christian Church, there is no absolute proof of their existence
before the 4th century, but as we know that in the catacombs
stations were held at the tombs of the martyrs on the anni-
versary of their death, for the celebration of the eucharist, it
is quite probable that the faithful proceeded to the appointed
spot in some kind of procession, though there is no satisfactory
evidence that this was the case. There are, indeed, /vo^,,/,,,,,
early instances of the use of the word processio by lathe
Christian writers, but it does not in any case Christian
appear to have the modern meaning "procession." chunh -
Tertullian (2nd century) uses processio and procedere in the sense
of " to go out, appear in public," 1 and, as applied to a church
function, processio was first used in the same way as cottecta,
as the equivalent of the Greek auvais, i.e. for the assembly of
the people in the church (Du Cange, s.v.). In this sense it
appears to be used by Pope Leo I. (Ep: IX. ad Diosc. episc.
c. 445: " qui nostris processionibus et ordinationibus frequenter
interfuit "), while in the version by Dionysius Exiguus of the
1 7th canon of the Council of Laodicaea ffwafcai, is translated
by processionibus (Smith, Die. of Chr. Antiq. s.v. " Procession ").
For the processions that formed part of the ritual of the
eucharist, those of the introit, the gospel and the oblation, the
earliest records date from the 6th century and even later (see
Duchesne, Origines, 2nd ed., pp. 77, 154, 181; 78, 194), but they
evidently were established at a much earlier date. As to public
processions, these seem to have come into rapid vogue after the
recognition of Christianity as the religion of the empire. Those
at Jerusalem would seem to have been long established when
described by the authoress of the Peregrinatio Silmae towards
the end of the 4th century (see PALM SUNDAY, for the procession
of palms).
Very early were the processions accompanied by hymns and
prayers, known as litaniae (Gr. XtraveTo, from Xm?, prayer),
rogationes or supplicationes (see LITANY). It is
to such a procession that reference appears to be
made in a letter 2 of St Basil (c. 375), which would
thus be the first recorded mention of a public Christian proces-
sion. The first mention for the Western Church occurs in St
Ambrose (c. 388, Ep. 40 16, Ad Theodos. " monachos . . . qui
. . . psalmos canentes ex consuetudine usuque veteri pergcbant
ad celebritatem Machabaeorum martyrum "). In both these
cases the litanies are stated to have been long in use. There is
also mention of a procession accompanied by hymns, organized
at Constantinople by St John Chrysostom (c. 390-400) in oppo-
sition to a procession of Arians, in Sozomen, Hist. eccl. viii. 8. 1
In times of calamity litanies were held, in which the people
walked in robes of penitence, fasting, barefooted, and, in later
times, frequently dressed in black (litaniae nigrae). The cross
was carried at the head of the procession and often the gospel
and the relics of the saint were carried. Gregory of Tours gives
numerous instances of such litanies in time of calamity; thus he
describes (Vita S. Remig. I.) a procession of the clergy and
people round the city, in which relics of St Remigius were carried
and litanies chanted in order to avert the plague. So, too,
Gregory the Great (Ep. xi. 57) writes to the Sicilian bishops to
hold processions in order to prevent a threatened invasion of
Sicily. A famous instance of these penitential litanies is the
lilania septiformis ordered by Gregory the Great in the year 590,
when Rome had been inundated and pestilence had followed.
1 See De praescr. adv. haer. C. xliii., " Ubi metus in Deum, ibi
gravitas honesta . . . et subjectio religiosa, et apparitio devota, et
processio modesta, et Ecclesia unita et Dei omnia," where it would
seem to mean " a modest bearing in public; " also De cultu form.
ii., xi., " Vobis autem nulla procedendi caussa tetrica; aut im-
becillus aliquis ex fratribus visitandus, aut sacrificium offertur,
aut Dei verbum administratur," which shows that procedere was not
used only of going to church. The passage ad uxorem, ii. 4, which
is sometimes quoted to prove the existence of processions at this
date, appears to use procedere in the same way as the above passages;
"... si procedendum erit, nunquam magis familiae occupatio
obvcniat. Quis enim sinat conjugem suam visitandorum fratrum
gratia vicatim aliena ac quidem pauperiora quaeque tuguria circuire?
. . . quis denique solemnibus Paschae abnoctantem securus sus-
tinebit? "
1 Ep. 207 ad Neocaes: 'AXX' ofoe %i>, <tial, roOra t-rl TOV pttyd\ov
Tptyoplov. 'AXX' oMi a! Airavetai, 4s {iptis vvv kvi&tiitTt K. r. X.
* Brawls haying arisen with the Catholics, who began singing
their hymns in opposition, the emperor prohibited the Arian
meetings.
416
PROCESSION
In this litany seven processions, of clergy, laymen, monks, nuns,
matrons, the poor, and children respectively, starting from
seven different churches, proceeding to hear mass at Sta Maria
Maggiore (see Greg, of Tours, Hist. Fr. x. i , and Johann. Diac. Vita
Greg. Magn. i. 42). This litany has often been confused with
the litania major, introduced at Rome in 598 (vide supra), but is
quite distinct from it. 1
Funeral processions, accompanied with singing and the carry-
ing of lighted tapers, were very early customary (see LIGHTS,
CEREMONIAL USE OF), and akin to these, also very early, were
the processions connected with the translation of the relics of
martyrs from their original burying place to the church where
they were to be enshrined (see e.g. St Ambrose, Ep. 29 and St
Augustine, De civitate Dei, xxii. 8 and Conf. viii. 7, for the finding
and translation of the relics of Saints Gervasius and Protasius).
From the time of the emperor Constantine I. these processions
were of great magnificence. 2
Some liturgists maintain that the early Church in its proces-
sions followed Old Testament precedents, quoting such cases
Origin at as the procession of the ark round the walls of
Christian Jericho (Josh, vi.), the procession of David with the
Processions. ar k ( 2 Sam. vi.), the processions of thanksgiving
on the return from captivity, &c. The liturgy of the early
Church as Duchesne shows (Origines, ch. i.) was influenced by
that of the Jewish synagogue, but the theory that the Church
adopted the Old Testament ritual is of quite late growth. What
is certain is that certain festivals involving processions were
adopted by the Christian Church from the pagan calendar of
Rome. Here we need only mention the litaniae majores et mi-
nores, which are stated by tlsener (" Alte Bittgange," in Zeller,
Philosophische Aufsiitze, p. 278 seq.) to have been first instituted
by Pope Liberius (352-366). It is generally acknowledged that
they are the equivalent of the Christian Church of the Roman
lustrations of the crops in spring, the Ambarvalia, &c. The
litania major, or great procession on St Mark's day (April 25)
is shown to coincide both in date and ritual with the Roman
Robigalia, which took place a.d. mi. Kal. Mai., and consisted
in a procession leaving Rome by the Flaminian gate, and
proceeding by way of the Milvian bridge to a sanctuary at the
5th milestone of the Via Claudia, where the flamen quirinalis
sacrificed a dog and a sheep to avert blight (robigo) from the
crops (Fasti praenestini, C.T.L.T., p. 317). The litania major
followed the same route as far as the Milvian bridge, when it
turned off and returned to St Peter's, where mass was celebrated.
This was already established as an annual festival by 598, as
is shown by a document of Gregory the Great (Regist. ii.) which
inculcates the duty of celebrating litaniam, quae major ab
omnibus appellatur. The litaniae minores or rogations, held
on the three days preceding Ascension Day, were first introduced
into Gaul by Bishop Mamertus of Vienne (c. 470), and made
binding for all Gaul by the ist Council of Orleans (511). The
litaniae minores were also adopted for these three days in Rome
by Leo III. (c. 800) . A description of the institution and character
of the Ascensiontide rogations is given by Sidonius Apollinaris
(Ep. v. 14). " The solemnity of these," he says, " was first
established by Mamertus. Hitherto they had been erratic,
lukewarm and poorly attended (vagae, tepentes, infrequentesque) ;
those which he instituted were characterized by fasting, prayers,
psalms and tears." In the Ambrosian rite the rogations take
place after Ascensiontide, and in the Spanish on the Thursday
to Saturday after Whitsuntide, and in November (Synod of
Girona, 517).
1 Litanies, owing to the fact that they were sung in procession
were in England sometimes themselves called " processions."
Thus we read in the " Order of making Knights of the Bath for
the coronation of Queen Elizabeth": "the parson of the said
church knelynge said the procession in Englysche and all that were
there answered the parson " (B. M. Add. MSS. 4712, p. 51, printed
in Anstis's Observations, p. 53).
* See Martigny, Diet, des antiquites chr. s.v. " Processions,"
" Stations," " Translations " for details of processions under
Constantine, and Du Cange, s.v. Processio for various processions in
the middle ages.
It is impossible to describe in detail the vast development
of processions during the middle ages. The most Processions
important and characteristic of these still have a la the
place in the ritual of the Roman Catholic Church, ^omaa
The rules governing them are laid down in the Cathoik
Rituale Romanum (Tit. ix.), and they are classified Church.
in the following way:
(i) Processiones generates, in which the whole body of the cle.
takes part. (2) Processiones ordinariae, on yearly festivals, sucfi
as the feast of the Purification of the Virgin (Candlemass, q.v.), the
procession on Palm Sunday (q.v.), the Litaniae majores and minores,
the feast of Corpus Christi (q.v.), and on other days, according
to the custom of the churches. (3) Processiones extraordinariae,
or processions ordered on special occasions, e.g. to pray for
rain or fine weather, in time of storm, famine, plague, war, or, in
quacunque tribulatione, processions of thanksgiving, translation of
relics, the dedication of a church or cemetery. There are also
processions of honour, for instance to meet a royal personage, or
the bishop on his first entry into his diocese (Pontif. rom. iii.).
Those taking part in processions are to walk bare-headed (weather
permitting), two and two, in decent costume, and with reverent
mien; clergy and laity, men and women, are to walk separately.
The cross is carried at the head of the procession, and banners
embroidered with sacred pictures in places where this is customary ;
these banners must not be of military or triangular shape. Violet
is the colour prescribed for processions, except on the Feast of
Corpus Christi, or on a day when some other colour is prescribed.
The officiating priest wears a cope, or at least a surplice with a violet
stole, the other priests and clergy wear surplices.
Where the host is carried in procession it is covered always by
a canopy, and accompanied by lights. At the litaniae majores and
minores and other penitential processions, joyful hymns are not
allowed, but the litanies are sung, and, if the length of the pro-
cession requires, the penitential and gradual psalms.
As to the discipline regarding processions the bishop, according
to the Council of Trent (Sess. 25 de reg. cap. 6), appoints and regulates
processions and public prayers outside the churches.
The observance or variation of the discipline belongs to the
Congregation of Rites; in pontifical processions, which arc regulated
by the masters of the ceremonies (magistri ceremoniarum pontifi-
calium), these points are decided by the chief cardinal deacon. As
to processions within the churches, some difference of opinion
having arisen as to the regulating authority, the Congregation of
Rites has decided that the bishop must ask, though not necessarily
follow, the advice of the chapter in their regulation.
Reformed Churches. The Reformation abolished in all Protest-
ant countries those processions associated with the doctrine
of transubstantiation (Corpus Christi); " the Sacrament of the
Lord's Supper," according to the 28th Article of Religion of the
Church of England " was not by Christ's ordinance reserved,
carried about, lifted up, or worshipped." It also abolished those
associated with the cult of the Blessed Virgin and the saints.
The stern simplicity of Calvinism, indeed, would not tolerate
religious processions of any kind, and from the " Reformed "
Churches they vanished altogether. The more conservative
temper of the Anglican and Lutheran communions, however,
suffered the retention of such processions as did not conflict
with the reformed doctrines, though even in these Churches they
met with opposition and tended after a while to fall into disuse.
The Lutheran practice has varied at different times and in
different countries. Thus, according to the Wurttemberg
Kirchenordnung of 1553, a funeral procession was
prescribed, the bier being followed by the congrega- church""
tion singing hymns; the Brandenburg Kirchenord-
nung (1540) directed a cross-bearer to precede the procession
and lighted candles to be carried, and this was prescribed also
by the Waldeck Kirchenordnung of 1556. At present funeral
processions survive in general only in the country districts;
the processional cross or crucifix is still carried. In some
provinces also the Lutheran Church has retained the ancient
rogation processions in the week before Whitsuntide and, in
some cases, in the month of May or on special occasions (e.g.
days of humiliation, Busstage), processions about the fields to
ask a blessing on the crops. On these occasions the ancient
litanies are still used.
In England " the perambulations of the circuits of the parishes
. . . used heretofore in the days of rogations " were ordered to be
observed by the Injunctions of Queen Elizabeth in 1559; and
for these processions certain " psalms, prayers and homilies "
PROCESSION PATH PROCLUS
were prescribed. The Puritans, who aimed at setting up the
Genevan model, objected; and the visitation articles of the
bishops in Charles I.'s time make frequent inquisition
into t * le ne S lect of tne clergy to obey the law in this
matter. With " the profane, ungodly, presumptuous
multitude " (to quote Baxter's Saint's Rest, 1650, pp. 344, 345),
however, these " processions and perambulations " appear to
have been very popular, though " only the traditions of their
fathers." However this may be, the Commonwealth made an
end of them, and they seem never to have been revived; Sparrow,
in his Rationale upon the Book of Common Prayer (London, 1668),
speaks of " the service formerly appointed in the Rogation days
of Procession."
Among the processions that survived the Reformation in
I lu- English Church was that of the sovereign and the Knights of
the Garter on St George's day. This was until Charles II. 's
time a regular rogation, the choristers in surplices, the gentlemen
of the royal chapel in copes, and the canons and other clergy in
copes preceding the knights and singing the litany. In 1661,
after the Restoration, by order of the sovereign and knights
companions in chapter " that supplicational procession " was
" converted into a hymn of thanksgiving." Akin to this
procession also are the others connected with royal functions;
coronations, funerals. These retained, and retain, many pre-
Reformation features elsewhere fallen obsolete. Thus at the
funeral of George II. (1760) the body was received at the door
of the Abbey by the dean and prebendaries in their copes,
attended by the choir, all carrying lighted tapers, who preceded
it up the church, singing.
The only procession formerly prescribed in the Book of
Common Prayer is that in the order of the burial of the dead,
where the rubric directs that " the priest and clerks meeting the
corpse at the entrance of the churchyard, and going before it,
either into the church, or towards the grave, shall say, or sing "
certain verses of Scripture. Tapers seem to have been carried,
not only at royal funerals, until well into the i8th century (see
LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL). Processions, with singing of the litany
or of hymns, appear also to have been always usual on such
occasions as the consecration of churches and churchyards and
the solemn reception of a visiting bishop. Under the influence
of the Catholic revival, associated with the Oxford Tractarians,
processions have become increasingly popular in the English
Church, pre-Reformation usages having in some churches been
revived without any legal sanction. The most common forms,
however, are the processional litanies, and the solemn entry of
clergy and choir into the church, which on festivals is accom-
panied by the singing of a processional hymn, their exit being
similarly accompanied by the chanting of the Nunc Dimittis.
In this connexion the use of the processional cross, banners and
lights has been largely revived.
See the article " Bittgange," by M. Herold, in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopddie, iii. 248 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1897) ; Wetzer und Welte,
Kirchenlexikon, s.v. " Prozessipn, Bittgange Litanei " and Smith's
Dictionary of Christian Antiquities s.v. " Procession." For the early
ritual see Duchesne, Origines du culle chretten (3rd ed., Paris, 1903).
See also G. Catalan!, Rituale romanum perpetuis commentariis
exornatum (1760); N. Serarius, Sacri peripatetici de sacris ecdesiae
catholicae processionibus (2 vols., Cologne, 1607); Jac. Gretser, De
ecdesiae romance processionibus (2 vols., Ingolstadt, 1606); Jac.
Eveillon, De processionibus ecdesiae (Paris, 1641); Edw. Martene,
De antiquis ecdesiae ritibus (3 vols., Antwerp, 1763), &c. For the
past usage of the Church of England, Hierurgia anghcana, ed. Vernon
Staley, p. ii pp. 3-22 (London, 1903).
PROCESSION PATH (Lat. ambitus lempli), the route taken by
processions on solemn days in large churches up the north
aisle, round behind the high altar, down the south aisle, and
then up the centre of the nave.
PROCES-VERBAL (Fr. prods, process, Late Lat. verbalis,
from verbum, word), in French law, a detailed authenticated
account drawn up by a magistrate, police officer, or other person
having authority of acts or proceedings done in the exercise
of his duty. In a criminal charge, a proces-verbal is a statement
of the facts of the case. The term is also sometimes applied to
the written minutes of a meeting or assembly,
xxn. 14
PROCIDA (Gr. llpoxvni, Lat. Prochyla), an island off the coast
of Campania, Italy, 2 m. S.W. of Capo Miseno, and 2 m. N.E.
of Ischia on the west side of the Gulf of Naples, and about 12 m.
S.W. of Naples. Pop. (1901), of the town, 2520; of the whole
island, one commune, 14,440. It is about 2 m. in length and
of varying width, and, reckoning in the adjacent island of Vivara,
is made up of four extinct craters, parts of the margins of all of
which have been destroyed by the sea. The highest point of
it is only 250 ft. above sea-level. It is very fertile, and the
population is engaged in the cultivation of vines and fruit and in
fishing. Procida, the only town, lies on the east side; its castle
is now a prison. It also contains a royal palace. Classical
authors explained the name of Procida either as an allusion to
its having been detached from Ischia, or as being that of the
nurse of Aeneas.
PROCLAMATION (Lat. prodamare, to make public by
announcement), in English law, a formal announcement (royal
proclamation), made under the great seal, of some matter which
the king in council desires to make known to his subjects: e.g.
the declaration of war, the statement of neutrality, the sum-
moning or dissolution of parliament, or the bringing into opera-
tion of the provisions of some statute the enforcement of which
the legislature has left to the discretion of the king in council.
Royal proclamations of this character, made in furtherance of
the executive power of the Crown, are binding on the subject,
" where they do not either contradict the old laws or tend to
establish new ones, but only confine the execution of such laws
as are already in being in such manner as the sovereign shall
judge necessary " (Blackstone's Commentaries, ed. Stephen, ii.
528; Stephen's Commentaries, I4th ed. 1903, ii. 506, 507; Dicey,
Law of the Constitution, 6th ed., 51). Royal proclamations,
which, although not made in pursuance of the executive powers
of the Crown, either call upon the subject to fulfil some duty
which he is by law bound to perform, or to abstain from any
acts or conduct already prohibited by law, are lawful and right,
and disobedience to them (while not of itself a misdemeanour)
is an aggravation of the offence (see charge of Chief Justice
Cockburn to the grand jury in R. v. Eyre (1867) and Case of
Proclamations 1610, 12 Co. Rep. 74). The Crown has from
time to time legislated by proclamation; and the Statute of
Proclamations 1539 provided that proclamations made by the
king with the assent of the council should have the force of
statute law if they were not prejudicial to " any person's
inheritance, offices, liberties, goods, chattels or life." But this
enactment was repealed by an act of 1547; and it is certain that
a proclamation purporting to be made in the exercise of legisla-
tive power by which the sovereign imposes a duty to which the
subject is not by law liable, or prohibits under penalties what is
not an offence at law, or adds fresh penalties to any offence, is of
no effect unless itself issued in virtue of statutory authority
(see also ORDER m COUNCIL). The Crown has power to legis-
late by proclamation for a newly conquered country (Jenkyns,
British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas); and this power
was freely exercised in the Transvaal Colony during the Boer
War of 1899-1902. In the British colonies, ordinances are fre-
quently brought into force by proclamation; certain imperial
acts do not take effect in a colony until there proclaimed (e.g.
the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870); and proclamations are con-
stantly issued in furtherance of executive acts. In many
British protectorates the high commissioner or administrator
is empowered to legislate by proclamation.
In the old system of real property law in England, fines, levied
with " proclamations," i.e. with successive public announcements
of the transaction in open court, barred the rights of strangers,
as well as parties, in case they had not made claim to the property
conveyed within five years thereafter (acts 1483-1484 and 1488-
1489). These proclamations were originally made sixteen times,
four times in the term in which the fine was levied, and four times
in each of the three succeeding terms. Afterwards the number of
proclamations was reduced to one in each of the four terms. The
proclamations were endorsed on the back of the record. The system
was abolished by the Fines and Recoveries Act 1833. (A. W. R.)
PROCLUS, or PROCTJLUS (A.D. 410-485), the chief representa-
tive of the later Neoplatonists, was born at Constantinople, but
5
4 l8
PROCOPIUS
brought up at Xanthus in Lycia. Having studied grammar
under Orion and philosophy under Olympiodorus the Peripa-
tetic, at Alexandria, he proceeded to Athens. There he attended
the lectures of the Neoplatonists Plutarch and Syrianus, and
about 450 succeeded the latter in the chair of philosophy (hence
his surname Diadochus, which, however, is referred by others to
his being the "successor" of Plato). As an ardent upholder
of the old pagan religion Proclus incurred the hatred of the
Christians, and was obliged to take refuge in Asia Minor. After
a year's absence he returned to Athens, where he remained until
his death. His epitaph, written by himself, is to be found in
Anthologia palatina, vii. 451. Although possessed of ample
means, Proclus led a most temperate, even ascetic life, and
employed his wealth in generous relief of the poor. He was
supposed to hold communion with the gods, who endowed him
with miraculous powers. He acted up to his famous saying
that " the philosopher should be the hierophant of the whole
world " by celebrating Egyptian and Chaldaean as well as Greek
festivals, and on certain days performing sacred rites in honour
of all the dead.
His great literary activity was chiefly devoted to the elucida-
tion of the writings of Plato. There are still extant commen-
taries on the First Alcibiades, Parmenides, Republic, Timaeus
and Cratylus. His views are more fully expounded in the
Ilepi TTJS Kara nXdroow #60X07105 (In Platonis theologiam).
The liToixtuaavi 060X071*77 (Institulio theologica) contains a
compendious account of the principles of Neoplatonism and the
modifications introduced in it by Proclus himself. The pseudo-
Aristotelian De causis is an Arabic extract from this work,
ascribed to Alfarabius (d. 950), circulated in the west by means
of a Latin translation (ed. O. Bardenhewer, Freiburg, 1882).
It was answered by the Christian rhetorician Procopius of Gaza
in a treatise which was deliberately appropriated without
acknowledgment by Nicolaus of Methone, a Byzantine theologian
of the 1 2th century (see W. Christ, Gesch. der griechischen
Lilteratur, 1898, 692). Other philosophical works by Proclus
are 2roix*k'>< r 's (bvaiKri T) Ilept Ku^crtott (Institutio physica sine
De motu, a compendium of the last five books of Aristotle's
Ilepi <t>vaiKrjs oKpodcreoos, De physica auscultatione) , and De
providenlia et fato, Decem dubitationes circa providentiam, De
malorum subsistentia, known only by the Latin translation of
William of Moerbeke (archbishop of Corinth, 1277-1281), who
also translated the 2Totxo<ns #60X071x17 into Latin. In
addition to the epitaph already mentioned, Proclus was the
author of hymns, seven of which have been preserved (to Helios,
Aphrodite, the Muses, the Gods, the Lycian Aphrodite, Hecate
and Janus, and Athena), and of an epigram in the Greek Antho-
logy (Anthol. pal. iii. 3, 166 in Didot edition.) His astronomical
and mathematical writings include 'Tiroru/rcoa-ts rSiv aarpo-
VOIJU.K&V VTToBiaKav (Hypotyposis astronomicarum positionum,
ed. C. Manitius, Leipzig, 1909); Etept a<t>aipas (De sphaera);
IIapd<#>pa(ns fh rrfv IlToXe/miov Terpd/3tj3Xoi', a paraphrase of the
difficult passages in Ptolemy's astrological work Tetrabiblus;
Eis TO irp&rov T&V EvK\eioov aroixduv, a commentary on the first
book of Euclid's Elements; a short treatise on the effect of
eclipses {De ejfectibus eclipsium, only in a Latin translation).
His grammatical works are: a commentary on the Works and
Days of Hesiod (incomplete) ; some scholia on Homer; an elemen-
tary treatise on the epistolary style, IIpt rrToXi/i<uou xapa/cnjpos
(Characteres epistolici), attributed in some MSS. to Libanius.
The Xpijoro/iaflia 7pcwicmK7j by a Proclus, who is identified
by Suidas with the Neoplatonist, is probably the work of a
grammarian of the 2nd or 3rd century, though Wilamowitz-
Mollendorff (Philolog. Untersuch. vii.; supported by O. Immisch
in Festschrift Th. Gomperz, pp. 237-274) agrees with Suldas.
According to Suldas, he was also the author of 'Ejrtx et / : "7M aTa <^l
Kara Xpitmavuv (Animadversiones duodeviginli in Christianas).
This work, identified by W. Christ with the Institutio theologica,
was answered by Joannes Philoponus (7th century) in his
De aeternitate mundi. Some of his commentary on the Chal-
daean oracles (Ao-yio. XaXSa'iKd) has been discovered in modern
times.
Tl
There is no complete edition of the works of Proclus. The
selection of V. Cousin (Paris, 1864) contains the treatises De proi-i-
dentia et fato, Decem dubitationes, and De malorum subsistentia,
the commentaries on the Alcibiades and Parmenides. The Institutio
theologica has been edited by G. F. Creuzer in the Didot edition
of Plotinus (Paris, 1855); the In Platonis theologian has not been
reprinted since 1618, when it was published by Aemilius Portus
with a Latin translation. Most recent editions of individual works
are : Commentaries on the Parmenides, French translation with notes
by A. E. Chaignet (1900-1903); Republic, by W. Kroll (1899-
1901); Timaeus, by E. Diehl (1903- ); Hymns, by E. Abel (1883)
and A. Ludwich (1895); commentary on Euclid by G. Friedlem
(l873);A67ioXaX5ai'Ka,byA. Jahn (1891); Characteres epistolici, by
A. Westermann (1856), Scholia to Hesiod in E. Vollbehr's edition
(1844). Thomas Taylor, the " Platonist," translated the com-
mentaries on the Timaeus and Euclid, The Theology of Plato, the
Elements of Theology, and the three Latin treatises.
On Proclus generally and his works see article in Sui'das; Marinus,
Vita Prodi; J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca (ed. Harles), ix.
363-445; W. Christ, Ceschichte der griechischen Lilteratur (1898),
623; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship (1906), i. 372;
J. B. Bury, Later Roman Empire (1889), i. 13, where Proclus is
styled the "Hegel of Neoplatonism " ; on his philosophy, T.
VVhittaker, The Neo-Platonists (1901), and NEOPLATONISM.
Extracts from the XpijcrTojuoflia are preserved in Photius (Cod. 239),
almost the only source of information regarding the epic cycle ; on the
question of authorship, see Christ 637, and Sandys, p. 379; also D.
B. Monro's appendix to his ed. of Homer's Odyssey, xiii.-xxiv. (1901).
PROCOPIUS, Byzantine historian, was born at Caesarea in
Palestine towards the end of the 5th century A.D. He became a
lawyer, probably at Constantinople, and was in 527 appointed
secretary and legal adviser to Belisarius, who was proceeding
to command the imperial army in the war against the Persians
(De hello persico i. 12). When the Persian War was suspended
and Belisarius was despatched against the Vandals of Africa
in 533, Procopius again accompanied him, as he subsequently
did in the war against the Ostrogoths of Italy, which began in
535. After the capture of Ravenna in 540 Procopius seems to
have returned to Constantinople, since he minutely describes the
great plague of 542 (op. cit. ii. 22). It does not appear whether
he was with the Roman armies in the later stages of the Gothic
War, when Belisarius and afterwards Narses fought against
Totila in Italy; his narrative of these years is much less full
and minute than that of the earlier warfare. Of his subsequent
fortunes we know nothing, except that he was living in 559.
Whether he was the Procopius who was prefect of Constantinople
in 562 (Theophanes, Chronographia, 201, 202), and was removed
from office in the year following, cannot be determined. As the
historian was evidently a person of note, who had obtained the
rank of illustrius (Suidas), and from a passage in the Anecdola
(12) seems to have risen to be a senator, there is no improbability
in his having been raised to the high office of prefect.
Procopius's writings fall into three divisions: the Histories
(Persian, Vandal and Gothic Wars), in eight books; the treatise
on the Buildings of Justinian (De aedificiis), in six books; and
the Unpublished Memoirs ('KvtuboTa,, Historia arcana), so called
because they were not published during the lifetime of the
author.
The Histories are called by the author himself the Books about
the Wars (ol wep rSiv TroXtpcoi' Xoyoi). They consist of: (i) the
Persian Wars, in two books, giving a narrative of the long struggle
of the emperors Justin and Justinian against the Persian kings
Kavadh and Chosroes Anushirvan down to 550; (2) the Vandal
War, in two books, describing the conquest of the Vandal
kingdom in Africa and the subsequent events there from 532
down to 546 (with a few words on later occurrences); (3) the
Gothic War, in three books, narrating the war against the
Ostrogoths in Sicily and Italy from 536 till 552. The eighth
book contains a further summary of events down to 554. These
eight books of Histories, although mainly occupied with military
matters, contain notices of some of the more important domestic
events, such as the Nika insurrection at Constantinople in 532,
the plague in 542, the conspiracy of Artabenes in 548. They
tell us, however, comparatively little about the civil adminis-
tration of the empire, and nothing about legislation. On the
other hand they are rich in geographical and ethnographical
information.
PROCOPIUS OF GAZA PROCTER, B. W.
As an historian Procopius is of quite unusual merit, when the
generally low literary level of his age is considered. He is in-
dustrious in collecting facts, careful and impartial in stating
them; his judgment is sound, his reflections generally acute,
his conceptions of the general march and movement of things
unworthy of the great events he has recorded. His descrip-
tions, particularly of military operations, are clear, and his
especial fondness for this part of the subject seldom leads him
into unnecessary minuteness. The style, although marked by
mannerisms, by occasional affectations and rhetorical devices,
is on the whole direct and businesslike, nor is the Greek bad for
the period in which he wrote. His models are Thucydides and
Herodotus. The former he imitates in the maxims (TWO/KM) he
throws in and the speeches which he puts into the mouth of
the chief actors; the latter in his frequent geographical digres-
sions, in the personal anecdotes, in the tendency to collect and
attach some credence to marvellous tales. The speeches are
obviously composed by Procopius himself, rarely showing any
dramatic variety in their language, but they seem sometimes
to convey the substance of what was said; and even when this
is not the case they frequently serve to bring out the points
of a critical situation. Procopius is almost as much a geo-
grapher as an historian, and his descriptions of the people and
places he himself visited are generally careful and thorough.
Although a warmly patriotic Roman, he does full justice to
the merits of the barbarian enemies of the empire, particularly
the Ostrogoths; although the subject of a despotic prince, he
criticizes the civil and military administration of Justinian
and his dealings with foreign peoples with a freedom which
gives a favourable impression of the tolerance of the emperor.
His chief defects are a somewhat pretentious and at the
same time monotonous style, and a want of sympathy and
intensity.
The De aedificiis contains an account of the chief public
works executed during the reign of Justinian down to 558 (in
which year it seems to have been composed), particularly
churches, palaces, hospitals, fortresses, roads, bridges and other
river works throughout the empire. All these are of course
ascribed to the personal action of the monarch. If not written
at the command of Justinian (as some have supposed), it is
evidently grounded on official information, and is full of gross
flattery of the emperor and of the (then deceased) empress. In
point of style it is greatly inferior to the Histories florid,
pompous and affected, and at the same time tedious. Its chief
value lies in the geographical notices which it contains.
The Anecdola ("Secret History") purports to be a supplement
to the Histories, containing explanations and additions which
the author could not insert in the latter work for fear of Justinian
and Theodora. It is a furious invective against these sovereigns,
their characters, personal conduct and government, with attacks
on Belisarius and his wife Antonina, and on other noted officials
in the civil and military services of the empire. Owing to the
ferocity and brutality of the attacks upon Justinian, the authen-
ticiiy of the Anecdola has often been called in question, but the
claims of Procopius to the authorship are now generally recog-
nized. In point of style, the Anecdota is inferior to the Histories,
and has the air of being unfinished, or at least unrevised. Its
merit lies in the furious earnestness with which it is written,
which gives it a force and reality sometimes wanting in the more
elaborate books written for publication. The history of Philip
of Macedon by Theopompus probably furnished the author
with a model.
The best complete edition of Procopius is by J. Haury (Teubner
Series, 1905); the Gothic War has been edited by D. Comparetti
1895-1898), with an Italian translation. There are English
:ranslations of the History of the Wars, by H. Holcroft (1653); of
the Anecdota (1674, anonymous); of the Buildings, by Aubrey
Stewart (1888, in Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society). Chief authori-
ties: F. Dahn, Procopius von Cdsarea (1865); W. S. Teuffel in
Studten und Charakteristiken (2nd ed., 1889); L. Ranke, Welt-
teschichle (1883), iv. 2. On the genuineness of the Anecdota cf.
J. B. Bury (who agrees with Ranke in rejecting the authorship of
rocopms) A History of the Later Roman Empire (1889), vol. i.,
and mtrod. to vol. i. (p. 57) and app. to vol. iv. of his edition of
419
Gibbon's Decline and Fall. For the literature of the subject
generally, see C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur
(2nd ed., 1897).
PROCOPIUS OF GAZA (c. 465-528 A.D.), Christian sophist
and rhetorician, one of the most important representatives
of the famous school of his native place. Here he spent nearly
the whole of his life teaching and writing, and took no part in
the theological movements of his time. The little that is known
of him is to be found in his letters and the encomium by his pupil
and successor Choricius. He was the author of numerous
rhetorical and theological works. Of the former, his panegyric
on the emperor Anastasius alone is extant; the description of
the church of St Sophia and the monody on its partial destruc-
tion by an earthquake are spurious. His letters (162 in number),
addressed to persons of rank, friends, and literary opponents,
throw valuable light upon the condition of the sophistical
rhetoric of the period and the character of the writer. The
fragment of a polemical treatise against the Neoplatonist Proclus
is now assigned to Nicolaus, archbishop of Methone in Pelo-
ponnesus (fl. 1 2th century). Procopius's theological writings
consist of commentaries on the Octateuch, the bocks of Kings
and Chronicles, Isaiah, the Proverbs, the Song of Songs and
Ecclesiastes. They are amongst the earliest examples of the
" catenic " (catena, chain) form of commentary, consisting
of a series of extracts from the fathers, arranged, with inde-
pendent additions, to elucidate the portions of Scripture con-
cerned. Photius (cod. 206), while blaming the diffuseness of
these commentaries, praises the writer's learning and style,
which, however, he considers too ornate for the purpose.
Complete editions of the works of Procopius in Migne, Patrologia
graeca, Ixxxvii; the letters also in Epistolographi graeci, ed. R
Hercher (1873); see also K. Seitz, Die Schule von Gaza (1892):
D. Russos, Tpj Toratoi (Constantinople, 1893); L. Eisenhofer,
Procopius von Gaza (1897); further bibliographical notices in C.
Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897), and
article by G. Kriiger in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyclopddie fur
protestantische Theologie (1905).
PROCRUSTES (Gr. for " the stretcher "), also called POLY-
PEMON or DAMASTES, in Greek legend, a robber dwelling in the
neighbourhood of Eleusis, who was slain by Theseus. He had
two bedsteads (according to some, only one), the one very long,
the other very short. When a stranger claimed his hospitality,
Procrustes compelled him, if he was tall, to lie down on the
short bed, and then cut off his extremities to make him fit.
If on the other hand he was short, he was placed on the long
bedstead and his limbs pulled out until he died from exhaustion.
The " bed of Procrustes " has become proverbial.
Diod. Sic. iv. 59; Hyginus, fab. 38; Plutarch, Theseus, 11;
Pausamas i. 38, 5.
PROCTER, BRYAN WALLER (1787-1874), English poet, was
born at Leeds on the 2ist of November 1787. He was educated
at Harrow, where he had for contemporaries Lord Byron and Sir
Robert Peel. On leaving school he was placed in the office of
a solicitor at Calne, Wiltshire, remaining there until about 1807,
when he returned to London to study law. By the death of his
father in 1816 he became possessed of a small property, and soon
after entered into partnership with a solicitor; but in 1820 the
partnership was dissolved, and he began to write under the
pseudonym of " Barry Cornwall." After his marriage in 1824
to Miss Skepper, a daughter of Mrs Basil Montague, he returned
to his professional work as conveyancer, and was called to the
bar in 1831. In the following year he was appointed, metropoli-
tan commissioner of lunacy an appointment annually renewed
until his election to the permanent commission constituted by
the act of 1842. He resigned office in 1861. He died on the
5th of October 1874. Most of his verse was composed between
1815, when he began to contribute to the Literary Gazette, and
1823, or at latest 1832.
His principal poetical works were: Dramatic Scenes and other
Poems (1819), A Sicilian Story (1820), Mirandola, a tragedy
performed at Covent Garden- with Macready, Charles Kemble
and Miss Foote in the leading parts (1821), The Floodof Thessaly
(1823), and English Songs (1832). He was also the author of
420
PROCTOR, A. P. PROCTOR, R. A.
Effigies poetica (1824), Life of Edmund Kean (1835), Essays
and Tales in Prose (1851), Charles r Lamb; a Memoir (1866), and
of memoirs of Ben Jonson and Shakespeare for editions of their
works. A posthumous autobiographical fragment with notes
of his literary friends, of whom he had a wide range from Bowles
to Browning, was published in 1877, with some additions by
Coventry Patmore. Charles Lamb gave the highest possible
praise to his friend's Dramatic Sketches when he said that had
he found them as anonymous manuscript in the Garrick collec-
tion he would have had no hesitation about including them in
his Dramatic Specimens. He was perhaps not an impartial
critic. " Barry Cornwall's " genius cannot be said to have been
entirely mimetic, but his works are full of subdued echoes. His
songs have caught some notes from the Elizabethan and Cavalier
lyrics, and blended them with others from the leading poets
of his own time; and his dramatic fragments show a similar
infusion of the early Victorian spirit into pre-Restoration forms
and cadences. The results are somewhat heterogeneous, and
lack the impress of a pervading and dominant personality to
give them unity, but they abound in pleasant touches, with
here and there the flash of a higher, though casual, inspiration.
His daughter, ADELAIDE ANNE PROCTER (1825-1864), also a
poet, was born on the soth of October 1825. She began to con-
tribute to Household Words in 1853. She adopted the name of
" Mary Berwick," so that the editor, Charles Dickens, should not
be prejudiced by his friendship for the Procters. Her principal
work is Legends and Lyrics, of which a first series, published in
1858, ran through nine editions in seven years, while a second
series issued in 1860 met with a similar success. Her unambitious
verses dealing with simple emotional themes in a simple manner
have a charm which is scarcely explicable on the ground of high
literary merit, but which is due rather to the fact that they are
the cultured expression of an earnest and beneficent life. Among
the best known of her poems are The Angel's Story, The Legend
of Bregenz and The Legend of Provence. Many of her songs and
hymns are very popular. Latterly she became a convert to
Roman Catholicism, and her philanthropic zeal appears to have
hastened her death, which took place on the 2nd of February
1864.
PROCTOR, ALEXANDER PHIMISTER (1862- ), American
sculptor and painter, was born in Ontario, Canada, on the 27th
of September 1862. As a youth he lived at Denver, Colorado,
spending much of his time in the Rocky Mountains, and his
familiarity with the ways and habits of wild animals was supple-
mented later by study in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. He was
a pupil at the National Academy of Design and later in the Art
Students' League, in New York, and first attracted attention
by his statues of wild animals at the Columbian Exposition,
Chicago. In 1896 he won the Rinehart Scholarship, which
enabled him to spend five years in Paris, where he studied under
Puech and J. A. Injalbert. Among his works of sculpture are:
"Indian Warrior" (a small bronze); "Panthers," Prospect
Park, Brooklyn, New York; " Quadriga," for United States
Pavilion, Paris Exhibition (1900), and groups in the City Park,
Denver, and Zoological Park, New York. His pictures of wild
animals, mainly in water colours, are also characteristic. He
became a member of the Society of American Artists (1895),
of the National Academy of Design (1904), of the American
Water Color Society, and of the Architectural League, New
York.
PROCTOR, RICHARD ANTHONY (1837-1888), British astro-
nomer, was born at Chelsea on the 23rd of March 1837. He was
a delicate child, and, his father dying in 1850, his mother attended
herself to his education. On his health improving he was sent
to King's College, London, from which he obtained a scholarship
at St John's College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1860 as
23rd wrangler. His marriage while still an undergraduate
probably accounted for his low place in the tripos. He then
read for the bar, but turned to astronomy and authorship
instead, and in 1865 published an article on the " Colours of
Double Stars " in the Cornhill Magazine. His first book
Saturn and his System was published in the same year, at his
own expense. This work contains an elaborate account of the
phenomena presented by the planet; but although favourably
received by astronomers, it had no great sale. He intended to
follow it up with similar treatises on Mars, Jupiter, sun, moon,
comets and meteors, stars, and nebulae, and had in fact com-
menced a monograph on Mars, when the failure of a New Zealand
bank deprived him of an independence which would have enabled
him to carry out his scheme without anxiety as to its commercial
success or failure. Being thus obliged to depend upon his
writings for the support of his family, and having learned by the
fate of his Saturn that the general public are not attracted by
works requiring arduous study, he cultivated a more popular
style. He wrote for a number of periodicals; and although
he has stated that he would at this time willingly have " turned
to stone-breaking on the roads, or any other form of hard and
honest but unscientific labour, if a modest competence had been
offered " him in any such direction, he attained a high degree
of popularity, and his numerous works had a wide influence in
familiarizing the public with the main facts of astronomy. His
earlier efforts were, however, not always successful. His Hand-
book of the Stars (1866) was refused by Messrs Longmans and
Messrs Macmillan, but being privately printed, it sold fairly
well. For his Half-Hours with the Telescope (1868), which
eventually reached a 2oth edition, he received originally 25
from Messrs Hardwick. Although teaching was uncongenial to
him he took pupils in mathematics, and held for a time the
position of mathematical coach for Woolwich and Sandhurst.
His literary standing meantime improved, and he became a
regular contributor to The Intellectual Observer, Chambers'!
Journal and the Popular Science Review. In 1870 appeared his
Other Worlds than Ours, in which he discussed the question of
the plurality of worlds in the light of new facts. This was
followed by a long series of popular treatises in rapid succession,
amongst the more important of which are Light Science for Leisure
Hours and The Sun (1871); The Orbs around Us and Essays on
Astronomy (1872); The Expanse of Heaven, The Moon and The
Borderland of Science (1873); The Universe and the Coming
Transits and Transits of Venus (1874); Our Place among Infinities
(r875); Myths and Marvels of Astronomy (1877); The Universe
of Stars (1878) ; Flowers of the Sky (1879) ; The Peotryof Astronomy
(1880); Easy Star Lessons and Familiar Science Studies (1882);
Mysteries of Time and Space and The Great Pyramid (1883);
The Universe of Suns (1884); The Seasons (1885); Other Suns
than Ours and Half-Hours with the Stars (1887). In 1881 he
founded Knowledge, a popular weekly magazine of science
(converted into a monthly in 1885), which had a considerable
circulation. In it he wrote on a great variety of subjects,
including chess and whist. He was also the author of the
articles on astronomy in the American Cyclopaedia and the ninth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and was well known as
a popular lecturer on astronomy in England, America and
Australia. Elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society
in 1866, he became honorary secretary in 1872, and contributed
eighty-three separate papers to its Monthly Notices. Of these
the more noteworthy dealt with the distribution of stars, star-
clusters and nebulae, and the construction of the sidereal
universe. He was an expert in all that related to map-drawing,
and published two star-atlases. A chart on an isographic
projection, exhibiting all the stars contained in the Bonn
Durchmusterung, was designed to show the laws according to
which the stars down to the 9-ioth magnitude are distributed
over the northern heavens. His " Theoretical Considerations
respecting the Corona " (Monthly Notices, xxxi. 184, 254) also
deserve mention, as well as his discussions of the rotation of
Mars, by which he deduced its period with a probable error of
o" -005. He also vigorously criticized the official arrangements
for observing the transits of Venus of 1874 and 1882. His
largest and most ambitious work, Old and New Astronomy,
unfortunately left unfinished at his death, was completed by
A. Cowper Ranyard and published in 1892. He settled in
America some time after his second marriage in 1881, and died
at New York on the i2th of September 1888.
PROCTOR
421
See Monthly Notices, xlix. 164; Observatory, xi. 366; The Times,
(Sept. 14, 1888); Knowledge (Oct. 1888, p. 265); Appleton's Annual
Cyclopaedia, xiii. 707; Autobiographical Notes in New Science
Review, i. 393.
PROCTOR, an English variant of the word procurator (q.v.);
strictly, a person who takes charge or acts for another, and so
approaching very nearly in meaning to " agent " (q.v.). The
title is used in England in three principal senses.
1. A practitioner in the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts.
A proctor in this sense is also a qualified person licensed by the
archbishop of Canterbury to undertake duties such as are
performed in other courts by solicitors, but this matter is now
only of historical interest, since by the Judicature Acts 1873
and 1875 all the business formerly confined to proctors may be
conducted by solicitors. The king s proctor is the proctor or
solicitor representing the Crown in the courts of probate and
divorce. In petitions of divorce or for declaration of nullity of
marriage the king's proctor may, under direction of the attorney-
general, and by leave of the court, intervene in the suit for the
purpose of proving collusion between the parties. His power of
intervening is limited, by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1860, to
cases of collusion only, but he may also, as one of the public, show
cause against a decree nisi being made absolute (see DIVORCE).
In the admiralty court a proctor or procurator was an officer
who, in conjunction with the king's proctor, acted as the attorney
or solicitor in all causes concerning the lord high admiral's affairs
in the high court of admiralty and other courts. The king's
proctor so acted in all causes concerning the king.
2. A representative of the clergy in convocation. A proctor
in this sense represents either the chapter of a cathedral or the
beneficed clergy of a diocese. In the province of Canterbury
two proctors represent the clergy of each diocese; in that of
York there are two for each archdeaconry. In both alike each
chapter is represented by one.
3. The name of certain important university officials. At
Oxford the proctors (procuratores) , under the statutes, supervise
the transaction of university business and appoint delegates
to look after any particular affairs wherever these are not other-
wise provided for by statute. They are ex officio members of
all the important delegacies, except that of the University Press.
They also act as the assessors of the chancellor or his commissary
in particular matters dealt with in the university. They super-
vise the voting at public meetings of the university and announce
the results. They also have, according to the ancient statutes,
the power of veto in convocation and congregation: no proposal
can be passed into a statute or decree if twice vetoed by them.
They are ex officio members of the hebdomadal council, the
governing council of the university, and they are the assessors
of the vice-chancellor when he confers degrees. When a degree
is to be granted they walk down the hall in which the ceremony
is performed, nominally to ask for the approval of the masters,
and it was formerly the custom for any tradesman, or any other
person, who had a claim of debt against the postulant for a
degree, to pluck the gown of the proctor as he passed and request
settlement of the debt before the degree was granted. The
proctors are also responsible for the good order of the university,
and they are charged with the duty of inquiring into and
reporting on any breaches of its statutes, customs or privileges.
They are empowered to punish undergraduates, or graduates
under the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law and Master of Arts,
by fine or by confinement to their colleges or lodgings (familiarly
known as " gating "). They have to draw up the list of candi-
dates for examination, and have to be present at all examinations,
to see that they are properly conducted. They are responsible
for the good order of the streets at night, so far as members of
the university are concerned. For this purpose more especially
each of them is empowered, immediately on his election, to
nominate two masters of at least three years' standing as pro-
proctors. The proctors and pro-proctors take it in turn to
perambulate the streets nightly, accompanied by two sworn
constables, familiarly known as "bulldogs." The proctors are
elected by the heads, fellows and resident members of convo-
cation of each college in rotation. They are presented to the
vice-chancellor with much ceremony, part of which consists in
taking over the insignia of their office a copy of the statutes and
a bunch of keys from their predecessors.
At Cambridge the proctors are nominated annually by the
colleges in rotation and elected (a formal proceeding) by the
senate. They must have been three years members of the senate
and have resided two years at the university. The two pro-
proctors are not, as at Oxford, nominated by the proctors, but
are also elected by the senate on the nomination of the colleges,
each college having the right to nominate a pro-proctor the year
next before that in which it nominates the proctor (Grace of
February 26, 1863). Two additional pro-proctors are also
elected by the senate each year, on the nomination of the vice-
chancellor and proctors, to assist the latter in the maintenance
of discipline (Grace of June 6, 1878).
The early history of the office at Cambridge is obscure, but it
seems that the proctors have always represented the colleges in
university proceedings. At present their functions are twofold
(i) as taking part in all university ceremonials, (2) as enforcing
discipline in the case of members of the university who are in
statu pupillari (i.e. undergraduates and Bachelors of Arts and
Law), (i) The proctors are not (as at Oxford) ex officio members
of the council of the senate or of other boards or syndicates,
except those with which their duties are specially connected.
But their presence is essential at all congregations of the senate,
at which the senior proctor reads all the " graces " (already
approved by the council of the senate). If any grace is opposed
by any member of the senate saying non placet the proctors
take the votes of those present and announce the result. Graces
are offered not only for making changes in university statutes
and ordinances and for appointing examiners and the like, but
also for granting degrees. When a degree is to be taken the
college of the candidate presents a supplicat or petition for the
degree, this petition is approved by the council of the senate,
when they have satisfied themselves that the candidate has
fulfilled the conditions, and is read at the congregation by the
senior proctor: these supplicats are practically never opposed,
but graces for new statutes and ordinances are frequently
opposed, and on very important occasions many hundreds of
non-resident members of the senate come up to record their
votes. (2) The proctors' powers as to discipline have a very long
history. As far as concerns members of the university they have
authority to impose certain fines for minor offences, such as not
wearing academical dress on occasions when it is ordered, and
also to order a man not to be out of his college after a certain
hour for a certain number of days (" gating "). In the case of
more serious offences the proctor generally reports the matter
to the authorities of the offender's college to be dealt with by
them, or as an ultimate resort brings the offender before the
university court of discipline, which has power to rusticate or
expel. The power of the proctors over persons who are not
members of the university dated from charters granted by Eliza-
beth and James I., which empowered the university authorities
to search for undesirable characters, men and women, rogues,
vagabonds, and other personas de malo suspectas, and punish them
by imprisonment or banishment. In recent times this power
was regularly exercised with respect to women of bad character.
The proctors promenaded the streets attended by their servants
(the bulldogs), who are always sworn in as special constables.
If occasion arose the proctor could arrest a suspected woman and
have her taken to the Spinning House (for which Hobson the
carrier had left an endowment); the next day the woman was
brought before the vice-chancellor, who had power to commit
her to the Spinning House; as a general rule the sentence was
not for a longer perior than three weeks. For this purpose the
vice-chancellor sat in camera and the jurisdiction had nothing
to do with that of the vice-chancellor's court. In 1898 attention
was called to this procedure by the case of a girl named Daisy
Hopkins, who was arrested and committed to the Spinning House.
Application was made on her behalf to the Queen's Bench Divi-
sion for a writ of habeas corpus, and when the application came
on it appeared that there had been a technical irregularity (the
422
PROCURATION PRODICUS OF CEOS
prisoner not having been formally charged when brought before
the vice-chancellor); so the writ was granted and the prisoner
released. She afterwards brought an action against the proctor,
which failed. It was now decided to abolish the practice of
hearing these cases in camera. The whole practice was, how-
ever, objected to by the authorities of the town, and after
conference an agreement was arrived at, the proctorial juris-
diction over persons not members of the university being
abolished (1904).
PROCURATION (Lat. procurare, to take care of), the action
of taking care of, hence management, stewardship, agency.
The word is applied to the authority or power delegated to a
procurator, or agent, as well as to the exercise of such authority
expressed frequently "by procuration" (per procurationem),
or shortly per pro., or simply p.p. In ecclesiastical law,
procuration is the providing necessaries for bishops and arch-
deacons during their visitations of parochial churches in their
dioceses. Procuration at first took the form of meat, drink,
provender, and other accommodation, but it was gradually
compounded for a certain sum of money. Procuration is merely
an ecclesiastical due, and is suable only in a spiritual court.
In those dioceses where the bishop's estates have vested in the
ecclesiastical commissioners procurations are payable to the
commissioners who, however, have abandoned their collection
(Phillimore, Ecc. Law, 2nd ed., 1895, pp. 1051, 1060). Pro-
curation is also used specifically for the negotiation of a loan
by an agent for his client, whether by mortgage or otherwise,
and the sum of money or commission paid for negotiating it is
frequently termed procuration fee.
The English criminal law makes the provision or attempted
provision of any girl or woman under twenty-one years of age for
the purpose of illicit intercourse an offence, known as procuration.
(See PROSTITUTION.)
PROCURATOR (Lat. procurare, to take care of), generally
one who acts for another. With the Romans it was applied
to a person who maintained or defended an action on behalf
of another, thus performing the functions of a modern attorney.
Roman families of importance employed an official correspond-
ing to the modern steward and frequently called the procurator.
Later the name was applied especially to certain imperial offi-
cials in the provinces of the Roman Empire. With the estab-
lishment of the imperial power under Augustus, the emperor
took under his direct government those of which the condition
or situation rendered a large military force necessary. Here
certain officials, known as the procuratores Caesaris, took the
place occupied by the quaestor in the senatorial provinces. They
were either equites or freedmen of the Caesar and their office was
concerned with the interests of the fiscus (the public property
of the Caesar). They looked after the taxes and paid the
troops. There were also officials bearing this title of procuratores
Caesaris in the senatorial provinces. They collected certain
dues of the fiscus which were independent of those paid to the
aerarium (the property of the senate). This organization
lasted with some modifications until the 3rd century. The
procurator was an important official in the reorganized empire
of Diocletian.
The title remained all through the middle ages to describe very
various officials. Thus it was sometimes applied to a regent
acting for a king during his minority or absence; sometimes
it appears as an alternative title to seneschal or dapifer. Il
preserved its legal significance in the title of procurator ani-
marum, who acted as solicitor or proxy in the ecclesiastica
courts, and was so called because these courts dealt with matters
affecting the spiritual interests of the persons concerned. The
economical significance remained in such titles as procurator
anniversariorum, the exactor of dues for the celebration of anni-
versaries; this office was assigned to laymen. The procurator
draperii was entrusted with the administration of matters per
taining to the art of cloth-making. The procurator duplarum
was the collector of fines in certain churches from absent canons
&c. The officials entrusted with the administration of thi
;oods of a church were called variously procurator ecclesiae,
Procurator parcitatis, procurator uniiiersitatis. Bishops and
>ishops-elect frequently described themselves by the title of
procuratores ecclesiarum. The prior of a dependent religious
louse was sometimes styled procurator obedientiae. The official
who represented the public interests in the courts of the
nquisition was known as the procurator fidei. The administrator
of the affairs of a large community was sometimes called the
Procurator syndicus, the administrator of goods left to the poor,
Procurator pauperum. In monasteries the economus was, and
s, sometimes described as procurator. Thus the procurator
las still the administration of material affairs in every Domini-
can priory. Procurator di San Marco was a title of honour in
the republic of Venice. There were nine official procurators
and numerous distinguished persons bearing the honorary
title.
The term procurator (Fr. procureur) is used in those countrie
whose codes are based on the Roman civil law for certain
officials, having a representative character, in the courts
law. Thus under the ancien regime in France the procureurs
du roi were the representative of the Crown in all caus
(see FRANCE : Law and Institutions) ; and now the procureurs
generaux, and under them the procureurs substituts, procureur
de la republique and procureurs still represent the ministire
public in the courts. In Scotland the procurator is a lav
agent who practises in an inferior court. A procurator
Scotland has been, since the Law Agents Acts 1873, exactly
in the same legal position as other law agents. The procurator-
fiscal is a local officer charged with the prosecution of crimes.
He is appointed by the sheriff. He also performs the duties
of an English coroner by holding inquiries into the circumstances
of suspicious deaths. A common English form of procurator
is proctor (<?..).
See Sir William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
(3rd ed., 1890-1891), and Du Cange, Clossarium mediae et infimae
latinitatis (new ed. by L. Favre, Niort, 1883). (E. O'N.)
PRODICUS OF CEOS (b. c. 465 or 450 B.C.), a Greek humanist
of the first period of the Sophistical movement, known as
the " precursor of Socrates." He was still living in 399 B.C.
He came to Athens as ambassador from Ceos, and became
known as a speaker and a teacher. Like Protagoras, he pro-
fessed to train his pupils for domestic and civic affairs; but it
would appear that, while Protagoras's chief instruments of
education were rhetoric and style, Prodicus made ethics prom-
inent in his curriculum. In ethics he was a pessimist. Though
he discharged his civic duties in spite of a frail physique, he
emphasized the sorrows of life; and yet he advocated no hope-
less resignation, but rather the remedy of work, and took as his
model Heracles, the embodiment of virile activity. The in-
fluence of his views may be recognized as late as the Shepherd
of Hermas. His views on the origin of the belief in the gods
is strikingly modern. First came those great powers which
benefit mankind (comparing the worship of the Nile), and after
these the deified men who have rendered services to humanity.
But he was no atheist, for the pantheist Zeno spoke highly of
him. Of his natural philosophy we know only the titles of
his treatises On Nature and On the Nature of Man. His chief
interest is that he sought to give precision to the use of words.
Two of -his discourses were specially famous; one, " On
Propriety of Language," is repeatedly alluded to by Plato; the
other, entitled 'fipai, contained the celebrated apologue of
the Choice of Heracles, of which the Xenophontean Socrates
(Mem. ii. i, 21 seq.) gives a summary. Theramenes, Euripides
and Isocrates are said to have been pupils or hearers of Prodicus.
By his immediate successors he was variously estimated: Plato
satirizes him in the early dialogues; Aristophanes in the
Tayrjvio-Tal calls him " a babbling brook "; Aeschines the
Socratic condemns him as a sophist.
See Spengel, Artium scriptores, pp. 45 sqq.; Welcker, "Prodikos
der Vorganger des Sokrates," in Rheinisches Museum (1833), and in
Kleine Schriften, ii. 393; Hummel, De Prodico Sophista (Leiden,
1846); Cougny, De Prodico Ceio (Paris, 1858).
PRODIGY PROFIT-SHARING
423
PRODIGY, an extraordinary or wonderful thing, person,
event, &c.; something which excites amazement and astonish-
ment. The term has been particularly applied to children
who display a precocious genius, especially in music. The
German expression Wunderkind has of late been often adopted
by those who have found the name " infant prodigy " too
reminiscent of the " infant phenomenon " familiar to readers of
Dickens. The Lat. prodigium, an omen, portent, and abnormal
or monstrous event, is probably not to be derived from pro
and diccre, to foretell, prophesy, but rather, on the analogy of
adagium, adage, aphorism, from pro (prot before a vowel), and
the root of aio, I say.
PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-
duce), in general, the act of producing, or bringing forth. Pro-
duition, in contrast with distribution and consumption, is one
of the great divisions which all treatises on economics make in
dealing with the subject, and as such it is defined in every text-
book and its elements and processes dealt with at length. J. R.
Mi Culloch's definition may be given as one difficult to improve
on : " by production, in the science of political economy, we
arc not to understand the production of matter, for that is the
exclusive attribute of Omnipotence, but the production of
utility, and consequently of exchangeable value, by appro-
priating and modifying matter already in existence, so as to
fit it to satisfy our wants, and to contribute to our enjoyments."
W. S. Jevons says, " production is one of the very few happily
chosen terms which the economist possesses. Etymologically
the term implies that we draw wealth forth, and this is the
correct idea of production." Though the mere definition of
" production " as the creation of utilities is apparently simple
enough, the treatment of the subject has varied from time to
time in proportion to the changes which economic science has
itself undergone; it has been said that the theory of production
is based on unalterable natural facts, but even this cannot be
too absolutely stated, for the organization of production changes
with social growth. Much discussion has, during the growth
of the science of economics, centred round what is and what is
not productive or unproductive, and as to the relative importance
of the functions of production and distribution.
See E. Canaan's History of the Theories of Production and Distri-
bution (1893), and the standard treatises on economics. Also the
articles, CAPITAL; VALUE; WEALTH.
PROFANITY, irreverent or blasphemous language, swearing,
by the use of words casting derision on sacred or divine things,
especially the taking of the name of God in vain (see BLASPHEMY;
and SWEARING). The word " profane," derived from Lat.
profanunt, outside the temple (fanuni) , hence opposed to sacrum
or religiosum, in the sense of not sacred, common, is used in
English not only as meaning irreverent, or blasphemous, but
also in the senses of the original Latin, not initiated into sacred
mysteries, hence, lay, secular, or as referring to subjects not
connected with sacred or biblical matters, e.g. profane literature,
history, &c.
PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri,
to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess), a term now
properly confined to a teacher of a special grade at a university.
Its former significance of one who has made " profession " or
open acknowledgment of religious belief, or, in particular, has
made a promise binding the maker to a religious order, is now
obsolete. The educational use is found in post-Augustan Latin,
and profiteri is used by Pliny (Ep. ii. 18, 3, iv. n, 14), absolutely,
in the sense of " to be a teacher," an extension of the classical use
in the sense of to practise, profess a science or art, e.g. profiteri
jus, medicinam, philosophiam, &c. In the universities of the middle
ages the conferring of a degree in any faculty or branch of
learning meant the right or qualification to teach in that faculty,
whence the terms magister, " master," and doctor for those
on whom the degree had been granted. To these names must
be added that of " professor." The " three titles of Master,
Doctor, Professor, were in the middle ages absolutely synony-
mous " (H. Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle
Ages, 1895, i- 21). At Paris in the faculties of theology,
medicine and arts professor is more frequently used than
doctor but less so than magister; at Bologna the teachers of law
are known as professores or doctores (id.). From this position to
that of the holder of an endowed " chair," the occupant of
which is the principal public teacher of the particular faculty,
the evolution was gradual. The first endowed professorship
at Oxford was that of divinity, founded by the mother of
Henry VII. in 1497 (? 1502) and named after her the " Margaret
Professorship." The foundation of the regius professorship by
Henry VIII., in 1546 no doubt, as the New English Dictionary
points out, tended to the general modern use of the word. Sub-
ordinate public teachers in faculties or in subjects to which a
professorial " chair " is attached, are known as " readers "
or " lecturers," and these titles are also used for the principal
public teachers in subjects which have not reached professorial
rank.
PROFILE, an outline or contour drawing, particularly the
drawing of the outline of the human face as seen from the side,
or in architecture the contour of a part of a building, of a
moulding, &c., as shown by a vertical section. In fortification
the " profile " of an earthwork is an outline of a transverse
section and gives the relative thickness; so a work is said to
be " of strong " or " of weak " profile. The Fr. profit, formerly
porfil, pourfil, Ital. profilo, proffilo, are formed from Lat. pro,
and filare, to draw a line, Alum, thread.
The French pourfil also gave English " purfle," to embroider
the edge of a fabric with gold or other thread ; this was further
corrupted to "purl," now often wrongly spelt "pearl," an inverted
stitch in knitting.
PROFIT-SHARING (i.e. between employer and employed),
a method of remunerating labour, under which the employees
receive, in addition to ordinary wages, a share of the profit
which the business realizes. The term is not infrequently used
loosely to include many forms of addition to ordinary wages,
such as bonus on output or quality, gain-sharing and product-
bearing. Yet strictly, where an employee or a group works for
a share of the product, or is paid so much in addition to ordinary
wages in proportion as the product exceeds a certain quantity,
or the quality exceeds a certain standard, in neither of these
cases have we profit-sharing, for the net result of the business
may be a large profit or a small one or a loss, and the employee's
claim is unaffected. In the same way if a workman is employed
on the basis that if in doing a particular job he saves something
out of a stipulated time of labour, or a stipulated amount of
materials, he shall receive in addition to ordinary wages a pro-
portion of the value so saved, that is technically gain-sharing,
not profit-sharing. Even where the bonus depends strictly
on profit, it is not reckoned as profit-sharing, if it is confined to
the leading employees.
An agreement is of the essence of the matter. It is not profit-
sharing where an employer takes something from his profits
at his own will and pleasure, and gives it to his employees.
Strictly such gifts in cash are gratuities, while, when they take
other forms, such as better houses, libraries, recreation rooms,
provision for sickness and old age, all given at the will of the
employer, we have paternalism. Such benefits thus taken ex-
pressly from profits and varying more or less with the amount
of profit certainly approach true profit-sharing: they are some-
times called " indeterminate " profit-sharing. Though many of
the above methods of remunerating, or benefiting, the employed
are from time to time included under profit-sharing even by
writers of repute, the strict sense of the term was defined by the
international congress on profit-sharing in 1889 as " an agree-
ment freely entered into by which the employed receives a share
of profits determined in advance." It does not follow that the
agreement must be actually enforceable at law; some employers
to protect themselves from litigation stipulate that it shall
not be.
Profit-sharing, in the loose sense, must be of untold antiquity;
the first great example of profit-sharing in the strict sense is
that of the Parisian house-painter, Edme-Jean Leclaire, " The
Father of Profit-Sharing." In 1842 he was employing 300 men
424
PROGNATHISM PROGRAMME MUSIC
on day wages. By greater zeal and intelligence and less waste,
not necessarily by harder work, he reckoned they could save
3000 a year; and he made it their interest to do so by arranging
that they should receive the greater part of the saving them-
selves. This arrangement proved a very great success; the
material gain to the men and the improvement in their morale
were marked; and Leclaire, who began life with nothing and
died worth 48,000, always maintained that, without the zeal
drawn out in his men by profit-sharing, he never could have
made so large a business or gained so much wealth. In 1908
the system was still in active operation in the firm. Its main
features are as follows: after paying 5% interest on the capital,
and small sums as wages of superintendence to the two manag-
ing partners, the remaining profit is divided into four parts,
one of which goes to the managing partners, one to the Mutual
Aid Society, and the remaining half to the employees as a
dividend on their ordinary wages, exclusive of piece-work and
overtime, on which no dividend is paid. The Mutual Aid
Society is a registered body, and is a limited partner in the
firm, the liability of the two managing partners being unlimited
and the control resting entirely in their hands. The benefits
of the Mutual Aid Society, and of the profit-sharing generally,
are enjoyed in the main by all the employees of the business,
but certain advantages are confined to a limited number of
permanent employees.
Leclaire's system attracted the marked interest of John
Stuart Mill and other English economists, and in 1865-1867 a
number of experiments in profit-sharing, or as it was then called,
industrial partnership, were made in England, the most noted
being that of Henry Briggs, Son & Co., at their collieries in
Yorkshire. The main object in this case was to detach the
workmen from the trade union and attach them to the firm.
In other ways the experiment was very successful, and 40,000
was divided as bonus on wages in nine years, but the main object
was not attained; and when the price of coal fell heavily after
the inflation of 1873 Briggs's men joined the strike to resist
a reduction of wages, and the experiment came to an end.
The present extent of profit-sharing, though in itself con-
siderable, is but small in comparison with the vast extent of
the world's commerce and industry, and except in one of its
developments, co-partnership, it can hardly be said to be making
progress. In 1906 there were in the United Kingdom and its
colonies 65 ordinary firms practising profit-sharing in its strictest
sense, and 17 others known to have adopted and not known
to have discontinued it, making 82 in all as against 92 in 1901,
and 101 in 1894. On the other hand the number of employees
had grown from 28,000 in 1894 to 48,000 in 1906. In addition
about one-fourth of the workmen's co-operative societies in
Great Britain (see CO-OPERATION) practise profit-sharing with
perhaps 30,000 employees.
In 1894 it was found that there were more profit-sharing firms
in the British Empire than in any other country, and this is
probably still true. The only rival is France, where, however,
the term " participation aux benefices " is used in a wider sense.
There are also important examples in Germany, the United
States, Switzerland (where the state once applied the system
in the postal service, and still does in the telegraphs), in Hol-
land, in the socialist co-operative societies of Belgium, and
elsewhere.
Profit-sharing has been Quickly abandoned in many instances,
for various reasons; there were no profits to divide; the small
bonus given seemed to have no effect; the hope of detaching
the men from their union, or contenting them with lower wages,
was not realized; or the business passed into unsympathetic
hands. On the other hand, one lasting success in such a matter
proves more than many short experiments which failed; and
profit-sharing has been splendidly successful where some high-
minded man has breathed into it the spirit of partnership. Often
it has been a step to actual partnership; the workman has not
only received a share of profit, as added remuneration of his
labour, but been led on to invest in the capital of the business,
and as a shareholder, to take his share of the profits paid on
capital, as well as of responsibility, of loss if any, and of control.
This system of profit-sharing plus shareholding is now known
as co-partnership (see CO-OPERATION) , and is making undoubted
progress. It is exemplified in nearly all profit-sharing co-
operative societies, and in a growing number of businesses of
non-co-operative origin which accumulate part or the whole
of labour's profit in shares. In 1908, in the Familistere of Guise
the whole capital of 200,000 belonged to the workers and a
few retired workers, in Leclaire's old business the Mutual Aid
Fund owned half, in the Laroche-Joubert paper-works the em-
ployees owned more than two-thirds. In the South Metropolitan
Gas Co. the employees owned 327,000 and elected three of
the nine directors. It would seem to be in this direction, as
a step to full partnership, that profit-sharing has a great future
before it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A large number of works are noted in the
International Co-operative Bibliography (London, 1906; International
Co-operative Alliance). The following may be specially mentioned:
Sedley Taylor, Profit-sharing between Capital and Labour (London,
1 884 ; New York, 1886) ; N. P. Gilman, Profit-sharing between Employer
and Employed (London and New York, 1892); and N. P. Gilman,
A Dividend to Labour (London and Boston, 1900) ; Board of Trade
Report by D. F. Schloss, on Profit-sharing (London, 1894; with
yearly addenda in the Labour Gazette); D. F. Schloss, Methods of
Industrial Remuneration (London, 1894) ; Victor Bohmert, Die Gewinn-
betheiligung (Leipzig, 1878, and Dresden 1903); Publications of the
Society pour I'etude de la participation (Paris, 1879 and onwards);
Albert Trombert, Guide pratique de la participation (Paris, 1892);
International Co-operative Alliance publications, especially Report
of Fifth Congress (London, 1902); Labour Co-partnership Associa-
tion Reports and Publications (London, 1883, and onwards).
(A. Wi.*)
PROGNATHISM (Gr. irp6, forward, and yvaBas, jaw),
the term applied by ethnologists, with its opposite Ortho-
gnathism (6p06s, straight), to describe the varying degrees of
projection of the upper jaw, which itself is determined by the
angle made by the whole face with the brain-cap. Eury-
gnathism (eupus, wide), is the lateral projection of jawbones so
characteristic of the Mongolic races. (See CRANIOMETRY.)
PROGNOSIS (Gr. Trffrfvucis, knowledge of recognition before-
hand, from Trpa/yt'YViiiaKti.v, to know beforehand, cf. " prognos-
tication," prediction), a term used in modern medicine, as it was
in Greek, for an opinion, forecast or decision as to the probable
course, duration and termination of a case of disease. It is
to be distinguished from " diagnosis " (Gr. dia.yvu(ns,8ia'YLyv<joaKeu>
to distinguish), the determination or identification of a dis-
ease in a particular case from an investigation of its history
and symptoms.
PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM, in its original use, following
that of Gr. irpoypafi^a, a public notice (irpaypafaiv, to make
public by writing), now chiefly in the sense of a printed notice
containing the items of a musical concert, with the names of
the pieces to be performed, the composers and the performers,
or of a theatrical performance, with the characters, actors,
scenes, &c. In a wider sense the word is used of a syllabus or
scheme of study, order of proceedings or the like, or of a cata-
logue or schedule containing the chief points in a course of action,
and so, politically, in the sense of a list of the principal objects
on which a party proposes to base its legislative course of action,
as in the " Newcastle Programme " of 1891, drawn up by the
Liberal Federation. The spelling " program," now general
in America, was that first in use in England, and so continued
till the French form " programme " was adopted at the
beginning of the igth century. The New English Dictionary
considers the earlier and modern American spelling preferable,
on the analogy of " diagram," " telegram," " cryptogram " and
the like. Scott and Carlyle always used " program."
PROGRAMME MUSIC, a musical nickname which has passed
into academic currency, denoting instrumental music without
words but descriptive of non-musical ideas. Musical sounds
lend themselves to descriptive purposes with an ease which
is often uncontrollable. A chromatic scale may suggest the
whistling of the wind or the cries of cats; reiterated staccato
notes may suggest many things, from raindrops to the cackling
of hens. Again, though music cannot directly imitate anything
PROGRAMME MUSIC
425
in nature except sounds, it has a range of contrast and a power
of climax that is profoundly emotional in effect; and the emotions
it calls up may resemble those of some dramatic story, or those
produced by the contemplation of nature. But chromatic
scales, reiterated notes, emotional contrasts and climaxes, are
also perfectly normal musical means of expression; and the
attempts to read non-musical meanings into them are often
merely annoying to composers who have thought only of the
music. Some distinguished writers on music have found a
difficulty in admitting the possibility of emotional contrasts
and climaxes in an art without an external subject-matter.
But it is impossible to study the history of music without coming
to the conclusion that in all mature periods music has been
self-sufficient to this extent, that, whatever stimulus it may
receive from external ideas, and however much of these ideas it
may have embodied in its structure, nothing has survived as a
permanently intelligible classic that has not been musically
coherent to a degree which seems to drive the subject-matter
into the background, even in cases where that subject-matter
is naturally present, as in songs, choral works and operas. In
short, since sound as it occurs in nature is not sufficiently highly
organized to form the raw material for art, there is no
natural tendency in music to include, as a " subject, " any item
conceivable apart from its artistic embodiment. Explicit
programme music has thus never been a thing of cardinal
importance, either in the transitional periods in which it has
been most prominent, or in the permanent musical classics.
At the same time, artistic creation is not a thing that can be
governed by any a priori metaphysical theory; and no great
artist has been so ascetic as always to resist the inclination to
act on the external ideas that impress him. No composer
writes important music for the voice without words; for speech
is too ancient a function of the human voice to be ousted by
any a priori theory of art; and no really artistic composer, hand-
ling a living art-form, has failed to be influenced, sooner or later,
by the words which he sets. It matters little if these words be
in themselves very poor, for even false sentiment must make
some appeal to true experience, and the great composers are
quicker to seize the truth than to criticize its verbal presenta-
tion or to suspect insincerity. The earliest mature musical
art was, then, inevitably descriptive, since it was vocal. So
incessant is the minute onomatopoeia of 16th-century music, both
in the genuine form of sound-painting (Tonmalerei) and in the
spurious forms to which composers were led by the appearance
of notes on paper (e.g. quick notes representing " darkness "
because they are printed black!) that there is hardly a page
in the productions of the "golden age" of music which has not
its literary aspect. Programme music, then, may be expected
to derive many of its characteristics from ancient times; but
it cannot properly be said to exist until the rise of instrumental
music, for not until then could music be based upon external
ideas that did not arise inevitably from the use of words or
dramatic action.
The resources of the modern orchestra have enabled recent
composers to attain a realism which makes that of earlier
descriptive music appear ridiculous; but there is little to choose
between classics and moderns in the intellectual childishness
of such realism. Thunderstorms, bird-songs and pastoral
effects galore have been imitated by musicians great and small
from the days of the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book to those of the
episode of the flock of sheep in Strauss's Don Quixote. And,
while the progress in realism has been so immense that the only
step which remains is to drive a real flock of sheep across the
concert-platform, the musical progress implied thereby has been
that from inexpensive to expensive rubbish. What is really
important, in the programme music of Strauss no less than that
of the classics, is the representation of characters and feelings.
In this respect the classical record is of high interest, though
the greatest composers have contributed but little to it. Thus
the Bible Sonatas of J. Kuhnau (published in 1 700) and Bach's
early Capriccio on the Departure of a Beloved Brother, which is
closely modelled on Kuhnau's programme music, show very
markedly the tendency on the one hand to illustrate characters
and feelings, and on the other hand to extract from their pro-
grammes every occasion for something that would be a piece of
incidental music if the stories were presented as dramas. Thus,
though Kuhnau in his naive explanatory preface to his first
Bible sonata seems to be trying, like a child, to frighten him-
self into a fit by describing the size and appearance of Goliath,
in the music it is only le bravate of Goliath that are portrayed.
Thus the best movement in the Goliath sonata is a figured
chorale (Aus liefer Noth schrei' ich zu Dir) representing the
terror and prayers of the Israelites. And thus the subjects of
the other sonatas (Saul cured by David's music; The Marriage
of Jacob; Hezekiah; Gideon; and The Funeral of Jacob) are
in various quaint ways musical because ethical ; though Kuhnau's
conceptions are far better than his execution. In the same way
Bach makes his Capriccio descriptive of the feelings of the
anxious and sorrowing friends of the departing brother, and
his utmost realism takes the form of a lively fugue, very much in
Kuhnau's best style, on the themes of the postilion's coachhorn
and cracking whip. Even Buxtehude's musical illustrations
of the " nature and characters of the planets " are probably
not the absurdities they have been hastily taken for by writers
to whom their title seems nonsensical; for Buxtehude would,
of course, take an astrological rather than an astronomical
view of the subject, and so the planets would represent
temperaments, and their motions the music of the spheres.
Nearly all the harpsichord pieces of Couperin have fantastic
titles, and a few of them are descriptive music. His greater
contemporary and survivor, Rameau, was an opera composer
of real importance, whose harpsichord music contains much
that is ingeniously descriptive. La Poule, with its theme
inscribed " co-co-co-co-co-co-cocodai, " is one of the best
harpsichord pieces outside Bach, and is also one of the most
minutely realistic compositions ever written. French music
has always been remarkably dependent on external stimulus, and
nearly all its classics are either programme music or operas.
And the extent to which Rameau's jokes may be regarded as
typically French is indicated by the fact that Haydn apologized
for his imitation of frogs in The Seasons, saying that this " fran-
zosische Quark " had been forced on him by a friend. But
throughout the growth of the sonata style, not excepting Haydn's
own early work, the tendency towards gratuitously descrip-
tive music is very prominent; and the symphonies of Dit-
tersdorf on the Metamorphoses of Ovid are excellent examples
of the way in which external ideas may suggest much that is
valuable to a musician who struggles with new forms, while at
the same time they may serve to distract attention from points
in which his designs break down. (See SYMPHONIC POEM.)
Strict accuracy would forbid us to include in our survey such
descriptive music as comes in operatic overtures or other pieces
in which the programme is really necessitated by the conditions
of the art; but the line cannot be so drawn without cutting off
much that is essential. From the time of Gluck onwards there
was a natural and steady growth in the descriptive powers of
operatic music, which could not fail to react upon purely in-
strumental music; but of programme music for its own sake
we may say there is no first-rate classic on a large scale before
Beethoven, though Beethoven himself could no more surpass
Haydn in illustrating an oratorio text (as in the magnificent
opening of The Creation) than Haydn could surpass Handel.
Mozart's Musikalischer Spass is a solitary example of a special
branch of descriptive music; a burlesque of incompetent per-
formers and Incompetent composers. The lifelike absurdity
of the themes with their caricature of classical formulas; the
inevitable processes by which the " howlers " in composition
seem to arrive as by natural laws, further complicated by
the equally natural laws of the howlers in performance; and
the unfailing atmosphere of good nature with which Mozart
satirizes, among other things, his own style; all combine
to make this work very interesting on paper. The effect in
performance is astonishing; so exactly, or rather so ideally, is
the squalid effect of bad structure and performance kept at a
426
PROGRAMME MUSIC
constant level of comic interest. (In the Leipzig edition of the
parts of this work the modern editor has added a new and
worthy act to Mozart's glorious farce by correcting and question-
ing many of the mistakes!) Mozart's burlesque has remained
unapproached, even in dramatic music. Compared with it,
Wagner's portrait of Beckmesser in Die Meislersinger seems
embittered in conception and disappointing in comic effect.
Mendelssohn is said to have had a splendid faculty for ex-
temporizing similar musical jokes. His Funeral March of
Pyramus and Thisbe in the Midsummer Night's Dream, and
Cornelius's operatic trio in which three persons conjugate the
verb Ich sterbe den Tod des Verriiters, are among the few ex-
amples of a burlesque in which there is enough musical sense
to keep the joke alive. Such burlesques have their bearing
on programme music, in so far as they involve the musical por-
trayal of character and give opportunity for masterly studies
of the psychology of failure. Their special resources thus play
a large part in the recent development of the symphonic poem
by Richard Strauss, whose instrumental works avowedly
illustrate his cheerfully pessimistic views on art and life.
But into the main classics of programme music this kind of
characterization hardly enters at all.
Beethoven was three times moved to ascribe some of his pro-
foundest music to an external source. In the first instance,
that of the Eroica Symphony, he did not really produce anything
that can fairly be called programme music. Napoleon, before
he became emperor, was his ideal hero; and a triumphant
symphony, on a gigantic scale and covering the widest range
of emotion expressible by music, seemed to him a tribute due
to the liberator of Europe; until the liberator became the tyrant.
That the slow movement should be a funeral march was, in
relation to the heroic tone of the work, as natural as that a
symphony should have a slow movement at all. There is no
reason in music why the idea of heroic death and mourning
should be the end of the representation of heroic ideals. Hence
it is unnecessary, though plausible, to hear, in the lively whisper-
ing opening of the scherzo, the babel of the fickle crowd that
soon forgets its hero; and the criticism which regards the finale
as " an inappropriate concession to sonata form " may be dis-
missed as merely unmusical without therefore being literary.
Beethoven's next work inspired from without was the Pastoral
Symphony: and there he records his theory of programme
music on the title-page, by calling it " rather the expression of
feeling than tone-painting." There is not a bar of the Pastoral
Symphony that would be otherwise if its " programme " had
never been thought of either by Beethoven or by earlier com-
posers. The nightingale, cuckoo and quail have exactly the
same function in the coda of the slow movement as dozens of
similar non-thematic episodes at the close of other slow move-
ments (e.g. in the violin sonata Op. 24, and the pianoforte sonata
in D minor). The " merry meeting of country folk " is a subject
that lends itself admirably to Beethoven's form of scherzo (q.v.);
and the thunderstorm, which interrupts the last repetition of
this scherzo, and forms an introduction to the finale, is none the
less purely musical for being, like several of Beethoven's inven-
tions, without any formal parallel in other works. Beethoven's
Battle Symphony is a clever pot-boiler, which, like most musical
representations of such noisy things as battles, may be disregarded
in the study of serious programme music. His third great ex-
ample is the sonata Les Adieux, I' absence et le retour. Here,
again, we have a monument of pure sonata form; and, what-
ever light may be thrown upon the musical interpretation of the
work by a knowledge of the relation between Beethoven and
his friend and patron the Archduke Rudolph and the circum-
stances of the archduke's departure from Vienna during the
Napoleonic wars, far more light may be thrown upon Beethoven's
feelings by the study of the music in itself. This ought ob-
viously to be true of all successful programme music; the music
ought to illustrate the programme, but we ought not to need
to learn or guess at quantities of extraneous information in
order to understand the music. No doubt much ingenuity may
be spent in tracing external details (the end of the first move-
ment of Les Adieux has been compared to the departure of a
coach), but the real emotional basis is of a universal and musical
kind. The same observations apply to the overtures to Coriolan,
Egmont and Leonora; works in which the origin as music for the
stage is so far from distracting Beethoven's attention from
musical form that the overture which was at first most insepar-
ably associated with the stage and most irregular in form
(Leonora No. 2) took final shape as the most gigantic formal
design ever embodied in a single movement (Leonora No. 3),
and so proved to be too large for the final version of the
opera for which it was first conceived. Beethoven's numerous
recorded assertions, whether as to the " picture " he had hi his
mind whenever he composed, or as to the " meaning " of any
particular composition, are not things on which it is safe to rely.
Many of his friends, especially his first biographer, Schindler,
irritated him into putting them off with any nonsense that
came into his head. Composers who have much to express
cannot spare time for expressing it in other terms than those
of their own art.
Modern programme music shows many divergent tendencies,
the least significant of which is the common habit of giving fan-
tastic titles to pieces of instrumental music after they have been
composed, as was the case with many of Schumann's pianoforte
lyrics. Such a habit may conduce to the immediate popularity
of the works, though it is apt to impose on their interpretation
limits which might not quite satisfy the composer himself.
But there is plenty of genuine programme music in Schumann's
case, though, as with Beethoven, the musical sense throws far
more light on the programme than the programme throws upon
the music. Musical people may profitably study E. T. A. Hoff-
mann and Jean Paul Richter in the light of Schumann's Novel-
lettes and Kreisleriana; but if they do not already understand
Schumann's music, Jean Paul and Hoffmann will help them
only to talk about it. The popular love of fantastic titles for
music affected even the most abstract and academic composers
during the romantic period. No one wrote more programme
music than Spohr; and, strange to say, while Spohr's programme
constantly interfered with the externals of his form and ruined
the latter part of his symphony Die Weihe der Tone, it did not
in any way help to broaden his style. Mendelssohn's Scotch
and Italian symphonies, and his Hebrides Overture, are cases
rather of what may be called local colour than of programme
music. His Reformation Symphony, which he himself regarded
as a failure, and which was not published until after his death,
is a composite production, artistically more successful, though
less popular, than Spohr's Weihe der Tone. The overture to
the Midsummer Night's Dream is a marvellous musical epitome
of Shakespeare's play; and the one point which invites criticism,
namely, the comparative slightness and conventionality of its
second subject, may be defended as closely corresponding with
Shakespeare's equally defensible treatment of the two pairs
of lovers.
The one composer of the mid-nineteenth century who really
lived on programme music was Berlioz, but he shows a
characteristic inability to make up his mind as to what he is
doing at any given moment. Externals appeal to him with
such overwhelming force that, with all the genuine power
of his rhetoric, he often loses grasp of the situation he thinks
he is portraying. The moonshine and the sentiment of the
Scene d'amour, in his Romeo and Juliet symphony, is
charming; and the agitated sighing episodes which occasion-
ally interrupt its flow, though not musically convincing,
are dramatically plain enough to anyone who has once read
the balcony scene: but when Berlioz thinks of the nurse
knocking or calling at the door his mind is so possessed
with the mere incident of the moment that he makes a realistic
noise without interrupting the amorous duet. No idea of the
emotional tension of the two lovers, of Juliet's artifices for
gaining time, and of her agitation at the interruptions of the
nurse, seems here to enter into Berlioz's head. Again, if the
whole thing is to be expressed in instrumental music, why do
we have, before the scene begins, real voices of persons in various
PROHIBITION PROJECTION
427
degrees of conviviality returning home from the ball? The
whole design is notoriously full of similar incongruities, of which
these are the more significant for being the most plausible. There
is luinlly a single work of Berlioz, except the Harold symphony
and the Symphonic fantastique, in which the determination to
write programme music does not frequently yield to the impulse
to make singers get up and explain in words what it is all about.
The climax of absurdity is in the Symphonic funebre el triomphale,
written for the inauguration of the Bastille Column, and scored
for an enormous military band and chorus. The first movement
is a funeral march, and is not only one of Berlioz's finest pieces,
but probably the greatest work ever written for a military band.
The Apotheose chorus is in the form of a triumphal march.
Because the occasion was one on which there would be plenty
of real speeches, Berlioz must needs write a connecting link
called Oraison funebre, consisting of a sermon delivered by a
solo trombone; presumably for use in later performances. His
naive Gasconade genius prefers this to the use of the chorus!
Current modern criticism demands plausibility, though it
cares little for intellectual soundness: and while practically the
whole of Liszt's work is professedly programme music (where
it is not actually vocal) and, though there is much in it which is
incomplete without external explanation, Liszt is far too
" modern " to betray himself into obvious confusion between
different planes of musical realism. With all his unreality of
style, Liszt's symphonic poems are remarkable steps towards
the attainment of a kind of instrumental music which, whether
its form is dictated by a programme or not, is at any rate not
that of the classical symphony. The programmes of Liszt's works
have not always, perhaps not often, produced a living musical
form; a form, that is, in which the rhythms and proportions
are neither stiff nor nebulous. Both in breadth of design and in
organization and flow, the works of Richard Strauss are as great
an advance on Liszt as they are more complex in musical, realistic
and autobiographical content. Being, with the exception of
the latest French orchestral developments, incomparably the
most important works illustrating the present state of
musical transition, they have given rise to endless discussions
as to the legitimacy of programme music. Such discussions
are mere windmill-tilting unless it is constantly borne in
mind that no artist who has anything of his own to say will
ever be prevented from saying it, in the best art-forms attain-
able in his day, by any scruples as to whether the antecedents
of his art-forms are legitimate or not. There is only one thing
that is artistically legitimate, and that is a perfect work of art.
And the only thing demonstrably prejudicial to such legitimacy
in a piece of programme music is that even the most cultured
of musicians generally understand music better than they under-
stand anything else, while the greatest musicians know more
of their art than is dreamt of in general culture. (D. F. T.)
PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent), a term meaning
the action of forbidding or preventing by an order, decree, &c.
The word is particularly applied to the forbidding by law of
the sale and manufacture of intoxicating liquors (see LIQUOR
LAWS and TEMPERANCE). In law, as defined by Blackstone,
prohibition is " a writ directed to the judge and parties of
a suit in any inferior court, commanding them to cease from
the prosecution thereof, upon a surmise either that the cause
originally or some collateral matter arising therein does not
belong to that jurisdiction, but to the cognizance of some other
court." A writ of prohibition is a prerogative writ that is to
say, it does not issue as of course, but is granted only on proper
grounds being shown. Before the Judicature Acts prohibition
was granted by one of the superior courts at Westminster; it
also issued in certain cases from the court of chancery. It is
now granted by the High Court of Justice. Up to 1875 the high
court of admiralty was for the purposes of prohibition an inferior
court. But now by the Judicature Act 1873, s. 24, it is provided
that no proceeding in the High Court of Justice or the court of
appeal is to be restrained by prohibition, a stay of proceedings
taking its place where necessary. The admiralty division being
now one of the divisions of the High Court can therefore no longer
be restrained by prohibition. The courts to which it has most
frequently issued are the ecclesiastical courts, and county and
other local courts, such as the lord mayor's court of London,
the court of passage of the city of Liverpool and the court of
record of the hundred of Salford. In the case of courts of
quarter sessions, the same result is generally obtained by
certiorari (see WRIT). The extent to which the ecclesiastical
courts were restrainable by prohibition led to continual disputes
for centuries between the civil and the ecclesiastical authorities.
Attempts were made at different times to define the scope of
the writ, the most conspicuous instances being the statute
Circumspecle Agatis, 13 Edw. I. st. 4; the Articuli cleri, 9 Edw.
II. st. i; and the later Artkuli cleri of 3 Jac. -I., consisting of
the claims asserted by Archbishop Bancroft and the reply of
the judges. The law seems to be undoubted that the spiritual
court acting in spiritual matters pro salute animae cannot be
restrained. The difficulties arise in the application of the
principle to individual cases.
Prohibition lies either before or after judgment. In order
that proceedings should be restrained after judgment it is neces-
sary that want of jurisdiction in the inferior court should appear
upon the face of the proceedings, that the party seeking the pro-
hibition should have taken his objection in the inferior court,
or that he was in ignorance of a material fact. A prohibition
goes either for excess of jurisdiction, as if an ecclesiastical court
were to try a claim by prescription to a pew, or for transgression
of clear laws of procedure, as if such a court were to require two
witnesses to prove a payment of tithes. It will not as a rule be
awarded on a matter of practice. The remedy in such a case
is appeal. Nor will it go, unless in exceptional cases, at the
instance of a stranger to the suit. The procedure in prohibition
is partly common law, partly statutory. Application for a
prohibition is usually made ex parts to a judge in chambers
on affidavit. The application may be granted or refused.
If granted, a rule to show cause why a writ of prohibition should
not issue goes to the inferior judge and the other party. In
prohibition to courts other than county courts pleadings in
prohibition may be ordered. These pleadings are as far as
possible assimilated to pleadings in actions. They are rare in
practice, and are only ordered in cases of great difficulty and
importance.
Much learning on the subject of prohibition will be found in
the opinion of Mr Justice Wills delivered to the House of Lords
in The Mayor and Aldermen of London v. Cox (1867, L.R.
2 Eng. and Ir. Appeals, 239).
In Scots law prohibition is not used in the English sense. The
same result is obtained by suspension or reduction. In the United
States the Supreme Court has power to issue a prohibition to the
district courts when proceeding as courts of admiralty and maritime
jurisdiction. Most of the states have also their own law upon the
subject, generally giving power to the supreme judicial authority
in the state to prohibit courts of inferior jurisdiction.
PROJECTION, in mathematics. If from a fixed point S
in space lines or rays be drawn to different points A, B, C, ... in
space, and if these rays are cut by a plane in points A', B', C',
. . . the latter are called the projections of the given points on
the plane. Instead of the plane another surface may be taken,
and then the points are projected to that surface instead of to
a plane. In this manner any figure, plane or in space of three
dimensions, may be projected to any surface from any point
which is called the centre of projection. If the figure projected
is in three dimensions then this projection is the same as that
used in what is generally known as perspective (q.v.).
In modern mathematics the word projection is often taken
with a slightly different meaning, supposing that plane figures
are projected into plane figures, but three-dimensional ones into
three-dimensional figures. Projection in this sense, when treated
by co-ordinate geometry, leads in its algebraical aspect to the
theory of linear substitution and hence to the theory of invariants
and co-variants (see ALGEBRAIC FORMS).
In this article projection will be treated from a purely geo-
metrical point of view. References like (G. 87) relate to the
article GEOMETRY, Projcclive, in vol. ri.
428
PROJECTION
i. Projection of Plane Figures. Let us suppose we have in
space two planes ir and '. In the plane ir a figure is given having
known properties; then we have the problem to find its projection
from some centre S to the plane ir', and to deduce from the known
properties of the given figure the properties of the new one.
If a point A is given in the plane v we have to join it to the
centre S and find the point A' where this ray SA cuts the plane
ir'; it is the projection of A. On the other hand if A' is given in
the plane ir', then A will be its projection in ir. Hence if one
figure in *' is the projection of another in ir, then conversely the latter
is also the projection of the former.
A point and its projection are therefore also called corresponding
points, and similarly we speak of corresponding lines and curves, &c.
2. We at once get the following properties :
The projection of a point is a point, and one point only.
The projection of a line (straight line) is a line; for all points in
a line are projected by rays which lie in the plane determined by S
and the line, and this plane cuts the plane ir in a line which is the
projection of the given line.
// a point lies in a line its projection lies in the projection of the
line.
The projection of the line joining two points A, B is the line which
joins the projections A', B' of the points A, B. For the projecting
plane of the line AB contains the rays SA, SB which project the
points A, B.
The projection of the point of intersection of two lines a, b is the
point of intersection of the projections a', b' of those lines.
Similarly we get
The projection of a curve is a curve.
The projections of the points of intersection of two curves are the
points of intersection of the projections of the given curves.
If a line cuts a curve in n points, then the projection of the line
cuts the projection of the curve in n points. Or
The order of a curve remains unaltered by projection.
The projection of a tangent to a curve is a tangent to the projection
of the curve. For the tangent is a line which has two coincident
points in common with a curve.
The number of tangents that can be drawn from a point to a
curve remains unaltered by projection. Or
The class of a curve remains unaltered by projection.
3. Two figures of which one is a projection of the other ob-
tained in the manner described may be moved out of the position
in which they are obtained. They are then still said to be one the
projection of the other, or to be projective or homographic. But
when they are in the position originally considered they are said to
be in perspective position, or (shorter) to be perspective.
All the properties stated in I, 2 hold for figures which are
projective, whether they are perspective or not. There are others
which hold only for projective figures when they are in perspective
position, which we shall now consider.
If two planes ir and ir' are perspective, then their line of inter-
section is called the axis of projection. Any point in this line
coincides with its projection. Hence
All points in the axis are their own projections. Hence also
Every line meets its projection on the axis.
4. The property that the lines joining corresponding points
all pass through a common point, that any pair of corresponding
points and the centre are in a line, is also expressed by saying that
the figures are co-linear or co-polar; and the fact that both figures
have a line, the axis, in common on which corresponding lines meet
is expressed by saying that the figures are co-axal.
The connexion between these properties has to be investigated.
For this purpose we consider in the plane ir a triangle ABC, and
let the lines BC, CA, AB be denoted by a, b, c. The projection
will consist of three points A', B', C' and three lines a', 6', c'. These
have such a position that the lines AA', BB', CC' meet in a point,
viz. at S, and the points of intersection of a and a', b and b', c and
c' lie on the axis (by 2). The two triangles therefore are said
to be both co-linear and co-axal. Of these properties either is a
consequence of the other, as will now be proved.
// two triangles, whether in the same plane or not, are co-linear
they are co-axal. Or
// the lines AA', BB', CC' joining the vertices of two triangles meet
in a point, then the intersections of the sides BC and B'C', CA and
C'A', AB and A'B' are three points in a line. Conversely
// two triangles are co-axal they are co-linear. Or
// the intersection of the sides of two triangles ABC and A'B'C',
viz. of BC and B'C', of CA and C'A', and of AB and A'B', lie in a
line, then the lines AA , BB', and CC' meet in a point.
Proof. Let us first suppose the triangles to be in different
places. By supposition the lines AA', BB', CC' (fig. i) meet in
a point S. But three intersecting lines determine three planes,
SCB, SCA and SAB. In the first lie the points B, C and also B', C'.
Hence the lines BC and B'C' will intersect at some point P,
because any two lines in the same plane intersect. Similarly CA
and C'A' will intersect at some point Q, and AB and A'B' at some
point R. These points P, Q, R lie in the plane of the triangle ABC
because they are points on the sides of this triangle, and similarly
in the plane of the triangle A'B'C'. Hence they lie in the intersection
of two planes that is, in a line. This line (PQR in fig. i) is called
the axis of perspective or homology, and the intersection of
AA', BB', CC', i.e. S in the figure, the centre of perspective.
I Secondly, if the triangles ABC
and A'B'C' lie both in the same
plane the above proof does not
hold. In this case we may con-
sider the plane figure as the pro-
jection of the figure in space of
which we have just proved the
theorem. Let ABC, A'B'C' be
the co-linear triangles with S as
centre, so that AA', BB', CC'
meet at S. Take now any point
in space, say your eye E, and
from it draw the rays projecting
the figure. In the line ES take
any point Si, and in EA, EB,
EC take points Ai, Bi, Ci respec-
tively, but so that Si, Ai, Bi, Ci
are not in a plane. In the plane
ESA which projects the line SiAi
lie then the line SiAi and also
EA'; these will therefore meet in
FIG. i.
a point Ai', of which A' will be the projection. Similarly points
BI , Ci' are found. Hence we have now in space two triangles
AiBiCi and Ai'Bi'Ci' which are co-linear. They are therefore co-
axal, that is, the points Pi, Qi, R lf where AiBi, &c., meet will lie
in a line. _ Their projections therefore lie in a line. But these
are the points P, Q, R, which were to be proved to lie in a
line.
This proves the first part of the theorem. The second part or
converse theorem is proved in exactly the same way. For another
proof see (G. 37).
5. By aid of this theorem we can now prove a fundamental
property of two projective planes.
Let i be the axis, S the centre, and let A, A' and B, B' be two
pairs of corresponding points which we suppose fixed, and C, C' any
other pair of corresponding points. Then the triangles ABC and
A'B'C are co-axal, and they will remain co-axal if the one plane '
be turned relative to the other about the axis. They will therefore,
by Desargue's theorem, remain co-linear, and the centre will be the
point S', where AA' meets BB'. Hence the line joining any pair
of corresponding points C, C' will pass through the centre S'. The
figures are therefore perspective. This will remain true if the
planes are turned till they coincide, because Desargue's theorem
remains true.
// two planes are perspective, then if the one plane be turned about
the axis through any angle, especially if the one plane be turned till
it coincides with the other, the two planes will remain perspective;
corresponding lines will still meet on a line called the axis, and the
lines joining corresponding points will still pass through a common
centre S situated in the plane.
Whilst the one plane is turned this point S will move in a circle
whose centre lies in the plane ir, which is kept fixed, and whose plane
is perpendicular to the axis.
The last part will be proved presently. As the plane ir' may be
turned about the 'axis in one or the opposite sense, there will be
two perspective positions possible when the planes coincide.
6. Let (fig. 2) ir, ir' be the planes intersecting in the axis 5
whilst S is the centre of projection. To project a point A in it
we join A to S and see where
this line cuts ir'. This gives
the point A'. But if we draw
through S any line parallel
to ir, then this line will cut
ir' in some point I', and if
all lines through S be drawn
which are parallel to ir these
will form a plane parallel to
ir which will cut the plane
ir' in a line i' parallel to the
axis i. If we say that a line
parallel to a plane cuts the
latter at an infinite distance,
we may say that all points
at an infinite distance in *
are projected into points
which lie in a straight line
FIG. 2.
i', and conversely all points in the line are projected to an infinite
distance in ir, whilst all other points are projected to finite points.
We say therefore that all points in the plane ir at an infinite
distance may be considered as lying in a straight line, because
their projections lie in a line. Thus we are again led to consider
points at infinity in a plane as lying in a line (cf. G. 2-4).
Similarly there is a line j in ir which is projected to infinity in
ir' ; this projection will be denoted by j' so that i and j' are lines
at infinity.
7. If we suppose through S a plane drawn perpendicular to
the axis i cutting it at T, and in this plane the two lines SI
parallel to ir and SJ parallel to ir', then the lines through I' and J
PROJECTION
parallel to the axis will be the lines ' and i. At the same time
a parallelogram SJTI'S has been formed. If now the plane *' be
turned about the axis, then the points I' and J will not move in
their planes; hence the lengths TJ and TI', and therefore also SI'
and SJ, will not change. If the plane r is kept fixed in space the
point J will remain fixed, and S describes a circle about J as centre
and with SJ as radius. This proves the last part of the theorem
in 5-
8. The plane *' may be turned either in the sense indicated
by the arrow at Z or in the opposite sense till *' falls into -r. In
the first case we get a figure like fig. 3 ; i' and j will be on the same
side of the axis, and on this side will also lie the centre S ; and
"i
T
J
J
i'
i'
S
Fio._3.
FIG. 4.
SJ. If I'S = SJ, the point S will lie on the axis.
It follows that any one of the four points S, T, J, I' is completely
determined by the other three: if the axis, the centre, and one of
the lines ' or _;' are given the other is determined ; the three lines
s, i', j determine the centre ; the centre and the lines i', j determine
the axis.
9. We shall now suppose that the two projective planes *, r'
are perspective and have been made to coincide.
// the centre, the axis, and either one pair of corresponding points
on a line through the centre or one pair of corresponding lines meeting
on the axis are given, then the whole projection is determined.
Proof. If A and A' (fig. i) are given corresponding points, it
has to be shown that we can find to every other point B the corre-
sponding point B'. Join AB to cut the axis in R. Join RA';
then B' must lie on this line. But it must also lie on the line SB.
Where both meet is B'. That the figures thus obtained are really
projective can be seen by aid of the theorem of 4. For, if for
any point C the corresponding point C' be found, then the triangles
ABC and A'B'C' are, by construction, co-linear, hence co-axal;
and s will be the axis, because AB and AC meet their corresponding
lines A'B' and A'C' on it. BC and B'C' therefore also meet on s.
If on the other hand a, a' are given corresponding lines, then
any line through S will cut them in corresponding points A, A'
which may be used as above.
10. Rows and pencils which are projective or perspective have
been considered in the article GEOMETRY (G. 12-40). All that
has been said there holds, of course, here for any pair of correspond-
ing rows or pencils. The centre of perspective for any pair of
corresponding rows is at the centre of projection S, whilst the axis
contains coincident corresponding elements. Corresponding pencils
on the other hand have their axis of perspective on the axis of
projection whilst the coincident rays pass through the centre.
We mention here a few of those properties which are independent
of the perspective position :
The correspondence between two projective rows or pencils is
completely determined if to three elements in one the corresponding
ones in the other are given. If for instance in two projective rows
three pairs of corresponding points are given, then we can find to
every other point in either the corresponding point (G. 29-36).
// A, B, C, D are four points in a row and A', B', C', D' the corre-
' l ~-',ing points, then their cross-ratios are equal (AB, CD) = (A'B',
:'D') where (AB, CD) =AC/CB:AD/DB.
If in particular the point D be at infinity we have (AB, CD) =
-AC/CB = AC/BC. If therefore the points D and D' are both
at infinity we have AC/BC = AD/BD, and the rows are similar
(G. 39). This can only happen in special cases. For the line joining
corresponding points passes through the centre; the latter must
therefore lie at infinity if D, D' are different points at infinity. But if
D and D' coincide they must lie on the axis, that is, at the point at
infinity of the axis unless the axis is altogether at infinity. Hence-^-
In two perspective planes every row which is parallel to the axis is
similar to its corresponding row, and in general no other row has this
property.
But if the centre or the axis is at infinity then every row is similar
to its corresponding row.
In either of these two cases the metrical properties are particu-
larly simple. If the axis is at infinity the ratio of similitude is the
same for all rows and the figures are similar. If the centre is at
infinity we get parallel projection; and the ratio of similitude
changes from row to row (sec 16, 17).
and B corresponding
Let C
429
In both cases the mid-points of corresponding segments will be
corresponding points.
ii. Involution. If the planes of two projective figures coin-
cide, then every point in their common plane has to be counted
twice, once as a point A in the figure *, once as a point B' in the
figure *'. The points A' and B corresponding to them will in
general be different points, but it may happen that they coincide.
Here a theorem holds similar to that about rows (G. 76 seq.).
// two projective planes coincide, and if to one point in their common
plane the same point corresponds, whether we consider the point as
belonging to the first or to the second plane, then the same will happen
for every other pointthat is to say, to every point will correspond
the same point in the first as in the second plane.
In this case the figures are said to be in involution.
Proof. Let (fig. 5) S be the centre, s the axis of projection, and
let a point denoted by A in the first plane and by B' in the second
have the property that the
points A' and B cot
to them again coincide,
and D' be the names which
some other point has in the two
planes. If the line AC cuts the
axis in X, then the point where
the line XA' cuts SC will be
the point C' corresponding to C
( 9). The line B'D' also cuts
the axis in X, and therefore the
point D corresponding to D' is
the point where XB cuts SD'.
But this is the same point as C'. FIG. 5-
This point C' might also be
got by drawing CB and joining its intersection Y with the axis
to B'. Then C' must be the point where B'Y meets SC. This
figure, which now forms a complete quadrilateral, shows that in
order to get involution the corresponding points A and A' have to
be harmonic conjugates with regard to S and the point T where
AA' cuts the axis.
// two perspective figures be in involution, two corresponding points
are harmonic conjugates with regard to the centre and the point where
the line joining them cuts the axis. Similarly
Any two corresponding lines are harmonic conjugates with regard
to the axis and the line from their point of intersection to the centre.
Conversely
// in two perspective planes one pair of corresponding points be
harmonic conjugates with regard to the centre and the point where the
line joining them cuts the axis, then every pair of corresponding
points has this property and the planes are in involution.
12. Projective Planes which are not in perspective position.
We return to the case that two planes v and ' are projective but
not in perspective position, and state in some of the more important
cases the conditions which determine the correspondence between
them. Here it is of great advantage to start with another definition
which, though at first it may seem to be of far greater generality,
is in reality equivalent to the one given before.
We call Auo planes projective if to every point in one corresponds
a point in the other, to every line a line, and to a point in a line a point
in the corresponding line, in such a manner that the cross-ratio of four
points in a line, or of four rays in a pencil, is equal to the cross-ratio
of the corresponding points or rays.
The last part about the equality of cross-ratios can be proved to
be a consequence of the first. As space does not allow us to give
an exact proof for this we include it in the definition.
If one plane is actually projected to another we get a correspond-
ence which has the properties required in the new definition. This
shows that a correspondence between two planes conform to this
definition is possible. That it is also definite we have to show.
It follows at once that
Corresponding rows, and likewise corresponding pencils, art pro-
jective in the old sense (G. 25, 30). Further
// two planes are projective to a third they are projective to each other.
The correspondence between two projective planes T and *' is deter-
mined if we have given either two rows u, v in T and the corresponding
rows u , v' in T', the point where u and v meet corresponding to the
points where u' and v' meet, or two pencils U, V in r and the corre-
sponding pencils U', V in r', the ray UV joining the centres of the
pencils in r corresponding to the ray U'V'.
It is sufficient to prove the first part. Let any line a cut u, r
in the points A and B. To these will correspond points A' and B'
in u' and v' which are known. To the line a corresponds then
the line A'B'. Thus to every line in the one plane the corre-
sponding line in the other can be found, hence also to every point
the corresponding point.
13. // the planes of two projective figures coincide, and if either
four points, of which no three lie in a line, or else four lines, of which
no three pass through a point, in the one coincide with their corre-
sponding points, or lines, in the other, then every point and every line
coincides with its corresponding point or line so that the figures are
identical.
If the four points A, B, C, D coincide with their corresponding
points, then every line joining two of these points will coincide witfi
430
its corresponding line. Thus the lines AB and CD, and therefore
also their point of intersection E, will coincide with their corre-
sponding elements. The row AB has thus three points A, B, E
coincident with their corresponding points, and is therefore identical
with it ( 10). As there are six lines which join two and two of
the four points A, B, C, D, there are six lines such that each point
in either coincides with its corresponding point. Every other line
will thus have the six points in which it cuts these, and therefore
all points, coincident with their corresponding points. The proof
of the second part is exactly the same. It follows
14. // two projective figures, which are not identical, lie in the
same plane, then not more than three points which are not in a line,
or three lines which do not pass through a point, can be coincident
with their corresponding points or lines.
If the figures are in perspective position, then they have in
common one line, the axis, with all points in it, and one point, the
centre, with all lines through it. No other point or line can there-
fore coincide with its corresponding point or line without the figures
becoming identical.
It follows also that
The correspondence between two projective planes is completely
determined if there are given either to four points in the one the
corresponding four points in the other provided that no three of them
lie in a line, or to any four lines the corresponding lines provided
that no three of them pass through a point.
To show this we observe first that two planes ir, ir' may be made
projective in such a manner that four given points A, B, C, D in
the one correspond to four given points A', B , C', D' in the other;
for to the lines AB, CD will correspond the lines A'B' and C'D',
and to the intersection E of the former the point E' where the
latter meet. The correspondence between these rows is therefore
determined, as we know three pairs of corresponding points. But
this determines a correspondence (by 12). To prove that in
this case and also in the case of 12 there is but one correspondence
possible, let us suppose there were two, or that we could have in
the plane v' two figures which are each projective to the figure in
ir and which have each the points A'B'C'D corresponding to the
points ABCD in ir. Then these two figures will themselves be
projective and have four corresponding points coincident. They
are therefore identical by 13.
Two projective planes will be in perspective if one row coincides
with its corresponding row. The line containing these rows will be
the axis of projection.
As in this case every point on s coincides with its corresponding
point, it follows that every row a meets its corresponding row o'
on s where corresponding points are united. The two rows a, a'
are therefore perspective (G. 30), and the lines joining corre-
sponding points will meet in a point S. If r be any one of these
lines cutting a, a' in the points A and A' and the line s at K, then
to the line AK corresponds A'K, or the ray r corresponds to itself.
The points B, B' in which r cuts another pair b, b' of corresponding
rows must therefore be corresponding points. Hence the lines
joining corresponding points in b and b' also pass through S.
Similarly all lines joining corresponding points in the two planes
TT and ir' meet in S; hence the planes are perspective.
The following proposition is proved in a similar way:
Two projective planes will be in perspective position if one pencil
coincides with its corresponding one. The centre of these pencils
will be the centre of perspective.
In this case the two planes must of course coincide, whilst in the
first case this is not necessary.
15. We shall now show that two planes which are projective
according to definition ( 12) can be brought into perspective position,
hence that the new definition is really equivalent to the old. We
use the fcllotving property: If two coincident planes it and ir' are
perspective with S as centre, then any two corresponding rows
are also perspective with S as centre. This therefore is true for
the row j and j' and for i and i', of which i and j' are the lines at
infinity in the two planes. If now the plane ir' be made to slide on
so that each line moves parallel to itself, then the point at infinity
in each line, and hence the whole line at infinity in ir' , remains fixed.
So does the point at infinity on 7', which thus remains coincident
with its corresponding point on f, and therefore the rows j and j'
remain perspective, that is to say the rays joining corresponding
points in them meet at some point T. Similarly the lines joining
corresponding points in i and i' will meet in some point T .
These two points T and T' originally coincided with each other
and with S.
Conversely, if two projective planes are placed one on the other,
then as soon as the lines j and i are parallel the two points T and
T' can be found by joining corresponding points in j'and j', and also
in i and i'. If now a point at infinity is called A as a point in x
and B' as a point in ir , then the point A' will lie on i' and B on j,
so that the line AA' passes through T' and BB' through T. These
two lines are parallel. If then the plane ir' be moved parallel to
itself till T' comes to T, then these two lines will coincide with
each other, and with them will coincide the lines AB and A'B'.
This line and similarly every line through T will thus now coin-
cide with its corresponding line. The two planes are therefore
according to the last theorem in 14 in perspective position.
PROJECTION
It will be noticed that the plane ir' may be placed on ir in two
different ways, viz. if we have placed ir' on ir we may take it off and
turn it over in space before we bring it back to ir, so that what was
its upper becomes now its lower face. For each of these positions
we get one pair of centres T, T', and only one pair, because the
above process must give every perspective position. It follows
In two projective planes there are in general two and only two
pencils in either such that angles in one are equal to their correspond-
ing angles in the other. If one of these pencils is made coincident
with its corresponding one, then the planes will be perspective.
This agrees with the fact that two perspective planes in space can
be made coincident by turning one about their axis in two different
ways ( 8).
In the reasoning employed it is essential that the lines j and '
are finite. If one lies at infinity, say j, then i and j coincide, hence
their corresponding lines i' and j' will coincide ; that is, i' also lies
at infinity, so that the lines at infinity in the two planes are corre-
sponding lines. If the planes are now made coincident and per-
spective, then it may happen that the lines at infinity correspond
point for point, or can be made to do so by turning the one plane
in itself. In this case the line at infinity is the axis, whilst the centre
may be a finite point. This gives similar figures (see 16). In
the other case the line at infinity corresponds to itself without being
the axis; the lines joining corresponding points therefore all coin-
cide with it, and the centre S lies on it at infinity. The axis will
be some finite line. This gives parallel projection (see 17). For
want of space we do not show how to find in these cases the per-
spective position, but only remark that in the first case any pair
of corresponding points in ir and ir' may be taken as the points
T and T , whilst in the other case there is a pencil of parallels in
ir such that any one line of these can be made to coincide point for
point with its corresponding line in ir', and thus serve as the axis
of projection. It will therefore be possible to get the planes in
perspective position by first placing any point A' on its correspond-
ing point A and then turning ir' about this point till lines joining
corresponding points are parallel.
1 6. Similar Figures. If the axis is at infinity every line is
parallel to its corresponding line. Corresponding angles are there-
fore equal. The figures are similar, and ( 10) the ratio of simili-
tude of any two corresponding rows is constant.
If similar figures are in perspective position they are said to be
similarly situated, and the centre of projection is called the centre
of similitude. To place two similar figures in this position, we
observe that their lines at infinity will coincide as soon as both figures
are put in the same plane, but the rows on them are not necessarily
identical. They are projective, and hence in general not more than
two points on one will coincide with their corresponding points in
the other (G. 34). To make them identical it is either sufficient
to turn one figure in its plane till three lines in one are parallel to
their corresponding lines in the other, or it is necessary before this
can be done to turn the one plane over in space. It can be shown
that in the former case all lines are, or no line is, parallel to its
corresponding line, whilst in the second case there are two directions,
at right angles to each other, which have the property that each
line in either direction is parallel to its corresponding line. We
also see that
If in two similar figures three lines, of which no two are parallel,
are parallel respectively to their corresponding lines, then every line
has this property and the two figures are similarly situated; or
Two similar figures are similarly situated as soon as two corre-
sponding triangles are so situated.
If two similar figures are perspective without being in the same
plane, their planes must be parallel as the axis is at infinity. Hence
Any plane figure is projected from any centre to a parallel plane
into a similar figure.
If two similar figures are similarly situated, then corresponding
points may either be on the same or on different sides of the centre.
If, besides, the ratio of similitude is unity, then corresponding
points will be equidistant from the centre. In the first case there-
fore the two figures will be identical. In the second case they
will be identically equal but not coincident. They can be made to
coincide by turning one in its plane through two right angles about
the centre of similitude S. The figures are in involution, as is
seen at once, and they are said to be symmetrical with regard to the
point S as centre. If the two figures be considered as part of one,
then this is said to have a centre. Thus regular polygons of an even
number of sides and parallelograms have each a centre, which is
a centre of symmetry.
17 Parallel Projection. If, instead of the axis, the centre be
moved to infinity, all the projecting rays will be parallel, and we
fet what is called parallel projection. In this case the line at in-
nity passes through the centre and therefore corresponds to itself
but not point for point as in the case of similar figures. To any
point I at infinity corresponds therefore a point I' also at infinity
but different from the first. Hence to parallel lines meeting
at I correspond parallel lines of another direction meeting at I .
Further, in any two corresponding rows the two points at
infinity are corresponding points; hence the rows are similar.
This gives the principal properties of parallel projection:
To parallel lines correspond parallel lines; or
PROJECTION
To a parallelogram corresponds a parallelogram.
The correspondence of parallel projection is completely determined
as soon as for any parallelogram in the one figure the corresponding
parallelogram in the other has been selected, as follows from the general
case in 14. [Corresponding rows are similar ( io).l
The ratio of similitude for these rows changes with the direction :
// a row is parallel to the axis, its corresponding row, which is
also parallel to the axis, will be equal to it, because any two pairs
AA' and BB' of corresponding points will form a parallelogram.
Another important property is the following:
The areas of corresponding figures have a constant ratio.
\Ve prove this first for parallelograms. Let ABCD and EFGH be
any two parallelograms in *,
A'B'C'D' and ET'G'H' the
corresponding parallelograms
in ir'. Then to the parallelo-
gram KLMN which lies (fig. 6)
between the lines AB, CD
and EF, GH will correspond
FIG. 6.
their areas are as the bases.
ABCD AB
Hence
a parallelogram K'L'M'N'
formed in exactly the same
manner. As ABCD and KLMN
are between the same parallels
. . ., . A'B'C'D' A'B'
= KL' and similarl >' K'L'M'N' = KT?'
But AB/KL = A'B'/K'L', as the rows AB and A'B' are similar.
Hence
ABCD KLMN EFGH KLMN
A'B'C'U' = K'L'M'N' and simllarlv E'F'G'H'
'K'L'M'N'
Hence also
ABCD
A'B'C'D'
This proves the theorem for parallelograms and also for their
halves, that is, for any triangles. As polygons can be divided into
triangles the truth of the theorem follows at once for them, and
i> intended (by the method of exhaustion) to areas bounded by
curves by inscribing polygons in, and circumscribing polygons
about, the curves.
Just as (G. 8) a segment of a line is given a sense, so a sense
may be given to an area. This is done as follows. If we go round
the boundary of an area, the latter is either to the right or to the
left. If we turn round and go in the opposite sense, then the area
will be to the left if it was first to the right, and vice versa. If we
give the boundary a definite sense, and go round in this sense, then
the area is said to be either of the one or of the other sense according
as the area is to the right or to the left. The area is generally said
to be positive if it is to the left. The sense of the boundary is
indicated either by an arrowhead or by the order of the letters
which denote points in the boundary. Thus, if A, B, C be the
vertices of a triangle, then ABC shall denote the area in magnitude
and sense, the sense being fixed by going round the triangle in the
order from A to B to C. It will then be seen that ABC and ACB
denote the same area but with opposite sense, and generally ABC =
BCA = CAB = - ACB = - BAG = - CBA; that is, an inter-
change of two letters changes the sense. Also, if A and A' are two
points on opposite sides of, and equidistant from, the line BC,
then ABC = -A'BC.
Taking account of the sense, we may make the following state-
ment :
If A, A' are two corresponding points, if the line AA' cuts the
axis in B, and if C is any other point in the axis, then the triangles
ABC and A'BC are corresponding, and
ABC_ AB AB .
or The constant ratio of corresponding areas is equal and opposite
to the ratio in which the axis divides the segment joining two corre-
sponding points.
18. Several special cases of parallel projection are of interest.
Orthographic Projection. If the two planes jr and tr' have a
definite position in space, and if a figure in r is projected to T' by
rays perpendicular to this plane, then the projection is said to be
orthographic. If in this case the plane i be turned till it coincides
with r' so that the figures remain perspective, then the projecting
rays will be perpendicular to the axis of projection, because any one
of these rays is, and remains during the turning, perpendicular to
the axis.
The constant ratio of the area of the projection to that of the original
figure is, in this case, the cosine of the angle between the two planes
and ', as will be seen by projecting a rectangle which has its base
in the axis.
Orthographic projection is of constant use in geometrical drawing.
If the centre of projection be taken at infinity on the
MS, then the projecting rays are parallel to the axis; hence corre-
sponding points will be equidistant from the axis. In this case,
therefore, areas of corresponding figures will be equal.
43'
If A, A' and B, B' (fig. 7) are two pairs of corresponding points
on the same line, parallel to the axis, then, as corresponding seg-
ments parallel to the axis are
equal, it follows that AB =
A*B', hence also AA' = BB'.
If these points be joined to
any point O on the axis, then
AO and A'O will be corre-
sponding lines; they will there-
fore be cut by any line parallel
to the axis in corresponding
points. In the figure therefore
FIG. 7.
t, C' and also 6, D' will be pairs of corresponding points and
CC' = DD'. As the ratio CC'/AA' equals the ratio of the distant us
of C and A from the axis, therefore
Two corresponding figures may be got one out of the other by moving
all points in the one parallel to a fixed line, the axis, through distances
which are proportional to their own distances from the axis. Points
in a line remain hereby in a line.
Such a transformation of a plane figure is produced by a shearing
stress in any section of a homogeneous elastic solid. Foi this
reason Lord Kelvin gave it the name of shear.
A shear of a plane figure is determined if we are given the axis
and the distance through which one point has been moved; for in
this case the axis, the centre, and a pair of corresponding points
are given.
19. Symmetry and Skew-Symmetry. If the centre is not on
the axis, and if corresponding points are at equal distances from
it, they must be on opposite sides of it. The figures will be in
involution ( n). In this case the direction of the projecting rays
is said to be conjugate to the axis.
The conjugate direction may be perpendicular to the axis. If
the line joining two corresponding points A, A' cuts the axis in B,
then AB=BA. Therefore, if the plane be folded over along the
axis, A will fall on A'. Hence by this folding over every point
will coincide with its corresponding point. The figures therefore
are identically equal or congruent, and in their original position
they are symmetrical with regard to the axis, which itself is called
an axis of symmetry. If the two figures are considered as one this
one is said to be symmetrical with regard to an axis, and is said to
have an axis of symmetry or simply an axis. Every diameter of a
circle is thus an axis; also the median line of an isosceles triangle
and the diagonals of a rhombus are axes of the figures to which they
belong.
In the more general case where the projecting rays are not per-
pendicular to the axis we have a kind of twisted symmetry which
may be called skew-symmetry. It can be got from symmetry by
giving the whole figure a shear. It will also be easily seen that
we get skew-symmetry if we first form a shear to a given figure
and then separate it from its shear by folding it over along the axis
of the shear, which thereby becomes an axis of skew-symmetry.
Skew-symmetrical and therefore also symmetrical figures have
the following properties:
Corresponding areas are equal, but of opposite sense.
Any two corresponding lines are harmonic conjugates with regard
to the axis and a line in the conjugate direction.
If the two figures be again considered as one whole, this is said
to be skew-symmetrical and to have an axis of skew-symmetry.
Thus the median line of any triangle is an axis of skew-symmetry,
the side on which it stands having the conjugate direction, the
other sides being conjugate lines. From this it follows, for in-
stance, that the three median lines of a triangle meet in a point.
For two median lines will be corresponding lines with regard to the
third as axis, and must therefore meet on the axis.
An axis of skew-symmetry is generally called a diameter. Thus
every diameter of a conic is an axis of skew-symmetry, the con-
jugate direction being the direction of the chords which it bisects.
20. We state a few properties of these figures useful in mechanics,
but we omit the easy proofs:
// a plane area has an axis of skew-symmetry, then the mass-centre
(centre of mean distances or centre of inertia) lies on it.
If a figure undergoes a shear, the mass-centre of its area remains
the mass-centre ; and generally
In parallel projection the mass-centres of corresponding areas (or
of groups of points, but not of curves) are corresponding points.
The moment of inertia of a plane figure does not change if the figure
undergoes a shear in the direction of the axis with regard to which
the moment has been taken.
If a figure has an axis of skew-symmetry, then this axis and~the
conjugate direction are conjugate diameters of the momental ellipse
for every point in the axis.
If a figure has an axis of symmetry, then this is an axis of the
momental ellipse for every point in it.
The truth of the last propositions follows at once from the fact
that the product of inertia for the lines in question vanishes.
It is of interest to notice how a great many propositions of Euclid
are only special cases of projection. The theorems Euc. I. 35-41
about parallelograms or triangles on equal bases and between the
same parallels are examples of shear, whilst I. 43 gives a case of
432
skew-symmetry, hence of involution. Figures which are identi-
cally equal are of course projective, and they are perspective when
placed so that they have an axis or a centre of symmetry (cf.
Henrici, Elementary Geometry, Congruent Figures). In this case
again the relation is that of involution. The importance of treat-
ing similar figures when in perspective position has long been
recognized; we need only mention the well-known proposition
about the centres of similitude of circles.
Applications to Conies.
21. Any conic can be projected into any other conic. This may
be done in such a manner that three points on one conic and the tangents
at two of them are projected to three arbitrarily selected points and the
tangents at two of them on the other.
If u and u' are any two conies, then we have to prove that we can
project u in such a manner that five points on it will be projected
to points on u'. As the projection is determined as soon as the
projections of any four points or four lines are selected, we cannot
project any five points of u to any five arbitrarily selected points
on '. But if A, B, C be any three points on u, and if the tangents
at B and C meet at D, if further A', B', C' are any three points
on u', and if the tangents at B' and C' meet at D', then the plane
of u may be projected to the plane of u' in such a manner that the
points A, B, C, D are projected to A', B', C', D'. This determines
the correspondence ( 14). The conic u will be projected into a
conic, the points A, B, C and the tangents BD and CD to the points
A', B', C' and the lines B'D' and C'D', which are tangents to '
at B' and C'. The projection of u must therefore (G. 52) coincide
with u', because it is a conic which has three points and the tangents
at two of them in common with '.
Similarly we might have taken three tangents and the points of
contact of two of them as corresponding to similar elements on the
other.
If the one conic be a circle which cuts the line j, the projection
will cut the line at infinity in two points; hence it will be a hyper-
bola. Similarly, if the circle touches j, the projection will be a
parabola; and, if the circle has no point in common with j, the
projection will be an ellipse. These curves appear thus as sections
of a circular cone, for in case that the two planes of projection are
separated the rays projecting the circle form such a cone.
Any conic may be projected into itself.
If we take any point S in the plane of a conic as centre, the
polar of this point as axis of projection, and any two points in which
a line through S cuts the conic as corresponding points, then these
will be harmonic conjugates with regard to the centre and the axis.
We therefore have involution ( n), and every point is projected
into its harmonic conjugate with regard to the centre and the axis
hence every point A on the conic into that point A' on the conic
in which the line SA' cuts the conic again, as follows from the
harmonic properties of pole and polar (G. 62 seq.).
Two conies which cut the line at infinity in the same two points are
similar figures and similarly situated the centre of similitude being
in general some finite point.
To prove this, we take the line at infinity and the asymptotes of
one as corresponding to the line at infinity and the asymptotes
of the other, and besides a tangent to the first as corresponding
to a parallel tangent to the other. The line at infinity will then
correspond to itself point for point ; hence the figures will be similar
and similarly situated.
22. Areas of Parabolic Segments. One parabola may always be
considered as a parallel projection of another in such a manner
that any two points A, B on the one correspond to any two points
A', B' on the other; that is, the points A, B and the point at infinity
on the one may be made to correspond respectively to the points
A', B' and the point at infinity on the other, whilst the tangents
at A and at infinity of the one correspond to the tangents at B'
and at infinity of the other. This completely determines the
correspondence, and it is parallel projection because the line at
infinity corresponds to the line at infinity. Let the tangents
at A and B meet at C, and those at A', B' at C'; then C, Cwill
correspond, and so will the triangles ABC and A'B'C' as well as the
parabolic segments cut off by the chords AB and A'B'. If (AB)
denotes the area of the segment cut off by the chord AB we have
therefore
(AB)/ABC = (A'B')/A'B'C'; or
The area of a segment of a parabola stands in a constant ratio to the
area of the triangle formed by the chord of the segment and the
tangents at the end points of the chord.
If then (fig. 8) we join the point C to the
mid-point M of AB, then this line / will be
bisected at D by the parabola (G. 74), and
the tangent at D will be parallel to AB. Let
this tangent cut AC in E and CB in F, then
by the last theorem
(AB) (AD) (BD)
ABC~ADE~BFD~ WI
where m is some number to be determined. The figure gives
(AB)=ABD+(AD) + (BD).
PROJECTION
FIG. 8.
Combining both equations, we have
ABD=m (ABC-ADE-BFD;.
But we have also ABD = J ABC, and ADE = BFD = J ABC
hence
iABC=(i-l-|)ABC 1 or = J.
The area of a parabolic segment equals two-thirds of the area of
the triangle formed by the chord and the tangents at the end points of
the chord.
23. Elliptic Areas. To consider one ellipse a parallel projection
of another we may establish the correspondence as follows. If
AC, BD are any pair of conjugate diameters of the one and A'C,
B'D' any pair of conjugate diameters of the other, then these
may be made to correspond to each other, and the correspondence
will be completely determined if the parallelogram formed by the
tangents at A, B, C, D is made to correspond to that formed by the
tangents at A', B', C', D' ( 17 and 21). As the projection of the
first conic has the four points A', B', C', D' and the tangents at
these points in common with the second, the two ellipses are pro-
jected one into the other. Their areas will correspond, and so do
those of the parallelograms ABCD and A'B'C'D'. Hence
The area of an ellipse has a constant ratio to the area of any inscribed
parallelogram whose diagonals are conjugate diameters, and also to
every circumscribed parallelogram whose sides are parallel to conjugate
diameters.
It follows at once that
All parallelograms inscribed in an ellipse whose diagonals are
conjugate diameters are equal in area ; and
All parallelograms circumscribed about an ellipse whose sides are
parallel to conjugate diameters are equal in area.
If a, b are the length of the semi-axes of the ellipse, then the
area of the circumscribed parallelogram will be 406 and of the
inscribed one 2ab.
For the circle of radius r the inscribed parallelogram becomes
the square of area 2r 2 and the circle has the area rV; the constant
ratio of an ellipse to the inscribed parallelogram has therefore also
the value JTT. Hence
The area of an ellipse equals abir.
24. Projective Properties. The properties of the projection
of a figure depend partly on the relative position of the planes of
the figures and the centre of projection, but principally on the
properties of the given figure. Points in a line are projected into
points in a line, harmonic points into harmonic points, a conic
into a conic; but parallel lines are not projected into parallel lines
nor right angles into right angles, neither are the projections of
equal segments or angles again equal. There are then some pro-
perties which remain unaltered by projection, whilst others change.
The former are called projective or descriptive, the latter metrical
properties of figures, because the latter all depend on measurement.
To a triangle and its median lines correspond a triangle and three
lines which meet in a point, but which as a rule are not median
lines.
In this case, if we take the triangle together with the line at
infinity, we get as the projection a triangle ABC, and some other
line j which cuts the sides a, b, c of the triangle in the points
Ai, BI, Ci. If we now take on BC the harmonic conjugate A a to
Ai and similarly on CA and AB the harmonic conjugates to BI and
Ci respectively, then the lines AA 2 , BB 2 , CC 2 will be the projections
of the median lines in the given figure. Hence these lines must
meet in a point.
As the triangle and the fourth line we may take any four given
lines, because any four lines may be projected into any four given
lines ( 14). This gives a theorem:
// each vertex of a triangle be joined to that point in the opposite
side which is, with regard to the vertices, the harmonic conjugate of
the point in which the side is cut by a given line, then the three lines
thus obtained meet in a point.
We get thus out of the special theorem about the median lines
of a triangle a more general one. But before this could be done
we had to add the line at infinity to the lines in the given figure.
In a similar manner a great many theorems relating to metrical
properties can be generalized by taking the line at infinity or points
at infinity as forming part of the original figure. Conversely
special cases relating to measurement are obtained by projecting
some line in a figure of known properties to infinity. This is true
for all properties relating to parallel lines or to bisection of seg-
ments, but not immediately for angles. It is, however, possible
to establish for every metrical relation the corresponding projective
property. To do this it is necessary to consider imaginary elements.
These have originally been introduced into geometry by aid of
co-ordinate geometry, where imaginary quantities constantly occur
as roots of equations.
Their introduction into pure geometry is due principally to
Poncelet, who by the publication of his great work Traite des
Proprietes Projectives des Figures became the founder of projective
geometry in its widest sense. Mpnge had considered parallel
projection and had already distinguished between permanent and
accidental properties of figures, the latter being those which de-
pended merely on the accidental position of one part to another.
Thus in projecting two circles which lie in different planes it
PROJECTION
depends on the accidental position of the centre of projection
whether the projections be two conies which do or do not meet.
Poncelet introduced the principle of continuity in order to make
theorems general and independent of those accidental positions
which depend analytically on the fact that the equations used have
real or imaginary roots. But the correctness of this principle
remained without a proof. Von Staudt has, however, shown how it
-il)lf to introduce imaginary elements by purely geometrical
nooning, and we shall now try to give the reader some idea of
his theory.
25. Imaginary Elements. If a line cuts a curve and if the
line be moved, turned for instance about a point in it, it may happen
that two of the points of intersection approach each other till they
coincide. The line then becomes a tangent. If the line is still
further moved in the same manner it separates from the curve and
two points of intersection are lost. Thus in considering the rela-
tion of a line to a conic we have to distinguish three cases the line
cuts the conic in two points, touches it, or has no point in common
with it. This is quite analogous to the fact that a quadratic equa-
tion with one unknown quantity has either two, one, or no roots. But
in algebra it has long been found convenient to express this
differently by saying a quadratic equation has always two roots,
but these may be either both real and different, or equal, or they
may be imaginary. In geometry a similar mode of expressing the
fact above stated is not less convenient.
We say therefore a line has always two points in common with
a conic, but these are either distinct, or coincident, or invisible.
The word imaginary is generally used instead of invisible; but, as
the points have nothing to do with imagination, we prefer the word
" invisible " recommended originally by Clifford.
Invisible points occur in pairs of conjugate points, for a line loses
always two visible points of intersection with a curve simultane-
ously. This is analogous to the fact that an algebraical equation
with real coefficients has imaginary roots in pairs. Only one real
line can be drawn through an invisible point, for two real lines meet
in a real or visible point. The real line through an invisible point
contains also its conjugate.
Similarly there are invisible lines tangents, for instance, from
a point within a conic which occur in pairs of conjugates, two
conjugates having a real point in common.
The introduction of invisible points would be nothing but a play
upon words unless there is a real geometrical property indicated
which can be used in geometrical constructions that it has a
definite meaning, for instance, to say that two conies cut a line in
the same two invisible points, or that we can draw one conic
through three real points and the two invisible ones which another
conic has in common with a line that does not actually cut it. We
have in fact to give a geometrical definition of invisible points.
This is done by aid of the theory of involution (G. 76 seq.).
An involution of points on a line has (according to G. 77 [2])
either two or one or no foci. Instead of this we now say it has
always two foci which may be distinct, coincident or invisible.
These foci are determined by the involution, but they also determine
the involution. If the foci are real this follows from the fact that
conjugate points are harmonic conjugates with regard to the foci.
That it is also the case for invisible foci will presently appear. If
we take this at present for granted we may replace a pair of real,
coincident or invisible points by the involution of which they are
the foci.
Now any two pairs of conjugate points determine an involution
(G. 77 [6]).
Hence any point-pair, whether real or invisible, is completely
determined by any two pairs of conjugate points of the involution
which has given the point-pair as foci and may therefore be replaced
by them.
Two pairs of invisible points are thus said to be identical if, and
only if, they are the foci of the same involution.
We know (G. 82) that a conic determines on every line an in-
volution in which conjugate points are conjugate poles with regard
to the conic that is, that either lies on the polar of the other.
This holds whether the line cuts the conic or not. Furthermore,
in the former case the points common to the line and the conic are
the foci of the involution. Hence we now say that this is always
the case, and that the invisible points common to a line and a conic
are the invisible foci of the involution in question. If then we
state the problem of drawing a conic which passes through two
points given as the intersection of a conic and a line as that of
drawing a conic which determines a given involution on the line,
we have it in a form in which it is independent of the accidental
circumstance of the intersections being real or invisible. So is the
solution of the problem, as we shall now show.
26. We have_seen ( 21) that a conic may always be projected
into itself by taking any point S as centre and its polar i as axis of
projection, corresponding points being those in which a line through
S cuts the conic. If then (fig. 9) A, A' and B, B' are pairs of
corresponding points so that the lines AA' and BB' pass through S,
then the lines AB and A'B', as corresponding lines, will meet
at a point R on the axis, and the lines AB' and A'B will meet at
another point _R' on the axis. These points R, R' are conjugate
points in the involution which the conic determines on the line s,
433
because the triangle RSR' is a polar triangle (G. 62), so that R'
lies on the polar of R.
This gives a simple means of determining for any point Q on the
line s its conjugate point Q'. We take any two points A, A' on the
conic which lie on a line through S, join Q to A by a line cutting
the conic again in C, and join C to A'. This line will cut * in the
point Q' required.
To a.raw some conic which shall determine on a line s a given
involution.
We have here to reconstruct the fig. 9, having given on the line
s an involution. Let Q, Q' and R, R' (fig. 9) be two pairs of
conjugate points in this
involution. We take any
point B and join it to R
and R', and another point
C to 6 and Q'. Let BR
and CQ meet at A, and
BR' and CQ- at A'. If
now a point P be moved
along s its conjugate point
P' will also move and the
two points will describe
projective rows The two
rays AP and A'P' will
Q
FIG. 9.
therefore describe projective pencils, and the intersection of corre-
sponding rays will lie on a conic which passes through A, A', B
and C. This conic determines on .s the given involution.
Of these four points not only B and C but also the point A may
be taken arbitrarily, for if A, B, C are given, the line AB will cut i
in some point R. As the involution is supposed known, we can
find the point R' conjugate to R, which we join to B. In the same
way the line CA will cut s in some point Q. Its conjugate point Q'
we join to C. The line CQ' will cut BR' in a point A', and then AA'
will pass through the pole S (cf. fig. 9). We may now interchange
A and B and find the point B'. Then BB' will also pass through
S, which is thus found. At the same time five points A, B, C, A', B'
on the conic have been found, so that the conic is completely known
which determines on the line i the given involution. Hence
Through three points we can always draw one conic, and only one,
which determines on a given line a given involution, all the same
whether the involution has real, coincident or invisible foci.
In the last case the theorem may now also be stated thus:
It is always possible to draw a conic which passes through three
given real points and through two invisible points which any other
conic has in common with a line.
27. The above theory of invisible points gives rise to a great
number of interesting consequences, of which we state a few.
The theorem at the end of 21 may now be stated:
Any two conies are similar and similarly situated if they cut the
line at infinity in the same two points real, coincident or invisible.
It follows that
Any two parabolas are similar; and they are similarly situated as
soon as their axes are parallel.
The involution which a circle determines at its centre is circular
(G. 79); that is, every line is perpendicular to its conjugate line.
This will be cut by the line at infinity in an involution which has
the following property: The lines which join any finite point to
two conjugate points in the involution are at right angles to each
other. Hence all circular involutions in a plane determine the
same involution on the line at infinity. The latter is therefore
called the circular involution on the line at infinity; and the involu-
tion which a circle determines at its centre is called the circular
involution at that point. All circles determine thus on the line at
infinity the same involution; in other words, they have the same two
invisible points in common with the line at infinity.
All circles may be considered as passing through the same two
points at infinity.
These points are called the circular points at infinity, and by
Professor Cayley the absolute in the plane. They are the foci of
the circular involution in the line at infinity.
Conversely Every conic which passes through the circular points
is a circle; because the involution at its centre is circular, hence
conjugate diameters are at right angles, and this property only
circles possess.
We now see why we can draw always one and only one circle
through any three points; these three points together with the
circular points at infinity are five points through which one conic
only can be drawn.
Any two circles^ are similar and similarly situated because they
have the same points at infinity ( 21).
Any two concentric circles may be considered as having double
contact at infinity, because the lines joining the common centre to
the circular points at infinity are tangents to both circles at the
circular points, as the line at infinity is the polar of the centre.
A ny two lines at right angles to one another are harmonic conjugates
with regard to the rays joining their intersection to the circular points,
because these rays are the focal rays of the circular involution at
the intersection of the given lines.
To bisect an angle with the vertex A means (G. 23) to find two
rays through A which are harmonic conjugates with regard to the
434
PROKOP PROLOGUE
limits of the angle and perpendicular to each other. These rays
are therefore harmonic with regard to the limits of the given angle
and with regard to the rays through the circular points. Thus
perpendicularity and bisection of an angle have been stated in a
projective form.
It must not be forgotten that the circular points do not exist
at all; but to introduce them gives us a short way of making a
statement which would otherwise be long and cumbrous.
We can now generalize any theorem relating to metrical pro-
perties. For instance, the simple fact that the chord of a circle is
touched by a concentric circle at its mid point proves the theorem:
// two conies have double contact, then the points where any tangent
to one of them cuts the other are harmonic with regard to the point
of contact and the point where the tangent cuts the chord of contact.
(O. H.)
PROKOP, the name of two of the most prominent Hussite
generals
1. PROKOP, surnamed " Veliky " (the great) or " Holy "
(the bald), was a married utraquist priest who belonged to an
eminent family of citizens of Prague. Though a priest and
continuing to officiate as such, he became the most prominent
leader of the advanced Hussite or Taborite forces during the
latter part of the Hussite wars. He was not indeed the immediate
successor of 2izka as leader of the Taborites, as has been fre-
quently stated, but he commanded the forces of Tabor when they
obtained their great victories over the Germans and Romanists
at Usti nad Labam (Aussig) in 1426 and Domazlice (Tauss) in
1431. He also acted as leader of the Taborites during their
frequent incursions into Hungary and Germany, particularly
when in 1429 a vast Bohemian army invaded Saxony and the
territory of Nuremberg. The Hussites, however, made no
attempt permanently to conquer German territory, and on the
6th of February 1430 Prokop concluded at Kulmbach a treaty
with Frederick of Brandenburg, burgrave of Nuremberg, by
which the Hussites engaged themselves to leave Germany.
When the Bohemians entered into negotiations with Sigismund
and the Council of Basel and, after prolonged discussions,
resolved to send an embassy to the council, Prokop the Great
was the most prominent member of this embassy, which reached
Basel on the 4th of January 1433. When the negotiations
there for a time proved resultless Prokop with the other envoys
returned to Bohemia, where new internal troubles broke out.
A Taborite army led by Prokop the Great besieged Plzen, which
was then in the hands of the Romanists. The discipline in the
Hussite camp had, however, slackened in the course of pro-
longed warfare, and the Taborites encamped before Plzen
revolted against Prokop, who therefore returned to Prague.
Probably encouraged by these dissensions among the men of
Tabor, the Bohemian nobility, both Romanist and utraquist,
formed a league for the purpose of opposing democracy, which
through the victories of Tabor had acquired great strength in
the Bohemian towns. The struggle began at Prague. Aided
by the nobles, the citizens of the old town took possession of
the more democratic new town, which Prokop unsuccessfully
attempted to defend. Prokop now called to his aid Prokop " the
Lesser," who had succeeded him in the command of the Taborite
army before Plzen. They jointly retreated eastward from
Prague, and their forces, known as the army of the towns, met
at Lipan, between Kourim and Kolin, the army of the nobles
(May 30, 1434). The Taborites were decisively defeated, and
Prokop the Great perished in this battle.
2. PROKOP " the Lesser," or PROKUPEK (the Bohemian
diminutive of the word Prokop) , was one of the greatest Hussite
generals. Little is known of his early life. He took part in all
the later campaigns of Prokop the Great in Germany, and suc-
ceeded him as commander of the Taborite army that besieged
Plzen. After the formation of the confederacy of the nobles
he was recalled by Prokop the Great, with whom he shared the
command of the army of the towns at the fateful battle of
Lipan, in which he also perished.
See Count Lutzow, Bohemia : A Historical Sketch ; Palacky, History
of Bohemia; Toman, Husitske Valecnictvi (Hussite Warfare).
PROKOPOVICH, THEOFAN (1681-1736), Russian archbishop
and statesman, one of the ablest coadjutors of Peter the Great,
was sprung from a merchant family. He brilliantly distinguished
himself at the Orthodox academy of Kiev, subsequently com-
pleting his education in Poland (for which purpose he turned
Uniate), and at Rome in the College of the Propaganda. Primed
with all the knowledge of the West, he returned home to seek
his fortune, and, as the Orthodox monk, became one of the pro-
fessors at, and subsequently rector of, the academy of Kiev.
He entirely reformed the teaching of theology there, substituting
the historical method of the German theologians for the anti-
quated Orthodox scholastic system. In 1709 Peter the Great,
while passing through Kiev, was struck by the eloquence of
Prokopovich in a sermon on " the most glorious victory," i.e.
Poltava, and in 1716 summoned him to Petersburg. From
henceforth it was Theofan's duty and pleasure to explain the
new ideas and justify the most alarming innovations from the
pulpit. So invaluable, indeed, did he become to the civil
power, that, despite the determined opposition of the Russian
clergy, who regarded " the Light of Kiev " as an interloper and
semi-heretic, he was rapidly promoted, becoming, in 1718,
bishop of Pskov, and finally, in 1724, archbishop of Novgorod.
As the author of " the spiritual regulation " for the reform of
the Russian Church, Theofan must, indeed, be regarded as the
creator of " the spiritual department " superseding the patri-
archate, and better known by its later name of " the holy
synod," of which he was made the vice-president. Penetrated
by the conviction that ignorance was the worst of the inveterate
evils of old Russia, a pitiless enemy of superstition of every
sort, a reformer by nature, overflowing with energy and resource,
and with a singularly lucid mind armed at all points by a far-
reaching erudition, Prokopovich was the soul of the reforming
party after the death of Peter the Great. To him also belongs
the great merit of liberating Russian preaching from the fetters
of Polish turgidity and affectation by introducing popular
themes and a simple style into Orthodox pulpit eloquence.
See I. Chistovitch, Theofan Prokopovich and his Times (Rus.;
Petersburg, 1868); P. Morozov, Theophan Prokopovich as a Writer
(Rus.; Petersburg, 1880). (R. N. B.)
PROLEGOMENON (Gr. for " that which is said beforehand,"
wpoXtyeiv, to speak, say before), a preface or introduction to
a book, especially a preliminary introductory essay to a learned
work, or a treatise which serves as a general survey or intro-
duction to the study of some subject or as a special survey of
the subject. The word is more often used in the plural.
PROLETARIAT, or PROLETARIATE, a term borrowed from the
French and used collectively of those classes of a political
community who depend for their livelihood on their daily labour,
the wage-earning, operative class as opposed to the capital-
owning class. It is of frequent use by those social reformers
who base their theories on the supposed antagonism of capital
and labour. The Latin prolctarius, from which the word was
formed, was the name given to the body of citizens possessed
of no property and who therefore served the state with their
children (proles, offspring). This division of the members of
the state was traditionally ascribed to Servius Tullius.
PROLOCUTOR, one who speaks for others (Lat. pro, for, and
loqui, to speak); specifically the chairman of the lower house
of convocation in the two provinces of the Church of England,
who presides in that house and acts as representative and
spokesman in the upper house. He is elected by the lower
house, subject to the approval of the metropolitan. (See
CONVOCATION.)
PROLOGUE (from Gr. irpb, before, and \ayos, a word), a
prefatory piece of writing, usually composed to introduce a
drama. The Greeks use a word Tp6X<yyos, which included
the modern meaning of the prologue, but was of wider signifi-
cance, embracing any kind of preface, like the Latin praefalio.
In Attic Greek drama, a character in the play, very often a
deity, stood forward or appeared from a machine before the
action of the play began, and made from the empty stage such
statements as it was necessary that the audience should hear,
in order that they might appreciate the ensuing drama. It was
the early Greek custom to dilate in great detail on everything
that had led up to the play, the latter being itself, as a rule,
PROME PROMETHEUS
435
merely the catastrophe which had inevitably to ensue on the
facts related in the prologue. The importance, therefore, of the
prologue in Greek drama was very great; it sometimes almost
took the place of a romance, to which, or to an episode in which,
the play itself succeeded. It is believed that the prologue in
this form was practically the invention of Euripides, and with
him, as has been said, it takes the place of " an explanatory first
act." This may help to modify the objection which criticism has
often brought against the Greek prologue, as an impertinence, a
useless growth prefixed to the play, and standing as a barrier
between us and our enjoyment of it. The point precisely is that,
to an Athenian audience, it was useful and pertinent, as supply-
ing just what they needed to make the succeeding scenes in-
telligible. But it is difficult to accept the view that Euripides
invented the plan of producing a god out of a machine to justify
the action of deity upon man, because it is plain that he himself
disliked this interference of the supernatural and did not believe
in it. He seems, in such a typical prologue as that to the Hippo-
lytus, to be accepting a conventional formula, and employing
it, almost perversely, as a medium for his ironic rationalism.
M;my of the existing Greek prologues may be later in date than
the plays they illustrate, or may contain large interpolations.
On the Latin stage the prologue was often more elaborate than
it was in Athens, and in the careful composition of the poems
which Plautus prefixes to his plays we see what importance he
gave to this portion of the entertainment; sometimes, as in the
preface to the Rudens, Plautus rises to the height of his genius
in his adroit and romantic prologues, usually placed in the
mouths of persons who make no appearance in the play itself.
Moliere revived the Plautian prologue in the introduction to his
Amphitryon. Racine introduced Piety as the speaker of a pro-
logue which opened his choral tragedy of Esther. The tradition
of the ancients vividly affected our own early dramatists. Not
only were the mystery plays and miracles of the middle ages
begun by a homily, but when the drama in its modern sense
was inaugurated in the reign of Elizabeth, the prologue came
with it, directly adapted from the practice of Euripides and
Terence. Sackville, Lord Buckhurst, prepared a sort of pro-
logue in dumb show for his Gorbuduc of 1562; and he also wrote
a famous Induction, which is, practically, a prologue, to a mis-
cellany of short romantic epics by diverse hands. In the Eliza-
bethan drama the prologue was very far from being universally
employed. In the plays of Shakespeare, for instance, it is an
artifice which the poet very rarely introduced, although we find
it in Henry V. and Romeo and Juliet. Sometimes the Eliza-
bethan prologue was a highly elaborated poem; in 1603 a har-
binger recited a sonnet on the stage, to prepare the audience
for Heywood's A Woman Kill'd with Kindness. Often the
prologue was a piece of blank verse, so obscure and complicated
that it is difficult to know how its hearers contrived to follow
it; such are the prologues of Chapman. Among Elizabethan
prologues the most ingenious and interesting are those of Ben
Jonson, who varied the form on every occasion. For instance,
in The Poetaster (1602), Envy comes in " as Prologue," and speaks
a long copy of heroics, only to be turned off the stage by an
armed figure, who states that he is the real prologue, and
proceeds to spout more verses. Jonson's introductions were
often recited by the " stage-keeper," or manager. Beaumont
and Fletcher seem to have almost wholly dispensed with pro-
logues, and the form was far from being universal, until the
Restoration, when it became de rigueur. The prologues of the
last thirty years of the iyth century were always written in
rhymed verse, and were generally spoken by a principal actor
or actress in the ensuing piece. They were often, in the hands
of competent poets, highly finished essays on social or literary
topics. For instance, the famous prologue to Dryden's Aureng-
zebe (1675) is really a brief treatise on fashions in versification.
Throughout the i8th century the prologue continued to flourish,
but went out of vogue in the early part of the igth.
See also EPILOGUE. (E. G.)
PROME, a district in the Pegu division of Lower Burma, with
an area of 2915 sq. m. and a population (1901) of 365,804.
It occupies the whole breadth of the valley of the Irrawaddy,
between Thayetmyo district on the north and Henzada and
Tharrawaddy districts on the south, and originally extended
as far as the frontier of Independent Burma, but in 1870
Thayetmyo was formed into an independent jurisdiction.
There are two mountain ranges in Prome, which form respec-
tively the eastern and western boundaries. The Arakan Yomas
extends along the whole of the western side, and that portion
of the district lying on the right bank of the Irrawaddy is broken
up by thickly wooded spurs running in a south-easterly direction,
the space for cultivation being but limited and confined to the
parts adjacent to the river. On the eastern side lies the Pegu
Yomas, and north and north-east of the district its forest-covered
spurs form numerous valleys and ravines, the torrents from which
unite in one large stream called the Na-weng River. The most
important of the plains lie in the south and south-west portions
of Prome, and extend along the whole length of the railway that
runs between the towns of Paungde and Prome; they are mostly
under cultivation, and those in the south are watered by a series
of streams forming the Myit-ma-kha or upper portion of the
Hlaing. There are in addition large tracts of land covered by
tree-jungle which are available for cultivation. The principal
river is the Irrawaddy, which intersects the district from north
to south; next in importance are the Tha-ni and its tributaries
and the Na-weng system of rivers. In the hills near the capital
the soil is of Tertiary formation, and in the plains it is an alluvial
deposit. The climate is much drier than other districts in
Lower Burma, the annual rainfall being about 48 in. The
temperature ranges from about 100 in June to 60 in January.
The staple crop is rice, but some cotton and tobacco are grown,
while the custard apples are famous. Sericulture is extensively
carried on by a special class. The forests yield teak and cutch,
cotton and silk- weaving are important industries; there are
also manufactures of ornamental boxes, coarse brown sugar and
cutch.
The early history of the once flourishing kingdom of Prome,
like that of the other states which now form portions of Burma,
is veiled in obscurity. After the conquest of Pegu in 1758 by
Alompra, the founder of the last dynasty of Ava kings, Prome
remained a portion of the Burman kingdom till the close of the
second Burmese War in 1853, when the province of Pegu was
annexed to British territory.
PROME, the chief town of the district, is situated on the left
bank of the Irrawaddy, 161 m. N. of Rangoon, population (1901),
27,375-
To the south and south-east the town is closed in by low
pagoda-topped hills, on one of which stands the conspicuous
gilded Shwe Tsan-daw. The town was taken by the British
in 1825 and again in 1852, on both occasions with hardly any
opposition. In 1862 it was almost entirely destroyed by fire,
and was afterwards relaid out in straight and broad streets.
It was erected into a municipality in 1874, and since then great
improvements have been made, including waterworks. Its
principal manufactures are silk cloths and lacquer ware. It is
the terminus of a railway from Rangoon, which runs through the
district. The other chief towns in the district are Shwedaung
(pop. 10,787) and Paungde (pop. 11,105).
PROMENADE, a walk taken for exercise or more especially
for social amusement, hence a road, drive or other public place
laid out for the purpose, a parade. The French word promenade
was formerly pourmenade, and came from pourmener, promener,
to take for a walk, Late Latin prominare, to drive an animal out
to pasture, from pro, forward, minare, to drive on with cries and
threats (minae). " Promenade concerts," so called from the
fact that the audience are free to walk about or " promenade,"
were first introduced from Paris to London in 1838 under the
name of " promenade concerts a la Musard," after the concerts
given by the French musician and conductor, Philippe Musard
(1793-1859). They were given at the Lyceum Theatre (English
Opera House).
PROMETHEUS, son of the Titan lapetus by the sea nymph
Clymene, the chief " culture hero," and, in some accounts, the
436
PROMETHEUS
Demiurge of Greek mythical legend. As a culture-hero or in-
ventor and teacher of the arts of life, he belongs to a wide and
well-known category of imaginary beings. Thus Qat, Quah-
teaht, Pundjel, Maui, loskeha, Cagn, Wainamoinen and an
endless array of others represent the ideal and heroic first teachers
of Melanesians, Ahts, Australians, Maoris, Algonkins, Bushmen
and Finns. Among the lowest races the culture-hero commonly
wears a bestial guise, is a spider (Melanesia), an eagle hawk (in
some myths and south-east Australia), a coyote (north-west
America), a dog or raven (Thlinkeet), a mantis insect (Bushman),
and so forth, yet is endowed with human or even super-human
qualities, and often shades off into a permanent and practically
deathless god. Prometheus, on the other hand, is purely
anthropomorphic. He is the friend and benefactor of mankind.
He defends them against Zeus, who, in accordance with a widely
diffused mythical theory, desires to destroy the human race and
supplant them by a new and better species, or who simply revenges
a trick in which men get the better of him. The pedigree and
early exploits of Prometheus are given by Hesiod (Theog. 510-
616). On a certain occasion gods and men met at Mecone. The
business of the assembly was to decide what portions of slain
animals the gods should receive in sacrifice. On one side
Prometheus arranged the best parts of the ox covered with offal,
on the other the bones covered with fat, as the meat was covered
in Homeric sacrifices. Zeus was invited to make his choice,
chose the fat, and found only bones beneath. A similar fable
of an original choice, in which the chooser is beguiled by appear-
ances, recurs in Africa and North America (see the caskets in
the Merchant of Venice). The native tribes adapt the myth to
explain the different modes of life among themselves and white
men. In wrath at this trick, according to Hesiod, or in other
versions for the purpose of exterminating the remnants of people
who escaped the deluge of Deucalion, Zeus never bestowed, or
later withdrew, the gift of fire. In his " philanthropic fashion,"
Prometheus stole fire, concealed in a hollow fennel stalk (Hesiod,
Op. et Di.), and a fennel stalk is still used in the Greek islands
as a means of carrying a light (cf. Pliny xiii. 22). According
to some legends he gained the fire by holding a rod close to the
sun. Probably the hollow fennel stalk in which fire was carried
got its place in myth from the very fact of its common use.
We thus find Prometheus in the position of the fire-bringer, or
fire-stealer, and so connected with a very wide cycle of similar
mythical benefactors. Among the Murri of Gippsland, to begin
with a backward people, the fire-stealer was a man, but he became
a bird. Tow-e-ra, 'or fire, was in the possession of two women who
hated the blacks. A man who loved men cajoled the women, stole
fire when their backs were turned, and was metamorphosed into
" a little bird with a red mark on its tail, which is the mark of
fire." The fire-bringer in Brittany is the golden or fire-crestejd
wren. Myths like this kill two birds with one stone, and at once
account for the possession of fire by men and for the marking of
certain animals regarded as fire-bringers. 1 In another Australian
legend fire was stolen by the hawk from the bandicoot, and given to
men. In yet another a man held his spear to the sun, and so got
a light. A bird is fire-bringer in an Andaman island tale, and a
ghost in another myth of the same island. 2 In New Zealand, Maui
stole fire from Mauika, the lord of fire. He used a bird's inter-
vention. Among the Ahts, in North America, 8 fire was stolen by
animals from the cuttle-fish. Among the Thlinkeets, Yehl, the raven
god, was the fire-stealer. Among the Cahrocs, the coyote steals
fire from " two old women." Among the Aryans of India, Soma
is stolen by birds, as water is among the Thlinkeets, and mead in the
Edda. 4 Fire concealed himself, in the Veda, was dragged from his
hiding place by Mataricvan, and was given to the priestly clan of
Bhrigu. We also hear that Mataricvan " brought fire from afar "
(R. V. iii. 9, 5), and that Bhrigu found fire lurking in the water
(R. V. x. 46, 2).'
In considering the whole question, one must beware of the
1 For these see Brouj*h Smith with Howitt, Native Tribes of South-
east Australia, Aborigines of Victoria; Kuhn, on bird fire-bringer
in Isle of Man, Die Herabkunft des Feuers, p. 109; Van Gennep,
Mythes et legendes d'A ustralie.
1 Journ. Anthrop. Inst. (Nov. 1884).
1 Sproat, Savage Life.
* Bancroft, iii. 100; Aitareya brahmana, ii. 93, 203; Kuhn, op. cit.,
144.
6 Cf . Bergaigne, La Religion vedique, i. 52-56, and Kuhn's
Herabkunft; and see the essays by Steinthal in appendix to English
version of Goldziher's Mythology among the Hebrews.
hasty analogical method of reasoning too common among
mythologists. For example, when a bird is spoken of as the
fire-bringer we need not necessarily conclude that, in each case,
the bird means lightning. On the other hand, the myth often
exists to explain the cause of the markings of certain actual
species of birds. Again, because a hero is said to have stolen or
brought fire, we need not regard that hero as the personification
of fire, and explain all his myth as a fire-myth. The legend of
Prometheus has too often been treated in this fashion, though he
is really a culture hero, of whose exploits, such as making men
of clay, fire-stealing is no more than a single example. This
tendency to evolve the whole myth of Prometheus from a belief
that he is personified fire, or the fire-god, has been intensified
by Kuhn's ingenious and plausible etymology of the name
Upo/iijSew. The Greeks derived it from irpopt)6ris, provident,
and connected it with other such words as irpojw/OoDyuoi,
7rpo/ii70a. They had also the proper name 'En-i/ir/Sew for the
slow-witted brother of Prometheus who turned all the hero's
wisdom to foolishness. Against these very natural etymologies
the philologists support a theory that Prometheus is really a
Greek form of pramantha (Skt.), the fire-stick of the Hindus.
The process of etymological change, as given by Steinthal,
was this. The boring of the Perpendicular in the horizontal fire-
stick, whereby fire was kindled, was called manthana, from math,
" I shake." The preposition pra was prefixed, and you get
pramantha. But Mataricvan was feigned to have brought
Agni, fire, and " the fetching of the god was designated by the
same verb mathndmi as the proper earthly boring " of the fire-
stick. " Now this verb, especially when compounded with the
preposition pra, gained the signification to tear off, snatch to
oneself, rob." 6 Steinthal goes on: " Thus the fetching of
Agni became a robbery of the fire, and the pramdtha (fire-stick)
a robber. The gods had intended, for some reason or other,
to withhold fire from men; a benefactor of mankind stole it from
the gods. This robbery was called pramdtha; pramdthyu-s is
' he who loves boring or robbery, a borer or robber.' From the
latter words, according to the peculiarities of Greek phonology,
is formed IIpo/w;0eii-s, Prometheus. He is therefore a fire-god,"
&c. Few things more ingenious than this have ever been done
by philologists. It will be observed that " forgetfulness of the
meaning of words " is made to account for the Greek belief that
fire was stolen from the gods. To recapitulate the doctrine
more succinctly, men originally said, in Sanskrit (or some Aryan
speech more ancient still), " fire is got by rubbing or boring;"
nothing could have been more scientific and straightforward.
They also said, " fire is brought by Mataricvan; " nothing could
have been more in accordance with the mythopoeic mode of
thought. Then the word which means " fetched " is confused
with the word which means " bored," and gains the sense of
" robbed." Lastly, fire is said (owing to this confusion) to have
been stolen, and the term which meant the common savage
fire-stick is by a process of delusion conceived to represent, not
a stick, but a person, Prometheus, who stole fire. Thus then,
according to the philologists, arose the myth that fire was stolen,
a myth which, we presume, would not otherwise have occurred
to Greeks. Now we have not to decide whether the Greeks were
right in thinking that Prometheus only meant " the fore-sighted
wise man," or whether the Germans know better, and are correct
when they say the name merely meant " fire-stick." But we
may, at least, point out that the myth of the stealing of fire and
of the fire-stealer is current among races who are not Aryan,
and never heard the word pramantha. We have shown that
Thlinkeets, Ahts, Andaman Islanders, Australians, Maoris,
South Sea Islanders, Cahrocs and others all believe fire was
originally stolen. Is it credible that, in all their languages,
the name of the fire-stick should have caused a confusion of
thought which ultimately led to the belief that fire was obtained
originally by larceny ? If such a coincidence appears incredible,
we may doubt whether the belief that is common to Greeks and
Cahrocs and Ahts was produced, in Greek minds by an etymo-
logical confusion, in Australia, America and so forth by some
Cf. Kuhn, op. cit. pp. 16, 17.
PROMOTER PROOF
437
UU
other cause. What, then, is the origin of the widely-diffused myth
that fire was stolen? We offer a purely conjectural suggestion.
No race is found without fire, but even some civilized races have
found the artificial reproduction of fire very tedious. Thus we
read (Od. v. 488-493), " As when a man hath hidden away a
brand in the black embers at an upland farm, one that hath no
neighbour nigh, and so saveth the seed of fire that he may not
have to seek a light otherwhere, even so did Odysseus cover him
with the leaves." If, in the Homeric age, men found it so hard
to get the seed of fire, what must the difficulty have been in the
curliest dawn of the art of fire-making? Suppose, then, that
the- human groups of early savages are hostile. One group lets
iis lire go out, the next thing to do would be to borrow a light
from the neighbour, perhaps several miles off. But if the neigh-
bours are hostile the unlucky group is cut off from fire, igni inter-
'icitur. The only way to get fire in such a case is to steal it.
!en accustomed to such a precarious condition might readily
licve that the first possessors of fire, wherever they were, set
a high value on it, and refused to communicate it to others.
Hence the belief that fire was originally stolen. This hypothesis
at least explains all myths of fire-stealing by the natural needs,
passions, and characters of men, " a jealous race," whereas the
philological theory explains the Greek myth by an exceptional
accident of changing language, and leaves the other widely
diffused myths of fire-stealing in the dark. It would occupy
too much space to discuss, in the ethnological method, the rest
of the legend of Prometheus. Like the Australian Pundjel,
and the Maori Tiki, he made men of clay. He it was who, when
Zeus had changed his wife into a fly, and swallowed her, broke
open the god's head and let out his daughter Athena. He aided
/rus in the struggle with the Titans. He was punished by him
on some desolate hill (usually styled Caucasus) for fire-stealing,
and was finally released by Heracles.
His career may be studied in Hesipd ; in the splendid Prometheus
vinclus of Aeschylus, with the scholia; in Heyne's Apollodorus; in
the excursus (i) of Schiizius to the Aeschylean drama, and in the
frequently quoted work of Kuhn. The essay of Steinthal may also
be examined (Goldziher, Myth. Hebr., Eng. trans., p. 363-392),
where the amused student will discover that " Moses is a Praman-
thas," with much else that is as learned and convincing. See
also Tylor's Early History of Man; Nesfield in Calcutta Review
(January, April, 1884) ; and the article FIRE. (A. L.)
PROMOTER, one who promotes (Lat. promovere, to move
forward), advances or forwards any scheme, project or under-
taking. The most general specific sense in which the word is
now used is that of a person who takes the steps necessary to
the incorporation of a joint-stock company (see COMPANY) or
to the passing of a private or local act of parliament. In legal
history, a promoter was one who prosecuted offenders, originally
as an officer of the Crown, later as a common informer; the
term is still used thus of the prosecutor in a suit in an ecclesias-
tical court.
PRONGBUCK, PRONGHORN, or (in America) simply ANTELOPE,
the sole existing representative of a family (Antllocapridae) of
hollow-horned ruminants in which the horn-sheaths are forked
and annually shed and renewed. Standing about 3 ft. high at
the shoulder and slightly more at the croup, the male prongbuck
has the black horns rising vertically upwards immediately
above the eyes. The general colour is bright sandy fawn, with
much white on the face, three white bars on the throat and white
under parts and buttocks. The white throat-bands are evidently
protective; and the long white hair on the buttocks can be
erected and expanded into large chrysanthemum-like bunches
as in Japanese deer; these being guides to the members of
the herd when in flight. The tail is short; lateral hoofs are
wanting; and the teeth are tall-crowned. Female prongbuck
produce one or two young at a birth, and are either hornless or
furnished with small and more or less rudimentary horns.
Prongbuck, of which two races, the typical AntUocapra
americana and A. mexicana, are recognized by American
naturalists, inhabit the open plains of the temperate districts
of western North America, where they were formerly very abun-
dant. Nowadays their numbers have become greatly diminished
and small and isolated bands represent the great herds of former
years. Young prongbuck are very liable to be attacked by
wolves; to protect them from these marauders the females first
clear an area in the middle of a patch of cactus, by jumping on
the plants with their sharp hoofs, and bring forth their offspring in
the protected space. Certain extinct American ruminants, namely
Cosoryx, Blastomeryx and Merycodus are believed to be in some
way related to the prongbuck; but they have frontal appendages
more like antlers than horns. In view of this presumed relation-
ship it seems preferable to retain the family Antilocapridae
rather than relegate it to the rank of a sub-family of Bovidae.
(See PECORA.) (R. L.*)
PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronunliatio, from pronuntiare,
proclaim, announce, pronounce), the action of pronouncing, the
manner of uttering an articulate vocal sound (see PHONETICS
and VOICE). The original sense of the Latin, a public declara-
tion, is preserved in Spanish pronunciamiento, a manifesto or
proclamation, especially as issued by a party of insurrection or
revolution.
PRONY, 6ASPARD CLAIR FRANQOIS MARIE RICHE DE
(1755-1839), French engineer, was born at Chamelet, in the
department of the Rhone, on the 22nd of July 1755, and was
educated at the ficole des Fonts et Chauss6es. His Memoire
sur la poussee des voutes published in 1783, in defence of the
principles of bridge construction introduced by his master J. R.
Perronnet, attracted special attention. The laborious enter-
prise of drawing up the famous Tables du Cadastre was entrusted
to his direction in 1792, and in 1794 he was appointed professor
of the mathematical sciences at the ficole Polytechnique,
becoming director at the ficole des Fonts et Chausse'es four years
later. He was employed by Napoleon to superintend the
engineering operations for protecting the province of Ferrara
against the inundations of the Po and for draining and im-
proving the Pontine Marshes. After the Restoration he was
likewise engaged in regulating the course of the Rhone, and in
several other important works. He was made a baron in 1828,
and a peer in 1835. He died at Asnieres (Seine) on the 29th
of July 1839. For the " Prony Brake " see DYNAMOMETER.
PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, Sfc., from O. Fr . prune,
proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probare, to prove, to
test the goodness of anything, probus, good), a word of which
the two main branches are derived from those of " to prove,"
viz. to show to be true, to test, to try. Qf the first division
the chief meanings are: that which establishes the truth of a
fact or the belief in the truth, demonstration, for the nature of
which see LOGIC. In law " proof " is the general term for the
establishment of the material facts in issue in a particular case
by proper legal means to the satisfaction of the court (see
EVIDENCE) ; specifically, documents so attested as to form
legal evidence, written copies of what a witness is prepared
to support on oath, and the evidence of any case in the
court records are all termed " proofs." In Scots law the
term is used of a trial before a judge alone as opposed to trial
by jury. From the general sense of examination, trial or assay
derived from " to prove," to test the quality of anything,
" proof " is used of that which has succeeded in standing a trial
or test; the commonest form in which this use appears is as a
compound adjective, thus materials are said to be " waterproof,"
" armour-" " bullet-proof, "and the like. The principal other uses
are for a standard of strength for spirit (see ALCOHOL and SPIRITS)
for a trial impression, in printing, on which corrections and
additions can be made (see article PROOF-READING) and, in
engraving and etching, for one of a limited number of impressions
made before the ordinary issue is printed. In the earlier history
of engraving a " proof " was an impression during the process
of printing made for the a'rtist's inspection, approval or correc-
tion, whence its name. In the modern use of the term, where
the impression has been taken before the inscription has been
added to the plate, it is called a " proof before letter."
In bookbinding, some of the shorter or narrower leaves are
left with rough edges, " uncropped," to show that the book has
not been " cut," these are styled " proofs."
PROOF-READINGPROPAGATION
PROOF-READING, the art or business of correcting for the
press the printed " proofs " of articles or books set in type
before publication. The special business of a proof-reader,
attached to a printing house, is to correct these proofs before
they are shown to the author; he is an intermediary between
the compositor and the author, and as such his functions
may vary according to his capacities. Proof-reading as a dis-
tinct department in the work of a printing office does not date
from the very earliest days of " the art preservative of all arts."
The first products of the printing-press show abundant evidences
of the non-existence of any one specially charged with the duty
of correcting the compositors' mistakes. How much conjectural
emendation and consequent controversy would have been avoided
if the First Folio Shakespeare had been more typographically
correct! Sir Theodore Martin said that the typographical
errors alone of that work had been computed to number
nearly 20,000, which amounts to 2-25% of the total number
of words in the volume. It was a usual practice in the iyth and
i8th centuries for authors to send the proofs of their works round
amongst their personal friends for correction; and in the univer-
sities and colleges sheets of works passing through the press were
frequently hung up in the quadrangles for public inspection
and correction. With the growth of printing gradually came a
demand for systematic proof-reading, and the leading printers
engaged scholars and men of letters to read proofs for them.
Among these may be mentioned Cruden, of Concordance fame
(" Alexander the Corrector "), and William Julius Mickle, poet,
and translator of Luiz de Camoens's Lusiads, who was a reader
at the Clarendon Press. Goldsmith and Dr Johnson also are
credited with having wielded the proof-reader's pen. Times,
however, have changed since, as the elder D'Israeli wrote, " it
became the glory of the learned to be correctors of the press to
eminent printers," and to-day in every printing office the proof-
reader is found an unobtrusive functionary, known to publishers,
authors, editors and journalists, but for the most part unknown
to the general reading public; a functionary who yet does useful,
often valuable, and always indispensable work. The influence
of good proof-reading upon the character of book, newspaper
and general printing is too often underrated. The celebrated
old printing offices and the foremost of the modern ones owe
their reputation for good workmanship largely to the excellence
and thoroughness of the work done in their reading-rooms, for
no perfection of paper, ink, machining or binding can atone for
bad or slipshod typography.
The nature of the proof-reader's work, frequently monotonous
and uninteresting, will be made clear by what follows. After
the compositor (see TYPESETTING) has set up, by hand or
type-setting machine, the " copy " supplied to him, a slip or
page proof is pulled and sent with the manuscript to the proof-
reader. The manuscript is then read aloud by a copy-holder,
while the proof-reader carefully follows the text before him
letter by letter, marking on the margin of the proof all the mis-
spellings, turned letters, " wrong fonts " (letters differing in
size or style of face from those in the immediate context) and
other errors, and seeing that the punctuation clearly defines the
author's meaning. The copy-holder reads rapidly indeed, 'an
ordinary listener would imagine it to be impossible for the
proof-reader to understand him and as the reader is obliged
to keep pace, he goes through the proof again, without the aid
of the copy-holder, in order to mark any errors that may have
escaped him in the first rapid reading. The proof, called the
" first proof," is then sent to the compositor to be corrected.
When this has been done, a further proof is submitted to the
reader, who, upon satisfying himself by careful revision that it
is free from typographical mistakes, passes it as " clean." If
the reader, when dealing with the first proof, notices any slips
in grammar or errors of fact on the part of the writer, or is in
doubt whether any particular word in the manuscript has been
correctly deciphered, he underlines the word or passage, and
places " Qy." (query) in the margin. The proof is then des-
patched to the author or editor. On the return of the proof,
after the writer's corrections and alterations have been carried
out, the type is made up into pages and sheets and another
proof pulled. This passes into the hands of the press reader
(as distinguished from the "first proof-reader"), who checks
the headlines, page numbers, and sequence of chapters or
sections, and observes that the pages are of uniform length and
that a sufficient amount of margin is allowed, before finally
reading through the text. When the press-reader's corrections
have been effected, the work is ready for the printing machine
or the stereotyping foundry.
The cost of proof-reading may be said to range from about
1\ to 20% of the cost of composition, varying, of course, with
the nature of the work.
Many prominent authors have expressed in warm terms their
gratitude to the proof-reader for valuable assistance rendered by
apt queries and pertinent suggestions. Two of these expressions
of opinion may be given as typical, one from a novelist and one from
a poet. Charles Dickens said: " I know from some slight practical
experience what the duties of correctors of the press are, and how
these duties are usually discharged. And I can testify, and do
testify here, that they are not mechanical that they are not mere
matters of manipulation and routine; but that they require from
those who perform them much natural intelligence, much super-
added cultivation, considerable readiness of reference, quickness
of resource, an excellent memory and a clear understanding. And
I must gratefully acknowledge that I have never gone through the
sheets of any book I have written without having had presented to
me by the corrector of the press something I had overlooked some
slight inconsistency into which I had fallen some little lapse I
had made in short, without having set down in black and white
some unquestionable indication that I had been closely followed in
my work by a patient and trained mind, and not merely by a
skilful eye. In this declaration I have not the slightest doubt that
the great body of my brother and sister writers would, as a plain act
of justice, heartily concur." Robert Browning thus corroborated
Dickens: " I have had every opportunity of becoming acquainted
with, and gratefully acknowledging, the extreme service rendered
to me; and, if mine be no exceptional case, the qualifications of
readers and correctors are important indeed." P. Larousse spoke
of French proof-readers as his " collaborateurs les plus chers," and
Hugo referred to them as those " modestes savants " so well able
" lustrer les plumes du genie"; while the Academic Francaise
consulted them on points arising in the revision of the Academy's
dictionary.
Though much good work is done by readers who have not
been practical printers, yet the technical knowledge gained by
working as a compositor is essential to the best proof-reading.
The reader must possess a quick eye, alert to note every error or
mechanical imperfection in the type, and must scrutinize closely
every letter of every word, clause and sentence, while keeping a
grasp of the sense of the matter he is dealing with. The more
varied his information and the wider his knowledge, the better.
Though his strict duty is merely to see that the author's
copy is properly reproduced, he is always glad to give the author
the benefit of the experience and knowledge he has acquired,
and, as a consequence, he is constantly crossing the line which
separates proof-reading from sub-editorial duties. From this
last consideration has arisen the plea for the reader, on the daily
press especially, being placed under the control of, and made
responsible to, the editorial department rather than the head of
the composing-room.
Proof-readers in Great Britain have a trade union, and many of
them retain membership of the unions to which they belonged when
working as compositors; and in some states of the American Union
as well as in Scotland the compositors insist upon readers being also
members of their society. The oldest English organization devoted
entirely to the interests of proof-readers is the Association of Correc-
tors of the Press, founded in 1854. The chief aim of the association
is to give its members information as to vacant situations, so as to
keep them in full employment; but it also assists members in
distress from its benevolent fund, and provides pensions, as well as
a sum of money at death. There is in France the Societe des correc-
teurs des imprimeries de Paris. There are also proof-readers'
societies in several American cities, many of whose members are
women, for in the United States women bulk largely in the rank of
proof-readers. There are very few women proof-readers in London.
In Edinburgh, however, women form a considerable proportion of
the proof-readers. (J. A. BL.; J. R.*)
PROPAGATION, the multiplication of a species by natural
processes of reproduction (q.v.). The Latin propagare meant
to fasten down (pro- and pangere, to fasten) layers, shoots or
PROPELLANTS PROPERTIUS
439
slips (propagines) of plants for the purpose of reproduction,
hence to generate, reproduce and generally to extend or
increase. It is in this sense that " propagation " is used of
iliL- spreading or dissemination of doctrines, ideas, opinions,
&c. The term " propaganda," often wrongly used as a plural
word, means properly an organization or association for the
spreading of particular beliefs or opinions, and is an adapta-
tion of the name of that committee of cardinals in the Roman
uria which supervises foreign missions, the full title being
Congregalio de propaganda fide.
PROPELLANTS, a generic name for explosives used for
propelling projectiles from guns and other firearms, in order
in distinguish them from the more violent explosives used in
slu-lls, mines, &c., to produce a blasting effect. Some explosive
substances can be used both as propellants and as bursters,
as for example gunpowder, and some of the ingredients of a
propellant may be similar, though differently proportioned
and combined, to those of a " high explosive." (For details
see EXPLOSIVES; GUNPOWDER; CORDITE, &c.)
PROPERTIUS, SEXTUS (fl. 30-15 B.C.), the greatest of the
rli-jriac poets of Rome, was born of a well-to-do Umbrian
family at or near Asisium (Assisi), the birthplace also of the
famous St Francis. We learn from Ovid that Propertius was
his senior, but also his friend and companion; and that he was
third in the sequence of elegiac poets, following Callus, who was
born in 69 B.C., and Tibullus, and immediately preceding Ovid
himself, who was born in 43 B.C. We shall not then be far wrong
in supposing that he was born about 50 B.C. His early life
\\;is full of misfortune. He lost his father prematurely;
and after the battle of Philippi and the return of Octavian to
Rome, Propertius, like Virgil and Horace, was deprived of his
i- to provide land for the veterans, but, unlike them, he
had no patrons at court, and he was reduced from opulence to
comparative indigence. The widespread discontent which the
confiscations caused provoked the insurrection generally known
as the helium perusinum from its only important incident, the
fierce and fatal resistance of Perugia, which deprived the poet
of another of his relations, who was killed by brigands while
making his escape from the lines of Octavian. The loss of his
put rimony, however, thanks no doubt to his mother's providence,
did not prevent Propertius from receiving a superior education.
After, or it may be, during its completion he and she left Umbria
for Rome; and there, about the year 34 B.C., he assumed the
Kuril of manly freedom. He was urged to take up a pleader's
profession; but, like Ovid, he found in letters and gallantry a
more congenial pursuit. Soon afterwards he made the acquaint-
ance of Lycinna, about whom we know little beyond the fact
that she subsequently excited the jealousy of Cynthia, and was
subjected to all her powers of persecution (vexandi). This passing
fancy was succeeded by a serious attachment, the object of
which was the famous " Cynthia." Her real name was Hostia,
and she was a native of Tibur. She was a courtesan of the
superior class, somewhat older than Propertius, but, as it seems,
a woman of singular beauty and varied accomplishments. Her
own predilections led her to literature; and in her society Proper-
tius found the intellectual sympathy and encouragement which
were essential for the development of his powers. Her character,
as depicted in the poems, is not an attractive one; but she
seems to have entertained a genuine affection for her lover.
The intimacy began in 28 and lasted till 23 B.C. These six years
must not, however, be supposed to have been a period of un-
broken felicity. Apart from minor disagreements an infidelity
on Propertius's part excited the deepest resentment in Cynthia;
and he was banished for a year. The quarrel was made up about
the beginning of 25 B.C.; and soon after Propertius published
his first book of poems and inscribed it with the name of his
mistress. Its publication placed him in the first rank of con-
temporary poets, and amongst other things procured him ad-
mission to the literary circle of Maecenas. The intimacy was
renewed; but the old enchantment was lost. Neither Cynthia
nor Propertius was faithful to the other. The mutual ardour
gradually cooled; motives of prudence and decorum urged the
discontinuance of the connexion; and disillusion changed in-
sensibly to disgust. Although this separation might have been
expected to be final, it is not certain that it was so. It is true
that Cynthia, whose health appears to have been weak, does
not seem to have survived the separation long. But a careful
study of the seventh poem of the last book, in which Propertius
gives an account of a dream of her which he had after her death,
leads us to the belief that they were once more reconciled, and
that in her last illness Cynthia left to her former lover the duty
of carrying out her wishes with regard to the disposal of her
effects and the arrangements of her funeral. Almost nothing
is known of the subsequent history of the poet. He was alive
in 16 B.C., as some allusions in the last book testify. And two
passages in the letters of the younger Pliny mention a descen-
dant of the poet, one Passennus Paullus. Now in 18 B.C.
Augustus carried the Leges Juliae, which offered inducements
to marriage and imposed disabilities upon the celibate. Proper-
tius then may have been one of the first to comply with the new
enactments. He would thus have married and had at least
one child, from whom the contemporary of Pliny was descended.
Propertius had a large number of friends and acquaintances,
chiefly literary, belonging to the circle of Maecenas. Amongst
these may be mentioned Virgil, the epic poet Ponticus, Bassus
(probably the iambic poet of the name), and at a later period
Ovid.. We hear nothing of Tibullus, nor of Horace, who also
never mentions Propertius. This reciprocal silence is probably
significant. In person Propertius was pale and thin, as was to
be expected in one of a delicate and even sickly constitution.
He was very careful about his personal appearance, and paid an
almost foppish attention to dress and gait. He was of a some-
what voluptuous and self-indulgent temperament, which shrank
from danger and active exertion. He was anxiously sensitive
about the opinion of others, eager for their sympathy and re-
gard, and, in general, impressionable to their influence. His
over-emotional nature passed rapidly from one phase of feeling
to another; but the more melancholy moods predominated.
A vein of sadness runs through his poems, sometimes breaking
out into querulous exclamation, but more frequently venting
itself in gloomy reflections and prognostications. He had fits
of superstition which in healthier moments he despised.
The poems of Propertius, as they have come down to us,
consist of four books containing 4046 lines of elegiac verse.
The first book, or Cynthia, was published separately and early
in the poet's literary life. It may be assigned to 25 B.C. The
dates of the publication of the rest are uncertain, but none of
them was published before 24 B.C., and the last not before 16 B.C.
The unusual length of the second one (1402 lines) has led Lach-
mann and other critics to suppose that it originally consisted
of two books, and they have placed the beginning of the third
book at ii. 10, a poem addressed to Augustus, thus making five
books, and this arrangement has been accepted by several
editors.
The subjects of the poems are threefold: (i) amatory and
personal, mostly regarding Cynthia seventy-two (sixty Cynthia
elegies), of which the last book contains three; (2) political and
social, on events of the day thirteen, including three in the
last book; (3) historical and antiquarian six, of which five are
in the last book.
The writings of Propertius are noted for their difficulty and
their disorder. The workmanship is unequal, curtness alterna-
ting with redundance, and carelessness with elaboration. A
desultory sequence of ideas, an excessive vagueness and in-
directness of expression, a peculiar and abnormal latinity, a
constant tendency to exaggeration, and an immoderate indul-
gence in learned and literary allusions all these are obstacles
lying in the way of a study of Propertius. But those who have
the will and the patience to surmount them will find their trouble
well repaid. For power and range of imagination, for freshness
and vividness of conception, for truth and originality of presenta-
tion, few Roman poets can compare with him when he is at-his
best. And this is when he is carried out of himself, when the
discordant qualities of his genius are, so to say, fused together
440
PROPERTY
by the electric spark of an immediate inspiration. His vanity
and egotism are undeniable, but they are redeemed by his fancy
and his humour.
Two of his merits seem to have impressed the ancients them-
selves. The first is most obvious in the scenes of quiet descrip-
tion and emotion in whose presentation he particularly excels.
Softness of outline, warmth of colouring, a fine and almost
voluptuous feeling for beauty of every kind, and a pleading and
melancholy tenderness such were the elements of the spell
which he threw round the sympathies of his reader, and which
his compatriots expressed by the vague but expressive word
blanditia. His poetic factitidia, or command of striking and
appropriate language, is more noticeable still. Not only is
his vocabulary very extensive, but his employment of it extra-
ordinarily bold and unconventional. New settings of use, idiom
and construction continually surprise us, and, in spite of occa-
sional harshness, secure for his style an unusual freshness and
freedom. His handling of the elegiac couplet, and especially
of its second line, deserves especial recognition. It is vigorous,
varied and even picturesque. In the matter of the rhythms,
caesuras and elisions which it allows, the metrical treatment
is much more severe than that of Catullus, whose elegiacs are
comparatively rude and barbarous; but it is not bound hand
and foot, like the Ovidian distich, in a formal and conventional
system. An elaborate symmetry is observable in the con-
struction of many of his elegies, and this has tempted critics to
divide a number of them into strophes.
Propertius's poems bear evident marks of the study of his
predecessors, both Greek and Latin, and of the influence of
his contemporaries. He tells us himself that Callimachus and
Philetas were his masters (iii. i, seq.), and that it was his ambition
to be the Roman Callimachus (iv. i, 64). But, as Teuffel has
said, his debt to these writers is chiefly a formal one. Even into
his mythological learning he breathes a life to which these dry
scholars are strangers. We can trace obligations to Meleager,
Theocritus, Apollonius Rhodius and other Alexandrines, and
amongst earlier writers to Homer, Pindar, Aeschylus and others.
Propertius's influence upon his successors was considerable.
There is hardly a page of Ovid which does not show obligations
to his poems, while other writers made a more sparing use of
his stories.
A just appreciation of the genius and the writings of Proper-
tius is made sensibly more difficult by the condition in which his
works have come down to us. Some poems have been lost;
others are fragmentary; and many are more or less disfigured
by corruption and disarrangement. The manuscripts on which
we have to rely are both late and deeply interpolated. Thus
the restoration and interpretation of the poems is one of peculiar
delicacy and difficulty.
On the Propertii see Mommsen in Hermes, iv. 370; Haupt, Opusc.
i. 282. Inscriptions of Propertii have been found at Assisi. Pro-
pertius's family was not " noble," ii. 34, 55, 6, and ii. 24, 37 seq.
Apart from the question of reading in iv. I, 125 (MSS. Asis.), " the
climbing walls of his town " (scandentes arces, scandens murus,
iv. i , 65 and loc.cit.), its nearness to Perugia, and its position close above
the plain (i. 22, 9, 10) are decisive for Asisium as the birthplace
of Propertius. Ovid thus assigns Propertius his place: successor
fuit hie (Tibullus), tibi, Galle: Propertius illi (Tibullo): Quartus
ab his serie temporis ipse fui (Tr. iv. 10, 53, 54) (cf. ib., h. 467).
For Ovid's friendship with Propertius see below iv. i, 121 seq. is
the chief authority for the earlier events of his life, 127 seq. : "Ossaque
legist! non ilia aetate legenda Patris et in tenues cogeris ipse Lares.
Nam tibi cum multi versarent rura iuvenci Abstulit excultas pertica
tristis opes." Elsewhere he says that he is " non ita dives " ii. 24, lot.
cit. and that he had " nulla domi fortuna relicta," ii. 34, loc. cit. His
living on the Esqufline, iii. 23, 24, points to a competence. For the
death of his kinsman, generally supposed to be the Gallus of i. 21, see
i. 22, 5-8. Propertius s mother is mentioned more than once, in very
affectionate terms in i., ii. 21. She was dead when iii. 13 (n) was
written, i.e. six months after the publication of the first book. For
the quality of Propertius's education, the poems themselves are the
only, but a sufficient, testimony. For Lycinna see iii. 15, 3-10, 43.
Cynthia (Hostia) was a native of Tibur (iv. 7, 85), and probably a
grand-daughter (iii. 20, 8) of L. Hostius, who wrote a poem on the
Illyrian War of 178 B.C., of which some fragments are preserved.
She was older than Propertius (ii. 18, 20). That she was a meretrix
is clear from many indications her special accomplishments, her
house in the Subura, the occurrence of scenes like those in i. 3, ii. 29,
the fact that Propertius could not marry her, &c. For references
to her beauty see ii. 2, 5 sqq. and 3, 9 sqq. ; ii. 13, 23, 24 ; to her poetry,
ii. 3, 21 ; to other accomplishments, i. 2, 27 seq.; iii. 20, 7 seq. She
was fickle (i. 15, ii. 6, &c.), avaricious (ii. 16, II, 12), fond of finery
(ii- 3. 15. i6)> violent of temper (iii. 8; i. 4, 18 seq.). For the five
years see iii. 25, 3, " quinque tibi potui servire ndeliter annos ";
and for the year of estrangement, iii. 16, 9, " peccaram semel, et
totum sum pulsus in annum." The second separation is vouched
for by the two last elegies of book iii. For the evidence which
iv. 7 furnishes in favour of a reconciliation see Postgate (Prop.
Introd. p. xxv. seq.); iv. 6 commemorates the celebration of the
ludi quinquennales, in 16 B.C., and iv. II, 66 alludes to the consul-
ship of P. Scipio in the same year. For Passennus Paullus (or as
an Assisi inscription calls him C. Passennus Sergius Paullus Proper-
tius Blaesus), see Pliny (Ep. vi. 15), " municeps Properti atque
etiam inter maiores Propertium numeral" ; (9, 22), " in litteris veteres
aemulatur exprimit reddit: Propertium in primis a quo genus
ducit, vera suboles eoque simillima illi in quo ille praecipuus, si
elegos eius in manum sumpseris, leges opus tersum molle iucundum
et plane in Properti domo scriptum." ii. i and iii. o are addressed
to Maecenas, ii. 10 to Augustus. Virgil is spoken of in the highest
terms in ii. 34, 61 seq. Other poems are addressed to Ponticus
(i. 7, 9), Bassus (i. 4), Lynceus, a tragic poet (i. 19, ii. 34). In Ep. ii.
2, 87 seq., Horace has been thought to make a direct attack on
Propertius. On Propertius's personal appearance, see i. i, 22, 5, 21.
A likeness of him has possibly been preserved in a double Hermes
in the Villa Albani and the Vatican, which represents a young
beardless Roman, of a nervous and somewhat sickly appearance,
together with a Greek poet (Visconti, Iconograph. romana, pi. 14,
3, 4). Ill health is proved by i. 15 and the frequent references to
death and burial i. 19, ii. I, 71 sqq., ii. 13, 17 sqq. For his care
about dress and the like see ii. 4, 5, seq. For want of courage and
energy see ii. 7, 14, ii. 19, 17-24; and for superstitious leanings,
ii. 27, ii. 4, 15, iv. 5, 9 seq. The four-book numbering is now the
current one and is adopted in this article though there is little
doubt that there were originally four books besides the Cynthia.
Few of the poems can be dated with certainty, but those that can,
with the exception of iv. 6 and ii, fall between the years 28 and
23 B.C. For ancient references to Propertius as a writer see Quint.
x. i, 93 (where it is stated that some (not Quintilian) preferred him
to Tibullus), Oy. A. A. iii. 333; Tr. iii. 465, v. 1,17; Mart. xiv.
189, viii. 73; Pliny, loc. cit. above, Stat. Stlv. i. 2, 253.
There is no existing MS. of Propertius older than the I2th century.
Up till the publication of Bahrens's edition (1880), the oldest one,
Neapolitanus (N., now at Wolfenbiittel), was universally regarded
as the best, and even now critics are found to maintain its paramount
claims. But the more judicious admit the value of the four MSS.
collated by Bahrens. Vossianus, c. 1300 (A); Laurentianus, end
of I4th century (F); Ottoboniano-Vaticanus, isth century (V);
Daventriensis, I5th century (D), to which has to be added the
Holkhamicus, 1421 (L), collated by Postgate, Cambridge Philological
Transactions (1894) vol. iv.
The editio princeps of Propertius is that of 1472 (Venice). Among
later editions we may mention the following, those with explanatory
or critical notes being marked with an asterisk : * Scaliger (i 577, &c.),
*Broukhusius (2nd ed., 1577), *Passeratius (1608, with index
verborum), *Vulpius (1755, with index verborum), *P. Burmann
(and Santen) (1780), *Lachmann (1816), "Hertzberg (1843-1845),
L. Mliller (1870), Haupt-Vahlen (last ed., 1904), *Bahrens (1880),
*A. Palmer (1880), *Postgate (1881), selections with introduction
(text with critical notes in the Corpus poetarum latinorum, 1894,
also issued separately), *Rothstein (1898), *H. E. Butler (1905),
index verborum (to his own text), j. S. Phillimore (1906), A. E.
Housman (without publishing an edition) has done much to improve
and explain the poems. For further information we may refer to
F. Plessis, Etudes critiques sur Properce et ses Elegies (1886), and the
sections on the poet in Teuffel's and Schanz's Histories of Roman
Literature.
The following translations into English verse are known: G. F.
Nott (1782), bk. i.; C. A. Alton, selections in his Specimens of the
Classic Poets (1814), ii. 215 seq. ; C. R. Moore (1870) ; J. Cranstoun
('875); F. A. Paley (1866), verse translations from bk. v. with
notes; also a few translations by the poet Gray, vol. i. (Gpsse,
1884); S. G. Tremenheere (1899), bk. i. Prose translations:
P. J. F. Gantillon (with Nott's and Elton's versions, Bohn, 1848);
J. S. Phillimore (1906). (J- P- P-)
PROPERTY, that which is peculiarly one's own, that which
belongs to or is characteristic of an individual. The Latin pro-
prietas (formed from proprius, one's own, possibly derived
from prope, near) in post-Augustan times was extended to
ownership and rights of possession. It is thus, in law, the
generic term for rights of ownership and for things subject to
the rights of ownership. It is " the most comprehensive of all
terms which can be used, inasmuch as it is indicative and de-
scriptive of every possible interest which the party can have"
(see Langdale, M. 'R., in Jones v. Skinner, 1835, 5 L.J. Ch. 90).
PROPHET
441
In Roman law and in modem systems of law based on it, pro-
perty is divided into " movables " and " immovables " ; in English
law, on the other hand, the division is into personal property,
including chattels real, and real property (see PERSONAL PRO-
PERTY and REAL PROPERTY). Theatrical usage has given
a specific meaning to the word, that of any article used on the
stage during the performance of a play.
PROPHET (7rpo<i7rrjs) , a word taken from the vocabulary
i ancient Greek religion, 1 which passed into the language of
Christianity, and so into the modern tongues of Europe, because
it was adopted by the Hellenistic Jews as the rendering of the
Hi-brew K'i) (ndbhi" pi., nebhiim). The word therefore as we
use it is meant to convey an idea which belongs to Hebrew and
not to Hellenic belief.
That the word ndbhi", " prophet," originally signified one
who speaks or announces the divine will, is rendered highly
probable by a comparison of the Assyrian nabu, meaning (a)
.all " or " name," (b) " announce " (see Delitzsch, Hand-
wtirterbuch sub vocc). The Babylonian deity Nabu (in Old
Testament Nebo) is a contraction from Na-bi-u, which thus
corresponds closely with the Hebrew ndbhi" and originally
signified the speaker or proclaimer of destiny. He was repre-
sented as the writer of the tablets of destiny, and was therefore
regarded as the interpreter of oracles (see Zimmern, K. A. T.*
pp. 400, 404). Accordingly this derivation is preferable to
that suggested by earlier Semitists from Gesenius to (in recent
times) Kautzsch (" Religion of Israel," Hastings's Diet. Bible,
extra vol., p. 652 footnote), and Cheyne (Ency. Bibl. col.
3853), which connects it with another verbal root naba,
"bubble " or " gush." This Davidson (" Prophecy and Prophets,"
Hastings's Diet. Bible, p. 108 footnote) rightly rejects. While
he connects it with the Arabic root naba' a, " come into promin-
ence " (conj. II. " announce,") he ends by ascribing to it an
ultimate Babylonian origin. Zimmern (K.A.T* p. 590) gives
the name of a priest-official munambu (lit. " howler "), which
is derived from a Piel of nabu, viz. nubbu (= numbu), " bawl "
or " howl." A brief sketch will be given (i) of the history of
Hebrew prophecy (in supplement to what has been already said
in the article HEBREW RELIGION or is to be found in the articles
devoted to individual prophets), and (2) of prophecy in the early
Christian Church.
i. The Prophets of the Old Testament. The author of i Sam.
ix. 9 tells us that " beforetime in Israel, when a man went to
inquire of God, thus he spake, Come and let us go to
the seer; for he that is now called a prophet (ndbhi")
was beforetime called a seer." This remark is probably a later
gloss. Samuel was a "seer" (ver. n), or, as he is also called
(ver. 6 seq.), a " man of God," that is one who stood in closer
relations to God than ordinary men; " all that he said was sure
to come to pass," so that he could be consulted with advantage
even in private matters like the loss of the asses of Kish. The
narrative of i Sam. ix. belongs, as Budde has demonstrated,
to the older stratum of the narrative (called J) which
'According to Plato (Timaeus, p. 72) the name rp<xMTi)s ought
properly to be confined to the interpreters employed to put an
intelligible sense on the dreams, visions, or enigmatic utterances
i>f the frenzied ^An-is. But in ordinary Greek usage the prophet of
any god is in general any human instrument through whom the
god declares himself; and the tendency was " to reserve the name for
unconscious interpreters of the divine thought, and for the ministers
of the oracles in general " (Bouch6-Leclercq, Hist, de la divination,
1880, ii. 11). This probably facilitated the adoption of the term
by the Hellenists of Alexandria, for, when Philo distinguishes the
prophet from the spurious diviner by saying that the latter applies
his own inferences to omens and the like while the true prophet,
rapt in ecstasy, speaks nothing of his own, but simply repeats
what is given to him by a revelation in which his reason has no part
(ed. Mangey, ii. 321 seq., 343; cf. i. 510 seq.), he follows the
prevalent notion of the later Jews, at least in so far as he makes
the function of the prophet that of purely mechanical reproduction ;
cf. John xi. 51, and the whole view of revelation presupposed in
the Apocalyptic literature. But in any case the Greek language
hardly offered another word for an organ of revelation so colourless
asTpo^np, while the condition of etymology among the ancients
made it possible to interpret it as having a special reference to pre-
diction (so Eusebius, Dem. Ev. v., deriving it from
The Seer.
includes ix., x. 1-16, xi. i-n, 15, xiii., xiv. 1-16 in which Samuel
is a priest-seer of a provincial town, without the high functions of
government as Shdphel. We must not suppose that the word
" prophet " had merely become more common in his time and
supplanted an older synonym. This is clearly shown a few verses
farther down, where we see that there were already in Samuel's
time people known as nebhiim, but that they were not seers.
The seer (roeh) appears individually, and his function was
probably not so much one of speech as of the routine of close ob-
servation of the entrails of slaughtered victims, like the Assyrian
baru (see PRIEST). It is in this way that the function of the
seer is closely connected (as in the case of Balaam) with sacri-
fices. With the prophets it is quite otherwise; they appear
not individually but in bands; their prophesying is a united
exercise accompanied by music, and seemingly dance-music;
it is marked by strong excitement, which sometimes acts con-
tagiously, and may be so powerful that he who is seized by it is
unable to stand, 2 and, though this condition is regarded as pro-
duced by a divine afflatus, it is matter of ironical comment when
a prominent man like Saul is found to be thus affected. Samuel
in his later days appears presiding over the exercises of a group
of nebhiim at Ramah, where they seem to have had a sort of
coenobium (Naioth), but he was not himself a ndbhi' that
name is never applied to him except in i Sam. iii. 21, where it
is plainly used in the later sense for the idea which in Samuel's
own time was expressed by " seer."
But again this special type of nebhiim seems to have been a
new thing in Israel in the days of Samuel. Seers there had
been of old as in other primitive nations; of the
two Hebrew words literally corresponding to our '
seer, roeh and hozeh, the second is found also in Arabic, and seems
to belong to the primitive Semitic vocabulary. 1 But the enthusi-
astic bands of prophets are nowhere mentioned before the time
of Samuel; and in the whole previous history the word prophet
occurs very rarely, never in the very oldest narratives, and always
in that sense which we know to be later than the age of Samuel,
so that the use of the term is due to writers of the age of the
kings, who spoke of ancient things in the language of their own
day. The appearance of the nebhiim in the time of Samuel was,
it would seem, as is explained in the article HEBREW RELIGION,
one manifestation of the deep pulse of suppressed indignant
patriotism which began to beat in the hearts of the nation
in the age of Philistine oppression, and this fact explains the
influence of the movement on Saul and the interest taken in it
by Samuel.
It was perhaps only in time of war, when Israel felt himself
to^be fighting the battles of Yahweh, that the Hebrew was
stirred to the depths of his nature by emotions of a religious
colour. Thus the deeper feelings of religion were embodied in
warlike patriotism, and these feelings the Philistine oppression
had raised to extreme tension among all who loved liberty,
while yet the want of a captain to lead forth the armies of
Yahweh against his foemen deprived them of their natural
outlet.
In its external features the new phenomenon was exceedingly
like what is still seen in the East in every zikr of dervishes
the enthusiasm of the prophets expressed itself in no artificial
form, but in a way natural to the Oriental temperament. Pro-
cessions with pipe and hand-drum, such as that described in
i Sam. x., were indeed a customary part of ordinary religious
feasts; but there they were an outlet for natural merriment,
here they have changed their character to express an emotion
more sombre and more intense, by which the prophets, and
often mere chance spectators too, were so overpowered that they
1 i Sam. x. 5 seq., xix. 20 seq. In the latter passage read " they
saw the fervour of the prophets as they prophesied, &c." (see
Hoffmann in Stade's Zeitschr. 1883, p. 89), after the Syriac.
' Hoffmann, ut supra, p. 92 seq. Roeh, however, occurs very
rarely in early, i.e. pre-exilian, Hebrew, viz. in I Sam. ix. 9, Isa.
xxx. 10. We have several in the late literature of Chronicles.
Accordingly we lack the materials for determining the distinction
which probably existed between the rdeh, the hdzeh and the bosem.
Cheyne, art. " Prophetic Literature " in Ency. Bib., col. 3858,
appears to identify them.
442
PROPHET
seemed to lose their old personality and to be swayed by a
supernatural influence. More than this hardly lies in the
expression " a divine spirit " (o-n^w .in), which is used
not only of the prophetic afflatus but of the evil frenzy
that afflicted Saul's later days. The Hebrews had a less
narrow conception of the spiritual than we are apt to read into
their records.
To give a name to this new phenomenon the Israelites, it
would seem, had to borrow a word from their Canaanite neigh-
bours. At all events the word ndbhi" is neither part
prophets* of the old Semitic vocabulary (in Arabic it is a late
loan word) nor has it any etymology in Hebrew,
the cognate words " to prophesy " and the like being derived
from the noun in its technical sense. But we know that there
were nebhiim among the Canaanites; the " prophets " of Baal
appear in the history of Elijah as men who sought to attract
their god by wild orgiastic rites. In fact the presence of an
orgiastic character is as marked a feature in Canaanite religion
as the absence of it is in the oldest religion of Israel ; but the new
Hebrew 'enthusiasts had at least an external resemblance to the
devotees of the Canaanite sanctuaries and this would be enough
to determine the choice of a name which in the first instance
seems hardly to have been a name of honour. In admitting 1
that the name was borrowed, we are not by any means shut up
to suppose that the Hebrew nebhiim simply copied their Canaan-
ite neighbours. The phenomenon is perfectly intelligible with-
out any such hypothesis. A wave of intense religious feeling
passes over the land and finds its expression, according to
the ordinary law of oriental life, in the formation of a sort of
enthusiastic religious order. The Nazarites and the Rechabites
are parallel phenomena, though of vastly inferior historical
importance.
It may be assumed that the name nabhi", while it originated
from Babylonian sources, reached Israel through Canaanite
channels (cf. Kautzsch, " Religion of Israel," in Hastings's
Diet. Bible extra vol., p. 653). Some support is given to this view
by (a) the statement in i Kings xviii. 19 that four hundred
prophets of Baal and Asherah sat at Jezebel's table; (6) the fact
that Deborah, Samuel, Elijah, Elisha, Micaiah ben Imlah,
the most notable of the earlier representatives of prophecy,
belong to northern Israel, which was more subject to Canaanite-
Phoenician influence.
It is certainly probable that the ndbhi" emerged by a process
of continued development, of which the intermediate stages are
lost, from the older roeh, as the explanatory gloss in i Sam. ix. 9
evidently intimates. Samuel himself is called a roeh. We may
assume that like the practice of the soothsaying priest (the
earlier type of priest) and of the Casern (diviner), so the procedure
of the roeh was mechanical and magical in character. Clear
indications of a primitive magical modus operandi appear as
survivals in the narratives of the pre-exilian prophets. The
wonder-working staff of Elisha (2 Kings iv. 29, 31) is one of these
indications. There are likewise traces of survival in the exam-
ples of " sympathetic magic " transformed into the acted parable
of prophecy. Students of Tallquist's Maklit series of incanta-
tion or of the Surpu series edited by Zimmern (in his Beitrdge
zur Kenntniss der Babylonischen Religion) will recollect the
images over which the priest sorcerer recites his formulae. The
accompanying actions (tying knots, &c.) which he performs are
assumed to work themselves out on the enemy whose evil eye or
sorcery is blasting the happiness of the suppliant (see Hastings's
Diet. Bible, " Magic," p. 209, where examples are cited). The
signs or symbolic acts of the prophet probably originated in the
actions of sympathetic magic. Thus in the vivid scene of i Kings
xxii. ii the iron horns of Zedekiah ben Kena'nah, and in 2 Kings
xiii. 15-19 the magic of the arrow shot eastward and of the thrice
stricken floor, are evident survivals of an older practice. The
1 If this account of the origin of the nebhiim is correct (cf.
Kuenen, Prophets, Eng. trans., p. 554 seq.), the etymological sense of
the word '2i is comparatively unimportant. The root seems to
mean " to start up," " to rise into prominence," and so " to become
audible." This is based on the Arabic naba'a; see the remarks at
the beginning of this article.
magical act passes into sign or symbol, not however without
the accompanying conception that underlies it still persisting
that a mysterious effectuating potency belongs to the symbolic
act. The mystic power of a significant name Maker s/idldi
hash baz inscribed on a tablet and bestowed on a child (Isa. viii.
1-4, cf. xx. 2 sqq.), of the " thongs and bars " of Jer. xxvii.
(in which contending prophets confront one another in a contest
of symbols), of the linen girdle of ch. xiii. i sqq., and of the
potter's vessel of xix. i sqq., are further illustrations of survivals
from the old world of magic. The symbol gradually passes
into mere metaphor, and we already begin to see this when \ve
compare Ezekiel's oracles and those of the Deutero-Isaiah with
the records of the words and deeds of earlier prophets.
The peculiar methods of the prophetic exercises described
in i Sam. were of little consequence for the future development
of prophecy. The heat of a first enthusiasm neces- prophetic
sarily cooled when the political conditions that Societies
produced it passed away; and, if the prophetic orG
associations had done no more than organize a new form
of spiritual excitement, they would have only added one
to the many mechanical types of hysterical religion which are
found all over the East. Their real importance was that they
embodied an intenser vein of feeling than was expressed in the
ordinary feasts and sacrifices, and that the greater intensity
was not artificial, but due to a revival of national sentiment.
The worship of the local sanctuaries did nothing to promote the
sense of the religious unity of Israel; Yahweh in the age of the
Judges ran no small risk of being divided into a number of local
Baals, givers of natural good things each to his own locality.
The struggle for freedom called forth a deeper sense of the unity
of the people of the one Yahweh, and in so doing raised religion
to a loftier plane; for a faith which unites a nation is necessarily
a higher moral force than one which only unites a township or a
clan. The local worships, which subsisted unchanged during the
greater part of the Hebrew kingship, gave no expression to this
rise in the religious consciousness of the nation; on the contrary,
we see from the prophetic books of the 8th century that they
lagged more and more behind the progress of religious thought.
But the prophetic societies were in their origin one symptom
of that upheaval of national life of which the institution of the
human sovereign reigning under the divine King was the chief
fruit; they preserved the traditions of that great movement;
they were, in however imperfect a way, an organ of national
religious feeling, and could move forward with the movement
of national life. And so, though we cannot follow the steps of
the process, we are not surprised to learn that they soon had an
established footing in Israel, and that the prophets came to be
recognized as a standing sacred element in society. What was
their precise place in Hebrew life we hardly know but they
formed at least a religious class which in all its traditions repre-
sented the new national and not the old communal and particu-
laristic life. One characteristic point which appears very early
is that they felt themselves called upon to vindicate the laws
of divine righteousness in national matters, and
especially in the conduct of the kings, who were not
answerable to human authority. The cases of Nathan and
David in the matter of Uriah, of Elijah and Ahab after the
judicial murder of Naboth, will occur to everyone,
and from the Hebrew standpoint the action of Gad in
the matter of the census taken by David belongs to the same
category. Such interventions with an Eastern king demanded
great moral courage, for, though to some extent protected by
their sacred character, the persons of the prophets were by no
means legally inviolable (i Kings xix. 2, xxii. 27; 2 Kings
vi. 31). It is far from easy to determine how far the development
of the class of prophets meant the absorption into it of the old
seers. Probably both coexisted for some time. At all events
we know from Isa. iii. 2, 3, that in Isaiah's time the Casern
still held an important place in society as well as the prophet
and the magician. The functions of roeh and nabhi" may
indeed at first have been mingled. The great prophecy of
Nathan (2 Sam. vii.) is of too disputed a date to be cited in
Nathan.
Elijah.
PROPHET
443
evidence, 1 but already in David's time we find that Gad the ndbhi"
is also the king's seer (2 Sam. xxiv. n; cf. i Sam. xxii. 5), and
by-and-by it comes to be clearly understood that the prophets
are UK- appointed organ of Yahweh's communications with His
people or His king. The rise of this function of the prophets is
plainly parallel with the change which took place under the kings
in the position of the priestly oracle; the Torah of the
priests now dealt rather with permanent sacred ordinances
than with the giving of new divine counsel for special
occasions. Yahweh's ever-present kingship in Israel, which
was the chief religious idea brought into prominence by the
national revival, demanded a more continuous manifestation
of Mis revealing spirit than was given either by the priestly
lot or by the rise of occasional seers; and where could this
be sought except among the prophets? It does not, of course,
follow that everyone who had shared in the divine afflatus of
prophetic enthusiasm gave forth oracles; but the prophets
lass stood nearer than other men to the mysterious workings
of Yahweh, and it was in their circle that revelation seemed to
have its natural home. A most instructive passage in this
respect is i Kings xxii., where we find some four hundred pro-
phets gathered together round the king, and where it is clear that
Jrhoshaphat was equally convinced, on the one hand, that the
word of Yahweh could be found among the prophets, and on the
other that it was very probable that some, or even the mass of
them, might be no better than liars. And here it is to be observed
that Micaiah, who proved the true prophet, does not accuse
the others of conscious imposture; he admits that they speak
under the influence of a spirit proceeding from Yahweh, but it
is a lying spirit sent to deceive. The sublime and solitary
figure of Elijah, whom we are apt to take as the typical figure
of a prophet in the old kingdom, has little in common with the
picture even of the true prophet which we derive from i Kings
xxii.; and when his history is carefully and critically read it is
found to give no reason to think that he stood in any close
relation to the prophetic societies of his time. He is a man of
God, like Moses and Samuel, a man admitted to a strange and
awful intimacy with the Most High, and like them he combines
functions which in later times were distributed between prophet
and priest. The fundamental idea that Yahweh guides His
people by the word of revelation is older than the separation of
special classes of theocratic organs; Moses, indeed, is not only
prophet and priest, but judge and ruler. But, as the history goes
on, the prophet stands out more and more as the typical organ
of revelation, the type of the man who is Yahweh's intimate,
sharing His secrets (Amos iii. 7; Jer. xxiii. 22), and ministering
to Israel the gracious guidance which distinguishes it from all
other nations (Amos ii. n; Hosea xii. 10, 13), and also the
sentences of awful judgment by which Yahweh rebukes rebellion
(Hos. vi. 5). The full development of this view seems to lie
between the time of Elijah and that of Amos and Hosea under
the dynasty of Jehu, when prophecy, as represented by Elisha
and Jonah, stood in the fullest harmony with the patriotic
efforts of the age. This growth in the conception of the pro-
phetic function is reflected in parts of the Pentateuch, which
may be dated with probability as belonging to the period just
named; the name of nabhl" is extended to the patriarchs as
Yahweh's intimates (Gen. xx. 7), and Moses begins to be chiefly
looked at as the greatest of prophets (Num. xi., xii.; Deut. xxxiv.
10), while Aaron and Miriam are also placed in the same class
(Exod. xv. 20; Num. xii.), because they too are among the
divinely favoured leaders of Israel (cf. Micah vi. 4).*
1 Budde (Bucher Samuelis, p. 233) assigns Nathan's speech
2 Sam. vii.) to a late E. writer in the 7th century. Perhaps we might
assign it and Jer. xxiii. 5, 6, to the earlier part of Josiah's reign.
* None of these passages belong to the very oldest thread of
Pentateuchal story, and similarly Deborah is called prophetess only
in the later account^ (Judg. iv. 4), not in the song (Judg. v.). It is
characteristic that in Num. xi. the elders who receive a share in
Moses' task also receive a share of his prophetic spirit (cf. the
parallel 2 Kings ii. 9 seq.). In the older account (Exod. xviii.) this
is not so. Again, Moses differs from all other prophets in that
\ahweh speaks to him face to face, and he sees the similitude of
Yahweh. This is in fact the difference between him and Elijah
Elisha, the successor of Elijah, stood in much closer relations
to the prophetic societies than his great master had done. As
a man of practical aims he required a circle through
which to work, and he found this among the prophets,
or, as they are now called, the sons of the prophets. According
to Semitic idiom " sons of the prophets " most naturally means
" members of a prophetic corporation,"' which may imply that
under the headship of Elisha and the favour of the dynasty
of Jehu, which owed much to Elisha and his party, the prophetic
societies took a more regular form than before. The accounts
we have certainly point in this direction, and it is characteristic
that in 2 Kings iv. 42 first-fruits are paid to Elisha. But to
an institution like prophecy national recognition, royal favour
and fixed organization are dangerous gifts. It has always been
the evil fate of the Hebrews to destroy their own highest ideals by
attempting to translate them into set forms, and the ideal of a
prophetic guidance of the nation of Yahweh could not have been
more effectually neutralized than by committing its realization
to the kind of state Church of professional prophets, " eating
bread " by their trade (Amos vii. 12),* which claimed to inherit
the traditions of Elijah and Elisha. The sons of the prophets
appear to have been grouped round the leading sanctuaries,
Gilgal, Bethel, and the like (cf. Hos. ix. 8), and to have stood
in pretty close relation to the priesthood (Hos. iv. 5), though
this comes out more clearly for the southern kingdom, where,
down to the last days of Hebrew independence, the official
prophets of Jerusalem were connected with the Temple and were
under the authority of the chief priest (Jer. xxix. 26). Since the
absorption of the aborigines in Israel Canaanite ideas had
exercised great influence over the sanctuaries so much so
that the reforming prophets of the 8th century regarded the
national religion as having become wholly heathenish; and this
influence the ordinary prophets, whom a man like Micah regards
as mere diviners, had certainly not escaped. They too were,
at the beginning of the Assyrian period, not much more different
from prophets of Baal than the priests were from priests of Baal.
Their God had another name, but it was almost forgotten that He
had a different character.
The rise and progress of the new school of prophecy,' beginning
with Amos and continued in the succession of canonical prophets,
which broke through this religious stagnation, is Amos
discussed in the article HEBREW RELIGION; for from and hi*
Amos, and still more from Isaiah downwards, the Successors.
prophets and their work made up the chief interest of Hebrew
history. From this time, moreover, the prophets appear as
authors; and their books, preserved in the Old Testament,
form the subject of special articles (Awos, HOSEA, &c.). A
few observations of a general character will therefore suffice in
this place.
Amos disclaimed all connexion with the mere professional
prophets, and in this he was followed by his successors. Formerly
the prophets of Yahweh had been all on the same side; their,
opponents were the prophets of Baal. But henceforth there
were two parties among the prophets of Yahweh themselves,
the new prophets accusing the old of imposture and disloyalty
to Yahweh, and these retaliating with charge of disloyalty
to Israel. We have learned to call the prophets of the new
school " true " prophets and their adversaries " false "; and this
is perfectly just if we take the appellations to mean that the true
prophets maintained a higher, and therefore a truer, view of
(cf. Exod. xxxiii. 8-n with i Kings xix. 13), but not between
him and the great prophets of the 8th century (Isa. vi. 5). That
prophecy was generally given in visions, dreams and obscure sen-
tences is true only of an early period. Amos still has frequent
visions of a more or less enigmatic character, as Micaiah had, but
there is little trace of this in the great prophets after him. On the
psychological reasons for this see W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel
(1882), p. 221 seq.
1 See G. Hoffmann, Kirchenversammlitng zu Ephesus (1873), p. 89.
* Those who consulted the old seers were expected to make a
present, i Sam. ix. 7 (Arabic bolwanu-'l-kahin; cf. Bokhari iv.
219). Similar presents were brought to the older prophets (i Kings
xiv. 3), and first-fruits were sometimes paid to a man of God ; but the
successors of Amos share his contempt for those who traded on their
oracles (Mic. iii. 5 seq.).
444
PROPHET
Yahweh's character, purpose and relation to His people. But
the false prophets were by no means mere common impostors;
they were the accredited exponents of the common orthodoxy
of their day, for the prophets who opposed Jeremiah took their
stand on the ground of the prophetic traditions of Isaiah, whose
doctrine of the inviolability of Yahweh's seat on Zion was the
starting-point of their opposition to Jeremiah's predictions of
captivity. No doubt there were many conscious hypocrites
and impostors among the professional prophets, as there always
will be among the professional representatives of a religious
standpoint which is intrinsically untenable, and yet has on its
side the prestige of tradition and popular acceptance. But on
the whole the false prophets deserve that name, not for their
conscious impostures, but because they were content to handle
religious formulas, which they had learned by rote, as if they
were intuitive principles, the fruit of direct spiritual experience,
to enforce a conventional morality, shutting their eyes to glaring
national sins, after the manner of professional orthodoxy, and,
in brief, to treat the religious status quo as if it could be accepted
without question as fully embodying the unchanging principles
of all religion. The popular faith was full of heathenish super-
stition strangely blended with the higher ideas which were
the inheritance left to Israel by men like Moses and Elijah;
but the common prophets accepted all alike, and combined
heathen arts of divination and practices of mere physical enthu-
siasm with a not altogether insincere pretension that through
their professional oracles the ideal was being maintained of a
continuous divine guidance of the people of Yahweh.
Amos and his successors accepted the old ideal of prophecy
if they disowned the class which pretended to embody it. " The
Lord Yahweh will do nothing, but He revealeth His secret to
His servants the prophets." " By a prophet Yahweh brought
Israel out of Egypt, and by a prophet " in each successive age
Israel had been watched over and preserved. But in point of
fact the function of the new prophecy was not to preserve but
to destroy Israel, if Israel still meant the actual Hebrew nation,
with its traditional national life. Till Amos (with the solitary
exception of Micaiah ben Imlah, in i Kings xxii.) prophecy
was optimist even Elijah, if he denounced the destruction of
a dynasty and the annihilation of all who had bowed the knee
to Baal, never doubted of the future of the nation when only
the faithful remained; but the new prophecy is pessimist it
knows that Israel is rotten to the core, and that the whole
fabric of society must be dissolved before reconstruction is
possible. And this it knows, not by a mere ethical judgment on
the visible state of society, but because it has read Yahweh's
secret written in the signs of the times and knows that He has
condemned His people. To the mass these signs are unintelli-
gible, because they deem it impossible that Yahweh should
utterly cast off His chosen nation; but to those who know His
absolute righteousness, and confront it with the people's sin,
the impending approach of the Assyrian can have only one
meaning and can point to only one issue, viz. the total ruin
of the nation which has denied its divine head. It is sometimes
proposed to view the canonical prophets as simple preachers
of righteousness; their predictions of woe, we are told, are
conditional, and tell what Israel must suffer if it does not repent.
But this is an incomplete view; the peculiarity of their position
is that they know that Israel as it exists is beyond repent-
ance. Only, while they are hopeless about their nation they
have absolute faith in Yahweh and His purpose. That cannot
be frustrated, and, as it includes the choice of Israel as His
people, it is certain that, though the present commonwealth
must perish, a new and better Israel will rise from its grave.
Not the reformation but the resurrection of Israel is the goal
of the prophets' hope (Hos. vi. i seq.).
This of course is only the broadest possible statement of a
position which undergoes many modifications in the hands of
individual seers, but on the whole governs all prophecy from
Amos to Jeremiah. The position has, we see, two sides: on the
one side the prophets are heralds of an inexorable judgment
based on the demands of absolute righteousness; on the other
they represent an assured conviction of Yahweh's invincible
and gracious love. The current theological formula for this
two-sided position is that the prophets are at once preachers of
the law and forerunners of the gospel; and, as it is generally
assumed that they found the law already written, their
originality and real importance is made to lie wholly in their
evangelical function. But in reality as has been shown in
the article on HEBREW RELIGION, the prophets are older
than the law, and the part of their work which was really
epoch-making for Israel is just the part which is usually
passed over as unimportant. By emphasizing the purely
moral character of Yahweh's demands from Israel, by teaching
that the mere payment of service and worship at Yahweh's
shrines did not entitle Israel's sins to be treated one whit
more lightly than the sins of other nations, and by enforcing
these doctrines through the conception that the approach of
the all-destroying empire, before which Israel must fall equally
with all its neighbours, was the proof of Yahweh's impartial
righteousness, they gave for the first time a really broad and
fruitful conception of the moral government of the whole earth
by the one true God. 1
It is impossible to read the books of the older prophets, and
especially of their protagonist Amos, without seeing that the
new thing which they are compelled to speak is not Yahweh's
grace but His inexorable and righteous wrath. That that wrath
must be followed by fresh mercies is not in itself a new thought,
but only the necessary expression of the inherited conviction
that Yahweh whom they preach as the judge of all the earth,
is nevertheless, as past history has proved, the God who has
chosen Israel as His people. That this is so appears most
clearly in the fact that with Amos the prophecy of restoration
appears only in a few verses at the end of his book, and in the
still more instructive fact that neither he nor Hosea attempts
to explain how the restoration which they accept as a postulate
of faith is to be historically realized. 2 Recent critics, however,
viz. Wellhausen, Nowack, Marti and Harper, as well as others,
have denied the genuineness of the concluding verses in Amos,
viz. ix. 8-15. To Hosea, at least in his later prophecies, the
fate of Judah does not appear separable from that of the northern
realm when Israel and Ephraim fall by their iniquity Judah
must fall with them (Hos. v. 5). Thus even on this side there is
no real bridge over the chasm that separates the total ruin
impending over the Israel of the present from the glorious
restoration of the Israel of the future. There is a unity in the
divine purpose, of which judgment and mercy are the two poles,
but there is as yet no conception of an historical continuity in
the execution of that purpose, and therefore no foundation laid
for the maintenance of a continuous community of faith in the
impending fall of the nation.
From this we can see the enormous importance of the work of
Isaiah as it has been exhibited in the article HEBREW RELIGION;
his doctrine of the remnant, never lost to the nation in the worst
times, never destroyed by the most fiery judgments, supplies the
lacking element of continuity between the Israel of the present
and of the future. Yahweh's kingdom cannot perish even for a
time; nay, Isaiah argues that it must remain visible, and visible
not merely in the circle of the like-minded whom he had gathered
round him and who formed the first germ of the notion of the
church, but in the political form of a kingdom also. Zion at least,
the sacred hearth of Yahweh, the visible centre of His kingdom,
1 It must not be supposed that this conception necessarily came
into force as soon as it was recognized that Yahweh was the creator
of the universe. That the national or tribal god is the creator is
an idea often found in very low religions. To us God's sovereignty
over nature often seems the hardest thing to conceive ; but to primi-
tive peoples who know nothing of laws of nature, His moral sover-
eignty is a much more difficult conception. In the older literature
of the Hebrews, the nearest approach to the thought of Amos and
Hosea' is not Gen. ii., iii., but Gen. xviii. 25.
2 Hosea ii. 14 seq., xi. 10 seq. are not solutions of this difficulty,
as appears from their metaphorical form. They tell us that Yahweh
will call His people and that they will answer; but this is only putting
in another form the axiom that the gifts and calling of God are without
repentance.
PROPHET
445
must remain inviolable; it can never be delivered into the hands
of the Assyrian. Thus, with Isaiah in the days of Sennacherib's
invasion, the prophetic word became again, as it had been in
the days of the Syrian wars, " the chariots and horsemen of
Israel," the stay and strength of all patriotic hope.
Yet even at this crisis the resemblance between Isaiah and
Elisha, between the new prophecy and the old, is more apparent
than real. Elisha still stands firmly planted on the old national
conception of the religion of Yahweh; his ideals are such as do
not lie beyond the range of practical politics. In doing battle
against the Tyrian Baal he is content with a reformation for
which the whole nation can be heartily won, because it makes
no radical change in their inherited faith and practices of worship.
And in stimulating resistance to Syria he is still the prophet of
the old " God of the hosts of Israel " a God who works deliver-
ance by the thews and sinews of His earthly warriors. But
Isaiah's ideal of religion was one for which he himself demands
as a preliminary condition an outpouring of Yahweh's spirit on
king (Isa. xi. 2) and people (Isa. xxxii. 15), working an entire
moral regeneration. And so too it is not through the material
organization of the Judaean kingdom that Isaiah looks for
deliverance from Assyria. He sees with absolute clearness the
powerlessness of the little realm against that great empire:
the Assyrian must fall, and fall before Jerusalem, that Yahweh
alone may appear to all the earth as the one true God, while
all the idols appear as vain to help their worshippers. These
conceptions break through the old particularistic idea of Yahweh
and His religion at every point. Zion is now not the centre of
a mere national cult, but the centre of all true religion for the
whole world; and more than once the prophet indicates not
obscurely that the necessary issue of the great conflict between
Yahweh and the gods of the heathen must be the conversion
of all nations, the disappearance of every other religion before the
faith of the God of Israel. The pre-exilian origin of Isa. ii. 2-4
which announces that all foreign nations shall stream towards
the exalted mountain of Yahweh's temple is maintained by
Duhm but is denied by many recent critics including Cornill.
But this all-conquering religion is not the popular Yahweh
worship ; why then can the prophet still hold that the one true God
is yet the God of Israel, and that the vindication of His Godhead
involves the preservation of Israel? Not because His providence
is confined to Israel it embraces all nations; not because He
shows any favouritism to Israel He judges all nations by the
same strict rule. If Israel alone among nations can meet the
Assyrian with the boast " with us is God," the reason is that in
Zion the true God is known 1 not indeed to the mass, but to
the prophet, and that the " holy seed " 2 or " remnant " (contained
in the name Shear ydshubh) which forms the salt of the nation.
The interpretation which Isaiah puts on this fact depends on the
circumstance that at that date religion had never been conceived
as a relation between God and individuals, or as a relation
between God and a purely spiritual society, but always as a
relation between a deity and some natural social group a stock,
a tribe, a nation. It was therefore only as the God of Israel that
the true God could be known within Israel; and so on the one
hand the little society of faith which had not in reality the
least tinge of political coherence is thought of as yet forming
the true kernel of the nation qua nation, while on the other hand
the state of Judah profits by the prophetic religion inasmuch
as the nation must be saved from destruction in order that the
prophetic faith which is still bound up with the idea of the
nation may not be dissolved. This connexion of ideas was not
of course explicitly before the prophet's mind, for the distinctive
features of a national religion could not be formulated so long as
no other kind of religion had ever been heard of. When we
put down in black and white the explicit details of what is
1 We should be apt to say " the true idea of God," but that is a
way of putting it which does not correspond with prophetic thought.
To the prophets knowledge of God is concrete knowledge of the divine
character as shown in acts-^-knowledge of a person, not of an idea.
* The last clause of Isa. vi. 13, " a holy seed is its stock," is rejected
by many critics (Duhm, Chey ne, Marti and others) as a later insertion.
It is omitted in the Septuagint.
involved in Isaiah's conclusion of faith we see that it has no
absolute validity. True religion can exist without having a
particular nation as its subject as soon as the idea of a spiritual
community of faith has been realized. But till this was realized
Isaiah was right in teaching that the law of continuity demanded
that the nation within which Yahweh had made Himself known
to His spiritual prophets must be maintained as a nation for
the sake of the glory of God and the preservation of the
" remnant."
The withdrawal of Sennacherib's army, in which the doctrine
of the inviolability of Zion received the most striking practical
confirmation, was welcomed by Isaiah and his disciples as an
earnest of the speedy inbringing of the new spiritual era. But
these hopes were not fulfilled. The prophetic teaching had in-
deed produced a profound effect; to the party of reaction, as the
persecution under Manasseh shows, it seemed to threaten to
subvert all society; and we can still measure the range and depth
of its influence in the literary remains of the period from Isaiah
to the captivity, which include Micah vi. 1-8, and that noble
essay to build a complete national code on the principle of love
to God, righteousness, and humanity the legislation of Deutero-
nomy. Nay more, the reception of the book of Deuteronomy
by king and people in the eighteenth year of Josiah shows what
a hold the prophetic teaching had on the popular conscience.
It was no small triumph that there was even a passing attempt
to introduce such a code as the law of the land. But it was one
thing to touch the conscience of the nation and another to change
its heart and renew its whole life. That no code could do, and,
as every practical government must adapt itself to actualities
and not to a purely ideal standard, it must have appeared at
once that the attempt to govern by prophetic ideas was only
sewing a new piece on an old garment. The immediate result
of Josiah's reformation was the complete dissolution of any-
thing that could be called a political party of prophetic ideas;
the priests and the ordinary prophets were satisfied with what
had been accomplished; the old abuses began again, but the
nation had received a reformed constitution and there was
nothing more to be said.
Thus it was that, though beyond question there had been a
real advance in the average ethical and spiritual ideas of
the people since the time of Isaiah, Jeremiah found himself
more isolated than Isaiah had ever been. Even in that earliest
part of his book which is mainly a recapitulation of his experi-
ences and work in the reign of Josiah, his tone is one of absolute
hopelessness as to the future of the nation. But we should
quite misunderstand this pessimism if we held it to mean that
Jereniah saw no signs of private morality and individual spiritual
convictions among his people. To him as a prophet the question
was whether Israel as a nation could be saved. In Isaiah's days
the answer had been affirmative; there appeared to be at least
a potentiality of national regeneration in the holy seed when
once it should be cleansed from the chaff by a work of judgment.
But, now a century of respite had been granted, the Chaldaeans
were at the gates, and there was no sign of valid national repent-
ance. The harvest was past, the season of ripe fruits was
over, and still Israel was not saved (Jer. viii. 20). The time of
respite had been wasted, all attempts at national reformation
had failed; how should Yahweh spare a nation which had shown
no tokens of fitness to discharge the vocation of Yahweh's
people ? The question was not whether there was still a faithful
remnant, but whether that remnant was able to save the state
as a state, and this Jeremiah was forced to deny. Nay, every
attempt at genuine amendment was frustrated by the dead
weight of a powerful opposition, and when the first captivity
came it was precisely the best elements of Judah that went into
captivity and were scattered among the nations (xxiv. 5, xxiii.
2 seq.). And so the prophet was compelled to teach that the
immediate future of Israel was a blank, that the state as a state
was doomed. He did not even dare to intercede for such a
nation (vii. 16); though Moses and Samuel stood pleading for
it before Yahweh, He could not but cast it out of His sight (xv. i).
It was the death-struggle of the idea of a national religion (vi. 8) ;
44 6
PROPHET
the continuity of true faith refused to be longer bound up with
the continuity of the nation. Still indeed the New-Testament
idea of a purely spiritual kingdom of God, in this world but not
of it, is beyond the prophet's horizon, and he can think of no
other vindication of the divine purpose than that the true
Israel shall be gathered again from its dispersion. But the
condition of this restoration is now changed. To gather the
dispersed implies a call of God to individuals, and in the restored
Israel the covenant of Yahweh shall not be merely With the
nation but with man one by one, and " they shall no more teach
everyone his neighbour saying, Know the Lord, for all shall
know Me from the least of them even to the greatest of them "
(xxri. 33 seq.). In a word, when the nation is dissolved into its
individual elements the continuity and ultimate victory of
true faith depends on the relation of Yahweh to individual souls,
out of which the new state shall be built up (Jer iii. 14).
Thus, for the first time in the world's history, the ultimate
problem of faith is based on the relation of God to the individual
believer; and this problem Jeremiah is compelled to face mainly
in relation to his own personality, to assure himself that his own
faith is a true possession and lifts him above all the calamities
that assail him, in spite of the hopeless ruin of his nation. The
struggle is a sore one; his very life is bitter to him; and yet he
emerges victorious. To know that God is with him is enough
though all else fail him. Now as soon as the relation of God
to a single soul has thus been set free from all earthly conditions
the work of prophecy is really complete, for what God has done
for one soul He can do for all, but only by speaking to each
believer as directly as He does to Jeremiah. Henceforth revelation
is not a word to the nation spoken through an individual, but a
word spoken to one which is equally valid for every one who
receives it with like faith. The New Testament joins on not
to the post-exile prophets, who are only faint echoes of earlier
seers, but to Jeremiah's great idea of the new covenant in which
God's law is written on the individual heart, and the community
of faith is the fellowship of all to whom He has thus spoken.
The prophets of the restoration are only the last waves beating
on the shore after the storm which destroyed the old nation,
but created in its room a fellowship of spiritual religion, had
passed over; they resemble the old prophets in the same imperfect
way in which the restored community of Jerusalem resembled
a real nation. It was only in so far as the community of faith
still possessed certain external features of nationality that post-
exile prophecy was possible at all, and very soon the care of the
national or quasi-national aspects of religion passed altogether
out of their hands into those of the scribes, of whom Ezekiel
was the first father, and whose Torah was not the living word
of prophecy but the Pentateuchal code. From the time of
Jeremiah downwards the perennial interest of Old-Testament
thought lies in the working out of the problems of personal
religion and of the idea of a spiritual fellowship of faith tran-
scending all national limitation; and these are the motives not
only of the lyrics of the Psalter but of the greater theodiceas
of Isa. xl.-lxvi. and of the book of Job. The theodicea of
the prophets is national; they see Yahweh's righteousness
working itself out with unmistakable clearness in the present,
and know that all that He brings upon Israel is manifestly just;
but from the days of Jeremiah ' the fortunes of Israel as a nation
are no longer the one thing which religion has to explain; the
greater question arises of a theory of the divine purpose which
shall justify the ways of God with individual men or with His
" righteous servant " that is, with the ideal community of
true faith as distinct from the natural Israel.
It will be evident even from this rapid sketch, necessarily
confined to a few of the most cardinal points, that Hebrew
prophecy is not a thing that can be defined and reduced to a
formula, but was a living institution which can only be under-
stood by studying its growth and observing its connexion with
the historical movements with which its various manifestations
were bound up. Throughout the great age of prophecy the most
obvious formal character that distinguished it was that the
1 One might say from the days of Habakkuk.
prophet did not speak in his own name but in the name of
Yahweh. But the claim to speak in the name of God is one
which has often been made and made sincerely by others
than the prophets of Israel, and which is susceptible of a great
variety of meanings, according to the idea of God and His
relation to man which is presupposed. Every early religion
seeks to realize such an intercourse with the object of worship
as shall be two-sided; when the worshipper approaches the deity
he desires to have an answer assuring him of acceptance and
divine aid. The revelation thus looked for may be found in
natural omens, in the priestly lot or some similar sacral oracle,
or, finally, in the words of a seer who is held to be in closer
contact with the deity than common men. Broadly speaking
these methods of revelation are found in all ancient religions,
but no other religion presents anything precisely analogous to
prophecy. It is true that the prophets absorbed the old seers,
and that the Israelites, as we see in the case of the asses of Kish,
went to their seers on the same kind of occasions as sent heathen
nations to seers or diviners. There is sufficient evidence that
down to the last age of the Judaean monarchy practices not
essentially different from divination were current in all classes of
society, and were often in the hands of men who claimed to
speak as prophets in the name of Yahweh. But the great
prophets disallowed this claim, and the distinction which they
draw between true prophecy and divination is recognized not
only in the prophetical law of Deuteronomy but in earlier parts
of the Pentateuch and historical books. " There is no augury
in Jacob and no divination in Israel; in due time it is told to
Jacob and to Israel what God doth work " (Num. xxiii. 23).
The seer, in the sense in which all antiquity believed in seers, is
simply a man who sees what others cannot see, no matter
whether the thing seen be of public or of mere private interest;
but the prophet is an organ of Yahweh's kingship over His
people he sees and tells so much of the secret purpose of Yahweh
as is needful for His people to know. We have already seen
how Amos and Hosea put this (supra, p. 2orr), and it does not
appear that they were introducing a conception of prophecy
formally novel the new thing was their conception of Yahweh's
purpose. And so too with the following great prophets; the
important thing in their work was not their moral earnestness
and not their specific predictions of future events, but the clear-
ness of spiritual insight with which they read the spiritual
significance of the signs of the time and interpreted the move-
ments of history as proofs of Yahweh's actual moral sovereignty
exercised over Israel. So long as the great problems of religion
could be envisaged as problems of the relation of Yahweh to
Israel as a nation the prophets continued to speak and to bring
forth new truths; but the ultimate result was that it became
apparent that the idea of moral government involved the destruc-
tion of Israel, and then the function of prophecy was gone
because it was essentially national in its objects. But meantime
the relation of God to the prophet had acquired an independent
significance; the inner life of Isaiah during the long years when
his teaching seemed lost, or of Jeremiah through the whole
course of his seemingly fruitless ministry, was rich in experiences
of faith triumphing over temptations and trials, of personal
converse with God sustaining the soul in the face of difficulties
hopeless to the eye of sense, which formed the pattern of a new
and higher stage of religion in which the relation of the individual
soul to God should be set free from those limitations which had
been imposed by the conception that the primary subject of
religion is the nation. But the religion of the Old Testament
did not become merely individualistic in becoming individual,
and now the problem was to realize a new conception of the
society of faith, the true Israel, the collective servant of Yahweh
in a word to form the idea of a spiritual commonwealth and
to show how it was possible for faith to hold fast, in spite of all
seeming contradiction, to the truth that Yahweh had chosen
for himself a spiritual people, every member of which was in
truth the object of His saving and unfailing love, and which
should ultimately in very deed inherit that glory of which the
carnal Israel was unworthy. This is the post-prophetic problem
PROPHET
447
which occupies the more profound of the later Old-Testament
books, but first received its true solution in the gospel, when the
last shreds of the old nationalism disappeared and the spiritual
kingdom found its centre in the person of Christ.
Old-Testament prophecy therefore forms only one stage in a
larger development, and its true significance and value can only
be realized when it is looked at in this light. In this as in all
other matters of transcendental truth " wisdom is justified of her
children"; the conclusive vindication of the prophets as true
messengers of God is that their work forms an integral part in
the progress of spiritual religion, and there are many things in
their teaching the profundity and importance of which are
much clearer to us than they could possibly have been to their
contemporaries, because they are mere flashes of spiritual insight
lighting up for a moment some corner of a region on which the
steady sun of the gospel had not yet risen.
A less complete but yet most powerful vindication of the
spiritual prophets was furnished by the course and event of
Israel's history. After the captivity it was no longer a question
that the prophetic conception of Yahweh was the only possible
one. Thenceforth the religion of Yahweh and the religion of the
prophets are synonymous; no other reading of Israel's past was
possible, and in fact the whole history of the Hebrews in Canaan,
as it was finally shaped in the exile, is written from this point of
view, and has come down to us, along with the remains of
actual prophetic books, under the collective title of " The
Prophets."
To some extent this historical vindication of the prophetic
insight went on during the activity of the prophets themselves.
From the time of Amos downwards the prophets spoke mainly
at great historical crises, when events were moving fast and a
few years were often sufficient to show that they were right and
their opponents wrong in their reading of the signs of the times.
And here the controversy did not turn on the exact fulfilment
of detailed predictions; detailed prediction occupies a very
secondary place in the writings of the prophets.
The prophets themselves required no historical verification
of their word to assure them that it was indeed the word of God,
nor do they for a moment admit that their contemporaries are
entitled to treat its authority as unproved till such verification
is offered. The word of God carries its own evidence with it
in its searching force and fire: " Is not my word like as a fire,
saith Yahweh, and like a hammer that breaketh the rock in
pieces ? " (Jer. xxiii. 29). To the prophet himself it comes with
imperious force: it constrains him to speak (Amos iii. 8), seizes
him with a strong hand (Isa. viii. n), burns like a fire within
his bones till it finds utterance (Jer. xx. 9) ; and it is this force of
moral conviction which ought also to commend it to the con-
science of his hearers. The word is true because it is worthy of
the true God. When Deut. xviii. 21,22 seeks the legal criterion
of true prophecy in the fulfilment of prediction, the writer is
no doubt guided by the remembrance of the remarkable confir-
mation which the doctrines of spiritual prophecy had received
in history then recent, but his criterion would have appeared
inadequate to the prophets themselves, and indeed this passage
is one of the most striking proofs that to formulate the principles
of prophetic religion in a legal code was an impossible task.
The mass of the nation, of course, was always much more
struck by the "signs" and predictions of the prophets than by
their spiritual ideas; we see how the idea of supernatural insight
and power in everyday matters dominates the popular conception
of Elijah and Elisha in the books of Kings. At a very early
date the great prophets became a kind of saints or ivelis, and the
respect paid to the tombs of the prophets, which ultimately
took in almost every particular the place of the old local shrines
> M.ut. xxiii. 29; Jerome, Epit. Paulae, 13; see OBADIAH), can
be traced back to the time before the exile. 1
The Hebrew prophet stands alone among divinely appointed
'See 2 Kings xxiii. 21, and also Deut. xxxiv. 6. So too all the
old national heroes and heroines ultimately became prophets; in the
case of Deborah there is even a fusion in local tradition between an
old heroine and an historical seer.
and inspired men of any religion, though analogies in other
religions present themselves. Ethical and religious teachers
arose among other nations of antiquity whose precepts may well
be compared with those of Hebrew prophecy. We might cite the
maxims of Ani in the Egyptian papyrus Prisse (Xllth dynasty).
But these teachers did not succeed in accomplishing a task
parallel to what the Hebrew prophets achieved, namely, the
complete renewal and elevation of the Hebrew religion from a
local and national into a universal and ethical religion. Yet
instructive parallels may be found in ancient literatures. Thus
the Vedic hymns are reputed to have no human authors. The
names attached to them are those of .the seers who " saw "
them, to whom they were revealed. They are therefore merely
the channels through which the divine word is communicated to
man (Professor Rapson). The Rev. C. H. W. Johns (Interpreter,
April 1906, " The Prophets of Babylonia ") thinks that longer dis-
courses moral, and predictive, fully equal to those of the Hebrew
prophets, existed in Babylonia as' early as the 3rd millennium B.C.
but were curtailed into the brief sentences of the omen tablets.
" The so-called ' tablet of warning to kings against injustice '
gives a fair specimen of connected discourse, e.g. ' If a king
hearken not to law, his people shall grow feeble and his land be
ravaged. If he attend not to the justice of his land, Ea, the king
of fates, shall distort his lot, &c.' " Further illustrations of
ethical teaching may be found in the litany or confession of a
penitent cited by Mr Johns in the same paper (p. 303).
It may be here stated that Winckler's conception of the
Hebrew prophet Isaiah as the mouthpiece of the Assyrian court
(K.A.T. 3 p. 172 sqq.) can be easily refuted by a reference to
the Isaianic oracles. A theory that Jeremiah was similarly
influenced from Babylonia might seem more plausible, though
equally baseless.
After the extinction of the prophetic voice, an ever-increasing
weight was not unnaturally laid on the predictive element in
their writings. Their creative religious ideas had become the
common property of religious-minded Jews, at least in the some-
what imperfect shape in which they were embodied in the law,
and their work on this side was carried on by the great religious
poets. But the restored community which was still making a
sort of faint attempt to be a religious nation as well as a Church
felt very painfully the want of a direct message from God in
critical times such as the prophets of old had been wont to bring.
And in this need men began to look at the prophetic books,
mainly in the hope that there might be found in them predictions
which still awaited fulfilment, and might be taken as referring
to the latter days of Persian or Greek oppression. By ignoring
the free poetical form of prophecy, and still more by ignoring
the fact that the .prophetic pictures of the ideal future of Israel
could not be literally fulfilled after the fall of the ancient state
had entirely changed the sphere in which the problems of true
religion had to be worked out, it was possible to find a great mass
of unfulfilled prophecy which might form the basis of eschato-
logical constructions. All this was quite in the vein of later
Judaism, and so at length the unfulfilled predictions of the pro-
phets served as the raw material for the elaborate eschatology
of the apocalypses (see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE). In spite
of superficial resemblances, mainly due to the unavoidable
influence of current exegetical methods, the conception of
prophecy as fulfilled in Christ is fundamentally different from
the Jewish apocalyptic view of unfulfilled prophecy. Not
external details but the spiritual ideas of the prophets find their
fulfilment in the new dispensation, and they do so under forms
entirely diverse from those of the old national kingdom of
Yahweh.
LITERATURE. In the ancient and medieval Church and in the dog-
matic period of Protestantism there was little or no attempt at
historical studv of prophecy, and the prophetical books were found
instructive only* through the application of allegorical or typical
exegesis. For details the reader may refer to Diestel, Geschichte
des Allen Testaments (Jena 1869), and for the final form of orthodox
Protestant views to Witsius, De prophetis et prophetia. The growing
sense of the insufficiency of this treatment towards the close of the
period of dogmatism showed itself in various ways. On the one hand
we have the revival of apocalyptic exegesis by Cocceius and his school,
PROPHET
which has continued to influence certain circles down to the present
day, and has led to the most varied attempts to find in prophecy a
history written before the event of all the chief vicissitudes of the
Christian Church down to the end of the world. On the other hand
Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry, and the same author's Commentary
on Isaiah (1778), show the beginnings of a tendency to look mainly
at the aesthetic aspects of the prophetical books, and to view the
prophets as enlightened religious poets. This tendency culminates
in Eichhorn, Die hebrdischen Propheten (1816). Neither of these
methods could do much for the historical understanding of the
phenomena of prophecy as a whole, and the more liberal students
of the Old Testament were long blinded by the moralizing unhistorical
rationalism which succeeded the old orthodoxy. The first requisite
of real progress, after dogmatic prejudices had been broken through,
was to get a living conception of the history in which the prophets
moved ; and this again called for a revision of all traditional notions
as to the age of the various parts of Hebrew literature-^-criticism
of the sources of the history, among which the prophetical books
themselves take the first place. In recent times therefore advance
in the understanding of the prophets has moved on part passu With
the higher criticism, especially the criticism of the Pentateuch, and
with the general study of Hebrew history; and most works on the
subject prior to Ewald must be regarded as quite antiquated except
for the light they cast on detailed points of exegesis. On the prophets
and their works the reader would still do well to consult Ewald's
Propheten des alien Bundes (ist ed., 1840-1841, 2nd ed., 1867-1868,
Eng. trans., 1876-1877). The subject is treated in all works on Old
Testament introduction (among which Kuenen's Onderzoek, vol. ii.,
claims the first place), and on Old-Testament theology (see especially
Vatke, Religion des A.T., 1835). On the theology of the prophets
there is a separate work by Duhm (Bonn, 1875), and Knobel's
Prophetismus der Hebrder (1837), is a separate introduction to the
prophetical books. Kuenen's Prophets and Prophecy in Israel
(1875, Eng. trans. 1877) is in form mainly a criticism of the traditional
view of prophecy, and should therefore be compared with his Onder-
zoek and Godsdienst van Israel. Most English books on the subject
are more theological than historical, but a sketch of Hebrew pro-
phecy in connexion with the history down to the close of the 8th
century is given by W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (Edinburgh,
1882). The literature of the theological questions connected with
prophecy is much too copious to be cited here; lists will be found
in several of the books already referred to. Among more recent
works and articles should be mentioned Briggs, Messianic Prophecy ;
Giesebrecht, Die Berufsbegabung der alttestamentlichen Propheten;
Volz, Die vorexilische Jahive-Prophetie u. der Measias; Htthn, Die
messianischen Weissagungen; R. Kittel, Prophetie u. Weissagung;
Professor Kennett, Pre-exilic Prophets; W. H. Bennett, Post-
exilic Prophets (T. and T. Clark); A. B. Davidson, " Prophecy and
Prophets," in Hastings' s Diet. Bible; also " Prophetic Literature,"
by Cheyne and others in Ency. Bibl. (W. R. S. ; O. C. W.)
II. Prophets in the Primitive Church. The appearance
of prophets in the first Christian communities is one proof
of the strength of faith and hope by which these bodies
were animated. An old prophecy (Joel iii. i) has foretold
that in the Messianic age the Spirit of God would be poured out
on every member of the religious community, and in point of
fact it was the universal conviction of those who believed in
Christ that they all possessed the Spirit of God. This Spirit,
manifesting His presence in a variety of ways and through a
variety of gifts, was to be the only ruling authority in the Church.
He raised up for Himself particular individuals, into whose
mouths He put the word of God, and these were at first regarded
as the true leaders of the congregations. We find accordingly
that there were prophets in the oldest church, that of Jerusalem
(Acts. xi. 27, xv. 32), and again that there were " prophets and
teachers" in the church at Antioch (Acts xiii. i). These were
not office-bearers chosen by the congregation, but preachers
raised up by the Spirit and conferred as gifts on the Church.
When Paul says (i Cor. xii. 28; cf. Eph. iv. n), " God hath set
some in the Church, first apostles, secondarily prophets, thirdly
teachers," he points to a state of things which in his time
prevailed in all the churches both of Jewish and heathen origin.
We here learn from Paul that the prophets occupied the second
position in point of dignity; and we see from another passage
(i Cor. xiv.) that they were distinguished from the teachers by
their speaking under the influence of inspiration not, however,
like the " speakers in tongues," in unintelligible ejaculations and
disconnected words, but in articulate, rational edifying speech.
Until recently it was impossible to form any distinct idea of the
Christian prophets in the post-apostolic age, not so much from
want of materials as because what evidence existed was not
sufficiently clear and connected. It was understood, indeed,
that they had maintained their place in the churches till the end
of the 2nd century, and that the great conflict with what is
known as Montanism had first proved fatal to them; but a
clear conception of their position and influence in the churches
was not to be had. But the discovery, by Bryennios in 1873,
of the ancient Christian work called AioaxflT&vfi&oeKa. awoo-rohiiv
(published in 1883), has immensely extended the range of our
knowledge, and has at the same time thrown a clear light
on many notices in other sources which for want of proper
interpretation had been previously neglected or incorrectly
understood.
The most important facts known at present about the manner
of life, the influence, and the history of the early Christian
prophets are the following: (i) Until late in the 2nd century
the prophets (or prophetesses) were regarded as an essential
element in a Church possessing the Holy Ghost. Their existence
was believed in, and they did actually exist, not only in the
catholic congregations if the expression may be used but
also in the Marcionite Church and the Gnostic societies. Not
a few Christian prophets a;e known to us by name: as Agabus,
Judas, and Silas in Jerusalem; Barnabas, Simon Niger, &c., in
Antioch; in Asia Minor, the daughters of Philip, Quadratus,
Ammia, Polycarp, Melito, Montanus, Maximilla and Priscilla;
in Rome, Hermas; among the followers of Basilides, Barkabbas
and Barkoph; in the community of Apelles, Philumene, &c.
Lucian tells us that the impostor Peregrinus Proteus, in the time
of Antoninus Pius, figured as a prophet in the Christian churches
of Syria. (2) Till the middle of the 2nd century the prophets
were the regular preachers of the churches, without being
attached to any particular congregation. While the " apostles "
(i.e. itinerating missionaries) were obliged to preach from place
to place, the prophets were at liberty either, like the teachers,
to settle in a certain church or to travel from one to another.
(3) In the time of Paul the form of prophecy was reasoned exhort-
ation in a state of inspiration; but very frequently the inspira-
tion took the form of ecstasy the prophet lost control of himself,
so that he did not remember afterwards what he had said. In
the Gentile-Christian churches, under the influence of pagan
associations, ecstasy was the rule. (4) With regard to the matter
of prophecy, it might embrace anything that was necessary
or for the edification of the Church. The prophets not only
consoled and exhorted by the recital of what God had done and
by predictions of the future, but they uttered extempore thanks-
givings in the congregational assemblies, and delivered special
directions, which might extend to the most minute details, as,
for example, the disposal of the church funds. (5) It was the
duty of the prophets to follow in all respects the example of the
Lord (i-xa> row rpdwovs rov Kvpiov) , and to put in practice
what they preached. But an ascetic life was expected of them
only when, like the apostles, they went about as missionaries,
in which case the rules in Matt. x. applied to them. Whenever,
on the contrary, they settled in a place they had a claim to a
liberal maintenance at the hands of the congregation. The
author of the Ai5axi) even compares them to the High Priests
of the Old Testament, and considers them entitled to the first-
fruits of the Levitical law. In reality, they might justly be com-
pared to the priests in so far as they were the mouthpieces of the
congregation in public thanksgiving. (6) Since prophets were
regarded as a gift of God and as moved by the Holy Spirit, the
individual congregation had no right of control over them.
When anyone was approved as a prophet and exhibited the
" conversation of the Lord," no one was permitted to put him to
the test or to criticize him. The author of the AiSaxn goes so
far as to assert that whoever does this is guilty of the sin against
the Holy Ghost. (7) This unique position of the prophets could
only be maintained so long as the original enthusiasm remained
fresh and vigorous. From three quarters primitive Christian
prophecy was exposed to danger first, from the permanent
officials of the congregation, who, in the interests of order, peace
and security could not but look with suspicion on the activity of
excited prophets; second, from the prophets themselves, in so
PROPIOLIC ACID PROPYLAEA
449
far as an increasing number of dishonest characters was found
amongst them, whose object was to levy contributions on the
i hurches; 1 third, from those prophets who were filled with the
stern spirit of primitive Christianity and imposed on churches,
now becoming assimilated to the world, obligations which these
were neither able nor willing to fulfil. It is from this point of
view that we must seek to understand the so-called Montanistic
crisis. Even the author of the Ai5ax') finds it necessary to defend
the prophets who practised celibacy and strict asceticism against
the depreciatory criticism of church members. In Asia Minor
there was already in the year 160 a party, called by Epiphanius
\logi," who rejected all Christian prophecy. On the other
hand, it was also in Asia Minor that there appeared along with
Montanus those energetic prophetesses who charged the churches
anil their bishops and deacons with becoming secularized, and
endeavoured to prevent Christianity from being naturalized in
the world, and to bring the churches once more under the
exclusive guidance of the Spirit and His charismata. The critical
situation thus arising spread in the course of a few decades over
most of the provincial churches. The necessity of resisting the
inexorable demands of the prophets led to the introduction of
new rules for distinguishing true and false prophets. No
prophet, it was declared, could speak in ecstasy, that was devilish ;
further, only false prophets accepted gifts. Both canons were
innovations, designed to strike a fatal blow at prophecy and the
church organization re-established by the prophets in Asia the
bishops not being quite prepared to declare boldly that the Church
had no further need of prophets. But the prophets would not
have been suppressed by their new methods of judging them
alone. A much more important circumstance was the rise of a
new theory, according to which all divine revelations were
summed up in the apostles or in their writings. It was now
taught that prophecy in general was a peculiarity of the Old
Testament (" lex et prophetae usque ad Johannem "); that in
the new covenant God had spoken only through apostles; that
the whole word of God so far as binding on the Church was
contained in the apostolic record the New Testament; 2 and
that, consequently, the Church neither required nor could
acknowledge new revelations, or even instructions, through
prophets. The revolution which this theory gradually brought
;t is shown in the transformation of the religious, enthusiastic
organization of the Church into a legal and political constitution.
A great many things had to be sacrificed to this, and amongst
others the old prophets. The strictly enforced episcopal
constitution, the creation of a clerical order, and the formation
of the New Testament canon accomplished the overthrow of the
prophets. Instead of the old formula," God continually confers
on the church apostles, prophets, and teachers," the word now
was: " The Church is founded in the (written) word of the pro-
phets (i.e. the Old Testament prophets) and the apostles (viz.
the twelve and Paul)." After the beginning of the 3rd century
there were still no doubt men under the control of the hierarchy
who experienced the prophetic ecstasy, or clerics like Cyprian
who professed to have received special directions from God; but
prophets by vocation no longer existed and these sporadic
utterances were in no sense placed on a level with the contents
of the sacred Scriptures.
See Hilgenfeld, Die Glossolalie in der alien Kirche (1850); Buck-
munn, " Uber die Wunderkrafte bei den ersten Christen und ihr
.hen," in the Ztschr. f. d. Ges. luther. Theol. u. Kirche (1878),
pp. 216^255 (learned but utterly uncritical); Bonwetsch, "Die
Prophetic im apostol. und nachapostol. Zeitalter," in the Ztschr. f.
ktrchl. Wissensch. u. kirchl. Leben (1884), pt. 8, p. 408 seq , pt. 9,
p. 460 sea.; Harnack, Die Lehre der zwolf A paste I (1884), pp. 93-137;
Mailer, ' Die Propheten der nachapostolischen Kirche," in the
Theol. Studien ans M'iirtlemberg (1888), p. 36 seq.; Nardin, " Essai
Mir Irs prophetes de I'eglise primitive," Thesis, (Paris, 1888); Weinel,
Die Wirkungen des Geistes und der Geister im nachapostolischen
Zeitalter bis auf Irenaeus," (1899) ; Sclwyn, " The Christian Prophi-ts
1 Sec Lucian's story about Percgrinus, and that chapter of the
AiJax4 where the author labours to establish criteria for distin-
giusning false prophets from true.
'The Apocalypse of John was received into it, not as the work
of a prophet but as that of an apostle.
xxn. 15
and the Prophetic Apocalypse " (1900); B6nazech, " Le Prophc'tismc
chrfticnnc depuis les origines jusqu'au pasteur d'Hermas," Thesis,
(Paris, 1901). (A. HA.; A. C. McG.)
PROPIOLIC ACID, CH;C-CO 2 H, acetylene mono-carboxylic
acid, an unsaturated organic acid prepared by boiling acetylene
dicarboxylic acid (obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on
dibromsuccinic acid) or its acid potassium salt with water
(E. v. Bandrowski, Bcr., 1880, 13, p. 2340). It forms silky
crystals which melt at 6 C., and boil at about 144 C. with
decomposition. It is soluble in water and possesses an odour
resembling that of acetic acid. Exposure to sunlight converts
it into trimesic acid (benzene-i.3.5-tricarboxylic acid). Bromine
converts it into dibromacrylic acid, and it gives with hydro-
chloric acid /3-chloracrylic acid. It forms a characteristic
explosive silver salt on the addition of ammoniacal silver nitrate
to its aqueous solution, and an amorphous precipitate which
explodes on warming with ammoniacal cuprous chloride. Its
ethyl ester condenses with hydrazine to form pyrazolone (R. v.
Rothenburg, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1722). Phenylpropiolic acid,
C 6 H 6 C:C-CO2H, formed by the action of alcoholic potash on
cinnamic acid dibromide, CH 5 CHBr-CHBr-CO 2 H, crystallizes
in long needles or prisms which melt at 136-137 C. Whenheated
with water to 120 C. it yields phenyl acetylene CeHj-CjCH.
Chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid; zinc and acetic acid
reduce it to cinnamic acid, CeHj-CHiCH-CO^H, whilst sodium
amalgam reduces it to hydrocinnamic acid, CH 6 -CH 2 -CO 2 H.
Ortho-nitrophenylpropiollc acid, NO 2 -C e H<-C: C-CO 2 H, prepared
by the action of alcoholic potash on ortho-nitrocinnamic acid
dibromide (A. v. Baeyer, Ber., 1880, 13, p. 2258), crystallizes in
needles which 'decompose when heated to 155-156 C. It is
readily converted into indigo (q.v.).
PROPYLAEA (YlpoTTV\ov, HpoirtXeua), the name given to a
porch or gate-house, at the entrance of a sacred or other enclosure
in Greece; such propylaea usually consisted, in their simplest
form, of a porch supported by columns both without and within
the actual gate. The name is especially given to the great
entrance hall of the Acropolis at Athens, which was begun in
437 B.C. by Pericles, to take the place of an earlier gateway.
Owing probably to political difficulties and to the outbreak of
the Peloponnesian War, the building was never completed
according to the original plans; but the portion that was built
was among the chief glories of Athens, and afforded a model
to many subsequent imitators. The architect was Mnesicles;
the material Pentelic marble, with Eleusinian blackstone for
dados and other details. The plan of the Propylaea consists
of a large square hall, from which five steps lead up to a wall
pierced by five gateways of graduated sizes, the central one
giving passage to a road suitable for beasts or possibly for
vehicles. On the inner side towards the Acropolis, this wall is
faced with a portico of six Doric columns. At the other end of
the great hall is a similar portico facing outwards; and between
this and the doors the hall is divided into three aisles by rows
of Ionic columns. The western or outer front is flanked on each
side by a projecting wing, with a row of three smaller Doric
columns between Antae at right angles to the main portico. The
north wing is completed by a square chamber which served as a
picture gallery; but the south wing contains no corresponding
chamber, and its plan has evidently been curtailed; its front
projected beyond its covered area, and it is finished in what was
evidently a provisional way on the side of the bastion before the
little temple of Victory (Ni/tj;). From this and other indications
Professor Dorpfeld has inferred that the original plan of M nesicles
was to complete the south wing on a plan symmetrical with
that of the north wing, but opening by a portico on to the bastion
to the west; and to add on the inner side of the Propylaea two
great halls, faced by porticoes almost in a line with the main
portico, but with smaller columns. It is probable that this
larger plan had to be given up, because it would have interfered
with sacred objects such as the precinct of Artemis Brauronia
and the altar of Nike, and religious conservatism prevailed over
the waning influence of Pericles. In addition to this, the un-
finished surface of the walls and the rough bosses left on many
5
450
PROPYL ALCOHOLS PROSE
of the blocks show that the building was never completed. The
Propylaea were approached in Greek times by a zig-zag path,
terraced along the rock; this was superseded in Roman times by
a broad flight of steps. In medieval times the Propylaea served
THE PROPYLAEA
is designed by Mnesicles
Scale of Feet
(Redrawn from the Athtnische Mitteilungen by permission of the Kaiserliches
Archaeologisches Instltut.)
as the palace of the dukes of Athens; they were much damaged
by the explosion of a powder magazine in 1656. The tower, of
Prankish or Turkish date, that stood on the south wing, was
pulled down in 1874.
See R. Bohn, Die Propylaeen der Akropolis zu Athen (Berlin,
1882); W. Dorpfeld, articles in Mittheilungen d. d. Inst. Athen.
(1885) vol. x. (E. GR.)
PROPYL ALCOHOLS (C 3 H 7 OH). Two compounds of this
formula exist as explained in the article ALCOHOLS. Normal
propyl alcohol, CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -OH, was obtained in 1853 by
G. C. B. Chancel, by submitting fusel oil to fractional distillation.
It may be prepared by any of the methods applicable to primary
alcohols. It is an agreeable-smelling liquid, boiling at 97-4 C.,
and miscible with water in all proportions. It cannot be separated
from water by fractional distillation, since it forms a mixture
of constant boiling point (see DISTILLATION). Oxidation con-
verts it into propionic acid. It is distinguished from ethyl
alcohol by its insolubility in a cold saturated calcium chloride
solution.
Iso-propyl alcohol (CH 3 ) 2 CHOH, was obtained by M. P. E.
Berthelot in 1855 by heating the addition compound of propylene
and sulphuric acid with water, and in 1862 by C. Friedel by the
reduction of acetone. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 82-7 C.
PROROGATION, a postponement, specifically the termination
without dissolution of a session of parliament by discontinuing
the meetings until the next session. The Lat. prorogatio (from
prorogare, to ask publicly) meant a prolongation or continuance
of office or command, cf. prorogatio imperil (Liv. viii. 26), or a
putting off or deferring of an appointed time, cf . dies ad sohendum
prorogare (Cic. Phil. ii. 10, 24). A prorogation of parliament
affects both houses, and thus differs from an " adjournment,"
which does not terminate the session and is effected by each
house separately by resolution. Further, at a prorogation, a bill
which has not passed all of its stages must begin again ab in ilia
in the next session, and all proceedings, except impeachments
and appeals before the House of Lords, are quashed. A proroga-
tion is effected by the sovereign in person, or by commission. If,
at the demise of the Crown, parliament stands prorogued or
adjourned, it is by 6 Anne c. 7 to sit and act at once; similarly
the -Crown must by proclamation order parliament to sit, if
prorogued, when the militia is embodied or the reserves are
called out.
PROSCENIUM (Gr. irpoaK^viov) , that part of the stage in the
ancient Greek theatre which lies in front of the rrnrivri, st
the back wall; the word appears to embrace the whole stage
between the opxharpa. and the (TKT/W?. In the modern theatre
the word is applied to that part of the stage which is in front of
the curtain and the orchestra, and sometimes to the whole front
of the stage, including the curtain and the arch containing it,
which separates the stage from the auditorium.
PROSE, a word supposed to be derived from the Lat. prorsus,
direct or straight, and signifying the plain speech of mankind,
when written, or rhetorically composed, without reference to
the rules of verse. It has been usual to distinguish prose very
definitely from poetry (q.v.), and this was an early opinion.
Ronsard said that his training as a poet had proved to him that
prose and poetry were " mortal enemies." But " poetry " is a
more or less metaphysical term, which cannot be used without
danger as a distinctive one in this sense. For instance, an ill-
inspired work in rhyme, or even a well-written metrical composi-
tion of a satirical or didactic kind, cannot be said to be poetry.
and yet most certainly is not prose; it is a specimen of verse.
On the other hand, a work of highly wrought and elaborately
sustained non-metrical writing is often called a prose-poem.
The fact that this phrase can be employed shows that the anti-
thesis between prose and poetry is not complete, for no one,
even in jest or hyperbole, speaks of a prose-verse.
Prose, therefore, is most safely defined as comprising all forms
of careful literary expression which are not metrically versified,
and hence the definition from prorsus, the notion being that all
verse is in its nature so far artificial that it is subjected to definite
and recognized rules, by which it is diverted out of the perfectly
direct modes of speech. Prose, on the other hand, is straight
and plain, not an artistic product, but used for stating precisely
that which is true in reason or fact. The Latins called prose
sermo pedestris, and later oratio soluta, thus showing their con-
sciousness that it was not poetry, which soars on wings, and not
verse, which is bound by the rules of prosodical confinement.
Prose, however, is not everything that is loosely said. It has
its rules and requirements. In the earliest ages, no doubt,
conversation did not exist. The rudest fragments of speech
were sufficient to indicate the needs of the savage, and these
blunt babblings were not prose. Later on some orator, dowered
with a native persuasiveness, and desirous of making an effect
upon his comrades, would link together some broken sentences,
and in his heat produce with them something more coherent
than a chain of ejaculations. So far as this was lucid and digni-
fied, this would be the beginning of prose. It cannot be too
often said that prose is the result of conversation, but it must at
the same time be insisted upon that conversation itself is not
necessarily, nor often, prose. Prose is not the negation of all
laws of speech; it rejects merely those laws which depend upon
metre. What the laws are upon which it does depend are not
easy to enumerate or define. But this much is plain; as prose
depends on the linking of successive sentences, the first require-
ment of it is that these sentences should be so arranged as to
ensure lucidity and directness. In prose, that the meaning
should be given is the primal necessity. But as it is found that
a dull and clumsy, and especially a monotonous arrangement, of
sentences is fatal to the attention of the listener or reader, it is
PROSE
45
ml that to plainness should be added various attractions
ami ornaments. The sentences must be built up in a manner
which displays variety and flexibility. It is highly desirable
thai there should be a harmony, and even a rhythm, in the progress
of style, care being always taken that this rhythm and this
harmony are not those of verse, or recognizably metrical. Again,
'the colour and form of adjectives, and their sufficient yet not
excessive recurrence, is an important factor in the construction
of prose. The omission of certain faults, too, is essential. In
every language grammatical correctness is obligatory. Here
ee a distinction between mere conversation, which is loose,
fragmentary and often, even in the lips of highly educated
persons, slightly ungrammatical; and prose, which is bound to
wi-cd away whatever is slovenly and incorrect, and to watch
very closely lest merely colloquial expressions, which cannot
be defended, should slip into careful speech. What is required
in good prose is a moderate and reasonable elevation without
bombast or bathos. Not everything that is loosely said or
vaguely thought is prose, and the celebrated phrase of M.
Jourdain in Moliere's Bourgeois gentilhomme: " Par ma foi, il y
a plus de quarante ans que je dis de la prose, sans que j'en susse
ricn." is not exactly true, although it is an amusing illustration
of the truth, for all the little loose phrases which M. Jourdain
had used in his life, though they were certainly not verse, were
not prose either, whatever the schoolmaster might say. On the
other hand, it seems that Earle goes too enthusiastically in the
contrary direction when he says, " Poetry, which is the organ
of Imagination, is futile without the support of Reason; Prose,
which is the organ of Reason, has no vivacity or beauty or artistic
value but with the favour and sympathy of the Imagination."
It is better to hold to the simpler view that prose is literary
expression not subjected to any species of metrical law.
Greece. The beginnings of ancient Greek prose are very
obscure. It is highly probable that they took the form of
inscriptions in temples and upon monuments, and gradually
developed into historical and topographical records, preserving
local memories, and giving form to local legends. It seems that
it was in Ionia that the art of prose was first cultivated, and a
history of Miletus, composed by the half-mythical Cadmus,
is appealed to as the earliest monument of Greek prose. This,
.however, is lost, and so are all the other horol of earliest times.
We come down to something definite when we reach Hecataeus,
the first geographer, and Herodorus, the first natural philosopher,
of the Greeks; and, although the writings of these men have
disappeared, we know enough about them to see that by the
4th century B.C. the use of prose in its set modern sense had been
established on a permanent basis. We even know what the
character of the style of Hecataeus was, and that it was admired
for its clearness, its grammatical purity, its agreeable individu-
ality qualities which have been valued in prose ever since.
These writers were promptly succeeded by Hellanicus of Lesbos,
who wrote many historical books which are lost, and by Hero-
dotus of Halicarnassus, whose noble storehouse of chronicle
and legend is the earliest monument of European prose which
has come down to us. When once non-metrical language could
be used with the mastery and freedom of Herodotus, it was plain
that all departments of human knowledge were open to its
exercise. But it is still in Ionia and the Asiatic islands that we
find it cultivated by philosophers, critics and men of science.
The earliest of these great masters of prose survive, not in their
works, but in much later records of their opinions; in philosophy
the actual writings of Thales, Anaximander, Pythagoras and
Empedocles are lost, and it is more than possible that their
cosmological rhapsodies were partly metrical, a mingling of ode
with prose apophthegm. We come into clearer air when we cross
the Aegean and reach the Athenian historians: Thucydides,
whose priceless story of the Peloponnesian War has most fortu-
nately come down to us; and Xenophon. who continued that
chronicle in the spirit and under the influence of Thucydides,
and who carried Greek prose to a great height of easy distinction.
But it is with the practice of philosophy that prose in ancient
Greece rises to its acme of ingenuity, flexibility and variety.
proving itself a vehicle for the finest human thought such as no
later ingenuity of language has contrived to excel. The death
of Socrates (399 B.C.) has been taken by scholars as the date
when the philosophical writings of the Athenians reached their
highest pitch of perfection in the art of Plato, who is the greatest
prose writer of Greece, and, in the view of many who are well
qualified to judge, of the world. In his celebrated dialogues
Crito, Gorgias, Phaedo, Phaedrus, the Symposium, most of all
perhaps in the Republic we see what splendour, what elasticity,
what exactitude, this means of expression had in so short a time
developed; how little there was for future prose-writers in any
age to learn about their business. The rhetoricians were even
more highly admired by the critics of antiquity than the philo-
sophers, and it is probable that ancient opinion would have set
Demosthenes higher than Plato as a composer of prose. But
modern readers are no longer so much interested in the technique
of rhetoric, and, although no less an authority than Professor
Gilbert Murray has declared the essay-writing of the school of
Isocrates to form " the final perfection of ancient prose," the
works of the orators cease to move us with great enthusiasm.
In Aristotle we see the conscious art of prose-writing already
subordinated to the preservation and explanation of facts, and
after Aristotle's day there is little to record in a hasty outline of
the progress of Greek prcse.
Latin. In spite of having the experience of the Greeks to
guide them, the Romans obeyed the universal law of literary
history by cultivating verse long before they essayed the writing
of prose. But that the example of later Greece was closely
followed in Rome is proved by the fact that the earliest prose
historians of whom we have definite knowledge, Q. F. Pictor and
L. C. Alimentus, actually wrote in Greek. The earliest annalist
who wrote in Latin was L. C. Hemina; the works of all these
early historians are lost. A great deal of primitive Roman
prose was occupied with jurisprudence and political oratory.
By universal consent the first master of Latin prose was Cato,
the loss of whose speeches and " Origines " is extremely to be
deplored; we possess from his pen one practical treatise on agri-
culture. In the next generation we are told that the literary
perfection of oratory was carried to the highest point by Marcus
Antonius and Lucius Licinius Crassus " by a happy chance
their styles were exactly complementary to one another, and to
hear both in one day was the highest intellectual entertainment
which Rome afforded." Unfortunately none but inconsiderable
fragments survive to display to us the qualities of Roman prose
in its golden age. Happily, however, those qualities were con-
centrated in a man of the highest genius, whose best writings
have come down to us; this is Cicero, whose prose exhibits the
Latin language to no less advantage than Plato's does the Greek.
From 70 to 60 B.C. Cicero's literary work lay mainly in the field
of rhetoric; after his exile the splendour of his oratory declined,
but he was occupied upon two treatises of extreme importance,
the De oratore and the De republica, composed in 55 and 54-57
B.C. respectively; of the latter certain magnificent passages have
been preserved. The beautiful essays of Cicero's old age are
more completely known to us, and they comprise two of the
masterpieces of the prose of the world, the De amicitia and De
senectute (45 B.C.). It is to the collection of the wonderful
private letters of Cicero, published some years after his death
by Atticus and Tiro, that we owe our intimate knowledge of the
age in which he lived, and these have ever since and in every
language been held the models of epistolary prose. Of Cicero's
greatest contemporary, Julius Caesar, much less has been
preserved, and this is unfortunate because Roman critical
opinion placed Caesar at the head of those who wrote Latin
prose with purity and perfection. His letters, his grammars,
his works of science, his speeches are lost, but we retain his
famous Commentaries on the War in Gaul. Sallust followed
Caesar as an historian, and Thucydides as a master of style.
His use of prose, as we trace it in the Jugurtha and the Catilina.
is hard, clear and polished. The chroniclers who succeeded
Sallust neglected these qualities, and Latin prose, as the
Augustan age began, became more diffuse and more rhetorical.
452
PROSE
But it was wielded in that age by one writer of the highest genius,
the historian Titus Livius. He greatly enriched the tissue of
Latin prose with ornament which hitherto had been confined
to poetry; this enables him, in the course of his vast annals,
" to advance without flagging through the long and intricate
narrative where a simpler diction must necessarily have grown
monotonous " (Mackail). The periodic structure of Latin
prose, which had been developed by Cicero, was carried by Livy
" to an even greater complexity." The style of Pollio, who
wrote a History of 'the Civil Laws, was much admired, and the
loss of this work must be deplored. A different species of prose,
the plebius sermo, or colloquial speech of the poor, is partly
preserved in the invaluable fragments of a Neronian writer,
Petronius Arbiter. Of the Latin prose-writers of the silver age,
the elder Pliny, Quintilian and Tacitus, who adorned the last
years before the decay of classical Latin, nothing need here be
said.
English. It was long supposed that the conscious use of
prose in the English language was a comparatively recent thing,
dating back at farthest to the middle of the i6th century, and
due directly to French influences. Earle was the first to show
that this was not the case, and to assert that we a possess a
longer pedigree of prose literature than any other country in
Europe." Though this may be held to be a somewhat violent
statement, the independence of English prose is a fact which
rests on a firm basis. " The Code of Laws of King's Inn " dates
from the yth century, and there are various other legal documents
which may be hardly literature in themselves, but which are
worded in a way that seems to denote the existence of a literary
tradition. After the Danish invasion, Latin ceased to be the
universal language of the educated, and translations into the
vernacular began to be required. In 887, Alfred, who had
collected the principal scholars of England around him, wrote
with their help, in English, his Hand-Book; this, probably the
earliest specimen of finished English prose, is unhappily lost.
Alfred's preface to the English version of the Cura pastoralis
was in Latin; this translation was probably completed in 890.
Later still Alfred produced various translations from Bede,
Orosius, Boethius and other classics of the latest Latin, and, in
900, closing a translation from St Augustine, we read " Here end
the sayings of King Alfred." The prose of Alfred is simple,
straightforward and clear, without any pretension to elegance.
He had no direct followers until the time of the monastic revival,
when the first name of eminence which we encounter is that of
-fElfric, who, about 997, began to translate, or rather to para-
phrase, certain portions of the Bible. The prose of yElfric,
however, though extremely interesting historically, has the
fault that it presents too close a resemblance, in structure and
movement, to the alliterative verse of the age. This is particu-
larly true of his Homilies. A little later vigorous prose was put
forth by Wulfstan, archbishop of York, who died in 1023. At
the Norman Conquest, the progress of English prose was violently
checked, and, as has been acutely said, it " was just kept alive,
but only like a man in catalepsy." The Annals of Winchester,
Worcester and Peterborough were carried on in English until
1154, when they were resumed in Latin; the chronicle which thus
came to an end was the most important document in English
prose written before the Norman Conquest. Except in a few
remote monasteries, English now ceased to be used, even for
religious purposes, and the literature became exclusively Latin
or French. There was nothing in prose that was analogous to
the revival of verse in the Ormulum or the metrical chronicles.
All the pre-Norman practice in prose belongs to what used to
be distinguished: as Anglo-Saxon literature. The distinction
has fallen into desuetude, as it has become more clearly perceived
that there is no real break between the earlier and the later
language. The Norman check, however, makes it fair to say
that modern English prose begins with the Testament of Love of
Thomas Usk, an imitation of the De consolalione of Boethius,
which a certain London Lollard wrote in prison about 1584.
About the same time were written a number of translations, The
Tale of Melibee and The Parson's Sermon by Chaucer ; the treatises
of John of Trevisa, whose style in the Polychronicon has a good
deal of vigour; and the three versions of the Travels of Jean a
Barbe, formerly attributed to a fabulous " Sir John Mandeville."
The composite text of these last-mentioned versions really forms
the earliest specimen of purely secular prose which can be said
to possess genuine literary value, but again the fact, which has
only lately been ascertained, that " Sir John Mandeville " was
not an original English writer robs it of much of its value. The
anonymous compiler-translator can no longer be styled "the
father of English prose." That name seems more properly
to belong to John Wyclif, who, in the course of his fierce career
as a controversialist, more and more completely abandoned
Latin for English as the vehicle of his tracts. The earliest
English Bible was begun by Nicholas Hereford, who had carried
it up to Baruch, when he abruptly dropped it in June 1382.
The completion of this great work is usually attributed, but on
insufficient grounds, to Wyclif himself. A new version was
almost immediately started by John Purvey, another Wyclifite,
who completed it in 1388. We are still among translators, but
towards the middle of the i4th century Englishmen began,
somewhat timidly, to use prose as the vehicle for original work.
Capgrave, an Augustinian friar, wrote a chronicle of English
history down to 1417; Sir John Fortescue, the eminent constitu-
tional jurist, produced about 1475 a book on The Governance of
England; and Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, attacked
the Lollards in his Represser of Over Much Blaming of the Clergy
(1455), which was so caustic and scandalous that it cost him his
diocese. The prose of Pecock is sometimes strangely modern,
and to judge what the ordinary English prose familiarly in use in
the 1 5th century was it is more useful to turn to The Paston
Letters. The introduction of printing into England is coeval
with a sudden development of English prose, a marvellous
example of which is to be seen in Caxton's 1485 edition of Sir
Thomas Malory's Morte d' Arthur, a compilation from French
sources, in which the capacities of the English language for
melody and noble sweetness were for the first time displayed,
although much was yet lacking in strength and conciseness.
Caxton himself, Lord Berners and Lord Rivers, added an element
of literary merit to their useful translations. The earliest modern
historian was Robert Fabyan, whose posthumous Chronicles
were printed in 1515. Edward Hall was a better writer, whose
Noble Families of Lancaster and York had the honour of being
studied by Shakespeare. With the advent of the Renaissance
to England, prose was heightened and made more colloquial.
Sir Thomas More's Richard III. was a work of considerable
importance; his finer Utopia (1516) was unfortunately composed
in Latin, which still held its own as a dangerous rival to the
vernacular in prose. In his Governor (1531) Sir Thomas Elyot
added moral philosophy to the gradually widening range of sub-
jects which were thought proper for English prose. In the same
year Tyndale began his famous version of the Bible, the story
of which forms one of the most romantic episodes in the
chronicles of literature; at Tyndale's death in 1536 the work was
taken up by Miles Coverdale. The Sermons of Latimer (1549)
introduced elements of humour, dash and vigour which had
before been foreign to'the stately but sluggish prose of England.
The earliest biography, a book in many ways marvellously
modern, was the Life of Cardinal Wolsey, by George Cavendish,
written about 1557, but not printed (even in part) until 1641.
In the closing scenes of this memorable book, which describe
what Cavendish had personally experienced, we may say that
the perfection of easy English style is reached for the first time.
The prose of the middle of the i6th century as we see it exempli-
fied in the earliest English critic, Sir Thomas Wilson; the earliest
English pedagogue, Roger Ascham; the distinguished humanist,
Sir John Cheke is clear, unadorned and firm, these Englishmen
holding themselves bound to resist the influences coming to
them from Italy and Spain, influences which were in favour of
elaborate verbiage and tortured construction. Equal simplicity
marked such writers as Foxe, Stow and Holinshed, who had
definite information to purvey, and wished a straightforward
prose in which to present it. But Hoby and North, who
PROSE
453
translated Guevara, Castiglione and Amyot, brought with them
not a few of the ingenious exotic graces of those originals, and pre-
pared the way for the startling innovations of Lyly in his famous
didactic romance of Euphues (1579). The extravagances and
iitricities of Lyly outdid those of his continental prototypes,
and euphuism became a disturbing influence which, it may be,
Knglish prose has not, even to the present hour, entirely suc-
d in throwing off. In spite of its ovenvhelming popularity,
it was opposed in its own day, not merely by the stately sobriety
of Hooker, in whom we see Latin models predominant, but by
the sweetness of Sir Philip Sidney in his Arcadia. Raleigh wrote
lish prose that was perhaps more majestic than any which
.ded it, but he revelled in length of sentence and in ponder-
of phrase, so that it is probable that the vast prestige of
Tin History of the World on the whole delayed the emancipation
iglish prose more than it furthered it. The direct influence
of the euphuistic eccentricity was seen for some time in the
work of poets like Lodge and Greene, and divines like Lancelot
. \mlrewes; its indirect influence in the floweriness and violence
of most careful prose down to the Restoration. Bacon, whose
contempt of the vernacular is with difficulty to be excused,
despaired too early of our national writing. Donne cultivated
a rolling and sonorous majesty of style; and Burton could use
Knglish with humour and vivacity when he gave himself the
chance, but his text is a prototype of the vicious abuse of quota-
lion which was a crowning fault of prose in the early iyth
ary. In spite of the skill with which, during the civil wars
and the Commonwealth, certain authors (such as Jeremy
Taylor, Howell, Fuller, Milton, Izaak Walton) manipulated
e, and in spite of the extraordinary magnificence of the
Ciceronian periods of Sir Thomas Browne, it was not until
.shortly before the Restoration that English prose reached its
perfection. According to Dr Johnson, Sir William Temple
(1628-1699) " was the first writer who gave cadence to English
prose; before his time they were careless of arrangement, and did
not mind whether a sentence ended with an important word or an
insignificant word, or with what part of speech it concluded."
The tendency was all in favour of brevity and crispness,
and in particular of shorter sentences and easier constructions.
X >i a little of the majesty of the earlier age was lost; but for
practical purposes, and in the hands of ordinary men, prose
became a far more useful and businesslike implement than it had
hitherto been. The short treatises of Halifax, if we compare
them with similar writings of a generation earlier, display the
complete change of style; or we may contrast the clear and
istic sentences of South with the undulating quaintness
of Joseph Hall. The range of English speech was first compre-
hended perhaps by Dryden, who combined dignity and even
pomp of movement with an ease and laxity at occasion which
gave variety to prose, removed from it its stilted and too pre-
laiical elevation at inappropriate moments, and approximated
it to the ordinary speech of cultivated persons. This then may
died the foundation of modern English prose, which has
iided into no departments not recognized, at least in essence,
by Bunyan, Dryden and Temple. The ensuing varieties of
prose have been mainly matters of style. In the i8th century,
for instance, there was a constant alternation between a quiet,
rather cold elegance and precision of prose-writing, which was
called the Addisonian manner, and a swelling, latinized style,
full of large words and weighty periods, in which Johnson was
the most famous but Gibbon perhaps the most characteristic
proficient. But as far as grammatical arrangement and the
rules of syntax are concerned, it cannot be said that English
prose has altered essentially since about 1680. It is, however,
to be noted that in the course of the igth century the use of
short sentences, and the habit of neglecting to group them into
paragraphs, introduced a heresy not known before; and that,
on the other hand, there has been a successful attempt made to
restore the beauty and variety of early 17th-century diction,
which had suffered a long decline from the Restoration
onwards.
Icelandic. The independent invention of prose by the exiled
aristocrats in the Heroic Age of Iceland is one of the most
singular facts in literary history. It resulted from the fact that
story-telling grew to be a recognized form of amusement in the
isolated and refined life of an Icelandic household from the gth
to the nth century. Something of the same kind had existed
in the courts of Norway before the exodus, but it was in Iceland
that it was reduced to an art and reached perfection. It is
remarkable how suddenly the saga, as a composition, became a
finished work; it was written in a prose which immediately
presented, in the best examples, " a considerable choice of
words, a richness of alliteration and a delicate use of syntax "
(Vigfusson). The deliberate composition of sagas began about
the year 1030, and it is supposed that they began to be written
down soon after noo. It is distinctly recorded that Ari Frodi
(1067-1148) was the first man in Iceland who wrote 'down stories
in the Norse tongue. Many of Ari's books are lost, but enough
survive to show what Icelandic prose was in the hands of its
earliest artificer, and the impress of his rich and simple style is felt
on all the succeeding masterpieces of the great age of Icelandic
history and biography. But the Greater Sagas, as they are
called, the anonymous stories which followed the work of Ari
and were completed in the i3th century, exhibit prose style in
its most enchanting fullness, whether in the majesty of Njala,
in the romantic art of Laxdaela, or in the hurrying garrulity of
Eyrbyggia. There followed a vast abundance of sagas and saga-
writers. The great historian, Sturla (1214-1284), is the latest
of these classic writers of Iceland, and after his death there was
a very rapid decline in the purity and dignity of the national
prose. By the opening of the I4th century the art of writing in
the old noble language had become entirely lost, and it was not
until the lyth century that it began to revive as an archaeological
curiosity and a plaything for scholars. " For an Icelander of the
present day to write modern history in saga style is a ludicrous
absurdity," and the splendid living prose of the i2th century
remains unrelated, a strange and unparalleled portent in the
history of European literature. Of its beneficial effect on later
Scandinavian, English and even Teutonic style there can be no
question.
Spain. In Castilian Spanish, as in the other languages of
Europe, verse is already far advanced before we meet with any
distinct traces of prose. A didactic treatise for use in the
confessional is attributed to a monk of Navarre, writing in the
i3th century. Between 1220 and 1250 a chronicle of Toledo
was indited. But the earliest prose-writer of whom Spain can
really boast is King Alphonso the Learned (1226-1284), in whose
encyclopaedic treatises " Castilian makes its first great stride
in the direction of exactitude and clearness " (Fitzmaurice-
Kelly). Almost all the creditable prose of the end of the i3th
century is attributed to Alphonso, who was helped by a sort of
committee of subsidiary authors. The king's nephew, Juan
Manuel (1282-1347), author of the admirable Conde Lucanor,
carried prose to a further point in delicacy and precision. The
poet Ayala (1332-1407) was another gifted artificer of Spanish
prose, which suffered a setback in the hands of his successors,
Santillana and Mena. It rose once more in The Sea of Histories
of Perez de Guzman (1378-1460), who has been compared to
Plutarch and St Simon, and in whom the lucid and energetic
purity of Castilian prose is for the first time seen in its perfection.
In the 1 5th century the shapeless novel of chivalry was predomi-
nant, while in the age of Charles V. poetry altogether over-
shadowed prose. The next great writer of prose whom we meet
with is Guevara, who died in 1545, and whose Dial of Primes
exercised an influence which was not confined to Spanish, and
even extended to English prose (in North's well-known version).
The historians of this period, prolix and discursive, were of less
value. The earliest picaroon novel, Lazarillo de Tormes (1554).
the authorship of which is unknown, introduced a new form
and exhibited Castilian prose style in a much lighter aspect
than it had hitherto worn. Still greater elegance is met with in
the mystical and critical writings of Juan de Valdes and in those
of Luis de Lc6n; of the latter Mr Fitzmaurice- Kelly says that
" his concise eloquence and his classical purity of expression rank
454
PROSE
him among the best masters of Castilian prose." The instru-
ment, accordingly, was polished and sharpened for the finest
uses, and was ready to the hand of the supreme magician
Cervantes, whose Don Quixote was begun a few years (about
1591) after Los N ombres de Cristo of Luis de Leon had been
published (1583); these dates are significant in the history of
Spanish prose. The prose of Lope de Vega is stately and clear,
but of course has little importance in comparison with the verse
of his huge theatre. Quevedo's style had the faults which were
now invading all European writing, of violent antithesis and
obscure ingenuity; but his Visions (1627) occupy a prominent
place in the history of Castilian prose. The latest struggles of a
decadent critical conscience, battling against tortuousness and
affectation, are seen in Gracian (1601-1658) and in Molinos
(1627-1697), who vainly endeavoured to save classic prose out
of the intellectual shipwreck of the i8th century. When Spanish
prose revived in the igth century, in the person of Larra (1809-
1837), the influence of French models was found to have deprived
it of distinctly national character, while giving it a fresh fluidity
and grace.
French. There had long been a flourishing versified literature
in the vernacular of France, before anyone thought of writing
French prose. It was the desire to be exact in giving informa-
tion, together with a reduced sense of the value of rhyme and
rhythm, which led to a partial divergence from metre. The
translator of the fabulous Chronicle of Turpin mentions that he
writes in prose " because rhyme entails the addition of words
which are not in the Latin." Thus about the year 1200 verse
began to be abandoned by chroniclers who had some definite
statements to impart, and who had no natural gifts as poets.
They ceased to sing; they wrote, more or less easily, as those
around them spoke. The earliest French prose was translated
from the Latin, but Baldwin VI., who died in 1205, is said to
have commissioned several scribes to compile in the vulgar
tongue a history of the world. If this was ever written it is
lost, but we possess a Book of Stories written about 1225 by a
clerk at Lille, which may fairly be said to be the start-word of
French prose history. When once, however, a taste for prose
was admitted, the superiority of that medium over verse as
material for exact history could not but be perceived, and prose
soon became frequent. The earliest French prose-writer of
genius was Geoffrey (or Jofroi) de Villehardouin, who put down
memoirs of his life between 1 198 and 1 207 ; he left his book, which
is known as The Conquest of Constantinople, incomplete when he
died in 1213. In the history of prose, Villehardouin takes an
eminent place. In his admirable style are seen many of the most
precious elements of French prose, its lucidity, its force, its
sobriety and its charm of address. He had been trained as an
orator, and it was his merit that, as M. Langlois has said, he was
content to write as he had learned to speak. Villehardouin
was closely followed by other admirable writers of memoirs,
by Robert of Clari, by Henri of Valenciennes, by the anonymous
chronicler of Bethune, to whom we owe the famous description
of the battle of Bouvines, and by the Minstrel of Reims. The
last-named finished his Recits in 1 260. These works in the new
easy manner of writing were found to be as elegant and as
vivacious as any preserved by the old rhetorical art of verse.
They led the way directly to the eminent writer who was the
earliest historian of modern Europe, to Jean de Joinville, who
finished his Histoire de St Louis in 1309. A century later
Froissart left his famous Chroniques unfinished in 1404, and again
a hundred years passed before Philippe de Commines dropped the
thread of his Memoires in 1511. These are the three most
illustrious names in the chronicle of French medieval prose, in
whom the various characteristics of the nation are separately
developed. It must be noted that these three are simply the
most eminent figures in a great cloud of prose-writers, who
preserved with more or less vivacity the features of French life
in the later middle ages, and helped to facilitate the use of the
central national language. In the isth century, moreover,
Antoine de la Salle deserves mention as practically the earliest
of French novelists, and one whose skill in the manipulation of
language was long in waiting for a rival among his successor
But with the Renaissance came the infusion into France of the
spirit of antiquity, and in Rabelais there was revealed an author
of the very highest genius who at once defended the integrity of
French syntax and enriched its vocabulary with an infinite
multitude of forms. The year 1532, in which the first brief
sketch of Gargantua appeared, was critical in French literature;
for more than twenty years afterwards the structure of the great
Pantagruelist romance was still being builded. Meanwhile in
1549 had appeared the Defense et illustration de la langue fran-
Gaise of Joachim du Bellay, in which the foundations of the
learned and brilliant literary criticism of France were firmly laid.
The liberation of the language proceeded simultaneously in all
directions. In 1539 it was officially decreed that all judicial
acts were thenceforward to be written in vernacular prose, " en
langage maternal francais et non autrement." Calvin led the
theologians, and his precise, transparent and sober prose,
curiously deficient in colour, gave the model to a long line of
sober rhetoricians. It is in the pages of Calvin that we meet
for the first time with a simple French prose style, which is
easily intelligible by the reader of to-day. There is some
affectation of an ornamented pedantry in St Francois de Sales,
some return to the form and spirit of medieval French in Mon-
taigne; so that the prose of these great writers may easily seem
to us more antiquated than that of Calvin. Yet the Institution
belongs at latest to 1560, and 'the immortal Essais at earliest to
1580. We are approaching the moment when there should be
nothing left for French prose to learn, and when development
should merely take forms of personal brilliancy and initiative
of enterprise on lines already clearly laid down. But we pause
at Brantome, in whom the broad practice of French as Froissart
and the medieval chroniclers had used it was combined with the
modern passion for minute detail and the close observation of
the picturesque. Here the habit of memoir-writing in French
prose first becomes a passion. With the beginning of the i7th
century there sprang up almost an infatuation for making prose
uniformly dignified and noble, for draping it in solemn robes,
for avoiding all turns of speech which could remind the reader
of the " barbarous " origins of the language; the earliest examples
of this subjection of eloquence to purely aristocratic forms have
been traced back to the Servitude tiolontaire of Montaigne's
friend, La Boetie (1530-1563). In the pursuit of this dignity
of speech the prose writers of the i6th century ventured to
borrow not words merely but grammatical terms and peculiarities
of syntax from the ancient literatures of Greece and Rome.
The genius of France, however, and the necessity of remaining
intelligible checked excess in this tendency, and after a few wild
experiments the general result was discovered to be the widening
of the capacities of the language, but at the temporary expense
of some of the idiomatic richness of the old French form. In the
1 7th century a great stimulus was given to easy prose by the
writers of romances, led by d'Urfe, and by the writers of letters,
led by Balzac. In the hands of these authors French prose lost its
heaviness and its solemnity; it became an instrument fit to record
the sentiments of social life in an elegant balance of phrases;
here was first discovered what Voltaire calls the nombre el
harmonie de la prose. French style became capable of more
than this, it achieved the noblest and the subtlest expressions
of human and divine philosophy, when it was used by Descartes
and by Pascal to interpret their majestic thoughts to the world.
At this moment of national development, in 1637, the French
Academy was founded, for the distinct purpose of purifying,
embellishing and enlarging the French language; and in process of
time, out of the midst of the academy, and as a primary result
of its labours, arose the extremely important Remarques (1647)
of Vaugelas, a work of grave authority, which was the earliest
elaborate treatise on the science of prose in any language.
Antiquated as the method of Vaugelas now seems, and little
regarded in detail by modern writers, it may be said that his
famous book is still the basis of all authority on the subject of
French prose. In common with his colleagues of the hour,
Vaugelas strove to lay down laws by which harmony of structure,
PROSECUTION PROSELYTE
455
a graceful sobriety, lucidity and exactitude of expression, could
be secured to every practised French writer. He was not
pled as an infallible lawgiver, even in his own age; he was
immediately exposed to the searching criticism of La Mothe le
\ .tyer, who, however, was radically at one with him regarding
the basis of his definition. The great demerit of the early
,11 udemicians was that they knew little and cared less about the
forms of medieval French. They thrust everything aside which
they regarded as barbarous, and the work of the ipth century
was to recover from a past behind Rabelais elements of great
value which the i7th had arbitrarily rejected as "incorrect."
In the succeeding centuries there has been a vast extension of
the practice of French prose into every conceivable department
of experience and observation, but in spite of all neologisms, and
in spite of the waves of preciosity which have periodically swept
over the French language in the three hundred years which
ilivide the age of Somaizc from that of Mallarme, the treatise
of Vaugelas remains the final code in which the laws that govern
l-'rench prose are preserved.
Italy. The case of prose in the Italian language has this
unique feature that, instead of gathering form obscurely and
slowly, it came into sudden existence at the will of one of the
greatest of writers. Latin had almost universally been used in
Italy until the close of the I3th century, when Dante created a
vernacular prose in the non-metrical part of his famous Vita
Nuova, written about 1293. For a long time the prose of Dante
stood practically alone, and Petrarch actually affected to despise
t he works which his great predecessor had written in the vulgar
tongue. But about 1348 Boccaccio started the composition of
his Decameron, which gave classic form to the prose romance of
Italy. There had been stories in the vernacular before, and
Boccaccio himself had written the Filocopo and the Amato,
but the Decameron marked the lines upon which easy and graceful
Italian prose was to move for the future. It should have been
greatly to the advantage of Italy over the other countries of
Kurope, that in the hands of Dante and Boccaccio prose was born
full-grown, and had not to pass through the tedious periods of
uncertain development which awaited it in England, France and
Spain. After this brilliant beginning, however, there was a
decline in the 1 5th century, the writers of the next age lacking
the courage to be independent of antiquity. There was a return
to Latin phraseology which made many works almost maca-
ronic in character; the famous Hypnerotomachia of Colonna is
an instance of this. Something of the purity of Italian prose
as Boccaccio had left it was recovered by Sannazaro in his
'ilia (1489) a pseudo-classical pastoral romance, the form of
which was widely imitated throughout Europe; even Sannazaro,
however, did not see how needful it was to cast off Latin construc-
tions. At length a pair of historians, Machiavelli and Guicciar-
dini. succeeded in releasing prose from the yoke of Rome, and
in writing undiluted Tuscan. In the i6th century the prose
writers of Italy became extremely prolific, with Pietro Bembo
at their head. The novelists were now prominent, but, although
they take a foremost place in the history of Italian literature,
there was little art in their employment of language. Many of
them were born out of Tuscany, and, like Bandello, never
learned the exact rules of pure Italian prose. Since the i6th
century Italian would seem to have undergone no radical
changes as a language, and its prose has been stationary in
form. At the close of the igth century a new school of writers,
with Gabriele d'Annunzio at its head, created a demand for a new
prose, but it is significant that the remedy suggested by these
innovators was neither more nor less than a return to the proce-
dure of Boccaccio and Machiavelli, who remain the types of
ease and dignity in Italian prose.
German. The earliest coherent attempts at the creation of
German prose belong to the age of Charlemagne, and the first
example usually quoted is the Strassburger EidschwUre of 842.
For all literary purposes, however, metrical language was used
exclusively during the mittclhochdeutsch period, which lasted
until the end of the 131(1 century. What little' prose' there was,
was limited to jurisprudence and theology. David of Augsburg,
who died in 1272, is named as the earliest preacher in the ver-
nacular, but only one of his sermons has come down to us.
More important was Berthold " the Sweet " (1220-1272), whose
sermons were discovered by Neander and published in 1824.
Historical prose began with the Saxon Chronicle of 1 248. There
was little to record in the next two centuries, until prose was
revived by Geiler von Kaisersburg (1445-1510) in his sermons.
About the same time translations were made of the Decameron
and of other Italian collections of novels. The development of
prose in Germany is, however, negligible until we reach the
Reformation, and it is Luther's Bible (New Testament, 1522),
on which all classic German prose is based. This movement is
due to Luther alone, since the other protagonists of reform
wrote mainly in Latin. Johann Fischart composed important
secular books in the vernacular, in particular the Bienenkorb
(1579) and an imitation of Gargantua (1575), which is the earliest
German novel. But nearly a century passes before we reach
another prose work of real importance in the German vernacular,
this being the curious picaresque romance of Simplicissimus
(1669) of Grimmelshausen. But the neglect of prose by the
German nation was still general, and is exemplified in the way by
which men of the stamp of Leibnitz wrote in Latin and even in
French, rather than in their own " barbarous " tongue. What
Luther had done at the beginning of the i6th century was,
however, completed and confirmed in the middle of the i8th by
Lessing, who must be considered as the creator of modern German
prose. The critical period in this revival was 1764 to 1768,
which saw the production of Laocoon and the Hamburgisclic
Dramaturgic. We pass on presently to Jean Paul Richter, and
so to Goethe, in whose majestic hands German prose became the
organ of thought and eloquence which it has been ever since.
AUTHORITIES. John Earle, English Prose (London, 1890); C.
Favre de Vauge'as, Remarques sur la laneue franfaise (Paris, 1647).
Nouvelles remarques (Paris, 1690); T. Mundt, Kunst der deutschen
Prosa (Berlin, 1837); J. W. Mackail, Latin Literature (London,
1895); James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, History of Spanish Literature
(London, 1898); G. Vigfusson, various Prolegomena. - (E.G.)
PROSECUTION, the procedure by which the law is put in
motion to bring an accused person to trial (see CRIMINAL LAW;
INDICTMENT; SUMMARY JURISDICTION, and TRIAL). In theory
in the United Kingdom the king is in all criminal offences the
prosecutor, because such offences are said to be against his
peace, his crown and dignity, but in practice such prosecutions
are ordinarily undertaken by the individuals who have suffered
from the crime. This is a different procedure from that pre-
vailing in Scotland, European continental countries and the
United States, in all of which a public department or officer
undertakes the prosecution of offences. A step towards public
prosecution was taken in England by the Prosecution of Offences
Act (1879), under which an officer called the " Director of
Public Prosecutions " was appointed; in 1884 the Prosecution of
Offences Act of that year revoked the appointment made under
the act of 1879, and constituted the solicitor to the Treasury
Director of Public Prosecutions. The Prosecution of Offences
Act (1908) separated the two offices again, making the public
prosecutor independent of the treasury, but putting him under
the control of the Home Office. The duty of the public prose-
cutor is to institute, undertake or carry on criminal proceedings
in any court and to give advice and assistance to persons con-
cerned in such proceedings. The appointment of such an
officer, according to the act of 1908, does not preclude any person
from instituting or carrying on criminal proceedings, but the
public prosecutor may at any stage undertake the conduct of
these proceedings if he thinks fit (s. 2, par. 3).
A person to be qualified for the post of public prosecutor must be
a barrister or solicitor of not less than ten years' standing, and an
assistant public prosecutor, who may be appointed under the act
of 1908 and who is empowered to do any act or thing which the public
prosecutor is required or authorized to do, must be a barrister or
solicitor of not less than seven years' standing. See also LORD
ADVOCATE.
PROSELYTE (Gr. irpo^Xwos) , strictly one that has arrived
( = Lat. advena), a stranger or sojourner, a term now prac-
tically restricted to converts from one religion to another. It
PROSERPINE
was originally so used of converts to Judaism, but any one
who sets out to convert others to his own opinions is said to
" proselytize." The word is commonly used in the Alexandrian
Greek translation of the Old Testament (Septuagint) for the
Hebrew word (ger) which is derived from a root (gur) denoting
to sojourn. The English versions often render the word by
"stranger;" but though distinguished from the home-born
'ezrah ( = one rising from the soil), the person denominated ger
became the equal of the native Israelite, and, when the meaning
of ger passed from a mainly civil to a religious connotation,
enjoyed many rights. Like the Arabic jar (which is philologically
cognate to ger), the ger attached himself as a client to an indi-
vidual or as a protected settler to the community. He shared in
the Sabbath rest (Exod. xx. 10), and was liable to the same duties
and privileges as Israel (see references in Oxford Gesenius,
p. 158). The Hebrew word later came to mean what we now
understand by proselyte, a term which appears in the sense of
convert to Judaism in the New Testament (Matt, xxiii. 15;
Acts ii. 10).
The Rabbinic law recognized two classes: (a) the full proselyte,
the stranger of righteousness (gersedeq), who was admitted after
circumcision, baptism and the offering of a sacrifice (after the
destruction of the Temple the first two ceremonies were alone
possible); and (b) the limited proselyte, the resident alien (ger
loshab) or proselyte of the gate (ger ha-sha'ar), who, without
accepting Judaism, renounced idolatry and accepted Jewish
jurisdiction, thereby acquiring limited citizenship in Palestine.
Some authorities think that the " God-fearers " of some of the
Psalms and of the New Testament were these limited proselytes.
The Hebrew and Greek terms, however, lost the connotation
of a change of residence, and both ger and " proselyte " came to
apply to a convert without regard to his nationality.
At various periods there were proselytes to Judaism. The
Maccabaeans used compulsion in some cases, but Judaism in the
Diaspora was a missionary religion in the less militant sense.
Heathens felt in the religion of Israel an escape from their growing
scepticism, and a solution to the problem of life. Josephus testifies
that there was much proselytism in Rome (Against Apion, ii. 39),
and several Latin writers confirm this (Cicero, Pro Flacco, 28;
Juvenal xiv. 96; cf. Reinach, Textes d'auteurs grecs et remains
relatifs au Juda'isme (1895). The well-known reference in Matt.
xxv. 15 supports the view that proselytes were actively sought by
the Pharisees, and the famous Didache was probably in the first
instance a manual for instructing proselytes in the principles of
Judaism. There were, however, varying opinions as to the value
to the Jewish body of these accessions. Some rabbis interpreted
Israel's dispersion as divinely designed for the very purpose of
proselytizing (Pesahim 876.). In the Diaspora admission of con-
verts may have been made easy, circumcision being sometimes
omitted, but the conditions became gradually more severe, until
they reached their present form. It is thought that the Hadrianic
persecution led to this change. The Jews seem to have suffered
during the war from the treachery of half-hearted friends. Again,
many who had become converts to Judaism afterwards joined the
new Christian communities. Moreover, in the middle ages, it was
not lawful for the Jews to admit proselytes. Various church
councils prohibited it, and the Code of (Alfonso X. (1261) made
conversion to the synagogue a capital crime. (In 1222 a Christian
deacon was executed at Oxford for his apostasy to Judaism : Matthew
Paris, ed. Luard, iii. 71.) Again, the pragmatic theory of Judaism,
enunciated in Talmudic times, and raised almost to the dignity of a
dogma by Maimonides (On Repentance, iii. 5, &c.), was that Judaism
was not necessary for salvation, for " the pious of all nations have a
share in the world to come " (Tosephta, Sanh. xiii. 2). If to these
causes be added a certain exclusiveness, which refused to meet a
would-be convert more than half-way, we find no difficulty in
accounting for the reluctance which the medieval and modern syn-
agogue has felt on the subject. Yet willing proselytes to Judaism
are still freely received, provided that their bona fides are proven.
In some reformed congregations in America proselytes are admitted
without circumcision, and a similar policy is proposed (not yet
adopted) by the Jewish Religious Union in London, though the
male children of proselytes are to be required to undergo the rite.
In 1896 the central conference of American Rabbis formulated as
a proselyte Confession of faith these five principles: (l) God the
Only One; (2) Man His Image; (3) Immortality of the Soul; (4)
Retribution ; and (5) Israel's Mission. Most cases of conversion to
Judaism at the present time are for purposes of marriage, and
female proselytes are more numerous than male. Female proselytes
are admitted after the total immersion in a ritual bath, though in
some Reformed congregations this rite is omitted. Proselytes are
still not allowed, in Orthodox circles, to become the wives of reputed
descendants of the priestly families, but otherwise marriage with
proselytes is altogether equal to marriage between born Jews.
See Schtirer, Geschichte des judischen Volkes, ed. 3, iii. 102-135,
Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden,
179-349; articles in Ency. Bib., Hastings's Diet. Bib. and the Jewish
Ency. For the Jewish law of the admission of proselytes, see
Shulhan 'Aruch, Yore Deah, 268. (I. A.)
PROSERPINE (Proserpina), the Latin form of Persephone, 1 a
Greek goddess, daughter of Zeus and the earth-goddess Demeter.
In Greek mythology Demeter and Proserpine were closely
associated, being known together as the two goddesses, the
venerable or august goddesses, sometimes as the great goddesses.
Proserpine herself was commonly known as the daughter (Core),
sometimes as the first-born. As she was gathering flowers with
her playmates in a meadow, the earth opened and Pluto, god
of the dead, appeared and carried her off to be his queen in the
world below. 2 This legend was localized in various places, as
at Eleusis, Lerna, and " that fair field of Enna " in Sicily. Torch
in hand, her sorrowing mother sought her through the wide
world, and finding her not she forbade the earth to put forth its
increase. So all that year not a blade of corn grew on the earth,
and men would have died of hunger if Zeus had not persuaded
Pluto to let Proserpine go. But before he let her go Pluto made
her eat the seed of a pomegranate, and thus she could not stay
away from him for ever. 3 So it was arranged that she should
spend two-thirds (according to later authors, one-half) of every
year with her mother and the heavenly gods, and should pass the
rest of the year with Pluto beneath the earth. 4 There can be
little doubt that this is a mythological expression for the growth
of vegetation in spring and its disappearance in autumn. Accord-
ing to Theopompus there was a Western people who actually
called the spring Proserpine. As wife of Pluto, she sent spectres,
ruled the ghosts, and carried into effect the curses of men. The
lake of Avernus, as an entrance to the infernal regions, was
sacred to her. From the head of a dying person Proserpine
was supposed to cut a lock of hair which had been kept sacred
and unshorn through life. 6 She was sometimes identified with
Hecate. On the other hand in her character of goddess of the
spring she was honoured with flower-festivals in Sicily and at
Hipponium in Italy. Sicily was a favourite haunt of the two
1 Some, however, regard Proserpina as a native Latin form, not
borrowed from the Greek, and connected with proserpere, meaning
the goddess who aided the germination of the seed.
2 The story is reminiscent of the old form of marriage by capture.
3 The idea that persons who have made their way to the abode of
the dead can return to the upper world if they have not tasted the
food of the dead appears elsewhere, as in New Zealand (R. Taylor,
New Zealand, pp. 233, 271).
4 Hymn to Demeter; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 419; Melam. v. 385.
5 Aen., iv. 698 seq. It appears to have been a Greek custom to
cut a lock of hair from a dead man's head, and hang it outside of the
house door, in token that there was a corpse in the house. At least
this seems a fair inference from Eurip. Ale., 75, 76, 101104. The
lock so cut may have been that which was kept sacred to the gods
and unshorn (Etym. Mag., s.v. Airea/coAu/^ti'os). For examples of
hair dedicated to gods, see //. xxiii. 141 seq.; Plut., Thes. 5; Paus.
viii. 20, 3. In Tibet a lama (priest) is called in to cut off some
hairs from the head of a dying person, in order that his soul may
escape through the top of his head, which is deemed an essential
condition of a good transmigration (Horace de la Penna, in Bogle
and Manning's Travels in Tibet, ed. C. R. Markham, 1876). We can
hardly doubt that the intention of the Graeco-Roman custom was
similar. In modern Greece the god of death, Charos, is supposed
to draw the soul out of the body, and if a man resists the Aracho-
bites believe that Charos slits open his breast (B. Schmidt, Volks-
leben der Neugriechen, 1871, p. 228). There are other instances of
incisions made in the body of a dying person to allow his soul to
escape(cf. A. Bastian,Z?er Mensch in der Geschichte, 1860, 11.342). The
custom probably dates from the times when death in battle was the
usual death. In the legend of Nisus and Scylla there is a trace of
the custom which was still observed in classical times in the sacrifice
of animals. The practice of cutting off the hair of the dead prevailed
in India, though it does not appear in the Vedas (Monier-Williams,
Religious Thought and Life in India, p. 281). We are reminded of
the practice of the Pawnees and other North- American Indians,
who shaved the head with the exception of one lock (the scalp-lock),
which was removed by a victorious enemy (Catlin, North American
Indians, ii. 24). The Sandwich Islanders also cut a lock from a
slain foe (W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, 1834, iv. 159).
PROSKUROV PROSTITUTION
457
goddesses, and ancient tradition affirmed that the whole island
\\;is sacred to them. The Sicilians claimed to be the first on
whom Demeter had bestowed the gift of corn, and hence they
honoured the two goddesses with many festivals. They
celebrated the festival of Demeter when the corn began to shoot,
and the descent of Proserpine when it was ripe. At Cyare, a
fountain near Syracuse which Pluto made to spring up when he
carried off his bride, the Syracusans held an annual festival in
the course of which bulls were sacrificed by being drowned in
t he water. At Cyzicus also, in Asia Minor, bulls were sacrificed
to I'roserpine. Demeter and Proserpine were worshipped to-
gether by the Athenians at the greater and less Eleusinian
festivals, held in autumn and spring respectively. In the
Kleusinian mysteries Proserpine no doubt played an important
part. One Greek writer, Achemachus, identified Proserpine
with the Egyptian Isis. 1 At Rome Proserpine was associate. 1
with Ceres (the Roman representative of Demeter) in the festival
of the Cerealia (April 12 to 19), she was represented as the wife
of Dis Pater (the Roman Pluto), and was sometimes identified
with the native Latin goddess Libera. The pomegranate was
Proserpine's symbol, and the pigeon and cock were sacred to her.
Her votaries abstained from the flesh of domestic fowls, fish,
brans, pomegranates and apples. In works of art she appears
with a cornucopia or with ears of corn and a cock. 2 The regular
form of her name in Greek was Persephone, but various other
forms occur: Phersephone, Persephassa, Phersephassa, Pherre-
phatta, &c., to explain which different etymologies were in-
vented. Corresponding to Proserpine as goddess of the dead
is the old Norse goddess Hel (Gothic Haija), whom Saxo Gram-
maticus calls Proserpine.
See L. Preller, Demeter und Persephone (1837); R. Foerster, Der
Raub und die Ruckkehr der Persephone (1874) ; A. Zimmerraann, De
Proserpinae raptu et reditu (1882); J. A. Overbeck, " Demeter and
Kore in Griechische Kunstmythologie, ii. (1878). (J. G. FR. ; X.)
PROSKUROV, or PLOSKUROV, a town of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Podolia, situated on the railway from Odessa to Lem-
berg, 62 m. N.W. of Zhmerinka junction. Pop. (1897), 22,915,
more than one-half being Jews. It is poorly built, mostly of
wood, on a low marshy plain surrounded by hills, at the conflu-
ence of the Ploskaya with the Bug. Its old castle has been
<lestroyed, the site being occupied by a Roman Catholic church.
The Orthodox Greek cathedral (1839) contains a very ancient
and highly venerated image of the Virgin. The manufactures
include oil-works and potteries; the Jewish merchants carry on
an active export trade in corn and sugar, while the imports
consist of salt and manufactured wares. Agriculture and
market-gardening are the chief occupations of the Little-Russian
inhabitants.
PROSODY (Gr. irpoa&ia) , the art of versification (see
YK.KSE), including as its three divisions accent, breathing and
quantity. Prosody is the mode in which the discipline is deter-
mined by which successive syllables arc so arranged as to form
verse. The Latin name for it was acccnlus.
PROSPECTUS (Lat. for view, look-out, prospect, from
prospiccre, to look forward), a written or printed preliminary
announcement of some undertaking, giving the scheme or plan,
the principal features, &c. In law, the term is specifically
applied to the invitation issued to the public by a company to
subscribe for shares in the enterprise for which the company is
formed (see COMPANY).
PROSPER OF AQUITAINE. or PROSPER TIRO (c. 390-*;. 465),
Christian writer and disciple of St Augustine, was a native of
Aquitaine, and seems to have been educated at Marseilles.
In 431 he appeared in Rome to interview Pope Celestine regard-
ing the teachings of St Augustine and then all traces of him
are lost until 440, the first year of the pontificate of Leo I., who
had been in Gaul and thus probably had met Prosper. In any
case Prosper was soon in Rome, attached to the pope in some
secretarial or notarial capacity. Gennadius (De script, eccl. 85)
' Others regarded her as originally a moon-godd
1 As the wife of Hades she was represented wii
royalty and a torch.
represented with the insignia of
mentions a rumour that Prosper dictated the famous letters of
Leo I. against Eutyches. The date of his death is not known,
but his chronicle goes as far as 455, and the fact that Ammianus
Marcellinus mentions him under the year 463 seems to indicate
that his death was shortly after that date. Prosper was a lay-
man, but he threw himself with ardour into the religious con-
troversies of his day, defending Augustine and propagating
orthodoxy. The Pelagians were attacked in a glowing polemical
poem of about 1000 lines, Adversus ingratos, written about 430.
The theme, dogma quod. . . pestifero vomuit coluber sermoiic
Britannus, is relieved by a treatment not lacking in liveliness
and in classical measures. After Augustine's death he wrote
three series of Augustinian defences, especially against Vincent
of Lerins (Pro Augustino responsiones). His chief work was
against Cassian's Collalio, his De gratia dei ut libcro arbitrio (432).
He also induced Pope Celestine to publish an Epistola ad rpis-
copos Gallorum against Cassian. He had earlier opened a
correspondence with Augustine, along with his friends Tyro and
Hilarius, and although he did not meet him personally his
enthusiasm for the great theologian led him to make an abridg-
ment of his commentary on the Psalms, as well as a collection
of sentences from his works probably the first dogmatic com-
pilation of that class in which Peter Lombard's Liber scnlen-
liarum is the best-known example. He also put into elegiac
metre, in 106 epigrams, some of Augustine's theological dicta.
Far more important historically than these is Prosper's
Epitoma chronicon. It is a careless compilation from St Jerome
in the earlier part, and from other writers in the later, but the
lack of other sources makes it very valuable for the period from
425 to 455, which is drawn from Prosper's personal experience.
There were five different editions, the last of them dating from
455, after the death of Valentinian. For a long time the
Chronicon imperiale was also attributed to Prosper Tiro, but
without the slightest justification. It is entirely independent of
the real Prosper, and in parts even shows Pelagian tendencies
and sympathies.
The Chronicon has been edited by T. Mommsen in the Chronica
minora of the Monunienta Germaniae historica (1892). The com-
plete works are in Migne's Patroloeia latina. Tome 51. See L.
Valentine, St. Prosper d'Aquitaine (Paris, 1900), where a complete
list of previous writings on Prosper is to be found ; also A. Potthast ,
Bibliotheca historica (1896).
PROSSNITZ (Czech Prostejcni), a town of Austria, in Moravia.
50 m. N.E. of Briinn by rail. Pop. (1900), 24,054, mostly
Czech. It is situated in the fertile plain of the Hanna, and is the
principal commercial centre for the sale of the various produce
of the region. It has important textile, malt and sugar indus-
tries, distilling, brewing and milling, manufactures of agricultural
implements and lucifer matches. Prossnitz is a town of ancient
origin, and in the i6th century was one of the chief seats of the
Moravian Brethren.
PROSTITUTION (from Lat. prosliluere, to expose publicly), a
word which may best be defined as promiscuous unchastity for
gain. In German law it is described as Gewerbsmtissige Unzucht.
It has always been distinguished in law and custom from concu-
binage, which is an inferior state of marriage, and from adultery
and other irregular sexual relations, in which the motive is
passion. Prostitution has existed in all civilized countries from
the earliest times, and has always been subject to regulation
by law or by custom. In Christian countries attempts have
repeatedly been -made to suppress it. but without success. Its
ultimate basis lies in the two most elementary attributes of
living things, namely, the will to live and the instinct of repro-
duction. The one represents the interest of the individual,
the other that of the race; and the essential character of prostitu-
tion is that it utilizes the latter to satisfy the former, whereas
in true sexual passion, as Schopenhauer has pointed out, the
advantage of the individual is subordinated to the needs of the
race. In practical language, prostitution offers, through abuse
of the sexual instinct, a means of livelihood which a certain
proportion of women prefer to other means. It is often assumed
by philanthropic moralists that no other means are open to
them. That may be so in cases in which deception or constraint
PROSTITUTION
has been used, and adverse circumstances such as lack of
friends and a harsh social code close the door to other occupa-
tions; but to suppose that such cases account for prostitution is
to misapprehend the problem. The detailed investigations of
various observers and the experience of rescue societies prove
that the great majority of prostitutes prefer that means of liveli-
hood to others entailing regular work, discipline and self-control.
When they really cease to prefer the life, they leave it volun-
tarily. 1 Otherwise there is extreme difficulty in reclaiming
even the few who will consent to try, and permanent success is
only attained with a small proportion of them. The earliest
attempt at reclamation met with the same result. It was
carried out by the Roman empress Theodora, wife of Justinian,
herself a prostitute in early life. She established a home for
500 women on the Bosporus, but after a time they could not bear
the restraint ; some threw themselves into the sea, and eventually
the scheme was abandoned. The preference is due to several
causes, of which indolence is the chief. Prostitutes are drawn
mainly from the lower classes; the life offers them an escape
from the toil which would otherwise be their lot. Women who
present themselves to the police for inscription on the continent
of Europe frequently give as their reason for embracing the life,
that they do not intend to work 'any more. Other causes are
love of excitement arid dislike of restraint. The same qualities
make the criminal and the wastrel. In addition, a large propor-
tion have the sexual appetite developed in an abnormal degree.
Of 3S5 women interrogated by M. Buls in Brussels, 1118
admitted le goM pour I'homme. The foregoing are primary
causes. External conditions which foster any of these tenden-
cies, or destroy the self-respect and sense of modesty which are
their natural antidotes, are secondary causes of prostitution.
The more important are: (i) difficulty of finding employment;
(2) excessively laborious and ill-paid work; (3) harsh treat-
ment of girls at home; (4) promiscuous and indecent mode of
living among the overcrowded poor; (5) the aggregation of
people together in large communities and factories, whereby the
young are brought into constant contact with demoralized
companions; (6) the example of luxury, self-indulgence and
loose manners set by the wealthier classes; (7) demoralizing
literature and amusements; (8) the arts of profligate men and
their agents. Alcohol is often an aid to prostitution, but
it can hardly be called a cause, for the practice flourishes even
more in the most abstemious than in the most drunken countries.
These observations apply to the West. In Oriental countries
girls are commonly born into or brought up to the trade, and in
that case have no choice.
Among the ancient nations of the East, with the exception
of the Jews, prostitution appears to have been connected with
religious worship, and to have been not merely
OTy ' tolerated but encouraged. From the Mosaic ordi-
nances and the narrative of the Old Testament it is clear that
the separation of the Jews as the chosen people, and the main-
tenance of their faith, were always felt by Moses and by the later
prophets to be chiefly endangered by the vicious attractions of
the religious rites practised around them. The code of sexual
morality laid down in the Book of Leviticus is prefaced by the
injunction not to do after the doings of the land of Egypt, nor
after the doings of the land of Canaan, where all the abominations
forbidden to the Jews were practised; and whenever the Israelites
lapsed from their faith and " went a-whoring after strange gods,"
the transgression was always associated with licentious conduct.
In Egypt, Phoenicia, Assyria, Chaldea, Canaan and Persia, the
worship of Isis, Moloch, Baal, Astarte, Mylitta and other deities
consisted of the most extravagant sensual orgies, and the temples
were merely centres of vice. In Babylon some degree of prosti-
tution appears to have been even compulsory and imposed upon
all women in honour of the goddess Mylitta. In India the
ancient connexion between religion and prostitution still sur-
1 The number of those who do so is considerable. In Copenhagen,
from 1871 to 1896, 33% ol the registered prostitutes were removed
from the register by marriage and by returning to their friends.
Many women resort to prostitution occasionally in alternation with
work.
vives; but that is not the case in China, a most licentious countn
and, considering the antiquity of its civilization, and its conser-
vatism, we may perhaps conclude that it formed an exception
in this respect among the ancient nations. Among the Jews,
who stood apart from the surrounding peoples, the object of
the Mosaic law was clearly to preserve the purity of the race
and the religion. Prostitution in itself was not forbidden, but
it was to be confined to foreign women. Jewish fathers were
forbidden to turn their daughters into prostitutes (Lev. xix. 29),
and the daughters of Israel were forbidden to become prostitutes
(Deut. xxiii. 17), but no penalty was attached to disobedience,
except in the case of a priest's daughter, who was to be burnt
(Lev. xxi. 9). This distinction is significant of the attitude of
Moses, because the heathen " priestesses " were nothing but
prostitutes. Similarly, he forbade groves, a common adjunct
of heathen temples and a convenient cover for debauchery.
Again, his purpose is shown by the severe penalties imposed
on adultery (death) and on unchastity in a betrothed damsel
(death by stoning), as contrasted with the mild prohibition of
prostitution. So long as it did not touch the race or the religion,
he tolerated it; and even this degree of disapproval was not
maintained, for Jephthah was the son of a harlot 2 (Judg. xi. i).
There is abundant evidence in the Old Testament that prostitu-
tion prevailed extensively in Palestine, even in the earlier and
more puritan days. The women were forbidden Jerusalem and
places of worship; they infested the waysides, and there is some
evidence of a distinctive dress or bearing, which was a marked
feature of the trade among the Greeks and Romans. In the
later period of aggrandisement that increase of licentious
indulgence which Moses had foreseen took place, associated with
infidelity. The people plunged into debauchery, the invariable
sign of national decadence, which has always accompanied
over-prosperity and security, and has always heralded national
destruction. Before leaving the Jews, it may be noted as an
interesting fact that the remarkable series of ordinances laid
down by Moses in the interest of public health contains unmis-
takable recognition of venereal disease and its contagious
character (Lev. xv.).
Passing on to the ancient Greeks, we find prostitution treated
at Athens on a new principle. The regulations of Solon were
designed to preserve public order and decency. He established
houses of prostitution (dicteria), which were a state monopoly
and confined to certain quarters. The dicteriades were forbidden
the superior parts of the town, and were placed under various
disabilities. They were compelled to wear a distinctive dress,
and, so far from being connected with religion, they were not
allowed to take part in religious services. These laws do not
seem to have been carried out at all effectually, and were
1 Neither " harlot " nor " whore " is the Anglo-Saxon for a prosti-
tute, for which the word is milteslre (so in Matt. xxi. 31). " Whore "
came into English from Scandinavian sources. It was not spelled
with the initial w till the beginning of the i6th century. The earlier
forms are hore or hoore. The word appears in many Teutonic lan-
guages, Dan. hore, Swed. hora, Du. hoer, Ger. Hure. The ultimate
origin has been taken to be the root meaning " to love," seen in
Lat. carus, dear. In its earliest usages the word means " adulterer "
or " adulteress." It is frequent in the early version of the Bible
in the sense of prostitute. Harlot," possibly, as the New English
Dictionary points out, as a less offensive word, is frequent in 16th-
century versions.
The word " harlot " first appears without its present application
and usually of men, in the sense ot rogue, vagabond, sometimes
even with no evil significance at all, much as we use " fellow."
Thus in the prologue to the Canterbury Tales, 647, where the
" Somonour " is called a " gentil harlot and a kynde." The word
came from Fr. arlot, masculine, arlotte, feminine. Du Cange (Glossa-
rium) defines med. Lat. arlotus, as Helluo, ventri deditus, and gives
the Fr. arlot as an equivalent, with the meaning homo nihili, frifton,
coquin. The Cathoiicon anglicum (1483) defines " harlott ' as
joculator, joculatrix, histrio, histrix, connecting the word with the
wandering players, actors, jugglers, of the day. The ultimate
origin of the Romanic word is unknown. Skeat connects it with the
Teutonic word, which appears in Ger. kerl, Eng. " churl," which
means " man," " fellow. Like " bigot " (q.v.), the word has been
fancifully derived from the name of a person, viz. Arietta or Arlotta,
the mother of William the Conqueror (William Lambarde, 1536-1601,
Perambulation of Kent, pub. 1576).
PROSTITUTION
459
presently relaxed. After the Persian wars more stringent
regulations were again introduced. The dieter iades were placed
under police control, and were liable to prosecution for various
offences, such as ruining youths, committing sacrilege and treason
against the state. It is clear, however, that as time went on
the Athenian authorities experienced the difficulties encountered
by modern administrations in carrying out state regulation.
There were grades of prostitution, socially though not legally
recognized, and women of a superior order were too powerful
for the law, which failed to maintain the ban against them. The
Creek lictaerae, who were prostitutes, not "mistresses," and
the most gifted and brilliant members of their class known to
history, wielded great and open influence. The test case of
1'hryne, in which the stern attitude previously maintained by
the Areopagus broke down, established their triumph over the
law, deprived virtuous women of their sole advantage, and
opened the door to general laxity. In later times any one could
set up a dicterion on payment of the tax. In other Greek cities
extreme licence prevailed. At Corinth, which was famous for
sensual practices, a temple, with a huge staff of common prosti-
tutes for attendants, was established in honour of Aphrodite
and for the accommodation of the sailors frequenting the port.
The worship of this goddess became generally debased into an
excuse for sexual excesses.
The Romans united the Jewish pride of race with the Greek
regard for public decency, and in addition upheld a standard of
austerity all their own. In early days female virtue was highly
honoured and strenuously maintained among them, of which
the institution of the vestal virgins was a visible sign. Their
attitude towards prostitution differed, accordingly, from that
of other ancient nations. Among them, alone, it was considered
disgraceful to a man to frequent the company of prostitutes;
and this traditional standard of social conduct, which markedly
distinguished them from the Greeks, retained sufficient force
down to the later days of the Republic to furnish Cicero with a
weapon of rhetorical attack against his political opponents,
whom he denounced as scortatores. Prostitution was more
severely regulated by them than by any other ancient race.
They introduced the system of police registration, which is the
leading feature of administration in most European countries
to-day. From the earliest days of the Republic prostitutes
were required to register at the aediles' office, where licences
were issued to them on payment of a tax. They were placed
under stringent control, had to wear a distinctive dress, dye their
hair or wear yellow wigs, and were subject to various civil
disabilities; but the severest feature of the system was that,
once registered, their names were never erased, and consequently
remained for ever under an indelible stain. As in our times,
registration became ineffective, and neither law nor tradition
could check the demoralizing influence of ease and luxury when
once external conquest left the Romans free to devote their
energies to the pursuit of pleasure. An attempt was made, by
the enactment of severer laws against prostitution, to stem the
rising tide of immorality, which threatened to taint the best
blood in Rome with the basest elements in the later days of the
Republic. Citizens were prohibited from marrying the descend-
ants or relatives of prostitutes, daughters of equestrians were
forbidden to become prostitutes, and married women who did
so were liable to penalties. More stringent regulations were also
imposed on prostitutes themselves, in addition to the old
disabilities and police system, which remained in force. If
these laws had any effect at all, it was to promote the general
prevalence of immorality; they certainly did not diminish
prostitution. The profligacy of imperial Rome has never been
surpassed for gross and obscene sensuality.
The -greatest change introduced by Christianity with regard
to prostitution was the adoption of a more charitable attitude
towards these social and legal outcasts. The Roman state
tax, which had descended to the emperors and had been further
regulated under Caligula, was partly given up in the 4th century
by Theodosius, on the representations of Florentius, a wealthy
patrician, who offered to make good the loss of revenue out of his
own pocket. It was fully and finally abolished by Anastasius I.
in the next century, and the old registers were destroyed.
Then some of the civil disabilities of prostitutes were removed by
Justinian in the 6th century. Gibbon, who never gave credit
for a good motive when a base one could be found, attributes
Justinian's action solely to his desire to marry Theodora, whose
life had been notorious; and no doubt she influenced him in the
matter, but it is permissible to assume a good motive. Even
Gibbon is constrained to admit her virtue after marriage, and
to give her credit for " the most benevolent institution " of
Justinian's reign, the rescue home for fallen women in Con-
stantinople, which was at any rate disinterested. Though it
did not succeed, it marks a turning-point in the treatment of a
class which had never met with public sympathy before. At
the same time procuration and connivance were severely
punished, which is in keeping with the Christian attitude.
The early Christian Church laid great stress on chastity, which
probably suggested to its Roman persecutors the horrible
punishment of forcibly prostituting Christian maidens. Such
malignity enhanced the glory of martyrdom without shaking
the constancy of its victims; and the triumph of purity in an age
of unbounded licence was conspicuously recognized by Alaric,
the Gothic conqueror, who gave strict orders in the sack of Rome
that the virtue of Christian women was to be respected. The
church, however, was not severe upon prostitutes, to whom the
altar was open upon repentance, and some of the fathers ex-
plicity recognized their trade as a necessary evil. Among them
was St Augustine, a man of the world, who saw that its sup-
pression would stimulate more destructive forms of immorality.
Gradually charity degenerated into patronage. Rome, con-
quered spiritually by Christianity and materially by the northern
barbarians, sapped the virtue of both. Before the middle
ages the institutions and ministers of the Church became a
by-word for vice. Charlemagne made an effort to suppress the
prevailing disorder, but his private life was licentious, and his
capitularies, which ordained the scourging of prostitutes and
panders, were not inspired by any regard for morality. A period
of reform followed. The rise of chivalry, with its lofty idealiza-
tion of women, and the wave of Christian fervour connected
with the Crusades, inspired a vigorous and high-minded cam-
paign against an all-prevalent evil. The Church became ex-
ceedingly active in prevention and rescue work, and was assisted
by a devout and zealous laity. Rescue missions were organized,
convents were founded everywhere for the reception of penitents,
and dowries were subscribed to procure them husbands. Fulke
de Neuilly was a conspicuous figure in this work. He held mis-
sions, preached, and collected large sums for marriage dowries.
Pope Innocent III. (1198-1216) pronounced it a praiseworthy
act to marry a prostitute; and Gregory IX., a few years later,
wrote to Germany that brothel-keepers were not to prevent
prostitutes from attending missions, and that clergy and laity
who drew profit from prostitution were banned. " Urge bache-
lors," he wrote, " to marry repentant girls, or induce the latter
to enter the cloister." In spite of such efforts, and of occasional
spasms of severity by individual rulers, prostitution flourished
everywhere throughout the middle ages. It was not merely
tolerated, but licensed and regulated by law. In London there
was a row of " bordells " (brothels) or " stews " in the Borough
near London Bridge. They were originally licensed by the
bishops of Winchester, according to John Noorthouck, and
subsequently sanctioned by parliament. Stow quotes the regu-
lations enacted in the year 1161, during the reign of Henry II.
These were rather protective than repressive, as they
settled the rent which women had to pay for the rooms, and
forbade their compulsory detention. The act was afterwards
confirmed in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. In
1383 the bordells belonged to William Wai worth, lord mayor
of London, who farmed them out, probably on behalf of the
Corporation, according to analogy in other parts of Europe.
They were closed in 1506, but reopened until 1546, when they
were abolished by Henry VIII. In London we get the earliest
known regulations directed against the spread of venereal
460
PROSTITUTION
disease. The act of 1161 forbade the bordell-keepers to have
women suffering from the "perilous infirmity of burning"; and
by an order of 1430 they were forbidden to admit men suffering
from an infirmitas nefanda. Probably it was by virtue of this
order that in 1439 two keepers were condemned to eleven days'
imprisonment and banishment from the city. In 1473, again,
it is recorded that bawds and strumpets were severely handled
by Lord Mayor Hampton.
Elsewhere in Europe much the same state of things prevailed
during the same period. Prostitution was both protected and
regulated, and in many places it constituted a source of public
revenue. In France prostitutes were distinguished by a badge,
and forbidden to wear jewels and fine stuffs and to frequent
certain parts of the town. Public brothels on a large scale were
established at Toulouse, Avignon and Montpellier. At Toulouse
the profits were shared between the city and the university;
at Montpellier and Avignon the trade was a municipal monopoly,
and farmed out to individuals; at Avignon, where the estab-
lishment was kept up during the whole period of the popes'
residence, the inmates were subjected to a weekly examination.
In 1254 Louis IX. issued an edict exiling prostitutes and brothel-
keepers; but it was repealed two years later, though in this and
the succeeding century procuration was punished with extreme
severity. In some parts of France prostitutes paid a tax to the
seigneur. In Germany, according to Fiducin, the public pro-
tection of Lust-Dirnen was a regular thing in all the large towns
dXiring the middle ages. " Frauenhauser," similar to those
in London and in France, existed in many places. They are
mentioned in Hamburg in 1292; and from later records it appears
that they were built by the corporation, which farmed them.
So also in Ulm, where special regulations were issued in 1430.
We find them existing at Regensburg in 1306, at Zurich in 1314,
at Basel in 1356 and Vienna in 1384. According to Henne-am-
Rhyn, admission to these houses was forbidden to married men,
clergy and Jews, and on Sundays and saints' days they were
closed. The laws of the emperor Frederick II. in the I3th
century contain some curious provisions. Any one convicted
of a criminal assault on a prostitute against her will was liable to
be beheaded; if she made a false accusation she was subject to
the same penalty. Any one not going to the assistance of a
woman calling for help was liable to a heavy fine. In these
ordinances the influence of chivalry may be detected. At the
same time prostitutes were forbidden to live among respectable
women or go to the baths with them. Hospitality to important
guests included placing the public Frauenhauser at their dis-
posal. So King (afterwards Emperor) Sigismund was treated
at Bern in 1414 and at Ulm in 1434, so much to his satisfaction
that he publicly complimented his hosts on it. Besides the
municipal Frauenhauser, there were " Winkelhauser," which
were regarded as irregular competitors. In 1492 the licensed
women of Nuremberg complained to the mayor of this unfair
competition, and in 1508 they received his permission to storm
the obnoxious Winkelhaus, which they actually did. In Italy
and Spain the system appears to have been very much the same.
At Bologna prostitutes had to wear a distinctive dress, in Venice
they were forbidden to frequent the wine-shop, and in Ravenna
they were compelled to leave a neighbourhood on the complaint
of other residents. At Naples a court of prostitutes was
established, having jurisdiction over everything connected with
prostitution. It led to great abuses, was reformed in 1589, and
abolished about a century later.
Such was the state of things in the middle ages. In ihe i sth
and 1 6th -centuries a great change took place. It was due to
two very different causes : (i) fear of disease; (2) the Reformation.
With regard to the first, there can be little doubt that both the
slighter and graver forms of venereal disease existed in very
remote times, but until the isth century they attracted com-
paratively little attention. The constitutional character of
syphilis was certainly not understood which is by no means
surprising, since its pathology has only recently been elucidated
(see VENEREAL DISEASES) but one would still have expected
to find more notice taken of it by historical, moral and medical
writers in classical and medieval times. Nor is it possible to
explain their reticence by prudery, in view of the unbounded
literary licence permitted in those ages. One can only conclude
that the evil was less widely spread or less virulent than it after-
wards became. At the end of the 1 5th century it attracted so
much notice that it was supposed to have originated then de
nova, or to have been brought from the West Indies by Columbus
both untenable hypotheses; and, as usual, each country
accused some other of bringing the contagion within its borders.
To speculate on the cause of this increased prevalence would
be idle; it is enough to note the fact and its consequences. It
was immediately followed by the Reformation, and the two
together led to a general campaign against the system of licensed
prostitution. The last Frauenhaus was closed in Ulm in 1531,
in Basel in 1534 and in Nuremberg in 1562. In London, as
already noted, the bordells were abolished in 1546. In Paris
an ordinance was issued in 1560 prohibiting these establish-
ments, and later all prostitutes were required to leave the city
within twenty-four hours. These instances will suffice to show
the general character of the movement. Nor were municipal
brothels ever tolerated again. It is observed by Henne-am-Rhyn
no friend of toleration that their suppression was followed by
the appearance of the crime of infanticide, by the establishment
of hospitals for foundlings and for syphilis. This suggests an
indictment against humanity which is hardly justified by the
facts. Infanticide was no new thing, and foundling hospitals
date from the beginning of the i3th century. Their marked
increase and the establishment of syphilitic hospitals came a
century later than the Reformation campaign against the
Frauenhauser. The suppression of the latter did not affect the
prevalence of prostitution. In the i;th century another spasm
of severity occurred. In 1635 an edict was issued in Paris con-
demning men concerned in the traffic to the galleys for life;
women and girls to be whipped, shaved and banished for life,
without formal trial. These ordinances were modified by Louis
XIV. in 1684. The Puritan enactments in England were equally
savage. Fornication was punishable by three months' imprison-
ment, followed by bail for good behaviour. Bawds were con-
demned to be whipped, pilloried, branded and imprisoned
for three years; the punishment for a second offence was death.
In Hamburg all brothels were pulled down and the women ex-
pelled from the town. If these measures had any effect, it was
speedily lost in a greater reaction; but they have some historical
interest, as the present system was gradually evolved from them.
It would be tedious and unprofitable to follow all the steps,
the shifts and turns of policy, adopted in different countries
during the i8th century for the suppression or control of an
incurable evil. They involve no new principle, and merely
represent phases in the evolution of the more settled and more
systematic procedure in force at the present time. Its chief
feature, as compared with the past, is the establishment of an
organized police force, to which the control of prostitution is
entrusted, coupled with a general determination to put the sub-
ject out of sight and ignore it as far as possible. The procedure
on the continent of Europe is virtually a return to the old Roman
system of registration and supervision, except that there is no
state tax, and names can be removed from the register. The
objects are the same, namely, public order and decency, with
one important addition, which has given rise to much con-
troversy. This is the protection of health. From what has
gone before, the reader will have gathered that it is not, as fre-
quently supposed, a new thing. Already in the middle ages the
question occupied the attention of parliament in England,
and a weekly examination of public women by the barber (the
surgeon of that time) was instituted at Avignon. The practice
was adopted in Spain from about 1500, and later in many other
places. But the abolition of licensed brothels, and the con-
sequent growth of private prostitution, rendered it a dead letter.
To meet the difficulty, registration was devised. It was first
suggested in France in 1765, but was not adopted until 1778.
The present regulations in France are based on the ordinances
of that year and of 1780 which in their turn were borrowed from
PROSTITUTION
461
those of the i6th and i;th centuries, previously mentioned.
The theory of the modern attitude towards prostitution is clearly
laid down by successive ordinances issued in Berlin. Those of
1700 stated that " this traffic is not permitted, but merely
tolerated "; the more precise ones of 1792 pronounced the
toleration of prostitution a necessary evil, " to avoid greater
disorders which are not to be restrained by any law or authority,
and which take their rise from an inextinguishable natural
appetite "; and the regulations of 1850 and 1876 are headed:
' Polizi-iliche Vorschriften zur Sicherung der Gesundheit, der
dlTentlichen Ordnung und des offentlichen Anstandes. " This
embraces the whole theory of present administration, and if
Cirstiiidlicil be omitted, is not less applicable to the United King-
dom than to the continent. The last attempt to suppress pro-
stitution in Germany is worth noting, as it occurred so late as
1845. Registration was stopped and the tolerated houses were
<l in Berlin, Halle and Cologne. The attempt was a com-
plete failure, and it was abandoned in 1851 in favour of the
previous system.
\Ve proceed to state the present condition of the law in France,
Germany, Austria and the United Kingdom.
France. The French criminal law takes no cognizance of
prostitution. The subject was omitted from the penal code
drawn up by the first Republic, and was never
restored, although many attempts were made to
introduce legislation, on account of the great dis-
order which arose. Procuration is to a certain extent a criminal
offence. Paragraph 334 of the code forbids the exciting, favour-
ing or facilitating habitually the debauch of girls or boys under
twenty-one years of age; the penalty is imprisonment for six
months to two years, and a fine of 50 to 500 francs. If the offence
is committed by parents, guardians or other persons in a
tutelary position, imprisonment is from two to five years, and the
tint.- 300 to 1000 francs. The regulation of prostitution rests on
the law of 1790, which entrusted the preservation of public tran-
quillity to the administrative authorities; these are in Paris the
prefect of police, and in other communes the mayor. The
Parisian regulations have been built up by the decrees of succes-
sive prefects. They are based on those of 1778, which fell into
abeyance at the Revolution, were reintroduced in 1816, amended
in 1823, and made more complete in 1830 and 1841. Those
adopted in other towns do not differ in any essential particular.
The more important points are: (i) registration of prostitutes,
which is either voluntary, or compulsory after repeated arrest;
(2) recognized brothels, which are of two classes maisons de
tolerance (residential) and maisons de passe (houses of call) ;
(3) medical examination, which is weekly at the maisons de
tolerance, while other registered prostitutes must present them-
selves fortnightly at the dispensary; (4) hospital treatment of
those found diseased; (5) rules with regard to solicitation, the
frequenting of public places, &c. A small fee is paid for ex-
amination. The penalty for infraction of regulations is imprison-
ment; offences arc divided into two classes: (i) slight, (2) grave,
and the term of imprisonment varies accordingly from fourteen
days to one year. Names may be erased from the register on
the following grounds: (i) marriage, (2) organic disease such
as to render the calling impossible, (3) return to relations and
proof of good behaviour. The whole procedure appears to rest
on grounds of doubtful legality. Prostitution never comes
before the courts which alone can try offences and pronounce
sentence. The police have no power to do so, yet they both try
and sentence these women. That is to say, the whole system
depends on their doing, by some verbal quibble, what they have
no power to do. The question came before the court of Reims
in 1876, in the case of two women who refused to submit to
medical examination, and the judge decided in their favour.
He was dismissed in consequence, which does not make the
situation more satisfactory.
drrmany. The German law is more explicit and more logical.
Prostitution is not forbidden, but by paragraph 361 of the
Imperial Code women are liable to arrest for practising prosti-
tution without being under police control, and for contravening
regulations after they have been placed under such control.
This brings the traffic completely under the police, and gives legal
sanction to their regulations. These vary to some extent in
different places, but their general tenor is the same. They
include compulsory registration and weekly or semi-weekly
medical examination, together with rules, for the most part ex-
tremely strict, with regard to public demeanour and conditions
of life. In Hamburg, for instance, prostitutes are confined to
certain streets or houses, forbidden to share lodgings with persons
not registered, to have female servants under twenty-five years
of age, to keep children after school age, to admit young men
under twenty, to make a noise or quarrel, to attract attention
in any way, to go out between two and five in summer, to
frequent certain parts of the town, or public balls, or superior
scats in the theatre, to remain out after 1 1 p.m. (Regulations of
1886). On proved reclamation, supervision may be relaxed or
names struck off the register. Generally, the women are com-
pelled to contribute a fixed sum to a sick fund, for defraying
the cost of medical examination; and in some places also to a
journey fund, which is applied to sending strangers to their
homes. Brothels are absolutely illegal throughout Germany.
Paragraph 180 of the Imperial Code (1876) made Kuppelei a
penal offence. Kuppelei is defined as promoting prostitution,
either by procuration or by providing facilities of any kind. There
is (i) ordinary Kuppelei, or simply assisting prostitution for
gain, and (2) aggravated Kuppelei, which includes false pre-
tences and procuration by parents, guardians, teachers, &c.
The penalty for the former is a short term of imprisonment
and police supervision; for the latter, penal servitude up to five
years. It is obvious that if this law were strictly enforced, it
would amount to suppression, for every householder or house-
owner who harboured a prostitute would be liable to prose-
cution. Its actual interpretation, however, is very elastic. A
law passed in Prussia in 1900 has for its object the reclamation
of the young. Girls under eighteen may be placed under con-
trol until they are twenty-one.
Austria. The Austrian law goes farther than the German,
and is still more inconsistent with the existing practice. By
paragraph 5 of the Criminal Act of 1885 prostitution is actually
forbidden, but permission is given to the police to tolerate it
under conditions, and to prescribe regulations according to
circumstances. Power to punish is also given to the police.
Only certain cases of prostitution are liable to criminal prose-
cution, namely, when continued after police punishment, with
disregard of regulations, when practised by persons suffering
from venereal disease, and when accompanied by public scandal.
Seduction of the young is punishable by imprisonment, eight
days to six months; living on the prostitution of others, by eight
days to three months. Kuppelei is a penal offence. Simple
Kuppelei include (i) harbouring prostitutes for the purpose
of pursuing their trade, (2) procuration, (3) having any con-
nexion with the traffic penalty, three to six months' imprison-
ment; qualified Kuppelei is (i) procuration of innocent persons
(equivalent to use of false pretences), (2) procuration by parents,
guardians, &c. penalty, one to five years. The police regula-
tions and procedure are similar to those in Germany, but
less strict. In all these countries a special service of police is
employed.
Great Britain. The English law differs markedly from the
foregoing. It regards prostitution solely as a public nuisance,
and dates from the middle of the i8th century. The principal
act (25 Geo. II.) was passed in 1755, making perpetual a previous
act of 1752. It is entitled " An act for encouraging prosecutions
against persons keeping bawdy-houses," and provides that two
ratepayers, on giving notice to a constable, may go with him
before a justice and obtain an order for proceeding against the
persons in question. A further act was passed in 1763, fixing
the penalties, and a third in 1818 (58 Geo. III.), enabling the
overseers of the parish to take the requisite proceedings. Thus
machinery was provided for dealing with brothels, but it was
left to the public to put it in motion. The Vagrancy Act of
1824 enables the police to proceed against " common prostitutes
462
PROSTITUTION
for behaving in a riotous or indecent manner," and also forbids
indecent literature. This was strengthened by a special act
(1839) applying to London only, for the prevention of " loitering
for the purpose of prostitution or solicitation, to the annoyance
of passengers or inhabitants." Other large towns have since
obtained private acts for the same purpose. The penalties are
fines and short terms of imprisonment. In 1847 an act was
passed making it an offence for publicans to allow " common
prostitutes to assemble and continue " in licensed premises.
The Licensing Act of 1872 contains a provision to the same
effect. The previous law for dealing with brothels by indict-
ment was strengthened by the Criminal Law Amendment Act of
1885, which renders " any person who keeps, manages or acts
or assists in the management of a brothel," and any owner
or occupier who knowingly permits the same, liable to summary
conviction under the Summary Jurisdiction Act; penalties
for first offence, a fine up to 20, or imprisonment up to three
months, increased for second offence to 40 and four months
respectively. The same act also strengthened the law, which
had previously been very weak, for the protection of the young
and the prevention of procuration. It makes the procuration
or attempted procuration of any girl or woman " to become a
common prostitute " a misdemeanour punishable by two years'
imprisonment, and places the following offences on the same
footing: procuring defilement by threats, fraud or drugs; com-
pulsory detention for defilement or in a brothel; procuring the
defilement of girls under twenty-one; inducing them to leave
the kingdom or to leave home and go to a brothel, with intent.
The defilement of girls under sixteen and over thirteen years
of age is also a misdemeanour, and subject to the same penalty;
the defilement of girls under thirteen is felony, punishable by
penal servitude from five years up to a life-sentence. Owners
or occupiers of premises conniving at these offences are equally
liable.
No account of the law in the United Kingdom would be
complete without some reference to the partial adoption of the
system of examination as employed elsewhere in Europe in
1864-1883. In 1864 a Contagious Diseases Prevention Act was
passed providing for the compulsory medical examination of
prostitutes, and detention in hospital of those found diseased,
in the following garrison towns: Portsmouth, Plymouth,
Woolwich, Chatham, Sheerness, Aldershot, Colchester, Shorn-
cliffe, the Curragh, Cork and Queenstown. The legal machinery
was a justices' order granted on sworn information that the
woman named was a common prostitute. " The Act having
proved very inefficacious " (judge advocate-general in House
of Commons, April 1883), it was amended in 1866 and extended
to Windsor. Two years later an important memorial was drawn
up by the royal colleges of physicians and surgeons in favour
of the acts and their extended application, and in 1869 they
were further amended and applied to Canterbury, Dover,
Gravesend, Maidstone, Southampton and Winchester eighteen
places in all. A popular agitation, based on humanitarian and
moral grounds, and continuously carried on against the measure
led to the appointment of a royal commission in 1871 and a
select committee in 1879. The direct evidence was strongly
in favour of the acts, alike with regard to the diminution of
disease among the troops in the protected towns, the absence
of complaints and the good effect on public order, to which
clergymen and other residents testified. The majority of the
committee reported accordingly after three years' inquiry;
but in 1883 the House of Commons passed a resolution, by
182 to no votes, condemning the compulsory examination
of women. As this would have entailed refusal to vote the
money required to carry on the system, it was immediately
dropped, and the officers of the metropolitan police to whom its
execution had been entrusted were recalled. In 1886 the
C. D. Acts were repealed.
In India the system was introduced for military cantonments
in 1865, partially suspended at the end of 1884, and stopped in
1888 on account of the action of the House of Commons. A new
Cantonment Act was applied in 1889, and an amending act
in 1893, by which the compulsory or periodical examination
of women was prohibited. In consequence of the enormous
increase of syphilis which followed, a new order was made in
1897, which gave power (i) to call on persons suffering from a
contagious disease to attend the dispensary, (2) to remove
brothels, (3) to prevent the residence or loitering of prostitutes
near cantonments.
The foregoing summary of existing laws and regulations
sufficiently indicates the present methods of dealing with pro-
stitution. All Western nations broadly follow one or other
of the systems described, though the local regulations may vary
somewhat in minor details.
The French system of recognized houses, with registration,
police des mceurs, &c., obtains in Belgium, Russia, Hungary,
Spain and Portugal; Italy adopted it in 1855, but conditions
abandoned it in 1888 for a modified system; in the actually
Dutch towns maisons de tolerance are permitted exlstl "f-
with or without a service des masurs; Norway has aban-
doned registration, except in Bergen and Trondhjem, but
otherwise Scandinavia rather follows the German principle
of non-recognition, with more or less vigorous policing; of the
Swiss cantons, some have the French, others the German
system; while the United States and the British self-governing
colonies incline more to the English model of comparative
freedom, without a moral police or one possessing arbitrary
executive powers independent of the courts of justice. All the
systems have their defects; all fail to fulfil their purpose in the
great cities. The most modest aim is to preserve public order
and propriety. This object is better secured on the continent
of Europe than elsewhere, but at the cost of submitting to an
arbitrary police rule, intolerable to a free people. There appears
to be less prostitution, both visible and actual, in Italy than in
other countries. Under the English system the streets can be,
and sometimes are, kept orderly in provincial towns by an
energetic police; but in London the mass of prostitution is
so great that the police seem totally unable to cope with it.
Important thoroughfares and centres are frequented by large
numbers of prostitutes in broad daylight, and choked by them
at night. The law with regard to loitering is a dead letter, for
these women do nothing but loiter. Flagrant solicitation is to
some extent repressed, but for the most part the police content
themselves with preventing positive tumults, and do not always
succeed in that. On the other hand the less obvious but more
pernicious nuisance of the brothel prevails to a far greater
extent on the continent of Europe. Under the French system
it is, of course, encouraged, in preference to " surreptitious " pro-
stitution; but under the German it is forbidden. The facts
here afford a proof of the impotence of the law no less striking
than the condition of the London streets. By the German and
Austrian criminal law, quoted above, brothels are prohibited, yet
they abound in both countries. In Austria they are recognized,
and perhaps the logic of the law is saved by permissive police
clauses. In Germany it is not so. Paragraph 180 absolutely
disposes of the question, and in Berlin it is acted on. Elsewhere
brothels not only existed, but were recognized by authority for
years after the passing of the laws against Kuppelei. It was
not until 1886 and 1889 that they were nominally abolished in
Hamburg and Saxony respectively. Yet they still exist in
most or all of the large towns, with the knowledge and consent,
if not with the permission, of the police. In some they are even
authorized. Berlin, which is more severely policed than any
town outside Russia, is an exception. There brothels are not
openly winked at, but the police have to deal annually with
16,000 or 17,000 charges of Kuppelei, and the number remains
very constant, from which it may be inferred that the law, even
when logically and energetically carried out, is quite ineffective.
The European system of registration is still more delusive. In
Russia, where the authorities have the means of knowing the
movements and habits of every individual, it may be possible
to compel the registration of the majority of prostitutes, but in
other countries it is impossible. The police everywhere com-
plain of the amount of " clandestine " prostitution, which they
PROSTITUTION
463
cannot control, and which tends always to increase, under the
in, while the roll of inscribed women dwindles. The numbers
alone are sufficient to prove the failure of the procedure; for in-
stance, ; 1 1 and 270 in Dresden and Munich respectively (Zehnder
1891), both capital towns and cities of pleasure containing over
300,000 inhabitants. Cologne, with only half the population,
had double the number on the register at the same time. In
Paris, which may be called the headquarters of Western vice,
the disproportion between registered and clandestine prostitu-
tion has reduced the whole system to an absurdity. The number
of women on the roll is not a tenth of the estimated number of
prostitutes; nor is Berlin, with about 3000 on the register, any
better off. In Bordeaux, Brest, Lille, Lyons and Marseilles
the same process is going on (Reuss). It follows that the pro-
tection of health, which is the object aimed at by registration,
is delusive in an equal degree. There are no means of ascer-
taining the amount of venereal disease existing in any town or
country, except in Norway, and consequently, no data for com-
paring one period or one place with another; but we know that
all forms of such disease are still very prevalent in all large
European towns, in spite of the system. The only exact figures
available are the military returns, which are of some value.
It is in garrison towns of moderate size that compulsory regis-
tration is likely to be most efficiently carried out and to pro-
duce the most decided results, because the women with whom
soldiers consort are by their character and habits least able to
elude the vigilance of the police. The following table gives the
proportion of admissions to hospital from all forms of venereal
disease in the German, French, Austrian and British forces
for twenty years from 1876. It may be added that the pro-
portion in the Russian army is almost identical with the French,
while the Italian figures are slightly higher than the Austrian.
It is therefore unnecessary to give them:
Admissions per 1000 in European Armies.
Year.
German.
French.
Austrian.
British
(Home).
British
(India).
1876
28-8
57-o
65-8
146-5
203-5
1877
30-0
57-8
66-9
153-2
224-4
1878
36-0
59-7
75-4
175-5
291-6
1879
38-5
63-7
81-4
179-5
253-3
1880
34-9
65-8
75-7
245-9
249-0
1881
39-2
60-6
79-0
245-5
259-6
1882
41-0
62-0
73-7
246-0
265-5
1883
38-2
58-9
73-3
260-0
27I-3
1884
34-5
52-1
73-5
270-7
293-5
1885
32-6
50-7
69-0
275-4
342-6
1886
29-7
49-6
65-8
267-1
385-8
1887
28-6
51-6
64-4
252-9
36I-4
1888
26-3
46-7
65-4
224-5
372-2
1889
26-7
45-8
' 65-3
2I2-I
481-5
1890
26-7
43-8
65-4
212-4
503-6
1891
27-2
43-7
63-7
197-4
400-7
1892
27-9
44-0
61-6
201-2
409-9
1893
42-8
64-5
194-6
466-0
1894
40-9
64-8
182-4
5"-4
I89S
173-8
522-3
The most striking thing in this table is the enormous difference
between the continental and the British figures. To make the
comparison more complete, we will add the following, which gives
the average admissions per 1000 for the three years 1890-1892:
German.
French.
Rus-
sian.
Aus-
trian.
Italian.
U.S.A.
British
(Home).
British
(India).
Dutch
(Indies).
27-2
43-6
43-o
63-5
71-3
77-4
203-6
438-0
455-6
It is clear at once that troops in the East stand upon an entirely
different footing from those in the West, the Dutch figures being
even higher than the British; we may therefore put them aside
for the moment. Comparing the rest, we notice that not only
are the British figures enormously higher than the other European,
but the latter also show very large discrepancies; and since all
the foreign troops are under the same protective system, we may
conclude that other factors must be taken into account. The
discipline maintained, the character of the soldiers themselves,
and the procedure with regard to admission into hospital, no
doubt all affect the returns. Further, a sort of epidemic rise
and fall is to be noted. All the returns given in the first table
show a simultaneous rise for several years, beginning with 1876;
and having reached a maximum, each shows a progressive fall,
likewise lasting over several years. This points to another
disturbing factor. It is convincingly, shown by the figures for
the protected districts in the United Kingdom before, during,
and after the period of protection. In 1864 that is, just before
the first Contagious Diseases Act came into operation the
proportional figure was 260; ten years later it had fallen to
126; but in 1883 it had risen again to 234, in spite of the pro-
tection. Then, protection being removed, it rose to 276, but
afterwards fell again progressively to 191 in 1895, without any
protection. It is therefore evident that in interpreting the
statistics allowance must be made for large fluctuations due to
causes quite independent of the protective system. The margin
of difference, however, between the British and European re-
turns is so large that, when all allowances have been made, it is
impossible to doubt that a considerable degree of real protection
is afforded to soldiers by the system. This conclusion is con-
firmed by the comparatively high returns for the army of the
United States, and still more by the Indian statistics. They
rose gradually, it is true, during the cantonment system, but
when that was dropped disease increased with shocking rapidity.
Between 1887 and 1895 the admissions for primary syphilis
rose from 75-5 to 174-1 per 1000, and those for secondary
syphilis from 29-4 to 84-9.
The broad conclusion is that under special conditions, and
when rigidly enforced, registration and medical examination
do to a considerable extent fulfil the purpose of protecting health.
Their failure to do so among the population at large and .under
the ordinary conditions of life is not surprising when we regard
the amount of venereal disease which still occurs even among
soldiers protected by the most rigorous measures and under the
most favourable conditions.
A general view of the whole subject suggests no pleasant
or hopeful conclusions. Prostitution appears to be inseparable
from human society in large communities. In different countries
and ages it has in turn been patronized and prohibited, ignored
and recognized, tolerated and condemned, regulated and let
alone, flaunted and concealed. Christianity, the greatest moral
force in the history of mankind, has repeatedly and syste-
matically attacked it with a scourge in one hand and balm in
the other; but the effect has been trifling or transient. Nor
have all the social and administrative resources of modern civi-
lization availed to exercise an effective control. The elemen-
tary laws on which prostitution rests are stronger than the artificial
codes imposed by moral teaching, conventional standards or
legislatures; and attempts at repression only lead to a change
of form, not of substance. It survives all treatment; and
though it may coexist with national vigour, its extravagant
development is one of the signs of a rotten and decaying civili-
zation. In Western communities the traffic is not carried on
so openly as in the East, nor is it exploited for purposes of public
revenue, as among the ancients and in the middle ages; a veil
of reticence and secrecy, for the most part of a transparently
flimsy character, is thrown over it; but whatever is gained in
public decency is counterbalanced by other attendant evils.
Two, in particular, are fostered by the policing of prostitutes.
One is the system of blackmail levied by the executive. The
scandal has been most notorious in the United States, but it
exists everywhere, and is a constant source of profound cor-
ruption. The other is the growth of the most degraded class
that ever disgraced the name of man the creatures who live
upon the earnings of individual prostitutes, with whom they
cohabit. They are called souteneurs in France, louis in Germany,
cadets in New York, and by various slang names in Great Britain.
They are all criminals. They flourish chiefly on the continent of
Europe, where they exist in large and ever-increasing numbers;
but they find their way everywhere, and are a dangerous
464
PROSTYLE PROTECTION
menace to society. They are not altogether new. The Eliza-
bethan drama is full of references to men who took toll of
prostitutes in return for protective services in the old days of
persecution; but they have been greatly fostered by the modern
system, under which women find it necessary or convenient to
have the cover of a man, who can pass for a husband and baffle
the police. Thus the law is evaded on the one hand by the cor-
ruption of those who administerit, and on the other by the appear-
ance of a class of criminal idlers more degraded than any other
both greater evils than the traffic which the law is intended, but
fails, to control. There are no data for comparing the extent
of profligacy at present existing in Western communities with
that in other countries or in former times, but the unmentionable
facts which come constantly to the knowledge of the police
des mteurs, and less frequently to the ears of doctors, and
lawyers, leave no doubt that in intensity of vice the great centres
of modern civilization have nothing whatever to learn from
Corinth, imperial Rome, ancient Egypt or modern China. The
classical obscenities dug up and relegated to museums are far
surpassed by the photographic abominations prepared to-day
in Paris or in Amsterdam. The gross perversion and abuse of
the sexual instinct implied by these excesses may be a passing
phase, but it is a phase which has always marked the decadence
of great nations. It is undoubtedly accompanied by a general
tendency towards increase of the volume of prostitution. Im-
provement in the conditions of life among the poor ought to tend
in the opposite direction, by removing one of the most potent
causes of the traffic, but it is more than counterbalanced by the
rising standard of luxury and comfort which accompanies it, by
the aggregation of the people more and more into great cities,
and by their craving for amusement. The growth of prosti-
tution has already left its marks on the marriage- and birth-
rates of the most highly civilized Western communities.
In 1900 the Prussian Government made an attempt, with the
co-operation of the medical corporations, to ascertain the amount
of venereal disease prevalent in the kingdom. Circular questions
were addressed to all members of the medical profession requesting
them to report the number of patients suffering from those disorders
in their practice at the date of the 1st of April. Answers were
sent in by 63%, and the aggregate number of patients was 40,902.
From this datum it is calculated that the number of persons attacked
in the course of a year is at the very least 500,000 in Prussia alone
(vide Hygienische Rundschau, April 1902).
AUTHORITIES. W. F. Amos, State Regulation of Vice; Committee of
Fifteen (New York), The Social Evil (1902) ; Conference Internationale
(Brussels, 1899), Camples rendus; Fiaux, La Prostitution en Belgique;
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Henne-am-Rhyn,
Die Gebrechen der Sitten-polizei; Parent- Duchatelet, De la prostitu-
tion dans la ville de Paris; Reuss, La Prostitution; Von Raumer,
Geschichte der Hohenslaufen ; Sanger, History of Prostitution; Schlegel,
Histoire de la prostitution en Chine; Schrank, Die Prostitution in
Wien; Stunner, Die Prostitution in Russland; Tarnowsky, La
Prostitution; Zehnder, Die Gefahren der Prostitution. (A. SL.)
PROSTYLE (Gr. irpo, before, and orCXoj, a column), in
architecture, a portico in which the columns project from the
building to which it is attached.
PROTAGORAS (c. 481-411 B.C.), Greek philosopher, was
born at Abdera. He is known as the first of the Sophists (q.v.),
i.e. he was the first to teach for payment. It is said that he
received nearly 400 from a single pupil. He learned philosophy
in the Ionian school, and was perhaps a pupil of Democritus,
though this is doubtful on chronological grounds. He was an
older contemporary of Socrates. He was so highly esteemed by
Pericles that he was entrusted with the task of framing laws
for the new colony of Thurii (Plut. Pericles, 36). At the age of
seventy, having been accused by Pythodorus, and convicted of
atheism, Protagoras fled 'from Athens, and on his way to Sicily
was lost at sea. According to Plato (Prot., 318 E), he en-
deavoured to communicate " prudence " (eii/3ouXia) to his
pupils, " which should fit them to manage their households, and
to take part by word and deed in civic affairs." The education
which he provided consisted of rhetoric, grammar, style and
the interpretation of the poets. His formal lectures were
supplemented by discussions amongst his pupils. He left behind
him several treatises, of which only a few fragments have
survived. In Truth, by way of justifying his rejection of philo-
sophy or science, he maintained that " man is the measure of
all things of what is, that it is, and of what is not, that it is
not." Besides Truth, and the book Of the Gods which caused
his condemnation at Athens, Diogenes Laertius attributes to
him treatises on political, ethical, educational and rhetorical
subjects. Protagoras was the first to systematize grammar, dis-
tinguishing the parts of speech, the tenses and the moods.
AUTHORITIES. Diog. Laert., ix. 8, &c. ; the very different n
sentations in Plato's Protagoras and Theaetetus; (the fragments in
Johannes Frei, Quaestiones Protagoreae (Bonn, 1845), and A.
Vitringa, Disquisitio de Protagprae vita el Philosophia (Groninge,
1852); for the Thurian legislation, M. H. E. Meier, Opuscula, i. 222!
and Gomperz in Franz Hoffmann's Beitrage zur Gesch. des griech. und
rom. Rechts (1870). On Protagoras' philosophy see the histories
of philosophy, e.g. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans., 1901)
i. 438-475 and 586-592, Zeller, Ueberweg, Erdmann, and works
quoted under SOPHISTS.
PROTECTION, in economics a system of commercial policy
and a body of doctrine, which in their modem forms arc the
outgrowth of the commercial and industrial development of
the i gth century. The common definition of protection as a
policy is the attempt to develop a manufacturing industry by
a system of discriminating duties upon manufactured goods
imported from foreign couhtries. But this is far too narrow a
definition to suit the modern use of the term, though the notion
of discriminating tariffs is common and, we may say, basal to
all definitions. Protection as a policy includes not only dis-
criminating tariffs, but also a large number of other features
supplementary to this fundamental one and designed to em-
phasize its purpose. Thus a scheme of bounties and premiums,
of rebates and drawbacks, is everywhere considered an essential
element of the protective system. Nor is it any longer limited
to the encouragement of manufactures, but includes as well the
protection of agriculture, forestry, mining, fishing, shipping, &c.
In short, one cannot give a comprehensive and satisfactory
definition of protection to-day without giving it a much wider
scope than that of a system of protective duties upon manu-
facturing industry.
Many of its advocates claim, and with some show of reason,
that the term protection, as now used to describe thg com-
mercial policy of a nation, should be so defined as to
include all the means by which a country undertakes
to secure through the positive efforts of the govern-
ment the complete industrial and commercial development
of all its resources and of all its parts. As its object is thus
comprehensive, its justification is to be found in a series of
arguments based upon political, economic, and social consider-
ations. From this point of view the protective policy embraces
not merely the system of discriminating import duties in favour
of home products industrial, agricultural and mining, with
which the policy began in the United States, for example but
also the system of bounties offered for the introduction and
establishment of new industries; the policy of restricted immi-
gration of the less desirable classes of labourers, combined with
the positive inducements to the skilled labour of other countries
to transfer itself to the one in question; the system of dis-
criminating or prohibitive tonnage duties, known as Navigation
Acts; the system of developing foreign markets by an active
policy directed towards securing advantages for home products
in foreign countries in a word, all those pecuniary or other
sacrifices which a country may make in order to develop its
material resources and establish, develop and foster industry
and commerce. In this wide sense the comprehensive policy
adopted by the United States, for example, includes the making
of a careful geological and botanical survey of the whole country
in order to discover and open up the vast natural wealth of its
domain in its mines, forests and fields; the establishment of ex-
periment stations to test the usefulness of new crops or means
of making old crops more valuable; the stocking of its rivers
with fish and the afforesting of its mountains; the introduction
of new or more valuable breeds of livestock; the building of rail-
ways and canals, and the offering of inducements to private
parties to unde/take similar enterprises; the deepening of its
PROTECTION
465
rivers and harbours, &c.; and, finally, the development, at
public expense, of a scheme of technical and commercial edu-
cation lower and higher adapted to discover and train all
the talent in the community available for developing the in-
dustry and commerce of the country.
If such an account of the features of a protective policy is
objected to on the ground that free trade countries like Great
Hritain have also adopted some of them, it may be replied that
in so far as they have done so they have adopted the principle
of protection, namely, that government shall adopt a positive
policy looking towards the development, by government aid if
sary, of new branches of commerce and industry and the
tirmer establishment of old branches. It may further be pointed
out lhat the countries which have adopted the protective policy
i fully the United States, France, Germany and Russia
have most consistently followed out the policy here indicated .
and in all these countries it has been the so-called protectionist
party which has identified itself most fully with the compre-
hensive policy here suggested.
As a doctrine, protection is the set of principles by which this
policy of government aid to industry is justified, and these
principles have been elaborated hand in hand with
' the development of the so-called protective policy
sometimes outrunning its actual application and
advocating its further extension, more often lagging behind
and seeking for means of explaining and defending what had
already been done. The present development of the system and
theory of protection is a result of the growing predominance of
capitalism in modern society, combined with the tendency of
modern politics towards the organization and development of
great national states, with the resulting desire to secure their
industrial as well as their political independence. It has been
further favoured in certain ways by the fact that the financial
needs of modern states require a resort to indirect taxation,
thus making it easier for the capitalistic forces to exploit the
tax system for their own benefit; while the wars of the igth
century have favoured in many ways the tendency towards
the adoption of special means, like high discriminating duties,
to accomplish this end. Hand in hand with this has gone a
steady tendency to see in the state a powerful means of pro-
moting the development of trade and industry, and a growing
disbelief in the more extreme forms of the free trade doctrine,
such as the type known as the Manchester School, the theory
of the laissezfaire, laissez passer school of economics and politics.
Protection, both as a doctrine and policy, can be best under-
stood by examining the course of its development in those
countries adopting it most consistently. Germany and the
United States offer the two striking examples of great modern
nations adopting a system of protection and developing under
its influence. They may in a certain sense serve as types of
the kind of state which in the ipth century accepted and de-
fended, in its politics at any rate, the so-called protective system.
In both cases the high protective systam was associated with
the development of nationality, of industry, of capitalism, and
of a financial system which favoured the growth of certain
elements of the protective policy.
The protective system in the United States began with the
adoption of the Constitution in 1789, and found its first formal
defence in the celebrated report of Alexander Hamil-
ton on manufactures. The argument and the
movement were largely academic. As there was
no strong manufacturing interest in existence, so there was no
organized capitalistic effort to secure manipulation of the tariff
duties in the interest of special industries. There was general
agreement, however, that it would be desirable to develop a
manufacturing industry in the colonies if it were practicable.
A high degree of natural protection was already afforded by the
cost of transportation. It was felt, therefore, that a small duty
on manufactures would probably serve the purpose, since the
development of the manufactures would favour the production
of raw material, which would therefore need no special en-
couragement. It was also felt that a small duty, continued for
a few years, would result in the establishment of the industry
on such a firm basis that all duties might be abolished. The
introduction of this form of protection, i.e. discriminating duties
upon imported goods, was greatly assisted, if not originally
caused, by the fact that the new government needed money
which could most easily be obtained by customs duties. Thus
all those parties which were opposed to direct taxes joined their
efforts with those interested in securing protective duties, in
order to commit the government to the policy of basing its
revenue system on a tariff on imports. To these considerations
must be added the further one that the country had just thrown
off political dependence on Europe, and felt that it must now
become industrially independent also, if it were to be a great
nation. These influences, then, namely, firstly, the desire of the
statesmen of the time to create a revenue system for the Federal
government which would make it absolutely independent of the
stales; secondly, the wish to develop an industry which would
serve the needs of the new country while it promoted its complete
independence of the Old World, conspired to commit the Federal
government from the beginning to a policy of protection based
upon a system of discriminating duties. At the same time a
system of discriminating tonnage dues and prohibitory regu-
lations relating to foreign shipping in the coasting trade was
adopted to promote and foster the shipping interest.
Industry and commerce began to thrive as never before,
largely because of the absolute free trade which the Constitution
had secured among the states of the Union. The long struggle
between France and Great Britain, extending from 1806 to-
1812, for the possession of the commerce and the trade of the
world, combined with the retaliatory measures of the American
government itself, practically destroyed American commerce
for a time, and finally led to the British-American War of 1812,
which closed in 1815. The financial system of the Federal
government during this war was based on getting the largest
returns from the customs, so that the duties were screwed
up still higher. The ten years period of non-intercourse, while
it had seriously injured American commerce, had fostered the
growth of American manufacturing; and when the close of the
War of 1812 brought with it an enormous influx of foreign goods,
particularly from the plethoric warehouses and factories of
England, it looked for a time as though the new American indus-
tries were destined to vanish as rapidly as they had grown up.
And now for the first time appeared a strong, well-developed,
capitalistic party, which was, in spite of some drawbacks,
destined to grow until it became one of the most characteristic
features of the politics of the republic.
The manufacturers of the country determined the tariff policy
of the country, and with few reverses pursued a steadily ad-
vancing course of victory down to the close of the igth century.
They secured the maintenance of high duties at the close of the
war of 1812, and managed to increase them steadily until the
reaction of 1830-1833, when they were forced to content them-
selves with a lower rate, which continued, with a slight inter-
ruption in 1842-1846, until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861.
This was an opportunity which they knew how'to utilize to the
greatest advantage. During the war, when the government
was forced to exploit every possible source of revenue, the pro-
tectionist party knew how to turn the necessities of the govern-
ment to its advantage. The rate of duties was pressed ever
higher; and when the war closed, and the taxes could again
be lowered, the protectionist managers knew how to lower or
remit altogether the non-protective duties, and thus keep high,
and even advance to a still higher point, the duties which
protected them from foreign competition.
In the meantime the country was turning from agriculture
to manufactures at an unprecedented rate. The manufactur-
ing party was becoming ever stronger and more aggressive. As
it had also been the national party, it profited by the enormous
development of the nationalist sentiment during and after the-
war. It now became patriotic to favour the development of a
national industry. It was treason to advocate free trade that
had been the policy of the slave-holders' party, and the Slave-
PROTECTION
holders' Rebellion, as the Civil War was called, had drawn its
strength largely from the free-trade sentiment. The policy of the
protectionist party had expanded with the growth of the country
and the necessity of coming to terms with the antagonistic
elements. Thus at first the platform of the protectionists had
been one of reasonably low duties on manufactured commodities,
low duties on half-manufactured and no duties at all on raw
material. But as the country advanced, and it was seen how the
interests of manufacturing had been quickened by the policy
of discrimination, those engaged in producing raw materials and
half-manufactured commodities demanded that they too should
be considered. As this concession had to be made by the manu-
facturers, they were compelled to justify it by other arguments
than those used at first. The infant-industry argument gave
place to the proposition, that as long as the prices of raw materials
and labour were higher in America than abroad, it would be
necessary to maintain countervailing duties at least equal to
this difference, in order to protect American industry. One
branch after another of manufacturing or agriculture was
included and given the benefit of protection. In order to
have satisfactory theoretical basis for such a policy, the theory
was advanced that foreign trade was a necessary evil, to be
diminished as much as possible. The ideas were advanced and
spread throughout the country: that the home market should
be reserved for home products; that the labourers should be
protected against the influx of foreign cheap labour (Chinese
Exclusion Acts; restrictive immigration laws); that prices
should be kept high, so as to enable employers to pay high wages;
that shipping should be encouraged by subsidies, the sugar
industries by bounties; that the nation should become ever more
independent of foreign nations for all its industrial products,
and capable of holding its own against the world in industry as
well as in arms.
The protective party has been the national party during a
time when the greatest question before the American people
was whether it was to be one nation, or two, or twenty, and it
naturally profited by the inevitable victory of nationalism; it
has always stood for honest payment of national and state
debts, if not in the standard according to which they were con-
tracted, in a still better one, and it has profited naturally by
this attitude in a country where the development of trade and
industry was rapidly and steadily towards a capitalistic state
of society in which such policy is favoured; it has stood for a
vigorous and active independence in the field of world politics,
and it has naturally profited by this fact in a country which was
rapidly forging ahead to take its place among the greatest of
existing nations, and with an ever-increasing self-consciousness
was ready to assert itself among the nations of the world; it has
stood for free labour against slave labour, and consequently
profited here again in a country whose greatest conflict turned
upon the question whether the system of slave labour should be
extended or not; it has stood for high wages for American
labourers, and in words at any rate has advocated a policy
directed to protecting them against competition with the " pauper
labour " of the Old World. It has stood for government activity
in the direction of developing railways and canals; of estab-
lishing education upon national lines, making it free, in all grades
from the kindergarten to the university, to all citizens of the
republic, and it has profited by this association in a country
where all influences were telling in favour of this tendency. In
short, whatever one may think of the wisdom or folly of trying
to develop national industry by a system of discriminating
duties, the protective party as such in the United States has
been on the progressive side of so many of the deep questions
of national importance that it has obtained and kept the
allegiance of thousands of men who would have been glad to see
a change, or indeed a reversal, in the tariff policy of the party.
The history of the tariff policy in Germany had been very
similar to that of the United States. Beginning with the es-
Oermany tablishment of absolute free trade among the various
German states in the earlier customs union, it ex-
tended this policy, by the establishment of the North German
Confederation and the new German Empire, to all the states nov
included in the federation. The long-wished-for political union
meant political independence, and when political independenc
was once achieved, industrial and commercial independence
were next desired. Within the empire itself it was necessary,
if the new organization were to be strong and vigorous, tha
the central government should become independent of the
individual states; and this could be best effected by giving
it a revenue system based upon import duties, which in the
long run has enabled the central government to subsidize the
state governments, and thus bring them still further under its
influence. To develop this system the political support of some
strong party was needed. This party was found in the pro-
tectionist elements, which have thus again become the national
party in a state which was being rapidly nationalized; the
industrial party in a society which was rapidly passing from the
agricultural to the industrial condition; the capitalistic party
in a society which was rapidly becoming capitalistic in all its
tendencies. It stood for industrial and commercial, as well as
political, independence of other countries, and thus satisfied the
longing for national unity and independence of a people which
had suffered for centuries from disunion and dependence.
These two examples may serve to explain how the two most
powerful industrial nations next to Great Britain became and
remained highly protectionist in sentiment and in action, and
how they both opened the 2oth century with a more openly
declared and a more fully developed system of protection than
ever before.
Protection as a theory or doctrine is to a certain extent an
outgrowth or modification of the old doctrines of mercantilism.
In its modern form, however, it dates really from modern
the celebrated report on manufactures made by Advocates
Alexander Hamilton when secretary of the \J.$. <">d Critics.
Treasury in the year 1791. The views there advanced have
been further developed by Friedrich List and Henry C. Carey,
and have in later years been carried along somewhat different
lines to their logical conclusions by Simon N. Patten and George
Gunton. Starting from an argument in favour of temporary
duties on manufactured goods imported from abroad until
such time as the infant industry might take firm root, the
development proceeded through List, who favoured the main-
tenance of such duties until the country had passed into the
manufacturing stage as a whole, and then through Carey to
Patten and Gunton, who maintain that a protective policy,
extended to cover agriculture, trade and mining, should be pre-
served as the permanent policy of the country until the entire
world is one nation, or all nations have reached the same level
of political, economic and social efficiency. The protective
policy, which a century ago was to be, in the view of its
advocates, temporary and partial, has become to-day, in the
arguments of its apologists, permanent and comprehensive.
We must content ourselves here with a brief statement of the
arguments of the leading and most successful defenders of
modern protectionism.
Alexander Hamilton, at that time secretary of the treasury,
submitted his celebrated report on manufactures to the Congress
of the United States on the sth of December 1791. It n am nt oa
is in a certain sense the first formulation of the modern
doctrine of protection, and all later developments start from it
as a basis. It is a positive argument directed to proving that
the existence of manufacturing is necessary to the highest
development of a nation, and that it may be wisely promoted
by various means, of which the most important is a system of
discriminating duties upon foreign imports. Among the objects
to be attained by the development of a flourishing manufacturing
industry are mentioned: (i) Independence of foreign nations
for military and other essential supplies. (2) A positive aug-
mentation of the produce and revenue of society, growing out of
(a) division of labour, (b) extensive use of machinery, (c) additional
employment to classes of the community not ordinarily engaged
in business. (3) An increase in the immigration of skilled labourers
from foreign countries. (4) A greater scope for the diversity
PROTECTION
467
of talents and dispositions which discriminate men from each
other. (5) A more ample and various field for enterprise.
(6) In many cases a new, and in all a more certain and steady
demand for the surplus produce of the soil. (7) A more lucrative
and prosperous trade than if the country were solely agricultural.
Among the feasible means of promoting the development of
such an industry he mentions the following: (i) Protective
duties, or duties on foreign articles which are the rivals of the
domestic ones, to be encouraged. (2) Prohibition of rival articles
or duties equivalent to prohibition. (3) Prohibition of the
exportation of the materials of manufactures. (4) Pecuniary
bounties. (5) Premiums. (6) Exemption of the materials of
manufactures from duty. (7) Drawbacks of the duties which are
imposed on the materials of manufactures. (8) The encourage-
ment of new inventions and discoveries at home, and the intro-
duction into the United States of such as may have been made in
other countries; particularly those which relate to machinery.
(9) Judicious regulations for the inspection of manufactured
commodities. (10) The facilitating of the pecuniary remittances
from place to place.
The above suggestions contain the outline of a comprehensive
scheme for developing the manufacturing resources of the
country, and the United States has subsequently adopted, in
one form or another, almost all of these propositions. Hamilton
considered that the duties, &c., would not have to be very high or
very long continued in order to accomplish their legitimate ends,
after which they would become unnecessary, and would naturally
be abolished. He conceded that, generally speaking, import
duties were taxes on the customer, and therefore burdens but
burdens which might well be temporarily borne for the sake of
the ultimate advantage arising from cheaper goods and diversi-
fied industries. He emphasized also the advantage of a home
market for agricultural products, and seemed to think that the
United States had to pay the cost of transportation both on the
agricultural products it exported and the manufactured goods it
imported. This report remained the armoury from which the
protectionists drew their weapons of offence and defence for
two generations, and it has not yet ceased to be the centre around
which the theoretical contest is waged even to-day in Germany
; nd France as well as in the United States.
The next great theorist in this field was the German, Friedrich
List , who, while an exile in the United States, became imbued with
Llst protectionist ideas, and after doing substantial service
for them in the country of his adoption, returned to
Germany to do battle for them there. He published his National
S\slcm of Political Economy in Germany in the year 1841. It
had great and immediate success, and has exercised a wide
influence in Europe on theoretical discussion as well as on practi-
cal politics. List, like Hamilton, looked on protection as a
temporary system designed to facilitate the passage of a country
from an agricultural to a manufacturing state. He accepted
free trade as generally and permanently true, but suited for
.t<tual adoption only in that cosmopolitan era towards which
the world is progressing. But in order to prepare for this cos-
mopolitan period it is first necessary for each nation to develop
its own resources in a complete and harmonious manner. A
comprehensive group of national economies is the fundamental
condition of a desirable world economy; otherwise there would
be a predominance of one or of a few nations, which would of
itself constitute an imperfect civilization. Protection is a means
of educating a nation, of advancing it from a lower to a higher
state. He admits that it may involve a loss, but only in the
sense that money expended for an education or an educational
system is a loss, or that money spent for seed corn is a loss. To
the cosmopolitan system of Adam Smith, List opposes the
national system as a preliminary and necessary stage. He
favours the imposition of duties as the most efficient means of
effecting the protection which he has in mind. Agriculture will
be sufficiently protected by the constant demand for its products.
The essence of his larger work is contained in a pamphlet pub-
ished in Philadelphia in 1827, entitled Outlines of American
Political Economy. It is, in fact, a series of letters advocating
the further development of the protective system already adopted
in the United States.
The third great name in the history of protection is that of
Henry C.Carey, an American, in some ways the most distinguished
and most influential of the followers of Hamilton and Cmrty.
List. He was at first a strong free trader, then a P*ttea.
protectionist who believed in protection as a preparation for
free trade, and finally an uncompromising advocate of protection
in all circumstances and for all nations. In him and in Simon
M. Patten, the last, and in many respects the ablest, of the
apologists for protection, we have the theoretical development
corresponding to the practical outcome of protection as a com-
prehensive all-embracing scheme extending protection to all
branches of industry alike agriculture, manufacturing and
mining and aiming to be permanent in its form and policy.
As Patten expresses it: " Protection now changes from a tem-
porary expedient to gain specific ends (such as the establishment
of manufactures), to a consistent endeavour to keep society
dynamic and progressive. Protection has become part of a
fixed national policy to increase the value of labour with the
increase of productive power, and to aid in the spread of know-
ledge and skill, and in the adjustment of a people to its environ-
ment." The object of protection has now become, in the view
of the theoretical American protectionist, not an approximation
to European industrial conditions, but as great a differentiation
from them as possible. Carey's works were translated into the
leading European languages, and contributed doubtless to the
spread of protectionist ideas, though the extreme form in which
his views were expressed, and the rambling illogical method of
exposition, repelled many who might otherwise have been
attracted by the course of his thought.
Economists of other schools, with the exception of the more
rigid British free traders, have allowed a relative validity to
the doctrines of List; and even among older British economists,
Mill and some of his disciples conceded the logical possibility
of quickening the development of an industry by import duties
in such a way as to result in more good than harm, though they
have hardly been willing to acknowledge that it is practically
possible. The modern historical school of political economists
have generally admitted the reasonableness of protective policies
at certain times and places, though usually finding the justifica-
tion in political and social considerations rather than in economic.
And while the British objections to protectionism in any form
have been widely upheld by the more conservative economists in
England, the new political school of " tariff-reform and colonial
preference " has found strong support at the hands of such
British authorities on economics as Professors Cunningham,
Ashley and Hewins, or the authors of Compatriots' Club Essays
1906 (J. L. Garvin and others), whose advocacy of a national
policy recalls the work of Hamilton and List. (E. J. J.)
AUTHORITIES. P. Ashley, Modern Tariff History (London. 1904);
W. J. Ashley, The Tariff Problem (London, 1904); A. j. Balfour,
Economic Notes on Insular Free Trade (London, 1903); G. Blondcl,
La Politique protectioniste en Angleterre (Paris, 1904); F. Bow-en,
American Political Economy (New York, 1875); " Braude, Die
Grundlagen und die Grenzen des Chamberlainismus : Studien ^ur
Tarifreformbewegung im gegenwdrtigen England (Zurich, 1905);
J. B. Byles, Sophisms of Free Trade (London, 1903) ; G. Byng, Protec-
tion (London, 1901) ; H. C. Carey, Principles of Social Science (3 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1858-1859), Harmony of Interests Agricultural.
Manufacturing and Commercial (Philadelphia, 1873) ; C. H. Chomley,
Protection in Canada and Australasia (London, 1904); \V. Cunning-
ham, The Rise and Decline of the Free Trade Movement (London,
1904); G. B. Curtiss, Protection and Prosperity: an Account of
Tariff Legislation and its Effect in Europe and America (1896);
W. H. Dawson, Protection in Germany (London, 1904) ; E. Duhring,
Kritische Grundlegung der Volksvrirthschaftslehre (1886); Kursus
der National- und Socialdkonomie (1873); Dumesnil-Marigny, Les
Libre-fchangistes et les protectionistes conctlies (1860) ; Ganilh, Thiorie
de I'economie politique (1822): G. Gunton, Wealth and Progress
(New York, 1887); Principles of Social Economics (New York, 1891);
Alexander Hamilton, Report on the Subject of Manufactures, com-
municated to the House of Representatives, $th December 1791 ; H. M.
Hoyt, Protection v. Free Trade, the scientific validity and economic
operation of defensive duties in the United States (New York, 1886) ;
E. I. James, Studien uber den amerikanischen Zolltarif (Jena, 1877);
F. List, Das nationale System der politischen Oekonomie (Eng. trans.
4 68
PROTECTOR PROTECTORATE
by S. Lloyd, London, 1904); A. M. Low, Protection in the United
States (London, 1904) ; H. O. Meredith, Protection in France (London,
1904) ; S. N. Patten, Economic Basis of Protection (Philadelphia,
1890); Ugo Rabbeno, American Commercial Policy (London, 1895);
Ellis H. Roberts, Government Revenue, especially the American System,
an argument for industrial freedom against the fallacies of free trade
(Boston, 1884); R. E. Thompson, Protection to Home Industries
(New York, 1886) ; E. E. Williams, The Case for Protection (London,
1899); J. P. Young, Protection and Progress: a Study of the Economic
Bases of the American Protective System (Chicago, 1900).
PROTECTOR, a Latin word (formed from protegere, to cover
in front) adopted into English. In post-classical Latin the
protectores were the body-guards of the emperors, and of the
Praetorian prefects until, under Constantine the Great (306-337),
they ceased to exercise military functions. The protectores, with
the domestici, continued to form the body-guard and household
troops of the emperor. They were veterans selected from the
legions, and were capable of being appointed to high commands.
In the Roman curia the protectores regnorum are cardinals who
take charge of the affairs of the " province " to which they are
named which come before the Sacred College, and to present
them for consideration. In England " protector " was used
first for the regent during a minority (e.g. the Protector
Somerset, and then by Oliver Cromwell when he assumed the
government in 1653). The name thus acquired a revolutionary
significance, and has not since been officially used in England.
In Spanish America the bishops were officially protectors of the
Indians. The title is convenient for a ruler who wishes to
exercise control outside the limits of his direct sovereignty.
Thus Napoleon called himself protector of the Confederation
of the Rhine. The kings of France, and the governments
which have arisen out of the Revolution, were protectors of
the Latin Christians in the Turkish Empire, while the tsars of
Russia have claimed the same position towards the Orthodox
Christians.
See App. B. to vol. ii. of Bury's edition of the Decline and Fall
(London, 1896); Du Cange, Glossarium lat.; Sorel, L'Europe et la
revolution fran^aise, vol. vii. (Paris, 1904).
PROTECTORATE, in international law, now a common term
to describe the relation between two states, one of which exer-
cises control, great or small, direct or indirect, over the other.
It is significant of the rare use of the term until recent times
that the word does not occur in Sir G. C. Lewis's book on The
Government of Dependencies. Yet the relation is very ancient.
There have always been states which dominated their neigh-
bours, but which did not think fit to annex them formally. It
has always been politic for powerful states to facilitate and hide
schemes of aggrandizement under euphemistic expressions; to
cloak subjection or dependence by describing it in words in-
offensive or strictly applicable to other relations. A common
problem has been how to reduce a state to submission or sub-
ordination while ostensibly preserving its independence or exist-
ence; to obtain power while escaping responsibility and the
expenditure attending the establishment of a regular adminis-
tration. Engelhardt (Les Protectorats anciens et modernes) and
other writers on the subject have collected a large number of
instances in antiquity in which a true protectorate existed, even
though the name was not used. Thus the Hegemony of Athens
as it existed about 467 B.C., was a form of protectorate; though
the subject states were termed allies, the so-called " allies "
in all important legal matters had to resort to Athens (Meyer,
Geschichle des Allerthums, vol. iii. 274).
In dealing with dependent nations Rome used terms which
veiled subjection (Gairal, Les Protectorats internationaux, p.
26). Thus the relationship of subject or dependent cities to
the dominant power was described as that of dientes to the
patronus (Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwallung, 2nd ed., vol. i.
p. 80) . Such cities might also be described as civitates foederatae
or civitates liberae. Another expression of the same fact was
that certain communities had come under the power of the
Roman people; in deditionem or in fidem populi romani venire
(Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, i. 73, 81). The king-
doms of Numidia, Macedonia, Syria and Pergamum were ex-
amples of protected states, their rulers being termed inservientes.
The Romans drew a distinction between foedera aequa and
foedera iniqua. The latter created a form of protectorate.
But the protected state remained free. This is explained in a
passage of the Digest 49. 15. 7: " Liber autem populus cst is,
qui nullius alterius populi potestati est subjectus, sive is foedera-
tus est; item sive aequo foedere in amicitiam venit, sive foedere
comprehensum est, ut is populus alterius populi majestatem
comiter conservaret. Hoc enim adjicitur, ut intelligatur alterum
populum superiorem esse: non ut intelligatur alterum non esse
liberum " (Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, 2nd ed., vol. i.
p. 46, Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, vol. iii. pt. i, p. 645,
and the instances collected by Pufendorf, 8 c. 9. 4).
In medieval times this relation existed, and the term " pro-
tection " was in use. But the relation of subordination of one
state to another was generally expressed in terms of feudal law.
One state was deemed the vassal of another; the ruler of one
did homage to the ruler of another. In his book De la Repub-
lique Bodin treats of ceux qui sonl en protection (i. c. 7), or, as
the Latin text has it, de patrocinio et clientela. In Bodin's view
such states retain their sovereignty (i. c. 8). Discussing the
question whether a prince who becomes a dims of another
loses his majestas, he concludes that, unlike the true vassal,
the cliens is not deprived of sovereignty: " Nihilominus in
foederibus et pacis actionibus, quae inter principes aut populos
societate et amicitia conjunctissimos sancientur; earn vim habet
ut nee alter alteri pareat, nee imperet: sed ut alter alterius majes-
tatem observare, sine ulla majestatis minutione teneatur.
Itaque jus illud clientelare seu protectionis omnium maximum
ac pulcherrimum inter principes censetur " (i c. 7). Elsewhere
Bodin remarks, " le mot de protection est special et n'emporte
aucune subjection de celuy qui est en protection." He dis-
tinguishes the relation of seigneur and vassal from that of
protecteur and adherent. As to whether the protected state or
prince is sovereign, he remarks, " je tiens qu'il demeure soverain,
et n'est point subject." He makes clear this conception of
protection by adding " 1'advoue ou adherent doit estre exempte
de la puissance du protecteur s'il contrevient aux traictes de
protection. Voila done la plus grande seurete de la protection,
c'est empescher s'il est possible que les protecteurs ne soyent
saisis des fortresses " &c. (p. 549, ed. 1580). Sometimes letters of
protection were granted by a prince to a weak state, as e.g. by
Louis XIII. in 1641 to the prince of Monaco (Gairal, p. 81).
Reverting to the distinction in Roman law, Grotius and
Pufendorf, with many others, treat protection as an instance of
unequal treaties; that is, " when either the promises are unequal,
or when either of the parties is obliged to harder conditions "
(De jure belli et pacis, i c. 13. 21; De jure naturae, 8. c. 9).
The following are some definitions of " protectorate ": " Principis
privilegium, quo ne alicui vis inferatur, cavetur, eumque in pro-
tectionem suscipit." Du Cange: " La situation d'un _
etat a 1'egard d'un autre moins puissant auquel il a f ,5JLJ
promis son appui d'une maniere permanent " (Gairal, oratt
p. 52) ; a definition applicable only to certain simple
forms of this relation. " Pour le protege^ une condition de mi-
souverainet6 substitute & la pleine independence que comportc le
regime de simple protection " (p. 58). " La situation respective de
deux dtats de puissance inegale, dont 1'un contracte 1'obligation per-
manente de defendre 1'autre, et en outre de le diriger " (p. 62).
" Unter einem Protektorat versteht man ein Schutzverhaltniss
zwischen zwei Staaten des Inhaltsdassder eineStaat, derOberstaat
oder schutzherrliche Staat, zum dauernden Schutze des anderen
Staates des Schutzstaates oder Unterstaates verpflichtet ist;
wofiir ihm ein mehr oder weniger weitgehender Einfluss auf die
auswartigen Angelegenheiten desselben und theilweise auch auf
dessen innere Verhaltnisse eingeraumt ist " (von Stengel, Die
deutschen Schutzgebiete, n). "Das Verhaltniss von zwei (oder
mehreren) Staaten* das in materieller Beziehung auf dem dauernden
Bediirfniss des Schutzes eines schwacheren Staates durch einen
starkeren beruht " (Ullmann, s. 26).
" The one common element in Protectorates is the prohibition
of all foreign relations except those permitted by the protecting
state. What the idea of a protectorate excludes, and the idea of
annexation, on the other hand, would include, is that absolute
ownership which was signified by the word dominium in Roman
law, and which, though not quite satisfactorily, is sometimes
described as ' territorial sovereignty.' The protected country
remains, in regard to the protecting state, a foreign country; and
PROTECTORATE
469
this being so, the inhabitants of the protectorate, whether native-
born or immigrant settlers, do not by virtue of the relationship
between the protecting and the protected state become subjects
of the protecting state " (Lord justice Kennedy, Rex v. Crewe,
1910, 79, L.J., p. 802). " The mark of a protected state or people,
whether civilized or uncivilized, is that it cannot maintain political
intm ourse with foreign powers except through or by permission of
the protecting state (Hall, Foreign Jurisdiction of the British
n, p. 218). " A British protectorate is a country which is not
within British dominions, but as regards its foreign relations is
under the exclusive control of the King, so that its government
nt hold direct communication with any other foreign power,
nor a foreign power with that Government " (Jenkyns, British Rule
and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas, p. 165; Reinsch, Colonial Govern-
ment, p. 109; Payne, Colonies and Colonial Federations, p. 194).
The term is used very loosely. Often it designates a relation
which it is deemed politic to leave indefinite: a state desires to
MI the reality of conquest without the responsibilities attaching
thereto. Protectorate may mean no more than what it says:
"One state agrees to protect or guarantee the safety of another."
The term is also employed to describe any relation of a political
Mi|>erior to an inferior state. It is also used as the equivalent of
limy. As appears from the article SUZERAINTY, the terms
are distinguishable. But both imply a desire to carry out changes
without friction and not to break up ancient forms; both proceed
on the plan of securing to the stronger state the substance of power
while allowing the weaker state a semblance of its old constitution.
i form of empire or state building which appears when a power-
ful, expanding state comes in contact with feebler political organi-
zations, or when a state falls into decay, and disintegration sets in.
The creation of a protectorate is convenient for the superior and the
inferior; it relieves the former from the full responsibilities incident
to annexation; it spares to some extent the feelings of the latter.
Certain protectorates originate in treaties; others have 'been
imposed by force. Some are accompanied by occupation, in
which case it is difficult to distinguish them from annexation.
Thus the treaty of May 1881, art. 2, between France and Tunis,
provides for the occupation of strategical points by the protecting
state (A. Devaulx, Les Protectorate de la France, p. 21).
The establishment of a protectorate may be akin to a guar-
antee. Generally, however, the former implies a closer relation
than a guarantee; and the two relations may be widely different,
as may be seen by comparing tieaties of guarantee with the
treaty establishing the protectorate of Tunis.
Strictly speaking, a protectorate cannot exist over a domain
uninhabited or ruled by no organized state; in such cases the
elements of the true protectorates are wanting. But the
distinction is not adhered to. The difficulty of denning the
relations between the protected and the protecting states is
greater, because a protectorate may imply a condition of transi-
tion: a contractual or limited relation of state to state, more
or less rapidly changing into true union.
It has been the policy of the British government in India to
establish on the frontiers, as elsewhere, protectorates. The
political advantages of the system are pointed out in Sir A.
Lyall's Rise and Expansion of the British Dominion in India.
It is a system " whereby the great conquering or commercial
peoples masked, so to speak, their irresistible advance "; it
India Pro w ^ s muc ^ P ract ' se <l by the Romans in Africa and
tcctorates." Asia; it has been chiefly applied in modern times
in India (p. 326). The Indian states are some-
times described as " Feudatory States," sometimes " Indepen-
dent and Protected States " (Twiss), sometimes " Mediatized
States " (Chesney), sometimes " Half-Sovereign, " sometimes
as in a position of " subordinate alliance " (Lord Salisbury,
Parliamentary Papers, 1897 [c. 8700]. 27). The Inter-
pretation Act, 1889 (52 & 53 Vic. c. 63, s. 1 8), refers to the
Indian native princes as under the " suzerainty " of the British
Crown. These states are really stii generis, and their precise position
can be understood only by a private examination of the treaties
affecting them. The following are the chief points as to which
Indian states are subject to English law: (i) the governor-
general is empowered to make laws for servants of the British
government and European and native Indian subjects of his
majesty; (2) British laws are in force in certain parts of the native
states e.g. in cantonments; (3) native princes have adopted certain
British laws, e.g. the Indian Penal Code; (4) they have no ex-
ternal relations with foreign states; (5) the king is the donor
of honours; (6) acts of parliament affect them indirectly by
directly affecting the British agent; (7) they receive advice,
which may be akin to commands. (See also Ilbert's Govern-
ment of India, 2nd ed. p. 140).
Among the chief British protectorates are: The African groups,
consisting of the western group Gambia; Sierra Leone; Ashanti
(northern territory); Northern Nigeria; Southern Nigeria (with
which is amalgamated Lagos). The southern group Becnuanaland ;
Southern Rhodesia; Swaziland. The central group North-east
Rhodesia and North-west Rhodesia; Nyasaland. The eastern group
British East Africa; Uganda; Zanzibar and Pemba (sometimes
described as " a sphere of influence "); Somaliland; and the Sudan.
There is a group of protectorates near Aden, including the island
of Sokotra. There are also the Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf.
Jurisdiction over these protectorates is, generally speak- ...
ing, exercised under orders in council made under the "*
Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890 (Surge's Colonial and
Foreign Law, 2nd ed.. p. 320). There is also the Malay
group, consisting of the Malay States in the Borneo peninsula and
in Borneo, the protectorates of North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak.
Protectorates also exist in the Western Pacific group of islands
(including the Friendly Islands, the Ellice and Gilbert group, and
the British Solomon Islands).
There is the interesting case of Papua (formerly British New
Guinea), over which a protectorate was established in 1884, but
which became in 1906 a territory of the Australian Commonwealth.
There are also dependencies, or protectorates, attached to India,
Baluchistan, Sikkim and Andaman Islands.
France possesses several protectorates, of which the chief are
Tunis, Annam and Tongking. Her policy has been until lately to
transform them into French territory. Such change has taken
place as to Tahiti and Madagascar, and such in effect is the posi-
tion of the Indo-China protectorates (Devaulx, Les Protectorats de
la France; Report by Mr Lister, Parl. Papers 1908, Cd. 3883).
The chief German protectorates are South-west Africa, Tpgoland
and Cameroon, German East Africa, Kaiser Wilhelm Land, Bismarck
Archipelago, Solomon Islands, and Kiaochow under lease from
China (Zeilschrift fur Kolonialrecht, 1907, p. 311). Russia has the
protectorates of Khiva and Bokhara ; and China exercises or claims
rights as protector of certain dependencies.
There are two principal classes of protectorates; the first
being those exercised generally by treaty over civilized countries.
Of the first, the chief axe: (a) that of Cracow, which was re-
cognized by the Treaty of Vienna as an independent state,
and placed under the protection of Russia: it was incorpor-
ated with Austria in 1846; (b) Andorra, protected by Spain
and France as successors of the counts of Foix (See ANDORRA);
(c) the Ionian Islands, placed under the protection of Great
Britain by the Treaty of Paris of 1815.
The second class of protectorates consists of those exer-
cised by one civilized state over an uncivilized people, some-
times called a " Colonial Protectorate " or '" pseudo-protec-
torate," and usually the preparatory step to annexation.
These have become common, especially in Africa, since
1878. The second class may be subdivided into two groups:
(a) protectorates exercised over countries with organized govern-
ments and under recognized sovereigns, such as the Malay
States; and (b) those exercised over countries possessing no
stable or definite governments and rulers. The territories of
chartered companies, when not within the dominion of the
protecting state, may also for some purposes be regarded as
protectorates.
Attempts have been made to define the reciprocal rights
and duties of protecting and protected states. Sometimes
the treaty creating the relation defines the obliga-
tions. Thus in the treaty with respect to Sarawak
the latter is described as an " independent state Protecting
under the protection of Great Britain." " Such ""*
protection shall confer no right on his Majesty's
government to interfere with the internal ad-
ministration of that state further than is herein provided."
The British consular officers are to receive exequaturs in the
name of the government of Sarawak. Foreign relations are
to be conducted by that government, and the raja cannot
cede or alienate any part of the territory without the consent
of the British government (Hertslet, 18. 227). In the treaty
creating a protectorate over the territories of the king and
chief of Opopo (Hertslet, 17. 130) the sovereign undertakes to
extend to them, and to the territory under their authority and
jurisdiction, his favour and protection. They promise not to
470
PROTECTORATE
Protector-
ates and
Inter-
national
Law.
enter into " any correspondence, agreement or treaty with any
foreign nation or power, except with the knowledge and sanction
of his Majesty's government." Some treaties establishing
protectorates provide for direct interference with internal
affairs; for example, the treaty of 1847 creating a French pro-
tectorate over Tahiti, and that of 1883 as to Tunis. Sometimes
the Oberstaat to use a convenient expression is content to
insist upon the presence of a resident, who guides the policy of
the native ruler. In the case of protectorates over uncivilized
countries it is usual to stipulate against alienation of territory
without consent of the Oberstaat.
The legal position of protectorates is still somewhat unde-
termined; there are an old view and also a new view of their
nature. The relation may be one of international
law, two states having entered into obligations
by treaty. Or the relation may be one of public
law; one of two states has become subordinate to,
and incorporated with, the other. The general
rule is that the protected state does not cease to be a
sovereign state, if such was its previous status. Its head is
still entitled to the immunities and dignity of a sovereign
ruler. Further, the establishment of a protectorate does not
necessarily rescind treaties made between the protected state
and other states, at all events when it is not in reality
conquest or cession, or when any modification would be
to the injury of third parties (Parl. Papers, Madagascar,
1897 [c. 8700]; Trione, 187). Nor does the new relation
make any change as to the nationality of the subjects
of the two states, though in some countries facilities are
afforded to the subjects of the Unterstaal to transfer their
allegiance; and they owe a certain ill-defined degree of obedience
to the protecting state. Nor, speaking generally, does the terri-
tory of the protected state become part of the territory of the
Oberstaat; in this respect is it unlike a colony, which may be
regarded as an extension or outlying province of the country.
At the same time, the question whether a particular protec-
torate forms part of the " dominion " or " territory " of the
Crown for any purposes or within the meaning of any statute
cannot be regarded as wholly free from doubt; its terms and
intention must be examined. In Rex v. Crewe (1910, 79, L. J.
874) the Court of Appeal decided that the Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate was not part of the dominion of the Crown, but was
foreign territory. Several writers propose this distinction
the protected country is to be considered a part of the territory
as to certain important sovereign rights, and as to other matters
not. In one view, for the purpose of municipal law, the terri-
tory of a protectorate is not, but for the purposes of international
law is, within the territory of the protecting state. In another
view, such territory is foreign only in the sense that it is not
within the purview of the majority of statutes (see Hall's
International Law, 6th ed., 126, Heilborn, 535; Tupper's Indian
Protectorates, 336; Laband, 2, 70).
The older view of the position of a protectorate according to
international law is contained in the decision of Dr Lushington
in the case of the " Leucade " (8 S.T., N.S., 432), to the effect that,
the declaration of war by Great Britain against Russia notwith-
standing, the Ionian Islands, which were then under the protectorate
of Great Britain, remained neutral. The king of Great Britain
had the right of declaring peace and war. " Such a right is insepara-
ble- from protection." But the Ionian states did not become neces-
sarily enemies of the state with which Great Britain was at war.
According to one view, the protected state is implicated in the wars
to which the protecting state is a party only when the latter has
acquired a right of military occupation over the territory of the
former. " Cette solution a 6t6 reconnue par la France en 1870, a
propos de la guerre contre I'Allemagne pour les ties Taiti alors
soumises a notre protectorat ; elle s imposerait pour la Tunisie,
1'Annam et Tonkin, et pour le Cambodge, ou les trait^s nous confrent
le droit d'occupation militaire " (M. Despagnet). In the event of
hostilities between the protecting and protected states, such
hostilities would be regarded not as of the nature of an insurrection,
but as a regular war (Trione, 149).
By the General Act of the Berlin Conference it was agreed that
the acquisition of a protectorate should be notified to the signa-
tories to the agreement (art. 34), and it has been the practice
to give such notice. It was proposed by some of the powers
represented that effective occupation should be a condition to
the creation of a protectorate on the coast of Africa. But this
was opposed by England, and was not adopted (Laband, ii. 680).
Many writers adhere to the doctrine that there is no impair-
ment of sovereignty of the weaker state by the establishment
of a protectorate. They also allege that it is res inter alias acta,
an arrangement which concerns only parties to it. But the
trend of recent policy and purport of much recent legislation
are against this view. The distinct tendency, especially as to
protectorates over uncivilized countries, is to treat, for purposes
of international law, the territory of a protectorate as if it
belonged to the protecting state. If France, for example, per-
mitted in Tunis or other protectorates operations of an
unfriendly character to any power, the injured power would no
doubt look to France for redress. This view would probably be
strongly pressed in the case of protectorates over countries having
no well-defined or stable government. The probability is that
in such cases governments and courts applying international
law would probably be guided not by technical facts such, to
take the case of British possessions, as the fact that an order in
council permitted appeals to the Judicial Committee but would
look to the facts of the case. " Any state which undertakes to
protect another assumes towards the rest of the world responsi-
bility for its good behaviour the more complete protection
the more extensive the responsibility and this responsibility
involves a duty to interfere if need be " (Coolidge, United States
as a World Power," p. 167; and to the same effect Liszt, Volkcr-
recht, p. 31; and Zorn, Volkerrecht, p. 45). The tendency is for
protecting states to assert jurisdiction over foreigners within
the territories of the protected states (Westlake, 187; Jenkyns,
p. 176; Ilbert, 2nd ed., 393, 434). Mr Hall remarks (International
Law, 6th ed., p. 126 n.) that " all the states represented at the
Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, with the exception of Great
Britain, maintained that the normal jurisdiction of a protector-
ate includes the right of administering justice over the subjects
of other civilized states." The General Act contemplated
measures which are scarcely compatible with the exemption of
European traders and adventurers from the local civilized
jurisdiction. He points out that Great Britain which until
lately took the view that a protected state possesses only dele-
gated powers, and that an Eastern state cannot grant jurisdiction
over persons who are neither its own subjects nor subjects of the
country to which the powers are delegated had by the Pacific
Order in Council of 1893 and the South African Orders in Council
of 1891-1894 asserted jurisdiction over natives and foreign
subjects. " The Orders show a gradual increase of the assump-
tion of internal sovereignty" (Jenkyns, 193). A similar process
is observable in the German protectorates, which are treated
for some purposes as " inland," and not foreign territory (Der
koloniale Inlands- und Auslands-begriff, Zeitschrift fiir Kolo-
nialrecht, 1907, p. 311). The fact is that in the case of pro-
tectorates over uncivilized or semi-civilized countries a develop-
ment is inevitable: control quickly hardens into conquest, and
international law more and more takes note of this fact.
AUTHORITIES. Bodin, Les Six livres de la Republique (Lyons,
1580); De republica libri sex (Paris, 1586); Stengel, Die Staats-
und volkerrechtliche Stellung der deutschen Colonien (1886); Heim-
burger, Der Erwerb der Gebietshoheit (1888); D'Orgeval, Les Pro-
tectorats allemands; annales de I'Ecole des Sciences Politiques (1890);
Wilhelm, Theorie juridique des protectorats (1890); Despagnet, Essai
sur les protectorats (1896); Heilborn, Das volkerrechtliche Protectorat
(1891); Hall, The Foreign Jurisdiction of the British Crown (1894);
Stengel, Die deutschen Schutzgebiete (1895); Gairal, Les Protectorats
internationaux; I6ze, Etude tMorique, &c., sur V occupation, &c.
(1896); Trione, Gli stati civili nei loro rapporti giuridici coi
popoli barbari e semibarbari (1889); Ilbert, The Government of India
(1898) ; Jenkyns, British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas (1902) ;
Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches (1876-1882), Revue
de droit international, civilises, et barbares, xvii. I, xviii. 188;
Stengel, Die Rechtsverhaltnisse der deutschen Schutzgebiete (1901);
Devaulx, Les Protectorats de la France (1903) article " Protectorates"
in the Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England, 2nd ed., vol. xi. ; Baty,
International Law (1909); Ullmann, Volkerrecht, 26 (1908); Rex v.
Crewe (1910) 79, L.J. 874; Von Stengel in Zeitschrift fiir Kolo-
nialrecht (1909), p. 258; Sir W. Lee-Warner, Protected States of
India (1910). (J. M.)
PROTEOMYXA PROTESILAUS
PROTEOMYXA, a name given by E. Ray Lankester (Ency.
Brit., oth ed., 1885, art. " Protozoa, ") to a group of Protozoa
.xlina. The group was really recognized as distinct by
Cienkowski and by Zopf, receiving the name of Monadinea from
1, Vampyrella spirogyrae, Cienk., amoeba phase penetrating a cell
of Spirogyra b, by a process of its protoplasm c, and taking up the
Mibstance of the Spirogyra cell, some of which is seen within the
Vampyrella a.
2, Large individual of Vampyrella, showing pseudopodia e, and
food particles a. The nucleus (though present) is not shown in
this drawing.
3, Cyst phase of Vampyrella. The contents of the cyst have
divided into four equal parts, of which three are visible. One is
commencing to break its way through the cyst-wall /; a, food
parli'
4, Archerina boltoni, Lankester, showing lobose and filamentous
protoplasm, and three groups of chlorophyll corpuscles. The pro-
toplasm g is engulphing a Bacterium *'.
5, Cyst phase of Archerina: a, spinous cyst-wall ; b, green-coloured
contents.
6, Chlorophyll corpuscle of Archerina showing tetraschistic
division.
7, Actinophryd form of Archerina: b, chlorophyll corpuscles.
8, Proloeenes primordialis, Haeckel (Amoeba porrec la, M. Schultze),
from Schultze's figure.
the former; but as this name had been usually applied to Flagel-
lates and even the zoospores are not always provided with
flagclla. Lankester's name has become more suitable, and has
been adopted by Delage and He>ouard (1896) and by Hartog
(1906). The group entered to a considerable extent into the
" Monera " of Haeckel, supposed (erroneously in most if not all
species adequately studied) to possess no nucleus in the proto-
plasm. The following are the characteristics of the group.
Pseudopods usually granular, fine flexible, tapering generally,
not freely branching; reproducing sometimes by simple fission,
but more frequently by multiple fission in a brood-cyst whose
walls may be multiple. Plasmodium formation occasional, but
never leading to the formation of a massive fructification: other
syngamic processes unknown, and probably non-existent.
Encystment, or at least a resting stage at full growth, is very
characteristic, and frequently an excretion of granules lakes
place into the first- formed cyst, whereupon a second inner cyst
is formed which may be followed by a third. These brood-cysts,
in which multiple fission takes place, may be of two kinds,
ordinary and resting, the latter being distinguished by a firm,
and usually ornamented and cuticularized cell-wall, and only
producing its zoospores after an interval. Besides, an indi-
vidual at any age may under unfavourable conditions surround
itself with a " hypnocyst," to pass the time until matters are
more suitable to active life, when it emerges unchanged.
From the initial character of the brood-cell on leaving the sporo-
cyst the dividing character of the two orders is taken.
1. Zoosporeae, Zopf. The brood-cells leave the cyst as " Monads "
(withoneortwoflagella). Genera: Pseudospora, Cienk. ; Protomonas,
Cienk.; Diplophysalis , Zopf.; Gymnococcus, Z.; Aphelidium, Z. ;
Psetidosporidium, Z. ; Plasmodiophora, Woronin; Tetramyxa, Goebel.
2. Azoosporeae, Zopf. Genera : Endyonema, Z. ; Vampyrella,
Cienk. (figs. I, 2, 3) ; Leptophrys, Hertw. and Less. ; Bursulla, Sorokin ;
Protogenes, Haeck. (fig. 8) ; A rcherina, Lank. (figs. 4-7) ; Serosporidium,
L. Pfeiffer; Lymphosporidium, Calkins.
Many of the species are endoparasites in living cells, mostly of
Algae or Fungi, but not exclusively. At least two species of Pseu-
dospora have been taken for reproductive stages in the life history
of their hosts whence indeed the generic name. Plasmodiophora
brassicae gives rise to the disease known as " Hanburies " or " fingers
and toes" in Cruciferae; Lymphosporidium causes a virulent epidemic
among the American brook-trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Archerina
boltoni is remarkable for containing a pair of chlorophyll corpuscles
in each cell; no nucleus has been made out, but the chlorophyll
bodies divide previous to fission. It is a fresh-water form. The
cells of this species form loose aggregates or filoplasmodia, like those
of Mikrogromia (Foraminifera, q.v.) or Leydenia (Labyrinthuloidea,
q.v.), &c.
Vampyrella (figs. 1-3) and Enieromyxa also form a compact
plasmodium which separates into l-nucleate cells, which then encyst
and divide into a brood of four.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. Cienkowski in Archie fur mikroskopische
Anatomie (1865) ; Haeckel, " Die Moneren," in Jenaische Zeilschr.
(1868), vol. iv. ; W. Zopf, " Die Monadineen," in Schenk's Handbuch
der Bolanik (1887), vol. iii. pt. ii., and Beitrdge zur Physiologie and
Morphologie niederer Organismen (1890); Delage and E. Herouard,
Traiti de zoologie concrete, vol. i. ; La Cellule el Its protoioaires
(1896); Marcus Hartog, Cambridge Natural History (1906), vol. i.
(M. HA.)
PROTESILAUS, in Greek legend, son of Iphiclus, and husband
of Laodameia. In command of the Greek contingent from
Phylace in Thessaly, he was the first to spring ashore on Trojan
soil, although he knew it meant instant death. His wife be-
sought the gods below that he might be permitted to return to
earth for the space of three hours. Her prayer was granted,
and on the expiration of the time allotted she returned with him
to the nether world. According to Hyginus (Fab. 103, 104),
Laodameia made a waxen image of her husband. A slave,
having detected her in the act of embracing it and supposing
it to be a lover, informed her father, who ordered her to burn
the image; whereupon she threw herself with it into the flames.
In another account (Conon, Narrationes, 13) Protesilaus survived
the fall of Troy and carried off Aethilla, the sister of Priam.
During a halt on the peninsula of Pallene, Aethilla and the other
captive women set fire to the ships. Protesilaus, unable to
continue his voyage, remained and built the city of Scione. His
tomb and temple were to be seen near Eleus in the Thracian
Chersonese. Nymphs had planted elm-trees, facing towards
Troy, which withered away as soon as they had grown high
enough to see the captured city. Protesilaus was the subject
of a tragedy by Euripides, of which some fragments remain.
Iliad, ii. 698 ; Lucian, Dial mart, xxiii. i ; Ovid, Heroides, xiii. ;
Philostratus, Heroica, iii.
472
PROTESTANT^PROTESTANTENVEREIN
PROTESTANT, the generic name for an adherent of those
Churches which base their teaching on the principles of the
Reformation (q.v.). The name is derived from the formal
Prolestatio handed in by the evangelical states of the empire,
including some of the more important princes and 14 imperial
cities, against the recess of the diet of Spires (i 529), which decreed
that the religious status quo was to be preserved, that no innova-
tions were to be introduced in those states which had not hither-
to made them, and that the mass was everywhere to be tolerated.
The name Protestant seems to have been first applied to the
protesting princes by their opponents, and it soon came to be used
indiscriminately of all the adherents of the reformed religion.
Its use appears to have spread more rapidly outside Germany
than in Germany itself, one cause of its popularity being that
it was negative and colourless, and could thus be applied by
adherents of the " old religion " to those of the " new religion,"
without giving offence, on occasions when it was expedient to
avoid abusive language. The designation was moreover grate-
ful to the Reformers as connoting a certain boldness of attitude;
and Professor Kattenbusch (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopiidic,
3rd ed., xvi. p. 136, 15) points out with great truth how, from
this point of view, the name " Protestantism " has survived as
embodying for many the conception of liberty, of the right of
private judgment, of toleration for every progressive idea in
religion, as opposed to the Roman Catholic principles of
authority and tradition; so that many even of those who do
not " profess and call themselves Christians " yet glory in the
name of " Protestant."
As the designation of a Church, " Protestant " was unknown
during the Reformation period and for a long while after. In
Germany the Reformers called themselves usually evangelici,
and avoided special designations for their communities, which
they conceived only as part of the true Catholic Church; " Cal-
vinists," " Lutherans," " Zwinglians " were, in the main, terms of
abuse intended to stamp them as followers of one or other
heretical leader, like Arians or Hussites. It was not until the
period of the Thirty Years' War that the two main schools of
the reformed or evangelical Churches marked their definitive
separation: the Calvinists describing themselves as the " Re-
formed Church," the Lutherans as the " Lutheran Church."
In France, in England, in Holland the evangelicals continued
to describe their churches as ecdesiae reformatae, without the
arriere pensee which in Germany had confined the designation
" Reformed " to the followers of a particular church order and
doctrine. As to the word " Protestant," it was never applied
to the Church of England or to any other, save unofficially and
in the wide sense above indicated, until the style " Protestant
Episcopal Church " (see below) was assumed by the Anglican
communion in the United States. Even in the Bill of Rights
the phrase " Protestant religion " occurs, but not " Protestant
Church," and it was reserved for the Liberal government, in
the original draft (afterwards changed) of the Accession Declara-
tion Bill introduced in 1910, to suggest " Protestant Reformed
Church of England " as a new title for the Established Church.
The style " Protestant " had, however, during the igth cen-
tury assumed a variety of new shades of meaning which neces-
sarily made its particular application a somewhat hazardous
proceeding. In Germany it had, for a while, been assumed by
the Lutherans as against the Calvinists, and when in 1817 King
Frederick William III. of Prussia forcibly amalgamated the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches in the new " Evangelical
Church " its public use was forbidden in the Prussian dominions.
It survived, however, in spite of royal decrees, but in an altered
sense. It became to quote Professor Kattenbusch the
" secular " designation of the adherents of the Reformation,
the shibboleth of the " liberal " ecclesiastical and theological
tendencies. Finally, in opposition to the ultramontane move-
ment in the Roman Catholic Church, it came once more into
fashion in something of its original sense among the evangelicals.
In the Church of England, on the other hand, the name
" Protestant " has, under the influence of the High Church
reaction, been repudiated by an increasingly large number of
the clergy and laity, and is even sometimes used by them in a
derogatory sense as applied to their fellow churchmen who still
uphold in their integrity the principles of the Reformation.
Among the latter, on the other hand, " Protestantism " is used
as exclusive of a good many of the doctrines and practices which
in the Lutheran Church were at one time " Protestant " as
opposed to " Reformed," e.g. the doctrine of the real Presence,
auricular confession, the use of ceremonial lights and vestments.
By many churchmen, too, the name of " Protestant " is accepted
in what they take to be the old sense as implying repudiation
of the claims of Rome, but as not necessarily involving a denial
of " Catholic " doctrine or any confusion of the Church of
England with non-episcopal churches at home or abroad.
In contradistinction to all these somewhat refined meanings,
the term " Protestant " is in common parlance applied to all
Christians who do not belong to the Roman Catholic Church,
or to one or other of the ancient Churches of the East.
PROTESTANTENVEREIN is the name of a society in Germany
the general object of which is to promote the union ( Vcrein) and
progress of the various established Protestant Churches of the
country in harmony with the advance of culture and on the
basis of Christianity. It was founded at Frankfort-on-the-
Main in 1863 by a number of distinguished clergymen and lay-
men of liberal tendencies, representing the freer parties of the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches of the various German
states, amongst whom were the statesmen Bluntschli and Von
Bennigsen and the professors R. Rothe, H. Ewald, D. Schenkel,
A. Hilgenfeld and F. Hitzig. The more special objects of the
association are the following: the development of the Churches
on the basis of a representative parochial and synodal system of
government in which the laity shall enjoy their full rights; the
promotion of a federation of all the Churches in one national
Church; resistance to all hierarchical tendencies both within and
without the Protestant Churches; the promotion of Christian
toleration and mutual respect amongst the various confessions;
the rousing and nurture of the Christian life and of all Christian
works necessary for the moral strength and prosperity of the
nation. These objects include opposition to the claims of Rome
and to autocratic interference with the Church on the part of
either political or ecclesiastical authorities, efforts to induce the
laity to claim and exercise their privileges as members of I lie
Church, the assertion of the right of the clergy, laity and botli lay
and clerical professors to search for and proclaim freely the
truth in independence of the creeds and the letter of Scripture.
Membership in the association is open to all Germans who are
Protestants and declare their willingness to co-operate in pro-
moting its objects. The means used to promote these objects
are mainly (i) the formation of local branch associations through-
out the country, the duty of which is by lectures, meetings and
the distribution of suitable literature to make known and
advocate its principles, and (2) the holding of great annual or
biennial meetings of the whole association, at which its objects
and principles are expounded and applied to the circumstances
of the Church at the moment. The " theses " accepted by the
general meetings of the association as the result of the discus-
sions on the papers read indicate the theological position of its
members. The following may serve as illustrations :
The creeds of the Protestant Church shut the doors on the past
only, but open them for advance in the future; it is immoral and
contrary to true Protestantism to require subscription to them.
The limits of the freedom of teaching are not prescribed by the letter
of Scripture, but a fundamental requirement of Protestantism is free
inquiry in and about the Scriptures. The attempt to limit the
freedom of theological inquiry and teaching in the universities is a
violation of the vital principle of Protestantism. Only such concep-
tions of the person of Jesus can satisfy the religious necessities of
this age as fully recognize the idea of his humanity and place in
history. The higher reason only has unconditional authority, and
the Bible must justify itself before its tribunal ; we find the history
of divine revelation and its fulfilment in the Bible alone, and reason
bids us regard the Bible as the only authority and canon in matters
of religious belief.
The formation of the association at once provoked fierce
and determined opposition on the part of the orthodox sections
PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH
473
of the Church, particularly in Berlin. Attempts more or less
successful have been made from the first to exclude clergymen
nul professors identified with it from the pulpits and chairs of
Berlin and elsewhere, though membership in it involves no legal
disqualification for either. One of the objects of the association
was to some extent obtained by their organization of the Prussian
Church when Dr Falk was cultus minister, on the basis of paro-
chial and synodal representation, which came into full operation
in 1879. But the election for the general synod turned out very
unfavourable to the liberal party, and the large orthodox majority
endeavoured to use their power against the principles and the
members of the association. In 1882 the position of the associa-
tion was rendered still more difficult by the agitation in Berlin
.if Dr Kalthoff and other members of it in favour of a "people's
church " on purely dissenting and extremely advanced theologi-
cal principles. This difficulty has continued, and the extreme
rationalist position taken up by some leaders has alienated the
sympathy not only of the obscurantists but of those who were
prepared to go some distance in the direction of a liberal theology.
There are now about 25,000 members in the 20 branches of the
Verein.
Sit- D. Schenkel, Der deutsche Protestantenverein und seine Bedeu-
tung fur die Gegenwart (Wiesbaden, 1868, 2nd ed. 1871) ; Der deutsche
Protestantenverein in seinen Statuten und den Thesen seiner Haupt-
nimlungen 1865-1882 (Berlin, 1883); P. Wehlhorn in Herzog-
H.mcks Realencyk. fur prot. Theol. u. Kirche; H. Weinel, " Religious
I. ilr and Thought in Germany To-day," Hibbert Journal (July 1909).
PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States,
a part of the Anglican Communion, organized after the War of
Independence by the scattered parishes of the Church of Eng-
land which survived the war. It inherits from the Church of
England, with which it is in communion, its liturgy, polity
and spiritual traditions, though it has entire independence in
; ition. While the clergy of both Churches are cordially
received in their respective countries, there is no formal con-
nexion between them except in fellowship and in advisory council
as at the Lambeth Conference. The Church in the United
States is therefore an independent national Church which has
adapted itself to the conditions of American life.
With many likenesses, the Protestant Episcopal Church is
different from the Church of England in its organization and
representative form of government. It has the three orders
of bishops, priests and deacons, and uses an almost identical
liturgy; but it is a democratic institution in which the laity have
practically as much power as the clergy, and they are represented
in all legislative bodies. The constitution of the Church follows
in many particulars the constitution of the United States. As
the separate states of the Union are made up of different town-
ships, so the diocese is composed of separate parishes; and as
the nation is a union of the states, so the Church is a union of the
dioceses. The American plan of representative government is
consistently adhered to. The Church in America is thus a part
of the Catholic Church of Christ, with its roots deep in the past
and yet a living body with a life of its own, standing for the
truth of the Christian religion in the great Republic. It is now
firmly established in every state and Territory of the United
>.-;, and in all the dependencies, with also vigorous missions
in foreign lands.
Services of the Church of England were held by the chaplains
of exploring expeditions in various parts of North America
Witory De f re a settlement was established: on Hudson Bay,
in 1378, and on the shores of the Pacific with Drake
in 1579; but the first permanent foothold of the Church was in
Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, when a colony was founded and
a church built. This fact is recognized in the proposed preamble
to the constitution, in which it is stated that this American
Church was " first planted in Virginia in the year of Our Lord
1607, by representatives of the ancient Church of England. "
Parishes were later founded in Maryland in 1676; in Massachu-
setts in 1686; in New York about 1693; in Connecticut in 1706;
and in the other colonies during the i7th and i8th centuries.
The growth of these colonial churches was largely promoted by
the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts,
founded in 1701, through the efforts of the Rev. Thomas Bray, a
missionary in Maryland. These churches scattered throughout
the different colonies up to the American War of Independence
were missions of the Church of England. They were under the
jurisdiction of the Bishop of London, there being no bishop in
America. The Bishop of London superintended these distant
parishes by means of commissaries. Many of the clergy came
from England; and when young men in America desired to be
ordained, it was necessary for them to go to England for this
purpose. The Church during the colonial period was incomplete
in organization, and without the power of expansion. It was
confined principally to the more settled parts of the country,
though it had extended itself into all the colonies. During this
period a few educational institutions were founded: the College
of William and Mary in 1693, in Virginia; the Public Academy
of Philadelphia, in 1749, now the university of Pennsylvania;
and King's College, in 1754, in New York, now Columbia Univer-
sity. The clergy also frequently taught in parochial schools,
and trained boys and girls in their homes.
When the war broke out and independence was declared, a
number of the clergy went back to England, leaving their
parishes vacant, but many, especially in the southern states,
remained and upheld the American cause. A large majority
of the laymen were patriots. Two-thirds of the signers of the
Declaration of Independence were Episcopalians. The churches,
having their support largely withdrawn by the Venerable Society,
became very weak. In Massachusetts during the war only two
churches were kept open.
After the war it was very soon recognized that if the Church
was to survive, there must be organization and co-operation
among the fragments left. Rev. William White (1748-1836)
of Philadelphia, who had been chaplain of the Continental
Congress, was a leader in the plan of organization. Rev. Samuel
Seabury (1729-1796) of Connecticut was also an important
factor in continuing the life of the Church. He was elected
bishop by the clergy of Connecticut, and after being refused in
England, was consecrated bishop of Connecticut by the Scotch
non-juror bishops in Aberdeen on the i4th of November 1784.
Later, William White of Pennsylvania and Samuel Provoost
(1742-1815) of New York were consecrated bishops in the chapel
at Lambeth Palace on the 4th of February 1787, by the arch-
bishops of Canterbury and York and others. Rev. James
Madison (1740-1812) of Virginia was also consecrated bishop in
England, on the ipth of September 1790. An important meeting
or general convention of laymen, clergy and bishops was
held in 1784, and another in 1789, for the purpose of consolida-
ting and uniting the Church. Certain fundamental principles
were adopted which were the basis of organization: that the
Episcopal Church be independent of all foreign authority; that
it have full and exclusive power to regulate the concerns of
its own communion; that the doctrines be maintained as in
the Church of England; that bishops, priests and deacons
be required; that the canons and laws be made by a more
representative body of clergy and laity conjointly. At the
general convention of 1789 a constitution and canons were
finally adopted, and the book of Common Prayer was set forth.
The Church thus being fully organized, it was prepared to
develop and extend. There was a long period, however, when
little was done save retain what had already been gained.
Owing in a measure to the popular prejudice against anything
that savoured of England, and to the difficulty of adapting the
newly formed institution to the conditions of American life, the
Church hardly held its own from 1789 to iSn. The general
convention of 1811 was attended by only five clergymen and
four laymen more than that of 1789. The Church in Virginia
especially suffered a decline, but in the North it maintained
itself. After 1811 a new spirit manifested itself in the consecra-
tion of three important men to the episcopate. John Henry
Hobart, a man of great zeal and devotion, became bishop of New
York in 1811; Alexander Viets Griswold (1766-1843), a man of
piety and force, became bishop of the eastern diocese of New
England in 1811; and Richard Channing Moore (1762-1841), a
474
PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH
strong preacher and vigorous personality, was consecrated
bishop of Virginia in 1814. Both Hobart and Moore became
interested in theological education; and their efforts to train
clergymen resulted in the establishment of the General Theo-
logical Seminary in New York in 1819, and the Theological
Seminary in Virginia, opened in Alexandria in 1824. The
Churchman's Magazine was started. Another evidence of
expansion was the consecration in 1819 of Philander Chase
(1775-1852), who became pioneer bishop of the West, first in
Ohio where he laid the foundations (1824) of the " Theological
Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of
Ohio," afterward called Kenyon College, at Gambier, and then
in Illinois where he organized a church and founded Jubilee
College. The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society was
started in 1821. This centralized the mission work, and became
the great agency in the growth and extension of the Church.
Bishop Jackson Kemper (1789-1870) in the North-west, and
Bishop James Hervey Otey (1800-1863) in tne South-west,
did important pioneer work.
The period between 1835 and 1865 was characterized by
further expansion of the episcopate and the formation of new
dioceses. Bishop William Ingraham Kip (1811-1893) went to
the miners of California in 1853. The dioceses of Oregon and
Iowa were founded in 1854; and Bishop Henry Benjamin
Whipple (1822-1901) was sent to Minnesota in 1859. The
Church found its way into Indiana, Texas, Arkansas, Florida,
Nebraska and Colorado. In 1835 there were 763 clergymen;
in 1850 the number had increased to 15 58; and even in 1865 there
were 2450. The number of communicants also grew from 1835,
when there were 36,000; to 1850, when there were 80,000; and to
1865, when there were 150,000. During this period some
beautiful church buildings were erected, notably Trinity church
and Gracechurch, New York. The services were richer; stained
glass was used; stalls for the clergy and choir were introduced,
and the lectern was substituted for the old-time reading-desk.
Other educational institutions were founded: Nashotah, Wiscon-
sin, in 1842; Bexley Hall at Gambier in 1839; Racine College,
at Racine, Wisconsin; and Griswold College in Iowa.
When the Civil War broke out in 1861 the Church in the South
met and formed a separate organization called " The Protestant
Episcopal Church in the Confederate States," but the Church in
the North did not recognize the secession; at the meeting of the
general convention in New York in 1862, the roll of the Southern
dioceses was called, and though absent, they were still considered
a part of the Church in the United States. This brotherliness
was an important factor in bringing about a complete union
between the Northern and Southern Churches after the Civil
War; so the Church in the Confederate States had but a
temporary existence.
Since the Civil War the Church has grown with the expansion
of national life. It has become strong in great centres, and has
reached out into every part of the United States and its depen-
dencies, and has maintained missionary stations in foreign lands.
There are bishops and missionary dioceses in Alaska, Hawaii, the
Philippine Islands, Porto Rico and Cuba; two bishops in China
and two in Japan; and bishops in Liberia, Haiti, and Brazil.
Institutions of learning, schools, colleges and theological semi-
naries, have been founded. Prominent among the schools are St
Paul's, at Concord, New Hampshire ; St Mark's, at Southboro, Massa-
chusetts; Groton School, at Groton, Massachusetts; St Mary's, at
Garden City, Long Island; St Agnes's, at Albany, New York; St
Mary's, at Burlington, New Jersey ; the Cathedral School, at Wash-
ington D.C. ; and St. George's School, at Newport, Rhode Island.
In addition to the colleges already referred to, there should be in-
cluded: Trinity College, at Hartford, Connecticut; St Stephen's,
at Annandale, New York; the University of the South, at Sewanee,
Tennessee; and Hobart College, at Geneva, New York. The theo-
logical seminaries, besides the general seminary in New York and the
Virginia Seminary, are: the Divinity School, in Philadelphia; the
Berkeley Divinity School, at Middletown, Connecticut; the Seabury
Divinity School, at Faribault, Minnesota; Western Theological
Seminary, in Chicago; Nashotah House, at Nashotah, Wisconsin;
Bexley Hall, Gambier, Ohio; the Church Divinity School of the Paci-
fic, San Mateo, California; and the Episcopal Theological School
in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Cathedrals have been built or were in process of construction in
1910 in many cities. Among them are: All Saints Cathedral,
Milwaukee; the Cathedral of All Saints, Albany; the Cathedral of
the Incarnation, Garden City, Long Island; the Cathedral Church
of St Luke, Portland, Maine; St John the Divine, New York;
and also those in Dallas, Texas, Washington, D.C., Davenport,
Iowa, and Cleveland, Ohio.
The institutional life of the Church is constantly increasing.
Among the numerous organizations founded for distinct purposes
are: the Woman's Auxiliary to the Board of Missions; the American
Church Building Fund Commission ; the American Church M issionary
Society; the General Clergy Relief Fund; the Assyrian Mission
Committee ; the American Church Institute for Negroes ; the Brother-
hood of St Andrew ; the Girls' Friendly Society ; the Church Students'
Missionary Association; the Church Laymen's Union; the Seabury
Society of New York; the Church Mission to Deaf Mutes; the Con-
ference of Church Workers among the Colored People ; the Society
for the Increase of the Ministry; the Church Association for the
Advancement of the Interests of Labor; the Church Temperance
Society; the Church Unity Society; the Confraternity of the Blessed
Sacrament; the Guild of the Holy Cross; the Guild of St Barnabas
for Nurses; the Church Congress in the United States. In addition
there are Sunday School commissions and institutes in almost
every diocese. Among the religious orders may be mentioned
the Society of Mission Priests of St John the Evangelist; the Order
of the Holy Cross: the Community of St Mary; the Sisterhood of
St Margaret; the All Saints Sisters of the Poor; the Sisterhood of
St John Baptist; and others. There are also training schools
for deaconesses, including the New York Training' School for
Deaconesses; and the Church Training and Deaconess House of
the Diocese of Pennsylvania.
The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States is
governed according to the constitutions and canons adopted in
1789, and from time to time amended by the General Govern-
Convention, which meets every three years. The meat.
General Convention consists of the House of Bishops, having as
members all the bishops of the Church, and a House of Depu-
ties, composed of four presbyters and four laymen elected by ,
each diocese in union with the Convention; also one clerical and
one lay deputy from each missionary district within the
boundaries of the United States, and one clerical and one
lay deputy chosen by the Convocation of the American
Churches in Europe. The voting is by both houses acting
separately and concurring. In the House of Deputies the vote
is taken by orders, the clerical and lay deputies voting separately;
and they must concur for a resolution to pass. This representa-
tive body legislates for the whole Church. Each diocese also has
its own constitution and canons, by which it regulates its internal
affairs, having also an annual diocesan convention, in which the
clergy and laity are represented. A bishop is elected by the
diocese, subject to confirmation by a majority of the bishops
and standing committees of the different dioceses. Missionary
bishops are elected by the House of Bishops and confirmed by
the House of Deputies if the General Convention is in session;
if not in session, by a majority of the standing committees.
The presiding bishop of the Church was the senior bishop in
order of consecration, until 1910, when an amendment to the
constitution was adopted providing for his election by the
General Convention. A special feature of the government of
the Church is the power given to the laymen. In the parishes
they elect their own clergyman; and they have votes in the
diocesan convention and in the General Convention, and are
thus an integral part of the legislative machinery of the
Church.
The worship of the Church is conducted in accordance with
the Book of Common Prayer, set forth in 1789, but changed from
time to time as need has arisen. The preface states that " this
Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of
England in any essential part of doctrine, discipline or worship,
or further than local circumstances require." This principle
guided the Church in the early days, and continues in force.
However, changes have been made in the direction of omission
and addition. The Athanasian Creed is omitted, as well as all
reference to the king and royal family. The Commination
Service has been dropped. In the Te Deutn, in place of " Thou
didst not abhor the Virgin's womb," is substituted " Thou
didst humble Thyself to be born of a Virgin." Many verbal
PROTEUS PROTHESIS
475
changes have been made. " Our Father which art in Heaven "
i> .hanged to " Who art in Heaven "; " Them that trespass "
i-, .hanged to " Those who trespass." The Ornaments Rubric
and the Black Rubric are omitted. The Communion Office is
more like the Scottish office, having the Oblation and Invocation.
ad of the Commandments may be said our Lord's summary
of the law. Special prayers and thanksgiving have been added,
to he used upon several occasions. A form of the consecration of
a church has been introduced, as well as an office for the
inr-titution of a minister and an office for the visitation of
prisoners. The last revision of the American Prayer Book was
in 1892; gospels for the Festival of the Transfiguration and
for the early celebration of the Holy Communion on Christmas
I).iy and Easter Day were added; and a greater flexibility in
the use of the Prayer Book was permitted.
The statistics as reported by the General Convention of 1907 are as
follow.-,: the whole number of clergy, 5329; deacons ordained, 483;
I priests ordained, 471 ; candidates for holy orders, 469 ; postulants, 323 ;
l.iv nailers, 2464; baptisms, 197,203; persons confirmed, 158,931;
rommunicants, 871,862; Sunday School officers and teachers, 47,871 ;
pupils, 446,367; parishes and missions, 7615; church edifices, 7028;
s, 2530; church hospitals, 72; orphan asylums, 57; homes,
u-ademic institutions, 22; collegiate, 17; theological, 23; other
institutions, 79; total contributions for all purposes, $52,257,519;
episcopal fund, $3,499,838; hospitals and other institutions,
$17,509,085.
i HORITIES. J. S. M. Anderson, History of the Church of England
Colonies (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1856); Leighton Coleman,
The Church in America (New York, 1895) ; A. L. Cross, The Anglican
Episcopate and the American Colonies (New York, 1902); H. W. Foote,
Annals of King's Chapel (2 vols., Boston, 1882-1887); George
f'liree Hundred Years of the Episcopal Church in America
(Philadelphia, 1906) ; W. S. Perry, History of the American Episcopal
Church, 1587-1883, with Monographs (2 vols., Boston, 1885); W. S.
IVrry, Historical Collections Relating to the Episcopal Colonial Church,
ro-.-ering Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Maryland and
-are (4 vols., Hartford, 1870); S. D. McConnell, History of the
'.can Episcopal Church (New York, 1890); D. D. Addison,
The Episcopalians (New York, 1902) ; C. C. Tiffany, A History of the
Episcopal Church (New York, 1905). (D. D. A.)
PROTEUS, in Greek mythology, a prophetic old man of the
sea. According to Homer, his resting-place was the island of
Pharos, near the mouth of the Nile; in Virgil his home is the
island of Carpathus, between Crete and Rhodes. He knew all
things past, present and future, but was loth to tell what he
knew. Those who would consult him had first to surprise and
bind him during his noonday slumber in a cave by the sea, where
he was wont to pass the heat of the day surrounded by his seals.
Even when caught he would try to escape by assuming all sorts
of shapes: now he was a lion, now a serpent, a leopard, a boar, a
tree, fire, water. But if his captor held him fast the god at last
returned to his proper shape, gave the wished-for answer, and
then plunged into the sea. He was subject to Poseidon, and
acted as shepherd to his " flocks." In post-Homeric times the
story ran that Proteus was the son of Poseidon and a king of
Egypt, to whose court Helen was taken by Hermes after she
had been carried off, Paris being accompanied to Troy by a
phantom substituted for her. This is the story followed by
Herodotus (ii. 112, 118), who got it from Egyptian priests, and
by Euripides in the Helena. From his power of assuming what-
ever shape he pleased Proteus came to be regarded, especially by
the Orphic mystics, as a symbol of the original matter from
which the world was. created. Rather he is typical of the
ever-changing aspect of the sea (Homer, Odyssey, iv. 351; Virgil,
Ceorgics. iv. 386).
PROTEUS (Proteus anguinus), in zoology, a blind perenni-
branchiate tailed Batrachian, inhabiting the subterranean
waters of the limestone caves to the east of the Adriatic from
Carniola to Herzegovina. It was long supposed to be the sole
representative of the Batrachians in the cave fauna, but other
examples have been added in recent years. It is a small eel-like
animal, with minute limbs, the anterior of which are tridactyle,
the posterior didactyle, with a strongly compressed tail, a
narrow head, with flat truncate snout, minute rudimentary
eyes hidden under the skin, which is usually colourless, or rather
flesh-coloured, with the short, plume-like external gills blood-
red; the jaws and palate are toothed. This extraordinary
Batrachian has been found in a great number of different caves,
but rather sporadically, and it is believed that its real home is
in deeper subterranean waters, whence it is expelled at times
of floods. It is often kept in aquariums, where it may turn
almost black, and has bred in captivity. Proteus forms with
Ned urns (Menobranchus) the family Proteidae. The second
genus, which is widely distributed in eastern North America, is
more generalized in its structure, having better developed limbs,
with four digits, and is adapted to live in the light. But the
two are closely allied, and Necturus gives us a very exact idea
of what sort of a type Proteus must be derived from.
In 1896 a Proteus-like Batrachian was discovered in Texas
during the operation of boiing an artesian well 188 ft. deep,
when it was shot out with a number of
remarkable and unknown Crustaceans.
Typhlomolge rathbuni (see fig.), as this
creature was called, agrees with Proteus in
the shape of the head, in the absence of
functional eyes, in the presence of external
gills, and in the unpigmented skin. It differs
in the very short body and the long slender
limbs with four to five digits. It was first
placed in the same family as Proteus, but
the anatomical investigations of Ellen J.
Emerson have led this author to believe
that the real affinities are with the larval
form of the lungless salamander Spelerpes,
not with Necturus and Proteus. Whilst
Proteus has lungs in addition to the gills,
Typhlomolge lacks the lungs, and with them
the trachea and larnyx. It is therefore
probable that Typhlomolge is a permanent
larva derived from Spelerpes, whilst we are
quite unable to assign any direct ancestor
to Necturus.
Another blind Urodele has recently been
described as Typhlotriton spelaeus, from
caves in the Mississippi Valley. It has
neither gills nor lungs in the adult, and is found under rocks
in or out of the water. It is not allied to Proteus. The eyes are
apparently normal in the larva, but in the adult they have
undergone marked degeneration.
See P. Configliachi and M. Rusconi, Del Proteo anguino (Pavia,
1819), 4; J. de Bedriaga, Lurchfauna Europas (1897), ii. 28; E.
Zeller, Uber die Fortpflanzung des Proteus anguinus., Jahresb. ver.
Nat. Wurttemb. (1889), p. 131 ; L. Steineger, " New Genus and Species
of Blind Cave Salamanders from North America," P. U.S. Nat.
Mus. (1892), xv. U5;idem," New Genus and Species of Blind, Tailed
Batrachians from the Subterranean Waters of Texas," op. cit.
(1896), xviii. 619; Ellen J. Emerson, "General Anatomy of
Typhlomolge rathbuni," P. Boston Soc. N.H. (1905), xxxii. 43.
Typhlomolge
rathbuni.
PROTHESIS (Gr. irp60e<ris, a setting forth, from
to set forward or before), in the liturgy of the Orthodox
Eastern Church, the name given to the act of " setting forth "
the oblation, i.e. the arranging of the bread on the paten, the
signing of the cross (er<t>payieiv) on the bread with the sacred
spear, the mixing of the chalice, and the veiling of the paten and
chalice (see F. E. Brightman, Liturgies Eastern and Western,
1896). The term is also used, architecturally, for the place in
which this ceremony takes place, a chamber on the north side of
the central apse in a Greek church, with a small table. During
the reign of Justin II. (565-574) this chamber was located in an
apse, and another apse was added on the south side for the
diaconicon (q.v.), so that from his time the Greek church was
triapsal. In the churches in central Syria the ritual was
apparently not the same, as both prothesis and diaconica are
generally rectangular, and the former, according to De Vogue,
constituted a chamber for the deposit of offerings by the
faithful. Consequently it is sometimes placed on the south side,
if when so placed it was more accessible to the pilgrims. There
is always a much wider doorway to the prothesis than to the
diaconicon, and there are cases where a side doorway from the
476
PROTISTA PROTOPLASM
central apse leads direct to the diaconicon, but never to the
prothesis.
PROTISTA, a name invented by Ernst Haeckel (Generelle
Morphologic der Organismen, 1866) to denote a group of organisms
supposed to be intermediate between the animal and vegetable
kingdoms. As knowledge advanced the precise limits of the
group shifted, and Haeckel himself, in successive publications,
placed different sets of organisms within it, at one time proposing
to include all unicellular animals and plants, making it a third
kingdom equivalent to the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Partly because the term represented an interpretation rather
than an objective set of facts, the word Protista has not been
generally accepted for use in classification, and, whilst recogniz-
ing that the limits of the animal and plant kingdoms are not
sharply defined, modern systematists refrain from associating
these doubtfully placed organisms simply because of the dubiety
of their position. (See PROTOZOA.)
PROTOCOL (Fr. protocole, Late Lat. proiocollum, from Gr.
JT/XOTOJ, first, and KO\\O.V, to glue, i.e. originally the first sheet
of a papyrus roll), in diplomacy, the name given to a variety of
written instruments. The protocollum was under the late Roman
Empire a volume of leaves, bound together with glue, in which
public acts were recorded, so as to guard against fraud or error
on the part of those responsible for preparing them; and in later
usage it came to be applied to the original drafts of such acts.
Thus, too, the word prothocollare was devised for the process
of drawing up public acts in authentic form (Du Cange, Glos-
sariumlat. s.v. Protocollum). The use of the word protocollum
for the introductory and other formulae in the medieval diploma
(see DIPLOMATIC) thus explains itself as implying a recorded
usage in such matters.
In the language of modern diplomacy the name of " protocol "
is given to the minutes (proces-verbaux) of the several sittings
of a conference or congress; these, though signed by the pleni-
potentiaries present, have only the force of verbal engagements
(see CONGRESS). The name of "protocols" is also given to
certain diplomatic instruments in which, without the form of
a treaty or convention being adopted, are recorded the principles
or the matters of detail on which an agreement has been reached,
e.g. making special arrangements for carrying out the objects
of previous treaties, defining these objects more clearly, interpre-
ting the exact sense of a doubtful clause in a treaty (protocoles
interpretatifs) and the like. Thus the famous Troppau protocol,
which annunciated the right and duty of the European powers
to intervene in the internal affairs of a state threatened with
revolution, was from the point of view of its signatories merely
a logical application of the principles contained in the treaty of
the aoth of November 1815 (see TROPPAU). Occasionally also
an agreement between two or more powers takes the form of a
protocol, rather than a treaty, when the intention is to proclaim
a community of views or aims without binding them to
eventual common action in support of those views or aims;
thus the settlement of the question of the Danish succession
was recognized by the powers in conference at London, by the
protocol of 1852 (see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION).
Finally, " the protocol " (protocole diplomatique, protocole de
chancellerie) is the body of ceremonial rules to be observed in all
written or personal official intercourse between the heads of
different states or their ministers. Thus the protocol lays down
in great detail the styles and titles to be given to states, their
heads, and their public ministers, and the honours to be paid to
them ; it also indicates the forms and customary courtesies to be
observed in all international acts. " It is," says M. Pradier-
Fodere, " the code of international politeness."
See P. Pradier-Fodere, Cours de droit diplomatique (Paris, 1899),
ii. 499.
PROTOGENES, a Greek painter, born in Caunus, on the coast
of Caria, but resident in Rhodes during the latter half of the 4th
century B.C. He was celebrated for the minute and laborious
finish which he bestowed on his pictures, both in drawing and
in colour. Apelles, his great rival, standing astonished in
presence of one of these works, could only console himself by
saying that it was wanting in charm. On one picture, the
" lalysus," he spent seven years; on another, the " Satyr," he
worked continuously during the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius
Poliorcetes (305-304 B.C.) notwithstanding that the garden in
which he painted was in the middle of the enemy's camp.
Demetrius, unsolicited, took measures for his safety; more than
that, when told that the " lalysus "just mentioned was in a part of
the town exposed to assault, Demetrius changed his plan of opera-
tions, lalysus was a local hero,the founder of the town of the same
name in the island of Rhodes, and probably he was represented
as a huntsman. This picture was still in Rhodes in the time of
Cicero, but was afterwards removed to Rome, where it perished
in the burning of the Temple of Peace. The picture painted
during the siege of Rhodes consisted of a satyr leaning idly
against a pillar on which was a figure of a partridge, so life-like
that ordinary spectators saw nothing but it. Enraged on this
account, the painter wiped out the partridge. The " Satyr " must
have been one of his last works. He would then be about
seventy years of age, and had enjoyed for about twenty years
a reputation next only to that of Apelles, his friend and bene-
factor. Both were finished colourists so far as the fresco-
painting of their day permitted, and both were laborious in the
practice of drawing, doubtless with the view to obtaining bold
effects of perspective as well as fineness of outline. It was an
illustration of this practice when Apelles, finding in the house of
Protogenes a large panel ready prepared for a picture, drew upon
it with a brush a very fine line which he said would tell sufficiently
who had called. Protogenes on his return home took a brush
with a different colour and drew a still finer line along that of
Apelles dividing it in two. Apelles called again; and, thus
challenged, drew with a third colour another line within that of
Protogenes, who then admitted himself surpassed. This panel
was seen by Pliny (N.H. xxxv. 83) in Rome, where it was much
admired, and where it perished by fire. In the gallery of the
Propylaea at Athens was to be seen a panel by Protogenes.
The subject consisted of two figures representing personifica-
tions of the coast of Attica, Paralus and Hammonias. For the
council chamber at Athens he painted figures of the Thesmo-
thetae, but in what form or character is not known. Probably
these works were executed in Athens, and it may have been then
that he met Aristotle, who recommended him to take for subjects
the deeds of Alexander the Great. In his " Alexander and
Pan " he may have followed that advice in the idealizing spirit
to which he was accustomed. To this spirit must be traced also
his " Cydippe " and " Tlepolemus," legendary personages of
Rhodes. Among his portraits are mentioned those of the
mother of Aristotle, Philiscus the tragic poet, and King
Antigonus. But Protogenes was also a sculptor to some
extent, and made several bronze statues of athletes, armed
figures, huntsmen and persons in the act of offering sacrifices.
PROTOGENES (E. Haeckel), a little-known genus of Forami-
nifera (q.v.), marine organisms, forming a naked flat disk with
numerous long radiating pseudopodia: nucleus and contractile
vacuole not seen, and reproduction unknown.
PROTOMYXA (E. Haeckel), a genus of Foraminifera (</.;.).
marine organisms, of orange colour, naked and reproducing in
a broad-cyst which liberates i -flagellate zoospores.
PROTOPLASM, the name given in modern biology to a sub-
stance composing, wholly or in part, all. living cells, tissues or
organisms of any kind, and hence regarded as the primary
living substance, the physical and material basis of 'life.
The term " protoplasma," from irpcSros, first, and irXaa/io,
formed substance, was coined by the botanist Hugo von
Mohl, in 1846, for the " tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid "
constituent of plant cells, which he distinguished from the cell-
wall, nucleus and cell-sap. This was not, however, the first
recognition of the true living substance as such, since this step
had been achieved in 1835 by the French naturalist F. Dujardin,
who in his studies on Foraminifera had proposed the term
" sarcode " for the living material of their bodies in the following
words: " Je propose de nommer ainsi ce que d'autres observa-
teurs ont appele une gelee vivante, cette substance glutineuse,
PROTOPLASM
477
diaphane, insoluble dans 1'eau, se contractant en masses globu-
leuscs, s'attachant aux aiguilles de dissection, et se laissant 6tirer
comme du mucus, enfin se trouvant dans tous les animaux
inferieurs interposee aux autres elements de structure." To the
I reach naturalist belongs, therefore, the real credit of the
discovery of protoplasm, or rather, to be more accurate, of
the first recognition of its true nature as the material basis of
vital phenomena. Neither Dujardin nor von Mohl, however,
hail any conception of the universal occurrence and fundamental
similarity of protoplasm in all living things, whether animal or
\ ratable, and it was not till 1861 that the identity of animal
ode and vegetable protoplasn) was proclaimed by Max
Sclmltze, whose name stands out as the framer, if not the founder,
of ihe modern notions concerning the nature of the living sub-
stance. From this time onwards the term " protoplasm " was
used for the living substance of all classes of organisms,
although it would have been more in accordance with the
iom of priority in nomenclature to have made use of
Dujardin's term " sarcode."
A living organism, of any kind whatsoever, may be regarded
as composed of (i) protoplasm, (2) substances or structures pro-
duced by the protoplasm, either by differentiation or modifica-
tion of the protoplasm itself, or by the excretory or secretory
activity of the living substance. The protoplasm of a given
organism may be in a single individual mass, or may be aggre-
gated into a number of masses or units, discontinuous but not
disconnected, termed cells (see CYTOLOGY). Thus living organ-
isms may be distinguished, in a general way, as unicellular or
multicellular. An instance of a unicellular organism is well
seeninan^4moe6a,orin one of the Foraminifera, classic examples
for the study of undifferentiated protoplasm, which here com-
poses the greater part of the body, while products of the forma-
tive activity of the protoplasm are seen in the external shell and
in various internal granules and structures. As an example of
a multicellular organism we may take the human body, built up
of an immense number of living cells which produce, singly or
in co-operation, a variety of substances and structures, each
contributing to the functions of the body. This, without attemp-
ting to enter into details, the horny epidermis covering the body,
thi- hairs, nails, teeth, skeleton, connective tissue, &c., are all
of them products formed by the metabolic activity of the living
substance and existing in intimate connexion with it, though
not themselves to be regarded as living. In addition to meta-
bolic products of this kind, special modifications of the living
substance itself are connected with specializations or exaggera-
tions, as it were, of a particular vital function; such are the
contractile substanceof muscular tissue, and the various mechan-
isms seen in nervous and sensory tissue. It is necessary, there-
. in a living body of any kind, to distinguish clearly between
simple protoplasm, its differentiations and its products.
Protoplasm from whatever source, whether studied in a cell
of the human body, in an Amoeba or Foraminifer, or in a veget-
able organism, is essentially uniform and similar in appearance
and properties. Its appearance, graphically described by
Dujardin in the passage quoted above, is that of a greyish,
viscid, slimy, semi-transparent and semi-fluid substance. Its pro-
perties are those of living things generally, and the most salient
and obvious' manifestation of life is the power of automatic
movement exhibited by living protoplasm. When free and not
limited by firm envelopes, the movements take the character
known generally as amoeboid, well shown in the common
.I moeba or in the white corpuscles of the blood. When confined
by rigid envelopes, as in plant-cells, the protoplasm exhibits
streaming movements of various kinds. Even more essentially
characteristic of the living matter than the power of movement
is the property of metabolism that is to say, the capacity of
nilating substances different from itself, of building them up
into its own substance (anabolism), and of again decomposing
these complex molecules into simpler ones (katabolism) with
production of energy in the form of heat, movement and electri-
cal phenomena. An important part of the metabolic process
is respiration, i.e. the absorption of oxygen from the surrounding
medium and oxidation of carbon atoms to form carbonic acich
gas and other simple chemical compounds; in ordinary plant
and animal protoplasm the process of respiration seems to be of
universal occurrence, but some Bacteria constitute apparently
an exception to the rule. Metabolism results not only in the
generation of energy, but also, if anabolism be in excess of
katabolism, in increase of bulk, and consequent growth and
reproduction.
Living protoplasm is, therefore, considered from a chemical
standpoint, in a state of continual flux and instability, and it
follows that if protoplasm be a definite chemical substance or
mixture of substances (see below), a given sample of protoplasm
cannot be pure, or at least cannot remain so for any length of
time so long as its power of metabolism is being exerted, but
will contain particles either about to be built up by anabolism
into its substance, or resulting from katabolic disintegration of
its complex molecules. Hence it is convenient to distinguish
the living substance from its metaplastic products of anabolism
and katabolism. Such products are to be recognized invariably
in protoplasm and take the form generally of granules and
vacuoles. Granules vary in size from very minute to relatively
large, coarse grains of matter, usually of a firm and solid nature.
To the presence of innumerable granules is due the greyish,
semi-transparent appearance of protoplasm, which in parts
free from granules appears hyaline and transparent. Different
samples of protoplasm may vary greatly in the number and
coarseness of the granulations. Vacuoles are fluid drops of more
watery consistence, which, when relatively small, assume a
spherical form, as the result of surface tension acting upon a
drop of fluid suspended in another fluid. When vacuoles are
numerous and large, however, they may assume various forms
from mutual pressure, like air-bubbles in a foam. A good example
of frothy protoplasm, due to the presence of numerous vacuoles,
is seen in the common " sun-animalcule " (Aclinosphaerium).
Or when the cell is confined by an envelope, and becomes very
vacuolated, the vacuoles may become confluent to form a cell-
sap contained in a protoplasmic lining or " primordial utricle,"
and traversed by strands of protoplasm, as in the ordinary cells
of plant-tissues. In many unicellular organisms, so-called
contractile vacuoles are continually being formed as an act of
excretion and expelled from the body when they reach a certain
size.
While the majority of protoplasmic granules are probably
to be regarded as metaplastic in nature, there is one class of
granulations of which this is certainly not true, namely the grains
of chromatin, so named from their peculiar affinity for certain
dyes, such as carmine, logwood and various aniline stains.
These grains may occur as chromidia, scattered through the
protoplasm, or they may be concentrated at one or more spots
to form a definite nucleus or nuclei, which may or may not be
limited from the remaining protoplasm by a definite mem-
brane, and may undergo further differentiations of structure
which cannot be considered further here (see CYTOLOGY). The
protoplasm of an ordinary cell is thus specialized into
nucleus and cytoplasm. It was formerly thought that the most
primitive forms of life, the Monera pf E. Haeckel, consisted of
pure protoplasm without a nucleus. It must be borne in mind,
however, that chromatin can be present without being con-
centrated to form a definite nucleus, and that with imperfect
technique the chromatin may easily escape observation. It
seems justifiable at present to believe, until the contrary has
been proved, that all organisms, however primitive, contain
chromatin in some form: first, because this substance has
always been found when suitable methods for its detection have
been employed; secondly, because jt has been shown experi-
mentally, by cutting up small organisms, such as Amoeba,
that enucleated fragments of protoplasm are unable to maintain
their continued existence as living bodies; and, thirdly, because
modern research has shown the chromatin to be of very great,
perhaps fundamental, importance in regulating the vital pro-
cesses of the cell and so determining the specific characters of
the organism, a property which enables the chromatin to act
PROTOPLASM
as the vehicle of heredity and to transmit the characters of
parent to offspring. In the present state of our knowledge,
therefore, the peculiar chromatin-granules must be regarded as
an integral part, perhaps even the most essentially and primarily
important portion, of the living substance. At the same time
it must be borne in mind that the term " chromatin " does not
denote a definite chemical substance, to be recognized universally
by hard and fast chemical tests. The chromatin of different
organisms or cells may behave quite differently in relation to
stains or other reactions; and if it be true that it is the chromatin
which determines the nature and activities of the cell, it follows
that no two cells which differ from one another in any way can
have their chromatin exactly similar. The conception of chrom-
atin is one based upon its relations to the vital activities and life
cycle, as a whole, of the organism or cell, and not upon any
definable material, that is chemical and physical, properties.
The importance of protoplasm, as the physical and material
basis of life, has caused it to be the subject in recent years of
much minute and laborious research. It seems obvious that
matter so peculiarly endowed must possess a complexity of
structure and organization far exceeding that which at first
sight meets the eye. Some biologists have attacked the
problem of the ultimate constitution of protoplasm from a
purely theoretical standpoint, and have framed hypotheses
of an ultramicroscopic constitution sufficient, in their opinion,
to explain, or at least to throw light upon, the vital activities
of the living substance. Others, proceeding by more empirical
methods, have attempted to lay bare the structure of protoplasm
by means of the refinements of modern microscopical technique,
or to solve the question of its constitution by means of chemical
and physiological investigation. Hence a convenient distinction,
not always easy, however, to maintain in practice, is drawn
between speculative and empirical theories of protoplasm.
1. Speculative theories have come with the greatest frequency
from those who have attempted to find a material explanation
for the phenomena of heredity (q.v.). As instances may be
mentioned more particularly the " gemmules " of Darwin, the
" pangenes " of de Vries, the " plastidules " of Haeckel, and the
" biophores " of Weismann. These theories have been ably
brought together and discussed by Delage, who has included
them all under the term " micromerism," since they agree in
the assumption that the living substance contains, or consists
of, a vast number of excessively minute particles i. e. aggregates
or combinations of molecules, which give to the protoplasm its
specific properties and tendencies (" idioplasm " of Nageli).
In other cases the assumption of invisible protoplasmic units
has been inspired by a desire either to explain the general vital
and assimilative powers of protoplasm, as, for example, the
" micellae " of Nageli and the " plasomes " of Wiesner, or to
elucidate the mechanism of some one function, such as the
" inotagmas " cf Engelmann, assumed to be the agents of
contractility. In general, it may be said of all these speculations
either that they can only be extended to all vital phenomena
by the help of so many subordinate hypotheses and assumptions
that they become unworkable and unintelligible, or that they
only carry the difficulties a step further back, and really explain
nothing. Thus it is postulated for Wiesner's hypothetical
plasomes that they possess the power of assimilation, growth and
reproduction by division; in other words, that they are endowed
with just those properties which constitute the unexplained
mystery of living matter.
2. Empirical theories of protoplasm differ according as their
authors seek to find one universal type of structure or constitu-
tion common to all conditions or differentiations of the living
substance, or, on the contrary, are of opinion that it may vary
fundamentally in different places or at different times. From
these two points of view protoplasm may be regarded either
as monomorphic or polymorphic (Fischer). The microscopical
investigation of protoplasm reveals at the first glance a viscid,
slimy or mucilaginous substance, in which is embedded an
immense number of granules, for the most part very tiny. Very
rarely are these granules absent, and then only fiom a portion
of the protoplasm, and only temporarily. Hence many authori-
ties have regarded the minute granules the " microsomes "
of Hanstein as themselves the ultimate living units of proto-
plasm, in opposition to those who would regard them merely
as " metaplastic " substances, i.e. as the heterogeneous by-
products of metabolism and vital activity. The granular theory,
as this conception of the living substance is called, has received
its extreme elaboration at the hands of Altmann, whose stand-
point may be taken as typical of this class of theories. After
demonstrating the universal occurrence of granules in protoplasm.
Altmann has compared each individual granule to a free-living
bacterium, and thus regards a cell as a colony of minute organisms,
namely the granules or bioblasts, as he has termed them, living
embedded in a common matrix, like a zoogloea colony of bacteria.
Of this theory it may be remarked, firstly, that it brings us
no nearer to an explanation of vital phenomena than do the
plasomes of Wiesner; secondly, that to consider bacteria as
equivalent, not to cells, but to cell granules, is to assume for
this class of organisms a position with regard to the cell theory
which is, to say the least, doubtful; and, thirdly, that the
observations of the vast majority of competent microscopists
furnish abundant support for the statement that granules of
protoplasm do not lie free in a structureless matrix, but are
embedded in the substance of a minute and delicate framework
or morphoplasm, which in its turn is bathed by a watery fluid
or enchylema permeating the whole substance. The upholders
of the granular theory deny the existence of the framework,
or explain it as due to an arrangement of the granules, or as
an optical effect produced by the matrix between the granules.
Amongst those, on the other hand, who assert the existence of
a framework distinct from granules and enchylema, the utmost
diversity of opinion prevails with regard to the true structural
relations of these three parts and the r61e played by each in the
exercise of vital functions. Some have regarded the framework
as made up of a tangle of separate fibrillae (filar theory) a view
more especially connected with the name of Flemming but most
are agreed that it represents the appearance of a reticulum or
network with excessively fine meshes, usually from to i p in
diameter. The reticulum carries the granules at its nodal
points, and is bathed everywhere by the enchylema. Even with
so much in common, however, opinions are still greatly at
variance. In the first place, the majority of observers interpret
the reticulum as the expression of an actual spongy framework,
a network of minute fibrillae ramifying in all planes. While,
however, Heitzmann, following the speculations of Briicke,
considered the framework itself to be actively contractile and
the seat of all protoplasmic movement, an opposite point of view
is represented by the writings of Leydig, Schafer and others,
who regard the reticulum merely as a kind of supporting frame-
work or spongioplasm, in which is lodged the enchylema or
hyaloplasm, considered to be itself the primary motile and living
substance. Biitschli, on the other hand, has pointed out the
grave difficulties that attend the interpretation of the reticulum
as a fibrillar framework, in view of the distinctly fluid consistence
of, at any rate, most samples of protoplasm. For if the sub-
stance of the framework be assumed to be of a firm, solid nature,
then the protoplasm as a whole could not behave as a fluid, any
more than could a sponge soaked in water. On the other hand,
the hypothesis of a fluid fibrillar framework leads to a physical
impossibility, since one liquid cannot be permanently suspended
in another in the form of a network. Butschli therefore interprets
the universally present reticulum as a meshwork of minute
lamellae, forming a honeycombed or alveolar structure, similar
to the arrangement of fluid lamellae in a fine foam or lather,
in which the interstices are filled, not with air but with another
fluid; in other words, the structure of protoplasm is that of an
exceedingly fine emulsion of two liquids not miscible with one
another.
It may be claimed for the alveolar theory of Butschli that it throws
light upon many known facts relating to protoplasm. It interprets
the reticulum as the optical section of a minute foam-like structure,
and permits the formation of protoplasmic striations and of apparent
fibrillae as the result of linear or radiating dispositions of the alveolar
PROTOZOA
479
framework; it reconciles with the laws of physics the combination
of a framework with a fluid or semi-fluid aggregate condition, while
itions in the fluidity of the framework are compatible with a
stiffening of the protoplasm almost to the pitch of rigidity, as seen,
tur example, in nervous tissue; and, finally, it explains many charac-
lic structural peculiarities of protoplasm, such as the superficial
layer of radiately arranged alveoli, the spherical form of vacuoles,
the continuous wall or pellicle which limits both the vacuoles and the
protoplasm as a whole, and many other points not intelligible on
the theory of a sponge-like structure. Butschli has succeeded,
moreover, in producing artificial foams of minute structure, which
not only mimic the appearance of protoplasm, but can be made to
exhibit streaming and amoeboid movements very similar to those of
ile protoplasmic organisms. Incidentally these experiments
have shown that many of the apparent granulations and " micro-
's " are an optical effect produced by the nodes of the minute
framework. In his most recent works Butschli has extended his
theory of alveolar structure to many other substances, and has tried
to prove that it is a universal characteristic of colloid bodies, a
view strongly combated, however, by Fischer. While it cannot
be claimed that Biitschli's theory furnishes in any way a complete
explanation of life, leaving untouched, as it does, the fundamental
question of assimilation and metabolism, he at least draws attention
to a very important class of facts, which, if demonstrated to be of
universal occurrence, must be reckoned with in future treatment
of the protoplasm question, and would form an indispensable
preliminary to all speculations upon the mechanism of the living
substance.
In opposition to the above-mentioned monomorphic theories
of protoplasm, all of which agree in assuming the existence of
some fundamental type of structure in all living substance,
attempts have been made at various times to show that the
structural appearances seen in protoplasm are in reality artificial
products, due to precipitation or coagulation caused by reagents
used in the study or preparation of living objects. These views
have been developed by Fischer, who by experimenting upon
various proteids with histological fixatives, has shown that it
is possible to produce in them a granular, reticular or alveolar
structure, according to treatment, and. further, that granules
so produced may be differentially stained according to their size
and absorptive powers. Fischer therefore suggests that many
structural appearances seen in protoplasm may be purely
artificial, but does not extend this view to all such structures,
which would indeed be impossible, in view of the frequency with
which reticular or alveolar structures have been observed during
life. He suggests, however, that such structures may be
temporary results of vital precipitation of proteids within the
organism, and that protoplasm may have at different times a
granular reticular or alveolar structure, or may be homogeneous.
Fischer's conception of living protoplasm is therefore that of
a polymorphic substance, and a similar view is held at the
present time by Flemming, Wilson and others. Strassburger
also regards protoplasm as composed of two portions: a motile
kinoplasm which is fibrillar, and a nutritive trophoplasm which
is alveolar, in structure.
The chemical investigation of protoplasm labours at the outset
under the disadvantage that it cannot deal with the living
substance as a whole, since no analysis can be performed upon
it without destroying the life. Protoplasm consists, to the
extent of about 60% of its total mass, of a mixture of various
nucleo- proteids that is to say, of those substances which, in
molecular structure and chemical composition, are the most
complex bodies known. In association with them are always
found varying amounts of fats, carbohydrates, and other bodies,
and such compounds are always present in the living substance
to a greater or less degree as products of both upward and down-
ward metabolism. Protoplasm also contains a large but variable
percentage of water, the amount of which present in any given
case affects largely its fluid or viscid aggregate condition.
Especial interest attaches to the remarkable class of bodies known
as ferments or enzymes, which when prepared and isolated from
the living body are capable of effecting in other substances
chemical changes of a kind regarded as specifically vital. It is
from their study, and from that of the complex proteids found
in the living body, that the greatest advances towards an
explanation of the properties of living matter may be expected
at the present time.
The question may be raised how far it is probable that there is
one universal living substance which could conceivably be isolated
or prepared in a pure state, and which would then exhibit the
phenomena characteristic of vital activity. It is sufficiently obvious,
in the first place, that protoplasm, as we know it, exhibits infinite
diversity of character, and that no two samples of protoplasm are
absolutely similar in all respects. Chemical djfferences must be
assumed to exist not only between the vital fabrics of allied species
of organisms, but even between those of individuals of the same
species. Kassowitz regards this variability as compatible with the
assumption of a gigantic protoplasmic molecule in which endless
variations arise by changes in the combinations of a vast number
of atoms and atom complexes. It is difficult to conceive, however,
of any single substance, however complex in its chemical constitu-
tion, which could perform all the functions of life. To postulate a
universal living substance is to proceed along a path which leads
inevitably to the assumption of biophores, plastidules or other
similar units, since the ultimate living particles must then be
imagined as endowed at the outset with many, if not all, of the
fundamental properties and characteristic actions of living bodies.
Such a conception has as its logical result a vitalistic standpoint,,
which may or may not embody the correct mental attitude with
regard to the study of life, but which at any rate tends to check any
further advance towards an explanation or analysis of elementary
vital phenomena. We may rather, with Kolliker, Verworn and
others, ascribe the activities of protoplasm to the mutual interaction
of many substances, no single one of which can be considered as
living in itself, but only in so far as it forms an indispensable consti-
tuent of a living body. From this point of view life is to be regarded,
not as the property of a single definite substance, but as the ex-
pression of the ever-changing relations existing between the many
substances which make up the complex and variable congeries known
to us as protoplasm.
AUTHORITIES. For exhaustive historical summaries of the proto-
plasm question, with full bibliographical references, the reader may
be referred to the following works, especially the first five: Butschli,
Investigations on Microscopic Foams and Protoplasm (London, 1894);
Untersuchungen iiber Strukturen (Leipzig, 18^8); " Meine Ansicht
iiber die Struktur des Protoplasmas und einige ihrer Kritiker,"
Arch. f. Entwickelungsmechanik d. Org. (1901) ; xi. 499-584, pi. xx. ;
Delage, La Structure du protoplasme el les theories sur I heredite
(Paris, 1895); Wilson, The Cell (and ed., London, 1900); Fischer,
Fixirung, Farbung, und Bau des Protoplasmas (Leipzig, 1899);
Kassowitz, Allgemeine Biologie (Vienna, 1899) ; G. Mann, Protoplasm,
its Definition, Chemistry and Structure (Oxford, 1906), p. 59.
(E. A. M.)
PROTOZOA (Gr. Trpwros, first, and fc?o', living thing), the
name given by modem zoologists to the animalcules, for the
most part microscopic, which were termed by the older natural-
ists Infusoria, from the manner in which they appear in infusions
containing decaying animal and vegetable matter. The name
Infusoria is now, however, restricted to one of the four classes
which comprise the Protozoa proper. The name Protozoa was
coined as far back as 1820 as an equivalent for the German word
Urthiere, meaning animals of primitive or archaic nature, the
forms of animal life which may be supposed to have been the
first that appeared upon our globe. The great naturalist C. T.
von Siebold was, however, the first to give a scientific definition
to the group. Von Siebold pointed out that in the Protozoa
the individual was always a single vital unit or cell, in contrast
with the higher division of the animal kingdom, the Metazoa,
in which the body is generally, though not universally, regarded
as composed of many such units. To put the matter briefly
and somewhat technically: the Protozoa are unicellular animals,
the Metazoa multicellular animals; in the Protozoa the cell is
complete in itself, both morphologically and physiologically,
and is capable of maintaining a separate and independent exist-
ence in suitable surroundings, like any other organism; in the
Metazoa the cells are differentiated for the performance of dis-
tinct functions and combined together to form the various tissues
of which the body is built up, and the individual cells of the
Metazoan body are not capable of maintaining a separate
existence apart from their fellows. This is the sense in which
the term Protozoa is used by zoologists, whereby certain forms
of animal life, which were formerly ranked as Protozoa, such
as sponges and rotifers, are now definitely excluded from the
group and classed as Metazoa.
The animal kingdom may be divided, therefore, into two
sub-kingdoms, the Protozoa and the Metazoa, the first-named
characterized by their essentially unicellular nature. This is
a criterion by which it is easy to define the Protozoa from a purely
4-8o
PROTOZOA
zoological standpoint, but which becomes less satisfactory when
we take into consideration the whole range of microscopic
unicellular organisms. Besides the true Protozoa, which, ex
hypolhesi, are organisms of animal nature, there are many other
organisms of equally simple organization, including the
Bacteria and the unicellular plants. The Bacteria stand sharply
apart from the other forms of life, not only, in many cases, by
their divergent methods of metabolism, but by morphological
characteristics, such as the definite body-form limited by a
distinct envelope, the absence of organs for locomotion other
than the peculiar flagella, and, above all, by the lack of any
differentiation of the body-protoplasm into nucleus and cyto-
plasm, as in all true cells of either animal or vegetable nature.
On the other hand, to separate by hard-and-fast definitions the
unicellular plants from the unicellular animals is not only difficult
but practically impossible. The essential difference between
plant and animal is a physiological one, a difference in the
method of nutrition. A typical green plant is able to live
independently of other organisms and to build up its substance
from simple gases in the air and inorganic salts in the soil or
water, provided that certain conditions of light and moisture
be present in its environment; this is the so-called holophytic
method of nutrition. A typical animal, on the other hand, while
practically independent of sunlight, is not able to exist apart
from other living organisms, since it is not able to buildup its
substance from simple chemical constituents like a plant, but
must be supplied with ready-made proteids in its food, for which
it requires other organisms, either plants or animals; this
is the so-called holozoic method of nutrition. Intermediate
between these two habits of life is the so-called saprophytic
habit, exemplified by the fungi amongst plants; in this method
of nutrition the organism cannot build up its substance entirely
from inorganic substances, but absorbs the organic substances
present in solutions containing organic salts or decaying animal
or vegetable matter.
If we regard the organisms termed collectively Protozoa from
the point of view of their methods of nutrition (considering for
the present only free-living, non-parasitic forms), we find in
one class, the Flagellata, examples of the three methods men-
tioned above, the holozoic, holophytic and saprophytic habit
of life, not only in species closely allied to each other, but even
combined in one and the same species at different periods of its
life or in different surroundings. An individual of a given
species may contain chlorophyll, with which it decomposes
carbonic acid gas in the sunlight, like a plant, while possessing
a definite mouth-aperture, by means of which it can ingest solid
food, like an animal. Such instances show clearly that in the
simplest forms of life the difference between plant and animal
is but a difference of habit and of mode of nutrition, to which
the organism is not at first irrevocably committed, and which
are not at first accompanied by distinctive morphological
characteristics. Only when the organism becomes specialized
for one or the other mode of life exclusively does it acquire such
definite morphological characters that the difference between
plant and animal can be used for the purpose of a natural
classification, as in the higher forms of life. In the lowest forms
it is not possible to base natural subdivisions on their vegetable
or animal nature'. For this reason it has been proposed by
E. Haeckel to unite all the primitive forms of life in which the
body is morphologically equivalent to a single cell into one
group, the Protista, irrespective of their animal or vegetable
nature. In this method of dealing with the problem the Protista
are regarded as a distinct kingdom (Reich), more or less inter-
mediate between, but distinct from, the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, and representing the ancestral stock from which
both animals and plants have sprung. Many authorities have
followed Haeckel's lead in the matter, and the science of Pro-
tistology or Protistenkunde has already a special journal devoted
to the publication of researches upon it. But though it may
be more scientific, from a theoretical point of view, to group
all these primitive organisms together in the way suggested
by Haeckel, in practice it is inconvenient, on account of the
vast number of forms of life to be comprised as Protista, their
diversity in habit of life and organization, and, above all, the
difference in the technical methods required for their study,
which becomes too complicated for a single worker. Hence
Protistology becomes split up in practice by its own mass into
three sciences: the Bacteria are the objects of the science of
bacteriology; botanists deal with the unicellular plants; and
the zoologists with those Protista which are more distinctly
animal in their characters.
Hence the Protozoa are to be regarded as a convenient rat her
than a natural group, and may be characterized generally as
follows: Organisms in which the individual is a single cell, that
is to say, consists of a single undivided mass of protoplasm which
is capable of independent existence in a suitable environment :
if many such individuals be combined together to form a colony,
as frequently occurs, there is no differentiation of the individuals
except for reproductive purposes, and never for tissue-formation
as in the Metazoa. The body always contains chromatin or
nuclear substance, which may be disposed in various ways, but
usually forms one or more concentrated masses termed nuclei,
which can be distinguished sharply from the general body-
protoplasm or cytoplasm. The protoplasmic body may be
naked at the surf ace, or may be limited and enclosed by a distinct
envelope or cell-membrane, which is not usually of the nature
of cellulose, except in holophytic forms. Organs serving for
locomotion and for the capture and assimilation of solid food
are usually present, but may be wanting altogether when the
mode of nutrition is other than holozoic; chlorophyll, on the
other hand, is only found as a constituent of the body-substance
in the holophytic Flagellata. 1 To these characters it may be
added that reproduction is effected by some form of fission, or
division of the body into smaller portions, and that in the vast
majority of Protozoa, if not in all, a process of conjugation or
syngamy occurs at some period in the life-cycle, the essential
feature of the process being fusion of nuclear matter from distinct
individuals. The foregoing definition does not distinguish the
Protozoa sharply from the primitive forms of plant-life, with
which, as stated above, they are connected by many transitions;
but the differentiation of the body-substance into nucleus
and cytoplasm separates them at once from the Bacteria, in
which the chromatin is distributed evenly through the body-
protoplasm.
Protozoa and Disease. The study of the Protozoa has ac-
quired great practical importance from the fact that many of
them live as parasites of other animals, and as such may be the
cause of dangerous diseases and epidemics in the higher forms of
animal life and in man (see PARASITIC DISEASES). Examples
of parasitic forms are to be found in all the four classes into
which, as will be stated below, the Protozoa are divided, and one
class, the Sporozoa, is composed entirely of endoparasitic forms.
Hence Protozoology, as it is termed, is rapidly assuming an
importance in medical and veterinary science almost equal to
that of bacteriology, although the recognition of Protozoa as
agents in the production of disease is hardly older than a decade.
The most striking instances of Protozoa well established as
pathogenic agents are the malarial parasites, the species of
Piroplasma causing haemoglobinuria of cattle and other animals,
the trypanosomes causing tsetse-fly disease, surra, sleeping
sickness, and other maladies, the species of Leishmania causing
kala azar and oriental sore, and the Amoeba responsible for
the so-called amoebic dysentery. Other diseases referred, but
as yet doubtfully, to the agency of Protozoa are syphilis, small-
pox, hydrophobia, yellow fever, and even cancer.
It is only possible here to discuss briefly in a general way the
relations of these parasites to their hosts. When two organisms
stand habitually in the relation of host and parasite, an equi-
librium tends to become established gradually between them, so
1 Many Protozoa contain symbiotic green organisms, so-called
zoochlorellae or zooxanthellae, in their body-protoplasm; for
instance, Radiolaria, and Ciliata such as Paramecium bursaria, &c.
This condition must be carefully .distinguished from chlorophyll
occurring as a cell-constituent.
PROTOZOA
481
that a condition is brought about in which, after many genera-
tions, the host becomes " tolerant " of the parasite, and the
parasite is not lethal to the host, though perhaps capable of
setting up considerable disturbance in its vital functions. Many
animals are found to contain almost constantly certain internal
parasites without being, apparently, in the least affected by
them; and it should be borne in mind that in most cases it is
not to the interest of the parasite to destroy the host or to over-
tax its resources. But when the parasite is transferred naturally
or artificially to a species or race of host which does not ordinarily
harbour it, and which therefore has not acquired powers of
resisting its attacks, the parasites may be most deadly in their
Thus the white traveller in the tropics is exposed to
far greater dangers from the indigenous disease-producing
organisms than are the natives of those climes.
In some cases two organisms have become mutually adapted
to each other as host and parasite to such an extent that the
parasite is not capable of flourishing in any other host. An
instance of this is Trypanosoma lewisi of the rat, which cannot
live in any other species of animal but a rat, and which is not
as a rule lethal to a rat, at least not to one otherwise healthy.
Contrasting in an instructive manner with this species is Trypano-
sonM brucii, which occurs as a natural parasite of buffaloes and
other big game in Africa, and is, apparently, harmless to them,
but which is capable of being transferred to other animals by
inoculation. The transference may take place naturally, by
the bite of a tsetse-fly, or may be effected artificially; in either
case T. brucii is extremely lethal to certain animals, such as
imported cattle, horses and dogs, or to rats and guinea-pigs.
Other animals, however, may be quite "repellent" 1 to this
parasite, that is to say, if it be inoculated into their blood it dies
out without producing ill effects, just as T. lewisi does when
injected into an animal other than a rat. Thus it is seen that
T. brucii, when introduced into the blood of an animal which
is specifically or racially distinct from its natural hosts in the
region where it is indigenous, is either unable to maintain itself
in its new host, or flourishes in it to such an extent as to be the
cause of its death.
We may assume, therefore, at least as a working hypothesis,
that a lethal parasite is one that is new to its host, and that a
harmless parasite is one long established. Since all parasites
must have been new to their proper hosts at some period, recent
or remote, in the history of the species, it would follow that the
first commencement of parasitism would be in almost all cases
a life and death struggle, as it were, between the two organisms
concerned, and it is quite conceivable that the host might
succumb in the struggle and so be exterminated. Ray Lankester
has suggested that the extinction of many species of animals
in the past may have been due, in some cases, to their having
been attacked by a species of parasite to which they did not
succeed in becoming adapted, and by which they became, in
consequence, exterminated entirely.
Organization of the Protozoa. The body-form may be constant
or inconstant in the Protozoa, according as the body-substance
is or is not limited at the surface by a firm envelope or cuticle.
When the surface of the protoplasm is naked, as in the common
amoeba and allied organisms, the movements of the animal bring
about continual changes of form. The protoplasm flows out
at any point into processes termed psettdopodia, which are being
continually retracted and formed anew. Such movements are
known as amoeboid, and may be seen in the cells of Metazoa
as well as in Protozoa. The pseudopodia serve both for locomo-
tion and for the capture of food. If equally developed on all
sides of the body, the animal as a whole remains stationary, but
if formed more on one side than the other, the mass of the body
shifts its position in that direction, but the movement of transla-
tion is generally slow. If the animal remains perfectly quiescent
and inactive, the laws of surface-tension acting upon the semi-
iluiM protoplasmic body cause it to assume a simple spherical
1 The use of the terms " tolerant " and " repellent " is taken from
the excellent article on " Sleeping Sickness," by E. Ray Lankester, in
the Quarterly Review (July 1904), No. 399, pp. 113-138.
xxii. 16
form, which is also the type of body-form generally characteristic
of Protozoa of floating habit (Radiolaria, Heliozoa, &c.).
In the majority of Protozoa, however, the protoplasm is
limited at the surface by a firm membrane or cuticle, and in
consequence the body has a definite form, which varies greatly
in different species, according to the habit of life. As a general
rule those forms that are fixed and sedentary in habit tend
towards a radially symmetrical structure; those that are free-
swimming approach to an ovoid form, with the longest axis of
the body placed in the direction of movement; and those that
creep upon a firm substratum have the lower side of the body
flattened, so that dorsal and ventral surfaces can be distinguished ;
it is very rare, however, to find a bilaterally symmetrical type
of body-structure amongst these organisms. In some cases
the cuticle may be too thin to check completely the changes
of form due to the movements of the underlying protoplasm;
instances of this are seen amongst the so-called " metabolic "
Flagellata, in which the body exhibits continually changes of
form, termed by Lankester " euglenoid " movements, due to
the activity of the superficial contractile layer of the body
manifesting itself in ring-like contractions passing down the
body in a manner similar to the peristaltic movements of the
intestine.
The body-substance of the Protozoa is protoplasm, or, as it
was originally termed by Dujardin, sarcode, which is finely
alveolar in structure, the diameter of the alveoli varying
generally between and i p. At the surface of the body
the alveoli may take on a definite honeycomb-like arrange-
ment, forming a special " alveolar layer " which in optical
section appears radially striated. Besides the minute proto-
plasmic alveoli, the protoplasm often shows a coarse vacuola-
tion throughout the whole or a part of its substance, giving
the body a frothy structure. When such vacuoles are present
they must be carefully distinguished from the contractile vacuoles
and food-vacuoles described below; from the former they differ
by their non-contractile nature, and from the latter by not
containing food-substances.
In many Protozoa and especially in those forms in which there
is no cuticle, the body may be supported by a skeleton. The
material of the skeleton differs greatly in different cases, and
may be wholly of an organic nature, or may be impregnated with,
or almost entirely composed of, inorganic mineral salts, in
which case the skeletal substance is usually either silica or
carbonate of lime. From the morphological point of view
the skeletons of Protozoa may be divided into two principal
classes, according as they are formed internal to, or external
to, the body in each case. Instances of internal skeletons
are best seen in the spherical floating forms comprised in
the orders Radiolaria and Heliozoa; such skeletons usually
take the form of spicules, radiating from the centre to the
circumference, and often further strengthened by the for-
mation of tangential bars, producing by their union a
lattice-work, which in species of relatively large size may be
formed periodically at the surface as the animal grows so that
the entire skeleton takes the form of concentric hollow
spheres held together by radiating beams. The architec-
tural types of these skeletons show, however, an almost
infinite diversity, and cannot be summarized briefly. External
skeletons have usually the form of a shell or house, into which
the body can be retracted for protection, and from which the
protoplasm can issue forth during the animal's phases of activity.
Shells of this kind, which must be carefully distinguished from
cuticles or other membranes that invest the body closely, are
well seen in the order Foraminifera; in the simplest cases they
are monaxon in architecture, that is to say, with one principal
axis round which the shell is radially symmetrical, and at one
pole is a large aperture through which the protoplasm can creep
out. In addition to the principal aperture, the shell may or
may not be pierced all over by numerous fine pores, through
which also the protoplasm can pass out. For further details
concerning these shells and their very numerous varieties of
structure the reader is referred to the article FORAMINIFERA.
4-82
PROTOZOA
The protoplasmic body of the Protozoa is frequently differ-
entiated into two zones or regions: a more external, termed the
ectoplasm or ectosarc, and a more internal, termed the endo-
plasm or endosarc. The ectosarc is distinguished by being
more clear and hyaline in appearance, and more tough and viscid
in consistence; the endoplasm, on the other hand, is more
granular and opaque, and of a more fluid nature. The ecto-
plasm is the protective layer of the body, and is also the portion
most concerned in movement, in excretion, and perhaps also
in sensation and in functions similar to those performed by the
nervous systems of higher animals. The endoplasm, on the
other hand, is the chief seat of digestive and reproductive
functions.
As the protective layer of the body, the ectoplasm forms
the envelopes or membranes which invest the surface of the body,
and which are differentiations of the outermost layer of the
ectoplasm. Thus in most Flagellata the ectoplasm is represented
only by the more or less firm outer covering or periplast. Even
when such envelopes are absent, however, the ectoplasm can
still be seen to exert a protective function; as, for instance, in
those Myxosporidia which are parasitic in the gall-bladders or
urinary bladders of their hosts, and which can resist the action
of the juices in which they live so long as the ectoplasm is intact,
but succumb to the action of the medium if the ectoplasm be
injured. In many Infusoria the ectoplasm contains special
organs of offence termed trichocysts, each a minute ovoid body
from which, on stimulation, a thread is shot out, in a manner
similar to the nematocysts of Coelenterata. Similar organs
are seen also in the spores of Myxosporidia, as the so-called poJar
capsules; but in this case the organs are not specially ectoplasmic,
and appear to serve for adhesion and attachment, rather than
for offence.
The connexion of the ectoplasm with movement is seen in the
simplest forms, such as Amoeba, by the fact that all pseudopodia
arise from it in the first instance. In forms with a definite
cuticle, on the other hand, the ectoplasm usually contains
contractile fibres or myonemes, forming, as it were, the muscular
system of the organism. The dependence of the motility of
the animal upon the development of the ectoplasm is well seen
in Gregarines, in which other organs of locomotion are absent;
in forms endowed with active powers of locomotion a distinct
ectoplasmic layer is present below the cuticle; in those Gregarines
incapable of active movement, on the other hand, the ectoplasm
is absent or scarcely recognizable.
From the ectoplasm arise the special organs of locomotion,
which, when present, take the form of pseudopodia, flagella or
cilia. Pseudopodia, as already explained, are temporary proto-
plasmic organs which can be extruded or retracted at any point;
they fall naturally into two principal types, between which,
however, transitions are to be found: first, slender, filamentous
or filose pseudopodia, composed of ectoplasm alone, which may
remain separate from one another, or may anastomose to form
networks, and are then termed reticulose; secondly, thick, blunt,
so-called lobose pseudopodia, which are composed of ectoplasm
with a core of endoplasm, and never form networks. In forms
showing active locomotor powers the pseudopodia are usually
more lobose in type; filose pseudopodia, on the other hand, are
more adapted for the function of capturing food.
Flagella are long, slender, vibratile filaments, generally few
in number when present, and usually placed at the pole of the
body which is anterior in progression. Each flagellum performs
peculiar lashing movements which cause the body, if free, to
be dragged along after the flagellum in jerks or leaps; if, however,
the body be fixed, the action of the flagellum or flagella causes
a current towards it, by which means the animal obtains its
food-supply. A flagellum which is anterior in movement has
been distinguished by Lankester by the convenient term
tractellum; sometimes, however, the flagellum is posterior in
movement and acts as a propeller, like the tail of a fish; for this
type Lankester has proposed the term pulsellum. The flagellum
appears to arise in all cases from a distinct basal granule, and
in some cases, as in the genus Trypanosoma, there is a portion
of the nuclear apparatus set apart as a distinct kinetic nucleus,
with the function, apparently, of governing the activities of
the flagellum.
Cilia are minute, hair-like extensions of the ectoplasm, which
pierce the cuticle and form typically a furry covering to the body.
Though perhaps primitively derived from flagella, cilia, in their
usual form, are distinguished from flagella by being of smaller
size, by being present, as a rule, in much greater numbers, and
above all by the character of their movements. In the place
of the complicated lashing movements of the flagella, each cilium
performs a simple stroke in one direction, becoming first bowed
on one side, by an act of contraction, and then straightened
out again when relaxed. The movements of the cilia are co-
ordinated and they act in concert, though not absolutely in
unison, each one contracting just before or after its neighbour,
so that waves of movement pass over a ciliated surface in a
given direction, similar to what may be seen in a cornfield when
the wind is blowing over it. Primitively coating the whole
surface of the body evenly, the cilia may become modified and
specialized in various ways, which cannot be described in detail
here (see INFUSORIA).
Besides the organs of locomotion already mentioned, there
may be present so-called undulating membranes, in the form
of thin sheets of ectoplasm which are capable of performing
sinuous, undulating movements by their inherent contractility.
In some cases distinct contractile threads or myonemes have
been described in these membranes. Undulating membranes
appear to be formed either by the fusion together of a row of
cilia, side by side, or by the attachment of a flagellum to the
body by means of an ectoplasmic web, in which case the flagel-
lum forms the free edge of the membrane, as in the genus
Trypanosoma.
Returning to the ectoplasm, the excretory function exerted
by this layer is seen by the formation in it of the peculiar con-
tractile vacuoles found in most free-living Protozoa. A con-
tractile vacuole is a spherical drop of watery fluid which makes
its appearance periodically at some particular spot near the
surface of the animal's body, or, if more than one such vacuole
is present, at several definite and constant places. Each
vacuole grows to a certain size, and when it has reached the
limit of its growth it discharges its contents to the exterior by
a sudden and rapid contraction. There is, apparently, in most
if not in all cases, a definite pore through which the contractile
vacuole empties itself to the exterior. On account of the
relatively large size which the contractile vacuole attains it
bulges inwards beyond the limits of the ectoplasm and comes
to lie chiefly in the endoplasm, to which it is sometimes, but
erroneously, ascribed. In the most highly differentiated Protozoa,
for instance, the Ciliata, the ectoplasm contains an apparatus
of excretory channels, situated in its deeper layers, and forming
as it were a drainage-system, from which the contractile vacuoles
are fed. The fluid discharged by the contractile vacuoles appears
to be chiefly water which has been absorbed at the surface of
the protoplasmic body, and which has filtered through the
protoplasm, taking up the soluble waste nitrogenous products
of the metabolism and the gaseous products of respiration; hence
the contractile vacuoles may be compared in a general way to
the urinary and respiratory organs of the Metazoa.
One of the first consequences of the parasitic habit of life is
the disappearance of the contractile vacuoles, which are hardly
ever found in truly parasitic Protozoa, that is to say, in forms
which live in the interior of other animals and nourish them-
selves at their expense. They are also very frequently absent
in marine forms.
Mechanisms of a nervous nature are very seldom found in
Protozoa, but in some Ciliata special tactile bristles are found,
and it is possible that flagella, and perhaps even pseudopodia,
may be sometimes tactile rather than locomotor in function.
Pigment-spots, apparently sensitive to light, may also occur
in some Flagellata.
The endoplasm, as already stated, is the chief seat of nutritive
and reproductive processes. In many Flagellata the ectoplasm
PROTOZOA
483
is represented only by the thin envelope or periplast, so that
l lie whole body is practically endoplasm. When the two layers
are well differentiated the endoplasm is more fluid and coarsely
granular, and contains various organs, chief amongst them in
importance being the nucleus, which must be considered specially
may be put aside for the present.
In considering the functions of ingestion and assimilation
K >d a distinction must be drawn between those Protozoa
h absorb solid food-particles, that is to say, which are
uic .in habit, and those which, being holophytic, saprophytic
ira.sitic in habit, absorb their nourishment in a state of
Hi. Only in holozoic forms is a special apparatus found
iLjrstion or digestion of food; in all other forms nutriment
-orbed by osmosis through the body-wall, presumably at
: mint of the surface. In holozoic forms we must distinguish
further those in which the protoplasm is naked at the surface
i those in which the body is clothed by a firm cuticle or cell-
membrane. In naked forms food-particles are taken in at any
point of the body-surface, either by means of the pseudopodia,
or by the action of flagella causing them to impinge upon the
re of the body. In either case the food is absorbed by
the protoplasm simply flowing round it and engulfing it, and
the food passes into the interior of the body in a tiny droplet
ater forming what is termed a food-vacuole. Into the
food-vacuole the surrounding protoplasm secretes digestive
en/.ymes, so that each such vacuole represents a minute digestive
cavity, in which the food is slowly digested, rendered soluble,
and absorbed by the surrounding protoplasm. The insoluble
residue of the food is finally rejected by expelling the food-vacuole
and its contents from the surface of the body at any convenient
point.
The simple process of food-absorption described above for
the more primitive naked forms is necessarily modified in detail,
though not in principle, in corticate Protozoa, that is to say,
in forms provided with a cuticle. In the first place, it becomes
ssary to have a special aperture for the ingestion of food,
a cell-mouth or cytostome. Primitively the cytostome is a
simple pore or interruption of the cuticle, but in forms more
highly evolved the aperture is prolonged inwards in the form
tube lined by ectosarc and cuticle, forming a gullet or
oesophagus which ends in the endoplasm. Food-particles are
forced by the action of cilia or flagella down the oesophagus and
collect at the bottom of it in a droplet of water which, after
reaching a certain size, passes into the endoplasm as a food-
vacuole in which the food is digested. For rejection of the
insoluble residue of the food-vacuoles, a special pore or cell-anus
(lytapygc) may be present. In the Ciliata there is often a distinct
anal tube visible at all times, but as a rule the anus is only
visible at the moment that faecal matter is being ejected from
it, though fine sections show that the pore is a constant one.
In the higher Flagellata, on the other hand, the oesophageal
ingrowth forms commonly a sort of cloacal cavity, into which
the contractile vacuole or vacuoles discharge themselves, and
jnto which also the food-vacuoles evacuate their residues.
Besides the food-vacuoles already described, and the nuclear
apparatus presently to be dealt with, the endoplasm may contain
various metaplastic products, that is to say, bodies to be regarded
as stages in the upward or downward metabolism of the proto-
plasmic substance. Such substances may take the form of
se granules of various kinds, crystals, vacuoles or droplets
of fatty or oily nature, pigment-grains, and other bodies. In
the holophytic Flagellata the endoplasm contains also various
organs proper to the vegetable cell, such as chlorophyll-bodies
>matophores), pyrenoids, grains of a starchy nature (par-
amylum), and so forth, which need not be described here in
detail.
The nucleus in Protozoa is usually a compact, fairly con-
spicuous structure, composed of chromatin combined in various
ways with an achromatic substance or substances. Sometimes the
chromatin is distributed in smaller masses through the nucleus,
producing a granular type of nucleus; more often the chromatin
is more or less concentrated in a central mass forming a so-called
karyosome, consisting of an achromatic plastinoid substance
impregnated with chromatin. If the karyosome is large and
there is very little chromatin between it and the nuclear
membrane, the nucleus is of the type termed vesicular. A nuclear
membrane is not, however, always present, and true nucleoli,
of the type found in the nuclei of metazoan cells, are not found
in Protozoa.
A given individual may have more than one nucleus, and the
number present may amount to many thousands, as in the
plasmodia of Mycetozoa. In such cases the nuclei may be all
of one kind, that is to say, not markedly different in size, struc-
ture or function, so far as can be seen; or. there may be a pro-
nounced morphological differentiation of the nuclei correlated
with a difference of function. Thus in the class Infusoria two
nuclei are found in each individual; a macronucleus which is
somatic in function, that is to say, which regulates the meta-
bolism and vital processes of the body generally, and the micro-
nucleus, which is generative in function, that is to say, which
remains in reserve during the ordinary, " vegetative " life of the
organism and becomes active during the act of syngamy, after
which the effete macronucleus is absorbed or cast out and a
new somatic nucleus is formed from portions of the micronucki
which have undergone fusion in the sexual act. Thus the micro-
nucleus of the Infusoria can be compared in a general way with
the germ-plasm of the Metazoa, like which it remains inactive
until the sexual union. On the other hand, in some Flagellata
a differentiation of the nucleus of quite a different type is seen,
a smaller, kinetic nucleus being separated off from the larger,
trophic or principal nucleus. The kinetic nucleus has the
function, apparently, of controlling the locomotor apparatus,
so that the specialization of these two nuclei is of a kind quite
different from that seen in the Infusoria.
Besides the nuclear substance which is concentrated to form
the principal nucleus or nuclei, there may be present also
extranuclear granules of chromatin, so-called chromidia, scattered
throughout the whole or some part of the protoplasmic body.
Chromidia may be normally present in addition to the principal
nucleus, or may be formed from the principal nucleus during
certain phases of the life-cycle. In some cases the entire nucleus
may become resolved temporarily into chromidia, from which a
new nucleus may be formed again later by condensation and
concentration of the scattered granules. When the chromidia
are numerous and closely packed they may form a so-called
chromidial network (Chromidial-N elz) . Recent observations on
the reproduction of some Sarcodina have shown that the
chromidia may possess great importance in the life-cycle as
representing generative chromatin which, like the micronucleus
of the Infusoria mentioned above, remains in reserve until, by
the process of syngamy, the nuclear apparatus is renewed;
while the principal nuclei represent, like the macronuclei,
somatic or vegetative chromatin which becomes effete and is
cast off or absorbed when syngamy takes place. These questior.s
will be discussed further below.
It was formerly supposed that the lowest Protozoa were
entirely without a nucleus, and on this supposition E. Haeckel
attempted to establish a class named by him Monera, defined
as Protozoa consisting of protoplasm alone, in which a nucleus
was not differentiated. To this class were referred various
organisms whose alleged archaic nature was expressed by such
names as Protogenes primordialis, organisms which, like so many
other of the primitive forms of animal life described by Haeckel,
have been seen by that naturalist alone up to the present. In
all Protozoa that have been examined by modern methods a
nucleus in some form has been demonstrated to exist, and it
must be supposed, until proof to the contrary be forthcoming,
that in the case of the so-called Monera either the nucleus
was overlooked owing to defective technique, or it had been
temporarily resolved into chromidia.
The nuclear apparatus may be supplemented by other bodies
of which the nature is not always clear. Such is the so-
called " Nebenkern " of Paramocba eilhardi, apparently of the
nature of a centrosome. Sometimes the karyosome acts like a
4 8 4
PROTOZOA
centrosome during the division of the nucleus, and sometimes
true centrosomes are present. Flagella also commonly arise from
basal granules of a centrosomic nature, blepharoplasts in the
correct sense of the term; 1 these blepharoplasts are always
in connexion with the nucleus, or with the kinetic nucleus if
there is one distinct from the trophic nucleus, as in the genus
Trypanosoma and allied forms.
Reproduction of the Protozoa. The mode of reproduction in
these organisms is the same as that of the cell generally, and
takes always the form of fission of some kind; that is to say, of
division of the body into smaller portions, each of which repre-
sents a young individual. The division of the body is preceded
by that of the nucleus, if single, or of each nucleus in] the cases
where there are two different nuclei; if, however, more than one
nucleus of the same kind be present, the nuclei may be simply
shared amongst the daughter-individuals, this mode of division
being known as plasmotomy. Other organs of the body may
cither, like the nucleus, undergo fission, or may be formed afresh
in the daughter-individuals.
The division of the nucleus in Protozoa may take place by the
direct method or by means of mitosis. Direct division, without
mitosis, is of very common occurrence; the division may be
simple or multiple, that is to say, into only two parts, or into a
number of fragments formed simultaneously. An extreme case
of multiple fission is seen in the formation of the microgametes
of Coccidium schubergl, where the nucleus breaks up into a great
number of chromidia, which become concentrated in patches to
form the several daughter-nuclei. In some cases, on the other
hand, multiple daughter-nuclei are formed by rapidly repeated
simple division of the parent nucleus. The mode of division may
be different in different nuclei of the same individual; thus in
the Infusoria the macronucleus divides by direct division, the
micronucleus by mitosis.
The mitosis of the Protozoa is far from being of the uniform
stereotyped pattern seen in the Metazoa, but, as might have
been expected, often shows a much simpler and more primitive
condition. Centrosomes are often absent, and their place may
be taken, as stated above, by other bodies. The nuclear
membrane may be retained throughout the mitosis. Definite
chromosomes can, as a rule, be made out, but the chromosomes
are often very numerous and minute, without definite form, and
divide irregularly. Much remains to be done in studying the
mitosis of the Protozoa, but it is probable that wider knowledge
will show many conditions intermediate between direct division
and perfect mitosis.
The simplest method of 'fission in Protozoa is that termed
binary, where the body divides into two halves, which may be
equal and similar, so that the result is two sister-individuals
impossible to distinguish as parent and offspring. In many
cases of binary fission, however, the resulting daughter-individuals
may be markedly unequal in size, so that one may be distinguished
as the parent, 'the other as the offspring. If the daughter-
individual be relatively very small, and formed in a more or less
imperfect condition at first, the process is termed gemmation
or budding. The buds formed in this way may be either external,
formed on the surface of the body, or internal, that is, formed in
special internal cavities, from which the offspring are later set
free, as in many Acinetaria. Gemmation may be correlated with
multiple nuclear fission in such a way that buds are formed over
the whole body surface of the organism, which thereby under-
goes a process of simultaneous multiple fission into numerous
daughter-individuals. Rapid multiple fission of this kind is
termed sporulation, and is a form of reproduction which is of
common occurrence, especially in parasitic forms. Usually
the central portion of the parent body remains over as a residual
body (Restkorper), but sometimes the parent organism is entirely
resolved into the daughter-individuals, which are termed spores
1 The kinetic nucleus of Trypanosoma is sometimes, but in the
writer's opinion wrongly, named centrosome or blepharoplast ; the
bodies to which cytologists give these names are achromatic bodies ;
the kinetic nucleus is a true chromatic nucleus. The question of the
centrosome in Protozoa is discussed by R. Goldschmidt and M.
Popoff.
in a general way, but can be given special names in special cases
(see GREGARINES, COCCIDIA, &c.).
Life-cycles of the Protozoa. It is probable that in all Protozoa,
as in the Metazoa, the life-history takes its course in a series
of recurrent cycles of greater or less extent, a fixed 'point, as it
were, in the cycle being marked by the act of syngamy. or conju-
gation, which represents, apparently, a process for recuperation
of the waning vital powers of the organism. It is true that in
many types of Protozoa syngamy is not known as yet to occur,
but in all species which have been thoroughly investigated
syngamy in some form has been observed, and there is nothing
to lead to the belief that the sexual process is not of universal
occurrence in the Protozoa.
The life-cycle of a given species may be very simple or it may
be extremely complex, the organism occurring under many
different forms at different phases or periods of its development.
The polymorphism of the Protozoa is best considered under three
categories, according to the three main causes to which it is due,
namely, first, polymorphism due to adaptation to different con-
ditions of existence; secondly, polymorphism due to differences
of size and structure during growth; thirdly, polymorphism due
to the differentiation of individuals in connexion with the process
of syngamy or sexual conjugation.
1. Polymorphism in Relation to Life-conditions. As a protec-
tion against unfavourable conditions, or for other reasons, most
Protozoa have the power of passing into a resting condition,
during which the vital functions may be wholly or in part
suspended. In the resting phase the animal usually becomes
enveloped in a resistant membrane or cyst secreted by it, and
is then said to be encysted. The formation of a cyst may be a
response to conditions of various kinds. Very commonly it is
formed to protect the organism against a change of medium, as
in the case of freshwater forms liable to desiccation, or of para-
sites about to pass out of the bodies of their hosts. In other
cases the organism passes into the resting state in order to
absorb ingested nutriment or in order to enter upon reproductive
phases.
As a preparation for encystment, organs of locomotion, if
present, are retracted or cast off; contractile vacuoles cease to
be formed; and the food-vacuoles disappear, usually by digestion
of their contents and rejection of the waste residue. The body
becomes rounded off and more or less spherical in form, and the
protoplasm becomes denser, that is, less fluid and more opaque,
but at the same time of diminished specific gravity, by loss of
water. The cyst is then secreted at the surface as a layer of
varying thickness and toughness. In the encysted condition
many Protozoa are capable of being transported by the wind,
a fact which explains their appearance in infusions and liquids
exposed to the air. In favourable conditions the cysts germinate,
that is to say, the envelope is dissolved and the contained organ-
ism or organisms are set free to enter upon the strenuous life
once more.
In the Mycetozoa, organisms adapted to a semi-terrestrial
life in moist surroundings, the protoplasm is capable, when
desiccated, of passing into a tough condition resembling sealing-
wax, which, when moistened, assumes again its normal appear-
ance and active condition.
Resting phases, analogous to encystment, are seen in the
spores of various forms, especially those of parasitic habit,
which are commonly enclosed in tough, resistant envelopes or
sporocysts, and enveloped as a protection against change of
medium or of host. Within the sporocyst multiplication of the
sporoplasm may take place to form more or fewer sporozoites.
The sporocysts usually show definite symmetry and structure,
infinitely variable in different species. In a suitable medium
the spores germinate by rupture of the sporocysts and escape of
the contents.
2. Polymorphism in Relation to Growth and Development. In
many species of Protozoa there is hardly any difference to be
observed between different individuals during their active
phases except in size. Those individuals about to multiply
by fission are slightly above the normal in dimensions; on the
PROTOZOA
485
other hand, those resulting from recent fission will be smaller
than the average; and such differences are, it need hardly be
said, more pronounced when the fission is of the unequal
binary type, or in cases of gemmation or multiple fission. In
cases also where a given strain of a species is becoming senile,
it is sometimes observed that the individuals are markedly
undersized on the average.
On the other hand, it is often the case that the young indi-
viduals resulting from a recent act of multiplication may differ
from adult individuals of the species, not merely in size, but in
structural characters, to such an extent that their relationship
to the adult forms could not be determined by simple inspection
without other evidence. This is especially true of those species
in which multiplication by sporulation occurs, giving rise to
numerous small spores which may at first be in a resting condi-
tion, enveloped in protective sporocysts, but which sooner or
later become free, motile individuals known technically as swarm-
spores. Thus in many Sarcodina the adult is a large amoeboid
organism which produces by sporulation a great number of
relatively minute swarm-spores. These may be either, as in
the common Amoeba proteus, amoeboid organisms, so-called
amoebulae or pseudopodiospores, or, as in the Foraminifera and
Kadiolaria, flagellated organisms, so-called flagellulae or flagelli-
s[x>res. Sometimes, as in many Mycetozoa, amoeboid and
flagellated phases may succeed each ether rapidly in the develop-
ment of the swarm-spores. The familiar Noctiluca miliaris is
another instance of a species which produces by sporulation
numerous tiny swarm-spores quite different from the parent
form in their characters. Such instances could be multiplied
indefinitely amongst the Protozoa.
When the young individuals differ greatly from the adults
in structure and appearance they may be regarded as larval
forms, and it is interesting to note that such forms appear to
be just as much recapitulative, in the phylogenetic sense, as
are the larvae of many Metazoa. A striking instance is that
of the Acinetaria, in which the swarm-spores produced by
gemmation are ciliated, and thus betray affinities with the
Ciliata which could hardly be suspected from a study of the
adult forms alone. Similarly, in the genus Trypanosoma, the
young forms often show a Herpetomonas-like structure which
is probably of phyletic significance. The swarm-spores of
Sarcodina and of Na<tiluca mentioned above can, perhaps, be
regarded in the same light. On the other hand, many larval
forms cannot be considered as exhibiting recapitulative char-
acters, but merely as adaptations to environment or other
special life-conditions. This is especially true, as in Metazoa,
of parasitic forms, subject as they are to great vicissitudes, to
cope with which the most finely adjusted adaptations are
necessary on the part of the organism.
3. Polymorphism in Relation to Sex. In all Protozoa of
which the life-cycle has been made known in its entire course,
a process of syngamy or sexual union has been found to occur.
There are still many forms in which syngamy remains to be
discovered: this is true even of some groups of considerable
extent. It is quite possible, therefore, that Protozoa exist
in which syngamy does not occur. In view, however, of the
widespread occurrence of sexual processes amongst unicellular
organisms, both of animal and vegetable nature, and the fact
that extended observation continually brings to light new
instances of this kind, it is safer, in cases amongst the Protozoa
in which syngamy is not known to occur, to explain its apparent
absence by the imperfections of the present state of our know-
ledge, than to suppose that in such forms sexual phenomena are
entirely lacking in the life-cycle. 1
The process of syngamy, though greatly diversified in different
forms, consists essentially of one and the same process in all
cases; namely, the fusion of nuclear matter from two distinct
individuals. Plus fa change, plus c'est la m&me chose! Hence
true syngamy may be distinguished as karyogamy from the
process of plastogamy, or fusion of the protoplasmic bodies,
1 It will be shown below, however, that in some species syngamy
may perhaps be secondarily in abeyance.
of frequent occurrence in many forms of Protozoa. The
individuals whose nuclei undergo fusion are termed gametes.
They may be in no way different from each other or from ordinary
individuals of the species, or, on the other hand, they may be
highly differentiated in size, form and structure. The two
gametes may undergo complete fusion into one body, thus
giving rise to an individual termed generally a zygote or copula,
but which may bear special names in special cases (e.g. vermicule
or ookincte of the malarial parasites, &c.); such a process is
termed sometimes copulation. On the other hand, the bodies
of the two gametes may remain distinct, and portions of the
nucleus of each be exchanged between them; to this condition
the term conjugation is sometimes specially applied. The act
of syngamy may be performed in the free condition, or in the
resting state, within a cyst.
The significance of syngamy has been much discussed, and
it is very difficult to make positive statements upon this point.
By comparing the life-cycles of different forms it is found that
syngamy sometimes precedes, sometimes follows, a period of
great reproductive activity on the part of the organism. Thus
in such a form as Noctiluca, syngamy between two full-grown
individuals is followed by rapid sporulation and the production
of a swarm of young individuals; on the other hand, in Forami-
nifera and Radiolaria, rapid sporulation of adult individuals
produces a numerous progeny of young forms which may go
through the process of syngamy and produce zygotes that simply
grow into the adult form. Comparing these two types of develop-
ment, instances of which might be greatly multiplied, it is seen
that in one case syngamy follows a period of growth and precedes
a period of proliferation in the life-cycle, and that in the other
case exactly the reverse is true. Hence it follows that syngamy
must not be regarded as in any way specially connected with
reproduction, but must be considered in its relation to the life-
cycle as a whole, and in those instances in which syngamy is
followed by increased reproductive activity the explanation
must be sought in the general physiological effects of the sexual
process upon the vital powers of the organism.
In the Metazoa the sexual process is always related to the
production of a new individual, that is to say, of a multicellular
organism for which there is no analogy amongst the Protozoa,
although an approach to the Metazoan condition is seen in
colony-forming Flagellata, such as Vohox and its allies. The
reproduction of Protozoa is analogous to the ordinary process of
cell-division and multiplication which is going on at all times in
the bodies of the Metazoa, and which can be observed in the pro-
duction of the gametes; that is to say, in the period of the life-
cycle immediately preceding the sexual process in the Metazoa,
just as much as in the developmental phases which follow syn-
gamy and result in the building up of a new Metazoan individual.
Hence, so far as the Protozoa are concerned, the phrase " sexual
reproduction " is an incongruous combination of words; repro-
duction and sex are two distinct things, not necessarily related
or in any direct causal connexion; and in order to arrive at
any theory of sex it is necessary first of all to clear away all
misconceptions or preconceived notions arising from analogies
with the multicellular Metazoan individual.
Many observations indicate that the vital powers of the
Protozoa become gradually weakened, and the individual tends
to become senile and effete, unless the process of syngamy
intervenes. The immediate result of the sexual union is a
renewal of the vitality, a rejuvenescence, which manifests itself
in enhanced powers of metabolism, growth and reproduction.
These facts have been most studied in the Ciliata. It is observed
that if these organisms be prevented from conjugating with
others of their kind they become senile and finally die off. It
has been found by G. N. Calkins, however, that if the senile
individuals be given a change of medium and nourishment,
their vigour may be renewed and their life prolonged for a time,
though not indefinitely; there comes a period when artificial
methods fail and only the natural process of syngamy can enable
them to prolong their existence. The results obtained by Calkins
are of great interest, as indicating that under special conditions
4 86
PROTOZOA
of the environment the necessity for the sexual process may be
diminished and the event may be deferred for a long time, if
not indefinitely. Hence it is quite possible that in many Proto-
zoa the process of syngamy may be in abeyance, just as there
are plants which can be propagated indefinitely by suckers or
cuttings without ever setting seed; and it is possible that the
inoculative or artificial transmission of parasitic Protozoa from
one host to another, as in the case of pathogenic trypanosomes,
without any apparent diminution in their vital powers, is an
instance of this kind.
As a general rule, in order that syngamy may be attended
by beneficial results to the organism, it is necessary that the two
conjugating individuals should be from different strains, that
is to say, they should not be nearly related by descent and
parentage. Thus F. Schaudinn found that in order to observe
the sexual union of the gametes of Foraminifera it was necessary
to bring together gametes of distinct parentage.' On the other
hand it has been observed that in many Protozoa, especially
in parasitic forms, syngamy takes place between individuals of
common parentage. Thus in Amoeba coli, according to F.
Schaudinn, a single individual becomes encysted and its nucleus
divides into two; after each nucleus has undergone certain
maturative changes they give rise to pronuclei which conjugate
and initiate a new developmental cycle. Syngamy between sister
individuals, or autogamy, as it has been termed, is not, however,
confined to parasitic Protozoa; it has been observed in Actino-
sphaerium by R. Hertwig. The benefit to the organism, if any,
arising from autogamy can only be supposed to result from the
rearrangement and reconstitution of the nuclear apparatus.
The frequent occurrence of autogamy suggests that in many
Protozoa the nature of the environment diminishes the impor-
tance of the sexual process, at least so far as the mixture of
nuclear material from distinct sources' is concerned; and, since
autogamy is most common in parasitic forms, this result may,
in the light of G. N. Calkins's experiments, be asciibed in great
part to the frequent changes of environment and nutrition to
which parasitic forms, above all, are subject.
True syngamy consists, as has been said, of nuclear fusion or
karyogamy. It rarely, if ever, happens, however, that such
fusion takes place without the conjugating nuclei having under-
gone some process of reduction by elimination of a portion of
the nuclear substance, in a manner analogous to the maturation
of the germ-cells in the Metazoa. The chromatin thus eliminated
may be cast out from the body of the organism as one or more
so-called polar bodies; or may be absorbed in the cytoplasm; or
may remain in the cytoplasm and be left over in the residual
protoplasm in cases where syngamy is followed by a process of
rapid multiplication by sporulation ; but in all cases the chroma-
tin removed from the nucleus is rejected in some way or other
and plays no part in the subsequent development of the
organism. The nuclei of the gametes which have completed
this process of epuration nucleaire are then ripe for syngamic
fusion and are termed pronuclei; the union of two pronuclei
produces a single nucleus termed a synkaryon.
It is certain that in many, if not in all, cases the nuclear
substance that is rejected as a preliminary to syngamy consists
of somatic or vegetative chromatin; that is to say, of chromatin
that has been functional in regulating the ordinary vital func-
tions, . metabolism, growth, reproduction, &c., during previous
generations, and has become effete; while on the other hand the
chromatin that persists to form the pronuclei is generative
chromatin which has remained in reserve for the sexual act and
has retained its peculiar powers and properties unimpaired.
The truth of this explanation is extremely obvious in such forms
as the Infusoria, where somatic and generative chromatin are
concentrated into two distinct and entirely separate nuclei.
In some Rhizopoda also the body contains one or more principal
nuclei and a mass of chromidia, and it has been observed that as a
preparation for syngamy the principal nuclei are eliminated and
the pronuclei are formed from the chromidia; in such cases,
therefore, it is reasonable to regard the principal nuclei as repre-
senting somatic chromatin, the chromidia as generative chroma-
tin. In other cases, however, for example Actinosphacrium,
the chromidia must be interpreted, from their behaviour, as
somatic chromatin, and the principal nuclei as generative
chromatin; hence R. Goldschmidt has proposed the special term
sporetia for those chromidia which represent reserve generative
chromatin. In the majority of Protozoa, however, the nuclear
substance is not differentiated in such a way that it can be
distinguished by any visible peculiarities into somatic and
generative chromatin.
The process of reduction is not limited, apparently, to the
elimination of somatic chromatin, but a portion of the generative
chromatin is also cast off. Thus in the Infusoria not only the
somatic macronucleus, but also a considerable portion of the
generative micronucleus, is absorbed at each act of conjugation.
The elimination of generative chromatin is perhaps of importance
as a factor in heredity and the production of variations, or
possibly for sex determination, as will be discussed below; it
is difficult to suggest any other explanations for it, unless it
be supposed that during the exercise of ordinary vital functions
a portion of the generative chromatin be rendered effete as
well as the somatic chromatin.
From the considerations set forth in the foregoing paragraphs
it must be supposed that the synkaryon, the fusion-product of
the two pronuclei in syngamy, consists at first purely of genera-
tive chromatin, which must speedily become differentiated
into the regulative somatic chromatin of the ensuing generations
and the generative chromatin held in reserve for the next act of
syngamy. Such a differentiation can be actually observed in the
Infusoria, where immediately after conjugation the synkaryon
divides into one or more pairs of nuclei, each pair becoming the
two unequally sized nuclei of an ordinary individual, sometimes
with, even at this stage, an apparently wanton elimination of
nuclear substance. Thus the somatic and generative chromatin
of the Protozoa offer a certain analogy with the soma and germ-
plasm of Metazoa; but in making such comparisons the dis-
tinction between a physiological analogy and a morphological
homology should be borne clearly in mind.
It has been stated above that the two gametes of a given
species of Protozoa may be perfectly similar and indistinguish-
able, or may be very different one from the other. The condition
with similar gametes is termed isogamy, that with differentiated
gametes anisogamy. Every transition can be found from
complete isogamy and pronounced anisogamy in the Protozoa;
in tracing, however, the evolution of specialized gametes it
must be remembered that we are dealing only with visible
morphological differences mainly of an adaptive nature, without
prejudice to the question of the possible existence of a funda-
mental sexual antithesis in all gametes, present even when not
perceptible. The sex philosopher O. Weininger has urged that
sex is a fundamental attribute of living things, and that the
living substance, protoplasm, consists of arrhenoplasm and
thelyplasm united in varying proportions. Certain observations
of F. Schaudinn tend to support this view; in Trypanosoma
noctuae, for example, Schaudinn found that the process of
reduction in one gamete. took an opposite course to that which
it took in the other gamete. In one gamete certain portions
of the nucleus were retained and certain other portions rejected;
in the maturation of the other gamete the portions rejected and
the portions retained were the reverse. Hence Schaudinn was
led to regard the indifferent individuals as essentially herma-
phrodite in nature, and therefore capable of giving rise to gametes
of either order by elimination of one or the other set of sexual
elements; a theory which throws further light on the elimination
of generative chromatin mentioned above. It is possible,
therefore, that the gametes of Protozoa may possess sexual
characters intrinsically different even when perfectly similar
so far as can be perceived. It is very probable, for instance,
that the isogamy in Gregarines is a state of things derived
secondarily from a primitive condition of anisogamy (see
GREGARINES).
The simplest possible condition of the gametes is seen in the
free-swimming Ciliata, forms which in other respects are the
PROTOZOA
487
most highly organized of Protozoa; here the individuals which
conjugate are only distinguished from ordinary individuals of
the species by the fact that their nuclei have undergone very
Heated processes of reduction and nuclear elimination. In
these forms there is also no difference between young and adult
imlividuals, beyond scarcely perceptible differences of size
between individuals about to divide and those that are the
products of recent division, so that these species are practically
monomorphic in the active condition. In forms, however,
which, like Vorticella, are of sessile habit, small free-swimming
individuals are liberated which seek out and conjugate with the
ordinary sessile individuals. Here we have an instance of a
morphological differentiation of the gametes which is clearly
adaptive to the life-conditions of the species. In other Protozoa
there may be, as already stated, differences, more or less pro-
nounced, between young and adult individuals, and syngamy
take place either between young individuals (microgamy)
or between adults (macrogamy); the gametes may be in either
ordinary individuals of the species, not specially differen-
tia! oil in any way, or on the other hand they may be differentiated
from ordinary individuals, while still similar and isogamic
amongst themselves; or, finally, they may be anisogamic; that
say, differentiated into two distinct types. Thus in the
Radiolaria, for example, an adult individual breaks up by a
process of sporulation into numerous minute flagellated swarm-
spores; these may be all of one kind, termed isospores, which
develop directly without undergoing syngamy; or they may be
of two kinds, termed anisospores, both different in their character
from the isospores, and incapable of development without
^yngamy.
When the gametes are differentiated the divergence between
them almost always follows parallel paths. One gamete is
distinguished by its smaller size, its greater activity, and its
comparative poverty in granules of reserve food-material; hence
it is termed the microgamete. The other gamete is distinguished
by its greater bulk, its pronounced sluggishness and inertness,
and its tendency to form and store up in the cytoplasm reserve
nutriment of one kind or another; hence it is termed the macro-
I'te, or, as some prefer to write it, the megagamete (better
nu-Qadogamete). When these differences are very pronounced,
or instance, in the Coccidia and other Sporozoa, a condi-
tion is reached which is practically indistinguishable from that
seen in the sperm and ova of the Metazoa. Hence the micro-
gamete is generally regarded as male, the macrogamete as
female; and these terms may be conveniently used, although
they do not in themselves imply more than would the words
positive and negative, or any other pair of terms expressive of a
fundamental contrast. The microgamete may become reduced
to a mere thread of chromatin, which may possess one or two
llagella for purposes of locomotion, as in Coccidia, &c., or may
move by serpentine movements of the whole body, which re-
sembles in its entirety a flagellum, and is often wrongly so termed.
In contrast with the microgamete, its correlative, the macro-
ete, tends to become a bulky, inert body, often with great
ublance to an ovum, its cytoplasm dense and granular,
packed with reserve food-materials as an egg contains yolk,
and without organs of locomotion or capacity for movement
of any kind. Hence the macrogamete is the passive element
in syngamy, which requires to be sought out and " fertilized "
by the active microgamete, a division of labour perfectly ana-
logous to that seen in the male and female gametes of Metazoa.
fn those cases where syngamy takes place by interchange of
nuclear substance between two gametes which remain separate
from one another, as in the Infusoria, each gamete forms two
pronuclei, which are distinguished by their behaviour as the
active and passive pronuclei respectively. The active pronucleus
of each gamete passes over into the body of the other and fuses
with its passive pronucleus to form a synkaryon. A similar
method of procedure occurs also in Amoeba coli, according to
F. Schaudinn.
When gametes are not very highly specialized they may still
retain the power of multiplication by division possessed by
ordinary individuals, so long as they have not undergone the
process of nuclear reduction preliminary to syngamy. If,
however, the gametes are highly specialized they may forfeit
the power of multiplication. In this respect the microgametes
are worse off than the other sex; on account of the great reduction
of the body-protoplasm, and the entire absence of any reserve
materials, they must either fulfil their destiny as gametes or
die off. The macrogametes, on the other hand, with their
great reserves of cytoplasm and nutriment, are more hardy than
any other forms of the species, and are able to maintain their
existence in periods of famine and starvation when all other
forms are killed off. Moreover they may regain the power of
multiplication by a process of parthenogenesis, a term originally
applied in the Metazoa to cases where a germ-cell of definitely
female character, that is to say an ovum, acquires the power of
reproduction without fertilization by syngamy. A macro-
gamete multiplying by parthenogenesis first goes through certain
nuclear changes whereby it is set back, as it were, from the female
to the indifferent condition, and it is then able to multiply by
fission like any ordinary, non-sexual individual of the species.
Parthenogenesis has been described by F. Schaudinn in the
malarial parasites and in Trypanosoma nocluae. In both cases
the female forms are able to persist under adverse conditions
after all other forms have perished, and then by parthenogenesis
they may multiply when conditions are more favourable, overrun
the host again, and cause a relapse of the disease of which they
are the cause. S. v. Prowazek has described in Herpetomonas
muscae-domesticae an analogous process of multiplication on the
part of male individuals, and has coined the term etheogenesis
for this process, but the statement needs confirmation, and as a
general rule the microgamete is quite incapable of independent
reproduction under any circumstances.
It is often found that not only are the gametes differentiated,
but that their immediate progenitors may also exhibit characters
which mark them off from the ordinary or indifferent individuals
of the species. In such cases the parent-forms of the gametes
are termed gametocytes, and they may differ amongst them-
selves in characters which render it possible to distinguish those
destined to produce microgametes from those which will produce
the other sex. The parent-individuals of the microgametes, or
microgametocytes, are distinguished as a general rule by clearer
protoplasm, free from coarse granulations, and a larger nucleus,
more rich in chromatin. The macrogametocytes, on the other
hand, usually have coarsely granular cytoplasm, rich in reserve
food-stuffs, and a relatively small nucleus. The gametocytes
produce the gametes by methods that vary according to the
degree of specialization of the gametes. In isogamous forms,
of which good examples are furnished by many Gregarines (q.v.),
the gametes are produced by a process of sporulation on the part
of the gametocytes, a certain amount of residual protoplasm being
left over. In forms with pronounced anisogamy, for instance,
Coccidia or Haemosporidia, the microgametes are produced by
sporulation in which almost the whole mass of the body of the
gametocyte may be left over as residual protoplasm, together
with some portion of the nucleus; in the other sex, however,
the process of sporulation may be altogether in abeyance, and
the macrogametocyte becomes simply converted into the macro-
gamete after going through a process of nuclear reduction.
The gametocytes may, however, possess the power of multi-
plication without change of character for many generations;
or, to put the matter in other words, the sexual differentiation
may be apparent not merely in the generation immediately
preceding the gametes, but in many generations prior to this.
Thus a given species may consist of three different types of
adult individuals, male, female and indifferent, each multiplying
in its own line. Complicated alternations of generations are
the result, and if at the same time there is a well-marked differ-
ence between young and adult forms of the species the height
of polymorphism is reached. Very commonly a double series of
generations occurs, the non-sexual or indifferent forms multiply-
ing apart from the sexually differentiated individuals and the
generations immediately descended from them; in such cases the
PROTOZOA
series of non-sexual generations is termed schizogony, the series of
sexual generations gametogony or sporogony. Schizogony and
sporogony usually occur as adaptations to, or at least in relation
with, distinct conditions of life. Thus in parasitic forms, as well
illustrated by the Coccidia, the organisms multiply by schizogony
when overrunning the host, that is to say, when nutriment is
abundant; sporogony begins as a preparation for passing into
the outer world, in order to infect new hosts. In the Haemo-
sporidia, in which transmission from one vertebrate host to
another is effected by means of blood-sucking ectoparasites
(Diptera, ticks, leeches, &c.), the schizogony goes on in the
vertebrate host, the sporogony in the invertebrate host. In
free-living, non-parasitic forms, schizogony may go on under
ordinary conditions, while sporogony supervenes as a preparation
for a marked change in the life-conditions; for instance, a change
of medium, or at the approach of winter. It is interesting to
note that, as a general rule, the differentiation of sexual forms
seems to be a preliminary to the production of more resistant
forms capable of braving adverse conditions or violent changes
in the conditions of life; a phenomenon which is in support of
the hypothesis that syngamy has a strengthening effect on the
vitality of the species.
Classification of the Protozoa.
Various attempts have been made to separate the Protozoa
into two primary subdivisions. E. Ray Lankester divided them
into two main groups, the Gymnomyxa, with naked protoplasm
and indefinite form, and the Corticata, with the protoplasm
limited by a firm membrane, and consequently with a definite
body-form. In many of the corticate groups, however, there
must be placed amoeboid, non-corticate forms, such as Mastig-
amoeba amongst the Flagellata, or the malarial parasites amongst
the Sporozoa. Hence if Lankester's classification be used, it
must be without a hard and fast verbal definition. F. Doflein,
on the other hand, has divided the Protozoa into Plasmodroma,
with organs of locomotion derived from protoplasmic processes,
i.e. pseudopodia or flagella, and Ciliophora, with locomotion by
cilia. It may be doubted, however, if the distinction between
flagella and cilia is so fundamental and sharply defined as this
mode of classification would imply. W. H. Jackson has proposed
to unite the forms bearing flagella and cilia into one section,
Plegepoda, and distinguishes two other sections, Rhizopoda
( = Sarcodina) and Endoparasita ( = Sporozoa).
Four main groups of Protozoa, of the rank of classes, are
universally recognized, however they may be combined into
larger categories; these are the Sarcodina, Mastigophora,
Sporozoa and Infusoria.
The Sarcodina are characterized by the body being composed
of naked protoplasm, not covered by any limiting cuticle,
although in many cases a house or shell is secreted into which
the protoplasm can be partly or entirely withdrawn. No
special organs of locomotion, either flagella or cilia, are ever
present in the adult, and locomotion and capture of food are
effected in the manner named amoeboid, by more or less
temporary extrusions or outflow of the protoplasm which are
termed pseudopodia, as in Amoeba.
The Mastigophora are so named because organs of locomotion
are always present in the adult in the form of one or more
flagella, each flagellum (Gr. juaori , whip) a delicate, thread-like
extension of the protoplasm, endowed with a special contractility
which enables it to perform lashing, whip-like movements.
The body protoplasm is sometimes naked, in which case it may
be amoeboid, but is more usually limited by a cuticle, varying in
thickness in different types.
The Sporozoa, with the exception of a few forms of dubious
position, are exclusively internal parasites of Metazoa, absorbing
their food from the internal juices and secretions of their hosts,
and never exhibiting in their trophic phases any organs of loco-
motion or for the ingestion and digestion of solid food. The
body-protoplasm may be naked and amoeboid or limited by a
cuticle. The reproduction is specialized in correlation with the
parasitic habit, and results typically in the formation of a
number of minute germs or spores, by which the infection
fresh hosts is effected. It must not be supposed, however, that
spore-formation is confined to this class of Protozoa.
The Infusoria, a name originally of much wider application,
is now restricted to denote those Protozoa in which locomotion
or capture of food is effected by means of special organs termed
cilia, minute hair-like contractile extensions of the protoplasm
differing from flagella not only in their usually smaller size and
greater number, but also in the mode of contraction and move-
ment. The cilia may be present throughout life or only in an
early stage of the individual. The body is always limited by a
cuticle and the nucleus seems to be invariably double, being
divided into two parts specialized in function and differing in
size, termed respectively macronucleus and micronucleus.
Comparing these four subdivisions with one another, it may
be said at once that the Sporozoa and Infusoria are highly
specialized classes, each well marked off from the other sub-
divisions. The Sarcodina and Mastigophora, on the other
hand, include the most primitive types of Protozoa and are
delimited from one another by a somewhat arbitrary character,
the presence or absence of a flagellum in the adult. Thus
Mastigamoeba is a form which unites the characters of the
Sarcodina and Mastigophora, having an amoeboid body which
bears a flagellum, and it is classed among the Mastigophora
merely because the flagellum is retained throughout life; if
the flagellum were absent in the adult condition it would be
placed among the Sarcodina, many of which have flagella in
their young stages but lack them when adult. Hence Biitschli
considered the Rhizomastigina (i.e. Mastigamoeba and its allies)
as the most primitive group of Protozoa, representing the
common ancestral form of all the classes; and on this view
the flagellated young stages of many Sarcodina would represent
recapitulative larval stages.
Butschli's theory of Protozoan phylogeny implies that a
flagellum is an organ of most primitive nature, possessed perhaps
by the earliest forms of life; and it must be remembered that
flagella are borne by many Bacteria. On the other hand, one
would imagine, from general considerations, that living beings
possessing a flagellum would have been preceded in evolution
by others that did not bear so definite an organ. The flagellum
itself is generally regarded as a vibratile process or extension of
the protoplasm, comparable in its nature to a slender pseudo-
podium endowed with peculiar powers of movement. More
knowledge with regard to the nature and formation of the
flagellum is needed in order to decide this point, and particularly
with regard to the question whether the flagella of Bacteria are
of the same nature as those of Protozoa.
It has been much debated whether the earliest forms of life
were of the nature of plants or animals. Many authors consider
the question settled beyond all debate by a process of trenchant
deductive reasoning. It is argued that animals require other
organisms for their nutriment, and that plants, that is to say
green plants, do not; therefore plants must have preceded
animals. On the other hand, the morphologist will urge that
green plants derive their peculiar powers of metabolism from
the possession of very definite cell -organs, namely chromato-
phores containing chlorophyll; and will argue that living things
without such organs must have preceded in evolution those
possessing them. The whole dispute is based on the assump-
tion that plant and animal represent the two fundamental
modes of metabolism; whereas the study of the Bacteria shows
the possibility of many other modes of life. Many Bacteria
exhibit processes of metabolism totally different from those
generally laid down in textbooks as characteristic of living
matter; some are killed by free oxygen; others can absorb free
nitrogen, and various other " abnormal " properties are mani-
fested by them. Hence the primitive organisms may have
been neither plant nor animal in their nature, but may have
possessed, like the Bacteria at present, many different methods of
metabolism from which plant and animal are two divergent
paths of evolution.
The origin of life is veiled in a mist which biological knowledge
PROUDHON
489
in its present state is unable to dispel; and speculations with
regard to the nature of the earliest form of life are as yet
premature and futile.
The following references are either general treatises on the
Protozoa, or memoirs dealing with special points in a general
manner.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. O. Btttschli, " Protozoa," in Bronn's Klassen
und Ordnungen dts Thierreichs, Bd. I. (1881-1886); idem., " Invest!-
History
therein), Journ. Exp. Zoo/., i. 423-461, 3 plates, 3 text-figs.; idem.,
Tlu- Protozoa," Columbia University Biological Series, vi. pp.
347. 153 text-figs. ; Y. Delage and E. Hdrouard, Traite de
Zoologie Concrete, I. La Cellule et les protozoaires (Paris, 1896);
F. Doflein, Die Protozoen als parasiten und Krankheitserreger (Jena,
iv Kischer, 1901); idem., " Das System der Protozoen," Arch,
f. Protistenkunde, i. 169-192, 3 text-figs.; R. Goldschmidt, "Die
Chromidien der Protozoen," Arch. f. Protistenkunde, (1904), v.
126-144, i fig.; R. Goldschmidt and M. Popoff, " Die Karyokinen
der Protozoen und der Chromidialapparat der Protozoen und
Mrtuzocnzelle, Arch. f. Protistenkunde (1907), viii., pp. 321-343,
6 text-figs.; M. Hartog, "Protozoa" Cambridge Natural History,
veil. i. (London, 1906); R. Hertwig, " Ueber Wesen und Bedeu-
tung der Befruchtung," SB. Akad. Jifiinchen (1902), xxxii., pp. 57-
73; idem., " Die Protozoen und die Zelltheorie," Arch. f. Protis-
lenkunde, (1902), pp. 1-40; W. H. Jackson, " Protozoa " in Rolles-
ton's Forms of Animal Life, (rev. ed., pp. 818-922, Oxford, 1888);
A. Lang, Lehrbuch der vereleichenden Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere,
Bd. I. Abt. II. Lief. 2, " Protozoa " (Jena, 1901); E. R. Lankester,
article " Protozoa" in Ency. Brit. 9th ed. ; idem, (edited by). A
Treatise on Zoology by various authors: " Protozoa" in part I.,
fasc. 2 (1903), and fasc. i to be published shortly (London, A. and
C. Black) ; E. A. Minchin, " Protozoa " in Allbutt and Rolleston's
.stem of Medicine, rev. ed., vol. ii. pt. 2 (London, 1907); F.
Schaudinn, " Neuere Forschungen tiber die Befruchtung der Proto-
zoen," Verh. deutsch. zool. Ges. (1905), xv. 16-35, l diagram;
II. M. Woodcock, "Protozoa" in Zool. Record (1902-1905),
vols. xxxix.-xlii. (E. A. M.)
PROUDHON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1800-1865), French socialist
and political writer, was born on the isth of January 1809 at
Besancon, France, the native place also of the socialist Fourier.
His origin was of the humblest, his father being a brewer's
cooper; and the boy herded cows and followed other simple
pursuits of a like nature. But he was not entirely self-educated;
at sixteen he entered the college of his native place, though
his family was so poor that he could not procure the necessary
books, and had to borrow them from his mates in order to copy
the lessons. At nineteen he became a working compositor;
afterwards he rose to be a corrector for the press, reading proofs
of ecclesiastical works, and thereby acquiring a very competent
knowledge of theology. In this way also he came to learn
Hebrew, and to compare it with Greek, Latin and French;
and it was the first proof of his intellectual audacity that on the
strengtli of this he wrote an Essai de grammaire generale. As
Proudhon knew nothing whatever of the true principles of
philology, his treatise was of no value. In 1838 he obtained the
pension Suard, a bursary of 1500 francs a year for three years,
for the encouragement of young men of promise, which was in
the gift of the academy of Besancon.
In 1839 he wrote a treatise L' Utilite de la celebration du dimanche
which contained the germs of his revolutionary ideas. About
this time he went to Paris, where he lived a poor, ascetic and
studious life making acquaintance, however, with the socialistic
ideas which were then fomenting in the capital. In 1840 he
published his first work Qu'est-ce que la propriete? His famous
answer to this question, " La propri6t6, c'est le vol " (property is
theft), naturally did not please the academy of Besancon, and
there was some talk of withdrawing his pension; but he held it
for the regular period. For his third memoir on property,
which took the shape of a letter to the Fourierist, M. Considerant,
he was tried at Besancon but was acquitted. In 1846 he pub-
lished his greatest work, the Systeme des contradictions tcono-
miques ou philosophic de la misere. For some time Proudhon
carried on a small printing establishment at Besancon, but
without success; afterwards he became connected as a kind of
manager with a commercial firm at Lyons. In 1847 he left this
employment, and finally settled in Paris, where he was now
becoming celebrated as a leader of innovation. He regretted
the sudden outbreak of the revolution of February (1848),
because it found the social reformers unprepared. But he threw
himself with ardour into the conflict of opinion, and soon gained
a national notoriety. He was the moving spirit of the Reprt-
sentant du peuple and other journals, in which the most advanced
theories were advocated in the strongest language; and as
member of assembly for the Seine department he brought
forward his celebrated proposal of exacting an impost of one-
third on interest and rent, which of course was rejected. His
attempt to found a bank which should operate by granting
gratuitous credit was also a complete failure; of the five million
francs which he required only seventeen thousand were offered.
The violence of his utterances led to an imprisonment at Paris
for three years, during which he married a young working woman.
As Proudhon aimed at economic rather than political innovation,
he had no special quarrel with the second empire, and he lived
in comparative quiet under it till the publication of his work,
De la Justice dans la revolution et dans I'f.glise, (1858) in which
he attacked the Church and other existing institutions with
unusual fury. This time he fled to Brussels to escape imprison-
ment. On his return to France his health broke down, though
he continued to write. He died at Passy on the i6th of January
1865.
Personally Proudhon was one of the most remarkable figures
of modern France. His life was marked by the severest sim-
plicity and even Puritanism; he was affectionate in his domestic
relations, a most loyal friend, and strictly upright in conduct.
He was strongly opposed to the prevailing French socialism of
his time because of its utopianism and immorality; and, though
he uttered all manner of wild paradox and vehement invective
against the dominant ideas and institutions, he was remarkably
free from feelings of personal hate. In all that he said and did
he was the son of the people, who had not been broken to the
usual social and academic discipline; hence his roughness, his
one-sidedness, and his exaggerations; but he is always vigorous,
and often brilliant and original.
It would of course be impossible to reduce the ideas of such
an irregular thinker to systematic form. In later years Proudhon
himself confessed that " the great part of his publications formed
only a work of dissection and ventilation, so to speak, by means
of which he slowly makes his way towards a superior conception
of political and economic laws." Yet the groundwork of his
teaching is clear and firm; no one could insist with greater
emphasis on the demonstrative character of economic principles
as understood by himself. He strongly believed in the absolute
truth of a few moral ideas, with which it was the aim of his teach-
ing to mould and suffuse political economy. Of these funda-
mental ideas, justice, liberty and equality were the chief. What
he desiderated, for instance, in an ideal society was the most
perfect equality of remuneration. It was his principle that service
pays service, that a day's labour balances a day's labour in
other words, that the duration of labour is the just measure of
value. He did not shrink from any of the consequences of this
theory, for he would give the same remuneration to the worst
mason as to a Phidias; but he looks forward also to a period in
human development when the present inequality in the talent
and capacity of men would be reduced to an inappreciable
minimum. From the great principle of service as the equivalent
of service, is derived his axiom that property is the right of
aubaine. The aubain was a stranger not naturalized; and the
right of aubaine was the right in virtue of which the sovereign,
from the earliest monarchy, claimed the goods of such a stranger
who had died in his territory. 1 Property is a right of the same
nature, with a like power of appropriation in the form of rent,
interest, &c. It reaps without labour, consumes without
producing, and enjoys without exertion. Proudhon's aim,
therefore, was to realize a science of society resting on principles
of justice, liberty and equality thus understood; " a science
absolute, rigorous, based on the nature of man and of his faculties,
1 The droil d' aubaine was abolished in 1790, revived by Napoleon,
and ended in 1819.
49
PROUST, A. PROUT, S.
and on their mutual relations; a science which we have not to
invent, but to discover." But he saw clearly that such ideas
with their necessary accompaniments could only be realized
through a long and laborious process of social transformation.
He strongly detested the prurient immorality of the schools of
Saint-Simon and Fourier. He attacked them not less bitterly
for thinking that society could be changed off-hand by a ready-
made and complete scheme of reform. It was " the most
accursed lie," he said, " that could be offered to mankind." In
social change he distinguishes between the transition and the
perfection or achievement. With regard to the transition he
advocated the progressive abolition of the right of aubaine, by
reducing interest, rent, &c. For the goal he professed only
to give the general principles; he had no ready-made scheme,
no Utopia. The positive organization of the new society in its
details was a labour that would require fifty Montesquieus. The
organization he desired was one on collective principles, a free
association which would take account of the division of labour,
and which would maintain the personality both of the man and
the citizen. With his strong and fervid feeling for human
dignity and liberty, Proudhon could not have tolerated any
theory of social change that did not give full scope for the free
development of man. Connected with this was his famous
paradox of anarchy, as the goal of the free development of society,
by which he meant that through the ethical progress of men
government should become unnecessary. " Government of
man by man in every form," he says, " is oppression. The
highest perfection of society is found in the union of order and
anarchy." Proudhon, indeed, was the first to use the word
anarchy, not in its revolutionary sense, as we understand it now,
but as he himself says, to express the highest perfection of social
organization.
Proudhon's theory of property as the right of aubaine is
substantially the same as the theory of capital held by Marx and
most of the later socialists. Marx, however, always greatly
detested Proudhon and his doctrines, and attacked him violently
in his Misere de la philosophic. Property and capital are defined
and treated by Proudhon as the power of exploiting the labour
of other men, of claiming the results of labour without giving an
equivalent. Proudhon's famous paradox, " La propriete, c'est le
vol," is merely a trenchant expression of this general principle.
As slavery is assassination inasmuch as it destroys all that is
valuable and desirable in human personality, so property is
theft inasmuch as it appropriates the value produced by the
labour of others without rendering an equivalent. For property
Proudhon would substitute individual possession, the right of
occupation being equal for all men.
A complete edition of Proudhon's works, including his posthumous
writings, was published at Paris (1875). See also P. J. Proudhon,
sa vie et sa correspondance, by Sainte-Beuve (Paris, 1875) ; BeaucheVy,
Economic sociale de P. J. Proudhon (Lille, 1867) ; Spoil, P. J. Proud-
hon,etudebiographique(Paris,l8(>7); Marchegay , Silhouette de Proudhon
(Paris, 1868) ; Putlitz, P. /. Proudhon, sein Leben und seine positiven
Ideen (Berlin, 1881); Diehl, P. J. Proudhon, seine Lehre und sein
Leben(]ena, 1888-1889); Mulberger, StudienuberProudhon(Stuttgart,
1891); Desjardins, P. J. Proudhon, sa vie, ses (euvres et sa doctrine
(Paris, 1896); Mulberger, P. J. Proudhon (Stuttgart, 1899).
PROUST, ANTONIN (1832-1905), French journalist and
politician, was born at Niort on the isth of March 1832. He
founded in 1864 an anti-imperial journal, La Semaine hebdvmadaire
which appeared at Brussels. He was war correspondent to
Le Temps in the early days of the Franco-German War, but after
Sedan he returned to Paris, where he became secretary to
Gambetta and superintended the refugees in Paris. He entered
the Chamber as deputy for his native town in 1876, taking his
seat on the left. In Gambetta's cabinet (1881-1882) he was
minister of the fine arts, and in the Chamber of Deputies
he was regularly commissioned to draw up the budget for the
fine arts, after the separate department had ceased to exist.
Prosecuted in connexion with the Panama scandals, he
was acquitted in 1893. From this time he lived in the closest
retirement. On the 2oth of March 1905 he shot himself in the
head, dying of the wound two days later.
PROUST, JOSEPH LOUIS (1754-1826), French chemist, was
born on the 26th of September 1754 at Angers, where his father
was an apothecary. After beginning the study of chemistry in
his father's shop he came to Paris and gained the appointment of
apothecary in chief to the Salpetriere, also lecturing on chemistry
at the musee of the aeronaut J. F. Pilatre de Rozier, whom he
accompanied in a balloon ascent in 1784. Next, at the instance
of Charles IV., he went to Spain, where he taught chemistry
first at the artillery school of Segovia, and then at Salamanca,
finally becoming in 1789 director of the royal laboratory at
Madrid. In 1808 he lost both his position and his money by
the fall of his patron, and retired first to Craon in Mayenne and
then to Angers, where he died on the 5th of July 1826. His
name is best known in connexion with a long controversy with
C. L. Berthollet. The latter chemist was led by his doctrine of
mass-action to deny that substances always combine in constant
and definite proportions. Proust, on the other hand, maintained
that compounds always contain definite quantities of their con-
stituent elements, and that in cases where two or more elements
unite'to form more than one compound, the proportions in which
they are present vary per saltum, not gradually. In 1799 he
proved that carbonate of copper, whether natural or artificial,
always has the same composition, and later he showed that
the two oxides of tin and the two sulphides of iron always contain
the same relative weights of their components and that no
intermediate indeterminate compounds exist. His analytical
skill enabled him to demonstrate the inaccuracy of the researches
by which Berthollet attempted to support the opposite view,
and to show among other things that some of the compounds
which Berthollet treated as oxides were in reality hydrates
containing chemically combined water, and the upshot was that
by 1808 he had fully vindicated his position. Proust also
investigated the varieties of sugar that occur in sweet vegetable
juices, distinguishing three kinds, and he showed that the
sugar in grapes, of which he announced the existence to his
classes at Madrid in 1799, is identical with that obtained from
honey by the Russian chemist J. T. Lowitz (1757-1804).
Besides papers in scientific periodicals he published Indagaciones
sobre el estanada de cobre, la vajilla de estano y el vidriado (1803);
Memoire sur le Sucre de raisins (1808); Recueil des memoires relatifs
6, la poudre a canon (1815) ; and Essai sur une des causes qui peuvent
amener la formation du calcul (1824).
PROUSTITE, a mineral consisting of silver sulpharsenite,
AgaAsSs, known also as light red silver ore, and an important
source of the metal. It is closely allied to the corresponding
sulphantimonitCj pyrargyrite, from which it was distinguished
by the chemical analyses of J. L. Proust in 1804, after whom the
mineral received its name. Many of the characters being so
similar to those of pyrargyrite (q.v.) they are mentioned under
that species. The prismatic crystals are often terminated by the
scalenohedron (201) and the obtuse rhombohedron (no), thus
resembling calcite (dog-tooth-spar) in habit. The colour is
scarlet-vermilion and the lustre adamantine; crystals are trans-
parent and very brilliant, but on exposure to light they soon
become dull black and opaque. The streak is scarlet, the
hardness 25, and the specific gravity 5-57. The mode of occur-
rence is the same as that of pyrargyrite, and the two minerals
are sometimes found together. Magnificent groups of large
crystals have been found at Chanarcillo in Chile; other
localities which have yielded fine specimens are Freiberg
and Marienberg in Saxony, Joachimsthal in Bohemia and
Markirch in Alsace. (L. J. S.)
PROUT, SAMUEL (1783-1852), English water-colour painter,
was born at Plymouth on the i7th of September 1783. He spent
whole summer days, in company with the ill-fated Hay don, in
drawing the quiet cottages, rustic bridges and romantic water-
mills of the beautiful valleys of Devon. He even made a journey
through Cornwall to try his hand in furnishing sketches for
Britton's Beauties of England. On his removal in 1803 to London,
which became his headquarters after 1812, a new scene of
activity opened up before Prout. He now endeavoured to
PROUT, W. PROVENCAL LANGUAGE
491
correct and improve his style by the study of the works of the
rising school of landscape. To gain a living he painted marine
s for Falser the printseller, received pupils, and published
many drawing books for learners. He was likewise one of the
first who turned to account in his profession the newly-invented
if lithography. It was not however until about 1818 that
discovered his proper sphere. Happening at that time to
make his first visit to the Continent, and to study the quaint
streets and market-places of continental cities, he suddenly
found himself in a new and enchanting province of art. All his
families, having found their congenial element, sprung into
unwonted power and activity. His eye readily caught the pictur-
i features of the architecture, and his hand recorded them
with unsurpassed felicity and fine selection of line. The com-
position of his drawings was exquisitely natural; their colour
'ited " the truest and happiest association in sun and shade";
the picturesque remnants of ancient architecture were rendered
with the happiest breadth and largeness, with the heartiest
perception and enjoyment of their time-worn ruggedness; and
-olemnity of great cathedrals was brought out with striking
. At the time of his death, on the loth of February 1852,
there was scarcely a nook in France, Germany, Italy and the
Netherlands where his quiet, benevolent, observant face had not
been seen searching for antique gables and sculptured pieces of
stone. In Venice especially there was hardly a pillar which his
eye had not lovingly studied and his pencil had not dexterously
copied.
a memoir of Prout, by John Ruskin, in Art Journal for 1849,
and the same author's Notes on the Fine Art Society's Loan Collection
of Drawings by Samuel Prout and William Hunt (1879-1880).
PROUT, WILLIAM (1785-1850), English chemist and physi-
cian, was born at Horton, Gloucestershire, on the isth of
January 1785, and died in London on the gth of April 1850.
His life was spent as a practising physician in London, but he
also occupied himself with chemical research. He was an active
worker in physiological chemistry, and carried out many analyses
of the products of living organisms, among them being one of the
gastric juice which, at the end of 1823, resulted in the notable
discovery that the acid contents of the stomach contain hydro-
chloric acid which is separable by distillation. In 1815 he
published anonymously in the Annals of Philosophy a paper
" On the relation between the specific gravities of bodies in their
gaseous state and the weights of their atoms," in which he
calculated that the atomic weights of a number of the elements
are multiples of that of hydrogen; and in a second paper pub-
lished in the same periodical the following year he suggested
that the Trpwnj v\i\ of the ancients is realized in hydrogen,
from which the other elements are formed by some process of
condensation or grouping. This view, generally known as
" Prout's hypothesis," at least had the merit of stimulating
inquiry, and many of the most careful determinations of atomic
weights undertaken since its promulgation have been provoked
by the desire to test its validity.
PROVENCAL LANGUAGE. The name Provencal is used to
comprehend all the varieties of Romanic speech formerly spoken
and written, and still generally used by country people in the
south of France. The geographical limits of this infinitely
varied idiom cannot be defined with precision, because it is
conterminous on the north, south and east with idioms of the
same family, with which almost at every point it blends by
insensible gradations. Roughly speaking it may be said to be
contained between the Atlantic on the west, the Pyrenees and
Mediterranean on the south, and the Alps on the east, and to be
bounded on the north by a line proceeding from the Gironde to
the Alps, and passing through the departments of Gironde,
Dordogne, Haute V'ienne, Creuse, Allier, Loire, Rhone, Isere and
Savoie. These limits are to some extent conventional. True,
they are fixed in accordance with the mean of linguistic char-
acters; but it is self-evident that according to the importance
attached to one character or another they may be determined
differently.
i. Diferent Names. Though the name Provencal is generally
adopted to designate the Romanic idiom of this region, it must
not be supposed that this name has been imposed by general
consensus, or that it rests upon any very firm historical basis.
In the southern part of Gaul, Romanic developed itself, so to say,
in the natural state of language. Contrary to what took place
in other Romanic countries, no local variety here raised itself
to the rank of the literary idiom par excellence. While in Italy
the Florentine, in France the French dialect proper (that is to
say, the dialect of the lie de France), succeeded little by little
in monopolizing literary use, to the exclusion of the other dialects,
we do not find that cither the Marseillais or the Toulousain
idiom was ever spoken or written outside of Marseilles or
Toulouse. In consequence of this circumstance, no name
originally designating the language of a town or of a small
district came to be employed to designate the language of the
whole of southern France; and on the other hand the geogra-
phical region described above, having never had any special
name, was not able to give one to the idiom.
In the middle ages the idiom was spoken of under various
appellations: Romans or lenga romana was that most generally
used. The name was employed by the authors of the Leys
d'amors, a treatise on grammar, poetry and rhetoric, composed
at Toulouse in the I4th century. But while it is capable of
being applied and in fact, has been applied, to each of the
Romanic languages individually, the term is too general to be
retained in a particular case; though it was revived in the
beginning of the igth century by Raynouard, the author of the
Lexique roman. Roman or langue romane is no longer in use among
scholars to design the Romanic language of the south of France.
In the i3th century a poet born in Catalonia, on the southern
slope of the Pyrenees, Raimon Vidal of Besalu, introduced the
name of Limousin language, probably on account of the great
reputation of some Limousin troubadours; but he took care to
define the expression, which he extended beyond its original
meaning, by saying that in speaking of Limousin he must be
understood to include Saintonge, Quercy, Auvergne, &c. (Rasos
de trobar, ed. Stengel, p. 70). This expression found favour in
Spain, and especially in Catalonia, where the little treatise of
Raimon Vidal was extensively read. The most ancient lyric
poetry of the Catalans (i3th and I4th centuries), composed on
the model of the poetry of the troubadours, was often styled in
Spain poesla lemosina, and in the same country lengua lemosina,
long designated at once the Provencal and the old literary Catalan.
The name Provencal as applied to language is hardly met with
in the middle ages, except in the restricted sense of the language
of Provence proper, i.e. of the region lying south of Dauphine
on the eastern side of the Rhone. Raimon Feraut, who composed
about 1300, a versified life of St Honorat, uses it, but he was
himself a native of Provence. We can also cite the title of a
grammar, the Donatz proensals, by Hugh Faidit (about 1250);
but this work was composed in north Italy, and we may con-
ceive that the Italians living next to Provence employed the
name Provencal somewhat vaguely without inquiring into the
geographical Limits of the idiom so called. In fact, the name
Provencal became traditional in Italy, and in the beginning
of the i6th century Bembo could write, " Era per tutto il
Ponente la favella Provenzale, ne tempi ne quali ella fiori, in
prezzo et in istima molta, et tra tutti gli altri idiomi di quelle
parti, di gran lunga primiera. Conciosiacosa che ciascuno, o
Francese, o Fiamingo, o Guascone, o Borgognone, o altramente
di quelle nation! che egli si fosse, il quale bene scrivere e special-
mente verseggiar volesse, quantunque egli Provenzale non
fosse, lo faceva Provenzalmente " (Prose, ed. 1520, fol. viii.). 1
This passage, in which the primacy of the Provencal tongue is
manifestly exaggerated, is interesting as showing the name
Provencal employed, though with little precision, in the sense
in which we now apply it.
" The Provencal speech in the times in which it flourished was
prized and held in great esteem all over the West, and among all the
other idioms of that region was by far the foremost; so that every
one, whether Frenchman, Fleming, Gascon, Burgundian, or of what
nation soever, who wished to write and versify well, although he
was not a Provencal, did it in the Provencal language."
492
PROVENCAL LANGUAGE
Another designation, which is supported by the great authority
of Dante, is that of lingua d'oco (langue d'oc). In his treatise,
De vulgari eloquio (bk. i. chs. viii. and ix.), Dante divides the
languages of Latin origin into three idioms, which he characterizes
by the affirmative particles used in each, oc. oil, si; " nam alii
oc, alii oil, alii si, affirmando loquuntur, ut puta Hispani, Franci,
et Latini." As is seen, he attributes the affirmation oc to the
Spaniards, which is of course erroneous; but there is no doubt
that to the Spaniards he joined more correctly the inhabitants
of southern France, for in the Vita nuova, ch. xxv., and in the
Convivio, I. x., he speaks of the lingua d'oco as having been long
celebrated for its poets, which can apply only to the language of
the troubadours. The name langue d'oc occurs also as early
as the end of the i3th century, in public acts, but with a different
sense, that of the province of Languedoc, as constituted after
the union of the county of Toulouse to the French king's
dominion in 1271. In the royal acts of the end of the I3th and of
the 1 4th century paries linguae occitanae or pays de langue d'oc
designates the union of the five seneschalates of Perigueux,
Carcassone, Beaucaire, Toulouse and Rodez; that is to say, the
province of Languedoc, such as it existed till 1790. Some
scholars, following the example of Dante, still actually use the
term langue d'oc in opposition to langue d'oui; but these names
have the inconvenience that they take such a secondary fact as
the form of the affirmative particle as an essential character.
Moreover, it can hardly help to distinguish the other Romanic
languages, as langue de si would cause a confusion between
Italian and Spanish. Provencal, without being entirely satis-
factory, since in principle it applies solely to the language of
Provence, is, notwithstanding, the least objectionable name that
can be adopted. In addition to its being in some sort conse-
crated by the use made of it by the Italians, who were the first
after the Renaissance to study the works of the troubadours,
it must not be forgotten that, just as the Roman provincia, in
which the name originated, extended across the south of Gaul
from the Alps to Toulouse and the Pyrenees, so still in the middle
ages provincia, provinciates, were understood in a very wide sense
to designate not only Provence strictly so called, i.e. the present
departments of Alpes Maritimes, Basses Alpes, Var, Bouches du
Rh&ne, but also a very considerable part of Languedoc and the
adjacent countries. Thus io the I2th century the chronicler
Albert of Aix-la-Chapelle (Albertus Aquensis) places the town of
Puy (Haute Loire) in Provincia.
2. General Characters of tlie Language in its Ancient State.
The Provencal language, within the limits above indicated,
cannot be said to have any general characters really peculiar
to it. Such of its characters as are found in all the varieties of
the language are met with also in neighbouring idioms; such as
are not found elsewhere are not general characters, that is to
say, are manifested only in certain varieties of Provencal. In
reality " Provencal language " does not designate, properly
speaking, a linguistic unity; it is merely a geographical
expression.
Tonic or Accented Vowels. Latin a is preserved in an open
syllable a m a r e, amar, a in a t u in, antat, as well as in a closed
syllable c a r n e m, earn. This character is common also to the
Romanic of Spain and Italy ; but it is one of the best distinguishing
marks between Provencal and French, for, to the north, this a,
when in an open syllable, does not pass beyond a line which would
run approximately through Blaye, Coutras (Gironde), Riberac,
Nontron (Dordogne), Bellac (Haute Vienne), Boussac (Creuse),
Montlugon, Gannat (Allier), Montbrison (Loire). Starting eastward
from Lyons or thereabouts, there appears a notable linguistic fact
which is observable in varied proportions in the departments of
Ain, Isere and Savoie, and in Romanic Switzerland. This is, that
accented Latin a in an open syllable, when preceded by a mouillure
or palatalization (whatever the origin of this), becomes e; on the
contrary, when there is no mouillure, it remains a. Thus we find in
the Meditations of Marguerite d'Oingt (Lyons, c. 1300) ensennier,
deleitier, as against desirrar, recontar, regardar. Of these two endings,
the former, -ier, is that which is found regularly in French, the second
that which is regular in Pr. Pure Pr. would have -or in both cases
(ensenhar, deleitar, desirrar. &c.); Fr. would have -ier (enseignier,
delitier) and -er (desirer). G. I. Ascoli has given the name of Franco-
provenfal (franco-provenzale) to the varieties of Romanic in which we
find this duality of treatment in Latin a, according as it was or was
not preceded by a palatalized sound. Lat. e, i become close e
(Ital. e chiuso ; Fr. e) : h a b e r e, aver, credit, ere, m e(n)s e m, mes.
f i d e m, /e, p I 1 u m, pel. This character is not only common to
Italian and Spanish, but also extends over the French domain on
its western side as far as Britanny. Certain exceptions noticed iu
French do not occur in Pr. : thus m e r c e d e m, c e r a, p r(e h)e-
(n)s u m, v e n e n u m, which give in Fr. merci, cire, pris, venin,
where we should have expected mercei, ceire, preis, venein, give
regularly in Pr. merce, cera, pres, vere. Lat. e preserves, as in Italy,
the sound of open e (Ital. e aperto): p e d e m, pe, 16 vat, leva,
1 e p o r e m, lebre. In certain determinate cases, this e, from about
the 1 3th century onwards, may diphthongize to ie: ego, eu, then
ieu, h e r i, er, ier, f e r i o, fer, fier. Lat. J is preserved, as in all the
Romanic languages: a m i c u m, ami, r I p a, riba. Lat. t is treated
like i long when it precedes (with hiatus) another vowel: plum,
p I a, piu, pia, via, via, 1 i g a t, Ha. Lat. o, u result in one and the
same sound, that of Ital. u, Fr. ou (Eng 00) The same pheno-
menon takes place in the north of Italy and in the Romanic of
Switzerland. This sound, which is styled by the Donat Proensal
the estreit (close 0), is usually symbolized in the early texts by
simple 0, and is thus confounded in spelling, though not in pronun-
ciation, with the open o (o larc of the Donat Proensal), which comes
from Lat. 6. Lat. u becomes u (i.e. Fr. u), as all over France, and
also in part of north Italy: m u r u m, mur ( = mur), durum, dur
(=diir). Lat. au is rigorously preserved over the whole extent of
the Pr. domain : a u r u m, aur, a 1 a u d a, alauza, pauperem,
paubre. At present the preservation of Lat. au does not extend
much outside the Prov. domain; it is, however, found in certain
parts of the Ladina zone in Switzerland (upper Rhine valley), and
in Friuli, and it is to be supposed to have been once general over the
whole of that zone. It is attested as late as the l6th century in
the Vaudois valleys of Piedmont, and there are also examples of it
in old Catalan. Elsewhere the diphthong has regularly become open
o (a u r u m, Ital. and Span, oro. Fr. or, &c.).
Atonic Vowels. The atonic vowels (i.e. vowels of the unaccented
syllables) which precede the accented syllable present no very
characteristic phenomenon; but it is otherwise with those that follow
the accented syllable, the post-tonic vowels. The Pr. is one of the
Romanic idioms which, like the French, but unlike the Castilian and
many dialects of Italy, admit of only one syllable after the accent.
But the rules are not quite the same as in French, and in some
exceptional cases real proparoxytones seem to have been preserved
by ancient documents. In French the only vowel which can stand
after the accented syllable is " e feminine," otherwise called " e
mute." In Prov. a and e are the most frequent vowels in this
position, but i and also occur. In French the first of the two post-
tonic vowels of a Latin proparoxytone always disappears; in Prov. it
tends to be preserved, when followed by one of the consonants n,
r, I, d: t e-r m i n u m, te-rmen, h o-m i n e m, o-men, a-n g e 1 u in,
a-ngel, se-calem, se-guel, c re-see re, crei-sser, t e-p i d u m,
te-be. We have some instances of two syllables being retained after
the tonic in the extreme south and south-east: dime-negue (dies
dominica), cano-negue (canonic us), mo-negue, mo-nega
(m o n a c u s, m o n a c a), ma-nega (m a n i c a, a handle), ca-nebe
(can nab is), later dimergue, canorgue, morgue, morga, mar fa,
carbe ; however, when such apparently proparoxytonic forms appear
in poetry, the ending -egue, -ega, -ebe counts only as one syllable,
from which it appears that the copyist, not the author, is responsible
for them. Again, names of places ending in -anicus, -onicus, as
Colonicus, De-Athatianicus, Dominitifnicus, &c., now Colorgues,
Dassargues, Domessargues, in department Card, appear in the I2th
and 1 3th centuries as Colonegues, Dazanegues, Domensanegues.
Moreover Prov. presents in certain words coming from Latin propar-
oxytones the trace of forms which (like Italian) admitted two atonic
vowels after the accented syllable: thus we have porte-que and
po-rgue (po-rticum), Fabre-ga, a place name, and fa-rga
(fa-brica), perte-ga and pe-rga (pe-rtica), feme-na and
fe-mna (f e-m i n a). We have also lagre-ma (1 a-c r y m a), but a
form accented like Fr. larme does not exist. There seems to be no
doubt that these forms, in which a displacement of the Latin accent
is observed, were at an earlier period pronounced as proparoxytones
(po-rtegue,fa.brega, pe.rtega e-mena, la-gremd).
Consonants. The boundary usually recognized between Prov.
and French is founded upon linguistic characters furnished by the
vowels, especially a; if it had been determined by characters fur-
nished by the consonants, the line of demarcation would have to be
drawn farther south, because the consonantal system which is
regarded as proper to French really extends in its main features
over the northern zone of the Provencal region as defined above.
As with the vowels, only a few of the salient facts can here be
indicated. C initial, or second consonant of a group, before a
(caballum.mercatu m), preserves its Latin sound ( = k) in the
greater part of the Prov. region. But in the northern zone it takes
the sound of tch (Eng. ch in chin) as in Old French, and this sound is
still pretty well preserved, although there is here and there a ten-
dency to the present sound of ch in Fr. ( = sh Eng.). The place
names Castellum, Castanetum, Casale give Chastel.
Chastanet, Chazal, in Dordogne, Haute Vienne, Correze, Puy de
D6me, Cantal, Haute Loire, the north of Lozere, of Ardechc, of
PROVENCAL LANGUAGE
493
Drome, of Isdre, and of Hautes Alpcs, and Castel, Castanet, Cazal,
farther to the south. Analogously, g initial, or second consonant
./I .i group, followed by a, becomes j (i.e. dzh = O. FT. and Eng. j in
jam) in the same zone ; G a r r i c a is Jarrija, Jarria in Dordogne,
ze, Cantal, Haute Loire, Isere, and Garriga farther south.
Between two vowels / becomes d; edat, emperador, nodal, amada
aetatem, imperatOrem, n a t & 1 e, a m it t a). This was
also the case in O. Fr. until about the loth or i ith century (honurede,
emperedur, lavadures, &c., in the Life of St Alexis). But in the
northern zone this d, representing a Latin /, fell away as early as in
French. In an I ith-century text from the environs of Valence we read
muraor, coroaa (*murat6rem, corrogSta), Fr. corvee
(P. Meyer, Recueil d'anciens textes, Provencal section, No. 40).
In the south, Latin d between two vowels was preserved almost
everywhere until about the middle of the I2th century, when it
became z (as in Fr. and Eng. zero): cruzel, azorar, auzir, vezer
(crudBlem, ador&re, audire, vidfire). In the I4th and
I5th centuries this z, jike every z or .r soft of whatever origin, was
liable to become r (lingual, not uvular) : aurir, veren (a u d i r e,
v i d e n t e m). In Beam and Gascony d remained; but in the
northern zone Latin d, instead of changing into z, r, disappeared as
in French and quite as early. The poem of Boethius, of which the, MS.
is of the nth century, shows in this respect great hesitation:
e.g. d preserved in chaden, credet, tradar, veder (c a d e n t e m,
*c r e d 6-d it, "t r a d a r e, v i d e r e) ; d fallen away in creessen,
feeltat, traazo, vetlt, fiar (*c redessent, fidelitatem, *tra-
d a t i 8 n e m, *v i d u t u m, p. pie. of v i d 6 r e, f i d a r e). One of
the most general facts in Pr. is the habit of rejecting Latin final t,
uf which examples to any number are presented by the verbs. In
French this t was formerly retained when it followed a vowel which
remained, aimet, entret (a m a t, i n t r a t), and still remains (in
writing at least) when, in Latin, it follows a consonant, aiment,
fait, vtt (a m a n t, f a c i t, *fact, vivit, *v i v t) ; but in Pr. the
/ is dropped in all cases, even in the most ancient texts: aman,
fai, vitt. Yet in the northern zone we find the / retained in the
3rd per. pi. of verbs, -ant, -ont (Lat. -a n t, -u n t). H has gone
completely (or at least only appears through orthographic tradition,
ami very intermittently, (h)erba, (h)onor, (h)umu, &c.), not only
in words of Latin origin, which is the case in Old French, but even in
Teutonic words (anta, ardit, arenc, ausberc, elm, Fr. honte, hardi,
hareng, haubert, heaume, with h aspirated). By this feature, the
northern limits of which are not yet well determined, the Provencal
attaches itself to the Romanic of the southern countries. N final,
or standing in Latin between two vowels of which the second is to be
dropped, disappears in the whole central part of the Pr. domain:
gran gra, ben be, en e, ven ve, fin fi, un u (g r a n u m, be n e, in,
venit, finem, unu m). The forms with n belong to the eastern
part (left of the Rhone), the western part (Gascony, but not Beam),
and the region of the Pyrenees. It is possible that this loss of n
went along with a lengthening of final vowel; at least, in Bearnese
when the n falls away the vowel is doubled: caperaa, besii, boo
(capellanum, viclnum, bonu m), &c.
These are the most important characteristics of the consonants
in relation to the extent of space over which they prevail. Others,
which appear only within a more limited area, are perhaps more
curious on account of their strangeness. It will suffice to mention
a few which belong to the district bounded on the west and south
by the Atlantic, the Basque provinces and the Pyrenees, and
which extends northward and eastward towards the Garonne and
its affluents, as far as the Gironde. (This includes Beam, Bigorre
and Gascony.) Here the sound v no longer exists, being replaced
generally by 6; between two vowels, in Gascony, by u with the
sound of English iv. Initial r assumes a prosthetic o: arram, arre,
Arrobert (r a m u m, rem, Robertu m). LI between two vowels
becomes r: aperar, caperan, or (Barn) caperaa, bera, era (a p e 1-
1 a r e, capellanum, b e 1 1 a, ilia). On the contrary, at the
end of words (viz. in Romanic) // becomes g or t, d; the former
change seems to belong rather to Hautes and Basses Pyr6n6es,
Landes, the latter to Gironde, Lot et Garonne, Gers: eg, ed, et
(ille), arrasteg, -ed, -et(r a s t e 1 1 u m), casteg, -ed, -et (c a s t e 1 1 u m),
capdeg, -ed, -et (c a p i t e 1 1 u m), whence Fr. cadet (in i6th century
capdet, originally a Gascon word). For further details upon the
consonants in this region of south-west France see Romania, iii.
435-43?, v. 368-369.
flexion. Old Provencal has, like Old French, a declension con-
sisting of two cases for each number, derived from the Latin nomina-
tive and accusative. In certain respects this declension is more
in conformity with etymology in Provencal than in Old French,
having been less influenced by analogy. The following are the types
of this declension, taking them in the order of the Latin declensions.
(1) Words in -o coming from Latin 1st decl., increased by certain
words coming from Latin neuter plurals treated in Prov. as feminine
singulars; one form only for each number: sing, causa, pi. causas.
(2) Words of the Latin 2nd decl., with a few from the 4th ; two forms
for each number: sing, subject cavals (ca ball us), object caval
(c a b a 1 1 u m) ; pi. subject caval (c a b a 1 1 i), object cavals (c a-
hallos. (3) Words of Latin 3rd decl. Here there are three Latin
types to be considered. The first type presents the same theme and
the same accentuation in all the cases, e.g. c a n i s. The second
presents the sanie accentuation in the nominative singular and in
the other cases, but the theme differs: c o-m e s, c o-m item. In
the third type the accentuation changes: pecca-tor, pecca-
t 8-re m. The first type is naturally confounded with nouns of the
2nd decl. : sing. subj. cans or cas, obj. can or ca. The second and
third types are sometimes followed in their original variety; thus
corns answers to c o-m e s, and co-mte to c o-m item. But it
has often happened that already in vulgar Latin the theme of the
nominative singular had been refashioned after the theme of the
oblique cases. They said in the nom. sing, heredis, parentis,
p r i n c i p i s, for h e r e s, parens, princeps. Consequently
the difference both of theme and of accentuation which existed in
Latin between nominative and accusative has disappeared in Pr.
This reconstruction of the nominative singular after the theme of
the other cases takes place in all Latin words in -as (except abbas), in
those in -io, in the greater part of those in -or, at least in all those
which have an abstract meaning. Thus we obtain bontatz (b o n i-
t a t i s for b o n i t a s) and bontat (b o n i t a t e m), ciutatz (c i v i-
t a t i s for c i v i t a s) and ciutat (c i v i t a t e m), amors (a m o r i s
for a m o r) and amor (a m o r e m). All present participles in the
subject case singular are formed in this way upon refashioned Latin
nominatives: amans (a m a n t i s for a m a n s), amant (a m a n-
t e m). It is to be remarked that in regard to feminine nouns Pr. is
more etymological than French. In the latter feminine nouns have
generally only one form for each number: bonte for the subj. as well
as for the obi. case, and not bontts and bonti; in Pr. on the contrary
bontatz and bontat. Still, in a large number of nouns the original
difference of accentuation between the nominative singular and the
other cases has been maintained, whence there result two very
distinct forms for the subjunctive and objective cases. Of these words
it is impossible to give a full list here ; we confine ourselves to the exhibi-
tion of a few types, remarking that these words are above all such as
designate persons: a-bas aba-t, pa-sire pasto-r, sor soro-r, cantai-re
cantado-r (c a n t a t o r, -pre m), emperai-re emperad-or, bar baro-,
compa-nh companho-, lai-re lairo- (latro, -6 n e m). To this
class belong various proper names: E-ble Eblo-, Gui Guio-, Uc
Ugo-. A few have even come from the 2nd decl., thus Pei-res
Peiro-, Pans Ponso-, Ca-rles, Carlo, the vulgar Latin types being
P e t r u s, -onem, Pontius, -onem, Carolus, -onem.
(On this peculiarity of the vulgar Latin declension, see Philipon, in
Romania, xxxi. 213-228.) We may mention also geographical
adjectives, such as Bret Breto-, Bergp-nhz Bergonho-, Case Gasco-,
&c. The plural of the 3rd decl. is like that of the second: subj.
aba-t, soro-r, cantado-r, emperado-r, baro-, companho-, lairo- ;
obj. aba-tz, soro-rs, cantado-rs, emperado-rs, baro-s, companho-s,
lairo-s, as if the Latin nominative pi. had been abbfiti, sorSri,
cantatori, &c. It is barely possible that such forms actually
existed in vulgar Latin; no trace of them, however, is found in
the texts, save in the glosses of Cassel (8th century), sa p i e n t i
for s a p i e n t e s, and in a great many ancient charters p a r e n t o-
r u m, which implies a nominative parent!. The words of the
4th and 5th declensions present no points requiring mention here.
This declension of two cases is a notable character of the whole
Romanic of Gaul, north as well as south, i.e. French as well as
Provengal. It must be noted, however, that in the south-west it
existed only in a very restricted measure. In the .old texts of
Gascony it is no longer general in the I3th century. In Bearn it
appears to have been completely unknown, the nouns and adjectives
having only one form, usually that of the objective case. In Catalan
poetry its application is often laid down in the I3th century, but
as the charters and documents free from literary influence show no
trace of it, its introduction into the poetry of this country may be
assumed to be an artificial fact. In the region where it is best
observed, i.e. in the centre and north of the Provencal territory,
it tends to disappear from ordinary use already in the I3th century-
The poet-grammarian Raimon Vidal of Besalu, who flourished
about the middle of the century, points out in various troubadours
transgressions of the rules of declension, and recognizes that in
colloquial speech they are no longer observed. The general tendency
was to retain only a single form, that of the objective case.
For certain words, however, it was the subjunctive form which sur-
vived. Thus in modern Pr. the words in the ending -ai-re (answering
to Lat. -a t o r) are as frequent as those in -adou- (repr. - a t 6 r e m).
But there is a slight difference of meaning between these two
suffixes.
Adjectives, generally speaking, agree in flexion with the nouns.
But there is one fact particular to adjectives and past participles
which is observed with more or less regularity in certain I2th and
13th-century texts. There is a tendency to mark more clearly than
in the substantives the flexion of the subj. pi., chiefly when the adjec-
tive or participle is employed predicatively. This is marked by the
addition of an ', placed, according to the district, either after the
final consonant, or else after the last vowel so as to form a diphthong
with it. The following are examples from an ancient translation
of the New Testament (MS. in library of the Palais Saint-Pierre,
Lyons, end of I3th century): " Die a vos que no siatz consirosi "
(ne solliciti sitis, Matt. vi. 25); " que siatz visti d'els " (ut videamini
ab eis, Matt. vi. i); " e davant los reis els princeps seretz menadi "
(et ad praesides et ad reges ducemini, Matt. x. 18). In charters of
494
the I2th and I3th centuries we find in the sub> case pi., and
especially in this predicative use, pagaig, certifiaih, acossailhaih,
representing p a g a t i, certificati, adconsiliati.
A similar peculiarity is noticeable also in masculine substantives,
but appears only in a very limited number of texts; so auzil, auzelh
[Lat. a v i c e 1 1 i] (see A. Thomas, in Romania, xxxiv. 353).
It is in the verbs that the individuality of the different Romanic
idioms manifests itself most distinctly. At a very early date the
etymological data were crossed, in various directions and divers
manners according to the country, by analogical tendencies. The
local varieties became little by little so numerous in the Romanic
conjugation that it is not easy to discover any very characteristic
features observed over a territory so vast as that of which the limits
have been indicated at the commencement of this article. The
following are, however, a few.
_The infinitives are in -ar, -er, -re, -ir, corresponding to the Lat.
-are, -ere, -ere, -ire, respectively ; as in the whole Roma"nic
domain, the conjugation in -ar is the most numerous. The table
of verbs, which forms part of the Pr. grammar called the Donatz
Proensals (i3th century), contains 473 verbs in -ar, 101 in -er and
-re, 115 in -ir. In the -ar conjugation we remark one verb from
another conjugation: far (cf. Ital. fare) from f a c e r e. The con-
jugations in -er and -re encroach each upon the territory of the
other. The three Lat. verbs cadere, caper e, sapere have
become -er verbs (caze-r, cabe-r, sabe-r) as in Fr. cheoir, -cevoir
(recevoir), savoir; and several other verbs waver between the two:
crede-r, creer, and crei-re (c r e d e r e), quere-r and que-rre (q u a e-
r e r e). This fluctuation is most frequent in the case of verbs which
belonged originally to the -ere conjugation: arde-r and a-rdre,
plaze-r and plai-re, taze-r and tai-re (a r d e r e, p 1 a c e r e,
t a c e r e). Next to the -ar conjugation, that in -ir is the one
which has preserved most formative power. As in the other
Romanic languages, it has welcomed a large number of German
verbs, and has attracted several verbs which etymologically ought
to have belonged to the conjugations in -er and -re: emplir
im-plere), jauzir (gaudere), cosir (consuere), erebir
(eri-pere), fugir (fugfire), seguir (* seq ue r e = seq u i)
also segre.
Except in the -ar conjugation, the ending of the infinitive does
not determine in a regular manner the mode of forming the different
tenses. The present participles are divided into two series:
those in -an (obj. sing.) for the first conj., those in -en for the others.
In this the Pr. distinguishes itself very clearly from the French, in
which all present participles have -ant. There is also in Pr. a
participial form or verbal adjective which is not met with in any
other Romanic language, except Rumanian, where, moreover, it is
employed in a different sense; this is a form in -do-r, -doi-ra, which
supposes a Latin type -torius, or-turius; the sense is that of
a future participle, active for the intransitive verbs, passive for the
transitive: endevenido-r, -doi-ra, "that is to happen"; fazedo-r,
doi-ra, " that is to be done "; punido-r, -doi-ra, " to be punished."
In conjugation properly so called we may remark the almost com-
plete disappearance of the Lat. preterite in -am, of which traces are
found only in texts written in the neighbourhood of the French-
speaking region, and in Beam. In return, a preterite which seems
to have been suggested by the Latin dedi, steti, has increased
and become the type of the tense almost everywhere in the -ar
conjugation, and in many verbs in -er and -re : amei-, ame-st, ame-t,
ame-m, ame-tz, ame-ron. In French there is a form like this, or at
least having the same origin, only in a small number of verbs, none of
which belong to the first conjugation, and in these only in the 3rd
pers. sing, and pi. (perdiet, perdierent; entendiet, entendierent, &c.).
It is well known that reduplicated preterites had greatly multiplied
in vulgar Latin: there have been recovered such forms as a s c e n-
diderat, ostendedit, pandiderunt, adtendedit
incendiderat, &c. (see Schuchardt, Vokalismus des Vulgar-
lateins, i. 35, iii. 10; cf. Romania, ii. 477). But, in order to explain
the Pr. form -ei, -est, -el (with open e), we must suppose a termination
not in - i d i or - e d i, but in - e-d i. In the western region the 3rd
pers. sing, is generally in -ec, probably by analogy with preterites
like bee, crec, dec, sec, formed after the Latin type in - u i. Another
notable peculiarity, of which Old French shows only rare traces, in
texts of a very remote period, is the preservation of a preterite in
-ara or -era, derived from the Latin pluperfect, ama-ra or ame-ra,
" I loved." The former, which is rare, comes directly from Lat.
a m & r a m, the latter has been influenced by the ordinary preterite
in -ei. This preterite is used with the sense of a simple past, not of
a pluperfect, and consequently is an exact doublet of the ordinary
preterite, which explains how it was at length eliminated almost
everywhere by the latter, of which it was a mere synonym. But it
remained in general use with the sense of a past conditional: ama-ra
or ame-ra, " I should have loved, "fora, " I should have been."
3. Modern Provencal. In consequence of political circum-
stances the Provencal ceased to be used for administrative as
well as literary purposes about the i5th century, in some places
a little sooner, in others later (notably in Beam, where it con-
tinued to be written as the language of ordinary use till the i7th,
and even in some places till the i8th century) . The poems in local
PROVENCAL LANGUAGE
dialect composed and printed in the i6th century, and on to
our own day, have no link with the literature of the preceding
period. Reduced to the condition of a patois, or popular dialect
simply, the idiom experienced somewhat rapid modifications.
Any one who should compare the poems of Goudelin of Toulouse
(1579-1649) with those of a Toulousain troubadour of the 131)1
century would be astonished at the changes which the language
has undergone. Yet this impression would probably be exag-
gerated. In order to make a rigorously accurate comparison of
the language at the two epochs, it would have to be written
in the two cases with the same orthographic system, which it
is not. The first writers of Provencal, about the loth and nth
century, applied to the language the Latin orthography, pre-
serving to each letter, as far as possible, the value given to it
in the contemporary pronunciation of Latin. To express
certain sounds which did not exist in Latin, or which were not
there clearly enough noted, there were introduced little by
little; and without regular system, various conventional sym-
bolizations such as Ih and nh to symbolize the sound of / and n
mouillees. From this method of proceeding there resulted an
orthographic system somewhat wanting in fixity, but which from
its very instability lent itself fairly well to the variations which
the pronunciation underwent in time and locality. But, the
tradition having been interrupted about the i5th century,
those who afterwards by way of pastime attempted composition
in the patois formed, each for himself apart, an orthography
of which many elements were borrowed from French usage.
It is evident that differences already considerable must be
exaggerated by the use of two very distinct orthographical
systems. Nevertheless, even if we get quit of the illusion
which makes us at first sight suppose differences of sound where
there are merely different ways of spelling the same sound, we
find that between the I4th and i6th centuries the language
underwent everywhere, Beam excepted, great modifications
both in vocabulary and grammar. The Provencal literature
having gradually died out during the i4th century, the vocabu-
lary lost rapidly the greater part of the terms expressing general
ideas or abstract conceptions. To supply the place of these,
the authors who have written in the patois of the south during
the last few centuries have been obliged to borrow from French,
modifying at the same time their form, a multitude of vocables
which naturally have remained for the most part unintelligible
to people who know only the patois. In this case the adoption
of foreign words was excusable; but it did not stop here. Little
by little, as primary instruction (now compulsory) was diffused,
and introduced, first in the towns and afterwards in the villages,
certain knowledge of French, words purely French, have been
introduced into use in place of the corresponding dialect words.
Thus, one hears constantly in Provence pe-ro, me-ro, fre-ro,
forms adapted from French, instead of paire, maire, frairc,
cacha (catsha- = Fr. cacher) instead of escoundre, &c.
In the phonology, the modifications are of the natural order, and
so have nothing revolutionary. The language has developed locally
tendencies which certainly already existed during the flourishing
period, although the ancient orthography did not recognize them.
Of the vowels, a tonic is generally preserved ; an in an open syllable
becomes d (open) in part of the departments of Aveyron, Lot,
Dordogne, Correze, Cantal and south of Haute Loire: gro (gra-
n u m), mo (manum), po (p a n e m). This nasalized a must
have had a particular sound already in O. Pr., for it is qualified
in the Donatz Proensals (ed. Stengel, p. 49) as a estreit ( = close or
narrow a). A feature almost general is the passage of post-tonic a
into o: terra, amavo, amado (terra, amabat, a m a t a). In
many places, particularly in the east, examples of this change occur
as early as the end of the 1 5th century. But even yet there are a
few cantons, notably Montpellier and its neighbourhood, and also
Nice, where the ancient post-tonic a is preserved. It is remarkable
that the Latin diphthong au, which had become simple o in almost
all Romanic lands at the date of the most ancient texts, is to this
day preserved with a very distinct diphthongal sound everywhere in
the south of France.
In the i
ever
two
adjectives, been reduced to one this reduction manifested itself
in ordinary use already in the i^th century but in many places
there no longer remains any distinction between the singular and
PROVENCAL LITERATURE
the plural. In a great part of the south ieu (e g o) does duty as an
objective, me or mi being very restricted in use. In part of Drome
it is the other way, mi being substituted in the nominative for ieu,
which it has completely displaced. It is perhaps in conjugation
that the greatest changes from the older form of the language are
Analogy, basing itself upon one or another much used form,
ha> acted with immense force, tending to make general in the whole
conjugation, without any regard to the original classes to which
the various verbs belonged, certain terminations, chiefly those
which were accented, and thus appeared to the popular instinct to
have more significance. The result, if the tendency were carried
the full length, would be the reduction of all the three conjugations
.-. Perhaps before this point is reached the patois of the south
will themselves have disappeared. As the endless modifications
which the language undergoes, in vocabulary and grammar alike,
develop themselves in different directions, and each over an area
differently circumscribed, the general aspect of the language becomes
and more confused, without the possibility of grouping the
rndlr-.s varieties within dialectal divisions, there being hardly any
in which a certain number of phonetic or morphological facts
nt themselves within the same geographical limits. The
111 has been adopted of roughly designating these varieties by
the name of the ancient provinces in which they appear. Limousin
(divided into High and Low Limousin), Marchese, Auvergnese,
>n, Bearnese, Rvuergat, Languedocian, Provencal, &c. ; but these
divisions, though convenient in use, correspond to no actualities.
Ninies and Montpellier are in Languedoc, and Aries and Tarascon
are in Provence; nevertheless the dialect of Nimes resembles that of
Aries and Tarascon more than that of Montpellier.
Texts. For the history of the Provencal in all its varieties there
are many more materials than for any other Romanic language, not
\ ing even Italian or French. The literary texts go back to the
loth or nth century (see below). For phonetic purposes many of
t hese texts are of secondary value, because the MSS. in which they
have reached us, and several of which, especially for the poetry of
the troubadours, are of Italian origin, have altered the original forms
to an extent which it is not easy to determine; but we possess a
countless number of charters, coutumes, regulations, accounts,
registers of taxation, which are worthy of absolute confidence
first, because these documents are in most cases original, and,
secondly, because, none of the dialectical varieties having raised
itself to the rank of the literary language, as happened in France
with the central (Parisian) variety and in Italy with the FJorentine,
writers never had the temptation to abandon their own idiom for
another. For a selection of that kind of documents see P. Meyer,
Documents linguistiques du midi de la France (vol. i., 1909, in 8vo,
containing the documents of Ain, Basses Alpes, Hautes Alpes, Alpes
Maritimes). It is proper to add that Provencal possesses two ancient
grammars of the I3th century (the earliest compiled for any Romanic
idiom) the Donatz proensals and Razos de trobar (see below,
PROVENCAL LITERATURE). Although very short, especially the
id, which is a collection of detached observations, they furnish
valuable data. The 14th-century Leys d'amors presents the lan-
guage in a somewhat -artificial state the written rather than the
spoken language.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: i. Ancient Condition. There does not exist
any comprehensive work upon the Provencal whence to obtain a
precise idea of the history of the language at its different epochs.
1 lit-z's Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen is still the groundwork.
It gives, especially in the 3rd ed. (1869-1872), the last revised by the
author, the results of extensive researches conveniently arranged.
But Diez had'only a slender knowledge of the language in its present
state, and in his time phonology had made little progress. The
French translation of MM. G. Paris, A. Brachet and Morel-Fatio
( I'aris, 1873-1876) was to be completed by a supplementary volume,
but this expedient had to be abandoned, it having been recognized
that what was wanted was not a supplement but a general recast.
Meyer-Liibke's Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (Leipzig,
1890-1899; Fr. trans., with indexes, 1890-1906), though repre-
senting a more advanced state of Romance philology, is marred
1>\ an unusual number of inaccuracies, and is of little use for the
study of ^Provencal. The " Recherches philologiques sur la langue
rpmane," and " Resume de la grammaire romane," published by
Raynouard at the beginning of vol. i. of his Lexique roman (1838),
are entirely out of date. The " Tableau sommaire des flexions
provencales," published by K. Bartsch, in the Chrestomathie proven-
(ale, though much improved in later editions, is incomplete and often
erroneous. Better is the introduzione grammaticale to V. Crescini's
Manualetto provenzale (2nd ed., 1905). Grandgent's Outline of the
Phonology and Morphology of Old Prmenc.al (Boston, 1005) is also
to be recommended. But the actual state of our knowledge of
Provencal must be sought in a great number of scattered
issertations or monographs, which will be found especially in the
Romania, the Revue de la societe pour I'etude des langues romanes,
id other periodicals^ to which may be added some academic disser-
ations published mainly in Germany, and the special studies upon
: language of particular texts prefixed to editions of these. As to
ctionanes, the Lexique roman, ou dictionnaire de la langue des
roubadours, by Raynouard (6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1836-1844), can
always be used with advantage. It has been largely supplemented
495
by Professor E. Levy in his Provenzalisches Supplement- Worterbuch
(5 vols., Leipzig, 1892-1910, stops actually at letter P). The numer-
ous special vocabularies appended by editors to texts published by
them cannot be neglected. These yield a considerable number of
words, either wanting or wrongly explained in the Lexique roman.
2. Modern Form. -The most useful grammatical works (all done
with insufficient knowledge of phonology, and under the precon-
ceived idea that there exist dialects with definite circumscription)
are J. B. Andrews, Essai de grammaire du dialecte mentonais [Men-
tone] (Nice, 1878), see also his " Phonetique mentonaise," in
Romania, xii. 394; Cantagrel, " Notes sur 1 'orthographic et la pronon-
ciation languedocienne," prefixed to La Canson de la Lauseto, by A.
Mir (Montpellier, 1876); Chabaneau, Grammaire limousine (Paris,
1876), referring especially to the variety of Nontron, in the north
of Perigord (Dordogne) ; Cpnstans, Essai sur I'histoire du sous-
dialecte du Rouergue (Montpellier and Paris, 1880); Lespy, Grammaire
bearnaise (2nd ed., Paris, 1880); A. Luchaire, Etudes sur les idiomes
pyreneens de la region iranyii.se (Paris, 1879); Moutier, Grammaire
dauphinoise, dialecte de la vallee de la Drome (Montelimar, 1882);
Ruben, " Etude sur le patois du Haul Limousin," prefixed to Poems
by J. Foucaud, in the Limousin patois (Limoges, 1866). Far
superior in every respect are Alfred Dauzat's essays on the language
of North Auvergne: Phonetique historique du patois de Vinzelles
(Paris, 1897), Morphologie du patois de Vinzelles (Paris, 1900),
Geographie phonetique d'une region de la Basse Auvergne (Paris,
1906). As to dictionaries, we may mention, among others,
Andrews, Vocabulaire fran^ais-mentonais (Nice, 1877); Azais,
Dictionnaire des idiomes romans du midi de la France (3 vols. 8vo,
Montpeflier,i877), taking for its basis the dialect of Beziers; Chabrand
and De Rochas d'Aiglun, Patoisdes Alpes Cottiennes et en particulier
du Queyras (Grenoble and Paris, 1877); Couzinie, Dictionnaire de la
langue romane-castraise (Castres, 1850); Garcin, Nouveau diclion-
naire provenc,al-franc.ais (2 vols., Draguignan, 1841): Honnorat,
Dictionnaire provenc,al-franc.aise (2 vols. 410, Digne, 1846-1847),
De Sauvages, Dictionnaire languedocien-francflis (new ed., 2 vols.,
Alais, 1820) ; Vayssier, Dictionnaire palois-franc.ais du departement de
I'Aveyron (Rodez, 1879). F. Mistral's Tresor dou Felibrige, ou
dictionnaire provencal-franc.ais (2 vols. 410, 1880-1888) is the most
complete of all. This dictionary takes as its basis the variety of.
Maillane (in the north of Bouches-du-Rh6ne), the author's native
district, but gives, as far as possible, all the forms used in the south
of France. It is by far the best of all the dictionaries of the southern
dialects which have yet been published, and, to a great extent, will
enable the student to dispense with all the others. (P. M.)
PROVENCAL LITERATURE. Provencal literature is much
more easily defined than the language in which it is expressed.
Starting in the nth and mh centuries in several centres it
thence gradually spiead out, first over the greater portion,
though not 'the whole of southern France, and then into the
north of Italy and Spain. It never felt the influence of the neigh-
bouring literatures. At the time of its highest development
(i2th century) the art of composing in the vulgar tongue did
not exist, or was only beginning to exist, to the south of the
Alps and the Pyrenees. In the north, in the country of French
speech, vernacular poetry was in full bloom; but between the
districts in which it had developed Champagne, lie de France,
Picardy and Normandy and the region in which Provencal
literature had sprung up, there seems to have been an inter-
mediate zone formed by Burgundy, Bourbonnais, Berry,
Touraine and Anjou which, far on in the middle ages, appears
to have remained almost barren of vernacular literature. In
its rise Provencal literature stands completely by itself, and in
its development it long continued to be absolutely original.
It presents at several points genuine analogies with the sister-
literature of northern France; but these analogies are due
principally to certain primary elements common to both and
only in a slight degree to mutual reaction.
It must be inquired, however, what amount of originality
could belong to any, even the most original, Romantic literature
in the middle ages. In all Romanic countries compositions
in the vernacular began to appear while the custom of writing
in Latin was still preserved by uninterrupted tradition. Even
during the most barbarous periods, when intellectual life was
at its lowest, it was in Latin that sermons, lives of saints more
or less apocryphal, accounts of miracles designed to attract
pilgrims to certain shrines, monastic annals, legal documents,
and contracts of all kinds were composed. When learning
began to revive, as was the case in northern and central France
under the influence of Charlemagne and later in the nth century,
it was Latin literature which naturally received increased
attention, and the Latin language was more then ever employed
49 6
PROVENCAL LITERATURE
in writing. Slowly and gradually the Romanic languages,
especially those of France, came to occupy part of the ground
formerly occupied by Latin, but even after the middle ages
had passed away the parent tongue retained no small portions
of its original empire. Consequently Romanic literatures in
general (and this is especially true of Provencal, as it does not
extend beyond the medieval period) afford only an incomplete
representation of the intellectual development of each country.
Those literatures even which are most truly national, as having
been subjected to no external influence, are only to a limited
extent capable of teaching us what the nation was. They
were, in short, created in the interests of the illiterate part of
the people, and to a considerable degree by men themselves
almost devoid of literary learning. But that does not make
them less interesting.
Origin. It was in the nth century, and at several places
in the extensive territory whose limits have been described
in the foregoing account of the Provencal language, that
Provencal literature first made its appearance. It took pretic
form; and its oldest monuments show a relative perfection and
a variety from which it may be concluded that poetry had
already received a considerable development. The oldest poetic
text, of which the date and origin are not surely determined, is
said to be a Provencal burden (Fr. refrain) attached to a Latin
poem which has been published (Zeitschriftfur deutsche Philologie,
1881, p. 335) from a Vatican MS., written, it is asserted, in the
loth century. But it is useless to linger over these few words,
the text of which seems corrupt, or at least has not yet been
satisfactorily interpreted. The honour of being the oldest
literary monument of the Provencal language must be assigned
to a fragment of two hundred and fifty-seven decasyllabic
verses preserved in an Orleans MS. and frequently edited and
annotated since it was first printed by Raynouard in 1817 in
his Choix des poesies originates des troubadours. The writing
of the MS. is of the first half of the nth century. The peculiari-
ties of the language point to the north of the Provencal region,
probably Limousin or Marche. It is the beginning of a poem in
which the unknown author, taking Boethius's treatise De con-
solatione phUosophiae as the groundwork of his composition,
adopts and develops its ideas and gives them a Christian colouring
of which there is no trace in the original. Thus from some
verses in which Boethius contrasts his happy youth with his
afflicted old age he draws a lengthy homily on the necessity
of laying up from early years a treasure of good works. The
poem is consequently a didactic piece composed by a " clerk "
knowing Latin. He doubtless preferred the poetic form to
prose because his illiterate contemporaries were accustomed
to poetry in the vulgar tongue, and because this form was
better adapted to recitation; and thus his work, while a product
of erudition in as far as it was an adaptation of a Latin treatise,
shows that at the time when it was composed a vernacular
poetry was in existence. A little later, at the close of the same
century, we have the poems of William IX., count of Poitiers,
duke of Guienne. They consist of eleven very diverse strophic
pieces, and were consequently meant to be sung. Several
are love songs; one relates a bonne fortune in very gross terms;
and the most important of all the only one which can be
approximately dated, being composed at the time when William
was setting out for Spain to fight the Saracens (about 1119)
expresses in touching and often noble words the writer's regret
for the frivolity of his past life and the apprehensions which
oppressed him as he bade farewell, perhaps for ever, to his
country and his young son. We also know from Ordericus
Vitalis that William IX. had composed various poems on the
incidents of his ill-fated expedition to the Holy Land in noi.
And it must further be mentioned that in one of his pieces (Ben
toil que sapchon li plusor) he makes a very clear allusion to a
kind of poetry which we know only by the specimens of later
date, the partimen, or, as it is called in France, the jeu parti.
William IX. was born in 1071 and died in 1127. There is no
doubt that the most prolific period of his literary activity was his
youth. On the other hand there is no reason to believe that he
created the type of poetry of which he is to us the oldest represen-
tative. It is easy to understand how his high social rank saved
some of his productions from oblivion whilst the poems of his
predecessors and contemporaries disappeared with the genera-
tions who heard and sang them; and in the contrast in form
and subject between the Boethius poem and the stanzas of
William IX. we find evidence that by the n century Provencal
poetry was being rapidly developed in various directions.
Whence came this poetry? How and by whose work was it
formed? That it has no connexion whatever with Latin
poetry is generally admitted. There is absolutely nothing in
common either in form or ideas between the last productions of
classical Latinity, as they appear in Sidonius Apollinaris or
Fortunatus, and the first poetic compositions in Romanic.
The view which seems to meet with general acceptance, though
it has not been distinctly formulated by any one, is that Romanic
poetry sprang out of a popular poetry quietly holding its place
from the Roman times, no specimen of which has survived
just as the Romanic languages are only continuations with
local modifications of vulgar Latin. There are both truth and
error in this opinion. The question is really a very complex
one. First as to the form Romanic versification, as it appears
in the Boethius poem and the verses of William IX., and a little
farther north in the poem of the Passion and the Life of St
Lcger (loth or nth century), has with all its variety some
genera] and permanent characteristics; it is rhymed, and it is
composed of a definite number of syllables certain of which
have the syllabic accent. This form has evident affinity with
the rhythmic Latin versification, of which specimens exist from
the close of the Roman Empire in ecclesiastical poetry. The
exact type of Romanic verse is not found, however, in this
ecclesiastical Latin poetry; the latter was not popular. How-
ever, it may be assumed that there was a popular variety of
rhythmic poetry from which Romanic verse is derived.
Again, as regards the substance, the poetic material, we
find nothing in the earliest Provencal which is strictly popular.
The extremely personal compositions of William IX. have
nothing in common with folk-lore. They are subjective poetry
addressed to a very limited and probably rather aristocratic
audience. The same may be said of the Boethius poem, though
it belongs to the quite different species of edifying literature;
at any rate it is not popular poetry. Vernacular compositions
seem to have been at first produced for the amusement, or in
the case of religious poetry, for the edification, of that part of lay
society which had leisure and lands, and reckoned intellectual
pastime among the good things of life. Gradually this class,
intelligent, but with no Latin education, enlarged the circle
of its ideas. In the i2th century, and still more in the i3th,
historical works and popular treatises on contemporary science
were composed for its use in the only language it understood;
and vernacular literature continued gradually to develop partly
on original lines and partly by borrowing from the literature
of the " clerks. " But in the nth century vernacular poetry
was still rather limited, and has hardly any higher object than
the amusement or the edification of the upper classes. An
aristocratic poetry, such as it appears in the oldest Provencal
compositions, cannot be the production of shepherds and
husbandmen; and there is no probability that it was invented
or even very notably improved by William IX.
From what class of persons then did it proceed? Latin
chroniclers of the middle ages mention as joculares, joculatores,
men of a class not very highly esteemed whose profession con-
sisted in amusing their audience either by what we still call
jugglers' tricks, by exhibiting performing animals, or by recita-
tion and song. They are called joglars in Provencal, jouglers
or jougleors in French. A certain Barnaldus, styled joglarius,
appears as witness in 1058 to a charter of the chartulary of
St Victor at Marseilles. In 1106 the act of foundation of a
salva terra in Rouergue specifies that neither knight nor man-at-
arms norjoculator is to reside in the village about to be created.
These individuals successors of the mimi and the thymelici of
antiquity, who were professional amusers of the public were
PROVENCAL LITERATURE
the first authors of poetry in the vernacular both in the south
ami in the north of France. To the upper classes who welcomed
thorn to their castles they supplied that sort of entertainment
now sought at the theatre or in books of light literature. There
were certain of them who, leaving buffoonery to the ruder and
less intelligent members of the profession, devoted themselves
to the composition of pieces intended for singing, and conse-
quently in verse. In the north, where manners were not so
refined and where the taste for warlike adventure prevailed,
the jongleurs produced chansons de geste full of tales of battle
and combat. In the courts of the southern nobles, where wealth
was more abundant and a life of ease and pleasure was
consequently indulged in, they produced love songs. There is
probably a large amount of truth in the remark made by
Dante in ch. xxv. of his Vita nuova, that the first to compose
in the vulgar tongue did so because he wished to be understood
by a lady who would have found it difficult to follow Latin
verses. 1 And in fact there are love songs among the pieces by
William of Poitiers; and the same type preponderates among
the compositions of the troubadours who came immediately
after him. But it is worthy of note that in all this vast body
of love poetry there is no epithalamium nor any address to a
marriageable lady. The social conditions of the south of France
in the feudal period explain in great measure the powerful
development of this kind of poetry, and also its peculiar
characteristics the profound respect, the extreme deference of
the poet towards the lady whom he addresses. Rich heiresses
were married young, often when hardly out of their girlhood,
and most frequently without their fancy being consulted. But
they seem after marriage to have enjoyed great liberty. Eager
for pleasure and greedy of praise, the fair ladies of the castle
became the natural patronesses of the mesnie or household
of men-at-arms and jongleurs whom their husbands maintained
in their castles. Songs of love addressed to them soon became an
accepted and almost conventional form of literature; and, as
in social position the authors were generally far below those
to whom they directed their amorous plaints, this kind of poetry
was always distinguished by great reserve and an essentially
respectful style. From the beginning the sentiments, real or
assumed, of the poets are expressed in such a refined and guarded
style that some historians, over-estimating the virtue of the ladies
of that time, have been misled to the belief that the love of the
troubadour for the mistress of his thoughts was generally platonic
and conventional.
The conditions under which Romanic poetry arose in the
south of France being thus determined as accurately as the
scarcity of documents allows, we now proceed to give a survey of
the various forms of Provenjal literature, chronological order
being followed in each division. By this arrangement the
wealth of each form will be better displayed; and, as it is rare
in the south of France for the same person to distinguish himself
in more than one of them, there will be generally no occasion
to introduce the same author in different sections.
Poetry of the Troubadours. Though he was certainly not the
creator of the lyric poetry of southern France, William, count
of Poitiers, by personally cultivating it gave it a position of
honour, and indirectly contributed in a very powerful degree
to ensure its development and preservation. Shortly after
him centres of poetic activity make their appearance in various
places first in Limousin and Gascony. In the former province
lived a viscount of Ventadour, Eble, who during the second
part of William of Poitiers's life seems to have been brought into
relation with him, and according to a contemporary historian,
Geffrei, prior of Vigeois, erat valde gratiosus in cantilenis. We
possess none of his compositions; but under his influence Bernart
of Ventadour was trained to poetry, who, though only the son
of one of the serving-men of the castle, managed to gain the
love of the lady of Ventadour, and when on the discovery of
their amour he had to depart elsewhere, received a gracious
1 " E lo primo che comencio a dire sicome poeta volgare si mosse
pcroche voile fare intendere le sue parole a donna alia quale era
malagevolc ad intendere i versi latini."
497
welcome from Eleanor of Guienne, consort (from 1152) of
Henry II. of England. Of Bernart's compositions we possess
about fifty songs of elegant simplicity, some of which may be
taken as the most perfect specimens of love poetry Provencal
literature has ever produced. Bernart must therefore have
been in repute before the middle of the I2th century; and his
poetic career extended well on towards its close. At the same
period, or probably a little earlier, flourished Cercamon, a poet
certainly inferior to Bernart, to judge by the few pieces he has
left us, but nevertheless of genuine importance among the
troubadours both because of his early date and because definite
information regarding him has been preserved. He was a
Gascon, and composed, says his old biographer, " pastorals "
according to the ancient custom (pastorelas a la uzansa aniiga).
This is the record of the appearance in the south of France
of a poetic form which ultimately acquired large development.
The period at which Cercamon lived is determined by a piece
where he alludes very clearly to the approaching marriage of
the king of France, Louis VII., with Eleanor of Guienne (1137).
Among the earliest troubadours may also be reckoned Marca-
brun, a pupil of Cercamon's, from whose pen we have about
forty pieces, those which can be approximately dated ranging
from 1135 to 1148 or thereabout. This poet has great origin-
ality of thought and style. His songs, several of which are
historical, are free from the commonplaces of their class, and
contain curious strictures on the corruptions of the time.
We cannot here do more than enumerate the leading trouba-
dours and briefly indicate in what conditions their poetry was
developed and through what circumstances it fell into decay
and finally disappeared: Peter of Auvergne (Peire d'Alvernha),
who in certain respects must be classed with Marcabrun; Arnaut
Daniel, remarkable for his complicated versification, the inventor
of the sestina, a poetic form for which Dante and Petrarch express
an admiration difficult for us to understand; Arnaut of Mareuil,
who, while less famous than Arnaut Daniel, certainly surpasses
him in elegant simplicity of form and delicacy of sentiment;
Bertran de Born, now the most generally known of all the
troubadours on account of the part he is said to have played
both by his sword and his siroentescs in the struggle between
Henry II. of England and his rebel sons, though the importance
of his part in the events of the time seems to have been greatly
exaggerated; Peire Vidal of Toulouse, a poet of varied inspiration
who grew rich with gifts bestowed on him by the greatest
nobles of his time; Guiraut de Borneil, lo maeslre dels trobadors,
and at any rate master in the art of the so-called " close " style
(irobar clus), though he has also left us some songs of charming
simplicity; Gaucelm Faidit, from whom we have a touching
lament (planh) on the death of Richard Cceur de Lion; Folquet
of Marseilles, the most powerful thinker among the poets of
the south, who from being a troubadour became first a monk,
then an abbot, and finally bishop of Toulouse (d. 1231).
It is not without interest to discover from what class of
society the troubadours came. Many of them, there is no
doubt, had a very humble origin. Bernart of Ventadour's
father was a servant, Peire Vidal's a maker of furred garments,
Perdigon's a fisher. Others belonged to the bourgeoisie:
Peire d'Alvernha, for example, Peire Raimon of Toulouse, Elias
Fonsalada. More rarely we see traders' sons becoming trouba-
dours; this was the case with Folquet of Marseilles and Aimeric
de Pegulhan. A great many were clerics, or at least studied for
the Church, for instance, Arnaut of Mareuil, Hugh of Saint Circq
(Uc de Saint Circ), Aimeric de Belenoi, Hugh Brunei, Peire
Cardinal; some had even taken orders: the monk of Montaudon,
the monk Gaubert of Puicibot. Ecclesiastical authority did
not always tolerate this breach of discipline. Gui d'Uissel,
canon and troubadour, was obh'ged by the injunction of the
pontifical legate to give up his song-making. One point is
particularly striking, the number of nobles (usually poor knights
whose incomes were insufficient to support their rank) who
became troubadours, or even, by an inferior descent, jongleurs:
Raimon de Miraval, Pons de Capdoill, Guillem Azemar,
Cadenet, Peirol, Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, and many more.
PROVENCAL LITERATURE
There is no doubt they betook themselves to poetry not merely
for their own pleasure, but for the sake of the gifts to be obtained
from the nobles whose courts they frequented. A very different
position was occupied by such important persons as William
of Poitiers, Raimbaut of Orange, the viscount of Saint Antonin,
William of Berga and Blacatz, who made poetry for their own
amusement, but contributed not a little, by thus becoming
troubadours, to raise the profession.
The profession itself was entirely dependent on the existence
and prosperity of the feudal courts. The troubadours could
hardly expect to obtain a livelihood from any other quarter than
the generosity of the great. It will consequently be well to
mention the more important at least of those princes who are
known to have been patrons and some of them practisers
of the poetic art. They are arranged approximately in
geographical order, and after each are inserted the names of
those troubadours with whom they were connected.
France. ELEANOR OF GUIENNE, Bernart de Ventadour (Venta-
dorn); HENRY CURTMANTLE, son of Henry II. of England,
Bertran de Born (?); RICHARD CCEUR DE LION, Arnaut Daniel,
Peire Vidal, Folquet of Marseilles, Gaucelm Faidit; ERMENGARDE
OF NARBONNE (1143-1192), Bernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier,
Peire d'Alvernha; RAIMON V., count of Toulouse (1143-1194),
Bernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier, Peire Raimon, Hugh Brunei,
Peire Vidal, Folquet of Marseilles, Bernart de Durfort; RAIMON VI.,
count of Toulouse (1194-1222), Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric de
Pegulhan, Aimeric de Belenoi, Ademar lo Negre; ALPHONSE II.,
count of Provence (1185-1209), Elias de Barjols; RAIMON
BERENGER IV., count of Provence (1209-1245), Sordel; BARRAL,
viscount of Marseilles (d. c. 1192), Peire Vidal, Folquet de
Marseilles; WILLIAM VIII., lord of Montpellier (1172-1204), Peire
Raimon, Arnaut de Mareuil, Folquet de Marseilles, Guiraui de
Calanson, Aimeric de Sarlat; ROBERT, dauphin of Auvergne (1169-
1234), Peirol, Perdigon, Pierre de Maensac, Gaucelm Faidit;
GUILLAUME DU BAUS, prince of Orange (1182-1218), Raimbaut
de Vacqueiras, Perdigon; SAVARIC DE MAULEON (1200-1230),
Gaucelm de Puicibot, Hugh de Saint Circa; BLACATZ, a Provencal
noble (I2OO?-I236), Cadenet, Joan d'Aubusson, Sordel, Guillem
Figueira; HENRY I., count of Rodez (1208-1222?), Hugh de
Saint Circq; perhaps HUGH IV., count of Rodez (i222?-i274)
and HENRY II., count of Rodez (1274-1302), Guiraut Riquier,
Folquet de Lunel, Serveri de Girone, Bertran Carbonel; NUNYO
SANCHEZ, count of Roussillon (d. 1241), Aimeric de Belenoi;
BERNARD IV., count of Astarac (1249-1291), Guiraut Riquier,
Amanieu de Sescas.
Spain. ALPHONSE II., king of Aragon (1162-1196), Peire Rogier,
Peire Raimon, Peire Vidal, Cadenet, Guiraut de Cabreira, Elias de
Barjols, the monk of Montaudon, Hugh Brunei; PETER II., king
of Aragon (1196-1213), Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric de Pegulhan,
Perdigon, Ademar lo Negre, Hugh of Saint Circq; JAMES I., king of
Aragon (1213-1276), Peire Cardinal, Bernart Sicart de Maruejols,
Guiraut Riquier, At de Mons; PETER III., king of Aragon (1276-
1285), Paulet of Marseilles, Guiraut Riquier, Serveri de Girone;
ALPHONSO IX., king of Leon (1138-1214), Peire Rogier, Guiraut
de Borneil, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Hugh de Saint Circq; ALPHONSO
X., king of Castile (1252-1284), Bertran de Lamanon, Bonifaci
Calvo, Guiraut Riquier, Folquet de Lunel, Arnaut Plages, Bertran
Carbonel.
Italy. BONIFACE II , marquis of Montferrat (1192-1207), Peire
Vidal, Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, Elias Cairel, Gaucelm Faidit (?);
FREDERICK II., emperor (1215-1250), Jean d'Aubusson, Aimeric de
Pegulhan, Guillem Figueira; Azzo VI., marquis of Este (1196-
1212), Aimeric de Pegulhan, Rambertin de Buvalelli; Azzo VIII.,
marquis of Este (1215-1264), Aimeric de Pegulhan.
The first thing that strikes one in this list is that, while
the troubadours find protectors in Spain and Italy, they do not
seem to have been welcomed in French-speaking countries.
This, however, must not be taken too absolutely. Provencal
poetry was appreciated in the north of France. There is reason
to believe that when Constance, daughter of one of the counts
of Aries, was married in 998 to Robert, king of France, she
brought along with her Provencal jongleurs. Poems by trouba-
dours are quoted in the French romances of the beginning of
the 1 3th century; some of them are transcribed in the old
collections of French songs, and the preacher Robert de Sorbon
informs us in a curious passage that one day a jongleur sang a
poem by Folquet of Marseilles at the court of the king of France.
But in any case it is easy to understand that, the countries of
the langue d'oui having a full developed literature of their own
suited to the taste of the people, the troubadours generally
preferred to go to regions where they had less to fear in the
way of competition.
The decline and fall of troubadour poetry was mainly due to
political causes. When about the beginning of the i3th century
the Albigensian War had ruined a large number of the nobles
and reduced to lasting poverty a part of the south of France,
the profession of troubadour ceased to be lucrative. It was then
that many of those poets went to spend their last days in the
north of Spain and Italy, where Provencal poetry had for more
than one generation been highly esteemed. Following their
example, other poets who were not natives of the south of France
began to compose in Provencal, and this fashion continued till,
about the middle of the i3th century, they gradually abandoned
the foreign tongue in northern Italy, and somewhat later in
Catalonia, and took to singing the same airs in the local dialects.
About the same time in the Provencal region the flame of poetry
had died out save in a few places Narbonne, Rodez, Foix and
Astarac where it kept burning feebly for a little longer. In the
1 4th century composition in the language of the country was
still practised; but the productions of this period are mainly
works for instruction and edification, translations from Latin or
sometimes even from French, with an occasional romance. As
for the poetry of the troubadours, it was dead for ever.
Form. Originally the poems of the troubadours were intended
to be sung. The poet usually composed the music as well as the
words; and in several cases he owed his fame more to his musical
than to his literary ability. Two manuscripts preserve specimens
of the music of the troubadours, but, though the subject has been
recently investigated, we are hardly able to form a clear opinion
of the originality and of the merits of these musical compositions.
The following are the principal poetic forms which the troubadours
employed. The oldest and most usual generic term is vers, by
which is understood any composition intended to be sung, no
matter what the subject. At the close of the I2th century it be-
came customary to call all verse treating of love canso the name
vers being then more generally reserved for poems on other themes.
The sirventesc differs from the vers and the canso only by its sub-
ject, being for the most part devoted to moral and political topics.
Peire Cardinal is celebrated for the sirventescs he composed against
the clergy of his time. The political poems of Bertran de Born
are sirventescs. There is reason to believe that originally this word
meant simply a poem composed by a sirvent (Lat. serviens) or man-
at-arms. The sirventesc is very frequently composed in the form,
sometimes even with rhymes, of a love song having acquired some
popularity, so that it might be sung to the same air. The tenson
is a debate between two interlocutors, each of whom has a stanza
in turn. The partimen (Fr. jeu parti) is also a poetic debate, but
it differs from the tension in so far that the range of debate is
limited. In the first stanza one of the partners proposes two
alternatives; the other partner chooses one of them and defends
it, the opposite side remaining to be defended by the original pro-
pounder. Often in a final couplet a judge or arbiter is appointed
to decide between the parties. This poetic game is mentioned by
William, count of Poitiers, at the end of the nth century. The
pastoreta, afterwards pastorela, is in general an account of the love
adventures of a knight with a shepherdess. All these classes have
one form capable of endless variations: five or more stanzas and one
or two envois. The dansa and balada, intended to mark the time
in dancing, are pieces with a refrain. The alba, which has also a
refrain, is, as the name indicates, a waking or morning song at the
dawning of the day. All those classes are in stanzas. The descort
is not thus divided, and consequently it must be set to music right
through. Its name is derived from the fact that, its component
parts not being equal, there is a kind of " discord " between them.
It is generally reserved for themes of love. Other kinds of lyric
poems, sometimes with nothing new about them except the name,
were developed in the south of France; but those here mentioned
are the more important.
Narrative Poetry. Although the strictly lyric poetry of the
troubadours forms the most original part of Provencal literature,
it must not be supposed that the remainder is of trifling impor-
tance. Narrative poetry, especially, received in the south of France
a great development, and, thanks to recent discoveries, a consider-
able body of it has already become known. Several classes must
be distinguished: the chanson de geste, legendary or apparently
historical, the romance of adventure and the novel. Northern
France remains emphatically the native country of the chanson de
geste; but, although in the south different social conditions, a more
delicate taste, and a higher state of civilization prevented a similar
profusion of tales of war and heroic deeds, Provengal literature has
some highly important specimens of this class. The first place
belongs to Girart de Roussillon, a poem of ten thousand verses,
which relates the struggles of Charles Martel with his powerful
PROVENCAL LITERATURE
il the Burgundian Gerard of Roussillon. It is a literary pro-
duction of rare excellence and of exceptional interest for the history
ili/.ition in the nth and I2th centuries. Girart de Roussillon
rigs only within certain limits to the literature of southern
re. The recension which we possess appears to have been
made on the borders of Limousin and Poitou; but it is clearly no
morr than a recast of an older poem no longer extant, probably
r of French or at least Burgundian origin. To Limousin also
!; to belong the poem of Atgar and Maurin (end of the I2th
iry), of which we have unfortunately only a fragment so short
ili.it the subject cannot be clearly made out. Of less heroic charac-
ter is the |>oem of Daurel and Beton (first half of the I3th century),
1 with the cycle of Charlemagne, but by the romantic
of the events more like a regu[ar romance of adventure.
\\e cannot, however, form a complete judgment in regard to it,
!y MS. in which it has been preserved is defective at the
rlose, and that to an amount there is no means of ascertaining.
Midway between legend and history may be classified the Provencal
vo of Antioch, a mere fragment of which, 700 versos in
extent, has been reeovered in Madrid and published in Archives
de ('Orient latin, vol. ii. This poem, which seems to have been
nosed by a certain Gregoire Bechada, mentioned in a 12th-
century chronicle and written in Limousin (see G. Paris, in Romania,
\\ii. 358), is one of the sources of the Spanish compilation La gran
conquista de Ultramar. To history proper belongs the Chanson of
the crusade against the Albigensians, which, in its present state,
ed of two poems one tacked to the other: the first, con-
taining the events from the beginning of the crusade till 1213, is
tlie work of a cleric named William of Tudela, a moderate supporter
of the crusaders; the second, from 1213 to 1218, is by a vehement
opponent of the enterprise. The language and style of the two
parts are no less different than the opinions. Finally, about
1280, Guillaume Anelier, a native of Toulouse, composed, in the
chanson de geste form, a poem on the war carried on in Navarre
by the French in 1276 and 1277. It is an historical work of
little literary merit. All these poems are in the form of chansons
de geste, viz. in stanzas of indefinite length, with a single rhyme.
Gerard of Roussillon, Aigar and Maurin and Daurel and Beton are
in verses of ten, the others in verses of twelve syllables. The
peculiarity of the versification in Gerard is that the pause in the line
occurs after the sixth syllable, and not, as is usual, after the fourth.
Like the chanson de geste, the romance of adventure is but slightly
represented in the south; but it is to be borne in mind that many
works of this class must have perished, as is rendered evident by
the mere fact that, with few exceptions, the narrative poems which
have come down to us are each known by a single manuscript
only. We possess but three Provencal romances of adventure:
Jaufre (composed in the middle of the I3th century and dedicated
to a king of Aragon, possibly James I.), Blandin of Cornwall and
Guillem de la Barra. The first two are connected with the Arthurian
cycle: Jaufre is an elegant and ingenious work; Blandin of Cornwall
the dullest and most insipid one can well imagine. The romance
of Guillem de la Barra tells a strange story also found in Boccaccio's
Decameron (2nd Day, viii.). It is rather a poor poem; but as a
contribution to literary history it has the advantage of being dated.
It was finished in 1318, and is dedicated to a noble of Languedoc
called Sicart de Montaut. Connected with the romance of ad-
venture is the novel (in Provencal novas, always in the plural),
which is originally an account of an event " newly " happened.
The novel must have been at first in the south what, as we see by
the Decameron, it was in Italy, a society pastime the wits in
turn relating anecdotes, true or imaginary, which they think likely
to amuse their auditors. But before long this kind of production
was treated in verse, the form adopted being that of the romances
of adventure octosyllabic verses rhyming in pairs. Some of those
novels which have come down to us may be ranked with the most
graceful works in Provencal literature; two are from the pen of the
Catalan author Raimon Vidal de Besalu. One, the Castia-gilos
(the Chastisement of the Jealous Man), is a treatment, not easily
matched for elegance, of a frequently-handled theme the story of
the husband who, in order to entrap his wife, takes the disguise of
the lover whom she is expecting and receives with satisfaction
blows intended, as he thinks, for him whose part he is playing;
the other, The Judgment of Love, is the recital of a question of the
law of love, departing considerably from the subjects usually treated
in the novels. Mention may also be made of the novel of The
Parrot by Arnaut de Carcassonne, in which the principal character
is a parrot of great eloquence and ability, who succeeds marvel-
lously in securing the success of the amorous enterprises of his
master. Novels came to be extended to the proportions of a long
romance. Flamenca, which belongs to the novel type, has still
over eight thousand verses, though the only MS. of it has lost some
leaves both at the beginning and at the end. This poem, composed
in all probability in 1234, is the story of a lady who by very in-
genious devices, not unlike those employed in the Miles gloriosus of
ri.utiu,. succeeds in eluding the vigilance of her jealous husband.
No analysis can be given here of a work the action of which is
highly complicated; suffice it to remark that there is no book in
medieval literature which betokens so much quickness of intellect
and is so instructive in regard to the manners and usages of polite
499
society in the 1 3th century. We know that novels were in great
favour in the south of France, although the specimens preserved
are not very numerous. Statements made by Francesco da Bar-
berino (early part of 141)1 century), and recently brought to light,
give us a glimpse of several works of this class which have been lost.
From the south of France the novel spread into Catalonia, where
we find in the I4th century a number of novels in verse very
similar to the Provencal ones, and into Italy, where in general
the prose form has been adopted.
Didactic and Religious Poetry. Compositions intended for
instruction, correction and edification were very numerous in the
south of France as well as elsewhere, and, in spite of the enormous
losses sustained by Provencal literature, much of this kind still
remains. But it is seldom that such works have much originality
or literary value. Originality was naturally absent, as the aim of
the writers was mainly to bring the teachings contained in Latin
works within the reach of lay hearers or readers. Literary value
was not of course excluded by the lack of originality, but by an
unfortunate chance the greater part of those who sought to instruct
or edify, and attempted to substitute moral works for secular
productions in favour with the people, were, with a few exceptions,
persons of limited ability. It would be out of question to enumerate
here all the didactic treatises, all the lives of saints, all the treatises
of popular theology and morals, all the books of devotion, all the
pious canticles, composed in Provencal verse during the middle
ages; still some of these poems may be singled out. Daude de
Prades (early I3th century), a canon of Maguelone, and at the same
time a troubadour, has left a poem, the Auzels cassadprs, which is
one of the best sources for the study of falconry. Raimon d'Avig-
non, otherwise unknown, translated in verses, about the year
1200, Rogier of Parme's " Surgery " (Romania, x. 63 and 496).
We may mention also a poem on astrology by a certain G. (Guil-
hem?), and another, anonymous, on geomancy, both written about
the end of the I3th century (Romania, xxvi. 825). As to moral
compositions, we have to recall the Boethius poem (unfortunately
a mere fragment) already mentioned as one of the oldest documents
of the language, and really a remarkable work; and to notice an
early (izth century?) metrical translation of the famous Disticha
de moribus of Dionysius Cato (Romania, xxv. 98, and xxix. 445).
More original are some compositions of an educational character
known under the name of ensenhamenz, and, in some respects,
comparable to the English nurture-books. The most interesting
are those of Garin le Brun (i2th century), Arnaut de MareuiH
Arnaut Guilhem de Marsan, Amanieu de Sescas. Their general
object is the education of ladies of rank. Of metrical lives of saints
we possess about a dozen (see Histoire litteraire de la France,
vol. xxxii.), among which two or three deserve a particular atten-
tion: the Life of Sancta Fides, recently discovered and printed
Romania, xxxi.), written early in the I2th century; the Life of
St Knimia (i3th century), by Bertran of Marseilles, and that of
St Honorat of Lerins by Raimon Feraud (about 1300), which is dis-
tinguished by variety and elegance of versification, but it is almost
entirely a translation from Latin. Lives of saints (St Andrew,
St Thomas the Apostle, St John the Evangelist) form a part of
a poem, strictly didactic, which stands out by reason of its great
extent (nearly thirty-five thousand verses) and the somewhat
original conception of its scheme the Breviari d'amor, a vast
encyclopaedia, on a theological basis, composed by the Minorite
friar Matfre Ermengaut of Beziers between 1288 and 1300 or
thereabout.
Drama. The dramatic literature of southern France belongs
entirely to the religious class, and shows little originality. It
consists of mysteries and miracle plays seldom exceeding two or
three thousand lines, which never developed into the enormous
dramas of northern France, whose acting required several consecu-
tive days. Comic plays, so plentiful in medieval French literature
(farces, sotties), do not seem to have found favour in the south.
Specimens which we possess of Provencal drama arc comparatively
few ; but researches in local archives, especially in old account
books, have brought to light a considerable number of entries
concerning the acting, at public expense, of religious plays, called,
in Latin documents, ludus, historia, moralitas, most of which seem
to be irretrievably lost. As all the Provencal plays, sometimes mere
fragments, which have escaped destruction, are preserved in about
a dozen manuscripts, unearthed within the last forty or fifty years,
there is hope that new texts of that sort may some day be published.
Generally those plays belong to the 15th century or to the i6th.
Still, a few are more ancient and may be ascribed to the I4th century
or even to the end of the I3th. The oldest appears to be the Mystery
of St Agnes (edited by Bartsch, 1869), written in Aries. Somewhat
more recent, but not later than the beginning of the lith century,
is a Passion of Christ (not yet printed) and a mystery of the Marriage
of the Virgin, which is partly adapted from a French poem of the
I3th century, (see Romania xvi. 71). A manuscript, discovered
in private archives (printed by Jeanroy and Teulie, 1893), contains
not less than sixteen short mysteries, three founded on the Old
Testament, thirteen on the New. They were written in Roucr-
gue and are partly imitated from French mysteries. At Manosque
i l'..i-;i-s Alpes) was found a fragment of a Ludus sancli Jacobi,
inserted in a register of notarial deeds (printed by C. Arnaud.
5
PROVENCAL LITERATURE
Marseilles, 1858). The region comprised between the Rhone and the
Var seems to have been particularly fond of representations of this
sort, to judge by the entries in the local records (see Romania
xxvii. 400). At the close of the I5th and the beginning of the l6th
centuries many mysteries were played in that part of Dauphine
which corresponds to the present department of Hautes-Alpes.
Five mysteries of this district, composed and played somewhere
about 1500 (the mysteries of St Eustace, of St Andrew, of St Pons,
of SS Peter and Paul and of St Anthony of Vienne), have come down
to us, and have been edited by Abb6 Fazy (1883), the four others
by Canon P. Guillaume (1883-1888). The influence of the con-
temporary French sacred drama may to some extent be traced in
them.
Prose. Prose composition in the south of France belongs to
a comparatively late stage of literary development; and the same
remark applies to the other Romanic countries, particularly to
northern France, where prose hardly comes into fashion till the
beginning of the I3th century, the prose of the preceding century
being little else than translations of the books of the Bible (especially
the Psalter).
As early as the I2th century we find in LangUedoc sermons,
whose importance is more linguistic than literary (Sermons du
XII' siecle en vieux provenfal, ed. by F. Armitage, Heilbronn,
1884). About the same time, in Limousin, were translated chapters
xiii.-xvii. of St John's Gospel (Bartsch, Chrestomathie provengale).
Various translations of the New Testament and of some parts
of the Old have been done in Languedoc and Provence during the
I3th and I4th centuries (see S. Berger, " Les Bibles provencales et
vaudoises," Romania xviii. 353; and " Nouyelles recherches sur
les Bibles provencales et catalanes," ibid. xix. 505). The Pro-
vencal prose rendering of some lives of saints made in the early
part of the I3th century (Revue des langues romanes, 1890) is more
interesting from a purely linguistic than from a literary point of
view. To the I3th century belong certain lives of the troubadours
intended to be prefixed to, and to explain, their poems. Many of
them were written before 1250, when the first anthologies of trou-
badour poetry were compiled; and some are the work of the trou-
badour Hugh of Saint Circq. Some were composed in the north
of Italy, at a time when the troubadours found more favour east
of the Alps, than in their own country. Considered as historical
documents these biographies are of a very doubtful value. Most
of them are mere works of fiction, written by men who had no data
except such informations as they derived from the songs they had
to explain and which they often misunderstood. To the same period
must be assigned Las Razos de trobar of the troubadour Raimon
Vidal de Besalii (an elegant little treatise touching on various
points of grammar and the poetic art), and also the Donatz proensals
of Hugh Faidit, a writer otherwise unknown, who drew up his
purely grammatical work at the request of two natives of northern
Italy. A remarkable work, both in style and thought, is the Life
of St Douceline, who died in 1274, near Marseilles, and founded
an order of Beguines. In the 14111 century compositions in prose
grew more numerous. Some rare local chronicles may be mentioned,
the most interesting being that of Mascaro, which contains the
annals of the town of B6ziers from 1338 to 1390. Theological
treatises and pious legends translated from Latin and French
also increase in number. The leading prose-work of this period
is the treatise on grammar, poetry and rhetoric known by the name
of Leys d' amors. It was composed in Toulouse, shortly before
'35i by a g rou P of scholars, and was intended to fix the rules of
the language with a view to the promotion of a poetical renais-
sance. For this purpose an academy was founded which awarded
prizes in the shape of flowers to the best compositions in verse.
We still possess the collection of the pieces crowned by this academy
during the I4th century, and a large part of the isth (Flors del
gay saber). Unfortunately they are rather academic than poetic.
The Leys d'amors, which was to be the starting-point and rule
of the new poetry, is the best production of this abortive renais-
sance. The decay of Provencal literature, caused by political
circumstances, arrived too soon to allow of a full development
of prose. This accounts, in some measure for the complete absence
of historical compositions. There is nothing to compare with
Villehardouin or Joinville in northern France, or with Ramon
Muntaner in Catalonia. The I4th and isth centuries were in no
respect a prosperous period for literature in the south of France.
In the 1 5th century people began to write French both in verse and
prose; and from that time Provencal literature became a thing of
the past. From the l6th century such poetry as is written in the
vernacular of southern France (Auger Gaillard, La Bellaudiera,
Goudelin, d' Astros, &c.), is entirely dependent on French influence.
The connexion with ancient Provencal literature is entirely broken.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fauriel, Histoire de la potsie proven$ale (Paris,
1846, 3 vols. 8vo), is quite antiquated. Not only are three-fourths
of the works in Provencal poetry ignored, but the very idea of the
book is vitiated by the author's system (now abandoned), based
on the supposition that in the south of France there was an immense
epic literature. The articles on the troubadours in the Histoire
htleraire de la France, by Ginguen<S E. David, &c., must be con-
sulted with extreme caution F. Diez's Die Poesie der Troubadours
(Zwickau, 1827, 8vo; new ed by Bartsch, 1883) and his Leben und
Werke der Troubadours (Zwickau, 1829, 8vo; new ed. by Bartsch,
1882) are of great excellence for the time at which they appeared.
A. Restori's Letteratura provenzale (Milan, Hoepli, 1891), though
very short and not free from oversights, gives a generally correct
view of the subject. For the history of Provencal literature in
Spain, see Mila y Fontanals, De los Trovadores en Espana (Barcelona,
1861, 8vo); for Italy, Cavedoni, Ricerche storiche intorno ai trovatori
provenzali (Modena, 1844, 8vo); A. Thomas, Francesco Barberino
et la litterature provenzale en Italie (Paris, 1883, 8vo); O. Schultz,
" Die Lebensverhaltnisse der italienischen Trpbadors," in Zeits.
fur romanische Philologie (1883). For the bibliography consult
especially Bartsch, Grundriss zur Geschichte der provenzalischen
Literatur (Elberfeld. 1872, 8vo). For texts the reader may be re-
ferred to Raynouard, Choix de poesies originates des Troubadours
(1816-1821, 6 vols. 8vo), and Lexique roman, ou diet, de la langue
des troubadours, of which vol. i. (1838) is entirely taken up with
texts; and Rochegude, Parnasse occitanien (Toulouse, 1819, 8vo).
All the pieces published by Raynouard and Rochegude have been
reprinted without amendment by Mahn, Die Werke der Troubadours
in provenz. Sprache (Berlin, 8vo, vol. i. 1846, ii. 1855-1864, iii. 1880;
vol. iv. contains an edition of the troubadour Guiraut Riquier, 1853).
The same editor's Gedichte der Troubadours (Berlin, 18561873) is a
collection conspicuous for its want of order and of accuracy (see
Romania iii. 303). Among editions of individual troubadours may
be mentioned: Peire Vidal's Lieder, by Karl Bartsch (Berlin, 1857,
I2mo.) ', Les Derniers troubadours de la Provence, by Paul Meyer (Paris,
1871, 8vo) ; Der Troubadour Jaufre Rudel, sein Leben und seine Werke,
by A. Stimming (Kiel, 1873, 8vo) ; Bertran de Born, sein Leben und
seine Werke, by A. Stimming (Halle, 1879, 8vo; revised and abridged
edition, Halle, 1892) ; another edition, by A. Thomas (Toulouse, 1888,
8vo) ; Guilhem Figueira, ein provenzalischer Troubadour, by E. Levy
(Berlin, 1880, 8vo); Das Leben und die Lieder des Troubadours
Peire Rogier, by Carl Appel (Berlin, 1882, 8vo); La vita e le opere
del trovatore Arnaldo Damello, by U. A. Canello (Halle, 1883, 8vo);
O. Schultz, Die Briefe des Trobadors Raimbaut de Vaqueiras an
Bonifaz I., Markgrafen von Monferrat (Halle a. S., 1893); Italian
edition (Florence, 1898) ; Cesare de Lollis, Vita e poesie di Sordello di
Goito (Halle a. S., 1896); J. Coulet, Le Troubadour Guilhem Montan-
hagol (Toulouse, 1898) ; R. Zenker, Die Lieder von Peires von Auvergne
(Erlangen, 1900); J. J. Salverda De Grove, 'Le Troubadour Bertran
d'Alamanon (Toulouse, 1902); G. Bertoni, / Trovatori minori di
Genova (Dresden, 1903), and Rambertino Buvalelli, trovatore bolognase
(Dresden, 1908, 8vo) ; A. Jeanroy, " Les Poesies de Gavandan "
in Romania, vol. xxxiv. (Paris, 1905). Concerning the music of
the Troubadors, see J. B. Beck, Die Melodien der Troubadours
(Strasburgh, 1908). Among editions of Provencal works of a
miscellaneous kind are: Bartsch, Denkmdler der provenzalischen
Literatur (Stuttgart, 1856, 8vo); H. Suchier, Denkmdler der provenz.
Literatur und Sprache, vol. i. 8vo (Halle, 1883); Paul Meyer, La
Chanson de la croisade centre les Albigeois (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1875-
1879) ; idem, Daurel et Beton, chanson de geste provengale (Paris, 1880,
8vo) ; idem, Le Roman de Flamenca (Paris, 1 865, 8vo ; 2nd ed., 1901 );
idem., Guillaume de la Barre, roman d'aventures par Arnaut Vidal de
Castelnaudari (Paris, 1895, 8vo); E. Stengel, Die beiden dltesten
provenzal. Grammatiken, Lo Donatz proensals und Las Razos de
trobar (Marburg, 1878, 8vo) ; Le Brevairi d'amor de Matfre Ermen-
gaud, published by the Archaeological Society of Bfiziers (2 vols.
8vo, B6ziers, 1862-1880); A. L. Sardou, La Vida de Sant Honorat,
legende en vers provenfaux par Raymond Feraud (Nice, 1875, 8vo);
Noulet and Chabaneau, Deux manuscrits provenfaux du XIV'
siecle (Montpellier, 1888, 8vo) ; Albanfe, La Vie de Sainte Douceline
(Marseilles, 1879, 8vo). Documents and dissertations on various
points of Provencal literature will be found in almost all the volumes
of Romania (Paris, in progress since 1872, 8vo), and the Revue des
langues romanes (Montpellier, in progress since 1870, 8vo). See
also the other journals devoted in Germany and Italy to the Romanic
languages, passim. (P. M.)
MODERN PROVENQAL LITERATURE.' Literature in the south
of France never died out entirely. Indeed, we have a link
which, though too much importance may easily be attached to
it, yet undoubtedly connects the products of the troubadours
with the Provencal poetry of the present day. The Academy
of Toulouse, founded in 1324, was flourishing in the i4th century,
and, after many vicissitudes, is flourishing still. [The poets
crowned by this body between 1324 and 1498 stand in the same
relation to the troubadours as the Meistcr singer do to the
Minnesdnger: academic correctness takes the place of inspiration.
The institution flourished, even to the extent of establishing
branches in Catalonia and Majorca; and in 1484, when its
prosperity was threatened, a semi-fabulous person, Clemence
Isaure, is said to have brought about a revival by instituting
fresh prizes. The town of Toulouse never ceased to supply funds
1 In accordance with general usage, we are employing the term
Provencal for the whole of the south of France, save where special
reservation is made.
PROVENCAL LITERATURE
of some kind. In 1513 French poems were first admitted in
the competitions, and under Louis XIV. (from 1679) these
were alone held eligible. This unfair arrangement, by which
some of the leading poets of northern France profited, held
good till 1893, when the town very properly transferred its
patronage to a new Escolo moundino, 1 but very soon restored
its support to the older institution, on learning that Provencal
poetry was again to be encouraged.] In the two centuries
that followed the glorious medieval period we have a succession
of works, chiefly of a didactic and edifying character, which
scarcely belong to the realm of literature proper, but at least
served to keep alive some kind of literary tradition. This
dreary interval was relieved by a number of religious mystery
plays, which, though dull to us, probably gave keen enjoy-
ment to the people, and represent a more popular genre;
the latest that have come down to us may be placed
between the years 1450-1515. Not only did the literature
deteriorate during this period, but dialects took the place of the
uniform literary language employed by the troubadours, while
the spoken tongue yielded more and more to French. In 1539
Francois I. forbade the use of Provencal in official documents
a fact that is worthy of note only as being significant in itself,
not as an important factor in the decadence of Provencal
letters.
On the contrary, just about this time there are signs of a
revival. In 1565 the Gascon, Pey de Garros, translated the
I'-salms into his dialect, and two years later published a volume
of poems. His love for his native tongue is genuine, and his
command over it considerable; he deplores its neglect, and urges
others to follow his example. Auger Gaillard (c. 1530-1595)
does infinitely less credit to his province: the popularity of his
light pieces was probably due to their obscenity. More in the
spirit of Garros is the charming trilingual Salut- composed by the
famous du Bartas in honour of a visit of Marguerite de Valois
to Nerac (1579): three nymphs dispute as to whether she should
be welcomed in Latin, French, or Gascon, and the last, of course,
wins the day. Provence proper gave birth to a poet of consider-
able importance in Louis Bellaud de la Bellaudiere (1532-1588),
of Grasse, who, after studying at Aix, enlisted in the royal armies,
and was made a prisoner at Moulins in 1572. During his cap-
tivity he wrote poems inspired by real love of liberty and of his
native country (Don-Don internal, 1584 or 1585). At Aix Bellaud
subsequently became the centre of a literary circle which included
most of the local celebrities; all of these paid their tribute to
the poet's memory in the edition of his works published by his
uncle, Pierre Paul, himself the author of pieces of small value,
included in the same volume (Lous Passatens, obros et rimos,
&c., Marseilles, 1595). Even when Bellaud is wholly frivolous,
and intent on worldly pleasures only, his work has interest as
reflecting the merry, careless life of the time.
A writer very popular in Provence for the light-hearted
productions of his youth was Claude Brueys (1570-1650),
remarkable chiefly for comedies that deal largely with duped
husbands (Jardin deys musos provensalos, not published till
1628). There is a certain charm, too, in the comedies of Claude's
disciple, Gaspard Zerbin (La Perlo deys musos et coumedies
prouvensalos, 1655); an d those critics who have read the plays
of Jean de Cabanes (1653-1712) and of Seguin (of Tarascon,
c. 1640) .still in MS., speak highly of them. The most consistently
popular form of poetry in the south of France was always the
noil. There has been no limit to the production of these; but
very rarely does the author deserve special mention. An
exception must be made in the case of Nicholas Saboly (1614-
1675), who produced the best pieces of this class, both as regards
beauty of language and the devotion they breathe. They have
deservedly maintained their popularity to the present day.
In Languedoc four poets have been cited as the best of the age
Goudelin, Michel, Sage and Bonnet. Thisiscertainlysointhecase
of Pierre Goudelin (province Goudouli, 1579-1649), of Toulouse,
the most distinguished name in south French literature
1 Moundino, i.e. of Toulouse ; a common designation, derived
from Raymond, the familiar name of the counts of Toulouse.
between the period of the troubadours and that of Jasmin.
He had a good classical education, traces of which appear in
all his poetry, his language and his manner being always admir-
able, even where his matter is lacking in depth. He is often
called " the Malherbe of the South," but resembles that writer
only in form: his poetry, taken as a whole, has far more sap.
Goudelin essayed and was successful in almost every short
genre (Lou Ramelet Moundi, 1617, republished with additions
till 1678), the piece of his which is most generally admired being
the stanzas to Henri IV., though others will prefer him in his
gayer moods. He enjoyed enormous popularity (extending
to Spain and Italy), but never prostituted his art to cheap
effects. His influence, especially but not exclusively in Provence,
has been deep and lasting. The fame of Jean Michel, of Nlmes,
rests on the Embarras de lafoire de Beaucaire, a poem of astonish-
ing vigour, but deficient in taste. Daniel Sage, of Montpellier
(Las F oidies, 1650), was a man of loose morals, which are
reflected in nearly all his works: his moments of genuine inspira-
tion from other causes are rare. More worthy of being bracketed
with Goudelin is the avocat Bonnet, author of the best among the
open air plays that were annually performed at Bfiziers on
Ascension Day: a number of these (dated 1616-1657) were
subsequently collected, but none can compare with the opening
one, Bonnet's Jugement de Pdris. Another very charming poet
is Nicolas Fizes, of Frontignan, whose vaudeville, the Opera
de Frontignan (1670), dealing with a slight love intrigue, and an
idyllic poem on the fountain of Frontignan, show a real poetic
gift. A number of Toulouse poets, mostly laureats of the
Academy, may be termed followers of Goudelin: of these
Francois Boudet deserves mention, who composed an ode,
Le Trinfe del M oundi (1678), in honour of his native dialect. The
classical revival that may be noted about this time is also gener-
ally ascribed to Goudelin's influence. Its most distinguished
representative was Jean de Vales, of Montech, who made
excellent translations from Virgil and Persius, and wrote a
brilliant burlesque of the former in the manner of Scarron
(Virgile deguisat, 1648; only four books published). He also
composed a pastoral idyll, which, though too long and inclined
to obscenity, contains much tender description. The greatest
of the pastoral poets was Francois de Cortete (1571-1655), of
Prades, whose comedies, Ramounet and Miramoundo (published,
unfortunately with alterations, by his son in 1684), are written
with such true feeling and in so pure a style that they can be
read with real pleasure. A comedy of his dealing with Sancho
Panza in the palace of the Duke has been edited. It is difficult
to understand the enormous popularity of Daubasse (1664-
1727), of Quercy, who belonged to the working classes; he was
patronized by the nobility in exchange for panegyrics. Gascony
produced two typical works in the I7th century: Ader's Gentil-
homme gascoun (1610) and Dastros's Trinfedelalanguegascoune
(1642). The former depicts a regular boasting Gascon who
distinguishes himself in everything; while the latter is a plea
in favour of the Gascon tongue, inspired by a genuine love of
country. Gabriel Bedout (Parterre gascoun, 1642) is chiefly
noted for his amorous solitari, called forth by the sufferings he
endured from a hardhearted mistress. Louis Baron (b. 1612),
living peacefully in his native village of Pouyloubrin, celebrated
it with great tenderness.
In the i8th century the number of authors is much larger,
but the bulk of good work produced is not equally great in
proportion. The priests are mainly responsible for the literary
output of Languedoc. Claude Peyrot (1709-1795) one of
them, celebrates his county with true rural spirit in the Printemps
rouergat and Quartre sosous. But the chief of the band is the
Abbe Favre (1727-1783), the prior of Celleneuve, whose Sermoun
de moussu sistre, delivered by a drunken priest against intemper-
ance, is a masterpiece. He also wrote a successful mock-heroic
poem (Siege de Caderousse) travesties of Homer and Virgil, a
prose novel depicting the country manners of the time (Histoire
de Jean I'ont pris), and two comedies, which likewise give a vivid
picture of the village life he knew so well. Two genuine poets
are the brothers Rigaud of Montpellier: Auguste's (1760-1835)
502
PROVENCAL LITERATURE
description of a vintage is deservedly famous; and Cyrille (1750-
1824) produced an equally delightful poem in the Amours de
Mounpeie. Pierre Hellies of Toulouse (d. 1724) a poet of the
people, whose, vicious life finds an echo in his works, has a
certain rude charm, at times distantly recalling Villon. In
the Province Toussaint Gros (1698-1748), of Lyons, holds
undisputed sway. His style and language are admirable, but
unfortunately he wasted his gifts largely on trivial pieces d'occa-
sion. Coye's (1711-1777) comedy, the Fiance pare, is bright
and still popular, while Germain's description of a visit paid by
the ancient gods to Marseilles (La Bourrido del Dious, 1760) has
considerable humour. In Gascony the greatest poet is Cyrien
Despourrins (1698-1755), whose pastoral idylls and mournful
chansons, which he himself set to music, are imbued with tender-
ness and charm (most ot them were collected at Pau, in 1828).
The Revolution produced a large body of literature, but
nothing of lasting interest. However, it gave an impetus to
thought in the south of France, as elsewhere; and there, as
elsewhere, it called forth a spirit of independence that was all
in favour of a literary revival. Scholars of the stamp of Ray-
nouard (1761-1863), of Aix, occupied themselves with the
brilliant literary traditions of the middle ages; newspapers
sprang up (the Provencal Bouil-Abaisso, started by Desanat,
and the bilingual Lou Tambourin et le menestrel, edited by
Bellot, both in 1841); poets banded together and collected
their pieces in volume form (thus, the nine troubaire who pub-
lished Lou Bouquet prouvenc,aou in 1823). Much has been
written about the precurseurs de Felibrige, and critics are sorely
at variance as to the writers that most deserve this appellation.
We shall not go far wrong if we include in the list Hyacinthe
Morel (1756-1829), of Avignon, whose collection of poems, Lou
Saboulet, has been republished by Mistral; Louis Aubanel (1758-
1842), of Nimes, the successful translator of Anacreon's Odes;
Auguste Tandon, " the troubadour of Montpellier," who wrote
Fables, contes et autres pieces en vers (1800); Fabre d'Olivet
(1767-1825), the versatile litterateur who in 1803 published Le
Troubadour: Poesies occitaniques, which, in order to secure their
success, he gave out as the work of some medieval poet Diou-
loufet (1771-1840), who wrote a didactic poem, in the manner
of Virgil, relating to silkworm-breeding (Leis magnans) ; Jacques
Azals (1778-1856), author of satires, fables, &c.; D'Astros (1780-
1863), a writer of fables in Lafontaine's manner; Castil-Blaze
(1784-1857), who found time, amidst his musical pursuits, to
compose Provencal poems, intended to be set to music; the
Marquis de Fare-Alais (1791-1846), author of some light satirical
tales (Las Castagnados) . While these writers were all more or
less academic, and appealed to the cultured few, four poets of
the people addressed a far wider public: Verdi6 (1779-1820),
of Bordeaux, who wrote comic and satirical pieces; Jean Reboul
(1796-1864), the baker of Nimes, who never surpassed his first
effort, L'Ange et I' enfant (1828) ;' Victor Gelu (1806-1885),
relentless and brutal, but undeniably powerful of his kind
(Fenian et Grouman ; dix chansons provenqales, 1840); and,
greatest of them all, the true and acknowledged forerunner of
the felibres, Jacques Jasmin (1798-1864), the hairdresser of
Agen, whose poems, both lyrical and narrative, continue to find
favour with men of the highest culture and literary attainments,
as with the villagers for whom they were primarily intended.
While much of this literature was still in the making, an event
took place which was destined to eclipse in importance any that
had gone before. In 1845 Joseph Roumanille (1818-1891),
a gardener's son, of Saint-Remy (Bouches-du-Rhone), became
usher in a small school at Avignon, which was attended by
Frederic Mistral (q.v.), a native of the same district, then fifteen
years of age. The former, feeling the germs of poetry within
him, had composed some pieces in French; but, finding that his
old mother could not understand them, he was greatly distressed,
1 One of his chief titles to fame is that, together with Alphonse
Dumas, he drew the attention of Lamartine to Mistral's Mireio.
Roumanille and Mistral showed their gratitude by republishing
the best pieces of these two precurseurs, together with those of
Castil-Blaze and others, in Un Liame de Rasin (1865).
and determined thenceforth to write in his native dialect only.
These poems revealed a new world to young Mistral, and spurred
him on to the resolve that became the one purpose of his life
de remeltre en lumiere et conscience de sa gloire cette noble race
qu'en plein '89 Mirabeau nomme encore la nation proven^ilr.
There is no doubt that Mistral's is the more puissant personality,
and that his finest work towers above that of his fellows; but
in studying the Provencal renaissance, Roumanille's great
claims should not be overlooked, and they have never been put
forward with more force than by Mistral himself (in the preface
to his Isclos d'oro). Roumanille's secular verse cannot fail to
appeal to every lover of pure and sincere poetry (Li Afargaritc<l<>,
1836-1847; Li Sounjarello, 1852; Li Flour de Sauw, 1850-
1859, &c.), his no'els are second only to those of Saboly, his
prose works (such as Lou mege de Cucugnan, 1863) sparkling
with delightful humour. He it was who in 1852 collected and
published Li Prouvenc.alo, an anthology in which all the names
yet to become famous, and most of those famous already (such
as Jasmin), are represented. In 1853 he was one of the enthu-
siastic circle that had gathered round J. B. Gaut at Aix, and
whose literary output is contained in the Roumavagi del Trou-
baire and in the shortlived journal Lou gay saber (1854). At the
same time the first attempt at regulating the orthography of
Provencal was made by him (in the introduction to his play,
La Part don ban Dieu, 1853). And in 1854 he was one of the
seven poets who, on the 2ist of May, foregathered at the castle of
Fontsegugne, near Avignon, and founded the Felibrige. [The
etymology of this word has given rise to much speculation:
the one thing certain about the word is that Mistral came across
it in an old Provencal poem, which tells how the Virgin meets
Jesus in the Temple, among the seven felibres of the law. The
outlines of the constitution, as finally settled in 1876, are as
follows: The region of the Felibrige is divided into four mantcn-
enc.o (Provence, Languedoc, Aquitaine and Catalonia 2 ). At
the head of all is a consistori of fifty (called majourau), presided
over by the Capoulie, who is chief of the entire Felibrige. The
head of each mantenenQo is called sendi (who is at the same time
a majourau); and at the head of each "school " (as the sub-
divisions of the manlenenc.o are called) is a cabiscou. The
ordinary members, unlimited in number, are manlcneire. Annual
meetings and fetes are organized. The most widely read of the
Felibrige publications is the Armana prouven<;au, which has
appeared annually since 1855, maintaining all the while its
original scope and purpose; and though unpretentious in form,
it contains much of the best work of the school. 3 ] The other
six were Mistral, Aubanel, A.Mathieu (a schoolfellow of Mistral's
at Avignon), E. Garcin, A. Tavan and P. Giera (owner of the
castle). Of these, Theodore Aubanel (1829-1886, of Avignon,
son of a printer and following the same calling) has alone proved
himself worthy to rank with Mistral and Roumanille. " Zani,"
the girl of his youthful and passionate love, took the veil; and
this event cast a shadow over his whole life, and determined the
character of all his poetry (Lou midugrano enlre-duberto, 1860;
Li Fiho d'Avignoun, 1883). His is, without a doubt, the deepest
nature and temperament among the felibres, and his lyrics are
the most poignant. He has a keen sense of physical beauty in
woman, and his verse is replete with suppressed passion, but
he never sinks to sensuality. His powerful love drama Lou pan
dou peccat was received with enthusiasm at Montpellier in iSyS,
and successfully produced (some years later in Arene's version)
by Antoine at his Theatre Libre no mean criterion. It is
the only play of real consequence that the school has yet
produced.
We need not do. more than glance at the work of the fourth
of the group of poets who alone, amidst the numerous writers
of lyrics and other works that attain a high level of excellence.
2 One of the most pleasing features of the movement is the spirit
of fraternity maintained by the felibres with the poets and literary
men of northern France, Spain, Italy, Rumania, Germany arid
other countries.
3 In common with so many other productions of the Felibrige,
this Almanac is published by the firm J. Roumanille, Librairc-
Editour, Avignon.
PROVENCE
503
appear to us to have so far secured permanent fame by the magni-
tude of their achievement. Felix Gras (1844-1891) settled at
Avignon in his youth. His rustic epic, Li Carbounie (1876) is
full of elemental passion and abounds in fine descriptions of
scenery, but it lacks proportion. The heroic geste of Toloza
'.'), in which Simon de Montfort's invasion of the south is
depicted with unbounded vigour and intensity, shows a great
advance in art. Li Roumancero provenc^al (1887) is a collection
of poems instinct with Provencal lore, and in Li Papalino (1891)
\vc have some charming prose tales that bring to life again
the Avignon of the popes. Finally, the poet gave us three
tales dealing with the period of the Revolution (Li Rouge don
miejour, &c.); their realism and literary art called forth general
admiration. 1
A few lines must suffice for some of the general aspects of the
movement. It goes without saying that all is not perfect
harmony; but, on the whole, the differences are differences of
detail only, not of principle. While Mistral and many of the
felibres employ the dialect of the Bouches-du-Rh&ne, others,
who have since seceded as the Felibrige latin (headed by Roque-
Ferrier), prefer to use the dialect of Montpellier, owing to its
central position. A third class favour the dialect of Limousin,
as having been the literary vehicle of the troubadours; but their
claim is of the slenderest, for the felibres are in no sense of the
word the direct successors of the troubadours. Nearly all
the leaders of the Felibrige are Legitimists and Catholics, their
faith being the simple faith of the people, undisturbed by
philosophic doubts. There are exceptions, however, chief
among them the Protestant Gras, whose Toloza clearly reflects
his sympathy with the Albigenses. Yet this did not stand in
the way of his election as Capoulie a proof, if proof were needed,
that literary merit outweighs all other considerations in this
artistic body of men. Finally, it may be noted that the felibres
have often been accused of lack of patriotism towards northern
France, of schemes of decentralization, and other heresies; but
none of these charges holds good. The spirit of the movement,
as represented by its leaders, has never been expressed with
greater terseness, force and truth than in the three verses set
by Felix Gras at the head of his Carbounie: " I love my village
ni >re than thy village; I love my Provence more than thy
province; I love France more than all."
AUTHORITIES. Las Joyas del gay saber, edited by Noulet (vol. iv.
of Gatien-Arnoult's Monumens de la literature romane, ?c., Tou-
, 1849); Noulet, Essai sur I'histoire litteraire des patois du midi
de la France aux .XVI' el XVII' siecles (Paris, 1859) and . . . au
X V11I' siecle (Paris, 1877) ; Gaut, " Etude sur la fittcrature et la
l>>'sie provenales " (Memoires de I'academie des sciences, &c.,
d'Aix, tome ix. pp. 247-344, Aix, 1867); Mary-Lafon, Histoire
litlcraire du midi de la France (Paris, 1882); Restori, Letteratura
provenzale, pp. 200-214 (Milano, 1891); Mari5ton's articles on
Provencal and Felibrige in the Grande encyclopedie; Donnadieu,
Les Precurseurs des felibres 1800-1855; (Paris, 1888); Jourdanne, Hi-
stoire du Felibrige, 1854-1896 (Avignon, 1897); Hennion, Les Fleurs
<-sques (Paris, 1883); Portal, La letteratura provenzale moderna
(Palermo, 1893); Koschwitz, Ueber die provenzalischen Feliber und
Hire Vorgdnger (Berlin, 1894); Marieton, La Terre provenzale
(Paris, 1894). (H. O.)
PROVENCE (Provincia, Proenza), a province in the south-east
of ancient France, bounded on the N. by the Dauphine, on the
E. by the Rh6ne and Languedoc, on the W. by the Alps and
Italy, and on the S. by the Mediterranean. The coast, originally
inhabited by Ligurians, was from an early date the home of some
Phoenician merchants. About 600 B.C., according to tradition,
some traders from Phocaea founded the Greek colony of Massalia
1 Marseilles) and the colonists had great difficulty in resisting the
Cavares and the Salyes, i.e. the Ligurian peoples in the vicinity.
Other colonies in the neighbourhood, such as Antibes, Agde,
Nice, originated in this settlement. During the wars which
followed, the inhabitants of Massalia asked assistance from the
Romans, who thus made their first entry into Gaul (125 B.C.),
and, after a campaign which lasted several years under the
'Gras was Capoulie from 1891 till 1901, succeeding his brother-
in-law, Roumanufe, who held the office from 1888 till 1891. The
first Capoulie was, of course. Mistral (1876-1888). Gras's suc-
cessor was Pierre Devoluy, of Die (appointed in April 1901).
direction of the pro-consul C. Sextius Calvinus, conquered the
territories between the Alps, the sea and the Rhone (with the
province of Narbonne on the right bank of this river). These
lands formed the Provincia romana, and the name was retained
by Provence. The town of Aix (Aquae Sextiae) was founded to
form the capital of this conquered land. In consequence of
the conquest of Gaul by Caesar (50 B.C.) and the administrative
reforms introduced by Augustus, the territory of the former Pro-
vincia was divided into the new provinces of Narbonensis II.,
of the Maritime Alps and of Viennois, but it still remained
an important centre of Roman learning and civilization. Mar-
seilles, which for some time had a prosperous Greek school, and
also Aix now became of secondary importance, and Aries was
made the chief town of the province, becoming after the capture
of Treves by the barbarians (A.D. 418) the capital of Gaul.
Christianity spread fairly early into Provence, although the
legend that this country was evangelized by Mary Magdalene
and some of the apostles cannot be traced farther back than the
1 2th century. Trophimus established a church at Aries in the
3rd century, and during the two centuries which followed
bishoprics were founded in all the cities of Provence.
At the beginning of the $th century, Provence was attacked
by the Visigoths. In 425 the Visigothic king Theodoric I. was
defeated by Aetius under the walls of Aries, but the part taken
by the Goths in the election of the emperor Avitus did not put
a stop to their attacks (450). In 480 Aries was captured by
Euric I., and the southern part of Provence, i.e. the country
south of the Durance, thus came definitely under Visigothic
rule. The more northern cities, such as Orange, Apt, Trois-
Chateaux, &c., were again joined to the kingdom of Burgundy.
Towards 510 Visigothic Provence was ceded to Theodoric, king
of the Italian Ostrogoths, by Alaric II. as a mark of his gratitude
for the support given to him during the war against the Franks.
In addition to this, about 523, the Ostrogoths took advantage
of the wars between the Franks and the Burgundians to extend
their lands in the north as far as Gap and Embrun. Vitiges,
king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence to the kings of the
Franks about 537, when it was divided in a peculiar manner:
the northern cities and those on the coast (Aries, Marseilles,
Toulon, Antibes, Nice) were given back to Burgundy, whilst a
narrow strip of territory with Avignon, Apt, Cavaillon, Riez,
&c., extending from the west to the east as far as the Alps, WES
added to the kingdom of Austrasia. and from that time followed
the fortunes of Auvergne, which, as is known, was generally
dependent on Austrasia. Provence was united under one ruler
during the reigns of Clotaire II. and Dagobert I., but at the death
of the latter in 639 was divided again, only to be reunited under
the successors of Dagobert II. (679). At this period the name
of 'Provence was restricted to the southern cities, which had
passed from the Gothic to the Prankish rule; it did not regain
its original signification and denote the country extending as
far as Lyonnais till the end of the 8th and the beginning of the
9th centuries.
At the beginning of the 8th century, some Arabs from Spain,
who had crossed the Pyrenees and settled down in Septimania,
attacked Provence, in 735 took the town of Aries and in 737
captured Avignon, thus becoming masters of one part of the
country. Charles Martel who had already made two expeditions
against them, in 736 and 737, with the help of the Lombards of
Italy, succeeded in 739 in expelling them, and brought the
country definitely under Prankish rule. Austrasian counts
were given authority in the cities, and under Charlemagne and
Louis the Pious the history of Provence became incorporated
with that of the rest of the empire. At the time of the partition of
Verdun (843) Provence fell to the share of the emperor Lothair I.,
who joined it to the duchy of Lyons in 855 to form a kingdom
for his youngest son, Charles. On the death of the latter in
863 his inheritance was divided between his two brothers, when
Lothair II., king of Lorraine, received the northern part, Lyon-
nais and Viennois, and to the other, the emperor Louis II., king
of Italy, was given Provence. At his death in 875 Provence
passed into the hands of Charles the Bald, and he entrusted
PROVENCE
the government to his brother-in-law, Duke Boso, who, taking
advantage of the struggles between the Prankish princes which
followed the death of Charles the Bald, reconstituted the former
kingdom of Charles, the son of Lothair, and in 879 was acknow-
ledged as its sovereign at Mantaille in Viennois. This is the
kingdom of Provence (Provence, Viennois, Lyonnais and
Vivarais), sometimes, but improperly, called Cisjuran Burgundy.
Boso died in 887, having succeeded in maintaining his indepen-
dence against the united Prankish princes. His widow Ermen-
garde, daughter of Louis II., with the assistance of the emperor
Arnulf , had her son Louis acknowledged king at an assembly
held at Valence in 890. Louis attempted to seize the crown of
Italy in 900, and in 901 was even crowned emperor at Rome
by Pope Benedict IV. ; but in 905 he was surprised at Verona by
his rival Berengar, who captured him, put out his eyes, and
forced him to give up Italy and return to Provence; he lived here
till his death in 928, leaving an illegitimate son, Charles Constan-
tine. The principal figure in the country at this time was Hugo
(Hugues) " of Aries," count, or duke, of Viennois and marquis
of Provence, who had been king of Italy since 926. In order
to retain possession of this country, he gave the kingdom of
Louis the Blind to Rudolph II., king of Burgundy (q.v.), and thus
the kingdom of Burgundy extended from the source of the Aar
to the Mediterranean. But the sovereignty of Rudolph II. and
his successors, Conrad (937-993) and Rudolph III. (993-1032),
over Provence was almost purely nominal, and things were
in much the same condition when, on the death of Rudolph III.,
the kingdom of Burgundy passed into the hands of the German
kings, who now bore the title of kings of Aries, but very rarely
exercised their authority in the country.
At the beginning of the zoth century Provence was in a state of
complete disorganization, a result of the invasions of the Sara-
cens, who, coming from Spain, took up their quarters in the
neighbourhood of Fraxinetum (La Garde-Freinet in the depart-
ment of Var) and ravaged the country pitilessly, the Christians
being unable to oust them from their strongholds. All the real
power was in the hands of the counts of the country. It is
probable that from the 9th century several of the Provencal
countships were united under one count, and that the count of
Aries had the title of duke, or marquis, and exercised authority
over the others. In the middle of the loth century the count-
ship of Provence was in the hands of a certain Boso, of unknown
origin, who left it to his two sons William and Roubaud
(Rotbold). These two profited by the commotion caused by the
capture of the famous abbot of Cluny, St Maiolus (Mayeul),
m 973> wno na d fallen into the- hands of the Saracens, and
marched against the Mussulmans, definitely expelling them
from Fraxinetum. About the same period the marquisate
seems to have been re-established in favour of Count William,
who died in 993, and from that time the descendants of the two
brothers, without making any partition, ruled over the different
countships of Provence, only one of them, however, bearing
the title of marquis. The counts of Provence had, from about
the middle of the nth century, a tendency to add the name of
their usual residence after their title, and thus the lordships,
known later under the names of the countships of Aries (or
more properly Provence), of Nice, and of Venaissin, grew up.
Roubaud had one son named William, who died without children,
about 1043, and one daughter, Emma, who married William,
count of Toulouse, by whom she had a son, Pons (1030-1063), the
father of Raymund of Saint-Gilles (1063-1105). William also
had a son of the same name. This William II. had three sons
by his wife Gerberge Fulk, Geoffrey and William. The last-
mentioned had a son, William Bertrand (1044-1067), whose
daughter Adelaide married, first, Ermengaud, count of Urgel,
and then Raimbaud of Nice. Geoffrey was the father of Ger-
berge, who married Gilbert, count of Gevaudan, and he had a
daughter Douce, who in 1112 married Raymund-Berenger,
count of Barcelona; by this marriage, Provence, in the correct
sense of the word, passed over to the house of Barcelona. At
the beginning of the i2th century the various marriages of the
Provencal heiresses, of whom mention has just been made, led
to the land being divided up among the different branches
of the ancient countly family (1105, 1125 and 1149), and thus
the countships of Provence, Venaissin and Forcalquier were
definitely formed.
Under the command of Raymund of Saint-Gilles the Proven-
cals took an important part in the first crusade, and the use
of the term " Provencal" to denote the inhabitants of southern
France, their language and their literature, seems to date from
this period.
The history of the princes of the house of Barcelona, Raymund-
Berenger I. (1113-1131), Raymund-Berenger II. (1131-1144) and
Raymund-Berenger III. (1144-1166), is full of accounts of their
struggles with the powerful feudal house of Baux, which had
extensive property in Provence; in 1146 one of the representa-
tives of this house, Raymund, obtained from the emperor the
investiture, though only in theory, of the whole countship of
Provence. After the death of Raymund-Berenger III., who was
killed at the siege of Nice (1166), his cousin Alphonso II., king
of Aragon, claimed his inheritance and took the title of the count
of Provence. But his succession was disputed by the count of
Toulouse, Raymund V., a marriage having been previously
arranged between Raymund-Berenger's daughter and his son,
and he himself hastening to marry the widow Richilde, niece
of the emperor Frederick I. The majority of the lay and
ecclesiastical lords of Provence recognized Alphonso, who in
1176 signed a treaty with his competitor, by which Raymund V.
gave up his rights to the king of Aragon in consideration of a
sum of money. Alphonso was represented in Provence by his
brothers Raymund-Berenger and Sancho in turn, and in 1193
by his son Alphonso, who succeeded him. This Alphonso gave
Aragon and Catalonia to his brother Peter (Pedro), and kept
only Provence for himself, but on the death of his father-in-law,
Count William II., in 1208, whose son had been disinherited, he
added to it the county of Forcalquier. He was able to protect
Provence from the consequences of the war of the Albigenses,
and it was not until after his death (1209), during the minority
of his son Raymund-Berenger IV., who succeeded him under the
regency of his uncle, Peter of Aragon, and later of his mother
Gersende, that Provence was involved in the struggle of the
count of Toulouse against Simon de Montfort, when the part
played by the city of Avignon in the Albigensian movement
finally led to Louis VIII. 's expedition against the town.
William of Baux took advantage of the troubles caused by
Raymund-Berenger's minority to have the kingdom of Aries
conferred upon himself by Frederick II.; this led, however,
to no practical result. Raymund-Berenger had also to fight
against Raymund VII., count of Toulouse, the emperor having
ceded to this latter in 1230 the countship of Forcalquier, and
showed another mark of his favour in 1238, when, in consequence
of some difficulties with the city of Aries, Raymund-Berenger
drove the imperial vicar from the town. The intervention
of St Louis, who in 1234 had married Margaret, the eldest
daughter of the count of Provence (the second, Eleanor, married
Henry III. of England in 1236), put an end to the designs of
the count of Toulouse. Raymund-Berenger died in 1245,
leaving a will by which he named as his heiress his fourth
daughter, Beatrice, who shortly afterwards, in 1246, married
the celebrated Charles of Anjou (see CHARLES I., king of Naples),
brother of the king of France. After her death, in 1267, Charles
still maintained his rights in Provence. The countship of
Venaissin was left to him by his sister-in-law, Jeanne, countess
of Toulouse, but in 1272 King Philip the Bold took possession
of it, giving it up in 1274 to Pope Gregory X., who had claimed
it for the Roman Church in pursuance of the treaty of 1229
between Raymund VII. of Toulouse and St Louis. Almost all
the time and energy of Charles of Anjou were taken up with
expeditions and wars concerning the kingdom of Naples, which
he had gained by his victories over Manfred and Conradin in
1266 and 1268. His government of Provence was marked by
his struggles with the towns. The movement which resulted
in the emancipation of these had its origin fairly far back. In
the first part of the izth century the towns of Provence, no
PROVENCE
505
doubt following the example of those in Italy, began to form
municipal administrations and consulates, independent of the
viscounts, who in theory represented the authority of the count
in the towns. This movement was occasionally interrupted
by home disturbances, such as struggles against the civil and
ecclesiastical authorities; nevertheless Marseilles, Aries, Tarascon,
Avignon (whose consulate laws date from the I2th century),
Brignoles and Grasse were self-governing and elected their
magistrates, sometimes negotiating with the count, as a power
with a power, and concluding political or commercial treaties
without consulting him. The city of Nice, which was joined to
Provence in 1176, had retained its freedom. This state of
affairs was in direct opposition to the authoritative government
of Charles of Anjou, who tried to bring back the most indepen-
dent of these towns under his sway. In 1251 he seized Aries and
Avignon and placed them under a viguier (vicar) nominated by
himself. In 1257 Marseilles was also subdued, and ministers
nominated by the court performed their duties side by side
with the municipal officials.
The successors of Charles of Anjou also showed great interest
in maintaining their rights over the kingdom of Naples, and
only occasionally do they appear in the history of Provence.
Charles II. (1285-1309), after failing in several attacks on the
house of Aragon in southern Italy, lived in the country during
the latter years of his reign as duke, and tried to reform some
of the abuses which had grown up in the administration of justice
and finance. Robert of Calabria (1309-1343), his son and
successor, was forced to sustain a long siege in Genoa, whither
he had been called by the Ghibelline party: a siege which cost
a large number of lives to the Provencal navy. Robert was
succeeded by his granddaughter Joanna, widow of Andrew of
Hungary, who sold her rights over the city of Avignon to Pope
Clement VI. in 1348, in order to raise funds to enable her to
continue the struggle against the house of Aragon in her Nea-
politan states. The political situation of the country was not
much changed by Charles IV.'s residence in Provence, nor by
the empty ceremony of his coronation as king of Aries (1365).
Charles IV. gave up his rights, or his claims, to Louis, duke of
Anjou, brother of Charles V., but the expedition which this
prince made to take possession of Provence only resulted in the
seizure of Tarascon, and failed before Aries (1368). Joanna
had nominated as her heir Charles of Anjou-Gravina, duke of
Duras, who had married her niece Margaret, but to provide
herself with a protector from Louis of Hungary, who accused
her of murdering her first husband Andrew and wished to dispute
her right to the kingdom of Naples, she married again and
became the wife of Otto of Brunswick. Charles of Duras,
discontented with this marriage, took part against her, and
she in her turn disinherited him and named Louis of Anjou as
her eventual successor (1380). The duke of Anjou took posses-
sion of Provence, whilst Charles of Duras made the queen
prisoner at Naples and gave orders for her to be put to death
(1382). Louis of Anjou also made an expedition to Naples,
but did not arrive till after her death, and he died in 1384. His
son Louis II. (1384-1417) banished the viscount of Turenne
from Provence, because he had taken advantage of his sove-
reign's absence to ravage the country. He did not live in
Provence till the last years of his life; in 1415 he established a
parlement. The following year the country was devastated
by a terrible plague. The wars carried on by his successor
Louis III. (1417-34) against the kings of Aragon, his rivals at
Naples, were the cause of the complete ruin of Marseilles by the
Aragonese fleet. The town, however, regained its former state
comparatively quickly. Although Louis III. had centred almost
all his attention on the expeditions in Italy, he managed to
secure the lands belonging to the house of Baux on the death
of the last of the family, the Baroness Alix (1426). Ren6,
duke of Lorraine (<?..), Louis's brother and successor, after an
unsuccessful attack on Naples (1460-1461), went to live on his
property in France, and after 1471 was principally in Provence,
where he built the castle of Tarascon and interested himself in
art, literature, and pastoral amusements. He left his territories
(Anjou, Lorraine, Provence) to his nephew Charles, count of
Maine, by his will in 1474. Louis XL, king of France, protested
at first in the name of the rights of the Crown, and even seized
Rent's duchies. In consequence, however, of an interview
between Ren6 and the king at Lyons, the former obtained a
withdrawal of the seizure and ended his days peacefully in
Provence (1480). The rights of his successor, Charles, were
disputed by Rene II., duke of Lorraine, but, with the support
of Louis XL, his attack on Provence was defeated. On the
other hand, Louis had corrupted some of Charles's advisers,
especially Palamede de Forbin, with the result that, at Charles's
death in 1482, he left Provence to the king of France in his will.
Rene of Lorraine protested in vain; Louis claimed the possession
of the disputed territory, but Provence was not definitely
annexed to France till 1486, under Charles VIII., and even then
it preserved a certain individuality. In laws relating to this
country the sovereigns added to their title of king of France
" and count of Provence and of Forcalquier," and Provence
always preserved a separate administrative organization.
In the i6th century Provence took part in a war between
France and the imperialists. The constable de Bourbon, who
had received the investiture of Provence from the emperor
Charles V., crossed the Var in 1524 with an army, but was
defeated at Marseilles. The expedition under Charles V. and
the duke of Savoy in 1 536 had no more definite result than the
coronation of the emperor at Aix as king of Aries. About the
same time the first signs of the Reformation became evident in
Provence, at first in the country of the ancient Vaudois at
Cabrieres and at Merindol in the county of Venaissin. A sen-
tence passed in 1540 by the parlement of Provence against these
heretics was carried out with great severity in 1545 by the
president d'Oppede and the baron de la Garde, who burned
the villages and massacred the inhabitants. Protestantism did
not take a great hold on Provence, but drew a fair number of
followers from the ranks of the lesser nobles, who, with Paul de
Mauvans at their head, began the struggle against the Catholics
under the comte de Carces. Charles IX.'s journey in Provence
in 1567, followed by the establishment in the parlement at Aix
of a court (chambre) in which Catholics and Protestants had an
equal number of seats, led to a momentary cessation of hostilities.
These were resumed between the Carcistes (Roman Catholics)
and Razats (Protestants), and again interrupted by the peace
of 1576, which gave some guarantees to the Protestants, with
La Seyne as a place of security, and also by the plague of 1579,
which affected the whole country. The league, on the other
hand, made rapid progress in Provence under the direction
of the comte de Sault and Hubert de la Garde, seigneur of Vins,
and the governors of fipernon and La Valette vainly tried to
pacify the country. La Valette and the political party or
Bigarrats were finally more or less reconciled to the Protestants,
and, at the time of the death of Henry III., the struggle was no
more than a question of district politics. Weakened by the
division between the comtesse de Sault and the young comte
de Carces, the league applied to the duke of Savoy, who was
besieging Marseilles. Carces and the other heads of the league
submitted one after the other to the new governor Lesdiguieres,
who was succeeded by the duke of Guise in 1595, and in 1396
the religious wars in Provence were definitely ended by the
capitulation of Marseilles.
During the reign of Henry IV. the country was comparatively
peaceful; but under Richelieu the restriction of local freedom
and the creation of new offices led to the insurrection of the
Cascaveous (small bells, a name derived from their rallying
sign), which Cond6 came to suppress in 1630-1631. At the
time of the Fronde additional taxes were levied by the parle-
ment at Aix, and the struggle began between the Canirels
(Mazarins) and the Sabreurs (prince's party), who captured the
governor, the comte d'Alais, for a short time. The duke of
Mercoeur calmed the country down. Louis XIV.'s tour in
Provence (1660) was marked by an insurrection at Marseilles,
which brought about the abolition of the last remaining muni-
cipal liberties of the town. Provence was severely tried by the
506
PROVERB PROVERBS, BOOK OF
imperialist invasions of 1706 and 1746, and the great plague of
1720. Towards the end of the ancien regime the movement
which resulted in the revolution of 1789 made itself felt in Pro-
vence, and was most apparent in the double election at Aixand
at Marseilles of Mirabeau as deputy for the states-general.
Provence, with its own special language and its law so closely
related to Roman law, has always been quite separate from the
. other French provinces. Theoretically it retained its provincial
estates, the origin of which has been traced to the assemblages
of the 1 2th century. They met annually, and included repre-
sentatives of three orders: for the clergy, the archbishop of
Aix, president ex officio of the estates, the other bishops of
Provence, the abbots of St Victor at Marseilles, of Montmajour
and of Thoronet; for the nobility, all the men of noble birth
(genttthommes) until 1623, when this privilege was restricted to
actual holders of fiefs; for the third, the members of the twenty-
two chief towns of the vigueries 1 and fifteen other privileged
places, among which were Aries and Marseilles. There were
theoretically no taxes, but only supplies given freely by the
estates and assessed by them. However, this assembly did not
meet after 1639. The administrative divisions of Provence
were constantly changing. In 1307 Charles II. divided it into
two s&nechauss&es, Aix and Forcalquier, comprising twenty-two
vigueries. At the end of the ancien regime the government
(gouvernement) of Provence, which corresponded to the ge'neralite'
of Aix, was made up of eight senechaussies, those of Lower
Provence Aix, Aries, Marseilles, Brignoles, Hyeres, Grasse,
Draguignan, Toulon; and four of Upper Provence Digne,
Sisteron, Forcalquier, Castellane. From a judicial point of
view the parlement of Aix had replaced the former conseil
eminent or cour souveraine. There was a chambre des comptes
at Aix, and also a cour des aides. A decree, dated the 22nd of
December 1789, divided Provence into the three departments
of Bouche du Rh6ne, Basses-Alpes and Var, and in 1793
Vaucluse, the former county (comtat) of Venaissin, which be-
longed to the pope, was added to these. The boundaries of
the department of Var were modified in 1860 after the annexa-
tion, when the department of the Alpes Maritimes was formed.
AUTHORITIES. There is no good general history of Provence.
For a complete work consult the ancient works of H. Bouche,
Chorographie el histoire chronologique de Provence (2 vols. in fol.,
Aix, 1664); Papon, Histoire generate de Provence (4 vols. in 4to,
Paris, 1777-1786); L. MeVy, Histoire de Provence (3 vols. in 8vo,
Marseilles, 1830-1837). For special periods of history see F. Kiener,
Verfassungsgeschichte der Provence, 510-1200 (8vo, Leipzig, 1900);
R. Poupardin, Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens (in 8vo,
Paris, 1901); G. de Manteyer, La Provence du i" a xii siecle
(in 8vo, Paris, 1907) ; Lambert, Essai sur le regime municipal et
I'affranchissement des communes en Provence (in 8vo, Toulon, 1882);
Les Guerres religieuses en Provence (2 vols. in 8vo, 1870)'; Cabasson,
Essai historique sur le parlement de Provence (3 vols. in 8vo, Aix,
1826). (R. Po.)
PROVERB (Lat. proverbium, from pro, forth, publicly,
verbum, word; the Greek equivalent is irapoinia, homirapa,
alongside, and OIMOS, way, road, i.e. a wayside saying; Ger.
S prickwort) , a form of folk-literature, or its later imitation,
expressing, in the form of a simple, homely sentence, a pungent
criticism of life. Many definitions have been attempted of a
" proverb," of which none has met with universal acceptance.
J. Howell's (d. 1666) three essentials, " shortness, sense and
salt," omit the chief characteristic, popularity or general
acceptance, and the definition of Erasmus Celebre dictum scita
quapiam novitate insigne suits a good proverb rather than
proverbs in general. Lord Russell's " The wisdom of many
and the wit of one " is familiar.
For a general survey of the subject of proverbs, Archbishop
Trench's Proverbs and their Lessons (new ed., 1905, by A. Smythe-
Paimer, with additions and notes) is useful; it contains a fairly
comprehensive bibliography, ancient and modern. Bohn's Hand-
book of Proverbs, and Polyglot of Foreign Proverbs (1857), based on
1 The viguerie was the jurisdiction of a viguier, i.e. "vicar," a
name given at various times and places in the south of France to
very different feudal -officials. The viguerie in the 1 7th and 1 8th
centuries as an administrative subdivision in Provence corresponded
to the prevote elsewhere.
the collections of John Ray (1670) and David Ferguson (1641),
are very full. V. Stuckey Lean's Collectanea (5 vols.) 1902 is a
storehouse of English proverbs, classified in various ways; Notes
and Queries, gth series (1898), vol. ii., contains a bibliography of
English works. The principal foreign works are G. Strafforello,
La Sapienza del mondo (3 vols., 1883) and Reinsberg and Durings-
feld, Die Sprichworter der germanischen und romanischen Sprachen
(2 vols., 1872-1875). There are many popular handbooks giving
full collections of proverbs, English and foreign.
PROVERBS, BOOK OF (Heb. Mishle Shelomoh, " Proverbs of
Solomon," abridged by the later Jews to Mishle; Septuagint,
mxpoi/ztat orll. ZaX.; Lat. Vulg. Parabolae sal. and Liber prover-
biorum), one of the Wisdom books of the Old Testament (see
WISDOM LITERATURE) and the principal representative in the
Old Testament of gnomic thought. This sort of thought, which
appears very early in Egypt (2000 B.C. or earlier), and relatively
early among the Greeks (in the sayings of Thales and Solon as
reported by Diogenes Laertius), was of late growth among the
Hebrews. Doubtless they, like other peoples, had their simple
proverbs, embodying their general observations of life; a couple
of these have been preserved in the Old Testament: " Is Saul
also among the Prophets?" (i Sam. x. 12); " The fathers eat
sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge " (Jer. xxxi.
29; Ezek. xviii. 2). It is possible that Solomon uttered or col-
lected a number of such sayings, based in part on observation
of the habits of beasts and plants (i Kings iv. 32 seq. [Heb.v.
12 seq.]; cf. Jotham's apologue, Judg. ix. 8 sqq., and Samson's
riddle, Judg. xiv. 14). The Hebrew word mashol, commonly
rendered " proverb," is a general term for didactic and elegiac
poetry (as distinguished from the descriptive and the liturgical),
its form being that of the couplet with parallelism of clauses;
in the Old Testament it signifies a folk-saying (Ezek. xii. 22,
xviii. 2), an allegory (Ezek. xvii. 2), an enigmatical saying
(Ezek. xxi. 5), a byword (Jer. xxiv. 9; Deut. xxviii. 37), a taunting
speech (Isa. xiv. 4; Hab. ii. 6), a lament (Mic. ii. 4), a visional
or apocalyptic discourse (Num. xxiii. 7; xxiv. 15), a didactia
discourse (Ps. xlix., Ixxviii.), an argument or plea (Job xxix. i).
In the book of Proverbs it is either an aphorism (x.-xxii.) or a
discourse (i.-ix., xxiii. 29-35, xxvii. 32-27).
The uses of the term being so various, its special signification
in any case must be determined by the character of the passage
in which it occurs; and an examination of the contents of
Proverbs shows that the thought of the book differs widely from
that of the literature prior to the 5th century B.C. The book
appears on its face to be a compilation, various authors being
mentioned in the titles: Solomon in x. i and xxv. i; the " sages "
in xxii. 1 7 and xxiv. 23 ; Agur in xxx. 2 ; the mother of King
Lemuel in xxxi. 2; xxxi. 10-31 and, probably, xxx. 5-33 are
anonymous; the ascription in i. i to Solomon may refer to i.-ix
or to the whole book. Apart from the titles (which are not
authoritative) the difference of style in the various sections
indicates difference of authorship. There is, indeed, a certain
unity of thought in the book; throughout it inculcates cardinal
social virtues, such as industry, thrift, discretion, truthfulness,
honesty, chastity, and in general it assumes wisdom to be the
guiding principle of life. But the sections differ in form and
tone. While chs. x.-xxix. and part of xxx. consist of aphorisms
chs. i.-ix., xxxi. are composed of more or less elaborate dis-
courses. In the aphoristic sections also there is variety; there
are couplets (x. i.-xxii. 16; xxv.-xxix.), quatrains (xxii.-xxiv.)
and tetrads and other numerical arrangements (xxx. 7-33).
Compilatory character is indicated by repetitions; there are
identical lines (x. i and xxix. 3; xi. 14 and xxiv. 6; xiii. 9 and
xxiv. 20; xiv. i and xxiv. 3; xv. 18 and xxix. 22; xvii. 3 and xxvii.
2i;xix. 13 and xxvii. 15; xx. 22 and xxiv. 29; xxiv. 23 and
xxviii. 21) and identical couplets (xviii. 8 and xxvi. 22; xix. i
and xxvii. 6; xix. 24 and xxvi. 15; xx. 16 and xxvii. 13; xxi. 9
and xxv. 34; xxii. 3 and xxvii. 12).
The dates of the various parts of the book must be determined
by the character of the contents, there being no decisive external
data. The fact that it stands in the third division of the Hebrew
Canon, the Writings or Hagiographa, along with such late
works as Job, Psalms, Chronicles, Daniel, Ecclesiastes and
PROVERBS, BOOK OF
507
3
w !
Kst her, must be allowed weight; the presumption is that the
arrangers of the Canonical books regarded it as being in general
than the Prophetical books. No help can be got from the
titles. Examination of titles in the Prophets and the Psalms
y nothing of Ecclesiastes and Wisdom of Solomon) makes
it evident that these have been added by late editors who were
governed by vague traditions or fanciful associations or caprice,
nd there is no reason to suppose the titles in Proverbs to be
ions to the general rule. The ascription of parts of
to Solomon (i. i, x. i, xxv. i) means nothing for us
thiit there was a disposition among the later Jews to
their books to great names of the past, Enoch, Daniel,
Jiib. Mn^'s, David, Solomon, Ezra; as also, outside of Jewry,
works were ascribed to Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Tacitus and
others that were not composed by these authors. The supposi-
ion of a Solomonic authorship for Proverbs is excluded by the
hole colouring of the book, in which monotheism and mono-
gamy are assumed, without discussion, to be generally accepted,
while in Solomon's time and by Solomon's self the worship of
many gods and the taking of mo^f than one wife were freely.
without rebuke from priest or prophet. The high
ethical conception of the kingly office in Proverbs is out of
keeping with the despotic character of Solomon's government.
It is supposed, indeed, by some modern writers that the notice
in xxv. i (" These are proverbs of Solomon, that the men of
lle/.ekiah king of Judah transcribed ") is too circumstantial
to be merely a late tradition or scribal guess. But similarly
definite titles are prefixed elsewhere, for example, to Ps. li.-lx.,
where they cannot possibly be correct. Hezekiah's time may
have been selected by the author of the title (or by the tradition
which he represents) as being the next great literary period in
Judah after Solomon, the time of Micah and Isaiah, or the selec-
tion may have been suggested by the military glory of the period
(the repulse of the Assyrian army) and by the fame of Hezekiah
as a pious monarch and a vigorous reformer of the national
religion. But to regard Hezekiah as a Jewish Pisistratus is to
ascribe to the time a literary spirit of which the extant documents
give no hint; the literature of the age was wholly occupied with
the past history, the religious conditions and the political fortunes
of the nation, subjects alien to the book of Proverbs.
The objections to the Solomonic age as the time of origination
of the book apply also to the period extending from Solomon
through the 6th century. But there are considerations that
lead us to put its origin still later. One of these is the non-
national character of the thought. The historical and propheti-
cal books and the Pentateuch are wholly concerned with the
nation. For them Israel is the centre of the world, the point
around which all other things revolve every other people
derives its claim to consideration from its relation to Israel
the only subject deserving attention is the extent of the Jewish
nation's obedience or disobedience to its divinely given law, on
which depends its prosperity or its adversity. In Proverbs
there is a notable absence of this point of view. The name
Israel and the terms temple, prophet, priest, covenant, do not
occur in the book. The " vision " (that is, prophetic vision)
in the Hebrew text of xxix. 18 (" Where there is no vision, people
throw off restraint ") is an error of text. No writer who was
acquainted with Hebrew history could suppose that there was
any relation between the national morality and the abundance
of prophetic visions; the period in which such visions were most
numerous is precisely that in which the corruption of morals is
painted by the prophets in the darkest colours and, on the other
hand, the people are said (in Pss. xliv. and Ixxiv.) to have been
obedient at a time when there was no prophet. Moreover, this
reading supplies no antithesis in the couplet, the second line of
which is: " But he who obeys instruction (or law), happy is he ";
we should expect the first line to read: "Where there is no
guidance people throw off restraint," as in xi. 14: " Where there
is no guidance, a people falls, but in the multitude of counsellors
there is safety." Prophets play so great a part in the early
history that the ignoring of them here is significant. The deca-
dence of prophecy is indicated in two passages that belong
probably to the Greek period: in Zech. xiii. 2 sqq. prophecy is
identified with the " unclean spirit," the pretender to visions
is threatened with death by his parents, and, so great is the
general contempt for the class, protests that he is no prophet
but a tiller of the ground, accounting for the wounds on his
person (such as these charlatans used to inflict on themselves)
by declaring that they were received in the house of his friends
(that is, apparently, in a drunken quarrel) ; from a very different
point of view Joel ii. 28 seq. (Heb. iii. i seq.) predicts that in the
latter times (in the ideal restoration of the people) all persons,
free and bond, male and female, shall have the spirit of prophecy
that is, the old order shall be set aside and a new religious
constitution established. Proverbs belongs to the time when
prophecy, as a helpful institution, had disappeared, and wisdom
had taken its place. So also the term law had here taken on a
new meaning. It is no longer the law of Moses or that of the
prophetic revelation it is the standard of rightdoing resident
in every man's mind, the creation of wise reflection; such a con-
ception lies outside the point of view that forms the very sub-
stance of Hebrew thought in the period prior to the sth century.
It is true that the nationalistic tinge is found in late writings*
(Chronicles, Psalms), and that its absence, therefore, is not
merely a matter of date; but it is hardly conceivable that an
author of any tim'e before the 5th century could have ignor"
the nationalistic point of view so completely as Proverbs does.
Another noteworthy feature of the book is the picture it f.'
of social life. The organization of the family is treated much
more fully than in the Law and the Prophets, and has a more
modern aspect. In Deut. xxi. 18 sqq. (of the jlh century) a
disobedient son, complained of by his parents, is to be stoned to
death by the men of the city; in Proverbs (xiii. 24, xxii. 15,
xxiii. 13 seq., xxix. 15, 17) a bad child is to be chastised, and
much is said of the training of children by instruction. The
impression made by a number of passages (i. 8, xxiii. 22 al.) is
that a regular system of family education existed, more definitely
ethical than that indicated in Deut. vi. 7, which merely enjoins
teaching children the details of the national law. In addition
to this parental instruction we find hints of a sort of academic
training, particularly in chs. i.-ix., in which the sage appears
to address a circle of youths. If we may credit the Talmudic
tract Pirke Aboth (ch. i.), Jewish academies under the charge of
great teachers existed early in the and century B.C., and the
beginnings of such institutions may go back a century; they
would probably be suggested by the Greek schools of philosophy,
which early sprang up in Western Asia and Egypt under Alex-
ander's successors.
Monogamy, as is remarked above, is assumed in Proverbs t^
be the recognized custom. Polygamy was legal and usual 1%
the 7th century (Deut. xxi. 15) and the 6th (Lev. xviii. 17, 18),
and doubtless continued to be practised some time after by the
Jews, though on this point we have no definite information;
Herod, who was a despot, and was not a Jew, cannot be taken
as an illustration of Jewish custom; the obscure passage, Mai. ii.
10 sqq. (450-400 B.C.) may have monogamy in mind, but its
position on this point is not clear. What is certain is that the
definite assumption of monogamy is found only in such late
books as Ben-Sira (Ecclesiasticus), Tobit and Judith. In regard
to punishment for the violation of a husband's rights Proverbs
shows a marked advance on the old usage. The Pentateuchal
law (Lev. xx. 10) prescribes death as the punishment for adul-
tery; Proverbs (v., vi. 27 sqq., vii.) treats the offence as a sin
against the offender himself, an act of suicidal folly, the punish-
ment coming sometimes from the jealous husband, but chiefly
in the way of the physical depravation and social ignominy that
befall the adulterer. This change of punishment imports not a
falling off in the moral standard but rather the conviction that
a crime of this sort is best dealt with by public opinion; in any
case it means a change in the constitution of society.
The experiences described in Proverbs belong especially to
city life. Something is said here and there bearing on agricul-
tural pursuits, and there is a paragraph (xxvii. 23 sqq.) a little
treatise it may be called enjoining on the landowner the
5 o8
PROVERBS, BOOK OF
necessity of paying special attention to his cattle, large and
small; these, says the writer, are the real sources of wealth to
the rural landowner. Possibly he means to insist on the advan-
tages of country life over life in the city; if this be so, the para-
graph bears witness to the prominence of the latter. Whether
or not this is his design, advice to cattle-owners is natural in a
manual of conduct. The Jews were mainly country-folk from
the time of their settlement in Canaan to their final expulsion
from the land by Titus and Hadrian, and the soil of Israelitish
Palestine was better adapted to the raising of sheep and oxen
than to the production of grain. Doubtless much attention
was paid to this industry, but the composition of a little book
on the subject, indicating a scientific interest in boviculture,
points to a comparatively late period; the Greek and Roman
works of this sort, by Aristotle, Theophrastus, Virgil and others,
were late. This little treatise stands almost alone in Proverbs;
the great mass of its aphorisms relate to vices and faults which,
though possible in any tolerably well-organized community,
were specially prominent in the cities in which the Jews dwelt
after the conquests of Alexander. They are malicious gossip,
greed of money, giving security, nocturnal robbery, murder,
unchastity. Much space is given to the last-named vice through-
out the book, and especially in chs. i. and ix. obviously it is
regarded as a notorious social evil. Comparatively little is said
of it in the Pentateuch and the prophetical and historical books.
That there were harlots and adulteresses in Israel from an early
time is shown by such passages as Judg.xi.i (Jephthah'smother),
i Kings iii. 16 (the judgment of Solomon), Hos. iii. i. (Hosea's
wife), by the denunciations of the crime and the laws against
it, and by the employment of the terms harlotry and adultery
as designations of religious unfaithfulness. Yet, apart from
the references to cultic prostitution (which was adopted by the
Israelites from the Canaanites), the mention of the vice in ques-
tion is not frequent; in a polygamous society and in a country
without great cities it was not likely to grow to great proportions.
The case was different when the Jews were dispersed through
the new Greek kingdoms, and lived in cities like Jerusalem and
Alexandria, centres of wealth and luxury, inhabited by mixed
populations; this form of debauchery then became commoner
and better organized. Hetairae flocked to the cities. Naukratis
in the Egyptian Delta was famous under the Ptolemies for its
brilliant venal women. The temptations of Alexandria and the
loose morals of the time (latter part of the 3rd century) are illus-
trated by the story told by Josephus (Ant. xii. 4, 6) of Joseph
the son of Tobias. The picture of society given in Ben-Sira
(ix. 3-9, xix. 2, xxiii. 16-26, xxv. 16-26, xxvi. 8-12, xlii. 0-14),
based on life in Jerusalem and Alexandria in the 2nd and 3rd
centuries B.C. agrees in substance with the descriptions of the
Book of Proverbs. The tone of these descriptions throughout
the book, but particularly in chs. i.-ix., is modern. A point of
interest is that the exhortations to chastity are addressed to
men only; the man is regarded as the victim, the woman as the
temptress women are never warned against men or against
the general seductions of society. This silence may be due in
part to a current opinion that women were more hedged in and
guarded by social arrangements and less exposed to temptation
than men; but it is chiefly the result of the fact that the Old
Testament (like most ancient and modern works on practical
ethics) addresses itself almost exclusively to men (certain classes
of women are denounced in Amos iv. 1-3; Isa. iii. i6-iv. i;
Ezek. xiii. 17-23); the moral independence of women is not
distinctly recognized. In this regard Ecclesiasticus agrees with
Proverbs it has no word of advice for women. The temptress
in Proverbs appears to be a married woman; she is certainly
such in chs. vi. and vii., and probably also throughout the book.
The term " strange woman " (ii. 16 al.) means not a foreigner,
but one who is alien to the man's family circle, the wife of an-
other man. Such women may sometimes have been foreigners,
but the sage's concern is with the man's violation of the marriage
obligation, be the woman Jew or Gentile. In the earlier time
marriages between Jewish men and Canaanite women seem to
have been not uncommon; whether (outside of Herod's family)
there were marriages with foreigners in the Greek period we
have no means of determining.
Proverbs is remarkable for the attention it gives to kings.
The prophets have nothing to say of them as a class. One
passage in the Pentateuch (Deut. xvii. 15-20) prescribes that the
Israelite king shall be the opposite of Solomon he shall not
accumulate horses, wives, silver and gold, and shall study the law.
In the Psalter he is considered merely as a servant of Yahweh.
Proverbs treats the king, in a quite modern way, as a member
of society. He is described ideally as ruling by the might of
wisdom (viii. 15, 16), and as controlled in his administration by
truth, kindness and justice (xx. 8, 26, 28) the wicked ruler
who oppresses the poor is condemned as not reaching the ideal
standard (xxviii. 3, 5, 16). Three manuals of conduct are
devoted to him (xvi. 10-15, xxv- 2-7, xxxi. 2-9). His power is
recognized he is the source of life and death (xvi. 14, 15)
but he is treated as a human being who must be governed by the
ordinary laws of right. It is especially illustrative of the times
that instruction in table manners is offered to the guests of kings
they must be modest in* their bearing, not putting them-
selves forward (xxv. 6, 7; cf. Luke xiv. 8, n), and they must
control their appetites (xxiii. i, 2). The reference here must
be to the numerous non- Jewish kings of the Greek period, and
perhaps also to the Maccabean princes; the manners of the
time are set forth in Josephus's account of Ptolemy's dinner, at
which the Jew Hyrcanus was a guest (Ant. xii. 4, 9). The
mingling of despotism and good-natured familiarity there
described (and the spirit is doubtless correctly given by Josephus,
whether or not his details are historical) agrees with the picture
in Proverbs.
Finally, a late date for Proverbs is indicated by what may be
called its philosophical element a feature that it has in com-
mon with the other Wisdom books (see WISDOM LITERATURE).
This element is recognizable throughout the book, but is most
distinct in chs. i.-ix., in which wisdom is personified as the
power regulating the affairs of human life (iii. 13-18, viii. 1-21).
The portraiture approaches hypostatization in the cosmogonic
ode (viii. 22-31), especially if the first line of v. 30 be rendered:
" I was at his side as a master-workman "; but the Hebrew
word (amon) rendered " master-workman " is of doubtful
meaning, and the connexion rather calls for some such sense
as " nursling, ward "; Yahweh himself is represented as the
architect, and wisdom, the first of his works, is his companion,
sporting in his presence like a beloved child. The whole passage
(w. 22-31) was early employed by Christian theologians (Irenaeus,
Athanasius, Augustine and others) in the controversies respect-
ing the nature of the Second Person of the Trinity, particularly
in connexion with the idea of eternal generation; the argument
turned in part on the question whether the verb in v. 22 was to
be translated by " created " or by " possessed." Ecclesiasticus
xxiv. and Wisdom of Solomon vii. should be compared with
the Proverbs ode. In the remainder of the book (chs. x.-xxxi.)
" wisdom " is sometimes common sense or sagacity, sometimes
the reflective habit of mind and largeness of outlook, sometimes
the recognition of the ideal standard of living. Contrasted with
the wise are fools, and on these the sages vent their scorn abun-
dantly (xii. 15, 16, xvii. 12, xviii. 6, 7, xxiii. 9 al.); xxvi. 1,3-12
is a " book of fools." The conception of the good life is that of
philosophically ordered rectitude. The religious element is
prominent in x. i-xxii. 16, but it is blended with the reflective.
The philosophy of the book is practical, not speculative.
Comparison of Proverbs with Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes and
Wisdom of Solomon shows that it belongs, in its main features,
in the same category as these. Its thought, differing so widely
from that of the prophets and the Pentateuch, is most naturally
referred to the period when the Jews came into intimate intel-
lectual contact with the non-Semitic world, and particularly
with the Greeks (philosophical influence is not to be looked for
from Persia).
While the general period in which the book belongs may thus
be determined with fair probability, it is less easy to fix the dates
of its several parts. The earliest of the groups of which the book
PROVERBS, BOOK OF
59
is composed seems to be x. i-xxii. 16, xxv.-xxix. which consists
of simple aphorisms relating to everyday affairs. This group,
however, is itself composite; we may distinguish a collection
of antithetic couplets (x.-xv. and most of xxviii., xxix), and
one made up of comparisons and single sentences (xvi. i
xxii. 16, xxv.-xxvii., and some verses in xxviii., xxix). Of these
two the first, on account of its simpler form, appears to be the
earlier, though they cannot stand far apart in time; and by
combining them an editor formed the section as we now have it.
These may have been severally made from current collections,
a number of which were probably in existence. A general
preface exhorting the pupil to give heed to the instruction of
the sages (xxii. 17-21), introduces a group of quatrains in two
sub-groups (xxii. 22 xxiv. 22 and xxiv. 23-34) characterized
by a wide range of thought and by ethical depth. Probably
later than these are the elaborate discourses of i.-ix. (excluding
vi. 1-5, 6-1 1, 12-19 ar >d i*- 7~ I2 > misplaced paragraphs) contain-
ing praise of ideal wisdom and warnings against unchastity.
Chs. xxx., xxxi., made up of various pieces, form a sort of appen-
dix to the book; some of the pieces are artificial in form (xxx.
11-31), one is a full picture of a good housewife's home life
(xxxi. 10-31), two are ascribed to the unknown persons Agur
(xxx. 2-4) and King Lemuel's mother (xxxi. 2-9). Agur's
dictum is one of pious agnosticism directed, apparently, against
certain theologians who talked as if they were well acquainted
with the ways of God. Agur's word, breathing the spirit of
scepticism, falls into the category represented by Ecclesiastes,
and we may probably set the year 200 (or possibly 1 50) B.C. as
the lower limit of the Book of Proverbs; allowing a century for
the collection and combination of the various parts, we shall
have the year 300 B.C. as the date of its earliest section. Some of
the material may have existed in aphoristic form before, but
the composition of the present book may be put approximately
in the century 300-200 B.C. Even its simplest maxims have a
certain academic form.
In its general ethical code Proverbs represents the best stan-
dard of the times; the sages are at one with the more enlightened
moralists of the Western world. All the ordinary social virtues
such as truthfulness, honesty, kindness, chastity are emphasized
and a great stress is laid on care for the poor (a social necessity
at a tine when there were no well organized public charities).
But Proverbs seems not to go the length of identifying righteous-
ness with almsgiving, as is done in Dan. iv. 27 (24), Matt. v. i,
and substantially in Ecclus. iii. 30, xxix. 12 and Tobit iv. 10,
xii. 9; in x. 2, " righteousness delivers from death," the word
" righteousness " is probably to be taken in its ordinary ethical
sense. The above-named virtues are all recognized in the
earlier Hebrew writings, the prophets and the law, but in certain
points Proverbs goes beyond these, notably in its prohibition
of exultation over a fallen enemy (xxiv. 17) and of retaliation
for injury received (xxiv. 29), and in its inculcation of kindness
to enemies (xxv. 21). The injunction in Lev. xix. 18, "Thou
shall love thy neighbour as thyself," refers only to Israelite
fellow-citizens, not to enemies (cf. the interpretation given in
Matt. v. 43), and the command in Exod. xxiii. 4 seq., to care for
one's enemy's ox or ass likewise refers to Israelites; Proverbs con-
ceives the principle in a higher way and extends it beyond the
limits of the nation. Slavery is recognized as a lawful institu-
tion, but little is said of it. There is no suggestion of moral
training of the slave; he is to be taught not by words (xxix. 19)
but by the rod, like the child (v. 15), and it is intimated
(v. 21) that it is a mistake to bring up a servant delicately.
This was doubtless the general view of the time; Ben-Sira
frankly regards the servant as a chattel (Ecclus, xxxiii. 24-31).
Proverbs greatly disapproves of the elevation of slaves to the
position of rulers (xix. 10) an occurrence not uncommon in
those days. The estimate of woman as wife and mother, and
especially as housewife, is high (xviii. 22, xix. 14, xxxi. 10-31).
In vi. 20 the mother is spoken of, along with the father, as
teacher of the children, and it is assumed, therefore, that she is
competent; but nothing is said of the education of women
in xxxi. 26 the " wisdom " of the good wife (not " virtuous
woman ") is good sense, practical sagacity in housekeeping.
The equality of all men as creatures of God, silently assumed
in the earlier literature, is definitely expressed in Proverbs
(xxii. 2, cf. Job xxxiv. 19, Ecclus. xi. 14). Humility, as the
opposite of insolent pride, is recognized as a virtue (xviii. 12,
cf. xvi. 18) it is a modest estimate of one's worth, refusal to
claim too great honour for one's self. In general it is the simple
homely virtues that are enjoined on men in Proverbs there is
no mention of courage, fortitude, intellectual truthfulness, and
no recognition of beauty as an element of life; the ethical type
is Semitic, not Hellenic, and the sages emphasize only those
qualities that seemed to them to be most effective in the struggle
of life; their insistence on the practical, not the heroic, side of
character is perhaps in part the consequence of the position of
the Jewish people at that time, as also the silence respecting
international ethics belongs to the thought of the times. The
ground of moral judgments in the book is both external (the
law of God) and internal (the conscience of man) ; these two are
fused into one, and both go back ultimately to current customs
and ideas. The motive assigned for right doing is individualistic
utilitarian the advantage accruing to the man either through
the laws of society or through the rewards dispensed by God.
This motive, which is the one assumed throughout the Old
Testament, is effective for the mass of men, and becomes ethi-
cally high when the advantage had in view is of an elevated
moral character. Proverbs does not offer the good of society as
an aim of action, though it takes for granted that good conduct
will promote the happiness of all. Assuming human freedom
it at the same time assumes that the ills of life may be overcome
by a wise employment of man's resources, and it silently regards
universal happiness on earth as the goal of human development.
Its religious scheme is the simplest form of theism; religion
is reverence for God and obedience to His laws. Though the
sages doubtless recognized the temple-cult as of divine appoint-
ment and obligatory, they lay no stress upon it; for them the
essence of religion is something else; right living, they say (xxi.
3), is more acceptable to God than sacrifice, and sacrifice without
ethical feeling is abominable to Him (xv. 8). Subordinate
supernatural beings (angels and demons), though of course
accepted as real, are ignored as having no importance for life.
There is no reference or allusion to national Messianic hopes
(certainly none in xvi. 10-15); neither the political situation
in the 3rd century B.C., nor the sages' point of view was friendly
to such hopes. The view of the future life is the old Hebrew
one: death is practically the end-all, Sheol is the negation of
happy activily, and from it no one returns; in v. 23, vii. 27,
ix. 18, x. 2, the reference is to premature death on earth. The
aim of the sages is to make earthly life strong and happy. They
lay no claim to divine inspiration they speak simply as ordinary
human thinkers, though they are convinced that they have
eternal truth.
The reception of Proverbs into the Hebrew Canon was for a
time opposed on the ground of a supposed contradiction between
two aphorisms (xxvi. 4, 5,) and (vii. 7, 20) of too highly coloured
descriptions (Shabbath, 3ob, Abotk Nathan, cap. i.); these difficul-
ties were got over, and the book was finally declared canonical.
It is quoted over twenty times in the New Testament, and
has always been highly valued as a manual of conduct.
Of the ancient versions the Septuagint is the only one that
is of great service for the criticism of the Hebrew text of
Proverbs. The Latin, the Peshitta Syriac and the Targum
occasionally offer suggestions; the Hexaplar Syriac and the
Coptic are of value for the determination of the text of the
Septuagint.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Hebrew text is discussed in all recent
commentaries; see also Dyserinck, in Theol. Tijdschrift (1883);
Oort, ibid. (1885), and Text. hebr. emendationes (1900); Bickell, in
Wiener Zeitschr.f.d.Kunded. Morgenlandes (1891); Chajes, Prmerb.-
Studien (1889); Miiller and Kautzsch, in Haupt's Sacred Books of
the Old Test. (1901). The Greek versions are treated by de Lagarde,
Anmerkungen (1863); Baumgartner, tude critique (1890). For the
Syriac see Pinkuss in ZeiUchr. f. Alttest. Wissenschaft (1894). Com-
pare also Nestle's article " Bibelubersetzungen " in the third edition
PROVIDENCE
of Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie. Among commentators and
translators may be mentioned: Ewald (1837, 1867); Noyes (1836);
Stuart (1852); Hitzig (1858); Zockler, in Lange's Bibelwerk (iS66,
Eng. trans., 1870); Delitzsch (1873, Eng. trans., 1875); Reuss, in
La Bible (1878, Germ, ed., 1894); Nowack (revision of Bertheau) in
Kurzgefasst exeg. Handbuch z. A. T. (1883); Strack in Strack u.
Zockler's kurzgef. Comm. z. A. T. (1888, 2nd ed., 1899); Horton,
in Expositor's Bible (1891); Wildeboer, in Marti's Kurz. Hand-
Comm. z. A. T. (1897); Frankenberg, in Nowack's Handkomm.
z. A. T. (1898); Toy, in Internal, crit. Comm. (1898); Kautzsch,
Die heil. Schrift. d. A.T. (2nd ed., 1896) ; Oort, Het Oude Test. (1898-
1900). See also Bois, La Poesie gnomique chez I. Heb. &c. (1886);
Cheyne, Job and Solomon (1887); id., in Sem. Studies (ed. Kohut,
1897) ; id., Jew. Relig. Life (1898) ; Montefiore in Jew. Quart. Review
(1889-1890). On Proverbs of Other Ancient Peoples: Egyptian
Griffith, art. " Egypt Lit." inLibr. of World's Best Lit. (1897), vol. xiii. ;
Assyrian: Halevy, Melanges (1883)-; Jager, in Beitr. z. Assyriologie
(1892); Hindu: Monier- Williams, Indian Wisdom (1875) ; Arabic:
Jacob, Altarab. Parallelen z. A. T. (1897); Fleischer's ed. of Ali
(1837); Freytag, Arabum proverbia (1838). A general collection
has been made by Malan, Orig. Notes on the Book of Proiierb-s (1889;
1893). (C. H. T.*)
PROVIDENCE, the second largest city of New England,
capital of Rhode Island, U.S.A., the county-seat of Providence
county, and a port of entry, situated at the head of Providence
river (the N. arm of Narragansett Bay) and at the influx of the
Seekonk (or Blackstone), Moshassuck and Woonasquatucket
rivers, about 35 m. from the Atlantic ocean, 45 m. by rail S.S.W.
of Boston, and 188 m. E.N.E. of New York. Pop. (1890),
132,146; (1900), 175,597; (1905, state census), 198,635, of whom
65,746 were foreign-born, including 17,155 Irish, 12,114 Italians,
9795 English, 4221 English Canadians, 4005 French Canadians,
3685 Russians, 3347 Swedes, 2211 Germans, 2173 Portuguese
(including some Bravas from the Cape Verde Islands), and 1930
Scotsmen. The figure for 1910 was 224,326. Providence is served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by steam-
boat lines to Newport, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and
Norfolk. It extends over an area of more than 18 sq. m., and
is irregularly laid out. The Seekonk and Providence rivers mark
the eastern boundary, the Providence and Moshassuck rivers
divide the middle and northern portion of the city into the east
and west sides, and the Woonasquatucket river divides the
west side into the northern and southern parts. The west side
is a level or gently rolling plain only a few feet above the sea,
but on the eastern side are a plateau and hills rising to a maxi-
mum height of about 200 ft. The larger and newer portion of
the business district is along the western bank of the Providence,
and some of the best business houses are on made land. The
part of the city which has most historic interest is on the east
side, where are the most attractive residences. 'Most of the
manufactories are along the banks of the Woonasquatucket
and Moshassuck. The -names of streets Pound, Sovereign,
Shilling, Dollar, Doubloon, Benevolent, Benefit, Hope, Friend-
ship, Peace, &c., reflect the early commercial importance of the
city and its strong Quaker element.
The principal building is the large State House, completed in
1902, of Georgia marble and white granite, surmounted by a
central dome of marble, 235 ft. high, and standing on a rise of
ground (Capitol Hill) about % m. north by west of the steamboat
landing at the head of Providence river; in the state chamber
is a full length portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart.
The old State House on Benefit Street, on the east side,
is now used as the 6th district (Providence and North Provi-
dence) court-house. Near the centre of the city (in Exchange
Place) is the city-hall (1878), a handsome structure of granite;
on its facade is a medallion of Roger Williams. Across Exchange
Place from the city-hall is the Federal Building (1908), which
houses the post-office, custom-house, U.S. courts, &c. The
county court-house (1877) is the only other prominent govern-
ment building. The Arcade (1828), 225 ft. long, with six massive
Ionic columns at each entrance, the Butler Exchange, and a few
other fine buildings fronting on Westminster Street are among
the more prominent business buildings. In Cranston Street,
between Waterloo and Dexter, is an Armory, with the largest
hall in New England. A handsome public library building,
opened in 1900, lying between Fountain, Greene and Washington
Streets, houses a good collection of 140,000 vols. (in 1909);
other libraries are the State Library (30,000 volumes), the State
Law Library (50,000 volumes) in the Providence county court-
house, the Providence Athenaeum (the Providence Library,
established in 1753, united in 1836 with the Providence Athe-
naeum, established in 1831; in 1909 it had 73,000 volumes),
the library of the Rhode Island Historical Society (established
1822; with 30,000 volumes and 50,000 pamphlets in'ipog), and
the libraries of Brown University. The meeting-house of the
First Baptist Church, founded by Roger Williams, the oldest
organization of this sect in the United States, was built in
1775 and was designed to resemble St Martin's-in-the-Fields,
London. Its bell still rings the curfew at nine o'clock every
evening; and the commencements of Brown University are held
here. The Friends' meeting-house, another interesting old
building, was erected in 1759. The Beneficent Church (Congre-
gational, 1809-1810) is in the Colonial style, with a rounded
dome. The Church of the Blessed Sacrament (Roman Catholic),
in Academy Street, was designed by John La Farge. The Roman
Catholic Cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul (1878) is of brown
stone and has excellent interior decorations. Providence is the
see of a Protestant Epicopal bishop. In Cathedral Square is
a statue (1889) by Henry Hudson Kitson of Thomas A. Doyle,
mayor of the city (1864-1869, 1870-1881, and from 1884 until
his death in 1886). There is an equestrian statue (1887) by
Launt Thompson of General A. E. Burnside in City Hall Park.
In front of the post-office are two allegorical groups (" Provi-
dence " and " the United States ") by J. Massey Rhind. In
Columbus Park is a replica of Bartholdi's " Columbus," which
was cast in silver by Providence metal workers for the Colum-
bian Exposition in Chicago. Other statues are Hippolyte
Hubert's Ebenezer Knight Dexter (erected 1894), George Thomas
Brewster's bronze " Genius of Religious Liberty " on the dome
of the State House, Franklin Simmons's Roger Williams (1877)
in Roger Williams Park, a Hellenic bronze " Pancratiast "
(1900, presented to the city by Paul Bajnotti of Turin) also in
Roger Williams Park, and a Hellenistic statue of Augustus on
the campus of Brown University. Two fountains also are
worth mention: the Bajnotti Memorial Fountain in City Hall
Park, a memorial to the wife of Paul Bajnotti, representing " The
Struggle of Life " and designed by Enid Yandell; and the Elisha
Dyer Memorial Fountain, a bronze athlete, by H. H. Kitson.
There are art collections in Brown University and in the Ann-
mary Brown Memorial (given to the city as a memorial to his
wife, a daughter of Nicholas Brown, by Rush C. Hawkins,
b. 1831). Among interesting old houses of the i8th century
are the Admiral Hopkins House, in Hopkins Park, the Stephen
Hopkins House (1742; 9 Hopkins St.), the John Carter Brown
House (1791; 357 Benefit St.), and the John Brown House (1786;
52 Power St.). There are many colonial houses, red brick with
marble trimmings, set well back from the street, with an occa-
sional walled garden. There are many musical societies in
Providence, including the Chopin Club (1879), the Arion Club
(1880); the Einklang Singing Society (1890; German), the
Verdandi Swedish Singing Society (1894), and the Providence
Musical Association (1904). Other clubs are the Brown Union,
University Club, a cricket and a polo club, golf clubs, yacht
clubs and canoe clubs, the Handicraft Club, the Providence Art
Club, the Hope Club and the Deutsche Gesellschaft.
Under the municipal park commissioners there are 33 public
parks with a total area of 644-38 acres, and the city supports
summer playgrounds; the state board of metropolitan park
commissioners controls a large park system in the metropolitan
park district, and a system of boulevards, connecting the several
parks and other public reservations; there are nine metropolitan
reservations, containing 677 acres, the largest being Lincoln
Woods, of 460 acres, 4 m. north of the State House. Other
metropoh'tan reservations are: Woonasquatucket Reservation
(53 acres; 2\ m. west of the State House) ; Edgewood Beach (25 m.
south of the State House) ; and the Ten Mile River Reservation
(100 acres; 4! m. north-east of the State House) on both sides
of Ten Mile River. The finest municipal reservation is Roger
PROVIDENCE
Williams Park (432 acres, of which 140 are water), with 9 m. of
drives and boulevards, in the southern part of the city, 2$ m.
from the State House. It was a part of the original tract ceded to
Roger Williams by Miantonomo; 107 acres were a farm which
Uetsy Williams (d. 1871), a lineal descendantof Roger Williams,
left to the city by will. In the park are a chain of lakes with a
shore front of 7$ m., a boat-house, a casino, a speedway and
athletic grounds, a municipal natural history museum, and the
Hetsy Williams Cottage (1775). Other municipal parks are:
Xeutaconkanut (40$ acres; 2$ m. west of the State House) on
high land commanding a view to the east and south; Davis
Park (38^ acres) with amusement grounds; Blackstone Park
(43 acres, ij m. east of the State House) along the Seekonk river;
Hopkins Park (J m. north of the State House), comprising the
estate of Esek Hopkins (1718-1802), commander of the American
N;ivy in the War of Independence, with a historical museum in
the Admiral Hopkins House; and City Hall Park. Blackstone
Boulevard is ij m. long; and Pleasant Valley Parkway is ij m.
long. Enclosed by a railing near the eastern end of Power
Street, on the bank of the Seekonk, is What Cheer Slate 1 Rock,
according to tradition the first landing place of Roger Williams.
In the North Burial Ground are the remains of Stephen Hopkins
(1707-1785), a citizen of Providence, a delegate to the Albany
convention of 1754, a colonial governor of Rhode Island (1755-
t~57> I 758-i762, 1763-1765, and 1767-1768), a member of the
C'ontinental Congress in 1774-1780 and a signer of the Declara-
tion of Independence; of William Barton (1748-1831), who in
the War of Independence captured General Richard Prescott
near Newport on the loth of July 1777; of Francis Wayland;
and of Nicholas Brown, who was a patron of Brown University
and one of the founders of the Providence Athenaeum and of
the Butler Hospital for the Insane.
On the steep slope of College Hill (or Prospect Hill) in the east
side near the business district, is Brown University (1764) one
of the eight colleges in the United States founded before 1776
closely connected with the history of Providence, Rhode Island,
and the Baptist Church in America. It has an undergraduate
department for men, with courses, largely elective, leading to
the degrees of A.B. and Ph.B., and courses, almost wholly pre-
scribed, in civil, meshanical and electrical engineering. It
includes, besides " The Women's College in Brown University,"
a separate college for women, and a graduate department
open to both men and women. The campus is shaded by some
fine old elms and is surrounded by an iron fence with beautiful
memorial gates. In 1910 there were twenty-two buildings,
including the following: University Hall (erected in 1770 and
used during the War of Independence as barracks and hospital
by American and French soldiers); Sayles Memorial Hall (1881),
containing the chapel, lecture halls and seminary rooms; three
library buildings, the John Hay Library (which occupies the
site of the old President's House), the old University Library
(1878) and the John Carter Brown Library (1904); the Ladd
Astronomical Observatory, with a i2-in. equatorial and much
other valuable equipment; Rhode Island Hall (1840), containing
a biological laboratory and a natural history museum; Manning
Hall (1834), containing an art museum; Wilson Hall (1891), con-
taining a physical and a psychological laboratory; Rogers Hall
(1862), a chemical laboratory; an engineering building (1903);
the Lyman gymnasium (1891) and Colgate Hoyt swimming pool
(1904); an administration building (1902); the Sayles gymna-
sium (1906) for women; Rockefeller Hall (1903), occupied by the
Brown Union, a students' organization and the Young Men's
Christian Association; the residence halls: University Hall
(1770, remodelled 1883), Hope College (1822 and 1891), Slater
Hall (1879), Maxcy Hall (1895), and Caswell Hall (1903) ; and the
Carrie (clock) Tower, erected in 1904 by Paul Bajnotti, of Turin,
Italy, as a memorial to his wife, Carrie Mathilde Brown, of
Providence. Besides the general library, containing (1909)
about 164,000 volumes, the university owns the separately
housed John Carter Brown Library of 20,000 volumes, one of
1 So called because Roger Williams was greeted here by Indians,
who said " What cheer, Netop ?" (" Netop " meaning friend).
the best collections in the world of material on early American
history (especially of books printed before 1800), which, with
an endowment of $500,000, was presented to the university in
1901 in accordance with the will of John Nicholas Brown, the
son of John Carter Brown (1797-1874) a prominent Providence
merchant, who began the collection. In 1909 the_ university
had an endowment fund of $3,416,744, 90 instructors and 993
students, of whom 88 were graduates; of the undergraduates
179 were enrolled in the Women's College. The charter of the
institution requires that it shall be governed by a board of thirty-
six trustees, of whom twenty-two shall be Baptists, five Friends,
four Congregationalists, and five Episcopalians, and by twelve
fellows (including the president) of whom eight (including
the president) shall be Baptists, " and the rest indifferently
of any or all denominations." At the time it was framed the
charter was considered extraordinarily liberal. Only two pro-
visions are included regarding the character of instruction
to be offered: first that " the public teaching shall in
general respect the sciences," and second, that " into this
liberal and catholic institution shall never be admitted any
religious tests, but on the contrary all the members hereof shall
forever enjoy full, free, absolute and uninterrupted liberty of
conscience." The government has always been largely noh-
sectarian in spirit, and a movement was on foot in 1910 to
abolish the denominational requirements for trustees and
fellows.
Brown University, the fifst institution for higher education
established by American Baptists, was incorporated in 1764, and
although still under its original charter was known for the first
forty years as Rhode Island College. The Latin or preparatory
school was opened at Warren in 1764 and the college was started
there in 1766, but in 1770 the institution was removed to Provi-
dence. Although its work was interrupted by the War of Inde-
pendence, the institution was reopened in 1782 and ten years
later it began to receive aid from Nicholas Brown (1769-1841),
a wealthy merchant who graduated from the Rhode Island College
in 1786; it was named in his honour in 1804, and up to the time
of his death his gifts amounted to about $160,000. Dr Francis
Wayland, the most eminent of its presidents, began hjs adminis-
tration in 1827 and in twenty-eight years of service as its head he
established the elective system and greatly raised the standard
of scholarship. Brown- actually became a university under Elisha
Benjamin Andrews, who was president in 1889-1898, who developed
the graduate school and undergraduate instruction in history
and social and political science, and who was succeeded in 1899
by William Herbert Perry Faunce (b. 1859), who graduated at
Brown in 1880. In 1900 and 1901 more than $2,000,000 was added
to the endowment of the university. The Women's College was
founded in 1891, and in 1897 it was accepted by the corporation
as a department of the university. Among distinguished alumni
of Brown are Henry Wheaton (1785-1848), John Hay, Richard
OIney, James Burrill Angell (b. 1829) Adoniram Judson, William
Learned Marcy, Wilbur Fisk, Horace Mann, Samuel Gridley Howe,
Barnas Sears, Edwards Amasa Park, Samuel Sullivan Cox, George
Park Fisher, George Dana Boardman, Alexander Lyman Holley,
and Albert Harkness.
In Providence are the Rhode Island Normal School (in the
north part of the city, in Gaspee St.; established in 1854; discon-
tinued in 1857; re-established in 1871), which has a fine building
(1898), the Rhode Island Institute for the Deaf (1876), and the
Rhode Island School of Design (1877; partially supported by
the state, since 1882, and by the city), affiliated with Brown
University. The following secondary schools are in the city:
four high schools, one of which is technical, La Salle Academy
(1871; Roman Catholic, under the Brothers of the Christian
Schools), Saint Xavier's Academy (Roman Catholic), the
Academy of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic), Moses
Brown School (Friends; at Portsmouth in 1784-1788; re-estab-
lished in Providence in 1814), the Brown school for boys (non-
sectarian) , Fielden-Chace school for girls (non-sectarian), and
the Lincoln School (non-sectarian). The public school system
has benefited by the presence of Brown University, whose
faculty has been largely represented on the school committee;
by an agreement with the university its professor of the theory
and practice of education is director of the training department
in the high schools, and there are other schemes of co-operation.
Transition classes between the kindergarten and primary were
512
PROVIDENCE
long peculiar to the Providence public schools. In 1908 a
" Sunshine School " was established, with sun and fresh-air
treatment for invalid pupils.
The Providence Journal (Independent, daily, 1829), the most
important newspaper published in the state, and the Evening
Bulletin (Independent, 1863) are controlled by the same com-
pany.
The charitable institutions include the Rhode Island Hospital
(1863, private), the Prisoners' Aid Association (1872), the Providence
Rescue Home and Mission (1896), the Bethany Home of Rhode
Island (1892), a temporary home for women; the House of the Good
Shepherd (1904), the Lying-in Hospital (1884), Saint Joseph's
Hospital (1892; Sisters of St Francis), two dispensaries, a City
Hospital for the Treatment of Contagious Diseases (1909) en Capitol
Hill ; the Butler Hospital for the Insane, which is one of the oldest
institutions of its kind in the country, was established by a be-
quest of $30,000 left in 1841 by Nicholas Brown, and has about
120 acres of beautiful grounds on the western bank of the Seekonk;
the Dexter Asylum for the Poor (endowed with the Dexter Fund
and limited to those who have a legal settlement in Providence,
i.e. have paid taxes on $200 worth of property for five years; and
hence a charity of little practical use) ; a home for aged men (1875), a
home for aged women (1856), St Elizabeth's Home (1882, Protestant
Episcopal) for incurable and convalescent women ; a home for aged
coloured women (1890), five temporary homes, the Rhode Island
Catholic Orphan Asylum (1851, Sisters of Mercy), St Vincent de
Paul's Infant Asylum (1892, Sisters of Divine Providence), St
Mary's Orphanage (1873, Protestant Episcopal), the State Home
and School (1885) for indigent and neglected children, Providence
Children's Friend Society (1835), other homes for children, day
nurseries, and the Providence Society for organizing charity (1892).
Jewish charities are prominent. The St Vincent de Paul Society
is the organized charity of the Roman Catholic churches.
The harbour of Providence and its approaches have been much
improved since the middle of the igth century by the Federal
and state governments. Between 1853 and 1873 the low-water
depth of the channel was increased from 45 ft. to 12 ft., at a cost
of $59,000; from 1878 to 1895 the depth of the channel was
further increased to 25 ft., and anchorage basins were created
with a minimum depth of 20 ft. for a width of 600 ft., with a
minimum depth of 18 ft. for a width of 725 ft., with a minimum
depth of 12 ft. for a width of 940 ft., and with a minimum depth
of 6 ft. for a width of 1060 ft. Between 1896 and 1906 the
channel from Sassafras Point to the ocean was widened to
400 ft. and by 1909 the anchorage area, having a depth of 25 ft.,
was further increased to about 288 acres. Between 1867 and
1909 the channel of the Seekonk river was dredged to a depth
of 16 ft. as far as Pawtucket at the head of navigation. In
1908 the commerce, largely coastwise, of Providence Harbor,
amounted to 3,379,594 tons, chiefly coal, general merchandise
and fish, valued at $93,309,495. In 1909 the value of the foreign
imports, chiefly salt from Turks Island and lumber from Nova
Scotia, amounted to $1,893,551, and the value of the exports to
$12,517. Of greater importance to Providence than its com-
merce are its manufactures, the value of which in 1905 was
$91,980,963, or 16-9% more than in 1900. Its factory products
were valued at 45-5% of the state's total; its wage earners were
40-9% of the state's total; and nearly one-half of the worsted
goods and more than one-fourth of all the textiles made in the
state were manufactured here, as were four-fifths of the rubber
and elastic goods, nine-tenths of the foundry and machine-shop
products, and all the gold and silver refined, not from the ore.
The Gorham Company engage here in the manufacture of gold,
silver and bronze works of art; the American Screw Company,
the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, and the
Nicholson File Company have factories here; and here the
famous Corliss engines were first made about 1847. In 1905
Rhode Island ranked first among the states and Territories of the
Union in the value of jewelry manufactured and more than
99% of this was made in Providence, which produced 26-9%
(by value) of all the jewelry made in the United States. The
value of the jewelry made in Providence in 1905 was $14,317,050,
being 15-6% of the value of the city's entire factory product.
Closely allied with this manufacture were the reducing and re-
fining of gold and silver sweepings, &c. (none from ore), with a
product value in 1905 of $4,260,698, and silversmithing and the
manufacture of silver-ware with products in 1905 valued at
$51323,264. Actually the largest industry in 1905 was the
manufacture of worsted goods, valued at $21,020,892. Other
important manufactures are foundry and machine-shop products
(1905, $9,358,687), woollen goods ($2,080,658), cotton goods
($1,025,264) and cotton small wares ($1,967,298), dyeing and
finishing textiles ($2,254,074), rubber and elastic goods
($2,167,983), and malt liquors ($1,427,246).
Providence is governed under a city charter of 1832, subse-
quently amended. A town meeting is still held annually for
the administration of the fund (referred to above) called the
Dexter donation. Under the city charter only citizens who pay
a tax on $134 worth of real property or $200 worth of personal
property may vote for members of the city council. Until
1842 there was the further requirements that every voter should
be the eldest son of a freeholder. The city council is composed
of: a board of aldermen, one from each of the ten wards, which
may redistrict the city every five years, and until 1895 acted
as a returning board, and which is presided over by the mayor;
and a common council of four members from each ward, elected
in open ward-meeting by the qualified freeholders of the ward.
Elections are annual. The aldermen and common council meet
together to organize and to elect municipal officers, not other-
wise provided for. The greater size of the common council
gives it the power in joint sessions; and although the vote of
the city for mayor is normally Democratic, the vote of the
qualified freeholders (which is only about 40 % of the total vote)
for common-councilmen and aldermen is always Republican.
The two houses acted before 1895 as a board of registration;
the council now chooses a board of three members with a term of
three years. The city council and a school committee of 33
members (3 ex officio; 30 elected by wards, one each year from
each ward for a three-year term) control the public schools.
The mayor has had the veto power only since 1854; and until
1866 his veto could be overridden by a majority vote; a three-
fifths vote of each chamber is now necessary. The mayor was
at the head of the police department until 1901, when a commis-
sion of three was created; until 1906 these police commissioners
were appointed by the governor of the state, but they are now
chosen by the mayor with the approval of the board of alder-
men. In the same way the mayor appoints a commissioner of
public works for a term of three years. The three commissioners
of the fire department and the three members of the board for
the assessment of taxes are chosen by the city council. The
city treasurer (since 1858) and the overseer of the poor and the
harbour-master (since 1866) are elected by popular vote. The
municipality owns and operates the waterworks and there are
municipal bath-houses.
Providence was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams, an exile
from Massachusetts, and its early history is closely bound up
with the early history of Rhode Island, it being one of the four
towns out of which this commonwealth was formed. Having
agreed with Canonicus and Miantonomo, the Narraganset
sachems, for the purchase of a considerable tract of land, Wil-
liams built his house about 50 ft. east of what is now North Main
Street and nearly opposite the confluence of the Moshassuck
and Woonasquatucket rivers, and he named the place Providence
in recognition of his divine guidance hither. He and a few
companions who had accompanied him into exile immediately
established a town government with monthly town meetings,
and in the next year, 1637, after the arrival of a few more settlers,
a plantation covenant was adopted which laid the basis of the
future commonwealth on a new principle the complete separa-
tion of religious and civil affairs. In 1644 Williams secured
a charter uniting Providence, Aquidneck (Portsmouth) , and New-
port, as " The Incorporation of Providence Plantations in the
Narraganset Bay in New England "; these three towns (and
Warwick) organized in Providence in May 1647 under this
government. The charter of the 24th of November 1663, to
the Governor and Company of the English Colony of Rhode
Island and Providence Plantations, perpetuated the name
Providence Plantations, which still remains a part of the legal
title of the state. Providence was incorporated as a town by
PROVINCE
5*3
the Colonial Assembly in 1649; in 1730-1731, when the area of
Providence was 370 sq. m., Scituate (including Foster), Glocester
(including Burrillville), and Smithfield (including North Smith-
field and Lincoln) were set off; in the next thirty years the area
of the township was reduced to 5^ sq. m. by the separation of
Cranston, Johnston and North Providence, parts of which have
been re-annexed since 1860. Providence was chartered as a
in 1832. During King Philip's War, in 1676, the town was
attacked by Indians and the northern half was burned. In
June 1772, a British schooner, the " Gaspee," while chasing a
Providence packet-boat ran aground at what has since become
known as Gaspee Point, whereupon its capture was planned by
John Brown (1736-1828), a Providence merchant, and the plan
unhiding the burning of the vessel was carried out under the
iand of Abraham Whipple (1733-1819). During the war
much privateering was carried on from Providence. The
British occupation of Newport during the War of Independence
caused the transfer of the important foreign commerce of that
to Providence, but as a consequence of their superior railway
facilities most of this went to New York and Boston before the
middle of the igth century. In September 1815 Providence
visited by a gale which did about $1,000,000 damage to its
shipping and other property. In 1830 Providence had ceased to
IK- a great port and had begun to be a textile manufacturing
|)laei-. Until 1900 Providence was one of the two capitals of
the state, Newport being the other; since 1900 it has been the
sole capital.
See H. C. Dorr, " The Planting and Growth of Providence," in
the Rhode Island Historical Tracts (Providence, 1882); W. A. Greene
and others, The Providence Plantations for Two Hundred and Fifty
< (Providence, 1886); W. R. Staples, Annals of the Town oj
Providence (Providence, 1843); W. B. Weeden, "Providence, the
ny of Hope," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of New England
York, 1898); H. K. Stokes, " Finances and Administration of
Providence " (Baltimore, 1903) in Johns Hopkins University Studies
in Historical and Political Science; and William Kirk and others,
A Modern City: Providence, Rhode Island, and Its Activities (Chicago,
1909).
PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of provi-
dentia), a term originally applied, in ancient Rome, to the depart-
ment or sphere of duty assigned to one of the higher magistrates,
the consuls and praetors. 1 When, with the spread of the
Roman arms, the government of conquered countries grew to
be one of the most important duties of the higher magistrates,
the term province, from designating the government of a con-
quered country as one particular duty of a Roman magistrate,
came to be used generally as a designation of the country itself.
Thus in later days it was applied to analogous territorial sub-
divisions of a country, as opposed to the centre of government;
and apart from any territorial signification, the term is used
generally for a sphere of duty.
It is to the older sense of the term as a subject territory lying
outside of Italy and governed by Roman magistrates that the
following historical remarks apply:
As distinguished from Italy, the provinces paid tribute to Rome,
for, at least from the time of the Gracchi, it was a recognized
constitutional principle that the provinces were the estates of
the Roman people and were to be managed for its benefit.
Under the republic the constitution of a province was drawn up
by the victorious Roman general assisted by ten commissioners
appointed by the senate from its own body, and the province
was henceforth governed on the lines laid down in this constitu-
tion or charter (lex pronnciae). For administrative purposes
the province was divided into districts, each with its capital, the
magistrates and council of which were responsible for the col-
lertion of the district taxes. For judicial purposes the province
was divided into circuits (conventus), and in the chief town
of each circuit the governor of the province regularly held
assizes.
1 Only those magistrates who had imperium (military power)
had a province. When the province of a quaestor is mentioned it
refers to the province of the consul or praetor to whom the quaestor
is subordinate. In familiar language any business was called a
province.
xxii. 17
Cities taken by the sword were destroyed, and their lands
were turned into Roman domains and were let out by the censors
at Rome to private persons, who undertook to pay a certain pro-
portion of the produce. Royal domains, such as those of
Syracuse, Macedonia, Pergamum, Bithynia and Cyrene were also
confiscated. On the other band communities which surrendered
without offering an obstinate resistance were usually allowed to
retain their personal freedom and private property, and their
chief town was left in the enjoyment of its territory and civil
rights; but all the lands were subjected to a tax, consisting
either of a payment in kind (vecligal) or of a fixed sum of money
(Iributum, stipendium), and in some cases a custom-duty (por-
lorium) was levied. It is to this latter class of communities (the
civitates vectigales or stipendiariae) that the large majority of the
provincial states belonged. In a better position were those
states whose freedom was guaranteed by Rome on the ground
of old alliances or special loyalty. Their freedom was recognized
either by a treaty or by a decree of the Roman people or seriate.
As a decree of the people or senate could at any time be recalled,
the position of the free states without a treaty was more pre-
carious than that of the treaty states (civitates foederatae). The
latter, though not allowed to meddle in foreign politics, enjoyed
a certain amount of internal freedom, retained their lands, paid
no taxes, and were bound to render those services only which
were expressly stipulated for in the original treaty, such as
furnishing ships and troops, supplying corn at a certain price
and receiving Roman officials and soldiers en route. Amongst
these treaty states were Massilia (Marseilles), Athens, Rhodes
and Tyre. The privileges of the free but not treaty states were
somewhat similar, but, as stated, more precarious. All political
distinctions, save that between slave and freeman, disappeared
when Caracalla bestowed the Roman franchise on the whole
empire.
Provincial Diets. Apart from the government by Roman
officials, every province appears to have had, at least under the
empire, a provincial assembly or Diet of its own (concilium or
commune), and these Diets are interesting as the first attempts
at representative assemblies. The Diet met annually, and was
composed of deputies (legati), from the provincial districts. It
arranged for the celebration of religious rites and games, especially
(under the empire) for the worship of the emperor, the neglect
of which was severely punished. The actual celebration was
under the conduct of the high priest of the province, a person of
much dignity and importance, perhaps the forerunner of the
Christian bishop. The Diet also decreed the erection of statues
and monuments; it passed votes of thanks to the outgoing
governor, or forwarded complaints against him to Rome; and
it had the right of sending embassies direct to the senate or
the emperor.
The Provincial Governor. The provinces were administered by
governors sent direct from Rome, who held office for a year. From
the formation of the first provinces in 227 B.C. down to the time
of Sulla (82 B.C.) the governors were praetors (see PRAETOR) ; from
the time of Sulla to that of Augustus the praetors remained in
Rome during their year of office, and at the end of it assumed the
government of a province with the title of propraetor. This applies,
however, only to provinces which were in a settled state and could
consequently be administered without a large military force. A
province which was the seat of war, or was at least in a disturbed
state, was committed to the care either of one of the consuls for
the year or of a commander specially appointed for the purpose with
the title of proconsul, who might be one of the consuls of the pre-
ceding or of a previous year, or else a former praetor, or even, in
rare cases, a private individual who had held neither consulship
nor praetorship. Thus the distinction between consular (or pro-
consular) and piactorial (or propraetorial) provinces varied from
year to year with the military exigencies of different parts of the
empire. At the close of the republic, however, we find even such
a peaceful province as Asia administered by a proconsul. In the
earlier period of the republic the senate either before or after the
elections determined which provinces were to be governed by con-
suls and which by praetors, and after their election the consuls
arranged between themselves by lot or otherwise which of the
provinces nominated by the senate each should have, and similarly
with the praetors. But in order to guard against partiality the
Sempronian law of 123 B.C. provided that the senate should yearly
nominate the two consular provinces before the election of the
PROVINCETOWN
consuls, and that the consuls should after their election but before
their entry on office arrange between themselves which of the two
provinces each should have. The Pompeian law of 53 B.C. enacted
that no one should hold the governorship of a province till at least
five years after his consulship or praetorship. This law was re-
pealed by Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, but was re-enacted
under Augustus; it severed the connexion which had previously
existed between an urban magistracy and the governorship of a
province, and turned the latter, from the mere prolongation of a
Roman magistracy, into an independent office. Like magistracies
at Rome a provincial governorship was regularly held for one year;
but, unlike them, it could be prolonged, formerly by a vote of the
people, later by a decree of the senate. The Julian law of Caesar
(46 B.C.) enacted that the governorship of a consular province should
be held for two, that of a praetorian province for one year. The
necessary supplies of men and money were voted to the governor
by the senate. His staff consisted of one or more lieutenants
(legati), a quaestor (q.v.) and numerous subordinates. The lieu-
tenants were nominated by the senate from men of senatorial rank;
if they proved incompetent, the governor dismissed them; if
they showed ability, he entrusted them with military or judicial
functions. Besides these the governor took with him from Rome
a number of young men of the upper classes to assist him in the
government. These were known as the companions (comites) or
suite of the governor, sometimes, but incorrectly, as the praetorian
cohort (see PRAETORIANS). These members of his suite were chosen
by the governor himself, who was responsible for them, but they
were maintained at the expense of the state, and under the empire
received regular pay. In addition there was a crowd of beadles,
clerks, couriers, criers, doctors, dragomans, &c., not to speak of
freedmen and slaves for the personal service of the governor. Under
the republic the governor was not allowed to take his wife with him
to his province; under the empire he might do so, but he was answer-
able for her conduct. Before setting out for his province the
governor, clad in the purple military robe of his office, offered sacri-
fice on the Capitol; then immediately after receiving the imperium
or military command he marched out of the city (for the imperium
could only be exercised outside of Rome and was forfeited by
staying in the city), preceded by his sergeants (lictores), and accom-
panied by his suite. He was bound to travel direct to his pro-
vince; the means of transport were supplied partly by the state,
partly by the provinces through which he travelled. His year of
office began from the day he set foot in his province, but the time
of arrival varied with the length and difficulty of the route. In
the hands of the governor all powers military and civil were united.
He commanded all the troops in the province, and had power to
raise levies of Roman citizens as well as of provincials, and to make
requisitions of war material. He possessed both criminal and civil
jurisdiction; as criminal judge he had the power of life and death,
and from his sentence none but Roman citizens could appeal ; as
civil judge he was guided partly by the charter of the province
(lex provinciae), partly by the edict which it was customary for him
to issue before his entrance on office (compare PRAETOR), partly by
the original laws of the country so far as their validity was acknow-
ledged by the charter or by the governor's own edict. Under the
empire Gaius wrote a commentary on the provincial edict, and it
is usually supposed that this was a general edict drawn up for use
in all the provinces and superseding all separate edicts for the
different provinces. Mommsen, however, is of opinion that Gaius
only commented on the edict of a particular province.
Condition of the Provinces under the Republic. Under the republic
the Roman people regarded the provinces as so many estates from
which they were to derive revenue. The weal or woe of the pro-
vincials was of no moment, but the development of the material
resources of the provinces was of great moment. Hence agriculture
and commerce were encouraged, settlements were made, roads and
aqueducts were constructed ; in short, the Roman aimed at exploit-
ing his empire by a system of prudent economy as far as possible
removed from the blind rapacity which has turned the empire of
the Turk from a garden into a wilderness. But the Roman governors
were too apt to look on their provinces as their own peculiar prey ;
they had usually bought their way to office at vast expense, and they
now sought in the provinces the means of reimbursing themselves
for the expenditure they had incurred at Rome. The annual
change of governor was. thus a frightful calamity to the provincials,
for every year brought a repetition of the same extravagant de-
mands to be met by the same or, as the province became exhausted,
still heavier sacrifices. Redress was to be had originally by a com-
plaint to the senate; after 149 B.C. there was a regular court estab-
lished at Rome for the trial of cases of extortion (repetundae) by
provincial governors. But, even when after much trouble and
expense the provincials had arraigned their oppressor, it was difficult
to secure his condemnation at the hands of juries composed (as
they usually were) of men who had a fellow-feeling for the offender
because they had themselves committed or hoped for means of
committing similar offences. Besides the governor, two classes
of harpies joined in wringing the uttermost farthing from the
unhappy provincials. These were the publicani or farmers of
the taxes, and the money-lenders (negotiators) , who supplied a
temporary accommodation at ruinous rates of interest. Both these
classes were recruited from the ranks of the Roman knights, and,
since from the legislation of Gaius Gracchus (122 B.C.) the juries
were drawn at first exclusively and after Sulla's time (81 B.C.)
partially from the knightly order, 1 the provincial governor could
not check the excesses of those blood-suckers without risking a
condemnation at the hands of their brethren. Accordingly he gener-
ally made common cause with them, backing their exactions when
needful by military force.
The Provinces under the Empire. Under the empire the pro-
vinces fared much better. The monarchy tended to obliterate the
distinction between Romans and provincials by reducing both to a
common level of subjection to the emperor, who meted out equal
justice to all his subjects. The first centuries of the Christian
era were probably for some of the countries included in the
Roman Empire the happiest of their history; Gibbon indeed fixed
on the period from the death of Domitian to the accession of
Commodus (96-180 A.D.) as the happiest age of the world.
Augustus, in 27 B.C., divided the provinces into imperial and
senatorial. Those which, from their proximity to the frontier or
the turbulence of their population, required the presence of an
army were placed under the direct control of the emperor; those
which needed no troops were left to be administered by the senate,
(l) The senatorial provinces were ruled by an annual governor as
under the republic. Of these provinces Augustus ordained that
Africa and Asia should be consular,- the rest praetorian; but all
the governors of the senatorial provinces were now called pro-
consuls. Their powers and dignities were much the same as they
had been under the republic, except that they had now no troops,
or only a handful to maintain order. (2) The imperial provinces
were governed by imperial lieutenants (legati Caesaris), who were
nominated by' the emperor and held office at his pleasure ; all of
them had the power of the sword (jus gladii). For the adminis-
tration of the finances these lieutenants had procurators under
them, while the governors of the senatorial provinces continued
to have quaestors as under the republic. Another class of imperial
provinces consisted of those which from the physical nature of the
country (as the Alpine districts) or the backward state of civiliza-
tion (as Mauretania and Thrace) or the stubborn character of the
people (as Judaea and Egypt) were not adapted to receive a regular
provincial constitution. These were regarded as domains of the
emperor, and were managed by a procurator (in the case of Egypt
by a praefect, see PRAEFECT) nominated by and responsible to the
emperor.
Under the empire all provincial governors received a fixed
salary. Complaints against them were brought before the senate,
and the accusers were allowed a senator to act as their advocate.
The lengthened periods during which the governors, at least in the
imperial provinces, held office, together with the oversight exercised
by the emperor, alleviated materially the position of the provincials
under the empire. In order to keep himself well informed of what
was passing in the empire, Augustus established a post whereby
official despatches were forwarded by couriers and official persons
were conveyed by coaches. The post, however, was only for the
use of the government; no private person was allowed, unless by
an exceptional concession, to avail himself of it. (J. G. FR. ; X.)
AUTHORITIES. The most exhaustive account of the Roman
provinces and their administration will be found in Marquardt,
Romische Staatsyerwaltung (1881), vol. ii See also W. T. Arnold,
Roman Provincial Administration (1879) ; Mommsen, Roman Pro-
vinces under the Empire (1884); C. Halgan, L' Administration des
provinces senatoriales sous I'empire, with full bibliography of the
subject; and T. M. Taylor, Constitutional and Political History of
Rome (1899).
PROVINCETOWN, a township at the N. end of Cape Cod, in
Barnstable county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1890), 4642;
(1900), 4247; (1910 U.S. census) 4369. Area about 95 sq. m.
The township is served by the New York, New Haven & Hart-
ford railway, and by a steamship line to Boston. The harbour,
which is important as a harbour of refuge, is protected on the
east by land, and the Federal government has strengthened this
protection by dikes and groins and other sand-catching devices;
it has five lighthouses. There is a magnificent beach stretching
30 m. from Provincetown village to Eastham. The village is a
summer resort. Through many generations the inhabitants
have gained their living chiefly from the sea; the township's
fisheries, however, have greatly decreased in importance (the
invested capital diminishing 67-1% in 1885-1895). The
prosperity it retains is not a little due to Portuguese from the
Cape Verde Islands and the Azores, and to British Americans.
Provincetown village was long second only to Gloucester in
the cod fisheries, which low prices and the introduction of
larger vessels and correspondingly costlier fittings have greatly
1 Sulla excluded the equites from the list ; the lex Aurelia (70)
reinstated them.
PROVINS PROVISION
handicapped. Whaling retains a remnant of its old importance,
and there are also mackerel and shore fisheries, oil-works, cold
storage establishments for preserving fish for food and bait, and
canning works for herring. The first settlement here was made
about 1680; it became a " district " or precinct of Truro in 1714,
and was established as a township with its present name in 1727.
incetown harbour was possibly visited by Caspar Cortereal
in 1501; Gosnold explored it and its vicinity in 1602, and John
Smith was here in 1614. It was in this harbour that the " May-
flower " compact (see MASSACHUSETTS) was drawn up and
signed by the Pilgrims before they proceeded to Plymouth, in
1620; here John Carver was chosen the first governor of Plymouth
Colony, and Provincetown was the first landing place (on Satur-
day the nth [o.s.] of November) of the Pilgrims in the New
World. A memorial of the " compact," of polished Acton
granite, 6 ft. high, with two bronze tablets, was erected before
the town-hall by the Old Colony Commission, and on High Pole
Hill on the 2oth of August 1907 the cornerstone of a second
memorial (completed in 1909, dedicated Aug. 5, 1910), a granite
tower, 252 ft. high, was laid, addresses being delivered by
President Roosevelt, James Bryce and H. C. Lodge. In Pro-
vincetown harbour, on the ist of January 1862, James M. Mason
and John Slidell, the envoys of the Confederate States to Great
Britain and France respectively, who had been taken by a
ral vessel from the British ship " Trent," were restored by
the Federal authorities to H.B.M.S. " Rinaldo," after their
detention in Fort Warren in Boston harbour.
PROVINS, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-
dissement of the department of Seine-et-Marne, at the junction
of the Curtain with the Voulzie (an affluent of the Seine), 59 m.
E.S.E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), 7546. The town enjoys a
certain reputation for its mineral waters (which contain iron,
lime, and carbonic acid, and are used for bathing and drinking),
and is also known from its trade in roses, but it derives a higher
interest from numerous remains of its medieval prosperity.
Provins is divided into two quarters the ville-haute and
the less ancient ville-basse which in the i3th century were
surrounded by fortifications. There still remains a great part
of these fortifications, which made a circuit of about 4 m.,
strengthened at intervals by towers, generally round, and now,
I^ing bordered with fine trees, form the principal promenade of
the town. The large tower situated within this line, and variously
known as the king's, Caesar's or the prisoners' tower, is one of
the most curious of the I2th century keeps now extant. The
base is surrounded by a thick mound of masonry added by the
English in the 15th century when they were masters of the
town. The tower serves as belfry to the church of St Quiriace,
which dates its foundation from the I2th century. These two
buildings in the ville-haute rise picturesquely from the crest
of a steep wooded hill above the ville-basse. The church
preserves among its treasures the pontifical ornaments of St
Edmund of Canterbury (d. 1242). The interior is plain, but
very beautifully proportioned. The appearance of the exterior
suffers from an inappropriate dome erected above the crossing.
The palace of the counts of Champagne, some fragments
of which also belong to the i2th century, is occupied by
the communal college. The old tithe-barn is a building of the
i3th century with two fine vaulted chambers, one of which is
below ground. The church of St Ayoul dates from the I2th to
the 1 6th centuries, the transept being the oldest part; it is in a
of great dilapidation, and the choir is used as a storehouse.
St Croix belongs partially to the i3th century. Extensive
cellars, used as warehouses in the middle ages, extend beneath
portions of the town. On Mont Ste Catherine, opposite Provins,
the general hospital occupies the site of an old convent of St
Clare, of which there remains a cloister of the I4th century.
The sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce
are among the public institutions. There is an active trade in
grain, livestock and wool, and the industries include flour-
milling, nursery-gardening, brickmaking, and the manufac-
ture of porcelain, pianos, gas and petrol engines, agricultural
implements and sugar.
Provins began to figure in history in the 9th century. Passing
from the counts of Vermandois to the counts of Champagne, it
rapidly attained a high degree of prosperity. Cloth and leather
were its staple manufactures, and its fairs, attended by traders
from all parts of Europe, were of as much account as those of
Beaucaire, while its money had currency throughout Europe.
In the i3th century the population of the town is said to have
reached 60,000; but the plague of 1348 and the famine of 1349
proved disastrous. The Hundred Years' War, during which
Provins was captured and recaptured, completed the ruin of
the town. During the religious wars it sided with the Catholic
party and the League, and Henry IV. obtained possession of it
in 1592 only after thirteen days' siege.
See Felix Bourquelot, Hislmre de Provins (2 vols., Provins,
1839-1840).
PROVISION (Lat. pronsio), a. term meaning strictly the act
of providing, or anything provided, especially in respect of food
(provisions) or other necessaries. In constitutional law it
signifies the act by which an ecclesiastical office or benefice is
conferred by a person having competent authority for the
purpose; and the word is specially used of appointments made
by the pope in derogation of the rights of ecclesiastical patrons.
Innocent III. (1198-1216) seems to have been the first pope who
directed prelates to collate his nominees to canonries and other
benefices, but it was during the pontificate of Innocent IV.
(1243-1254) that the practice first assumed alarming propor-
tions. Vigorous protests were then made in England and France
against the large number of papal provisions in favour of non-
resident Italian clerks. These protests were not without effect
for a while; but the popes, finding it impossible to carry on the
work of government without this means of rewarding their
servants, soon began to show little regard to national protests.
The English parliament held at Carlisle in 1307 petitioned the
king for a remedy against this abuse, but though he promised
redress nothing was done. Meanwhile the popes had been
asserting claims to appoint bishops in certain events on their
own initiative, and at last Clement V. (1305-1313) reserved
to himself the right of appointment in all cases. After his time
there is scarcely an instance of an English bishop being elected
in accordance with the older procedure by the cathedral chapter.
If an election were made the pope usually either overrode it by
another appointment or, ignoring the election, appointed the
elected clerk by a bull of provision. The Hundred Years' War
caused an outburst of indignation against the use of papal pro-
visions, whether to the canonries and collative offices or to
bishoprics. The popes had taken up their residence at Avignon
and had become mere creatures of the kings of France. The
English nobility and gentry were bitter at seeing vast sums of
money pass out of the country into the hands of their enemies.
To remedy the evil the first Statute of Provisors was enacted in
1351. It declared that the free elections of bishops and other
dignitaries should take place in accordance with the ancient
practice; that bishops and ecclesiastics should have free presenta-
tions to benefices and offices in their gift; that in the event of
any provision being made by the pope the king should have the
same right of collation as his progenitors had before they granted
free election; and similarly where the pope provided to a benefice
or office in the gift of secular or regular clergy the king was to
have the collation for that occasion. Provisors who interfered
with the rights of the king or patron were liable to arrest and
imprisonment on conviction. The act was supplemented in
I 353 by the first Statute of Praemunire, by which appeals outside
the realm were prohibited and persons who offended were made
liable to outlawry. This legislation against papal provisions was
anti-clerical rather than anti-papal. There are no signs that it
was promoted by the English clergy, who seem to have accepted
the claim of the popes to control their patronage. In spite of
the statutes the popes still continued, as the papal registers
show, to make provisions to English benefices and offices, and
it is evident that the statutes were not enforced. The Statute
of Provisors was confirmed by a second statute in 1364, but this
again seems to have had little effect. Attempts were made to
5 i6
PROVISIONAL ORDER PROVOST
establish a concordat on the subject between the king and pope;
its terms, however, were all in favour of the latter. At last,
in 1389, a third Statute of Provisors was enacted which
provided that the statute of 1351 should be firmly holden for
ever and " put in due execution from time to time in all manner
of points." The new statute was carried into effect as regards
canonries and benefices; but, until the Reformation, bishops
were nominally appointed by a papal bull of provision. The
person appointed, however, was usually nominated by the king,
and the bull v/as not issued without' his consent.
AUTHORITIES. Statutes of the Realm ; Calendar of Papal Registers ;
J. Le Neve, Fasti ecclesiae anglicanae; Rolls of Parliament; F. W.
Maitland, Canon Law in the Church of England; W. Stubbs, Con-
stitutional History of England; Anglia sacra. (G. J. T.)
PROVISIONAL ORDER, a method of procedure followed by
several government departments in England, authorizing action
on the part of local authorities under various acts of parliament.
Procedure by provisional order is a substitute for the more
expensive course of private bill legislation; it is usually employed
for such purposes as alteration of areas, compulsory purchase
of land, building of light railways, &c. A preliminary local
inquiry is first held in public by an inspector of the department
to whom application has been made to issue it. Upon the report
of the inspector and other information the department decides
whether or not to issue the order. The order when issued has no
force until it is confirmed by parliament. For this purpose it
is included with other orders in a confirming bill, introduced by
the minister at the head of the department concerned. In both
houses of parliament all provisional order bills are referred to
examiners for compliance with standing orders. In the House of
Lords, if a provisional order bill is opposed, it is referred to a
select committee and then to a committee of the whole house;
if not opposed, it goes, after second reading, to a committee
of the whole house, and in both cases then proceeds as a
public bill. In the House of Commons, the bill goes after second
reading to the committee of selection or to the general committee
on railway and canal bills; if unopposed it is treated as an
unopposed private bill; if opposed it goes to a private bill
committee, which hears evidence for and against.
PROVO, a city and the county-seat of Utah county, Utah,
U.S.A., on the Provo river, 3 m. E. of Utah Lake, and about
45 m. S. by E. of Salt Lake City. Pop. (1890), 5159; (1900),
6185 (1176 foreign-born); (1910) 8925. Provo is served by the
Rio Grande Western and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt
Lake railways. It is situated at an altitude of about 4530 ft.,
in a region of fine scenery, Provo Canon, Bridal Veil Falls and
Utah Lake being of especial interest. The city has a general
hospital and is the seat of the state mental hospital and of
Brigham Young University (a Mormon institution), founded by
Brigham Young in 1875, opened as an academy in 1876, and in-
corporated in 1896; it comprises a college and high commercial,
music, arts and trades, agricultural and preparatory schools.
Provo has various manufactures, including woollen goods, lime,
pottery and bricks, and the city is a shipping point for a fertile
agricultural and fruit-producing region. Within a radius of
forty or fifty miles of Provo are a number of important mines.
Provo was settled in 1849 and was chartered as a city in 1851.
PROVOST (through O. Fr. prevost, mod. prevot, Lat. prae-
positus, set over, from praeponere, to place in front) , a title attached
to various ecclesiastical and secular offices. In ecclesiastical
usage the word praepositus was at first applied by the Church
fathers to any ecclesiastical ruler or dignitary. It early, how-
ever, gained a more specific sense as applied to the official next
in dignity to the abbot of a monastery, or to the superior of a
single cell. Thus in the rule of St Benedict the provost (prae-
posilus) is the superior of the monastery immediately subordinate
to the abbot, the dean (decanus) being associated with him.
From the Benedictine rule this arrangement was taken over by
Chrodegang of Metz when he introduced the monastic organiza-
tion of cathedral chapters. In these the provostship (prae-
positura) was normally held by the archdeacon, while the office of
dean fell to the archpriest. In many cathedrals the temporal
duties of the archdeacons made it impossible for them to fulfil
those of the provostship, and the headship of the chapter thus
fell to the dean. In England the title " provost " has thus
everywhere given way to that of " dean "; in Germany, on the
other hand, " Probst " is still the style of the heads of certain
chapters. The title has also been preserved in certain dioceses
of the German Evangelical Church as the equivalent of Superin-
tendent, and both the Roman Catholic and Protestant chaplains-
general of the forces have sometimes, e.g. in Prussia, the title
Feldprobst. The heads of Augustinian and Dominican friaries
are termed " provost or prior " (praepositus vcl prior), those of
Cistercian monasteries " provost or warden " (praepositn.
custos). Finally the name praepositus was sometimes used for
the secular adwcatus of a monastery. With the ecclesiastical
use of the title is connected its English application to the heads
of certain colleges; " provost " is still the style of the principals
of Queen's, Oriel and Worcester Colleges at Oxford, of King's
College at Cambridge, of Trinity College at Dublin and of Eton
College. 1
As a secular title praepositus is also very old; we need only
instance the praepositus sacri cubiculi of the late Roman Empire,
and the praepositus palalii of the Carolingian court. The impor-
tant developments of the title in France are dealt with below.
From France the title found its way into Scotland, where it
survives in the style (provost) of the principal magistrates of
the royal boroughs (" lord provost " in Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Aberdeen, Perth and Dundee), and into England, where it is
applied to certain officers charged with the maintenance of
military discipline. A provost-marshal is an officer of the army
appointed when troops are on service abroad for the prompt
repression of all offences. He may at any time arrest and detain
for trial persons subject to military law committing offences,
and may also carry into execution any punishments to be in-
flicted in pursuance of a court martial (Army Act 1881, 74).
A provost-sergeant is an officer responsible for the maintenance
of order when soldiers are in the United Kingdom. A provost-
sergeant may be either garrison or regimental, and he has under
his superintendence the garrison or regimental police.
(W. A. P.)
The Provost in France. The word prevot (provost) in old
French law had many applications. In conformity with its
etymology (praepositus) it could be applied to any person placed
at the head of a branch of the public service, a position which,
according to the old principles, habitually carried with it a
right of jurisdiction. It is thus that there was at Paris the " pro-
vost of Paris," who was a royal judge, and the " provost of
the merchants " (prevot des marchands), the head of the Paris
municipality. 2 There were besides to mention only the prin-
cipal provosts the " provosts of the marshals of France " (prezdls
des marechauxde France), of whom more below; the " provost of
the royal palace " (prevot de I'hdtel du roi) or " grand provost of
France " (grand prevot de France), and the " provost general "
(prevot general) or " grand provost of the mint" (grand prevdt des
monnaies). But the most important and best known provosts,
who formed part of a general and comprehensive organization,
were the " royal provosts " (prevdts royaux), the lower category
of the royal judges. It must be borne in mind, however, that
the magistrates belonging to the inferior category of royal
judges (juges subalternes) had different designations in many
parts of France. In Normandy and Burgundy they were called
chdtelains, and elsewhere especially in the south viguicrs.
These were titles which had established themselves in the great
fiefs before their reunion with the Crown and had survived this.
The royal provosts, on the other hand, were a creation of the
Capetian monarchy.
The date of this creation is uncertain, but was without doubt
some time in the nth century. The provosts replaced the
viscounts wherever the viscounty had not become a fief, and
1 Where, however, the head-master, though technically sub-
ordinate to the provost, is the effective head of the school.
2 Thus in a register of the Chatelet of Paris in the I4th century,
we read: " & Paris est la prevQte dc Paris et celle des marchands."
PROW PROXY
it is possible that in creating them the Crown was imitating the
ecclesiastical organization in which the provost figured, notably
in the chapters. The royal provosts had at first a double
character. In the first place they fulfilled all the functions
which answered locally to the royal power. They collected all
the revenues of the domain and all the taxes and dues payable to
the king within the limits of their jurisdiction. Doubtless, too,
they had certain military functions, being charged with the duty
of calling out certain contingents for the royal service; there
survived until the end of the ancien regime certain military
provosts prevots d'epee (provosts of the sword) who were re-
placed in the administration of justice by a lieutenant. Finally,
the provosts administered justice, though certainly their com-
petence in this matter was restricted. They had no jurisdiction
over noblemen , or over feudal tenants (hommes defitf) ,who claimed
the jurisdiction of the court of their over-lord, where they were
judged by their peers the other vassals of the same lord.
Neither had they jurisdiction over the open country, the plat
ptivs, where this belonged to local seigneurs; and even in the towns
over which they were set their jurisdiction was often limited by
that of the municipal courts established for the benefit of the
burgesses. The second characteristic of the old provosts was
that their office was farmed for a limited time to the highest
Milder. It was simply an application of the system of farming
the taxes. The provost thus received the speculative right to
collect the revenues of the royal domain in the district under his
jurisdiction; this was his principal concern, and his judicial
functions were merely accessory. By these short appointments
the Crown guaranteed itself against another danger: the possible
conversion by the functionary of the function into a property.
Very early, however, certain provostships were bestowed en
garde, i.e. the provost had to account to the king for all he
collected. The privates en ferme were naturally a source of
abuses and oppression, the former seeking to make the most of
the concession he had bought. Naturally, too, the people com-
plained. From Joinville we learn how under St Louis the
provostship of Paris became a prevoti en garde. At the death
of Louis XI. the prevdles en ferme were still numerous and
provoked a remonstrance from the States-general of 1484. Their
suppression was promised by Charles VIII. in 1493, but they
are again referred to in the grande ordonnance of 1498. They
disappeared in the i6th century, by which time the provosts
become regular officials, their office being purchasable.
Other transformations had previously taken place. The
creation of the royal baillis reduced the provosts to a subaltern
rank. Each bailli had in his district a certain number of pro-
vosts, who became his inferiors in the official hierarchy. When
its were instituted (and this was one of the earliest instances
of t heir introduction) the provost, the sphere of whose competency
was limited, was subject to an appeal to the bailli, though his
judgment had hitherto been without appeal. Moreover, in the
i4th century they had ceased to collect the revenues of the royal
domain, except where the prMtt was en ferme, and royal
collectors (rcceveurs royaux) had been appointed for this purpose.
The summoning of the feudal contingents, the ban and arriere-ban,
had passed into the hands of the baillis. Thus the provosts
were left for their sole function as inferior judges for non-nobles,
the appeals from their sentences going to the baillis, who also had
jurisdiction in the first instance over actions brought against
nobles and in cases reserved for the crown judges (cas royaux).
This corresponded to a principle which had also applied in the
chief feudal courts in the I3th and I4th centuries, where a
distinction was made between judicial acts which could be per-
formed enprevdti, and those which had to be performed in a solemn
assize (assist); this did not, however, always imply the existence
of a superior and an inferior official, a provost and a bailli.
The provost in the exercise of his legal functions sat alone as
judge, and he alone exercised the judicial authority at his tri-
bunal; but he had to consult with certain lawyers (avocats or
prantrcurs) chosen by himself, whom, to use the technical phrase,
he " summoned to his council " (appelait a son conseif). In
1578 official counsellors (conseillers-magistrats) were created, but
were suppressed by the ordonnance of Bloisof 1579. The office
was restored in 1609 by a simple decree of the royal council, but
it was opposed by the parlements, and it seems to have been
conferred in but few cases.
The " provosts of the marshals of France," mentioned above,
were non-legal officials (ojjiciers de la robe courle) forming part of the
body of the marechaussee which was under the ancien regime what
the gendarmerie was after the Revolution. Their original function
was to judge offences committed by persons following the army,
but in the course of the I4th and isth centuries they acquired
the right of judging certain crimes and misdemeanours, by whom-
soever committed. They became stationary, with fixed spheres
of authority, and the offences falling within their competency
came to be called cas prevotaux. These were, the worst crimes
of violence, and all crimes and misdemeanours committed by
old offenders (repris de justice) , who were familiarly known as
the gibier des prevots des marechaux (gaol-birds). Theirs was
really a kind of military jurisdiction, from which there was
no appeal; but the provost was bound to associate with himself
a certain number of ordinary judges or graduates in law. The
provost of the marshals did not himself judge what was a
cas pretotal; this had in each case to be decided by the nearest
bailliage or presidial court. The presidial judges also dealt with
cas prevdtaux in concurrence with the provosts of the
marshals. (J. P. E.)
PROW, the fore-part of a ship, the stem and its surrounding
parts, hence used like " keel," by metonymy, of the ship itself.
It was in old naval parlance applied to the battery of guns placed
in the fore gun-deck. The Fr. proue and cognate forms (Ital.
prua, Port, and Span, proa, of which the English is an adapta-
tion) represent Lat. prora, itself adapted from Or. irpoipa, formed
from irp6, before, in front. From this word must be distinguished
an obsolete " prow," brave, valiant, now only surviving in
" prowess," and representing O. Fr. proit, mod. preux, from the
first part of Lat. prodesse, to be profitable; the same source
gives " proud."
PROXY (short for " procuracy "), a term denoting either (i)
a person who is authorized to stand in place of another, (2) the
legal instrument by which the authority is conferred. Proxies
are now principally employed for certain voting purposes. A
proxy may in law be either general or special. A general proxy
authorizes the person to whom it is entrusted to exercise a general
discretion throughout the matter in hand, while a special proxy
limits the authority to some special proposal or resolution.
Formerly a peer could give his vote in the British parliament by
proxy, by getting another peer to vote for him in his absence,
temporal peers only being privileged to vote for temporal, and
spiritual peers for spiritual. This voting by proxy in the House
of Lords was an ancient custom, often abused. In Charles II. "s
reign the duke of Buckingham used to bring twenty proxies in
his pocket, and the result was that it was ordered that no peer
should bring more than two. In ,1830 to 1867 inclusive proxies
were only called seventy-three times; and on the 3ist of March
1868, on the recommendation of a committee, a new standing
order was adopted by which the practice of calling for proxies
on a division was discontinued. In English bankruptcy pro-
ceedings creditors may vote by proxy, and every instrument of
proxy, which may be cither general or special, is issued either
by the official receiver or trustee. Under the Bankruptcy Act
of 1869 very great abuses of the system of proxies arose (see
BANKRUPTCY), and were investigated by a select committee of
the House of Commons. The committee recommended the
abolition of general proxies; and though their recommendation
was not carried out, the Bankruptcy Acts of 1883 and 1890 put
considerable restrictions on the use of general proxies. A share-
holder in a limited liability company may vote by proxy, and
regulations to that effect prescribing the requirements, are
usually embodied in the articles of association. A proxy to
vote at a meeting must, by the Stamp Act 1870, bear a penny
stamp. In the United States, proxies are further used for
voting purposes in political conventions.
In the early practice of the admiralty courts in England a
5 i8
PRUDENTIUS PRUSSIA
proxy was the authority by which the proctor or advocate
appeared for either party to a suit. In the ecclesiastical courts
a proxy is the warrant empowering a proctor to act for the party
to a suit. Two proxies are usually executed, one authorizing
the proctor to institute, the other to withdraw, proceedings.
They are signed by the parties, attested by two witnesses, and
deposited in the registry of the court (Phillimore, Ecclesiastical
Law). In the convocations of the Church of England those who
are absent are allowed to vote by proxy. " Proxies," or " pro-
curations," were also by the canon law certain sums of money
paid yearly by parish priests to the bishops or archdeacon
ratione msitationis; originally the visitor demanded a proportion
of meat and drink for his refreshment, and afterwards this was
turned into a money " procuration " ad procurandum cibum ct
polum. Marriage by proxy or deputy was a custom recognized
either for reasons of state or ceremonial.
PRUDENTIUS, AURELIUS CLEMENS (348-6. 410), the most
remarkable of the earlier Christian poets in the West, was prob-
ably born at Tarraco, though Saragossa and Calagurris have also
been claimed as his birthplace. The meagre autobiographical
preface, which he affixed to the complete edition of his works
when he was fifty-seven years old, makes it clear that he received
a liberal education being of noble family practised as a
lawyer and entered official life, and finally held some high office
under Theodosius. At the age of fifty-seven he retired to a
monastery, but died shortly afterwards.
Bentley calls Prudentius " the Horace and Virgil of the
Christians," but his diction is stilted and his metre often faulty.
The list of his works given in the preface mentions the hymns,
poems against the Priscillianists and against Symmachus and
Peristephanon. The Diptychon or Dittochaeon is not mentioned.
The twelve hymns of the Cathemerinon liber (" Daily Round ")
consist of six for daily use, five for festivals, and one intended
for every hour of the day. Prudentius shows Ambrose as his
master here, but gives to Ambrose's mystic symbolism much
clearer expression. The Apotheosis and Hamartigenia are
polemic, the first against the disclaimers of the divinity of
Christ, the latter against the gnostic dualism of Marcion and
his followers. In them Tertullian is the source of inspiration.
Of more historical interest are the two books Contra Symmachum,
of 658 and 1131 hexameter verses respectively, the first attacking
the pagan gods, the second directed against the petition of
Symmachus to the emperor for the restoration of the altar
and statue of Victory which Gratian had cast down. The Peri-
stephanon consists of fourteen hymns to martyrs. These were
mostly Spanish, but some were suggested to Prudentius by
sacred images in churches or by the inscriptions of Damasus.
This book, with the Cathemerinon liber and the Psychomachia,
was among the most widely read books of the middle ages. Its
influence on the iconography of medieval art was great. The
Psychomachia is aesthetically inferior, but had the greatest in-
fluence of all of Prudentius's writings. In it he depicts the
struggle of Christendom with paganism under the allegory
of a struggle between the Christian virtues and the pagan vices.
The Ditlochaeon is a series of quatrains, probably intended to
explain forty-nine pictures of a basilica. The work is more
interesting for archaeology than for literature.
Prudentius's works were published by Giselin at Antwerp in
1564, and by F. Arevalo at Rome in 1788, with complete commentary.
This last is the edition reprinted in J. P. Migne's Patrologia Latina,
vols. lix.-lx. (Paris, 1847). More recent editions are by Obbarius
(Tubingen, 1845) and A. Dressel (Leipzig, 1886), while a critical
edition has been undertaken by J. Bergmann.
See also J. Bergmann, Lexicon prudentianum, fasc. i. [a-adscendo]
(Upsala, 1894); M. Schanz, Gesch. d. rom. Lit. (Munich, 1904);
A. Ebert, Alliem. Gesch. d. Lit. des Mittelalters, vol. i. 2nd ed. Leipzig,
1889); M. Manitius, Gesch. d. chrisll. lat. Poesie (Stuttgart, 1891);
T. R. Glover, Life and Letters in the Fourth Century (Cambridge,
1901); C. Brockhaus, Aur. Prud. Clem, in seiner Bedeutung f. d.
Kirche seiner Zeit (Leipzig, 1872); A. Pnech, Prudence; etude sur
la poesie latine chret. au IV' siecle (Paris, 1888) ; F. St John Thackeray,
Translations from Prudentius (London, 1890); F. Maigret, Le Poetc
Chretien Prudentius (Paris, 1903); E. O. Winstedt, "The Double
Recension in the Poems of Prudentius," The Classical Review,
vol. xvii. (1903).
PRUD'HON, PIERRE (1758-1823), French painter, born at
Cluny on the 4th of April 1758, was the third son of a mason.
The monks of the abbey undertook his education, and by the aid
of the bishop of Macon he was placed with Devosges, director
of the art school at Dijon. In 1778 Prud'hon went to Paris
armed with a letter to Wille, the celebrated engraver, and three
years later he obtained the triennial prize of the states of
Burgundy, which enabled him to go to Rome, where he became
intimate with Canova. He returned to Paris in 1787, and led
for some time a precarious existence. The illustrations which
he executed for the Daphnis and Chloe published by Didot brought
him into notice, and his reputation was extended by the
success of his decorations in the Hotel de Landry (now
Rothschild), his ceiling painting of " Truth and Wisdom " for Ver-
sailles (Louvre), and of " Diana and Jupiter " for the Gallery of
Antiquities in the Louvre. In 1808 he exhibited " Crime pursued
by Vengeance and Justice " (Louvre, engraved by Royer which
had been commissioned for the assize courts, and " Psyche
carried off by Zephyrs " (engraved by Massard). These two
remarkable compositions brought Prud'hon the Legion of
Honour; and in 1816 he entered the Institute. Easy as to
fortune, and consoled for the misery of his marriage by the
devoted care of his excellent and charming pupil, Mile
Mayer, Prud'hon's situation seemed enviable; but Mile
Mayer's tragical suicide on the 26th of May 1821 brought ruin
to his home, and two years later (Feb. 16, 1823) Prud'hon fol-
lowed her to the grave. Mile Mayer (1778-1821) was his
ablest pupil. Her " Abandoned Mother " and " Happy Mother "
arc in the Louvre.
Voiart, "Notice historiquede la vie etoeuvresde P. Prud'hon, "in A rch.
de I'art franc.ais; Qu. de Quincy, Discours prononce sur la tombe de
Prud'hon, Fev. 1823; Eugene Delacroix, Rev. des deux mondes,
1846; Charles Blanc, Hist, des peintres franqais.
PRUNE (adapted in various forms, e.g. prunne, proyne, &c.,
from Fr. prune, Med. Lat. pruna, Lat. prunum, Gr. wpovvov,
earlier Kpovnvov, plum), the name generally given to the fruit
of various species of plums, dried, and used either stewed as a
dish or plain as a dessert fruit. The finest dessert prunes,
known as " French plums," are produced from the St Julien
plum-tree and are dried and exported from the valley of
the Loire in France. California now produces a fine quality
of " prune." In scientific nomenclature, Prunus is the name
of a genus of rosaceous trees, the type of the tribe pruneae, of
which the plum, apricot, peach, cherry, &c., are species (see
further under PLUM). From this word must be distinguished
" to prune," (i) to cut or trim superfluous growth from a shrub
or tree in order to encourage fresh growth and bring into
regular form, &c., and (2) to trim or dress the feathers with the
bill, used of a bird " preening " itself. In the first sense the
word is an adaptation (i6th century) of the Old French proigner,
the second sense appears in the end of the i4th century but is
not found in French.
PRURITUS, an ailment characterized by intense itching of
the surface of the body. It may occur in connexion with other,
morbid conditions, such as jaundice, diabetes, digestive dis-
orders, &c., or as the result of the irritation produced by skin
parasites. The most serious form is pruritus senilis, which
affects old persons, and is often a cause of great suffering,
depriving the patient of sleep. In such cases it is probably due
to atrophic changes in the skin. No eruption is visible, except
such marks as are produced by scratching. The treatment
consists in the removal of any apparent cause, and measures
to strengthen the system, such as the use of quinine, iron, &c.
Soothing lotions composed of solutions of alkalis conjoined
with chloral, opium, hydrocyanic acid, &c., may be applied to
the affected skin at bedtime.
PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia), a kingdom of
Germany, and the largest, most populous and most important
state of the German Empire. (For map see GERMANY.) It
is bounded on the N. by the Baltic, Mecklenburg, Denmark
and the North Sea, on the E. by Russia, on the S. by Austria,
the kingdom of Saxony, the Thuringian states, Bavaria and
PRUSSIA
Hesse-Darmstadt, on the W. by Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg
Belgium and the Netherlands. Its frontiers have a circuit ol
about 4750 m., and with the exception of the enclaves Oldenburg
Mtxklenburg, Brunswick and other small German states
and certain small appurtenances, such as Hohenzollern, in
the south of Wiirttemberg, it forms a tolerably compact mass
of territory, and occupies almost the whole of northern Germany.
Its longest axis is from S.W. to N.E. With the exception of
the sea on the north and the mountain-barrier on the south-east,
the frontiers are political rather than geographical. The total
area of the monarchy is 134,622 sq. m. and comprises almost
two-thirds of the entire extent of the German Empire. Its
kernel is the mark of Brandenburg, round which the rest of the
state has been gradually built up.
Physical Features. Fully three-fifths of Prussia belong to the
great north European plain and may be generally characterized as
lowlands. The plain is much wider on the east, where only the
southern margin of Prussia is mountainous, than on the west,
where the Hanoverian hills approach to within less than 100 m.
of the sea. A line drawn from Diisseldorf through Halle to Breslau
would, roughly speaking, divide the flat part of the country from
the hilly districts. In the south-east Prussia is separated from
Austria and Bohemia by the Sudetic chain, which begins at the
valley of the Oder and extends thence towards the north-west.
This chain includes the Riesen Gebirge, with the highest mountain
in Prussia (Schneekoppe), and subsides gradually in the hills of
Lusatia. The Harz Mountains, however, beyond the Saxon plain,
follow the same general direction and may be regarded as a de-
t.u-hed continuation of the system. To the south of the Harz
i In- Prussian frontier intersects the northern part of the Thuringian
Forest, which is also prolonged towards the north-west by the
\\Vser Gebirge and the Teutoburger Wald. The south-west of
Prussia is occupied by the plateau of the lower Rhine, including
on the left bank the flunsriick and the Eifel, and on the right the
Taunus, the Westerwald and the Sauerland. Between the lower
Rhenish and Thuringian systems are interposed the Vogelsberg,
the Rhon, and other hills belonging to the Triassic system of the
upper Rhine. The Silcsian Mountains are composed chiefly of
granite, gneiss and schists, while the Harz and the lower Rhenish
plateau are mainly of Devonian and Silurian formation. To the
north of the Sauerland is the important carboniferous system of the
Ruhr, and there are also extensive coalfields in Silesia. With the
exception of the Danube Prussia is traversed by all the chief rivers
of Germany, comprising almost the entire course of the Oder and
the \Vescr. Nearly the whole of the German coast-line belongs
to Prussia, and it possesses all the important seaports (see also
GERMANY) except Hamburg, Bremen and Liibeck.
Climate. The climate of Prussia may be described as moderate,
and is generally healthy. The greatest extremes of temperature
are found between the east and west, the mean annual temperature
in the bleak and exposed provinces of the north-east being about
44 F., while that of the sheltered valley of the Rhine is 6
higher. In winter the respective means are 26 and 35; in summer
the difference is not above 2 to 4. In Prussia as a whole the ther-
mometer ranges from 100 to 130, but these extremes are rarely
reached. The average annual rainfall is about 21 in.; it is highest
in the hilly district on the west (34 in.) and on the north-west
coast (30 to 32 in.), and lowest (16 in.) in the inland parts of the
eastern provinces.
Population. The following schedule shows the area and popula-
tion of the whole kingdom and of each of its fourteen provinces on
. the 1st of December 1900, and the 3ist of December 1905.
Provinces.
Area in
Eng. sq. m.
Pop., 1900.
Pop., 1905.
i
t
i
1
Prussia
West Prussia
14,284
9-859
i ,996,626
1,563,658
2,030,176
1,641,746
i
}
Berlin ....
Brandenburg
Pomerania
Silesia ....
29
15,382
11,620
15-568
1,888,848
3,108,554
1,634,832
4,668,857
2,040,148
3.531.906
1,684,326
4,942,611
1
(
Posen ....
11,186
1,887,275
1,986,637
Saxony ....
Sihleswig-Holstein 1 .
Hanover
Westphalia .
Hesse Nassau
Rhineland
Hohenzollern
9,751
7,338
14,870
7,803
6,062
10,423
441
2,832,616
1,387,968
2,590,939
3.187,777
1,897,981
5.759,798
66,780
2,979,221
1,504,248
2,759,544
3,618,000
2,070,052
6,436,337
68,282
i
i
i
r
134,616
34,472,509
37.293,324
\
1 Including Heligoland.
1
The increase of population proceeds most rapidly, as would be
expected, in Berlin, and next follow Westphalia, the Rhineland,
Brandenburg and Saxony, while it is weakest in Hohenzollern,
Pomerania and East Prussia. The population is densest in the
mining and manufacturing district of the Rhine, which is closely
followed by the coal regions of Silesia and parts of Saxony and West-
phalia. Both the birth-rate and the death-rate show a tendency
to diminish. (For statistical tables under this head, see GERMANY.)
In Prussia, the annual increase in the urban population is about
seven times as great as that in the rural communities. In 1905
Prussia contained twenty-two towns each with upwards of 100,000
inhabitants. The annual rate of suicide in Prussia is high, and
among German states is only exceeded in the kingdom of Saxony.
Divided according to nationalities (by speech), the population of
Prussia includes roughly 31,000,000 Germans, over 3,000,000
Poles (in the eastern provinces), 107,000 Lithuanians (in the north-
east), 137,000 Danes (in Schleswig-Holstein), 65,000 Wends (in
Brandenburg and Silesia), 25,000 Czechs (in Silesia) and 78,000
Walloons (near the Belgian frontier). In the rural districts of Posen
and in parts of Silesia the Poles form the predominant element of
the population.
Communication. With most internal means of communication
Prussia is well provided. Hardly any of its excellent highroads
existed in the time of Frederick the Great, and many of them date
from the Napoleonic era. The first Prussian railway was laid in
1838, but the railway system did not receive its full development
until the events of 1866 removed the obstacles placed in the way
by Hanover. Most of the lines were laid by private companies,
and the government confined itself to establishing lines in districts
not likely to attract private capital. In 1879, however, a measure
was passed authorizing the acquisition by the state of the private
railways, and in 1884 nine-tenths of the 13,800 m. of railway in
Prussia were in the hands of government. The proportion of
railway mileage in Prussia (5 m. per 10,000 inhabitants) is nearly
as high as in Great Britain, but the traffic is much less. Between
1880 and 1886 the state-owned lines of railway increased by 9240 m.,
the increase being principally due to the policy of buying up private
lines; and since 1886 there has been a further increase. In 1903
the state lines amounted to a total of 18,520 m., and the private
lines to 1248 m. The former total includes lines in Hesse-Darm-
stadt, the railways of this grand duchy having been incorporated
with the Prussian railways m 1896. The building of the railways
in Prussia has in almost every case been influenced by military
requirements; and this applies also to the making of private lines.
The most important trunk line of Prussia is that which enters
the western frontier at Herbesthal, and runs through Cologne,
Diisseldorf, Hanover, Berlin, Dirschau and Konigsberg, and leaves
the eastern boundary at Eydtkuhnen for St Petersburg. Generally
speaking, the principal lines of the country either radiate from
Berlin or run alongside the frontiers and boundaries. To the
ormer category belong the lines which connect the capital with
Hamburg and Kiel, with Stettin, with Danzig and Konigsberg,
with Posen and Breslau (dividing at Frankfort-on-Oder), with
Dresden, with Leipzig and Bavaria, with Frankfort-on-Main via
Halle and Erfurt, with Coblenz via Cassel, and with Cologne via
Magdeburg and Brunswick. The second category embraces lines
'rom Hamburg to Stettin, from Stettin to Posen and Breslau,
and from Breslau to Halle ; the ring is again taken up at Frankfort-
on-Main, and continues up the Rhine (on both banks) to Cologne,
and thence through Miinster and Bremen to Hamburg. Besides
these there are two other important lines, one connecting Hamburg
with Frankfort-on-Main via Hanover and Cassel, the other linking
Hanover with Halle.
Prussia possesses also an extensive system of natural and artificial
waterways. In the period 1880-1893 the Prussian Government
spent no less than 11,677,750 upon the maintenance and con-
struction of locks, canals, canal buildings, bridges, roadways, &c.
Besides this there was a special vote of 6,197,600 for the construc-
tion of the Dortmund-Ems Canal and the improvement of the
lavigation of the Oder, Vistula, Spree and other waterways in
Brandenburg. The most important of the canals are the North
Sea and Baltic Canal (officially the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal), the
Elbe-Trave Canal (to give Liibeck access to the Elbe), and the
Dortmund-Ems Canal, and its continuation, the Dortmund-Rhine
Zanal (see further, GERMANY). The largest ship-owning ports are
"lensburg, Stettin, Kiel, Rostock and Danzig; and Geestemiinde
owns the largest deep-sea fishing fleet.
Agriculture. Of the total area of cultivable land in the German
Smpire fully 66% belongs to Prussia. About 29% of the soil
)f Prussia consists of good loam or clay, 32% is mediocre or of
oam and sand mixed, 31% is predominantly sandy, and 6% is
occupied by bogs and marshes. The north-eastern provinces
contain a high proportion of poor soil, and in the north-west occur
arge tracts of heath and moor. The reclaimed marshlands in
x>th districts, as well as the soil in the neighbourhood of the rivers,
are usually very fertile, and tracts of fruitful ground are found in
he valleys of the Rhine and its affluents and in the plain around
Magdeburg, the so-called Sohrde. The most fertile Prussian
province is Saxony, while the least productive are East and West
520
PRUSSIA
Prussia. The principal crop in Prussia is rye, of which the ordinary
bread of the country is made; it grows in all parts of the kingdom,
especially in the north and east, and occupies about one-fourth
of the whole tilled surface. Oats occupy an area equal to about
half that devoted to rye, and are also grown most extensively in
the north-eastern districts. Wheat, which is chiefly cultivated in
the south and west, does not cover more than a fourth as much
S-ound as rye. Barley is most largely grown in Saxony and Silesia,
ther grain crops are spelt (chiefly on the Rhine), buckwheat
(Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein) and millet; maize is grown for
fodder in some districts. The produce of grain does not cover the
consumption and is supplemented by imports of rye and other
cereals from Russia and Holland. Potatoes, used both as food and
for the distillation of spirits, are cultivated over nearly as large an
area as rye and are especially predominant in the eastern provinces.
The common beet is extensively grown for the production of sugar
in the provinces of Saxony, Hanover, Silesia, Pomerania and Bran-
denburg. Flax and hemp occupy considerable areas in East
Prussia, Silesia and Hanover, while hops are raised chiefly in Posen
and Saxony. The cultivation of rape-seed for oil has fallen off
since the use of petroleum has become general. The tobacco of
Silesia, Brandenburg, Hanover and the Rhine province is inferior
to that of Germany; the annual value of Prussian-grown tobacco
is about 500,000, or one-fourth of the total produce of the empire.
Of the total cultivated area less than 5% is divided into farms
of less than 5 acres each, about 33% amongst farms ranging from
5 to 50 acres, 32-01 % amongst farms ranging from 50 to 250 acres,
and the rest amongst farms exceeding 250 acres. The provinces
in which large estates (up to 2500 acres and more) are the rule, are
Pomerania, Posen, Silesia, East Prussia, Brandenburg, West Prussia
and Saxony, in the order named. The estates of the old landed
gentry (Ritterguter) of Prussia, taking the estates above 500 acres
each, aggregate in all some 13,400,000 acres. Small estates (peasant
holdings) prevail principally in the Rhine province, Hesse-Nassau
and Westphalia, and to some extent also in Hanover, Silesia and
Saxony, but large peasant holdings (50 to 250 acres) exist only in
Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, East Prussia, Westphalia, Saxony
and Brandenburg. Notwithstanding the continuous decline in
prices, and other drawbacks from which agriculture has suffered
throughput Europe, the Prussian farmers have on the whole fairly
well maintained their position, owing mainly to the fact that they
have been both eager and skilful in availing themselves of the oppor-
tunities offered by the progress of agricultural knowledge. One of
the latest departures in this field has been the establishment of
central stations for the distribution of electric power to the estates
in its neighbourhood, the power to be used for driving both fixed
and movable machinery (mills, chaff-cutters, threshing-machines,
ploughs, &c.), for lighting buildings and houses, for cooking and
heating, and on large estates for giving signals and conveying
orders. The cultivation of the beetroot for sugar has had a far-
reaching effect upon Prussian agriculture, especially in the pro-
vinces of Saxony, Silesia, Posen, Hanover, West Prussia, Pomerania,
Brandenburg, the Rhine province, and other parts of the kingdom,
where the beetroot is extensively cultivated. Owing to the deep
cultivation of the soil and the incessant hoeing which the beet
crop requires, the three or four crops which follow it are invariably
good, and the liability to failure of the immediately succeeding crop
is reduced to a minimum. Moreover, the fiscal policy of the Prussian
government has been of first-rate assistance to the Prussian farmer.
Hand in hand with the cultivation of the beetroot has gone the
cultivation of barley and chicory, crops of scarcely inferior value
from the cultivator's point of view. Barley is grown on more
than 1 1 \ million acres. The Prussian province of Saxony produces
one-half of the total quantity of chicory yielded every year through-
out the empire; the principal centres for its manufacture in Prussia
are Magdeburg, Berlin and Breslau.
Livestock. The province of East Prussia, with the principal
government stud of Trakehnen, is the headquarters of horse-
rearing, and contains the greatest number of horses both relatively
and absolutely. The horses bred there are generally suitable for
the lighter kind of work only, and are in great request for military
purposes. Horses of a stouter type are bred in Schleswig-Holstein
and on the Rhine, but heavy draught horses have to be imported
from France, Holland, Belgium and Denmark. The best cattle
are reared in the maritime provinces, whence, as from the marshy
lowlands of Hanover, they are exported in large numbers to
England.
In the matter of freights the government renders material assist-
ance to the Prussian farmer. As the state owns the railways, it
carries agricultural produce, especially such as is destined for ex-
port, at lower preferential rates.
Forests. Prussia contains a greater proportion of woodland
( 2 3%) than any other large country in the south or west of Europe
(France 17%, Italy 12%, Great Britain 3%), though not so large
a proportion as Russia, Austria and some of the minor German
states. The most extensive forests are in East and West Prussia,
Silesia, and Brandenburg, where coniferous trees prevail, and in
the Rhenish and Hessian districts, where oaks and beeches are the
most prominent growths. The north-west is almost entirely desti-
tute of timber, and peat is there used universally as fuel. The
government forests cover about 6,000,000 acres, or upwards of one-
Fourth of the whole, and are admirably managed, bringing in an
annual revenue of ij millions sterling. The state also controls the
management of forests in private possession, and exerts itself to
secure the planting of waste lands.
Viticulture. The principal wine-growing districts of Prussia are
the Rheingau and the Rhine provinces, though wine is also pro-
duced in Silesia, Westphalia and a few other districts. The valleys
of the Nahe, Saar, Moselle and Ahr all produce excellent wine.
The Prussian state owns several vineyards in the Rhine district.
German vine-growers have suffered, in common with vine-growers
in other countries of Europe, from the Oidium tuckeri and the.
Phylloxera, and the government has spent large sums of money in
endeavouring to arrest the ravages caused.
Fisheries. The fisheries on the Baltic Sea and its haffs, and on the
North Sea, are important. In the former the take consists mainly of
herrings, flat fish, salmon, mackerel and eels, while the chief objects
of the latter are cod and oysters. Inland fishery has been encouraged
by the foundation of numerous piscicultural establishments and by
the enactment of close-time laws. Carp, perch, pike and salmon,
the last-named especially in the Rhine, are the principal varieties;
sturgeon are taken in the Elbe and Oder, and the lakes of East
Prussia swarm with bream and lampreys. Game of various kinds
abounds in different parts of Prussia, and the lakes are frequented
by large flocks of waterfowl.
Mining and Metal Industries. Prussia is the largest producer
of coal, zinc, salt, lead and copper amongst the states of the German
Empire, though in respect of iron she comes second to Alsace-
Lorraine. Of the aggregate German output of coal Prussia supplies
over 93%, viz. the huge total of 101,966,158 tons, valued at
43,912,500 in 1900, as compared with some 47,000,000 tons in
1882, representing an increase of about 117%, and of this the
province of Westphalia produces the largest quantity. Next comes
the Rhine province, that is, the Saar, Aachen, Diisseldorf and Roer
coal-fields; then Silesia. An extremely important r61e is played in
the coal industry of Prussia by the Rhenish-Westphalian Coal
Syndicate, which has its headquarters at Essen, and which from the
bulk of its output (about 40% of the total German output) has
succeeded in regulating the production and price of the coalfields
generally. Out of a total output of lignite for the entire German
Empire of 40,498,019 tons in 1900, Prussia yielded no less than 84 %,
or a total of 34,007,542 tons, valued at 4,012,900, showing an
annual increase of over 24 million tons and of 3J millions sterling
since 1882. Almost all the zinc produced in Germany comes out
of the Silesian mines. The chief iron-producing regions are the
Rhine province, Westphalia, Hesse-Nassau and Silesia. But in
the production of lead and manganese Prussia enjoys almost an
unchallenged monopoly. Salt is mined principally in the province
of Saxony (Stassfurt, Aschersleben, Erfurt, Halle, Merseburg,
Sangerhausen), the kali salts near Magdeburg and Glauber salts
in the Rhine province and Hesse-Nassau. Iron is worked principally
in the districts of Arnsberg, Dilsseldorf, Oppeln in Silesia, Treves
and Coblenz, and zinc for the most part near Oppeln in Silesia;
lead and silver near Aachen, Oppeln and Wiesbaden, and sulphuric
acid in all the mining districts, as well as near Potsdam, Breslau,
Magdeburg and Merseburg. Petroleum is extracted to a limited
extent at a couple of places in the province of Hanover. Down
to 1899, in which year the monopoly was bought out by the Prussian
government, 150 to 250 tons of amber were mined in East Prussia.
A little is also collected on the coast near Pillau.
Industrial Development. During the last quarter of the igth
century Prussia developed into a great manufacturing country.
Among the causes which have been mainly instrumental in fostering
the industrial development in Prussia are the fostering care of
the government (at once energetic, comprehensive and watchful),
co-operation and organization, which has been immensely facili-
tated by the habits of prompt obedience and order learnt in the
course of the military training; the generally high intellectual
level and technical and artistic skill of the workmen, due in part
to the enforcement of sound elementary education and in part to
the excellent technical high schools, trades " continuation schools,"
and hosts of special schools in which the arts and crafts are thorough-
ly and systematically taught; the use made of scientific discoveries
and the power of taking advantage of scientific progress generally;
the national aptitude for giving conscientious attention to minutiae,
and for thoroughness and mastery of detail; the extensive employ-
ment of commercial travellers, having command of languages,
in all parts of the world ; and an earnest desire to find out and meet
the wants and tastes of customers. Moreover, the social and
economic conditions of the people have been in their favour. Wages
have on the whole been lower than, for, example, in England,
though since 1896 they have shown a strong upward tendency,
and the standard of comfort, and even in many cases the standard
of living, has been lower. Litigation, too, is more expeditious and
less costly. But the Prussian manufacturer has derived no small
measure of advantage from the fact that he came into the field
somewhat later than his foreign rivals. He has been enabled to
utilize their experience, to profit from their drawbacks, faults and
deficiencies, and to make a clean start in the light of this valuable
acquired knowledge. His interests have also been materially
PRUSSIA
promoted by the commercial and fiscal policies of his government.
The chief industrial districts are, of course, those which yield
with, in addition, thegreat cities Berlin, Magdeburg, Hanover,
linslau, Gorlitz, Stettin, Essen, Dortmund, Elberfeld-Barmen,
i Idorf, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapcllc, Crefeld, Halle, Hanover,
Frankfort-on-Main, Saarbriicken, Hochst, Solingen, Remscheid,
H.iKi'n, Konigsberg, Danzig and many others. The iron and metal
industries, especially the making of machinery, electrical plant,
tnunway plant, and the production of articles in wrought copper
nd brass, rank in the forefront. In these branches Berlin, and
iore lately its suburbs, as well as Magdeburg and Cologne, have
a active r&le, though the old centres of the metallurgical
id iron and steel industries in the Rhine province and VVest-
ulia have also expanded in an extraordinary degree. The growth
of iho chemical industries, which are essentially a German speciality,
must aUo be mentioned in the front rank. The branches in which
this supremacy stands unrivalled are those which produce aniline
artificial indigo, illuminants (acetylene gas, VVelsbach mantles,
explosives, various chemical salts, pharmaceutical prepara-
cellulo-c, glycerine, artificial (chemical) manures, and per-
fumes. 1 A third branch of industry in which German genius has
i riumphs of the highest kind is shipbuilding.
Constitution. The present constitution of Prussia was framed
tiy the government of King Frederick William IV., with the co-
operation of a constituent assembly, and was proclaimed on the
;,i^t <.f January 1850. It consists of an hereditary monarchy with
two houses of parliament and was subsequently modified by various
enactments, notably that of the I2th of October 1854, reconstituting
the upper chamber. The constitution affirms the legal equality
of all citizens in the eye of the law, provides for universal military
MTV ice, and guarantees the personal liberty of the subject, the
security of property, immunity from domiciliary visits, the in-
violability of letters, toleration of religious sects, freedom of the
prrs-i, the right of association and public meetings, and liberty
of migration.
The monarchy is hereditary in the male line of the house of
Iluhenzollcrn, and follows the custom of primogeniture. The king
alone exercises the executive power, has the supreme command
of the army, and is head of the Church, but shares the legislative
power with his parliament. He appoints and discharges the minis-
it i^ and other officials of the Crown, summons and dissolves parlia-
ment, possesses the right of pardon and mitigation of punishment,
declares war and concludes peace, confers orders and titles and
conducts the foreign policy of the country, though this prerogative
has now, constitutionally speaking, passed from the king of Prussia
to the German emperor. He is held to be irresponsible for his public
actions, and his decrees require the countersign of a minister,
whose responsibility, however, is not very clearly defined. The
national tradition and feeling lend the Crown considerable power
not formulated in the constitution, and the king is permitted to
bring his personal influence to bear upon parliament in a way quite
at variance with the English conception of a constitutional monarch.
The annual civil list of the king of Prussia amounts to 770,554.
The legislative assembly or Landtag, consists of two chambers,
which are convoked annually at the same time but meet separately.
The right of proposing new measures belongs equally to the king
and each of the chambers, but the consent of all three is necessary
before a measure can pass into law. The chambers have control
of the finances and possess the right of voting or refusing taxes.
Financial questions are first discussed in the lower house, and the
upper house can accept or reject the annual budget only en bloc.
All measures are passed by an absolute majority, but those affect-
ing the constitution must be submitted to a second vote after an
intiTval of at least twenty-one days. Members may not be called
to account for their parliamentary utterances except by the chamber
in which they sit. No one may at the same time be a member
of both chambers. The ministers of the Crown have access to
both chambers and may speak at any time, but they do not vote
milrss they are actually members. The sittings of both chambers
arc public.
The general scheme of government, though constitutional, is
not exactly " parliamentary " in the English sense of the word,
as the ministers are independent of party and need not necessarily
represent the opinions of the parliamentary majority. The Herren-
haus, or house of peers, contains two classes of members, the heredit-
ary and non-hereditary. The former consists of the adult princes
of the house of Hohenzollern, the mediatized princes and counts
of the old imperial nobility, and the heads of the great territorial
nobility. The non-hereditary members are chosen for life by the
king from the ranks of the rich landowners, manufacturers and men
of general eminence, and representatives " presented " for the
king's approval by the landowners of the eight old provinces, by
the larger towns and by the universities. Every member of the
Herrenhaus must be specially summoned by the king. The Abge-
ordnetenhaus or chamber of deputies, consists of 433 members, elected
1 See Dr Frederick Rose, Chemical Instruction and Chemical
Industries in Germany (1901-1902), being Nos. 561 and 573 of the
1 Miscellaneous Series of British Diplomatic and Consular Reports."
for periods of five years by indirect suffrage, exercised by all male
citizens who have reached the age of twenty-five and have not
forfeited their communal rights. The original electors are arranged
in three classes, according to the rate of taxes paid by them, in
such a way that the gross amount of taxation is equal in each
class. The country is accordingly divided into electoral districts,
with the electors grouped in three categories, each of which selects
a Wahlmann or electoral proxy, who exercises the direct suffrage.
Members of the lower house must be thirty years old and in full
possession of their civic rights. They receive a daily allowance
(Didten) of fifteen shillings during the sitting of the house, and travel-
ling expenses.
The king exercises his executive functions through an irre-
sponsible Staatsrat, or privy council, revived in 1884 after thirty
years of inactivity, and by a nominally responsible cabinet or
council of ministers (Stoats- Ministerium). The latter consists of
the president and minister of foreign affairs, and ministers of war,
justice, finance, the interior, public worship and instruction, in-
dustry and commerce, public works and agriculture, domains and
forests. Ministers conduct the affairs of their special departments
independently, but meet in council for the discussion of general
questions. They represent the executive in the houses of parlia-
ment and introduce the measures proposed by the Crown, but do
not need to belong to either chamber. The affairs of the royal
household and privy purse are entrusted to a special minister, who
is not a member of the cabinet.
The Prussian governmental system is somewhat complicated by
its relation to that of the empire. The king of Prussia is at the
same time German emperor, and his prime minister is also the
imperial chancellor. The ministries of war and foreign affairs
practically coincide with those of the empire, and the custom-dues
and the postal and telegraph service have also been transferred to
the imperial government. Prussia has only seventeen votes in the
federal council, or less than a third of the total number, but its
influence is practically assured by the fact that the small northern
states almost invariably vote with it. To the Reichstag Prussia
sends more than half the members. The double parliamentary
system works in some respects inconveniently, as the Reichstag
and Prussian Landtag are often in session at the same time, and many
persons are members of both. Where imperial and Prussian
legislation come into conflict the latter must give way.
Local Government. For administrative purposes Prussia is
divided into fourteen Provinzen or provinces, Regierungsbezirke or
governmental departments, Stadtkreise or urban districts (circles),
and Landkreise or rural districts. The city of Berlin and the dis-
trict of Hohenzollern form provinces by themselves. Recent
legislation has aimed at the encouragement of local government
and the decentralization of administrative authority by admitting
lay or popularly elected members to a share in the administration
alongside of the government officials. Certain branches of adminis-
tration, such as the care of roads and the poor, have been handed
over entirely to local authorities, while a share is allowed them in
all. In the province the government is represented by the Ober-
prdsident, whose jurisdiction extends over all matters affecting
more than one department. He is assisted by a council (Provinzial-
rat) consisting, besides himself as chairman, of one member
appointed by government and five members elected by the pro-
vincial committee (Provinzialausschuss). The latter forms the
permanent *executive of the provincial diet (Provinzial-Landtag),
which consists of deputies elected by the kreise or circles, and
forms the chief provincial organ of local government. The Regierungs-
bezirk is solely a government division and is only indirectly repre-
sented in the scheme of local administration. The government
authorities are the Regierungs-Prdsidtnt, who is at the head of the
general internal administration of the department, and the Regie-
rung or government board, which supervises ecclesiastical and
educational affairs and exercises the function of the state in regard
to the direct taxes and the domains and forests. The depart-
mental president is also assisted by a Bezirksrat or district council,
consisting of one official member and four others selected from in-
habitants of the department by the provincial committee. Each
Landkreis has a Landrat, an office which existed in the mark of
Brandenburg as early as the i6th century. He is aided by the
Kreissausschuss, or executive committee of the Kreistag (the diet
of the circle). The Landkreise include towns having less than
25,000 inhabitants, rural communes (Landgemeinden) and manors
(Gutsbezirke). Stadtkreise are towns with more than 25,000 in-
habitants; they have each a town council (Stadtverordnetenver-
sammlung) elected on a three-class property suffrage. The practical
executive is entrusted to the magistracy (Magistral), which usually
consists of a burgomaster, a deputy burgomaster (both paid officials),
several unpaid members, and, where necessary, a few other paid
members. The unpaid members hold office for six years; the paid
members are elected for twelve years, and their election requires
ratification from the state.
_ Justice. Down to the 1st of January 1900 (when the German
civil code Burgerliches Gesetzbuch was introduced) a threefold
system of civil law had prevailed in Prussia, viz. the common law
of Prussia (Landrecht), codified in 1794, in eastern and central
522
PRUSSIA
Prussia, the German common law (Gemeines deutsches Recht) in
Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, and parts of the Rhine provinces,
and the Code Napoleon generally on the Rhine and in Alsace-Lorraine.
The burgerliches Gesetzbuch has now put an end to the former anom-
alies. The criminal law was unified by the penal code (Strafgesetz-
buch) of 1871 and the military penal code (militar. Strafgesetzbitch)
of 1872. A new penal code, promulgated in 1850, did away with
the old patrimonial or seigniorial jurisdiction, and the administra-
tion of justice is now wholly in the hands of government. The courts
of lowest instance are the Amtsgerichte, in which sits a single judge,
accompanied in penal cases by two Schoffen or lay assessors (a kind
of jurymen, who vote with the judge). Cases of more importance
are decided by the Landgerichte or county courts, in which the
usual number of judges is three, while in important criminal cases
a jury of twelve persons is generally empanelled. From the Land-
gerichte appeals may be made to the Oberlandesgerichte or provincial
courts. The Oberlandesgeficht at Berlin is named the Kammer-
gericht and forms the final instance for summary convictions in
Prussia, while all other cases may be taken to the supreme imperial
court at Leipzig. The judges (Richter) are appointed and paid
by the state, and hold office for life. After finishing his university
career the student of law who wishes to become a judge or to practise
as qualified counsel (Rechtsanwalt, barrister and solicitor in one)
passes a government examination and becomes a Referendarius.
He then spends at least four years in the practical work of his
profession, after which he passes a second examination, and, if he
has chosen the bench instead of the bar, becomes an Assessor and
is eligible for the position of judge. A lawyer who has passed the
necessary examinations may at any time quit the bar for the bench,
and a judge is also at liberty to resign his position and enter upon
private practice. In all criminal cases the prosecution is under-
taken by government, which acts through Staatsanwdlte, or directors
of prosecutions, in the pay of the state.
Army. The military organization of the monarchy dates from
1814 and provides that every man capable of bearing arms shall
serve in the army for a certain number of years. The peace strength
of the Prussian contingent of the imperial German army consisted,
in 1905, of 20,646 officers (including surgeons), 448,365 men and
82,786 horses. There were also 2196 farriers and shoesmiths.
(For Navy, see GERMANY). .
Religion. The centre of the kingdom is solidly Protestant, the
proportion of Roman Catholics increasing towards east and west and
reaching its maximum on the Rhine and in the Slavonic provinces.
East Prussia, however, with the exception of Ermeland, is Protestant.
The Roman Catholics greatly outnumber the Protestants in the
Rhine provinces (3 to l), Posen, Silesia and West Prussia. All
religious bodies are granted freedom of worship, and civil rights
are not conditional upon religious confession.
The Evangelical or Protestant State Church of Prussia consists as
it now stands of a union of the Lutherans and Calvinists, effected
under royal pressure in 1817. According to the king this was not
a fusion of two faiths but an external union for mutual admission
to the Eucharist and for the convenience of using the same liturgy,
prepared under the royal superintendence. Those who were unable
from conscientious scruples to join the union became Separatist or
Old Lutherans and Old Calvinists, but their numbers were and are
insignificant. The king is " summus episcopus " or supreme pontiff
of the Church, and is represented in the exercise of his ecclesiastical
functions by the minister of public worship and instruction. The
highest authority for the ordinary management of the Church is the
Oberkirchenrat or supreme church council at Berlin, which acts
through provincial consistories and superintendents appointed by
the Crown. Recent legislation has made an effort to encourage
self-government and give a congregational character to the Church
by the granting of a presbyterial constitution, with parish, diocesan,
provincial and general synods. The clergy are appointed by the
Crown, by the consistories, by private or municipal patronage, or
by congregational election.
The hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia consists
of two archbishops (Cologne, Gnesen-Posen) and ten bishops. The
prince-bishop of Breslau and the bishops of Ermeland, Hildesheim
and Osnabriick are directly under the pope, and the bishoprics of
Fulda and Limburg are in the archiepiscopal diocese of Freiburg
in Baden. The higher ecclesiastics receive payment from the
state, and the annual appropriation appearing in the budget for
the Roman Catholic Church is as high as that made for the State
Church. All the Roman Catholic religious orders in Prussia have
been suppressed except those occupied with attendance on the
sick.
The relations of the state with the dissenting Christian sects,
such as the Baptists, Mennonites and Moravian Brethren, are
practically confined to granting them charters of incorporation
which ensure them toleration. The Mennonites were formerly
allowed to pay an extra tax in lieu of military service, which is
inconsistent with their belief, but this privilege has been withdrawn.
The Old Catholics number about 30,000, but do not seem to be
increasing.
The Jews belong mainly to the urban population and form 20 to
30% of the inhabitants in some of the towns in the Slavonic
provinces. (For more exact details of the various religious creeds,
see GERMANY.)
Education. In Prussia education is compulsory, and the general
level attained is very high. Every town or community must main-
tain a school, supported by local rates and under the supervision
of the state. By the constitution of 1850, all persons are permitted
to instruct, or to found teaching establishments, provided they can
produce to the authorities satisfactory proofs of their moral,
scientific and technical qualifications. Both public and private
educational establishments are under the surveillance of the minister
of public instruction, and all public teachers are regarded as servants
of the state (Staatsbeamte). No compulsion exists in reference to
a higher educational institution than primary schools. All children
must attend school from their sixth to their fourteenth year. At
the head of the administration stands the minister of public in-
struction and ecclesiastical affairs, to whom also the universities
are directly subordinated. The higher (secondary) schools are
supervised by provincial Schulcollegia or school boards, appointed
by government, while the management of the elementary and
private schools falls within the jurisdiction of the ordinary Regie-
rungen or civil government. This is carried out through qualified
school inspectors, frequently chosen from among the clergy.
The expenses of the primary schools (Volksschulen) are borne
by the communes (Gemeinden), aided when necessary by subsidies
from the state. The subjects of instruction are theology, reading,
writing, spelling, arithmetic, the elements of geometry, history,
geography and natural science, singing, drawing, sewing and
gymnastics. All fees in the elementary schools are abolished.
The number of illiterate recruits among those called upon each
year to serve in the army affords a good test of the universality
of elementary education. In 1899 the proportion of Analphabeti,
or men unable to read or write, among the recruits levied was only
O-I2%. The teachers for the elementary schools are trained in
normal seminaries or colleges established and supervised by the
state, and much has been done of late years to improve their position.
In most of the larger towns the elementary schools are supplemented
by middle schools (Biirgerschulen, Stadtschulen) , which carry on
the pupil to a somewhat more advanced stage, and are partly
intended to draw off the unsuitable elements from the higher
schools.
The secondary schools of Prussia may be roughly divided into
classical and modern, though there are comparatively few in which
Latin is quite omitted. The classical schools proper consist of
Gymnasia and Progymnasia, the latter being simply gymnasia
wanting the higher classes. In these boys are prepared for the
universities and the learned professions, and the full course lasts
for nine years. In the modern schools, which are divided in the
same way into Realgymnasia and Realprogymnasia, and also have
a nine years' course, Latin is taught, but not Greek, and greater
stress is laid upon modern languages, mathematics and natural
science. The three lower classes are practically identical with
those of the gymnasia, while in the upper classes the thoroughness
of training is assimilated as closely as possible to that of the classical
schools, though the subjects are somewhat altered. Ranking with
the realgymnasia are the Oberrealschulen, which differ only in the
fact that Latin is entirely omitted, and the time thus gained
devoted to modern languages. The Hohere (or upper) Burgerschulen,
in which the course is six years, rank with the middle schools
above mentioned, and are intended mainly for those boys who
wish to enter business life immediately on leaving school. All
these secondary schools possess the right of granting certificates
entitling the holders, who must have attained a certain standing
in the school, to serve in the army as one-year volunteers. The
gymnasia! " certificate of ripeness" (Maturitdtszeugniss), indicating
that the holder has passed satisfactorily through the highest class,
enables a student to enroll himself in any faculty at the university,
but that of the realgymnasium qualifies only for the general or
" philosophical " faculty, and does not open the way to medicine,
the Church or the bar. Considerable efforts are, however, now
being made to have the realgymnasium certificate recognized as a
sufficient qualification for the study of medicine at least. At any
of these schools a thoroughly good education may be obtained at
a cost seldom exceeding, in the highest classes, 5 per annum.
The teachers are men of scholarship and ability, who have passed
stringent government examinations and been submitted to a year
of probation. The great majority of the secondary schools have
been established and endowed by municipal corporations.
Prussia possesses ten of the twenty German universities (not
including the lyceum at Braunsberg and the Roman Catholic
seminary at Munster). The largest Prussian university is that of
Berlin, while Breslau, Bonn, Gpttingen and Halle are the next in
size. The oldest is the university of Greifswald, founded in 1456.
Like the schools the universities are state institutions, and the pro-
fessors are appointed and paid by government, which also makes
liberal annual grants for apparatus and equipment. The full
obligatory course of study extends over three, and in the case of
medicine, four years. It is, however, not unusual for non-medical
students also to spend four years at the university, and there is
an agitation to make this compulsory. Students qualifying for
PRUSSIA
523
a Prussian government appointment are required to spend at
least three terms or half-years (Semester) at a Prussian university.
Ranking with the universities are the large technical high schools
at Berlin, Hanover, Aix-la-Chapelle and Danzig, the mining acad-
emies of Berlin and Klausthal, and the academies of forestry at
Eberswalde and Miinden; the agricultural high schools of Berlin
and Poppelsdorf (Bonn) and the two veterinary high schools of
Berlin and Hanover. Music is taught at several conservatoria,
the best known of which are at Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main.
The science and art of Prussia find their most conspicuous external
expression in the academies of science and art at Berlin, both
founded by Frederick I.; and each town of any size throughout
the kingdom has its antiquarian, artistic and scientific societies.
Recognized schools of painting exist at Berlin and Dusseldorf, and
both these towns, as well as Cassel, contain excellent picture
galleries. The scientific and archaeological collections of Berlin
are also of great importance. Besides the university collections,
there are numerous large public libraries, the chief of which is the
royal library at Berlin (1,000,000 volumes).
Finance. As in all civilized countries, the national accounts
of Prussia expand by leaps and bounds, and they do this in spite
of the advantage which the state derives from the possession of
valuable revenue-yielding properties. Of these the most important
are the railways. Next in point of revenue come the mines and
salines. Then follow the state forests and the landed domains,
though the income from this source is rapidly decreasing as agri-
culture declines. For 1905-1906 the public revenue and expendi-
ture were estimated at 135,914,080. The principal sources of
revenue are the railways, 81,268,493; domains and forestSi
5.982,911; state lottery, 4,840,665; mines, &c., 10,585,875;
direct taxes (principally income-tax), 11,505,365; indirect taxes,
4,789,965; administrative receipts, 8,410,684; and from the
general financial control, 8,356,636. The chief items of the
expenditure consist of payments for religion and education,
8,201,632; for justice, 6,260,330; working expenses, including
50,280,525 for working the state railways, 69,626,542; interest,
&c., on public debt, 12,375,380; the ministry of finance,
6,585,722, and the ministry of the interior, 4,313,780. The
public debt grew from 64,363,000 in 1872 to 360,447,654 in
1905. The greater part of this debt has been incurred in the
purchase of the state railways.
See Jahrbuch fur die amtliche Statistik des preussischen Stoats,
the Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir das deutsche Reich, and other publi-
cations of the statistical offices of Prussia and Germany. Good
general accounts of the natural, social and political features of the
country are given in Eiselen's Der preussische Staat (Berlin, 1862)
and in Daniel's Handbuch der Geographic (several editions). The
Prussian constitution and administrative system are concisely
described in the Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung in Preussen,
by Graf Hue de Grais, and are treated at length in Von Ronne's
Staatsrecht der preussischen Monarchic (4th ed., 1881-1884), ar >d in
Arndt, Verfassungs-Urkunde fiir den preussischen Stoat (Berlin,
1900). In addition, see Landeskunde Preussens (Berlin, 1901),
edited by Beuermann. Various volumes of Forschungen zur deut-
schen Landes- und Volkskunde, edited by Kirchhoff; British
Diplomatic and Consular Reports; and James Baker, Report on
Technical and Commercial Education in East Prussia, &c. (London,
1900).
History. The name of Prussia is derived from the dukedom
of Prussia (the present province of East Prussia), which was
raised into a kingdom by the emperor in favour of Frederick III.,
elector of Brandenburg, on the i8th of January 1701. The
title "king of Prussia" 1 applied at the outset only to
Prussia proper, which formed no part of the Empire; in
respect of his other dominions the king continued to bear titles
(margrave, duke, &c.) which implied feudal subordination to the
emperor. The extension of the style " kingdom of Prussia "
so as to cover the whole of the territories, by whatever title
held, of the electors of Brandenburg, was not, however, an empty
assumption, but symbolized a new fact of first-class historic
importance: the rise in Germany and in Europe of a new great
power. The consolidation of this power had been the work of the
Great Elector, the work of whose reign (1640-1688) laid the
foundations of the modern Prussian state (see FREDERICK
WILLIAM I., elector of Brandenburg, and BRANDENBURG:
History).
The Great Elector's son Elector Frederick III. was an osten-
tatious and somewhat frivolous prince, who hazarded the
acquisitions of his father by looking on his position as assured
1 Strictly speaking, the title assumed was " king ' Prussia "
(Konig in Preussen), this apparently being meant to indicate that
there was still a Prussia (West Prussia) of which he was not king,
though it has also been otherwise explained.
and by aiming rather at external tokens of his dignity than
at a further consolidation of the basis on which it rested.
The Brandenburg troops fought in the war of the
second coalition against Louis XIV. and in that of
the Spanish Succession; but neither the peace of
Ryswick (1697) nor that of Utrecht (1713) brought the country
any very tangible advantage. Brandenburg soldiers also helped
the emperor in his wars with the Turks, and it was Frederick's
action in covering the Dutch frontier with 6000 troops which
left William of Orange free scope in his expedition to England.
The most notable incident in Frederick's reign was, however,
his acquisition of the title of king of Prussia, which had long
formed the principal object of his policy. The emperor's consent
was finally purchased by the promise of a contingent of 8000 men
to aid him jn the War of the Spanish Succession, and on the i8th
of January 1701 Frederick crowned himself at Konigsberg with
accompanying ceremonies of somewhat inflated grandeur.
Elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg became henceforth King
Frederick I. of Prussia. 2 Superficial as this incident may at
first sight appear, it added considerably to the moral and politi-
cal momentum of the country, if only by giving to the subjects
of the Prussian crown a common name, and its advantages were
reaped by Frederick's two vigorous successors. About the same
time (1697) the elector of Saxony also acquired the kingly
dignity by his election to the throne of Poland, but in doing so
he had to become a Roman Catholic, and thus left the Hohen-
zollerns without a rival among the Protestant dynasties of
Germany. Frederick was extravagant; but he also did much
for the intellectual life of the country, patronizing learned men,
and founding the university of Halle (1694) and at Berlin the
Academy of Arts (1699) and the Academy of Sciences (1700).
Moreover, even under this improvident king the territory of
Prussia increased. From Saxony the king bought the heredit-
ary advocateship (Erbvogtci) of the Reichsstift of Quedlinburg,
as well as the imperial city of Nordhausen, the bailiwick of
Petersberg and the countship of Tecklenburg, while in 1702
from William III. of Orange he inherited Lingen, Mors and
Neunburg.
The court of Vienna consoled itself for the growing power of
Prussia under the Great Elector by the reflection that it was
probably temporary and due mainly to the vigorous individu-
ality of that prince. The events of Frederick I.'s reign seemed
to justify this view. At his accession Prussia might fairly claim
to rank as the second state of Germany, but before the death of
Frederick, Bavaria, Saxony and Hanover all raised themselves
to at least a level with Prussia. Frederick's preoccupation in the
western wars had allowed Sweden to reassert her pre-eminence
in northern Europe, and it was Russia, and not Prussia, that
now impeded her progress. The internal soundness of the
country had also suffered: the finances were in a state of com-
plete disorganization, and the burden of taxation was almost
insupportable. If Frederick's son and successor had not been
a man of vigorous character the downhill progress might
have continued until it had removed Prussia altogether from
the list of important states.
The accession, on the 25th of February 1713, of Frederick
\Yilliam I. produced at once a complete change of system. The
new king, whose literary education had been Frederick
neglected, shared none of his father's artistic tastes wittiam I.,
and had a complete contempt for the trappings of ni3 - 17 4.
royalty. On the other hand, he possessed administrative
talents of no mean order and was singularly painstaking, indus-
trious and determined in carrying out his plans. By carefully
husbanding his finances Frederick William filled his treasury and
was able to keep on foot one of the largest and best disciplined
armies in Europe, thereby securing for Prussia an influence
in European councils altogether disproportionate to its size and
population. In internal management he made Prussia the model
1 By the treaty of Utrecht, to which King Frederick William I.
acceded on the isth of May 1713, Prussia received upper Gclderland
in exchange for the principality of Orange, and the king's title was
acknowledged by the European powers.
524
PRUSSIA
state of Europe, though his administration was of a purely
arbitrary type, in which the estates were never consulted and
his ministers were merely clerks to register his decrees. His
first act was to reform the expensive institutions of the court;
and. the annual allowance for the salaries and pensions of the
chief court officials and 'civil servants was at once reduced from
276,00x3 to 55,000 thalers. The peace of Utrecht (1713) left
Frederick William free to turn his attention to the northern war
then raging between Sweden on the one side and Russia, Poland,
and Denmark on the other. Though at first disposed to be
friendly to Sweden, he was forced by circumstances to take up
arms against it. In September 1713 Stettin was captured by the
allies and handed over to the custody of Frederick William, who
paid the expenses of the siege and undertook to retain possession
of the town until the end of the war. But Charles XII. refused
to recognize this arrangement and returned from his exile in
Turkey to demand the immediate restitution of the town. With
this demand the king of Prussia naturally declined to comply,
unless the money he had advanced was reimbursed; and the
upshot was the outbreak of the only war in which Frederick
William ever engaged. The struggle was of short duration, and
was practically ended in 1715 by the capture of Stralsund by
the united Prussians, Saxons and Danes under the command
of the king of Prussia. The Swedes were driven from Pome-
rania, and at the peace of 1720 Frederick William received the
greater part of Swedish Pomerania, including the important sea-
port of Stettin. Sweden now disappeared from the ranks of the
Great Powers, and Prussia was left without a rival in northern
Germany.
A detailed history of Frederick William's reign would
necessitate the recital of a long and tedious series of diplomatic
proceedings, centring in the question of the succession to the
duchies of Jiilich and Berg. The treaty of Wusterhausen be-
tween Austria and Prussia was concluded in 1726, and was con-
firmed with some modifications by the treaty of Berlin in 1728.
Frederick William engaged to recognize the Pragmatic Sanction,
while the emperor on his side undertook to support Prussia's
claims to Jiilich and Berg. The policy of the latter, however,
was far from straightforward, as he had already entered into
a similar compact with the count palatine of Sulzbach, who
was a Roman Catholic and therefore a more sympathetic ally.
Frederick William's intervention in the matter of the suc-
cession to the throne of Poland, rendered vacant by the death of
Augustus II. in 1733, proved barren of advantage to Prussia and
failed to secure the hoped-for reversion of the duchy of Courland.
A Prussian contingent took part none the less in the ensuing
war between Austria and France, but Austria concluded peace in
1735 without consulting her ally. In 1737 the king withstood
the pressure brought to bear upon him by England, France,
Holland and Austria to induce him to submit to their
settlement of the Jiilich-Berg question; and in 1739, convinced
at least of the confirmed duplicity of the emperor, he turned
to his hereditary enemy for help and concluded a defensive
alliance with France. The rivalry between Austria and Prussia
had begun, which for the rest of the century formed the pivot
on which the politics of Europe mainly turned.
If the external history of Frederick William's reign is not especially
glorious, and if in diplomacy he was worsted by the emperor, the
country at least enjoyed the benefits of a twenty-five
years' peace and efficient government. During this
re 'S n the revenues of Prussia were doubled, and the king
' e ^ at n ' s death an accumulated treasure of 9,000,000
thalers and an army of 85,000 men. Though not rank-
ing higher than twelfth among the European states in extent
and population, Prussia occupied the fourth place in point of
military power. The king himself took the greatest interest in the
management of his army, in which the discipline was of the strictest;
and he carried the habits of the military martinet into all depart-
ments of the administration. His chief innovation was the abolition
of the distinction between the military and the civil funds, and the
assignment of the entire financial management of the country to
a general directory of finance, war and domains. The directory
was instructed to pay for everything out of a common fund, and
so to regulate the expenditure that there should invariably be a
surplus at the end of the year. As the army absorbed five-sevenths
of the revenue, the civil administration had to be conducted with
Prussia
"F d Hck
WUU I
1
the greatest economy. The king himself set the example of tl.
frugality which he expected from his officials, and contented himself
with a civil list of 52,000 thalers (7800). The domains were now
managed so as to yield a greater income than ever before, and im-
portant reforms were made in the system of taxation. By the sub-
stitution of a payment in money for the obsolete military tenure
the nobles were deprived of their practical exemption from taxation,
and they were also required to pay taxes for all the peasant holdings
they had absorbed. Attempts were made to better the condition
of the peasants, and the worst features of villeinage were abolished
in the Crown domains. The military system of ^cantonment, according
to which each regiment was allotted a district in which to recruit,
was of constitutional as well as military importance, since it brought
the peasants into direct contact with the royal officials. The col-
lection of the taxes of the peasantry was removed from the hands
of the landowners. The duties of the state officials were laid down
with great detail, and their performance was exacted with great
severity. Justice seems to have been administered in an upright
manner, though the frequent and often arbitrary infliction of the
penalty of death by the king strikes us with astonishment. The
agricultural and industrial interests of the country were fostered
with great zeal. The most important industrial undertaking was
the introduction of the manufacture of woollen cloth, the royal
factory at Berlin supplying uniforms for the entire army. The
commercial regulations, conceived in a spirit of rigid protection,
were less successful. In the ecclesiastical sphere the king was able
to secure toleration for the Protestants in other parts of Germany
by reprisals on his own Roman Catholic subjects, and he also
welcome to numerous Protestant refugees, including 18,000 exiled
peasants from Salzburg (1732). He has the credit of founding the
common-school system of Prussia and of making elementary educa-
tion compulsory.
On the 3ist of May 1740 Frederick William died, and was
succeeded by his son as Frederick II., known in history as
Frederick the Great. The young king at once Frederick
resolved to use the well-filled treasury and well- . HW-
disciplined army left to him by his father for the t786 '
purpose of increasing the position of Prussia in Europe. The
death of the emperor Charles VI., the last of the male line of
the house of Habsburg, on the 2oth of October 1740, gave him
his opportunity, by raising the question of Maria Theresa's
right to succeed under the Pragmatic Sanction (see Charles VI.,
emperor; MARIA THERESA; AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: History).
Austrian duplicity in the matter of Jiilich gave him a colourable
pretext for his hostile attitude in reviving the long dormant
claims of Prussia to the Silesian duchies. Within a year of his
accession he had embarked on the Silesian War, and this was
closely followed by the second, which ended in 1745, leaving
Frederick in undisputed possession of almost the whole of
Silesia, with the frontier that still exists. East Friesland, the
Prussian claim to which dated from the time of the Great Elector,
was absorbed in 1744 on the death without issue of the last
duke. The two Silesian Wars completely exhausted the stores
left by Frederick William, both of grenadiers and thalers, and
Frederick gladly welcomed the interval of peace to amass new
treasures and allow his subjects time to recover from their
exertions. When the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756
he had an army of 150,000 men at his command, representing
about one-seventh of the available male population of his little
kingdom. He had also a fund of 11,000,000 thalers in his
treasury, though this would have gone but a small way had
he not been assisted by the subsidies of England and able to
make the fertile plains of Saxony his chief basis of supply.
(See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.)
Though without gain in extent or population, Prussia emerged
from the war as an undoubted power of the first rank, and hence-
forth completely eclipsed Saxony, Bavaria and Hanover, ,_
while it was plain that Austria would no longer stand u a
without a rival for the hegemony of the German
Empire. The glorious victories over the French and
Russians also awakened a spirit of German patriotism that had
hitherto been almost unknown. But the price paid for these results
was enormous. Of the 850,000 soldiers who, as is estimated, perished
during the war about 180,000 fell in the service of Prussia, and the
gross population of the kingdom had decreased in seven years to
the extent of half a million souls. The misery and poverty indirectly
attendant on the war were incalculable. The development of the
country was thrown back for many years, which were almost a
repetition of the period succeeding the Thirty Years' War. But
while nearly a century elapsed before the traces of that struggle
disappeared, Frederick repaired most of the ravages of the Seven
PRUSSIA
525
Years' War in a tenth of the time. By great dexterity in the manage-
ment of his ti nances he had kept clear of debt, and was soon able
to advance large sums to the most impoverished districts. Foreign
colonists were invited to repeople the deserted villages; taxes were
in several instances remitted for a series of years; the horses of the
army were employed in farm labour; and individual effort in every
department was liberally supported by the government. By 1770
nearly all the ruined villages had been rebuilt; the ground was
again under cultivation; order had been restored; the vacant offices
had been tilled; and the debased currency had been called in.
Throughout the kingdom agriculture was encouraged by the drainage
of marshy districts industry was extended by the introduction of
new manufactures, by bounties and by monopolies; and commerce
.ed by measures of protection. Frederick's methods of
administration did not greatly differ from those of his predecessor,
though the unrelenting severity of Frederick William was relaxed
and the peculiarities of his system toned down. Frederick's own
personal supervision extended to every department, and his idea of
liis position and duties made him his own first minister in the widest
and most exacting sense of the term. His efforts to improve the
administration and the bureaucracy were unceasing, and he suc-
ceeded in training a body of admirable public servants. One of
his most sweeping reforms was in the department of law, where,
with the able aid of the jurist Samuel von Cocceji (1679-1755),
In- carried out a complete revolution in procedure and personnel.
.if the king's first acts was to abolish legal torture, and he
rarely sanctioned capital punishment except in cases of murder.
application of the pnvilegium de non appellando (1746) freed
Prussia from all relations with the imperial courts and paved the
way for a codification of the common law of the land, which was
begun under Frederick but not completed till the end of the century.
In matters of religion Frederick not only exercised the greatest
toleration, remarking that each of his subjects might go to heaven
after his own fashion, but distinctly disclaimed the connexion of
the state with any one confession. Equal liberty was granted in
.ing and writing. Though his finances did not allow him to
do much directly for education, his example and his patronage
of men of letters exercised a most salutary effect. The old system
of rigid social privilege was, however, still maintained, and unsur-
mountable barriers separated the noble from the citizen and the
citi/en from the peasant. The paramount defect of Frederick's
administration, as future events proved, was the neglect of any
el fort to encourage independence and power of self-government
among the people. Every measure emanated from the king himself,
and the country learned to rely on him alone for help in every
emergency.
In 1772 Prussia and Austria, in order to prevent an over-
weening growth of Russia, joined in the first partition of Poland.
Frederick's share consisted of West Prussia and the Netze
district, which filled up the gap between the great mass of his
territories and the isolated district of East Prussia. It had
also this advantage over later acquisitions at Poland's expense,
that it was a thoroughly German land, having formed part of the
colonizations of the Teutonic Order. In 1778 Prussia found
herself once more in opposition to Austria on the question of
the Bavarian succession, but the difficulty was adjusted without
much bloodshed (see POTATO WAR). The same question
elicited the last action of importance in which Frederick en-
gaged the formation of a " Fiirstenbund," or league of Ger-
man princes under Prussian supremacy, to resist the encroach-
ments of Austria. The importance of this union was soon
obscured by the momentous events of the French Revolution,
but it was a significant foreshadowing of the duel of Austria
and Prussia for the pre-eminence in Germany. Frederick died
on the i yth of August 1786, having increased his territories
to an area of 75,000 sq. m., with a population of five and
a half millions. The revenue also had immensely increased
and now amounted to about twenty million thalers annually,
of which, however, thirteen were spent on the army. The
treasury contained a fund of sixty million thalers, and the
country was free of debt. (See FREDERICK II., KING OF
PRUSSIA.)
A continuation of the personal despotism under which Prussia
had now existed for seventy years, as well as of its dispropor-
Frederfc* donate influence in Europe, would have required a
William ii., ruler with something of the iron will and ability of
1786-1797. Frederick the Great. Unfortunately Frederick's
nephew and successor, Frederick William II., had neither the
energy nor the insight that his ]K>sition demanded. He was
too undecided to adhere to the vigorous external policy of his
predecessor, nor did he on the other hand make any attempt
to meet the growing discontent by an internal movement of
liberal reform. The rule of absolutism continued, though
the power now lay more in the hands of a " camarilla " or
cabinet than in those of the monarch; and the statesmen who
now came to the front were singularly short-sighted and
inefficient. The freedom of religion and the press left by
Frederick the Great was abrogated in 1788 by royal ordinance.
In 1787 the army engaged in an expensive and useless
campaign against Holland. The abandonment of Frederick's
policy was shown in a tendency to follow the lead of Austria,
which culminated in an alliance with that power against revo-
lutionary France. But in 1795 Prussia, suspicious of the
Polish plans of Russia and Austria, concluded the separate peace
of Basel, almost the only redeeming feature of which was the
stipulation that all north German states beyond a certain line
of demarcation should participate in its benefits. This practically
divided Germany into two camps and inflicted a severe blow
on the imperial system. The indifference with which Prussia
relinquished to France German lands on the left bank of the
Rhine, compared with her eagerness to increase her Slavonic
territories on the east, was certainly one of the great blunders
of the reign. Prussia's share in the second and third partitions
of Poland (1783 and 1795) nearly doubled her extent, but added
little or nothing to her real power. The twelve years following
the peace of Basel form one of the most sombre periods of the
history of Prussia. Her prestige was lost by her persistent
and ill-timed neutrality in the struggle with France; the old
virtues of economy, order and justice disappeared from the
bureaucracy; the army was gradually losing its excellence and
was weakened rather than strengthened by the hordes of dis-
affected Polish recruits; the treasury was exhausted and a large
debt incurred ; the newly awakened feeling of German patriotism
had died away, especially among the upper classes. (See
FREDERICK WILLIAM II., KLNG OF PRUSSIA.)
Frederick William III. possessed many virtues that did him
credit in his private capacity, but he lacked the vigour that was
at this juncture imperatively required from a mkrjMMM
of Prussia, while he was unfortunately surrounded William HI.,
by counsellors who had as little conception as him- 1797 ' 1840 '
self of Prussia's proper role. Not even the high-handed
occupation of Hanover by the French in 1803 could arouse
him; and the last shred of self-respect seemed to have
been parted with in 1805 when Prussia consented to receive
Hanover, the property of its ally England, from the hands of
France. The formation of the Confederation of the Rhine in
1806 and the intelligence that France had agreed to restore
Hanover to England at last convinced Frederick William of
what he had to fear from Napoleon; while Napoleon
on his side, being now free of his other antagonists, ^ a po/toji.
was only too glad of an opportunity to destroy his
tool. Prussia declared war on the gth of October 1806; and the
short campaign that ensued showed that the army of Frederick
the Great had lost its virtue, and that Prussia, single-handed,
was no match for the great French commander. On the I4th of
October the Prussian armies were overthrown at Jena and
Auerstadt, and a total collapse set in. Disgraceful capitulations
of troops and fortresses without a struggle followed one another
in rapid succession; the court fled to East Prussia; and Napoleon
entered Berlin in triumph. At the Peace of Tilsit (July 9,
1807) Frederick William lost half his kingdom, including all that
had been acquired at the second and third partitions of Poland
and the whole of the territory west of the Elbe. An enormous
war indemnity was also demanded, and the Prussian fortresses
were occupied by the French until this should be paid.
The next half-dozen years form a period of the greatest sig-
nificance in the history of Prussia, embracing, as they do, the
turning-point in the moral regeneration of the country. The
disasters of 1806 elicited a strong spirit of patriotism, which was
fanned by the exertions of the " Tugendbund," or League of
Virtue, and by the writings of men like Fichte and Arndt. The
credit of the reformation belongs mainly to the great minister
Stein, and in the second place to the chancellor Hardenberg.
526
PRUSSIA
The condition on which Stein based his acceptance of office
was itself of immense importance; he insisted that the system
, of governing through irresponsible cabinet coun-
Reforms. colors, which had gradually become customary,
should cease, and that the responsible ministers of
departments should be at once the confidential advisers and the
executive agents of the king. Stein's edict of 1807 abolished
serfdom and obliterated the legal distinction of classes by
establishing freedom of exchange in land and free choice of
occupation. 1 The " Stadteordnung " of 1808 reformed the
municipalities and granted them important rights of self-govern-
ment. His administrative reforms amounted to a complete
reconstruction of the ministerial departments and the machinery
of provincial government, and practically established the system
now in force. In 1810 Hardenberg, with a precipitancy which
Stein would scarcely have approved, continued the reform in the
condition of the peasants by making them absolute owners of
part of their holdings, the landlords obtaining the rest as an
indemnity for their lost dues. 2 The army was also reorganized
by Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, while the condition imposed
by Napoleon that it should not exceed 42,000 men was practically
evaded by replacing each body of men by another as soon as
it was fairly versed in military exercises. The educational
reforms of Wilhelm von Humboldt established the school system
of Prussia on its present basis, and the university of Berlin was
founded in 1809 (see STEIN, H. F. C. FREIHERR VON; HARDEN-
BERG, K. A. VON).
Frederick William hesitated to take part in the Austrian
rising in 1809, but his opportunity came in 1813, when Napoleon
fled from Russia. General York, commander of the corps that
Prussia had been obliged to contribute to the French expedi-
tion, anticipated the formal declaration of war by joining
the Russians with his troops on his own responsibility
(Dec. 30, 1812). On the outbreak of the war the people rose en
masse and with the utmost enthusiasm. A treaty of alliance
between Russia and Prussia was concluded at Kalisch, and
Austria, after some hesitation, also joined the league against
Napoleon. In the struggle that followed (see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS). Prussia played one of the most prominent parts,
and her general Bliicher was the driving force of the allied armies.
Between 1813 and the battle of Waterloo Prussia lost 140,000
men, and strained her financial resources to the utmost. As
compensation she received at the Congress of Vienna
in 1815. the northern half of Saxony, her old possessions west
of the Elbe, Swedish Pomerania, the duchies of
Berg and Jiilich, and other districts in Westphalia and on the
Rhine. The acquisitions of the last partition of Poland, with
the exception of the grand-duchy of Posen, were resigned to
Russia; Friesland went to Hanover, and Bavaria was allowed
to retain Baireuth and Ansbach, which had come into her hands
in 1806. This arrangement of the map did not wholly restore
Prussia to its former extent, as its area was now only 108,000
sq. m. compared with 122,000 sq. m. at the beginning of 1806,
but the substitution of German for Slav territory and the
shifting of the centre of gravity towards the west more than
made up for any slight loss in size. Hanover still formed a
huge wedge splitting Prussia completely in two, and the western
frontier was very ragged. Prussia's position required caution,
but forced upon it a national German policy; and the situation of
the new lands was vastly more effectual in determining the future
leader of Germany than was Austria's aggrandisement in Italy.
The task that confronted Frederick William III. in 1815 that
of welding together the heterogeneous elements assembled under
Prussia k' s crown by the great congress was one that would
after 1815 have taxg d the statesmanship of a stronger man than he.
The population of Prussia had been more than doubled,
and contained, besides 2,000,000 Slavs, people of every German
1 Previous to this measure the distinction between " noble,"
" burgher," and " peasant " land and occupations was strictly ob-
served, and no transition of property or employment from one class
to another was possible.
1 The patrimonial jurisdiction of the landowners was not taken
away till 1848.
race; and, as an additional problem, the annexation of the Rhine
provinces had raised the number of Roman Catholic subjects of the
most Protestant of the German monarchies to some two-fifths of
the whole. On the 3rd of June 1814 the king had issued a cabinet
order promising on his return to give a decision as to a
national constitution, and this promise had been v"f s "
repeated in proclamations at Danzig and Posen (May a . s '" u "
1815) and in the patent addressed to the new Saxon '
provinces on the 22nd of May : in addition to the provincial estates
there was to be a national Diet for the whole country. When,
however, the work of drawing up the constitution was put in hand,
it soon became clear that it would meet with extraordinary diffi-
culties. Liberalism was as yet a force only in the professional
classes; the provinces, proud of their traditions, were loth to be
merged in a common organization (Pomeranians and Silesians are
described in contemporary documents as "nations"); above all,
there was the fundamental antagonism, by no means extinct even
now, between the old eastern provinces, with their strong feudal
spirit, and the new western provinces, in which the ideas of the
Revolution had gained a permanent ascendancy; and of all these
conflicting tendencies, one only was organized into a compact body
of opinion: the ultra-conservative feudal landowners (Junker)
of the mark of Brandenburg, " heartless, wooden, half-educated
people," as Stein called them, " fit only to be turned into corporals
or calculating machines," but for all that the very backbone of
the traditional Prussian monarchy.
In spite of all the king would probably have granted a constitution,
but for the ill-timed alarums and excursions of the Liberal Turn-
oereine and Burschenschaften. The trials and humilia- p r
tions he had passed through during the revolutionary "'
epoch had left him in a condition of nervous appre-
hension, which the Wartburg festival of October 1 8 1 8 , ".
(Kamptz's Police Laws, an uhlan's stays and a corporal's
cane symbols of Prussian methods had been committed to the
flames) and the murder of Kotzebue turned into reactionary panic.
Metternich, who had never ceased to warn the king of the peril to
the Prussian monarchy which would result from a central repre-
sentative system, seized the opportunity; under his influence in
October 1819, Frederick William by signing the Carlsbad Decrees
(q.v.) definitely committed himself to the Austrian system of
" stability." It was not, however, till the iith of June 1821 that
the king finally decided to postpone the constitution, and to summon
a commission to organize a system of provincial estates, which
were created by royal patent on the 5th of June 1823. For the rest,
the question of a constitution was not again raised during the
king's reign, and for years the Prussian police engaged in the con-
genial task of " demagogue hunting " (Demagogenhetzerei), popular
heroes like Jahn and Arndt being haled to prison on frivolous
charges, and even Gneisenau and Scharnhorst surrounded with
spies.
Meanwhile, by an ordinance of the 2Oth of April 1814 the kingdom
had been divided into eight provinces, each province into govern-
ment districts (Regierungsbezirke) , and these again
into " circles " administered by a Landrat (landrdtliche ^ aml lsira '
Kreise). At the head of each Regierungsbezirk was a tlve Keor '
government board responsible to the Oberprdsident, gan
who was responsible in his turn to the ministry under the chan-
cellor. On the 2Oth of March 1817 was created a council of
state (Stoatsrat) consisting of the royal princes, high officials
and a certain number of members nominated by the king, whose
function was to supervise the administration and discuss projects
of legislation. Its immediate tasks were to bring the new provinces
into harmony with the Prussian system and to set order into the
disorganized finances. Both problems were solved in a manner
that did credit to the Prussian bureaucracy. By 1820, in spite of
the damage caused by the war and of the exhaustion of the country,
the financial situation was satisfactory, the king having contributed
to this result by surrendering the Crown domains to the state,
reserving only a charge of 2,500,000 thalers, the so-called Kron-
fideikommissfonds. The reconciliation of the new provinces to the
new order was a matter of even more difficulty, notably _. ..
in the case of the population of the Rhine districts, I
which had been accustomed to the easy-going methods
and light taxation of the ecclesiastical princes. They were, however,
to a certain extent reconciled by the wise liberality which left to
them many of their peculiar institutions, e.g. the Code Napole'on
in the Rhine provinces. Most burdensome of all was the law of
the 3rd of September 1814 introducing universal military service
and organizing the Landwehr; but it was precisely this which was
to be the strongest factor in welding Prussia together and making
her supreme in Germany.
Of all the reforms the most far-reaching was the creation, on the
ist of January 1834, f the famous customs union or _. - _
Zollverein, which was ^to become the material basis vere / n
of Prussia's influence in Germany. (For details see
GERMANY: History, xi. 865.)
In educational matters also the government achieved results
of lasting value. The university of Bonn was founded, the others
were reorganized; numerous Gymnasien were built and above all
PRUSSIA
527
elementary education was made universal and compulsory. Less
happy was Frederick William's attempt to adjust the religious
differences of his subjects with the corporal's cane.
Education | n l8l ^ ) t j, e tercentenary of the Reformation, a royal
decree announced that henceforth Lutherans and Ke-
Kellgloo. f orme j were to unite in one " Evangelical Church,"
the public- n.i- of the name " Protestant " being officially forbidden.
Tin so-called Old Lutherans, who refused to conform, were forbidden
mid a separate community, and refractory pastors were
dragooned and imprisoned. A quarrel also broke out with the
Roman Catholic Church on the question of " mixed marriages,"
which culminated in 1837 in the imprisonment of Baron Droste zu
Vischering (g.f.), archbishop of Cologne, and of the archbishop of
Posen.
In foreign politics, too, Prussia played but a secondary r&le after
1815. The king either attended, or was represented at, the various
congresses up to that of Verona in 1822, but his sole idea was to
support the views of Metternich, and later, those of the emperor
Nicholas I. of Russia. (See EUROPE: History.)
Frederick William III. died on the 7th of June 1840. In
spite of his faults, he had accomplished great things for Prussia,
and his kindness of heart, his devotion to duty and the memory
of his sufferings maintained his personal popularity to the last
(see FREDERICK WILLIAM III., KING OF PRUSSIA). Of his son
Frederick and successor, Frederick William IV., great things
William /v., we re expected, since his talents were undeniable
184O-I861. an( j jj e nac j g amec i as crown prince a reputation
for Liberalism. One of his first acts was to liberate Jahn
and the imprisoned archbishops, to reinstate Arndt in office
and to issue a general amnesty (Aug. 10, 1840). Five years
later he allowed the Old Lutherans liberty to set up a Church
of their own. But in spite of these promising beginnings, it
was soon clear that the king was wholly out of touch with the
ideas of modern Liberalism. In spite of the warnings of the
emperor Nicholas I. and of Metternich, he sought to satisfy the
cry for a constitution by issuing on the I3th of February 1847
a patent summoning the "united Diet" for Prussia that is to
say, a mere " concentration " of the provincial Diets. The
story of the contest that followed between the Crown and the
people is outlined elsewhere (see GERMANY). It is only
necessary to give here some account of the constitutional
development in Prussia itself.
The most important landmark in this respect was the law
promulgated after the dissolution of the lower house of the
Electoral revolutionary National Assembly on the 27th of
LawotiS49 April 1849. This law, which was only slightly modified
and Coasti- by the electoral reform law of 1910, divided the parlia-
tuttoa of mentary electors into three classes, their voting power
being determined by property qualifications or by
official and professional position. In the elections that followed,
the disgusted democrats took no part, with the result that the
chambers that met on the 7th of August 1849 were strongly
Conservative and made no difficulty about revising the demo-
cratic constitution of 1848 in accordance with the royal wishes.
The constitution, thus amended, was proclaimed on the 3ist of
January 1851, and has remained substantially that of Prussia
ever since. Its immediate effect was an extraordinary series of
reactionary measures, e.g. the restoration of the old manorial
courts and of the provincial estates (1850). The actual con-
stitution of the parliament as consisting of a House of Lords
(Herrenhaus) and House of Delegates (Abgeordnelenhaus) was
fixed in 1854, and in this assembly the dominant element con-
tinued to be that of the Prussian Junkertum or squirearchy,
which supported the king and his government in all their
reactionary efforts.
So far as the internal history of Prussia is concerned, little
was altered by the substitution of William as regent for his
waiiami Brother, now hopelessly mad, in 1858. The new
I/MI -IMS' ru l er . who became king in 1861, shared to the full
his predecessor's views as to the divine right of the
Prussian crown. He was prepared to accept the established
constitutional forms, but he was not prepared to sacrifice to
them what he firmly believed to be the divinely appointed
mission of Prussia in Germany. Bismarck, who became prime
minister in 1862, fully shared his master's views. He realized,
what the lower house did not, that the German question could only
be settled as the result of a trial of strength between Prussia and
Austria and that therefore it was necessary for Prussia to spend
money on armaments; and, since he could not give Bltmarck ,
his real reasons to the parliament and the parliament
refused to accept the reasons he did give, he raised the necessary
funds in defiance of the votes of the House of Delegates. The
result justified him in the eyes of the Prussian people. Bis-
marck's policy, culminating in the war of 1866, left Prussia the
undisputed mistress of Germany (see SCHLESWic-HoLSTEiN
QUESTI.ON; and GERMANY: History). By the Treaty of Prague
(Aug. 23, 1866) Prussia acquired Hanover, Hesse-Cassel,
Hesse-Nassau, Frankfort and the duchies of Schleswig-
Holstein and Lauenburg; her territory had been Treaty of
increased by one-fifth and became for the first time Prague.
satisfactorily rounded off and compacted; by the I866m
acquisition of the Elbe duchies, too, she laid the foundations of
her future sea-power. In 1871 as the result of the German
victory over France the king of Prussia became German
Emperor.
From 1867 onward Prussia has had from the point of view
of international politics no existence apart from the North
German Federation and the German Empire; and
even in internal affairs her preponderance and influence *?
in Germany have been overwhelming. For all practi- "> e " e /-man
cal purposes the German Empire has been Prussia **"'"*
and, however much the still surviving particularist feeling of
the lesser states has resented the process, the " Prussification,"
in greater or less degree, of all Germany was inevitable from
the moment that the great imperial departments army, customs,
posts, railways were placed under Prussian authority or con-
formed to the Prussian model. With this particular expansion
of Prussia, however, we are not concerned, but solely with the
internal development of the Prussian kingdom itself. The main
tasks that lay before the government after 1870 were the assimilation
of the new provinces, the reorganization of the administration,
the economic development of the country, the settle-
ment of the questions arising out of the attitude of the *2
Roman Catholics on the one hand and the Social Demo- ,
crats on the other. On the whole the new German *
provinces accepted their fate with equanimity, though in Hanover
especially the deposed dynasty continued to command a con-
siderable following of which the ablest spokesman was Windthorst
(q.v.). Since the dispossessed princes refused to resign their
claims, the large sum of money which had been assigned to them
by the Prussian parliament was, so early as March 1868, seques-
trated, and, under the name of the Guelph Fund (Welfenfonds), formed
a secret service supply highly convenient for Bismarck's purposes.
More difficult was the task, rashly undertaken by the government,
of germanizing the Danish parts of Schleswig-Hplstein and the
Polish districts in the eastern provinces, a task which after thirty
years of effort shows but very small results (see SCHLESWIG-
HOLSTEIN QUESTION, ad fin. ; and POSEN).
Closely connected with the Polish question was the quarrel with
the Roman Catholic Church, known as the Kulturkampf, of which
Prussia Was the focus (see GERMANY: History, xi. _. ,
880 seq.). The anti- Vatican policy, associated '.
especially with the name of the minister Falk, necessi- " m '" >
tated an alliance of the government with the Liberals, and this
led to a policy of at least administrative reform. The present
administrative system (Kreisordnung) of Prussia was introduced
in 1872 for certain provinces, but not extended to the whole
kingdom until 1888, when it was applied to Posen. The
Liberalism of the Prussian parliament was, however, of a very
lukewarm temper; and when in 1878-1879 Bismarck decided
to reverse the fiscal policy of the country and to pass
repressive legislation against the Social Democrats,
the Liberals were not strong enough to offer an effective tmocrmcr
resistance. In 1879 the moderate Liberal ministry Df^
resigned, and was succeeded by a Conservative cabinet,
in which the most conspicuous figure was Robert von Putt-
kammer (q.v.). Henceforth the government depended for
parliamentary support on a union of the National Liberals
and Conservatives or of the Conservatives and Ultramontanes.
An eventual understanding with the Holy See was inevitable,
though the Kulturkampf was not actually settled until_ 1888, when
the Prussian government, assisted by the diplomatic
attitude of Pope Leo XIII., came to terms with Rome.
Meanwhile in 1879 the era of Bismarck's experiments
in state socialism had begun by the purchase by the state of three of
the great railways, thus laying the foundation of the present system
of state railways in Prussia.
On the 9th of March 1888 William I. died. His successor.
PRUSSIA PRUSSIC ACID
Frederick III., only lived till the isth of June, the sole important
act of his reign being the dismissal of Puttkammer. Under his
Frederick successor William II. the development of Prussian
///., "sss. affairs continued on the lines kid down under
William I., the main difference being that, after the
fall of Bismarck (March 20, 1890), the old antagonism between
the unrepresented masses and the government tended to
William II., change into one between these masses and the
Crown. For while in the unreformed parliament
the squirearchy was still disproportionately represented, 1
Socialism denounced by the king-emperor as treason
Franchise against himself and the country spread rapidly
torm - among the unrepresented population. Discontent
grew apace, and the trouble culminated in 1908 and 1909. In
1906 a bill raising the number of members of*the Diet from 433
Growth of to 443 and effecting an unimportant redistribution
of seats had been passed, but a Radical amendment
mocracy.- m f avour o f direct and universal suffrage and the
secret ballot had been rejected by a large majority. In 1907
the elections for the Reichstag resulted in a remarkable
defeat of the Socialist forces, and this had its effect in Prussia
also. In 1908 a resolution in favour of universal suffrage was
again brought forward. It was opposed by Prince Billow,
the German chancellor, and was rejected by a large majority.
Riots followed in Berlin and demonstrations in favour of reform
throughout the country, and at the new elections in June seven
Socialist members were returned a portentous phenomenon
under the actual franchise. In the session of 1909 the reform
resolution was again brought forward, and again thrown out by
the Conservative majority.
Demonstrations and collisions with the police followed in
most of the large Prussian towns, and in October four of the
Socialist members returned in 1908 who had been unseated
on technical grounds were re-elected. It became clear to the
government that some sop must be thrown to popular opinion,
and accordingly in the speech from the throne delivered on the
nth of January 1910 the king-emperor announced a measure
of franchise reform. The agitation, however, continued, and
the terms of the bill when it was introduced by Herr von Beth-
mann-Hollweg on the loth of February were not such as to
conciliate opposition. The chancellor and minister-president
adhered to the principles enunciated by his predecessor; 2 the
bill retained the triple class division of voters, public
Reform Bill .. ,
0/1910. voting and plural votes; the voting, however, was
to be direct and certain changes were suggested
giving less to the moneyed interest and more to the professional
classes. A furious agitation at once arose all over the country,
culminating in a series of Socialist demonstrations on the i4th in
Berlin and elsewhere; owing to the elaborate police precautions
there was, however, no serious disturbance; but on the evening
of the i8th there was street fighting between rioters and police in
Frankfort. Meanwhile, on the i3th, the bill had been referred
to a committee of the Diet. No party was satisfied with it; the
Berlin municipality petitioned for its entire rejection; but its
fate was ultimately determined by an agreement between the
representatives of the Conservative and Catholic Centre parties
on the committee, the latter agreeing to support the retention
of indirect voting on condition of the former declaring in favour
of the secret ballot (Feb. 22). In this sense the committee
ultimately reported, in spite of the government's efforts to retain
public voting and to concede direct election, and on the i4th
of March the bill in this shape passed its second reading. On
the i6th the third reading was carried, all th,e parties except
the Conservatives and the Centre voting against it; Herr von
Bethmann-Hollweg accepted the bill on behalf of the govern-
ment, merely reserving the right to amend it in matters of
1 Prince Schonaich-Carolath pointed out in 1908 that 314,000
Socialist voters were entirely unrepresented, while 324,000 Con-
servative voters returned 143 members, and that the propertied
and agrarian section of the community returned over 300 members,
the remainder only some 130 (Annual Register, 1908, p. 280).
2 His speech is reported in The Times of the nth of February
1910.
detail. Demonstrations and riots in various centres showed how
far this result was from satisfying the popular demands.
Thus Prussia retained, in contradistinction to the South
German states, its traditional character, as a land ruled from
above, the monarchy and the bureaucracy basing their authority
not on the will of the people, but partly on divine right and
partly on the middle-class terror of the social revolution, while
as its ultimate sanction there remained the tremendous power
of the king of Prussia as supreme "war lord" of Germany.
It remained to be seen how long these conditions could last in a
country which, during the tremendous material expansion of the
period following the war, had developed an immense industrial
population which saw, or thought it saw, its interests sacrificed
to the agricultural classes, with their traditional feudalism #nd
inherited loyalty to the Prussian system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For sources see K. Kletke, Quellenkunde der
Gesch. des preuss. Staates (Berlin, 1858-1861): Bd. i. Schriftsteller,
Bel. ii. Urkunden-Repertorium; and F. Zurbonsen, Quellenbuch zur
brandenburg-preuss. Gesch. (Berlin, 1889), Zeitschr. fur preussische
Gesch. (ibid. 1864-1883), Forschungen zur . . . preuss. Gesch.
(Leipzig, 1888 sqq.). Records of the Prussian government
in the 1 8th century are being published under the title of Ada
borussica (Berlin, 1892 sqq.). Among important general works
may be mentioned Ranke, Zwolf Biicher preussischer Gesch., 5 vols.
to 174.5 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1878); Droysen, Gesch. der preussischen
Politik, 5 parts in 15 vols. to 1756 (Berlin and Leipzig, 1855-1885);
H. G. Prutz, Preussische Geschichte, 4 vols. to 1888 (Stuttgart,
1900-1902); and for constitutional history, C. Bornhak, Preussische
Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte (Berlin, 1903), Of the many works
devoted to special periods Treitschke's Deutsche Geschichte im ip.
Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1870-1894), in spite of its strong Prussian
bias, is especially valuable for the period up to 1848, when it
breaks off. See also the lists of books attached to the biographies
of the various Prussian kings and statesmen.
PRUSSIA, in the original and narrower sense of the word, a
territory of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, stretching
along the Baltic coast for about 220 m., and occupying an area
of 24,083 sq. m. The eastern part of this territory formed the
duchy of Prussia, which was conquered and colonized by the
Teutonic Order and was acquired by the elector of Brandenburg
in 1618, furnishing his successor with his regal title in 1701.
The western part, which had been severed from the eastern half
and assigned to Poland in 1466, was not annexed to Prussia until
the partition of Poland in 1772, while the towns of Daiizig and
Thorn remained Polish down to 1793. The two districts were
united in 1824 to form a single province. But, as might have
been expected, the union did not work well, and it was dissolved
in 1878, its place being taken by the modern provinces of East
and West Prussia. (See EAST PRUSSIA and WEST PRUSSIA.)
PRUSSIC ACID, or HYDROCYANIC Aero, HCN, an organic
acid first prepared in 1782-1783 by C. Scheele and subsequently
examined by J. Gay-Lussac. It is present in varying amounts
in certain plants, being a product of the hydrolysis of the cyano-
jenetic glucosides, e.g. amygdalin (q.v.). It may be prepared
by heating a mixture of cyanogen and hydrogen to 5oo-55o C.
(M. Berthelot, Ann. Mm. phys., 1879 (5), 18, p. 380); by
passing induction sparks through a mixture of acetylene and
nitrogen; by the dry distillation of ammonium formate; by the
decomposition of the simple cyanides with mineral acids; and
ay distilling potassium ferrocyanide with dilute sulphuric acid
(F. Wohler, Ann,, 1850, 73, p. 219), the anhydrous acid being
obtained by fractional distillation of the aqueous distillate,
special precautions being necessary owing to the excessively
Doisonous nature of the free acid:
The free acid is a colourless liquid with a smell resembling
jitter almonds; it boils at 26-1 C., and may be solidified, in
which condition it melts at -14 C. It burns with a blue flame,
and is readily soluble in water, but the solution is unstable and
decomposes on standing, giving amorphous insoluble substances,
and ammonium formate, oxalic acid, &c. An aqueous solution
of hydrogen peroxide converts it into oxamide, (CONH 2 )2, and
reduction by zinc and hydrochloric acid gives methylamine.
The anhydrous acid combines with hydrochloric, hydrobromic
and hydriodic acids to form crystalline addition products, which
PRUSSIC ACID
529
are decomposed by water with the formation of the corre-
sponding ammonium salt and formic acid. It combines with
aldehydes and ketones to form the nitriles of oxy-acids, for
example, CH,CHO+HCN = CH 3 CH(OH)(CN). It is a very
weak monobasic acid, and the aqueous solution has a very low
electric conductivity.
.inides. The salts of this acid, known as cyanides, may
In- prepared by the action of cyanogen or of gaseous hydro-
cyanic acid on a metal; by heating the carbonates or hydro-
oxides of the alkali metals in a current of hydrocyanic acid ;
by heating alkaline carbonates with carbon in the presence of
free nitrogen: BaCOj + 4 C + Nj = Ba(NC) 2 + $CO; by ignition
of nitrogenous organic substances in the presence of alkaline
carbonates or hydroxides; or by processes of double decom-
position. The alkali and alkaline earth cyanides are soluble in
water and in alcohol, and their aqueous solution, owing to
hydrolytic dissociation, possesses an alkaline character. When
heated in contact with air they undergo a certain amount of
oxidation, being converted to some extent into the corresponding
cyanate. The cyanides of other metals are decomposed by heat,
frequently with liberation of cyanogen. The cyanides are usually
reducing agents. Those of the heavy metals are mostly insoluble
in water, but are soluble in a solution of potassium cyanide,
forming more or less stable double salts, for example KAg(NC)2,
KAu(NC)j. Lead cyanide, Pb(NC)j, however, does not form
such a salt, and is insoluble in potassium cyanide solution.
Ammonium cyanide, NH 4 NC, a white solid found to some slight
extent in illuminating gas, is easily soluble in water and alcohol,
and is very poisonous. Its vapour is inflammable. It is obtained
by passing ammonia gas over not coal; by subliming a mixture of
ammonium chloride and potassium cyanide; by passing a mixture
of ammonia gas and chloroform vapour through a red hot tube;
and by heating a mixture of ammonia and carbon monoxide:
CO+2NH 3 = NH4NC+H 2 O. Barium cyanide, Ba(NC) 2 , pre-
pared by the action of potassium cyanide on baryta, or by passing
air over a heated mixture of barium carbonate and coal, is a white
solid, which when heated with water to 300 C. loses the whole of
its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Mercuric cyanide, Hg(NC) 2 ,
is a sparingly soluble salt formed by dissolving precipitated mercuric
oxide in hydrocyanic acid, or by boiling potassium ferrocyanide with
mercuric sulphate and water: 2K4Fe(NC) 6 +3HgSO 4 = 3Hg(NC) 2 -r-
3KjSO4+K2Fe[Fe(NC)]. Its aqueous solution is not an electrolyte,
and consequently does not give the reactions of the mercury and
cyanogen ions. When heated it yields mercury, cyanogen and para-
cyanogen. Silver cyanide, AgNC, is formed as a white precipitate
by adding potassium cyanide to silver nitrate solution; or better,
by adding silver nitrate to potassium silver cyanide, KAg(NC)s, this
double cyanide being obtained by the addition of one molecular
proportion of potassium cyanide to one molecular proportion of
silver nitrate, the white precipitate so formed being then dissolved
by adding a second equivalent of potassium cyanide. On con-
centration the double salt separates as hexagonal tables. Dilute
mineral acids decompose it with the formation of insoluble silver
cyanide and hydrocyanic acid: KNC-AgNC+HNO 3 = HCN +
KNOa+AgNC. A boiling solution of potassium chloride with
the double cyanide gives silver chloride and potassium cyanide.
Potassium cyanide, KNC, and sodium cyanide, NaNC, are two of
the most important of the salts of hydrocyanic acid, the former
being manufactured in large quantities for consumption in the
extraction of gold (q.v.). Potassium cyanide may be obtained by
fusing potassium ferrocyanide either alone K4Fe(NC)e = 4.KNC +
FeCj+Nz or with potassium carbonate [V. Alder, English patent
'353 (1900)]; in the latter case the chief reaction probably is:
K 4 Fc(NC), + K ? COj = 4KNC + 2KOCN + CO + Fe ; more potas-
sium ferrocyanide is occasionally added in small quantities,
in order to decompose the cyanate formed ; 2KOCN+2K 4 Fe(NC) =
loKNC + 2FeO+4C + 2N 2 ; 2FeO + 2C = 2CO + 2Fe. The re-
action is accompanied by much frothing, and the whole is filtered
when in a state of tranquil fusion. Rosslcr and Hasslacher prepare
the double potassium sodium cyanide by fusing potassium ferro-
ryanide with sodium, the product of fusion being extracted with
water and the solution evaporated: K 4 Fe(NC) + 2Na = Fe +
4KXC-2NaNC. This process gives a product free from cyanate,
which was always formed in the older fusion processes.
Many other processes have been devised. D. T. Playfair [Eng.
pat. 7764 (1890)] decomposes sulphocyanides by fusing with zinc:
the zinc is heated with a small quantity of carbon ana when com-
pletely fused potassium sulphpcyanide is added, the mass being
well stirred and heated until it thickens and begins to turn red;
finally it is allowed to cool out of contact with air, lixiviated with
water, the solution decanted, and evaporated to a paste in vacua.
The potassium sulphocyanide is obtained from ammonium sulpho-
cyamdc, which is formed by washing crude coal gas with water
containing suspended sulphur. Various processes involving the
use of atmospheric nitrogen have been devised, but in most cases
they do not yield good results. More successful results are obtained
by the use of ammonia. The Stassfurter Chem. Fabrik [Eng. pat.
9350-2 (1900)] pass ammonia over a mixture of alkali or alkaline
carbonate and charcoal, first at a dull red heat and then at a bright
red heat: KHO + NH, + C = KNC + H,O + H 2 . H. Y. Castner
[Fr. pat. 242938 (1894)] passes anhydrous ammonia over heated
sodium to form sodamide, which is then brought in a molten con-
dition into contact with carbon: NaNH 2 +C = NaNC-f-H 2 . The
Deutsche Gold und Silber Scheide Anstalt [Eng. pat. 3328, 3329
(1901)] prepare sodium cyanamide by melting sodium with carbons
or some hydrocarbon, and passing ammonia over the melt at from
40o-6op C. The temperature is then raised to 7OO-8oo C., and
the sodium cyanamide in contact with, the residual carbon forms
sodium cyanide. H. W. Crowther and E. C. Rossiter (Journ. Soc.
Chem. Ind., 1893, 13, p. 887) digest carbon bisulphide with ammonia
and lime in quantities slightly in excess of those demanded by the
following equation: 2CS, + 2NH, + zCa(OH) 2 = Ca(SCN), +
Ca(SH)s+4HjO; the product is then treated with a current of
carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate being precipitated, su'phuretted
hydrogen escaping, and calcium sulphocyanide remaining in solution.
The sulphocyanide is converted into the potassium salt by adding
potassium sulphate, and finally desulphurized by lead, zinc, or iron.
Potassium cyanide is an excessively poisonous, colourless, de-
liquescent solid ; it is readily soluble in water, but almost insoluble
in absolute alcohol. It is stable jr. dry air, but is easily oxidized
when fused, in which condition it is a powerful reducing agent.
It dissolves gold (q.v.) in the presence of water and atmospheric
oxygen. It is also largely used by the jeweler, electroplater and
photographer.
Double Cyanides. The double cyanides formed by the solu-
tion of the cyanide of a heavy metal in a solution of potassium
cyanide are decomposed by mineral acids with liberation of hydro-
cyanic acid and formation of the cyanide of the heavy metal.
Besides these, other double cyanides are known which do not
suffer such decomposition, the heavy metal present being
combined with the cyanogen radical in the form of a complexion.
The most important members of these classes are the ferro- and
ferri-cyanides and the nitroprussides.
Potassium ferrocyanide, KFe(NC)6, (yellow prussiate of potash),
was first obtained by decomposing Prussian blue with caustic
potash: Fe,[Fe(NC),U + I2KHO = 3K,Fe(NC), + 4 Fe(OH) 3 ; it
may be also obtained by warming a solution of ferrous sulphate with
an excess of potassium cyanide: FeSO+6KNC = K4Fe(NC)-|-
K 2 SO4. The older processes for the commercial preparation of
this salt, which were based on the ignition of nitrogenous substances
with an alkaline carbonate and carbon, have almost all been aban-
doned, since it is more profitable to prepare the salt from the by-
products obtained in the manufacture of illuminating gas. , W.
Fowlis [Eng. pat. 9474 (1892)] passes the gas (after freeing it from
ammonia) through a solution of potassium carbonate containing
ferric oxide or ferrous carbonate (actually ferrous sulphate and
potassium carbonate) in suspension; the sulphuretted hydrogen in
the gas probably converts the iron salts into ferrous sulphide which
then, in the presence of the hydrocyanic acid in the gas, and the
alkaline carbonate, forms the ferrocyanide, thus: FeS+6HCN-|-
2KjCO, = K,Fe(NC), + H 2 S + 2CO 2 + 2H 2 O. The salt is re-
covered by crystallization. The process is not very efficient, since
the solutions are too dilute and large quantities of liquid have to
be handled. A large quantity of the salt is now prepared from the
" spent oxide " of the gas works, the cyanogen compounds formed
in the manufacture of the gas combining with the ferric oxide in
the purifiers to form insoluble iron ferrocyanides. The soluble salts
are removed by lixiviation, and the residue is boiled with lime to
form the soluble calcium ferrocyanide, which is finally converted
into the potassium salt by potassium chloride or carbonate.
The salt crystallizes in large yellow plates, containing three
molecules of water of crystallization. It is soluble in water, but
insoluble in alcohol. It is not poisonous. When fused with
potassium carbonate it yields potassium cyanide; warmed with
dilute sulphuric acid it yields hydrocyanic acid, but with concen-
trated sulphuric acid it yields carbon monoxide: 6H 2 O +
K 4 Fe(NC) + 6H.SO4 = 2K,SO 4 + FeSO 4 + 3(NH 4 )iSO 4 + 6CO.
Oxidizing agents (Cl, Br, H 2 O 2 , &c.) convert it into potassium
ferricyanide (see below), a similar result being attained by the
electrolysis of its aqueous solution: 2K 4 Fe(NC) + 2HO =
2KOH + H 2 + 2KaFe(NC). Potassium ferrocyanide may be
estimated quantitatively in acid solution by oxidation to ferri-
cyanide by potassium permanganate (in absence of other reduc-
ing agents): 5K 4 Fe(NC)t + KMnO 4 + 4H,SO 4 = 5K,Fe(NC), +
3K,SO 4 -t-MnSO4+4H,O.
Hydroferrocyanic acid, H4Fe(NC), is best obtained by decom-
posing the lead salt with sulphuretted hydrogen under water, or
by passing hydrochloric acid gas into a concentrated ether solution
of the potassium salt. In the latter case the precipitate is dissolved
in water, reprecipitated by ether, and washed with ether-alcohol.
530
PRUSSIC ACID
It is a tetrabasic acid, of markedly acid character, and readily
decomposes carbonates and acetates. It dissolves unchanged in
concentrated sulphuric acid, and oxidizes readily in moist air,
forming Prussian blue.
, Prussian blue, Fe 7 (NC)i 8 or Fe 4 [Fe(NC) 6 ] 3 , ferric ferrocyanide,
was discovered in 1710 by a German manufacturer named Diesbach,
who obtained it by the action of fused alkali and iron salts on nitro-
genous organic matter (e.g. blood). It is now prepared from the
calcium ferrocyanide formed in gas purifiers (see above) by decom-
position with ferrous sulphate. J. Bueb (Congress of German Gas
Industries, March 1900) brings gas (free from tar) into intimate
contact with a saturated solution of ferrous sulphate, when a
" cyanogen mud " is obtained. This is heated to boiling, and the
residue after filtration contains about 30% of Prussian blue. On
the small scale it may be prepared by adding an acid solution of a
ferrous salt to a solution of potassium ferrocyanide. The grey
precipitate first formed is allowed to stand for some hours, well
washed, and then oxidised by a warm solution of ferric chloride :
6K 2 Fe[Fe(NC) 6 ] + 3O = Fe 7 (NC), 8 + 3K 4 Fe(NC) 6 + Fe 2 O 3 . It is
a dark blue powder with a marked coppery lustre. It is insoluble
in water and is not decomposed by acids.
Soluble Prussian blue, K 2 Fe 2 [Fe(NC) 6 ] 2 , potassium ferric ferro-
cyanide, is formed when a solution of potassium ferrocyanide is
added to an insufficiency of a solution of a ferric salt (i), or when
potassium ferricyanide is added to a ferrous salt (2) :
(1) 2 K 4 Fe(NC) 6 + 2FeCl 3 = 6KC1 + K 2 Fe 2 [Fe(NC) 6 ]2
(2) 2K 3 Fe(NC)6 + 2FeCl 2 = 4KC1 + K 2 Fe 2 [Fe(NC)6] 2 .
It is soluble in water, but is insoluble in salt solutions.
Potassium ferricyanide, K 3 Fe(NC)e, red prussiate of potash, is
obtained by oxidizing potassium ferrocyanide with chlorine, bromine,
&c., 2K 4 Fe(NC) 6 + C1 2 = 2K 3 Fe(NC) 6 + 2KC1. G. Kassner (Ckem.
Zeit., 1889, 13, p. 1701; 17, p. 1712) adds calcium plumbate to a
solution of potassium ferrocyanide and passes carbon dioxide
through the mixture: 2K 4 Fe(NC) 6 +Ca 2 PbO 4 +4CO 2 = 2K 3 Fe(NC) 6 +
K 2 CO 3 +PbCO 3 +2CaCO 3 . The mixture of calcium and lead
carbonates is filtered off and roasted at a low red heat in order to
regenerate the calcium plumbate. It crystallizes in dark red
monoclinic prisms which are readily soluble in water. The solution
decomposes on standing, and in the presence of an alkali acts as
an oxidizing agent: 2K 3 Fe(NC)6+2KHO=2K4Fe(NC) 6 +H 2 O+O.
With silver nitrate it gives an orange red precipitate of silver
ferricyanide, Ag s Fe(NC)e. With a pure ferric salt it only gives a
brown coloration. It can be estimated quantitatively by mixing
a dilute solution with potassium iodide and hydrochloric acid in
excess, adding excess of zinc sulphate, neutralizing the excess of
free acid with sodium bicarbonate, and determining the amount
of free iodine by a standard solution of sodium thiosulphate. The
zinc sulphate is added in order to remove the ferrocyanide formed as
an insoluble zinc salt: 2K 3 Fe(NC) 6 +2KI = 2K 4 Fe(NC) 6 + I 2 . As
an alternative method it may be decomposed by hydrogen peroxide
in alkaline solution and the amount of evolved oxygen measured:
2 K 3 Fe(NC), + 2KHO + H 2 O 2 = 2K 4 Fe(NC) 6 + 2 H 2 O + O 2 .
Turnbull's blue, Fe 6 (NC)i 2 or Fe 3 [Fe(NC)6] 2 , ferrous ferricyanide,
is best obtained by adding a hot solution of potassium ferricyanide
to a ferrous salt, and allowing the mixture to stand some time in
the presence of an iron salt : 2K 3 Fe(NC) 6 +3FeSO 4 = Fe 3 [Fe(NC) e ] 2 +
3K 2 SO 4 . It is insoluble in dilute acids.
Hydroferricyanic acid, H 3 Fe(NC)6, obtained by adding concen-
trated hydrochloric acid to a cold saturated solution of potassium
ferricyanide, crystallizes in brown needles, and is easily decomposed.
Nitropmssides. The nitroprussides are salts of the type
M 2 Fe(NC)6-NO. The free acid forms dark red deliquescent
crystals and is obtained by decomposing the silver salt with
hydrochloric acid, or the barium salt with dilute sulphuric acid.
Sodium nitroprusside, Na 2 Fe(NC)5NO2H 2 O, is the commonest
salt. It is prepared by oxidizing potassium ferrocyanide with a
diluted nitric acid. The solution is evaporated, separated from
potassium nitrate, the free acid neutralized with soda, and the
solution concentrated. It crystallizes in dark red prisms which
are readily soluble in water; it is a valuable reagent for the detection
of sulphur, this element when in the form of an alkaline sulphide
giving a characteristic purple blue coloration with the nitro-
prusside. The potassium salt may be prepared by adding potassium
cyanide to ferrous sulphate solution, the brown precipitate so formed
being then heated with potassium nitrite :
5 KNC + 2 FeS0 4 = 2 K 2 SO 4 + KFe 2 (NC) 6l
2 KFe 2 (NC) 6 + 2 KNO 2 = 2 FeO + 2 K 2 Fe(NC) 6 -NO.
Other complex cyanides are known which may be regarded as
derived from the acids H 2 X(CN) 4 , X = Ni, Pd, Pt; H 4 X(CN) 6 , X =
Fe, Co, Ru; H 3 X(CN) 6 , X = Fe, Co, Rh; and H 2 R(CN), (see Abegg,
Anorganischen Chemie).
Organic Cyanides or Nitrites. Hydrocyanic acid forms two
series of derivatives by the exchange of its hydrogen atom for
alkyl or aryl groups; namely the nitriles, of type R-CN, and
the isonitriles, of type R-NC. The latter compounds may be
considered as derivatives of the as yet unknown isohydrocyamV
acid HNC.
Nitriles. These substances were first isolated in 1834 by J.
P61ouze (Ann., 1834, 10, p. 249). They may be prepared by heating
the alkyl iodides with potassium cyanide; by heating sulphuric
acid esters with potassium cyanide; by distilling the acid-amides
with phosphorus pentoxide; and by distilling amines (containing
more than five atoms of carbon) with bromine and potash (A. \Y.
Hofmann), for example
In addition to these methods, the nitriles of the aromatic series
may be prepared by distilling the aromatic acids with potassium
sulphocyanide: C 6 H 6 CO 2 H + KCNS = HCNS + CeH 6 CO 2 K,
C 6 HsCO 2 H + HCNS = C 6 H 6 CN + H 2 S + CO 2 ; from the primary
aromatic amines by converting them into diazonium salts, which
are then decomposed by boiling with potassium cyanide and copper
sulphate; by fusing the potassium salts of the sulphonic acids with
potassium cyanide; by leading cyanogen gas into a boiling hydro-
carbon in the presence of aluminium chloride (A. Dcsgrex, Bull. soc.
Mm., 1895, (3) 13, p. 735) ; and from the syn-aldoximes by the action
of acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride.
They are mostly colourless liquids which boil without decom-
position, or solids of low melting point. The lower members of the
series are somewhat soluble in water. They behave in most respects
as unsaturated compounds; they combine with hydrogen to form
amines; with water to form acidamides; with sulphuretted hydrogen
to form thio-amides; with alcohols, in the presence of acids, to
form imido-ethers R-C(:NH)-OR'; with ammonia and primary
amines to form amidines R-C(:NH)-NH 2 ; and with hydroxylamine
to form amidoximes, R-C(:NOH)-NH 2 . When heated with sodium
they frequently polymerize. Heated with acids or alkalis they
hydrolyse to acids: RCN + HC1 + 2H 2 O = R-COOH + NH 4 C1.
This reaction shows that the alkyl or aryl group is attached to the
carbon atom in the nitrile.
Acetonitrile boils at 81-6 C., and is readily miscible with water.
Propionitrile boils at 97 C.; it is somewhat easily soluble in water,
but is thrown out of solution by calcium chloride. It was obtained
by E. Frankl and C. C. Graham (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1880, 37, p. 740;
by the action of cyanogen gas on zinc ethyl. Allyl cyanide boils
at 119 C. Benzonitrile boils at 190-6 C. When solidified it melts
at 17 C. It is easily soluble in alcohol and ether.
The Isonitriles (isocyanides or carbylamines) were first prepared
in 1866 by A. Gautier (Ann., 1869, 151, p. 239) by the action of
alkyl iodides on silver cyanide, and the distillation of the resulting
compound with potassium cyanide in concentrated aqueous solution :
RI-^R-Ag(NC) 2 -R-NC+KAg(NC) 2 . They may also be ob-
tained by distilling a primary amine with alcoholic potash and
chloroform: R-NH 2 + CHC1 3 + 3KHO=3KC1 + 3H 2 O + R-NC
(A. W. Hofmann, Ann., 1868, 146, p. 107). They are colourless
liquids, readily soluble in alcohol and in ether, but insoluble in
water. They possess an exceedingly unpleasant smell and are
poisonous. They boil at temperatures somewhat lower than those
of the corresponding nitriles; and are stable towards alkalis, but
in the presence of mineral acids they readily hydrolyse, forming
primary amines and formic acid: RNC+2H 2 O = RNH 2 + H 2 CO 2 .
This reaction shows that the alkyl or aryl group is linked to the
nitrogen atom. The carbon atom in the isonitriles is assumed by
J. U. Nef to be divalent, since these substances readily form addition
compounds, such addition taking place on the carbon atom, as is
shown by the products of hydrolysis; for example with ethyl
carbylamine :
C 2 H 6 NC + CH 3 COCl- C 2 H 6 NC(COCH 3 )CI ->HC1 + C 2 H S NH,
+ CH 3 CO-CO 2 H.
This view was confirmed by J. Wade (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1902, 81,
p. 1596) who showed that the products obtained by the action of
alkyl iodides on the isonitriles in alcoholic solution at 100 C. yield
amine hydroidides and formic acid when hydrolysed. Such a
reaction can only take place if the addition of the alkyl group takes
place on the nitrogen atom of the ispnitrile, from which it follows
that the nitrogen atom must be trivalent and consequently the
carbon atom divalent. The reactions may probably be represented
as follows:
C 2 H6NC+C 2 H 6 I+ 4 C 2 H 6 OH=C 2 H 6 NH 2 -HI+HC0 2 C 2 H S +2(C 2 H S ) 2 0,
C 2 H 5 NC(-r-C 2 H 6 l)^>C 2 H s N(C 2 H5-I)C(+3C 2 H6OH)
-j>(C 2 H 6 ) 2 NH-HI + H-CO 2 C 2 H S + (C 2 H 6 ) 2 O.
The isonitriles dissolve silver cyanide readily, forming a soluble
silver salt (cf. KNC). At 200 C. the isonitriles are converted into
nitriles.
Constitution of Metallic Cyanides. Considerable discussion has
taken place as to the structure of the metallic cyanides, since
potassium cyanide and silver cyanide react with alkyl iodides to
Form nitriles and isonitriles respectively, thus apparently pointing
to the fact that these two compounds possess the formulae KCN
and AgNC. The metallic cyanides are analogous to the alkyl
isocyanides, since they form soluble double silver salts, and the fact
that ethyl ferrocyanide on distillation yields ethyl isocyanide also
points to their isocyanide structure. J. Wade (loc. cit.) explains
PRUTZ, H. PRYNNE
the formation of nitriles from potassium cyanide, and of isonitrilcs
from silver cyanide by the assumption that unstable addition
products are formed, the nature of which depends on the relative
state of unsaturation of the carbon and nitrogen atoms under the
varying conditions:
AgNC->AgN(:C 2 H6l)C->AgI+C 2 H 6 .\C;
that is, when the metal is highly electro-positive the carbon atom
is the more unsaturated, the audition takes place on the carbon
atom, and nitriles are produced. The same type of reaction occurs
when the metal is rejatively electro-positive to the added radical, for
example, with ethyl isocyanide and acetyl chloride (see above) ; com-
pare also AgNC -^AgN(:Cl-COCH ? )C ->AgCl+CH,COCN. On
the other hand, when there is but little electro-chemical difference
beiwe.-n the radical of the cyanide and that of the reacting compound
then the nitrogen atom is the more unsaturated element and iso-
nitriles are produced. This explanation also accounts for the
formation of nitriles by the diazo reaction, thus :
CH 5 N 3 Cl+CuNC->CuN:C-Cl-N 2 -C,H 6 ->CuCl- r -
N ;C-N,-C,H 4 ->C e H 4 CN+N 2 .
Detection. The metallic cyanides may be detected by adding
ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, and hydrochloric acid to their
solution, when a precipitate of Prussian blue is produced; if the
original solution contains free acid it must be neutralized by caustic
potash before the reagents are added. As an alternative test the
cyanide may be decomposed by dilute hydrochloric acid, and the
liberated hydrocyanic acid absorbed in a little yellow ammonium
sulphide. The excess of reagent is removed by evaporation and
a small quantity of a ferric salt added, when a deep red colour is
produced. Silver nitrate gives a white precipitate with cyanides,
soluble in excess of potassium cyanide. The amount of hydrocyanic
aeid in a solution may be determined by adding excess of caustic
potash and a small quantity of an alkaline chloride, and running
into the dilute solution standard silver nitrate until a faint per-
manent turbidity (of silver chloride) is produced, that is, until the
reartion, 2KNC+AgNOj = KAg(NC).+KNOi, is completed.
See R. Robine and M. Lengler, The Cyanide Industry, 1906 (Eng.
trans, by J. A. Le Clerc); W. Bertelsmann, Die Technologic der
Cyanverbindungen, 1906.
Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology of Hydrocyanic
Acid. The pharmacopoeial preparations of this acid are a 2%
solution, which is given in doses of from two to six minims,
the tinctura chloroformi ct morphinae composita, .which contains
a half-minim of this solution in each ten minims, and the aqua
laurocerasi, which owes its virtues to the presence of this acid,
and is of inconstant strength, besides being superfluous. The
acid is also the active ingredient of the preparations of
Virginian Prune, to which the same strictures apply.
The simple cyanides share the properties of the acid, except those
of platinum and iron. With these exceptions, the simple cyanides
are readily decomposed even by .carbonic acid, free prussic acid
being liberated. The double cyanides are innocuous. Hydrocyanic
acid is a protoplasmic poison, directly lethal to all living tissues,
whether in a plant or an animal. It is by no means the most powerful
poison known, for such an alkaloid as pseud-aconitine, which is
lethal in dose of about I/2OO of a grain, is some hundreds of times
more toxic, but prussic acid is by far the most rapid poison known,
a single inhalation of it producing absolutely instantaneous death.
The acid is capable of passing through the unbroken skin, where-
upon it instantly paralyses the sensory nerves. It is very rapidly
absorbed from raw surfaces and may thereby cause fatal conse-
quences. It is naturally an antiseptic.
The therapeutic applications, of the drug are based entirely upon
its anaesthetic or anodyne power. A lotion containing ten minims
of the dilute acid to an ounce of water and glycerin will relieve
itching due to any cause; and is useful in some forms of neuralgia.
It must never be employed when the skin is abraded. The diluted
acid is used internally to relieve vomiting or gastric pain. It is also
added to cough mixtures, when the cough is of the dry, painful kind,
which serves no purpose, as nothing is expectorated. Such a cough
is relieved by the sedative action on the central nervous system.
Toxicology. Instantaneous death results from taking the pure
acid. The diluted form, in toxic quantities, will cause symptoms
usually within a few seconds. The patient is quite unconscious,
the eyes are motionless, the pupils dilated, the skin cold and moist,
the limbs relaxed, the pulse is slow and barely perceptible, the
respirations very slow and convulsive. Post mortem, the body is
livid, and the blood very dark. There may be an odour of prussic
acid, but this soon disappears.
Treatment is only rarely of use, owing to the rapidity of the
toxic action. The patient who survives half-an-hour will probably
recover, as the volatile acid is rapidly excreted by the lungs. The
drug kills by paralysing the nervous arrangements of the heart and
respiration. The appropriate drug is therefore atropine, which
stimulates the respiration and prevents the paralysis of the heart.
One-fiftieth of a grain must be immediately injected subcutaneously.
The stomach must be washed out and large doses of emetics given
as soon as possible. Every second is of consequence. Ammonia
should be given by inhalation, and artificial respiration must never
be forgotten, as by it the paralysed breathing may be compensated
for and the poison excreted. The use of chemical antidotes, such
as iron salts, is futile, as the drug has escaped into the blood from
the stomach long before they can be administered.
PRUTZ, HANS (1843- ), German historian, son of Robert
Eduard 1'rutz (1816-1872), the essayist and historian; was born
at Jena on the 2oth of May 1843, and was educated at the univer-
sities of Jena and Berlin. In 1865 appeared his monograph on
Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, which was fol-
lowed by three volumes on the emperor Frederick Barbarossa
(Kaiser Friedrich I., Danzig, 1871-1874). Meanwhile from
1863 to 1873 he was teaching in secondary schools. In 1874 he
received a government commission to undertake explorations
in Syria, particularly at Tyre, and as a result he published in
1876 Aus Phijnicien, a collection of historical and geographical
sketches. In the same year appeared his first work on the
Crusades, Quellenbeitrdge zur Geschichte der Kreuzziige, and a
series of monographs on the same subject culminated in 1883 in
the notable Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzziige. Then turning to a
wider theme Prutz contributed to Chicken's university history
the two volumes on the political history of Europe during the
middle ages (Staatengeschichle des Abendlandes im Miltelalter,
Berlin, 1885-1887). In 1888 He reverted to a subject which he
had touched upon in his Geheimlehre und Geheimstatuten des
Tempelherrenordcns (Danzig, 1879), and wrote the history of the
rise and fall of the Templars (Entwickelung und Untergang des
Tempelherrenordens), -which is noticed in the article TEMPLARS.
His Preussische Geschichte (4 vols., Stuttgart, 1899-1902), which
is perhaps his most notable work, is an attempt to apply
scientific rather than patriotic canons to a subject which has
been mainly in the hands of historians with a patriotic bias.
He also wrote Aus des Grossen Kurfiirsten lelzten Jahren
(Berlin, 1897) and Bismarcks Bildung, Hire Quellen und ihre
Ausserungen (Berlin, 1904). In 1902 Prutz resigned the chair
of history in the university of Konigsberg, which he had held
since 1877, and took up his residence at Munich.
PRUTZ, ROBERT EDUARD (1816-1872), German poet and
prose writer, was born at Stettin on the 3oth of May 1816. He
studied philology, philosophy and history at Berlin, Breslau
and Halle, and in the last-named became associated, after
taking his degree, with Arnold Ruge in the publication of the
Hallesche Jahrbucher. Subjected on account of his advanced
political views to police surveillance, he removed to Jena, where,
on the strength of an excellent monograph, Der Gotlinger
Dichterbund (1841), he hoped to obtain an academic appointment.
He was, however, expelled from the town for offending against
the press laws, and it was not until 1846 that he received per-
mission to lecture in Berlin. From 1849 to 1859 he was extra-
ordinary professor of literature at Halle, but retired in 1859 to
Stettin, where he died on the 2ist of June 1872.
Prutz belonged to the group of political poets who dominated
German literature between 1841 and 1848; his poems are more
conspicuous for their liberal tendency than their poetry. Among
them may be mentioned Ein Marchen (1841); Gedichle (1841);
Aus der Heimat (1858) ; Neue Gedichle (1860) ; Herbstrosen (1865) ;
Buch der Liebe (1869). Among his novels are noteworthy,
Das Engelchen (1851) and Der Musikantenlurm (1855). Much
more important are his contributions to literary history and
criticism. Vorlesungen ilber die Geschichle des deutschen Theaters
(1847); Ludwig Holberg (1857); Die deutsche Literalur der Gegen-
viarl (1859), and Menschen und Bucher (1862). Prutz also wrote
some dramas of little merit.
See R. von Gottschall, in Unsere Zeit (1872).
PRYNNE, WILLIAM (1600-1669), English parliamentarian,
son of Thomas Prynne by Marie Sherston, was born at Swains-
wick near Bath in 1600. He was educated at Bath Grammar
School, matriculated at Oriel College, Oxford, in 1618, obtained
his B.A. in 1621, was admitted a student of Lincoln's Inn the
same year, and was called to the Bar in 1628. He was Puritan
532
PRYNNE
to the core, with a tenacious memory, a strength of will bordering
upon obstinacy, and a want of sympathy with human nature.
His first book, The Perpetuity of a Regenerate Man's Estate
(1627), defended one of the main Calvinistic positions, and The
Unloveliness of Love-locks and Health's Sickness (1628) attacked
prevailing fashions without any sense of proportion, treating
follies on the same footing as scandalous vices.
In 1629 Prynne came forward as the assailant of Arminianism
in doctrine and of ceremonialism in practice, and thus drew
down upon himself the anger of Laud. Histrio-mastix, published
in 1633, was a violent attack upon stage plays in general, in
which the author pointed out that kings and emperors who had
favoured the drama had been carried off by violent deaths, which
assertion might easily be interpreted as a warning to the king,
and applied a disgraceful epithet to actresses, which, as Henrietta
Maria was taking part in the rehearsal of a ballet, was supposed
to apply to the queen. After a year's imprisonment in the Tower
Prynne was sentenced by the star chamber on the i7th of
February 1634 to be imprisoned for life, and also to be fined
5000, expelled from Lincoln's Inn, rendered incapable of
returning to his profession, degraded from his degree in the
university of Oxford, and set in the pillory, where he was to
lose both his ears. The latter portion of the sentence was carried
out on the 7th of May, and the rest of his punishment inflicted
except the exaction of the fine. There is no reason to suppose
that his punishment was unpopular. In 1637 ne was once more
in the star chamber, together with Bastwick and Burton. In
A Divine Tragedy lately acted he had attacked the Declaration
of Sports, and in News from Ipswich he had assailed Wren
and the bishops generally. On the 3oth of June a fresh sentence,
that had been delivered on the i4th, was executed. The stumps
of Prynne's ears were shorn off in the pillory, and he was branded
on the cheeks with the letters S.L., meaning " seditious libeller,"
which Prynne, however, interpreted as " stigmata laudis."
He was removed to Carnarvon Castle, and thence to Mont
Orgueil Castle in Jersey, where he occupied himself in writing
against popery.
Immediately upon the meeting of the Long Parliament in
1640 Prynne was liberated. On the 28th of November he
entered London in triumph, and on the 2nd of March 1641,
reparation was voted by the Commons, at the expense of his
persecutors. Prynne now attacked the bishops and the Roman
Catholics and defended the taking up of arms by the parliament.
The words " Touch not mine anointed," he declared in the
Vindication of Psalm cv. tier. 15 (1642), only commanded kings
not to oppress their subjects. In 1643 he took an active part in
the proceedings against Nathaniel Fiennes for the surrender
of Bristol, and showed a vindictive energy in the prosecution
of Archbishop Laud. He manipulated the evidence against
him, and having been entrusted with the search of Laud's papers,
he published a garbled edition of the archbishop's private
" Diary," entitled A Breviate of the Life of Archbishop Laud.
He also published Hidden Works of Darkness brought to Light
in order to prejudice the archbishop's case, and after his execu-
tion, Canterbury's Doom ... an unfinished account of the
trial commissioned by the House of Commons. Prynne sup-
ported a national church controlled by the state, and issued a
series of tracts against independency, including in his attacks
Henry Burton his former fellow sufferer in the pillory, John
Lilburne and John Goodwin [e.g. Independence Examined
(1644); Brief Animadversions on Mr John Goodwin's Thco-
machia (1644), &c.]. He denounced Milton's Divorce at
Pleasure, was answered in the Colasterion, and contemptuously
referred to in the sonnet " On the Forcers of Conscience."
He also opposed violently the Presbyterian system, and denied
the right of any Church to excommunicate except by leave of
the state [e.g. Four Short Questions (1645); ^ Vindication of
Four Serious Questions (1645)]. He was throughout an enemy
of individual freedom in religion.
Prynne took the side of the parliament against the army in
1647, supported the cause of the eleven impeached members,
and visited the university of Oxford as one of the parliamentary
commissioners. On the 7th of November 1648 Prynne was
returned as member for Newport in Cornwall. He at once took
part against those who called for the execution of Charles, and
on the 6th of December delivered a speech of enormous length
in favour of conciliating the king. The result was his inclusion
in " Pride's Purge " on the morning of the 6th, when, having
resisted to military violence, he was imprisoned. After recover-
ing his liberty Prynne retired to Swainswick. On the 7th of
June 1649 he was assessed to the monthly contribution laid on
the country by parliament. He not only refused to pay, but
published A Legal Vindication of the Liberties of England,
arguing that no tax could be raised without the consent of the
two houses. In the same year he began a long account of
ancient parliaments, intended to reflect on the one in existence,
and in June 1650 he was imprisoned in Dunster Castle, afterwards
at Taunton, and in June 1651 at Pendennis Castle. He was at
last offered his discharge on giving a bond of 1000 to do nothing
to the prejudice of the commonwealth. This he refused, and
an unconditional order for his release was given on the i8th of
February 1653. After his release Prynne further expressed his
feelings in defence of advowsons and patrons, an attack on the
Quakers (1655), and in a pamphlet against the admission of the
Jews to England (A Short Demurrer to the Jews) issued in
1656. On the occasion of the offer of the crown to Cromwell he
issued King Richard the Third Revived (1657), and on the
creation of the new House of Lords A Plea for the Loids
(1658).
On the restoration of the Rump Parliament by the army of
the 7th of May 1659 fourteen of the secluded members, with
Prynne among them, claimed admittance. The claim was
refused, but on the 9th, through the inadvertence of the door-
keepers, Prynne, Annesly and Hungerford succeeded in taking
their seats. When they were observed the house purposely
adjourned for dinner. In the afternoon the doors were found
guarded; the secluded members were not permitted to pass, and
a vote was at once taken that they should not again be allowed
to enter the house. Wrathful at the failure of his protest and at
the continuance of the republican government, Prynne attacked
his adversaries fiercely in print. In England's Confusion, pub-
lished on the 3oth of May 1659, in the True and Full Narrative,
and in The Brief Necessary Vindication, he gave long accounts of
the attempt to enter the house and of his ejection, while in the
Curtaine Drawne he held up the claims of the Rump to derision.
In Shuffling, Cutting and Dealing, 26th of May, he rejoiced at
the quarrels which he saw arising, for " if you all complain I
hope I shall win at last." Concordia discors pointed out the
absurdity of the constant tendency to multiply oaths, while
" remonstrances," " narratives," " queries," " prescriptions,"
" vindications," " declarations " and " statements " were
scattered broadcast. Upon the cry of the " good old cause "
he is especially sarcastic and severe in The True Good Old Cause
Rightly Stated and other pamphlets. Loyally Banished explains
itself. His activity and fearlessness in attacking those in power
during this eventful year were remarkable, and an ironical
petition was circulated in Westminster Hall and the London
streets complaining of his indefatigable scribbling. On the 27th
of December Prynne made another fruitless attempt to take his
seat. In obedience to the popular voice, however, on the zist of
February 1660, the ejected members of 1648, led in triumph by
Prynne, wearing a basket-hilt sword, re-entered the house.
He supported the Restoration in this parliament, and in the
Convention Parliament, which met on the 2 5th of April 1660,
and in which he sat for Bath, he urged severe measures against
the regicides, and the exclusion of several individuals from the
Act of Indemnity. He was foremost in support of the claims of
the Presbyterians and against the bishops; advocated the indis-
criminate infliction of penalties, and demanded that the officials
of the commonwealth should be compelled to refund their
salaries. He was nominated a commissioner for disbanding the
army, and was appointed keeper of the records in the Tower, a
post in which he performed useful services.
Prynne was again returned as member for Bath on the 8th of
PRYOR PRYTANEUM AND PRYTANIS
533
May 1661, in spite of the vehement efforts of the Royalists
headed by Sir T. Bridge. This parliament was bent upon the
humiliation of the Presbyterians, and Prynne appears in his
familiar character of protester. On the i8th of this month he
moved that the Engagement, with the Solemn League and Cove-
nant, should be burned by the hangman. About the same time
he published a pamphlet advocating the reform of the Prayer
Book, while a tract issued on the isth of July, Sundry reasons
/iXtiinst the new intended Bill for governing and reforming Corpora-
tions, was declared illegal, false, scandalous and seditious;
Prynne being censured, and only escaping punishment by sub-
mission. The continued attacks upon the Presbyterians led
him to publish his Short, Sober, Pacific Examination of Exuber-
in the Common Prayer, as well as the Apology for Tender
Consciences touching Not Bowing at the Name of Jesus. In 1662 j
there appeared also the Brei'ia parliamentaria rediviva, possibly
a portion of the Brief Register of Parliamentary Writs, of which
the fourth and concluding volume was published in 1664. During
1663 he served constantly on committees, and was chairman of
the committee of supply in July, and again in April 1664.
In the third session Prynne was once more, on the I3th of
May 1664, censured for altering the draft of a bill relating to
public-houses after commitment, but the house again, upon his
submission remitted the offence, and he again appears on the com-
mittee of privileges in November and afterwards. In 1665 and
1666 he published the second and first volumes respectively of
the Exact Chronological Vindication and Historical Demonstration
of the supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction exercised by the English
kings from the original planting of Christianity to the death of
Richard I. In the latter year especially he was very-busy with
his pen against the Jesuits. In January 1667 he was one of three
appointed to manage the evidence at the hearing of the impeach-
ment of Lord Mordaunt, and in November of the same year spoke
in defence of Clarendon, so far as the sale of Dunkirk was con-
cerned, and opposed his banishment, and this appears to have
been the last time that he addressed the house. In 1668 was
published his Aurum reginae or Records concerning Queen-gold,
the Brief Animadversions on Coke's Institutes in 1669, and the
History of King John, Henry III. and Edward I., in which the
power of the Crown over ecclesiastics was maintained, in 1670.
The date of the A bridgment of the Records of the Tower of London,
published 1689, is doubtful, though the preface is dated 1656-
1657. Prynne died unmarried, in his lodgings at Lincoln's Inn,
on the 24th of October 1669, and was buried in the walk under
the chapel there. He left one portion of his books to Lincoln's
Inn and another to Oriel College. His works number about 200
and occupy, together with the replies which they excited,
twenty-four columns in the catalogue of the British Museum.
Lists of them are given in Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (ed. P.
Bliss), vol. iii., and in Documents relating to the Proceedings against
William Prynne.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Article by C. H. Frith in the Diet, of Nat.
Biography; Life of Prynne, in Wood's Ath. Oxon., ed. by Bliss,
iii. 844; Documents relating to the Proceedings against Prynne, ed.
by S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society (1877) ; Hist, of Swains-
wick, by R. E. M. Peach; Gardiner's Hist, of England, of the Civil
War and of the Commonwealth; Notes and Queries, 8th series, vol.
viii. p. 361 (" Letter to Charles II., May 2, 1660 "), gth series, vol. ii.
p. 336. (S. R.G.; P. C. Y.)
PRYOR, ROGER ATKINSON (1828- ), American jurist
and politician, was born near Petersburg, Virginia, on the igth of
July 1828. He graduated at Hampden-Sidney College in 1845
and at the law school of the university of Virginia in 1848, and
in 1849 was admitted to the bar, but devoted himself for some
years to journalism. He served as a Democrat in the National
House of Representatives from December 1859 to March 1861,
and was re-elected for the succeeding term, but owing to the
secession of Virginia did not take his seat. He served in the
provisional Couiederate congress (1861) and also in the first
regular congress (1862) of the Confederate constitution. He
entered the Confederate army as a colonel, became a brigadier-
general (April 16, 1862), and took part in the battles of Williams-
burg, Seven Pines, second Bull Run and Antietam. Owing to a
disagreement with President Davis he resigned his commission
in 1863, but entered General Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry as a private
in August of that year. He was taken prisoner on the 28th of
November 1864, but was released on parole by order of the
president. In 1865 he removed to New York City, where he
practised law. He was judge of the New York court of common
pleas in 1890-1894, and of the New York supreme court in 1894-
1899. His wife, Sara Agnes (Rice) Pryor (b. 1830), published
The Mother of Washington and her Times (1903), Reminiscences of
Peace and War (1004), The Birth of the Nation (1907), and My
Day: Reminiscences of a Long Life (1909).
PRYTANEUM and PRYTANIS (Gr. root irpo, first or chief).
1. In general in ancient Greece, each state, city or village pos-
sessed its own central hearth and sacred fire, representing the
unity and vitality of the community. The fire (cf. at Rome the
fire in the temple of Vesta) was kept alight continuously,
tended by the king or members of his family (cf. at Rome the
vestal virgins, originally perhaps the daughters of the king).
The building in which this fire was kept was the Prytaneum, and
the chieftain (the king or prytanis)probably made it his residence.
The word Prytanis (plur. Prytancis) is generally applied
specially to those who, after the abolition of absolute monarchy,
held the chief office in the state. Rulers of this name are found
at Rhodes as late as the ist century B.C. The Prytaneum was
regarded as the religious and political centre of the community
and was thus the nucleus of all government, and the official
" home " of the whole people. When members of the state went
forth to found a new colony they took with them a brand from
the Prytaneum altar to kindle the new fire in the colony; 1 the
fatherless daughters of Aristides, who were regarded as children
of the state at Athens, were married from the Prytaneum as
from their home; Thucydides informs us (ii. 15) that in the
Synoecism of Theseus(see ATHENS)the Pry tanea of all the separate
communities were joined in the central Prytaneum of Athens
as a symbol of the union; foreign ambassadors and citizens who
had deserved especially well of the state were entertained in the
Prytaneum as public guests. In Achaea, this central hall was
called the Leiton (town-hall), and a similar building is known
to have existed at Elis. This site of the Prytaneum at Athens
cannot be definitely fixed; it is generally supposed that in the
course of time several buildings bore the name. The Prytaneum,
mentioned by Pausanias, and probably the original centre of the
ancient city, was situated somewhere east of the northern cliff
of the Acropolis. Hence the frequent confusion w r ith the Tholos
which was near the council chamber and was the residence of the
Prytaneis (see below) of the council. Curtius places the original
Prytaneum south of the Acropolis in the Old Agora, speaks
of a second identical with the Tholos in the Cerameicus, and
regards that of Pausanius as a building of Roman times (Sladt-
geschichle, p. 302). Wachsmuth holds the former view and
regards the Tholos as merely a dining-room for the Prytaneis in
the old democratic period. Many authorities hold that the original
Prytaneum of the Cecropian city must have been on the Acropolis.
From Aristotle's Constitution of Athens (ch. 3) we know that the
Prytaneum was the official residence of the Archons, but, when
the new Agora was constructed (by Peisistratus ?) , they took their
meals in the Thesmotheteum for the sake of convenience. There
was also a court of justice called the court of the Prytaneum; all
that is known of this court is that it tried murderers who could
not be found, and inanimate objects which had caused death.
Judging from its rather fanciful functions and from its name,
it is probably a relic of the pre-historic jurisdiction of the
patriarch-king.
2. For the PRYTANEIS of the Boule and of the Naucraries, see
BOUL and NAUCRARY.
3. PRYTANEIA were court-fees paid when the prosecutor was
claiming a part of the penalty which the defendant would be
called upon to pay if he lost.
4. PRYTANIS was also the name of a legendary king of
Sparta of the Eurypontid or Proclid line. He was the son of
Eurypon and fourth in descent from Procles.
1 Cf. Indian tribes of North America.
534
BIBLIOGRAPHY. On the Prytaneum as the centre of an ancient
state see article FIRE, and references in a paper (s.v.) by Frazer
(Journal of Philology, 1885, xiv. 28). For the site of the Athenian
P. see E. Curtius, Attische Studien, and an article by Scholl (Hermes,
v. 340) ; also general histories of Greece.
PRZEMYSL, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 60 m. W. of Lemberg
by rail. Pop. (1900), 46,295, mostly Polish. It is situated on
the river San and is one of the strongest fortresses in Galicia.
Przemysl is the seat of a Roman Catholic and of a Greek uniat
bishop, and has a Roman Catholic cathedral, begun in 1460.
The industries comprise the manufacture of machinery, liqueurs
and spodium or tutty, the refining of naphtha, corn-milling and
the sawing of timber. The trade is chiefly in timber, corn,
leather and linen. On the hill above the town are the ruins of an
old castle, said to have been founded by Casimir the Great.
Przemysl, one of the oldest towns in Galicia, claims to have
been founded in the 8th century, and was at one time capital of a
large independent principality. Casimir the Great and other
Polish princes endowed it with privileges similar to those of
Cracow, and it attained a high degree of prosperity. In the i7th
century its importance was destroyed by inroads of Tatars,
Cossacks and Swedes.
PRZHEVALSK, formerly Karakol (renamed in 1889), a town
of Russian Turkestan, in the province of Semiryechensk, 8 m.
S.E. of Lake Issyk-kul. Nikolai Przhevalsky (Przevalsky q.v.),
the Russian explorer in Central Asia, died here in 1889, and a
monument has been erected to his memory. It is a growing
town, and had in 1897 a population of 7985.
PSALM (from the Gr. word ^aXXeti', to play the harp), the
name used to designate the religious poems of the Hebrews,
which are contained in the Psalter (see PSALMS, BOOK OF).
Modern collections of religious poetry sometimes bear the title
of Psalms and Hymns, but these are always more or less directly
connected with the actual Psalms of David. Longfellow wrote
" A Psalm of Life " (1839), which was an intimate confession
of the religious aspirations of the author. The Psaumes of
Clement Marot (1538) were curious adaptations of Hebrew ideas
to French forms of the epigram and the madrigal. But it is
doubtful whether the psalm, as distinguished from the Hebrew
Psalter, can be said to have any independent existence. It is
loosely used to describe any exalted strain of devotional melody.
(See also HYMNS.)
PSALMANAZAR, GEORGE (c. 1679-1763), French adventurer,
was born about 1679, probably in Languedoc. According to
his own account he was sent in his seventh year to a free school
taught by two Franciscan monks, after which he was educated
in a Jesuit college " in an archiepiscopal city." On leaving
college he became a private tutor. He assumed personations
in order to obtain money, his first being that of a pilgrim to Rome.
Afterwards he travelled through Germany, Brabant and Flanders
in the character of a Japanese convert. At Liege he enlisted
in the Dutch service, shortly after which he posed as an uncon-
verted Japanese. At Sluys he made the acquaintance of a
Scottish chaplain, by whom he was brought over to England and
introduced to the bishop of London. Having undergone
conversion to Christianity, he was employed by the bishop to
translate the Church catechism into what was supposed to be the
Japanese language. In 1704 he published a fictitious Historical
and Geographical Description of Formosa, and was shortly after-
wards sent to Oxford. In 1707 he published Dialogue between
a Japanese and a Formosan. There also appeared, without date,
An Inquiry into the Objections against George P Salmanazar of
Formosa, with George P Salmanazar's Answer. His pretensions
were from the beginning doubted by many, and when exposure
was inevitable he made a full confession. Throughout the rest
of his life he exhibited, according to Dr Samuel Johnson, as
reported by Mrs Piozzi, " a piety, penitence, and virtue exceeding
almost what we read as wonderful in the lives of the saints."
Psalmanazar published Essays on Scriptural Subjects (1753),
contributed various articles to the Ancient Universal History,
and completed Palmer's History of Printing. He died in London
on the 3rd of May 1763. His memoirs appeared in 1764 under
the title, Memoirs of . . . commonly known by the name of George
PRZEMYSL PSALMS, BOOK OF
Psalmanazar, but do not disclose his real name or the place
of his birth.
PSALMS, BOOK OF, or PSALTER, the first book of the Hagio-
grapha in the Hebrew Bible.
Title and Traditional Authorship. The Hebrew title of the
book is n'fop, tlhttlim, or o-Wi isp " the book of hymns," or
rather "songs of praise." 1 The singular "fri? is properly
the infinitive or nomen verbi of ^n, a verb employed in the
technical language of the Temple service for the execution of a
jubilant song of praise to the accompaniment of music and the
blare of the priestly trumpets (i Chron. xvi. 4 scq., xxv. 3;
2 Chron. v. 12 seq.). The name is not therefore equally applicable
to all psalms, and in the later Jewish ritual the synonym Hallcl
specially designates two series of psalms, cxiii.-cxviii. and
cxlvi.-cl., of which the former was sung at the three great feasts
the encaenia, and the new moon, and the latter at the daily
morning prayer. That the whole book is named " praises " is
clearly due to the fact that it was the manual of the Temple
service of song, in which praise was the leading feature. But
for an individual psalm the usual name is 11019 (in the Bible
only in titles of psalms), which is applicable to any piece designed
to be sung to a musical accompaniment. Of this word i/-aX^6s,
" psalm," is a translation, and in the Greek Bible the whole book
is called i/'aXjuoi or \]/a\Tripcov. 2 The title \f/a\ij.oi or /StjSXoj
\pa\ijiv is used in the New Testament (Luke xx. 42, xxiv. 44;
Acts i. 20), but in Heb. iv. 7 we find another title, namely
" David." Hippolytus tells us that in his time most Christians
said " the Psalms of David," and believed the whole book to be
his; but this title and belief are both of Jewish origin, for in
2 Mace. ii. 13 TO. TOV AaviS means the Psalter, and the title of the
apocryphal " Psalter of Solomon " implies that the previously
existing Psalter was ascribed to David. Jewish tradition does
not make David the author of all the psalms; but as he was
regarded as the founder and legislator of the Temple psalmody
(i Chron., ut supra; Ezra iii. 10; Neh. xii. 36, 45 seq.; Ecclus.
xlvii. 8 seq.), so also he was held to have completed and arranged
the whole book, though according to Talmudic tradition 3 he
incorporated psalms by ten other authors, Adam, Melchizedek,
Abraham, Moses, Heman, Jeduthun, Asaph, and the three sons
of Korah. With this it agrees that the titles of the psalms name
no one later than Solomon, and even he is not recognized as a
psalmodist by the most ancient tradition, that of the LXX.,
which omits him from the title of Ps. cxxvii. and makes Ps. Ixxii.
be written not by him but of him. The details of the tradition
of authorship show considerable variation; according to the
Talmudic view Adam is author of the Sabbath psalm, xcii.,
and Melchizedek of Ps. ex., while Abraham is identified with
Ethan the Ezrahite (Ps. Ixxxix.). But, according to older
Jewish tradition attested by Origen, 4 Ps. xcii. is by Moses, to
whom are assigned Ps. xc.-c. inclusive, according to a general
rule that all anonymous pieces are by the same hand with the
nearest preceding psalm whose author is named; and Ps. ex.,
which by its title is Davidic, seems to have been given to Melchi-
zedek to avoid the dilemma of Matt. xxii. 41 seq. Origen's rule
accounts for all the psalms except i. and ii., which were sometimes
reckoned as one poem (Acts xiii. 33 in the Western text; Origen;
B. Berakholh, f. gb.), and appear to have been ascribed to David
(Acts iv. 25).
The opinion of Jerome (Praef. in ps. heb.) and other Christian
writers that the collector of the Psalter was Ezra does not seem
to rest on Jewish tradition.
Nature and Origin of the Collection. Whatever may be the value
of the titles to individual psalms, there can be no question that the
tradition that the Psalter was collected by David is not historical;
1 Hippol., ed. Lag., p. 188; Euseb. H.E. vi. 25, 2; Epiph. Mens
et Pond. 23 ; Jerome s preface to Psalt. juxta Hebraeos.
1 Similarly in the Syriac Bible the title is mazmore.
s The passages are collected in Kimhi's preface to his commentary
on the Psalms, ed. Schiller-Szinessy, Cambridge (1883).
* Opp. ii. 514 seq., ed. Rue; cf. Hippol. ut supra; Jerome, Ep. cxl.
(ed. Cypr.), and Praef. in Mai.
PSALMS, BOOK OF
535
for no one doubts that some of the psalms date from after the Baby-
lonian exile. The truth that underlies the tradition is that the
collection is essentially the hymn-book of the second Temple, 1 and
ii was then-fore a-crilie<l to David, because it was assumed, as we
Irarly from Chronicles, that the order of worship in the second
temple was the same as in the first, and had David as its father:
.impli-trd the law of Israel for all time before the people
entered Canaan, so David completed the theory and contents of
tin- Temple psalmody before the Temple itself was built. When we
thus understand its origin, the tradition becomes really instructive,
ami may be translated into a statement which throws light on a
miinlier of points connected with the book, namely, that the Psalter
was (finally, at least) collected with a liturgical purpose. Thus,
though the psalms represent a great range of individual religious
experience, they avoid such situations and expressions as are too
unique to be used in acts of public devotion. Many of the psalms
are doxologics or the like, expressly written for the Temple; others
are made up of extracts from older poems in a way perfectly natural
in a hymn-book, but otherwise hardly intelligible. Such ancient
hymns as Exod. xv. I sqq., Judges v., I Sam. ii. I sqq., are not
included in the collection, though motives from them are embodied
in more modern psalms: the interest of the collector, we see, was not
historical but liturgical.
The question now arises: Was the collection a single act or is the
Psalter made up of several older collections ? And here we have
first to observe that in the Hebrew text the Psalter is divided into
five books, each of which closes with a doxology. The scheme of
the whole is as follows:
Book I., Ps. i.-xli. ; all these are ascribed to David except i., ii., x.
(which is really part of ix.), xxxiii. (ascribed to David in LXX.);
doxology, xli. 13. Book II., Ps. xlii.-lxxii. : of these xlii.-xlix.
are ascribed to the Korahites (xliii. being part of xlii.), 1. to Asaph,
li.-lxxi. to David (except Ixvi., Ixyii., Ixxi. anonymous; in LXX. the
last two bear David's name), Ixxii. to Solomon; doxology, Ixxii. 1 8,
19 followed by the subscription " The prayers of David the son of
Jesse are ended." Book III., Ps. Jxxiii.-lxxxix. ; here Ixxiii.-
Ixxxiii. bear the name of Asaph, Ixxxiv., Ixxxy., Ixxxvii., Ixxxviii.
that of the Korahites, Ixxxvi. of David, Ixxxviii. of Heman, Ixxxix.
of Ethan; doxology, Ixxxix. 52. Book IV., Ps. xc.-cvi. : all are
anonymous except xc. (Moses), ci., ciii. (David), LXX. gives also
civ. to David; here the doxology is peculiar, " Blessed be Jehovah
(",od of Israel from everlasting and to everlasting. And let all the
people say Amen, Hallelujah. Book V., Ps. cvii.-cl. : of these
i 'via. -ex., cxxii., cxxiv., cxxxi., cxxxiii., cxxxviii. cxlv. are ascribed
to David and cxxvii. to Solomon, and cxx.-cxxxiv. are pilgrimage
psalms, LXX. varies considerably from the Hebrew as to the psalms
to be ascribed to David; the book closes with a group of doxological
psalrns.
The division into five books was known to Hippolytus, but a closer
examination of the doxologies shows that it does not represent the
original scheme of the Psalter; for, while the doxologies to the first
three books are no part of the psalms to which they are attached, but
really mark the end of a book in a pious fashion not uncommon in
Eastern literature, that to book IV., with its rubric addressed to the
people, plainly belongs to the psalm, or rather to its liturgical execu-
tion, and does not therefore really mark the close of a collection once
separate. In point of fact books IV. and V. have so many common
characters that there is every reason to regard them as a single great
.group. Again, the main part of books II. and III. (Ps. xlii.-lxxxiii.)
is distinguished from the rest of the Psalter by habitually avoiding
the name Jehovah (the Lord) and using Elohim (God) instead, even
in cases like Ps. 1. 7, where " I am Jehovah thy God " of Exod. xx. 2
is quoted but changed very awkwardly to " I am God thy God."
This is not due to the authors of the individual psalms, but to an
editor; for Ps. liii. is only another recension of Ps. xiv., and Ps. Ixx.
repeats part of Ps. xl., and here Jehovah is six times changed to
Elohim, while the opposite change happens but once. The Elohim
psalms, then, have undergone a common editorial treatment, dis-
tinguishing them from the rest of the Psalter. And they make up the
mass of books II. and III., the remaining psalms, Ixxxiv.-lxxxix.,
appearing to be a sort of appendix. But when we look at the Elohim
psalms more nearly, we see that they contain two distinct elements,
Davidic psalms and psalms ascribed to the Levitical choirs (sons of
Korah, Asaph). The Davidic collection as we have it splits the
Levitical psalms into two groups and actually divides the Asaphic
Ps. 1. from the main Asaphic collection, Ixxiii.-lxxxiii. This order
can hardly be original, especially as the Davidic Elohim psalms have
a separate subscription (Ps. Ixxii. 20). But if we remove them we
get a continuous body of Levitical Elohim psalms, or rather two
collections, the first Korahitic and the second Asaphic, to which there
have been added by way of appendix by a non-Elohistic editor a
supplementary group of Korahite psalms and one psalm (certainly
late) ascribed to David. The formation of books IV. and V. is cer-
tainly later than the Elohistic redaction of books II. and III., for
Ps. cyiii. is made up of two Elohim psalms (Ivii. 7-11, Ix. 5-12) in the
Elohistic form, though the last two books of the Psalter are generally
1 This must be understood of the whole collection as completed,
not of all its component parts. (R. H. K.)
Jehovistic. We can thus distinguish the following steps in the
redaction: (a) the formation of a Davidic collection (book I.) with a
closing doxology; (6) a second Davidic collection (li.-lxxii.) with
doxology and subscription; (c) a twofold Levitical collection (xlii.
xlix. ; 1., Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.) ; (d) an Elohistic redaction and combination
of (i) and (c) ; () the addition of a non-Elohistic supplement to (d)
with a doxology; (/) a collection later than (d), consisting of books
IV. and V. And finally the anonymous psalms (., ii., which as
anonymous were hardly an original part of book I., may have been
prefixed after the whole Psalter was completed. We see, too, that
it is only in the latest collection (books IV., V.) that anonymity
is the rule, and titles, especially titles with names, occur only
sporadically. Elsewhere the titles run in series and correspond to
the limits of older collections.
Date of the Collection. An inferior limit for the final collection is
given by the Septuagint translation. But this translation was not
written all at once, and its history is obscure; we only know from
the prologue to Ecclesiasticus that the Hagiographa, and doubtless
therefore the Psalter, were read in Greek in Egypt about 130 B.C.
or somewhat later. 1 And the Greek Psalter, though it contains one
apocryphal psalm at the close, is essentially the same as the Hebrew;
there is nothing to suggest that the Greek was first translated from
a less complete Psalter and afterwards extended to agree with
the extant Hebrew. It is therefore reasonable to hold that the
Hebrew Psalter was completed and recognized as an authoritative
collection long enough before 130 B.C. to allow of its passing to the
Greek-speaking Jews in Alexandria. Beyond this the external
evidence for the completion of the collection does not carry us.
(W. R. S.)
But there is absolutely no necessity for supposing that when
the grandson of Ben Sira reached Egypt the Psalter had been
translated into Greek for any considerable time. Indeed it is
at least equally probable that it was the recent translation of
some of the poetical books of the Old Testament which fired him
with a desire to translate his grandfather's book, and perhaps add
the work of a member of the family to the Bible of the Egyptian
Jews. It appears indeed from i Chron. xvi., 2 Chron. vi. 41, 42,
that various psalms belonging to books IV. and V. were current in
the time of the Chronicler. Unfortunately however it is im-
possible to date the book of Chronicles with certainty. The
argument that the Chronicler must have been contemporary
with the last persons named in his book is by no means convincing
and on the other hand his account of the Temple services, in
which he seems to be describing the Temple of his own days,
harmonizes far better with a date at the end of the third, or
even in the second, century B.C. than with the close of the Persian
or the beginning of the Greek period. For the impression
which we get from Nehemiah's memoirs is that in his days the
community at Jerusalem was in the main poverty-stricken, while
Malachi's exhortations to the people to pay their dues to the
priests implies that in the middle of the fifth century B.C. the
Temple was by no means wealthy. But in the comparative
peace and freedom of the 3rd century B.C. the condition of
Jerusalem was greatly ameliorated. Wealth accumulated to
such a degree that Simon the son of Oniah was enabled
practically to rebuild the Temple, and to maintain its services
with a grandeur of ritual which they had probably never known
before. It must be admitted that the gorgeousness of ritual
described by the Chronicler is far more in harmony with the
days of Simon than with any previous post-exilic period. How
late the Chronicler wrote cannot perhaps be determined; but
it is, at all events, impossible to prove that the author of
Ecclesiasticus was acquainted with his work. Ben Sira indeed in
his list of worthies mentions Zerubbabel, Joshua and Nehemiah ;
but Zerubbabel and Joshua he must have known from the books
of Haggai and Zechariah, and he may well have been acquainted
with that document relating to Nehemiah which the Chronicler
incorporated with his book. Ben Sira's omission of the name of
Ezra rather militates against the supposition that he had the
Chronicler's book before him when he wrote. The conflict
between Saduceeism and the sopherim was hardly so intense
in his days as to warrant the supposition that he omitted the
name of Ezra intentionally. Moreover, it is not certain that
the psalms that the Chronicler quotes (xcvi., cv., cvi., cxxxii.)
1 The text of the passage is obscure and in part corrupt, but the
Latin " cum multum temporis ibi fuissem " probably expresses the
author's meaning. A friend has written to the author that for
we ought perhaps to read avxviai ky\povla<u.
536
PSALMS, BOOK OF
already existed in their place in our Psalter, or that Ps. cvi. even
existed in its present form.
Other evidence of date is to be found in the Levitical psalms
of the Elohistic collection. These, as we have seen, form two
groups, referred to the sons of Korah and to Asaph. In Nehe-
miah xii. 46 Asaph is taken to be a contemporary of David and
chief of the singers of his time, and in i Chron. xxv. i seq. one
of the three chief singers belonging to the three great Levitical
houses. But the older history knows nothing of an individual
Asaph; in Ezra ii. 41 the gild of singers as a whole is called
Bne Asaph, as it was apparently in the time of Nehemiah (Neh.
xi. 22, Heb.). 1 The singers or Asaphites are at this time still
distinguished from the Levites; the oldest attempt to incorporate
them with that tribe appears in Exod. vi. 24, where Abiasaph
that is, the eponym of the gild of Asaphites is made one of
the three sons of Korah. But when singers and Levites were
fused the Asaphites ceased to be the only singers, and ultimately,
as we see in Chronicles, they were distinguished from the Korah-
ites and reckoned to Gershom (i Chron. vi.), while the head of
the Korahites is Heman, as in the title of Ps. Ixxxviii. It is
only in the appendix to the Elohistic psalm-book that we find
Heman and Ethan side by side with Asaph, as in the Chronicles;
but this does not necessarily prove that the body of the collection
originated when there were only two gilds of singers.
But here it becomes necessary to ask what is the precise meaning
which we are to assign to the phrases, " to David," " to Asaph,"
" to the sons of Korah." We certainly need not suppose that the
Davidic, Asaphic and Korahite psalms severally once existed as
separate books, for, if this had been the case, it is probable that
the ascription would not have been prefixed to each separate
psalm, but rather to the head of each collection (cf. Prov. i. I, x. I.,
xxv. i), together with some such note at the end as is found in Job.
xxxi. 40, Ps. Ixxii. 20; moreover we should be compelled to assent
to the view expressed in the Oxford Dictionary that those psalms
which have the heading nt)^ (A. V. " to " R. V. " for " " the
chief Musician ") also originally formed a separate collection. But
against this explanation of the heading nD^ there is an almost
insuperable objection; for, since both the first and second books
contain psalms with this heading, it is clear that the " Chief
Musician's or Director's Psalter " must have been in existence
before either of these books; in which case, apart from the difficulty
of the antiquity which we should be compelled to assign to this earliest
Psalter, it is impossible to understand on what principle the first book
of Psalms was formed. If the compiler of the first book aimed simply
at making a collection of Davidic psalms from a major Psalter com-
piled by the " Director," why should he have deliberately rejected
a number of Davidic psalms (Ps. li. sqq.) which, ex hypothesi, lay before
him in this Psalter? It is surely as difficult to suppose that the
Davidic psalms of the first book are a selection made from a greater
collection of such psalms contained in the " Director's Psalter " as
it is to imagine that St Mark's Gospel is an abridgment of St
Matthew's. It is true that the preposition " to " (^>) may denote
authorship, as it does apparently in Isaiah xxxviii. 9, Hab. iii. I,
but it certainly has a much wider meaning ; and indeed in some cases
the idea of authorship is out of the question, for the psalms ascribed
to the Korahites can scarcely have been supposed to be the joint
composition of that body. Moreover, it is very doubtful whether
the word own can be translated " Director." In i Chron. xv. 21
the verb of which owj is the participle is used of the duty which
was discharged by Mattithiah, Eliphelehu, Mikneiah, Obed-edom,
Jeiel and Azaziah (and perhaps, if verse 20 is to be taken in close
connexion with verse 21, by Zecharaiah, Aziel, Shemiramoth,
Jeiel, Unni. Eliab, Maaseiah and Benaiah also) on one definite
occasion. Unfortunately the exact nature of these men's per-
formances is not quite clear, for it is said to have been connected
with " harps set to the sheminith," or according to another inter-
pretation, with " harps over the tenors." But whatever the obscure
expression m^n-Ay may mean, TO^J cannot here mean to " direct,"
for a choir with six " directors " would have been a veritable bear-
garden. Obviously the word OX}^ must refer to something in the
music; and inasmuch as the cymbals were for the" purpose of produc-
ing a volume of sound (rpyn^), it is reasonable to suppose that the
1 The threefold division of the singers appears in the same list
according to the Hebrew text of verse 17, but the occurrence of
Jeduthun as a proper name instead of a musical note is suspicious,
and makes the text of LXX. preferable. The first clear trace of
the triple choir is therefore in Neh. xii. 24.
musicians with treble lutes and with harps an octave lower (or with
lutes and harps over the sopranos and tenors respectively) were to
lead the singers in giving out the melody. If this explanation be
correct and it certainly accords best with the meaning of n^> ; n
i Chron. xv. 21 the np will be that part of the orchestra which
played the melody to be sung, virtually corresponding, mutatis
mutandis, to what we now call the choir organ, and we need not com-
plicate the compilation of the Psalter by postulating an altogether
unnecessary " Director's Psalter." Now we have seen that the ^
prefixed to rnp 'jn cannot refer to authorship ; we seem therefore
shut up to one of two alternatives, either the psalms inscribed '!?)
rnp belonged to the repertoire of the Korahites, or they were
intended to be sung in the Korahite style. It is indeed possible
that each division of the Levitical singers had its own collection ;
but this is hardly probable unless we are to suppose that they
never officiated simultaneously, in which case we should certainly
have expected that the psalm quoted by the Chronicler (i Chron.
xyi.) would be included in the Asaphic collection. But there is no
difficulty in supposing that each division of the Levitical musicians
had its own traditional music, certain instruments being peculiar
to the one and certain to the other, in which case the assignment of
a psalm to the Asaphites or Korahites will merely denote the sort
of music to which it is set. In like manner it is not improbable that
lyi^ meant originally " to be sung in the Davidic mode "; 2 that is,
perhaps, " with harp accompaniment " (cf. I Sam. xvi. 16), or, since
the Chronicler ascribes to David the initiation of the Temple music,
" in the oldest traditional mode." Under such circumstances,
however, a confusion would easily arise between the composer of the
tune and the author; and when once the idea had arisen that David
was the author of psalms, it would be natural to endeavour to dis-
cover in the story of his life suitable occasions for their composition.
The interpretation of the titles here suggested removes an objec-
tion brought against the assumption of a Maccabaean date for
certain psalms, which lays stress on the fact that some of them,
e.g. Ps. xliv., are written in a time of the deepest dejection, and yet
are psalms of the Temple choirs; whereas, when the Temple was
re-opened for worship, after its profanation by Antiochus, the Jews
were victorious, and a much more joyful tone was appropriate.
For if the titles rnp >j3^, IJK^, &c., do not denote that the psalms so
inscribed were collected by the Temple choirs, there is no evidence
that these psalms were originally sung in the Temple. The earlier
collections of psalms may well have been used first in synagogues,
and only adapted to the Temple worship when they had become part
of the devotional life of the people. It is noteworthy that the psalms
quoted by the Chronicler belong to the last collection, books IV. and
V., which, as a whole, is far more suitable for liturgical use.
Since, then, the existence of separate books of psalms anterior to
the present divisions of the Psalter is very doubtful, we must look
for other evidences of date. Now, both the Korahite and Asaphic
groups of psalms are remarkable that they hardly contain any recog-
nition of present sin on the part of the community of Jewish faith
though they do confess the sin of Israel in the past but are exercised
with the observation that prosperity does not follow righteousness
either in the case of the individual (xlix., Ixxiii.) or in that of the
nation, which suffers notwithstanding its loyalty to God, or even on
account thereof (xliv., Ixxix.). Now the rise of the problems .
of individual faith is the mark of the age that followed Jeremiah,
while the confident assertion of national righteousness under mis-
fortune is a characteristic mark of pious Judaism after Ezra, in the
period of the law but not earlier. Malachi, Ezra and Nehemiah,
like Haggai and Zechariah, are still very far from holding that the
sin of Israel lies all in the past. Again, a considerable number of
these psalms (xliv., Ixxiv., Ixxix., Ixxx.) point to an historical situa-
tion which can be very definitely realized. They are post-exi!ii
in their whole tone and belong to a time when prophecy had ceased
and the synagogue worship was fully established (Ixxiv. 8, 9).
But the Jews are no longer the obedient slaves of the oppressing
power; there has been a national rising and armies have gone forth
to battle. Yet God has not gone forth with them: the heathen
have been victorious, blood has flowed like water round Jerusalem,
the Temple has been defiled, and these disasters assume the character
of a religious persecution. These details would fit the time of
religious persecution under Antiochus, to which indeed Ps. .Ixxiv. is
referred (as a prophecy) in I Mace. vii. 16. It is contended by those
who, like the late Professor W. Robertson Smith, are opposed to
the dating of any psalms of the second collection in the Maccabaean
period, that, since they are post-exilic, there is one and only one
time in the Persian period to which they can be referred, viz. that
of the great civil wars under Artaxerxes III. Ochus (middle of 4th
* Some confirmation of this explanation of the titles may be found
in the fact that in place of pmr^ (Ps. xxxix. i) we find in Ixii. I,
Ixxvii. i, pnn-Sy, the latter expression being apparently an abbre-
viation of i'nn;
PSALMS, BOOK OF
537
century, B.C.)- But there is no evidence that the Jews were involved
in these; for the account which Josephus gives of Bagoses' pppres-
>iuii of the Jews represents the trouble as having arisen originally
from internal dissensions, and does not hint at anything of the
nature of a rebellion against Persia. Moreover the statement of
Kusebius (Chron. anno i6jj8 Abr.) that Artaxerxes Ochus in the
course of his campaign against Egypt transported a detachment of
Jews to Hyrcania does not prove that Judaea as a whole had revolted.
There is nothing even to connect these Jews with Palestine; they
may have formed a part of the very considerable Jewish community
which we know to have been settled in Egypt as early as the jjtn
century B.C. On the other hand, it is extremely improbable that
the Jews of Judaea, whom Nehemiah had entirely detached from
their immediate neighbours, would have taken part in any general
i i-in.< against Persia. Between them and the Samaritans on the
north and the Edomites on the south there was the most implacable
hostility, which would probably be sufficient in itself to keep them
Iroiu joining in the revolts in whrch other parts of Syria were involved.
Moreover, even if the Jews had revolted, it cannot fairly be main-
tained that such a revolt must necessarily have had a religious
character. Even Josephus does not say that the Persians tried to
interfere with the Jews in the exercise of their religion; and nothing
less than this would satisfy the language of Ps. xhv. 22 : " Yea, for
thy sake are we killed all the day long," &c. On the other hand,
not only is the atmosphere of the second collection of psalms as a
whole the atmosphere of godly Judaism in the 2nd century B.C.,
but it may fairly be claimed that this collection contains many
psalms which may naturally be interpreted in the light of the history
oi that period. _of which no satisfactory explanation (in their details)
ran Ijc given if they are assigned to any other time. Thus, for
ev.imple, Ps. xliv., with its description of the sufferings of the
righteous for God's sake, would be perfectly appropriate in the mouth
of one of the " godly " (Hasidtm) about 167 B.C. Ps. xlv., though the
unsoundness of the text in certain parts makes it difficult to speak
with certainty, would suit the marriage of Alexander Balas at Ptole-
rn.iis in 150 B.C., at which the high priest Jonathan was present as
an honoured guest In this connexion verse 10 is particularly
appropriate as addressed to an Egyptian princess whose forefathers,
though their rule had not on the whole been tyrannical, had been
regarded by the Jews as heathen oppressors. Again, Ps. lx., with
its ideal description of Jehovah's kingdom as including Gilead,
Samaria, Moab, Edom and Philistia, though the ideal was not realized
(ill the clays of John Hyrcanus, would be quite appropriate in the
mouth of a Maccabaean patriot. The author of Ps. Ixviii. would
to have been inspired by the sight or the description of the
never-to-be-forgotten procession of the victorious Maccabees in
164 B.C. to rededicate the desecrated Temple. Hence the taunt to
Bashan, the stronghold of the Seleucid government; hence the men-
tion of Judah and Benjamin with the two Galilaean tribes Zebulon
and Naphtali (as in Isaiah ix. I a passage which on independent
grounds has been assigned to the time of Simon Maccabaeus), while
schismatic Samaria is completely ignored. The historical back-
ground of Ps. Ixxix. is apparently the same as that of Ps. xliv.
Again, Ps. Ixxxvii. would seem to date from a time when the Jews,
having won freedom to worship God, were able to look forward
to the conversion of their former oppressors {cf. Isaiah xi., xix.).
That this psalm was composed at least as late as the 3rd century B.C.
is made probable by the name here given to Egypt, Rahab. Having
regard to Job. ix. 13, xxvi. 12, Isaiah li. 9, there can be little doubt
that Rahab is the (? Palestinian) name of Tiamat the dragon of the
abyss, the natural symbol of the power of darkness, or of the kingdom
of the world as opposed to the kingdom of the people of the saints
of the Most High God. It is extremely improbable that such a
name was applied to Egypt simply because Egypt possessed the
crocodile. The origin of its application must be sought in a time
when Egypt was regarded as hostile to the people of the Lord
that is to say, during the Ptolemaic rule over Palestine. These
considerations, in addition to numerous phrases and expressions
which cannot here be noticed, of which the full force can only be
felt by those who have specially studied the Maccabaean period and
those other portions of the Old Testament, such as Zechariah ix.-xiv.,
which may plausibly be assigned to it, make it almost certain that
the second collection of psalms was made not- earlier than the time
of Jonathan or even of Simon.
Now books IV. and V. are, as we have seen, later than the Elohistic
redaction of books II. and III., so that the collection of the last part
of the Psalter must, if our argument up to this point is sound, fall
within the second half of the 2nd century B.C. And here it is to
be noted that though no part of the Psalter shows clearer marks of a
liturgical purpose, we find that in books IV. and V. the musical
titles have entirely disappeared. This does not necessarily prove
that " the technical terms of the Temple music had gone out of use,
presumably because they were already become unintelligible, as
they were when the Septuagint version was made "; for it does not
follow that technical musical terms which had originated in the
Temple at Jerusalem and were intelligible in Palestine would have
been understood in Egypt. The absence of the musical titles,
however, may be taken as an indication that the last collection of
psalms was formed in a different place from that in which the earlier
collections had arisen; and if, as seems probable, we may identify
this place with the Temple at Jerusalem, the absence of musical
titles is easily explained, for the number of skilled musicians who
there ministered, and who would, of course, possess the tradition of
the various modes and tones, would make precise musical directions
superfluous. On the other hand, in a collection intended for syna-
gogue use -and the second collection of psalms is as a whole far more
suitable to a synagogue than to the Temple-^-where there would not
be a large choir and orchestra of skilled musicians, it would obviously
be desirable to state whether the psalm was to be sung to a Davidic,
Asaphic or Korahite tone, or to give the name of a melody appro-
priate to it. Again, the general tone of large parts of this collection
is much more cheerful than that of the Llonistic psalm-book. It
begins with a psalm (xc.) ascribed in the title to Moses, and seemingly
designed to express feelings appropriate to a situation analogous to
that of the Israelites when, after the weary march through the wilder-
ness, they stood on the borders of the promised land. It looks
back on a time of great trouble and forward to a brighter future.
In some of the following psalms there are still references to deeds of
oppression and violence, but more generally Israel appears as happy
under the law. The problems of divine justice are no longer burning
questions, the righteousness of God is seen in the peaceful felicity
oi the pious (xci., xcii., &c.). Israel, indeed, is still scattered and not
triumphant over the heathen, but even in the dispersion the Jews
are under a mild rule (cvi. 46), and the commercial activity of the
nation has begun to develop beyond the seas (cvii. 26 seq.). But
some of the psalms refer to a time of struggle and victory. In Ps.
cxviii. Israel, led by the house of Aaron this is a notable point
has emerged triumphant from a desperate conflict, and celebrates at
the Temple a great day of rejoicing for the unhoped-for victory:
in Ps. cxiix. the saints are pictured with the praises of God in their
throat and a sharp sword in their hands to take vengeance on
the heathen, to bind their kings and nobles, and exercise
against them the judgment written in prophecy. Such an enthusiasm
of militant piety, plainly based on actual successes of Israel
and the house of Aaron, can only be referred to the first victories
of the Maccabees, culminating in the purification of the Temple
in 164 B.C. This restoration of the worship of the national
sanctuary, under circumstances that inspired religious feelings very
different from those of any other generation since the return from
Babylon, might most naturally be followed by an extension of the
Temple psalmody ; it certainly was followed by some liturgical inno-
vations, for the solemn service of dedication on the 25th day of Chisleu
was made the pattern of a new annual feast (that mentioned in John
x. 22). In later times the psalms for the encaenia or feast of dedica-
tion embraced Ps. xxx. and the hallel Ps. cxiii.-^cxviii. ; and though
Ps. xxx. may have been adapted from a collection already existing,
there is every reason to think that the hallel, which especially in its
closing part contains allusions that fit no other time so well, was
first arranged for the same ceremony. The course of the subsequent
history makes it very intelligible that the Psalter was finally closed,
as we have seen from the date of the Greek version that it must have
been, within a few years at most after this great event. 1 From the
time of Hyrcanus downwards the ideal of the princely high priests
became more and more divergent from the ideal of the pious in
Israel, and in the Psalter of Solomon we see religious poetry turned
against the lords of the Temple and its worship.
All this does not, of course, imply that there are not in books IV.
and V. any pieces older than the completion of books II. and III.,
for the composition of a poem and its acceptance as part of the Leviti-
cal liturgy are not necessarily coincident in date, except in psalms
written with a direct liturgical purpose. In the fifteen " songs of
degrees " (Ps. cxx.^cxxxiv!) we have a case in point. According
to the Mishna (Middoth. ii. 5) and other Jewish traditions, these
psalms were sung by the Levites at the Feast of Tabernacles on the
fifteen steps or degrees that led from the women's to the men's
court. But when we look- at the psalms themselves we see that they
must originally have been a hymn-book, not for the Levites, but for
the laity who came up to Jerusalem at the great pilgrimage feasts,
and who themselves remembered, or their fathers had told them, the
days when, as we see in Ps. xlii., it was impossible to make pilgrimage
to Zion. They are hymns of the laity, describing with much beauty
and depth of feeling the emotions of the pilgrim when his feet stood ,
within the gates of Jerusalem, when he looked forth on the encircling
hills, when he felt how good it was to be camping side by side with
his brethren on the slopes of Zion (cxxxiii.), when a sense of Jehovah's
forgiving grace and the certainty of the redemption of Israel
triumphed over all the evils of the present and filled his soul with
humble and patient hope.
The titles which ascribe four of the pilgrimage songs to David and
one to Solomon are lacking in the true LXX., and inconsistent with
the contents of the psalms. Better attested, because found in the
LXX. as well as in the Hebrew, and therefore probably as old as
the collection itself, are the name of Moses in Ps. xc. and that of
David in Ps. ci., cii., cviii.-cx., cxxxviii.-cxlv. But where did the
last collectors of the psalms find such very ancient pieces which had
1 Possibly under Simon ; compare the other hallel (Ps. cxlvi.-cl.
with I Mace. xiii. 50 seq.
538
PSALMS, BOOK OF
been passed by all previous collectors, and what criterion was there
to establish their genuineness? No canon of literary criticism can
treat as valuable external evidence an attestation which first appears
so many centuries after the supposed date of the poems, especially
when it is confronted by facts so conclusive as that Ps. cviii. is made
up of extracts from Ps. Ivii. and Ix. and that Ps. cxxxix. is marked
by its language as one of the latest pieces in the book. The only
possible question for the critic is whether the ascription of these
psalms to David was due to the idea that he was the psalmist par
excellence, 1 to whom any poem of unknown origin was naturally
ascribed, or whether we have in some at least of these titles an ex-
ample of the habit so common in later Jewish literature of writing
in the name of ancient worthies. In the case of Ps. xc. it can hardly
be doubted that this is the real explanation, and the same account
must be given of the title in Ps. cxlv., if, as seems probable, it is
meant to cover the whole of the great hallel or tehilla (Ps. cxlv.-cl.),
which must, from the allusions in Ps. cxlix., as well as from its place,
be almost if not quite the latest thing in the Psalter.
For the later stages of the history of the Psalter we have, as we
have seen, a fair amount of evidence pointing to conclusions of a
pretty definite kind. We have still to consider the two great groups
of psalms ascribed to David in books I. and II. We have en-
deavoured to show that the ascription " to David " in these groups
did not originally denote authorship by David, and that, notwith-
standing the subscription of Ps. Ixxii., which may well be a later
note, there is no necessity to suppose an original collection of Davidic
psalms from which excerpts were made. It is, however, probable
that the title soon came to be understood of David's authorship,
with the result that further notes were added indicating the situation
in David's life to which the psalms appeared to be appropriate.
It is certainly not impossible that the two groups of " Davidic "
psalms once formed separate collections independently compiled,
and that the subscription to Ps. Ixxii. originally stood at the end of
the second collection; for in book I. every psalm, except the intro-
ductory poems i. and ii. and the late Ps. xxxiii., which may have
been added as a liturgical sequel to Ps. xxxii., bears the title " of
David," and in like manner the group Ps. li. Ixxii., though it con-
tains a few anonymous pieces and one psalm which is either " of," or
rather, according to the oldest tradition, " for Solomon," is composed
of " Davidic " psalms. It would seem also that the collectors
of books I.-III. know of no Davidic psalms outside of these two
collections, for Ps. Ixxxvi. in the appendix to the Elohistic collection
is merely a cento of quotations from Davidic pieces with a verse
or two from Exodus and Jeremiah. Now that the ascription
" to David " was understood of David's authprship before the time
of the LXX. is clear from such titles as that of Ps. xviii., for example,
but there is no evidence that in early times David was regarded as
the author of any of the psalms. Even the Chronicler, though he
regarded David as the great founder of the Temple music, does not
quote any psalm as composed by him, and the Chronicler's omission
of 2 Sam. xxii. xxiii. 7 makes it probable that this section has been
inserted in the book of Samuel since he wrote. If, as is possible,
Ecclus. xlvii. 8 is a reminiscence of Ps. ix. 2 and Ps. xviii. 2, we should
indeed naturally infer that these two psalms were regarded by Ben
Sira as the work of David; but this would prove nothing as to the
date of the collection in which we now have tKem. It may fairly
be contended therefore that the tradition that David is the author
of the psalms which are assigned to him in books I. and II. comes to
us from a period later than that in which the Chronicler wrote.
And it is not too much to say that that view which to some extent
appears in the historical psalms of the Ehohistic Psalter implies
absolute incapacity to understand the difference between old Israel
and later Judaism, and makes almost anything possible in the way of
the ascription of comparatively modern pieces to ancient authors. In
any case the titles are manifestly the product of the same uncritical
spirit as we have just been speaking of, for not only are many of
the titles certainly wrong, but they are wrong in such a way as to
prove that they date from an age to whjch David was merely the
abstract psalmist and which had no idea whatever of the historical
conditions of his age. For example, Ps. xx. xxi. are not spoken by
a king but addressed to a king by his people; Ps. v. xxvii. allude
to the Temple (which did not exist in David's time) and the author
of the latter psalm desires to live there continually. Even in the
older Davidic psalm-book there is a whole series of hymns in which
the writer identifies himself with the poor and needy, the righteous
people of God suffering in silence at the hands of the wicked, without
other hope than patiently to wait for the interposition of Jehovah
(Ps. xii., xxv., xxxvii., xxxviii., &c.). Nothing can be further
removed than this from any possible situation in the life of the
David of the books of Samuel, and the case is still worse in the second
Davidic collection, especially where we have in the titles definite
notes as to the historical occasion on which the poems are supposed
to have been written. To refer Ps. Hi. to Doeg, Ps. liv. to the Ziph-
ites, Ps. lix. to David when watched in his house by Saul, implies
an absolute lack of the very elements of historical judgment. Even
the bare names of the old history were no longer correctly known
1 The explanation of Iff} suggested above offers another alter-
native. R. H. K.
when Abimelech (the Philistine king in the stories of Abraham and
Isaac) could be substituted in the title of Ps. xxxiv. for Achish, king
of Gath. In a word, the ascription of these two collections to David
has none of the characters of a genuine historical tradition.
At the same time it is clear that the two collections do not stand
on quite the same footing. The second collection of " Davidic "
psalms, as well as the Korahite and Asaphic psalms, have been sub-
jected to an Elohistic redaction, for which we must find a reason
if the history of the Psalter is to be written. An explanation that
naturally suggests itself is that ; at the time when books II. and III.
(with the exception of the appendix, Ps. Ixxxiv.-lxxxix.) were
collected, it was already the custom, from motives of reverence, to
abstain from pronouncing the Tetragrammaton. Upon this sup-
position it might be explained that book I. was collected before this
scruple arose, and books IV. and V. when the custom had arisen of
substituting in reading the word Adonai. But, as we have seen, it is
impossible to separate the contents of the Elohistic books from those
of the last collection. Both include psalms which are most naturally
understood as referring to the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes
and to the Maccabaean victories, and cannot therefore be separateil
by a long interval of time. Moreover the scruple as to the pro-
nunciation of the Tetragrammaton seems to have arisen earlier, as
in the LXX. version of the Pentateuch .T.T is represented by Kiipios.
And further, if the Elohistic redaction was due merely to a desire
to avoid pronouncing the divine name, why was not the presumably
earlier collection of psalms in book I. subjected to a similar redaction?
It is therefore difficult to suppose that the Jewish Church as a whole
passed through a stage in which it was felt desirable to substitute
D-rfbg in writing for n:,v. There is, however, no difficulty in
supposing that such a thing was done in some sections of the Jewish
Church, and it is probable that we must look for an explanation of the
peculiarity not to the time but to the place where the second collec-
tion was formed. Now it must be frankly admitted that the earlk-r
books of psalms exhibit no particular suitability for the Temple
services. It is only in the last collection, books IV. and V., that we
find any number of psalms appropriate to such a ritual as that of
the Temple, and it is difficult to resist the conviction that the earlk-r
collections were made for use, not in the Temple at Jerusalem but in
some synagogue or synagogues. Thus, for example, the numerous
psalms in which the poets, though speaking perhaps, not as in-
dividuals but as members of a class, describe themselves as poor and
afflicted at the hands of certain ungodly men, who appear to be
Jews, can hardly have been originally collected by the Temple choirs.
For since the ministers of the Temple at Jerusalem were the aristo-
cracy of the land, and were often, as we know both from the book
of Malachi and from the history of the Maccabees, the chief offenders,
it is extremely unlikely that they collected for the official services
of the Temple compositions directed against themselves. It is
also remarkable that hymns such as Exodus xv., which would be
specially suitable to the Temple, find no place in the Psalter. More-
over, in Ps. xl., we have the striking assertion, which surely did not
originate in the Temple, that God has no delight in sacrifice and
offerings. On the other hand, the first collection of " Davidic "
psalms taken as a whole would be perfectly appropriate in the
worship of a Judaean community of Hasidim in the Maccabaean
period. We have, unfortunately, no information as to the origin of
synagogues, but their existence in pre-Maccabaean times may be
inferred not only from the statement in Ps. Ixxiv. 8, but also from the
fact that there must have been some rallying points for the religion of
the Hasidim : besides that supplied by occasional visits or pilgrimages
to Je'rusalem. We need not suppose that congregations gathered
together to worship away from Jerusalem, especially in times of
distress, would necessarily sing the religious poems which they
had collected, though it is by no means improbable that they would
do so. At any rate, Ps. cxxxvii. 4 may fairly be taken as evidence
that those heathen among whom the Jews dwelt " in a strange
land " had heard and admired the " songs of Zion." Certainly in
happier times, when the worst period of storm and stress was over,
there would be a desire to enliven the services with music, which
would naturally be borrowed from the traditional music of the great
national sanctuary.
In thus assigning the first collection of psalms to some Judaean
community of Hasidim in the earlier Maccabaean period we need
not conclude that all the psalms contained in this collection were
first composed at this time. Although there is no psalm which can
be shown with any probability to be pre-exilic, it is not impossible
that there are some which date from as early a time as the age of
Zerubbabel, by whose appointment national hopes were raised to so
high a pitch. Thus, for example, Ps. xviii., xx., xxi., which in some
respects recall the language of the song ascribed to Hannah in I Sam.
ii., may possibly, like that song, be referred to this period. It must,
however, be admitted that as a whole the psalms of the first collection
are more suitable to a later date. Ps. viii., which is almost certainly
quoted in Job. vii. 17, need not have been composed long before the
book in which it is quoted: the references to the " godly " and to
their persecutions at the hands of wicked men, who seem to be Jews,
recall the Maccabaean age; in Ps. xxii. the speaker, who is not an
individual but speaks in the name of a community, bears a remark-
able resemblance to the " suffering servant " of Isaiah Hi. 13-liii-
PSALMS, BOOK OF
539
and of this last passage it may be said that all the translatable
portions of it can be naturally explained, if it refers to the time when
the n-Msiance of the Hastdim, whom the Sadducees had despised
liunned, had won freedom for Israel as a whole, and at no other
known period; the fragment, Ps. xxiv. "jio, is most easily understood
of the time when the Lord who had shown Himself strong and mighty
by His victories over the heathen returned in triumph to His Temple
in 104 B.C. in the days of Zerubbabel or of Nehemiah Jehovah
h.itl not recently shown Himself " mighty in battle."
In the light of these circumstances and space here forbids more
ih. in the scantiest reference we may reasonably suppose that the
nrst book, with the exception of Ps. i., ii. and possibly xxxiii., is a
tion of psalms in the shape which it assumed in a Judaean
>> nagogue in the earlier days of the Maccabaean victories.
\Ve nave already noticed the difficulty of supposing that the
Elohistic Psalter was compiled in a place where a Jehovistic Psalter
was already in use. It is therefore probable that the second collec-
tion of psalms (books II. and III.), containing as it does an Elohistic
i .ion of a psalm occurring in book I. in a Jehovistic form, must
li.m- Keen compiled for use in some other district. Since the last
rnllei-ticin (books IV. and V.) which may reasonably be assigned to
the Temple at Jerusalem uses freely the name m.T, it may be in-
1 that the district where an objection was felt to writing the
1 Vt ragrammaton was some distance from Jerusalem, and probably
not in such close touch with it as most of the country districts of
Judaea would be. Such a district we may find in southern Galilee,
" the land of Zebulon and the land of Naphtali," apparently the only
portion of Palestine north of Samaria where the worshippers of
Jehovah existed in any considerable numbers. It is at least remark-
able that the names Zebulon and Naphtali in Isaiah ix. I (a passage
which, as has been already noted, is probably Maccabaean) denote
the region which had felt the brunt of the persecution of the heathen,
while in Ps. Ixviii. 27 (a poem of which every translatable verse
i-. explicable if it refers to the great procession at the rededication of
the Temple in 164 B.C.) the same two tribes are joined with Judah
and Benjamin (sc. Judaea) as celebrating the Lord's victory. The
dissenting inhabitants of Samaria are naturally absent from such a
festival. It is not improbable that the Elohistic redaction of
the second collection of psalms is due not so much to any Jewish
scruples about writing the Tetragrammaton as to the fear that it
might fall into the hands of the heathen who were trying to destroy
the Hebrew Scriptures, and might thus be desecrated (cf. I Mace. i.
56. 57)-
We may thus suppose that about the time of Jonathan the Macca-
liaean High Priest (if our explanation of Ps. xlv. is correct), at all
events not earlier than 150 B.C., a south Galilaean synagogue
made a collection of the various religious poems current among its
members. Perhaps those which were to be sung according to the
old Davidic mode formed the nucleus of the collection, and to these
were added other poems to be sung according to the more intricate
Korahite and Asaphic modes. The appendix to this collection (Ps.
Ixxxiv.-lxxxix.) being non-Elohistic presumably was collected else-
where. It is possible that these last-mentioned psalms were
originally an appendix to the Judaean collection and have been
removed from their original place to after the other Levitical
psalms.
In books IV. and V. we have a collection probably made originally
for use in the Temple, consisting in the mam of recent hymns, but
embodying, at least to some extent, older traditional hymns of the
Temple. On this hypothesis we are able to explain the presence of
certain poetical pieces both in the book of Chronicles and in the
Psalter. We need not suppose that the Chronicler quotes from the
Psalter or vice versa, the matter which they have in common being
probably derived from certain traditional songs current among the
Levitical singers. Since this last collection includes a psalm (ex.)
which can scarcely refer to any one earlier than Simon the Maccabee,
and cannot well be later than his time, we are justified in assigning
the compilation of this collection to about the year 140 B.C. But
by this time a great change had taken place in the aims and aspira-
tions of the Jews. The earlier Maccabaean policy of concentration
had given place to one of expansion. The Jews in Jerusalem could
not ignore the Jews of Galilee or even of the Dispersion. The hymns
which had brought comfort to the faithful in the time of their distress
had become an integral part of their religion which could not be given
up. Jerusalem was now the religious metropolis of a great nation,
and accordingly it was felt desirable that the hymn-books of the
several parts of the nation should be combined into a hymn-book
for the whole. The synagogue collections, since they contained
psalms which at this time were probably considered to be the work
of David, were placed first, and the Temple collection added to them.
There was then prefixed to the whole collection a hymn (Ps. ii.)
describing the hoped-for greatness of Simon's kingdom, and finally
Pharisaic sentiment prefaced the whole by a psalm in praise of the
law. In the final compilation, or perhaps in a subsequent redaction,
some alterations were made in the original order, some notes were
added describing the circumstances in which various psalms had
been composed, and lastly, in order to assimilate the outward form
of the Psalter to that of the Pentateuch, the three collections were
divided into five books. The final redaction is probably to be dated
between the years 140 and 130 B.C.
Musical Execution and Place of the Psalms in the Temple
Service. The musical notes found in the titles of the psalms
and occasionally also in the text (Selah, 1 Higgaion) are so
obscure that it seems unnecessary to enter here upon the various
conjectures that have been made about them. The clearest
point is that a number of the psalms were originally at least set
to melodies named after songs, 2 and that one of these songs
beginning nrarrrVn (Al-tashith in E. V., Ps. Ivii. seq.), may be
probably identified with the vintage song, Isa. Ixv. 8. The
original music of the psalms was therefore apparently based on
popular melodies. A good deal is said about the musical services
of the Levites in Chronicles, both in the .account given of David's
ordinances and in the descriptions of particular festival occasions.
But unfortunately it has not been found possible to get from
these accounts any clear picture of the ritual of any certainty
as to the technical terms used. In Egypt by the translators of
the Septuagint these terms were not understood.
The music of the temple attracted the attention of Theo-
phrastus (ap. Porph. De abst. ii. 26), who was perhaps the first
of the Greeks to make observations on the Jews. His descrip-
tion of the Temple ritual is not strictly accurate, but he speaks
of the worshippers as passing the night in gazing at the stars
and calling on God in prayer; his words, if they do not exactly
fit anything in the later ritual, are well fitted to illustrate the
original liturgical use of Ps. viii., cxxxiv. Some of the Jewish
traditions as to the use of particular psalms have been already
cited; it may be added that the Mishna (Tamld).assigns to the
service of the continual burnt-offerings the following weekly
cycle of psalms. (i) xxiv., (2) xlviii., (3) Ixxxii., (4) xciv.,
(5) Ixxxi., (6) xciii., (Sabbath) xcii., as in the title. Many other
details are given in the treatise Sofirlm, but these for the most
part refer primarily to the synagogue service after the destruction
of the Temple. For details on the liturgical use of the Psalter
in Christendom the reader may refer to Smith's Diet. Chr. Ant.,
s.v. "Psalmody."
Ancient Versions. (A) The oldest version, the LXX., follows
a text generally closely corresponding to the Massoretic Hebrew,
the main variations being in the titles and in the addition (lacking
in some MSS.) of an apocryphal psalm ascribed to David when he
fought with Goliath. Ps. ix. and x. are rightly taken as one
psalm, but conversely Ps. cxlvii. is divided into two. The
LXX. text has many " daughters," of which may be noticed
(a) the Memphitic (ed. Lagarde, 1875); (b) the old Latin, which
as revised by Jerome in 383 after the current Greek text forms
the Psalteriunt romanum, long read in the Roman Church and
still used in St Peter's; (c) various Arabic versions, including that
printed in the polyglots of Le Jay and Walton, and two others
of the four exhibited together in Lagarde's Psalterium, Job,
Proverbia, arabice, 1876; on the relations and history of these
versions see G. Hoffmann, in Jenaer Literaturz., 1876, art. 539;
the fourth of Lagarde's versions is from the Peshito. The
Hexaplar text of the LXX., as reduced by Origen into greater
conformity with the Hebrew by the aid of subsequent Greek
versions, was further the mother (d) of the Psalterium gallicanum
that is, of Jerome's second revision of the Psalter (385) by
the aid of the Hexaplar text; this edition became current in
Gaul and ultimately was taken into the Vulgate; (e) of the Syro-
Hexaplar version (published by Bugati, 1820, and in facsimile
from the famous Ambrosian MS. by Ceriani, Milan, 1874). (B)
The Christian Aramaic version or Peshito (P'shltta) is largely
influenced by the LXX., compare Baethgen, Untersuchungen
iiber die Psalmen nach der Peschita, Kiel, 1878 (unfinished).
1 Of the various explanations that have been given of Selah the
only one which possessesany probability is that given independently
by Baethgen and others, viz. that it is a mispronunciation of an
original ^y=^a\\(. The word, which was probably derived from
some Greek bandmaster, was presumably an instruction for a musical
interlude. The LXX. translators who render it by Si&^aXjm
though not recognizing the derivation of the word, knew its meaning.
R. H. K.
1 Compare the similar way of citing melodies with the prep,
'al or 'al kala, &c., in Syriac (Land, Anted, iv. ; Ephr. syr. hymni,
ed. Lamy).
540
PSALTERY PSAMMETICHUS
This version has peculiar titles taken from Eusebius and Theodore
of Mopsuestia (see Nestle, in Theol. Literaturz., 1876, p. 283).
(C) The Jewish Aramaic version or Targum is probably a late
work. 1 The most convenient edition is in Lagarde, Hagiographa
chaldaice, 1873. (D) The best of all the old versions is that made
by Jerome after the Hebrew in 405. It did not, however, obtain
ecclesiastical currency the old versions holding their ground,
just as English churchmen still read the Psalms in the version
of the " Great Bible " printed in their Prayer Book. This
important version was first published in a good text by Lagarde,
Psalter ium juxta hebraeos hieronymi (Leipzig, 1874).
Exegetical Works. While some works of patristic writers are still
of value for text criticism and for the history of early exegetical
tradition, the treatment of the Psalms by ancient and medieval
Christian writers is as a whole such as to throw light on the ideas of
the commentators and their times rather than on the sense of a
text which most of them knew only through translations. For the
Psalms, as for the other books of the Old Testament, the scholars of
the period of the revival of Hebrew studies about the time of the
Reformation were mainly dependent on the ancient versions and on
the Jewish scholars of the middle ages. In the latter class Iimhi
stands pre-eminent ; to the editions of his commentary on the Psalms
enumerated in the article KIMHI must now be added the admirable
edition of Dr Schiller-Szinessy (Cambridge, 1883), containing, un-
fortunately, only the first book of his longer commentary. Among
the works of older Christian scholars since the revival of letters, the
commentary of Calvin (1557) full of religious insight and sound
thought and the laborious work of M. Geier (1668, 1681 et saepius)
may still be consulted with advantage, but for most purposes
Rosenmiiller's Scholia in Psalms (2nd ed., 1831-1822) supersedes the
necessity of frequent reference to the predecessors of that industrious
compiler. Of more recent works the freshest and most indispensable
are Ewald's, in the first two half -volumes of his Dichter des alien Bundes
(2nd ed., Gottingen, 1866; Eng. trans., 1880), and Olshausen's (1853).
To these may be added (excluding general commentaries on the Old
Testament) the two acute but wayward commentaries of Hitzig
(1836, 1863-1865), that of Delitzsch (1859-1860, then in shorter form
in several editions since 1867 ; Eng. trans., 1871), and that of Hupfeld
(2nd ed. by Riehm, 1867, 2 vols.). The last-named work, though
lacking in original power and clearness of judgment, is extremely
convenient and useful, and has had an influence perhaps dispropor-
tionate to its real exegetical merits. The question of the text was
first properly raised by Olshausen, and has since received special
attention from, among others, Lagarde (Prophetae chald., 1872,
p. 46 seq.), Dyserinck (in the " scholia " to his Dutch translation of
the Psalms, Theol. Tijdschr., 1878, p. 279 seq.), and Bickell (Carmina
V. T. metrice, &c., Innsbruck, 1882), whose critical services are not
to be judged merely by the measure of assent which his metrical
theories may command. In English we have, among others, the
useful work of Perowne (5th ed., 1883), that of Lowe and Jennings,
(2nd ed., 1885), and the valuable translation of Cheyne (1884). The
mass of literature on the Psalms is so enormous that no full list
even of recent commentaries can be here attempted, much less an
enumeration of treatises on individual psalms and special critical
questions. For the latter Kuenen's Onderzoek, vol. iii., is, up to its
date (1865), the most complete, and the new edition now in prepara-
tion will doubtless prove the standard work of reference. As
regards the dates and historical interpretation of the Psalms, all
older discussions, even those of Ewald, are in great measure anti-
quated by recent progress in Pentateuch criticism and the history of
the canon, and an entirely fresh treatment of the Psalter by a sober
critical commentator is urgently needed.
The bibliography up to this point is taken from the article
PSALMS by the late Professor W. Robertson Smith (Ency. Brit.,
1886), large portions of which are incorporated in the present article.
It was the belief of Professor Robertson Smith that the second
(Elohistic) collection of psalms originated in a time of persecution
earlier than the time of Antiochus Epiphanes which he referred to the
reign of Artaxerxes III. Ochus. This theory, which he set forth with
all his accustomed learning and force, is still accepted in many
quarters, many other passages of the Old Testament being likewise
assigned to the same date. In the judgment of the present writer
however, the results of Old Testament study (particularly in the
Prophets) since Professor Robertson Smith's death have shown that
this theory is untenable. Notwithstanding his reverence, therefore,
for the great scholar with whose name it is associated, and to
whose memory he would pay both grateful and humble tribute,
he has ventured to omit or rewrite all those portions of the original
article which he considers no longer tenable, while retaining every
word which is still valuable.
Of the works on the Psalms which have appeared since the first
publication of Professor W. Robertson Smith's article the following
may be specially noticed: Cheyne, The Book of Psalms (1888), The
1 It contains, however, elements which are as early as the time of
the New Testament. Cf. Ps. Ixviii. 1 8 with Ephes. iv. 8.
Origin of the Psalter, Bampton Lectures (1891), and the article
Psalms (in Ency. Bib., 1902); Bickell, Die Dichtungen der Hebraer
(3 der Psalter, 1883), from a revised and metrically arranged text;
Baethgen, in Nowack's Hand-Komm. (1892); Wellhausen, in Sacred
Books of the Old Test. (Eng. trans, by Furness, J. Taylor and Paterson,
1898); Duhm, in Marti's Kurzer Hand-Comm. (1899); Kirkpatrick,
in Cambridge Bible for 5cfcoo/s (1893-1895); W. T. Davison, in
Hastings's Diet. Bible (1902); Driver, The Parallel Psalter (1904);
C. A. and E. G. Briggs, " Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the
Psalms," vol. i. (1906), vol. ii. (1907), in International Critical Com-
mentary. (R. H. K.)
PSALTERY, PSALTERION, or SAWTRIE (Fr. psalterion, salteirc;
Ger. Psalterium; Ital. saltcrio, istrumento di pored), an ancient
stringed instrument twanged by fingers or plectrum, and men-
tioned many times in the English Bible; a favourite instrument
also during the middle ages in England, France and Italy. It is
exceedingly doubtful whether the word was ever applied during
the classic Greek period to any individual instrument; there is,
moreover, no trace in the monuments of that time of the psalterion
in any of the forms in which it afterwards became known
during the middle ages. It is also puzzling to find no fewer than
four different instruments translated psalterion in the Septuagint,
i.e. Nebel, Psanterin, Ugab (organ) and Toph (Job xxi. 12). On
the other hand the Aramaic word Pisantir or Pianterin (Dan. iii.
5, 10, 15) generally translated psalterion, and by some scholars
claimed as a loan word from the Greek, corresponds to the
Santir, a stringed instrument represented on Assyrian monu-
ments of the 8th century B.C. (when as yet the word had not
been used in Greek for a musical instrument) and still in use in
Persia at the present day by the same name. The instrument
itself, moreover, a dulcimer, which in its earlier forms differed
from the psalterion mainly in that its strings were struck by
curved sticks instead of being plucked, must in the absence of
contrary evidence be considered as the prototype of the medieval
psalterion or psaltery. Early medieval writers generally connect
the psalterium and the cithara, probably because the strings of
both were set in vibration in the same manner, by plucking or
twanging. .
The medieval psaltery consisted of a shallow box-spundchest over
which strings varying in number were stretched, being fastened at
one side to pegs and at the other to wrest pins. In the early
rectangular form the strings, numbering 10 or 12, were, as in the
cithara, of uniform length, the pitch being varied by the thickness
and tension of the strings. When the triangular form succeeded
the rectangular, the stringing was that of the harp, pitch being
dependent on the length. The trapeze form, clearly borrowed from
the oriental Kanon, and the curious Italian istrumento di porco,
were the latest types to survive. In these later forms the vibrating
length of the strings was regulated by means of two wooden bridges,
converging as the strings became snorter. The psaltery was held
in an upright position against the chest of the performer, until, owing
to the increasing number of strings, it grew too cumbersome, and was
placed flat on a table or on the knee. The German zither is the sole
European survivor of the medieval psaltery. * (K. S.)
PSAMMETICHUS (Egypt. Psammetk), the name of three
kings of the Saite, XXVIth Dynasty, called by Herodotus
respectively Psammetichus, Psammis and Psammenitus. The
first of these is generally considered to be the founder of the
dynasty; Manetho, however, carries it back through three or
four predecessors who ruled at Sais as petty kings under the
XXVth, Ethiopian, Dynasty. The name is frankly written
so as to mean " the man of methek," i.e. " mixed drink," whether
as a tippler or as a vendor of strong drink. The Egyptian
scribes do not conceal the opprobrious elements, but it has been
suggested that the name may be due to false etymology of a
foreign name (though all the names throughout the dynasty
appear to be Egyptian), or that Methek may have been an un-
known deity. The story in Herodotus of the Dodecarchy and
the rise of Psammetichus is fanciful. It is known from cuneiform
texts that twenty local princelings were appointed by Esarhaddon
and confirmed by Assur-bani-pal to govern Egypt. Niku
(Necho), father of Psammetichus, was the chief of these kinglets,
but they seem to have been quite unable to hold the Egyptians
to the hated Assyrians against the more sympathetic Ethiopian.
The labyrinth built by a king of the XHth Dynasty is ascribed
by Herodotus to the Dodecarchy, or rule of 12, which must
PSELLUS PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL
represent this combination of rulers. If the dynasties were
numbered thus before Manetho, the numeral may be the cause of
llcnxlotus's confusion. After his father's death Psammetichus I.
(664-610 B.C.) was able to defy the Assyrians and the Ethiopians,
ami during a long reign marked by intimate relations with the
(larks restored the prosperity of Egypt. The short reign of
the second Psammetichus (594-589 B.C.) is noteworthy for the
graffiti of his Greek, Phoenician and Carian mercenaries at Abu
Simbel (q.v.). The third of the name was the unfortunate
prince whose reign terminated after six months in the Persian
conquest of Egypt (525 B.C.). It has been conjectured that the
family of the Psammetichi was of Libyan origin; on the other
hand, some would recognize negro features in a portrait of Psam-
metichus I., which might connect him with the Ethiopian rulers.
;l)ove, EGYPT: History; on the name, F. LI. Griffith, Catalogue
of the Rylands demotic papyri; the portrait, H. Schafer in Zeitschrifl
fur aegyptische Sprache, xxxiii. 116. (F. LL. G.)
PSELLUS (Or. ^eXXos), the name of several Byzantine writers,
of whom the following may be mentioned:
1. MICHAEL PSELLUS the elder, a native of Andros and a
pupil of Photius, who flourished in the second half of the 9th
century. His study of the Alexandrine theology, as well as of
profane literature, brought him under the suspicions of the ortho-
dox, and a former pupil of his, by name Constantine, accused
him in an elegiac poem of having abandoned Christianity. In
order to perfect his knowledge of Christian doctrine, Psellus had
recourse to the instructions of Photius, and then replied to his
adversary in a long iambic poem, in which he maintained his
orthodoxy. None of his works has been preserved.
2. MICHAEL CONSTANTINE PSELLUS the younger, born in 1018
(probably at Nicomedia; according to some, at Constantinople)
of a consular and patrician family. He studied at Athens and
Constantinople, where he became intimate with John Xiphilinus.
Under Constantine Monomachus (1042-1054) he became one
of the most influential men in the empire. As professor of philo-
sophy at the newly founded academy of Constantinople he
revived the cult of Plato at a time when Aristotle held the
field; this, together with his admiration for the old pagan
glories of Hellas, aroused suspicions as to his orthodoxy. At
the height of his success as a teacher he was recalled to court,
where he became state secretary and vestarch, with the honorary
title of "TTTO.TOS rCiv <J>tXo<r6<#xoi> (prince of philosophers). Follow-
ing the example of his friend Xiphilinus he entered the monastery
of Olympus (near Prusa in Bithynia), where he assumed the name
of Michael. But, finding the life little to his taste, he resumed
his public career. Under Isaac Comnenus and Constantine
Ducas he exercised great influence, and was prime minister
during the regency of Eudocia and the reign of his pupil Michael
Parapinaces (1071-1078). It is probable that he died soon after
the fall of Parapinaces.
Living during the most melancholy period of Byzantine history,
Psellus exhibited the worst faults of his age. He was servile
and unscrupulous, weak, fond of intrigue, intolerably vain and
ambitious. But as a literary man his intellect was of the highest
order. In the extent of his knowledge, in keenness of observation,
in variety of style, in his literary output, he has been compared
to Voltaire; but it is perhaps as the forerunner of the great
Renaissance Platonists that he will be chiefly remembered. His
works embraced politics, astrondmy, medicine, music, theology,
jurisprudence, physics, grammar and history.
Of his works, which are very numerous, many have not yet been
printed. We may mention: Chronographia (from 976-1077), which
in spite of its bias in favour of the Ducases is a valuable history of
his time, chiefly on domestic affairs; three Epitaphioi or funeral
orations over the patriarchs Cerularius, Lichudes and Xiphilinus.
His letters (nearly 500 in number) are also full of details of the period.
A complete list of his works is given in Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca,
x. 41 ; the most important have been published by C. Sathas in his
Ttlfaatwvudi 0i0\io8iiiai, jv, v. On Psellus himself see I-eo Allatius, De
Psellis el eorum scriplis (1634); E. Eggcr in Dictionnaire des sciences
philosophiques (1875); A. Rambaud in Revue historique (1877);
P. V. Bezobrazov, Michel Psellos (1890; in Russian); C. Neumann,
Die Weltstellung des byzantinischen Reiches vor den Kreuzziigtn
( 1 894) ; C. Krumbacher, Ceschichle der byzantinischen Literatur (l 897) ;
J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical .Scholarship (1906), i. 411.
PSEUDO-DIPTERAL (Gr. ^irfifr, false, Sit, double, and
irrfpov, a wing), the term given to a dipteral temple, i.e. in which
there are two rows of columns round the naos, the inner row of
which has been omitted to give more space for the processions
or for shelter (see TEMPLE).
PSEUDONYM (Gr. favduvvutK, having a false name,
!/-u6i7s, false and ovo^a, name), a false or invented name,
particularly the fictitious name under which an author produces
his work in order to conceal his identity. The same end is
gained by publication without any name, i.e. anonymously
(Gr. 6.vavvn<x, without a name). The body of works thus pro-
duced either without the author's name or under a fictitious
name is known as anonymous and pseudonymous literature,
and many books have been published affording a key to the
identity of the various writers, forming an important section of
bibliography. Though Fredericus Geisler published a short
treatise on the subject entitled Larva delracta, Sic., in 1669, the
chief early work was that of Vincent Placcius (1642-1699) whose
Thealrum anonymorum et pseudonymorum was published in 1708,
edited by L. F. Vischer with a preface and life by J. A. Fabricius;
supplements were published in 1711 and in 1740. The next
important work, only a fragment of the purposed scheme, was
that of Adrien Baillet (q.v.), under the title of Auteurs dtguises
sous les noms Strangers, &c. (1690). Antoine Alexandre Barbier
(q.v.) published his standard work Dictionnaire des outrages
anonymes et pseudonymes in 1806-1809 (2nd ed., 1822-1827).
This was followed by the Supercheries Htttraires dtvoilfes of J. M.
Querard (q.v.). The third edition of Barbier's work, embodying
Querard and much new matter, was published in 1872-1879.
This was edited by P. Gustave Brunei, who published a supple-
ment in 1889. Other works in French are those of C. Jolliet,
Les Pseudonymes du jour (1867 and 1884), and F. Drujon, Limes
dc/e/(i888). Of German works in this sphere of bibliography the
Index pseudonymorum, Worterbuch dcr Pseudonymen of Emil
Weller appeared in 1856, of which several supplements were
published later. The most monumental of all works are the
Deulsches Anonymcn-Lexikon, 1501-1850, by M. Holzmann and
H. Bohatta (1902-1907), supplement, 1851-1908 (1909), and the
Deutschcs Pseudonymen-Lexikon, by the same authors ( 1 906) . See
also F. Sintenis, Die Pseudonyme der neueren deutschen Litteratur
(1899), and the supplementary volume (1909), to Meyers's
Konversalions-Lexikon (6th ed.). The chief Italian work is the
Dizionario di opcre anonime e pseudonime di scriltori italiani, by
('.. Melzi (1848-1859), with supplement by G. Passano (1887).
The Dutch Vermomde en naamlooze schrijvers . . . der Nederl. en
Vlaamschen Ictteren, by J. I. van Doorninck (1883-1885), was a
second edition of an earlier work. The Academy of Upsala is
publishing, under the editorship of L. Bygden, a Swedish
dictionary Svenskt anonym och pseudonym lexikon (1898), &c.
England was late in entering the field. The first work actually
published was the Handbook of Fictitious Names, by R. Thomas
(Olphar Hamst) (1868). Samuel Halkett, and the successor to his
compilations, John Laing, both died before their work was
published; edited and revised by Miss C. Laing it appeared in
1882-1888 in 4 vols. as the Dictionary of the Anonymous and
Pseudonymous Literature of Great Britain, by S. Halkett and J.
Laing. This remains the standard work on the subject in
English. Other works are W. Gushing, Initials and Pseudonyms
(American and English from the beginning of the i8th century);
2nd series (1886, 1888), and Anonyms (1890); F. Marchmont, A
Coiicise Handbook of Literature issued under Pseudonyms or
Initials (1896); see also especially W. P. Courtney, The Secrets
of our National Literature (1908), the first chapter of which
contains a sketch of the history of the subject, to which the
above account is mainly due. The anonymous and pseudo-
nymous Latin literature of the middle ages has been treated in
modern times by A. Franklin, Dictionnaire des noms, &c., latins
1100-1530 (1875), and A. G. Little, Initia operum latinorum
saec: 13-15 (1004).
PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL (Gr. \Mfc, false, npl, round,
irrtpbv, a wing), a term in architecture given to a temple in
which the columns surrounding the naos have had walls built
542
PSEUDOPOD PSKOV
between them, so that they become engaged columns, as in the
great temple at Agrigentum. In Roman temples, in order to
increase the size of the cella, the columns on either side' and at the
rear became engaged columns, the portico only having isolated
columns. (See TEMPLE.)
PSEUDOPOD, PSEUDOPODIUM, the name given to an ex-
tension of the naked protoplasm of certain Protozoa, notably the
Sarcodina (<?..), for crawling or creeping or for the prehension
of food, but not for active swimming (see also AMOEBA).
PSILOMELANE, a mineral consisting of hydrous manganese
oxide with variable amounts of barium, potassium, &c. It is
sometimes considered to be a hydrous manganese manganate, but
of doubtful composition. The amount of manganese present
corresponds to 70-80% of manganous oxide with 10-15% f
" available " oxygen. The mineral is amorphous and occurs as
botryoidal and stalactitic masses with a smooth shining surface
and submetallic lustre. The name has reference to this char-
acteristic appearance, being from the Greek ^tXos (naked,
smooth) and jueXas (black); a Latinized form is calvonigrite,
and a German name with the same meaning is Schwarzer Glaskopf.
Psilomelane is readily distinguished from other hydrous manga-
nese oxides (manganite and wad) by its greater hardness (H. = 55) ;
the sp. gr. varies from 3-7 to 4-7. The streak is brownish-
black and the fracture smooth. Owing to its amorphous nature,
the mineral often contains admixed impurities, such as iron
hydrates. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid with evolution of
chlorine. It is a common and important ore of manganese,
occurring under the same conditions and having the same com-
mercial applications as pyrolusite (q.v.). It is found at many
localities; amongst those which have yielded typical botryoidal
specimens may be mentioned the Restormel iron mine at
Lostwithiel in Cornwall, Brendon Hill in Somerset, Hoy in the
Orkneys, Sayn near Coblenz, and Crimora in Augusta county,
Virginia. With pyrolusite it is extensively mined in Vermont,
Virginia, Arkansas and Nova Scotia.
PSKOV; a government of the lake-region of north-west Russia,
which extends from Lake Peipus to the source of the west Dvina,
having the governments of St Petersburg and Novgorod on the
N., Tver and Smolensk on the E., Vitebsk on the S. and Livonia
on the W. It has an area of 17,064 sq. m. In the south-east it
extends partly over the Alaun or Vorobiovy heights, which stretch
west into Vitebsk and send to the north a series of irregular
ranges which occupy the north-western parts of Pskov. A
depression 120 m. long and 35 m. broad, drained by the Lovat
and the Polista, occupies the interval between these two hilly
tracts; it is covered with forests and marshes, the only tracts
suitable for human occupation being narrow strips of land
along the banks of the rivers, or between the marshes, and no
communication is possible except along the watercourses.
With the exception of the south-eastern corner, where Carboni-
ferous rocks crop out, nearly the whole of the government consists
of Devonian strata of great thickness, with deposits of gypsum
and white sandstone, the latter extensively quarried for building
purposes. The bottom moraine of the Scandinavian and Finnish
ice-sheet formerly extended over the whole of this region, and
has left behind it numerous ridges (kames or eskers), the upper
parts consisting of Glacial sands and post-Glacial clays, sands
and peat-bogs. The soil is thus not only infertile, but also
badly drained, and only those parts of the territory which are
covered with thicker strata of post-Glacial deposits are suitable
for agriculture.
The rivers are numerous and belong to three separate basins
to Lakes Peipus and Pskov the rivers in the north-west, to Lake
Ilmen those in the middle, and to that of the Dvina the rivers
in the south-east. A great number of small streams pour into
Lake Pskov, the chief being the Velikaya. The Lovat and the
Shelon, belonging to the basin of Lake Ilmen, are both navigable;
while the west Dvina flows for 100 m. on the south border of the
government or within it, and is used only for floating timber.
There are no fewer than 850 lakes in Pskov, with a total area of
391 sq. m. The largest is Lake Pskov, which is 50 m. long and
13 broad, covers 300 sq. m. and has a depth of 3 to 18 ft.; it is
connected by a channel, 40 m. long and 3 to 10 wide, with Lake
Peipus. The marshes on the banks of the Polista are nearly
1250 sq. m. in extent. Forests occupy nearly one-third (32%)
of the entire area, and in some districts (Kholm, Toropets,
Porkhov) as much as two-thirds of the surface. Large pine
forests are met with in the north; in other parts the birch and
the aspen prevail; but almost one-quarter of the forest area is
overgrown with brushwood.
The climate is very moist and changeable. The average
temperature is 41 F. (17-1 in January and 64-8 in July).
The population of the government numbered 1,135,639 in
1897, when there were 584,931 women, and the urban population
only 72,623. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,275,300.
W^ith the exception of 25,460 Esthonians (1897), the inhabitants
are almost entirely Great Russians. They belong mainly to the
Orthodox Greek Church, but the official number of Noncon-
formists, 32,066, is far below the mark. There are also about
1 2 ,000 Lutherans and 4000 Roman Catholics. The government is
divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their
populations in 1897, are Pskov (q.v.), Kholm (5899), Novo-
rzhev (2973), Opochka (5658), Ostrov (6252), Porkhov (5573),
Toropets (7489) and Velikiye Luki (8481). Between 1875 and
1896 the peasantry increased their landed possessions by 91%,
and the merchants bought considerable areas from the nobles,
who altogether sold 43% of their estates. Although the soil
is far from fertile, no less than 30% of the total area is under
crops and 1 2 % under meadows. The crops principally cultivated
are rye, oats, barley, pease, potatoes, flax (for which the govern-
ment is famous) and hemp. Grain has to be imported, but oats
are exported. Owing to the efforts of the zemslws, there has
been a notable improvement in agriculture, especially in dairy-
farming. Fishing in Lake Pskov and the smaller lakes is a source
of income. The manufacture of wooden wares for local needs,
ship-building, the timber trade, and the weaving of linen and
woollens for local requirements are additional sources of income.
Flax, flour, tobacco factories, saw-mills, distilleries and breweries
are the principal industrial establishments. The population
engage also in the preparation of lime, in stone-quarrying, and
in the transport of merchandise. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
PSKOV, in German, Pleskau, a town of Russia, capital of the
government of the same name and an archiepiscopal see of the
Orthodox Greek Church, situated on both banks of the Velikaya
River, 9 m. S.E. from Lake Pskov and 170 m. by rail S.W. of
St Petersburg. Pop. (1897), 30,424. The chief part of the
town, with its kremlin on a hill, occupies the right bank of the
river, to which the ruins of its old walls (built in 1266) descend;
the Zapskovye stretches along the same bank of the Velikaya
below its confluence with the Pskova; and the Zavelichye
occupies the left bank of the Velikaya all three keeping their
old historical names. The cathedral in the kremlin has been
four times rebuilt since the I2th century, the present edifice
dating from 1691-1699, and contains some very old shrines, as
also the graves of the bishops of Pskov and of several Pskov
princes, including those of Dovmont (d. 1299), and Vsevolod
(d. 1138). The church of Dmitriy Solunskiy dates originally
from the i2th century; there. are others belonging to the I4th
and 1 5th. The Spaso-Mirozhskiy monastery, founded in 1156,
and restored in 1890-1903, has many remarkable antiquities.
The ruins of numerous rich and populous monasteries in or
near the town attest its former wealth and greatness. The
present town is ill-built, chiefly of wood, and shows traces of
decay. It has a cadets' school, a normal school for teachers,
and a few lower technical schools, an archaeological museum
(1903) and some scientific societies. The private collections
(coins, antiquities, art works, &c.) of Messrs Pushkin and
Sudhov are two of the most remarkable in Russia. The manu-
factures are unimportant. Since the completion of the St
Petersburg and Warsaw railway the trade of Pskov has increased.
Pskov has regular steam communication with Dorpat.
History. Pskov, formerly the sister republic of Novgorod,
and one of the oldest cities of Russia, maintained its indepen-
dence and its free institutions until the i6th century, being thus
PSORIASIS PSYCHE
543
the last to be brought under the rule of Moscow. It already
existed in the time of Rurik (gth century); and Nestor mentions
under the year 914 that Olga, wife of Igor, prince of Novgorod,
was brought from Pleskov (i.e. Pskov). The Velikaya valley
and river were from a remote antiquity a channel for the trade
of the south of Europe with the Baltic coast. Pskov being an
important strategic point, its possession was obstinately dis-
puted between the Russians and the Germans and Lithuanians
throughout the nth and i2th centuries. At that time the
place had its own independent institutions; but it became in
the 1 2th century a prlgorod of the Novgorod republic that is
a city having its own free institutions, but included in certain
respects within the jurisdiction of the metropolis, and compelled
in time of war to march against the common enemy. Pskov
had, however, its own prince (defensor municipii); and in the
second half of the i3th century Prince (Timotheus) Dovmont
fortified it so strongly that the town asserted its independence
of Novgorod, with which, in 1348, it concluded a treaty wherein
the two republics were recognized as equals. Its rule extended
over the territory which now forms the districts of Pskov,
Ostrov, Opochka, and Gdov (farther north on the east side of
Lake Peipus). The vyeche or council of Pskov was sovereign,
the councils of the subordinate towns being supreme in their
own municipal affairs. The council was supreme in all affairs
of general interest, as well as a supreme court of justice, and the
princes were elected by it; these last had to defend the city and
levied the taxes, which were assessed by twelve citizens. But
while Novgorod constantly showed a tendency to become an
oligarchy of the wealthier merchants, Pskov figured as a republic
in which the influence of the poorer classes prevailed. Its
trading associations, supported by those of the working classes,
checked the influence of the wealthier merchants.
This struggle continued throughout the I4th and isth cen-
turies. Nothwithstanding these conflicts Pskov was a very
wealthy city. Its strong walls, its forty large and wealthy
churches, built during this period, its numerous monasteries,
and its extensive trade, bear testimony to the wealth of the
inhabitants, who then numbered about 60,000. As early as the
1 3th century Pskov was an important station for the trade
between Novgorod and Riga. A century later it became a
member of the Hanseatic League. Its merchants and trading
associations had factories at Narva, Reval and Riga, and ex-
ported flax, corn, tallow, skins, tar, pitch, honey, and timber
for ship-building. Silks, woollen stuffs, and all kinds of manu-
factured wares were brought back in exchange. In 1399 the
prince of Moscow claimed the privilege of confirming the elected
prince of Pskov in his rights; and though, fifty years later,
Pskov and Novgorod concluded defensive treaties against
Moscow, the poorer classes continued to seek at Moscow a
protection against the richer citizens. After the fall of Nov-
gorod (1475) Pskov was taken (1510) by Basil Ivanovich, prince
of Moscow, and a voyvode or deputy was nominated to govern
the city. Moscow, at the end of the i;th century, abolished
the last vestiges of self-government at Pskov, which thence-
forward fell into rapid decay. Near this city the Teutonic
knights inflicted a severe defeat upon the Russians in 1502.
Pskov became a stronghold of Russia against Poland, and was
besieged (1581) for seven months by Stephen Bathory during
the Livonian War, and in 1615 by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.
Under Peter the Great it became a fortified camp.
(P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
PSORIASIS, a skin affection characterized by the occurrence
of flat dry patches of varying size covered with silvery white
scales. Next to eczema and ringworm it is one of the most
commonly found skin diseases. It occurs frequently during
infancy and early adult life, and rarely begins after the age of
fifty. Though a parasitic origin has been suggested, no bac-
teriological factor has yet been found, and it has been demon-
strated that psoriasis may follow on nervous shock, gout, mental
emotion and insufficient nourishment. It may also follow an
attack of scarlet fever or erysipelas. The site of the disease
may be determined by an abrasion or other injury of the skin,
or even an irritation caused by friction of the clothing. The
favourite starting point of the lesion is either the elbows or the
fronts of the knees. It is nearly always symmetrical in its
distribution, and spreads over the trunk and the extensor
surfaces of the limbs, in contrast to eczema, which selects the
flexor surfaces. The hairy scalp may also be affected. The
eruption generally first shows itself as one or more papules,
at first red and spreading, and later white from the formation
of scales and red at the spreading margin, where it is surrounded
by a hyperaemic zone. On removing the scales is seen a
smooth hyperaemic zone dotted with red spots. The patches
spread centrifugally and may remain stationary for a long time
or coalesce with other patches and cover large areas of skin.
In some cases involution of the central portion accompanies
the spreading of the patch, and large concentric rings are formed.
The lesions may persist for years, or spontaneously disappear,
leaving behind a slight brown stain. The symptoms are usually
slight and there is little or no irritation or itching, and no pain
except in a form which is associated with osteo-arthritis. The
disease, though of noted chronicity, is subject to sudden ex-
acerbations, and may reappear at intervals after it has com-
pletely disappeared. It has little or no effect upon the general
health. Several forms have been described, viz. the simple
uncomplicated, the nervous, the osteo-arthritic, and the
seborrhoeic. Varieties have also been named according to the
character of the patches, such as psoriasis punctata, guttata,
circinata or nummularis, or when large areas are involved and the
skin is harsh, dry and cracked, it is known as psoriasis inveterata.
The pathological changes taking place in the skin have been
described as an inflammation of the papillae and corium, with
a down-growth of the stratum mucosum between the papillae
and an increase of the horny layer (keratosis). This latter,
however, has been said to be due to the formation in it of tiny
dry abscesses. The silvery appearance of the scales is due to
the inclusion of air globules within them. The treatment is
hygienic, constitutional and local. The clothing must be
regulated so as to prevent undue perspiration or irritation or
chafing of the skin. The most effective local application is
chrysarobin used" as an ointment. A bath of hot water and soap
should first be given, or an alkaline bath, in order to remove
all the scales; the ointment is then applied, but must be used
over a small area at a time, as it is apt to set up dermatitis.
Tarry applications, such as unguentum picis liquidae, creosote
ointment or liquor carbonis detergens, are also useful; and
radio-therapy has caused a rapid removal of the lesions, but
neither it nor the ointment has prevented subsequent recur-
rence. In chronic cases the sulphur-water baths of Harrogate,
Aix-les-Bains and Aachen have been successful. The internal
administration of small doses of vinum antimoniale, in acute
cases, or of arsenic (in gradually increasing doses of the liquor
arsenicalis) in chronic cases, is undoubtedly beneficial.
PSOROSPERMIASIS, the medical term for a disease caused
by the animal parasites known as psorosperms or gregarinidae,
found in the liver, kidneys and ureters.
PSYCHE (if'vx'fl), in Greek mythology, the personification
of the human soul. The story of the love of Eros (Cupid) for
Psyche is a philosophical allegory, founded upon the Platonic
conception of the soul. In this connexion Psyche was repre-
sented in Greek and Graeco-Roman art as a tender maiden, with
bird's or butterfly's wings, or simply as a butterfly. Sometimes
she is pursued and tormented by Eros, sometimes she revenges
herself upon him, sometimes she embraces him in fondest
affection. The tale of Cupid and Psyche, in the Metamorphoses
of Apuleius, has nothing in common with this conception but
the name. In it Psyche, the youngest daughter of a king,
arouses the jealousy of Venus, who orders Cupid to inspire her
with love for the most despicable of men. Cupid, however,
falls in love with her himself, and carries her off to a secluded
spot, where he visits her by night, unseen and unrecognized
by her. Persuaded by her sisters that her companion is a
hideous monster, and forgetful of his warning, she lights a lamp
to look upon him while he is asleep; in her ecstasy at his beauty
544
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
she lets fall a drop of burning oil upon the face of Cupid, who
awakes and disappears. Wandering over the earth in search
of him, Psyche falls into the hands of Venus, who forces her to
undertake the most difficult tasks. The last and most dangerous
of these is to fetch from the world below the box containing
the ointment of beauty. She secures the box, but on her way
back opens it and is stupefied by the vapour. She is only
restored to her senses by contact with the arrow of Cupid, at
whose entreaty Jupiter makes her immortal and bestows her
in marriage upon her lover. The meaning of the allegory is
obvious. Psyche, as the personification of the soul, is only
permitted to enjoy her happiness so long as she abstains from
ill-advised curiosity. The desire to pry into its nature brings
suffering upon her; but in the end, purified by what she has
undergone, she is restored to her former condition of bliss by
the mighty power of love.
On this story see L. Friedlander, " Ueber das Marchen von Amor
und Psyche " (in Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms, 1888,
vol. i.; for a treatment of the Greek conception, see E. Rohde,
Psyche, 1894). For Psyche in art see A. Conze, De Psyches imagi-
nibus quibusdam (1855); Max Collignon, Essai sur les monuments
grecs et remains relatifs au my the de Psyche (1877).
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH, a term which may be defined,
partially, as an examination into the amount of truth contained
in world-wide superstitions. Thus when Saul disguised himself
before his seance with the witch of Endor, and when Croesus
scientifically tested the oracles of Greece (finding clairvoyance
or lucidite in the Delphic Pythoness), Saul and Croesus were
psychical researchers. A more systematic student was the
Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry. In his letter to Anebo,
answered in Ilepi fava-ntpuiiv by lamblichus (?) we find Porphyry
concerned with the usual alleged phenomena prophecy; the
power of walking through fire unharmed; the movements of
inanimate objects, untouched; the "levitati on" of "mediums";
apparitions of spirits, their replies to questions, the falsehood
of those replies; and so forth. Similar phenomena fill the lives
of the saints and the records of witch trials. Apparitions,
especially of the dying or the dead; the stereotyped disturb-
ances in haunted houses; and the miraculous healing of
diseases, are current in classical and medieval records. The
exhibition of remote or even future events, to gazers in mirrors,
crystals, vessels full of water, or drops of ink or blood, is equally
notorious in classical, Oriental, medieval and modern litera-
ture; while the whole range of these phenomena is found in
Chinese, Japanese, Hindu, ancient American, Red Indian and
savage belief.
At various periods, and in proportion to the scientific methods
of the ages, attempts have been made to examine these things
scientifically. St Augustine wrote on the whole topic with
remarkable acuteness and considerable scepticism; his treat-
ment of miracles of healing is especially noteworthy. After
Petrus Thyraeus (1546-1601), S. j. Wierus, Ludwig Lavater
(1527-1586), and other authors of the i6th century, came the
labours of Glanvill, Henry More, Richard Baxter, Boyle, Cotton
Mather, and others in England and America, during and after
the Restoration. Attempts were made to get first-hand evidences
and Glanvill investigated the knocking drummer of Tedworth
in situ (1663). The disturbances in the house of the Wesleys
at Ep worth (1716 and later) were famous, and have copious
contemporary record. David Hume believed himself to have
settled questions which, when revived by the case of Sweden-
borg and the experiments of Mesmer and his pupils, puzzled
and interested Kant. The influence of Mesmer has never died
out; the fact of " animal magnetism " (with such examples as
the" divining rod," and the phenomena in general) was accepted
in his manner, and explained, by Hegel. The researches of
Braid (c. 1840-1850) gave a new name, " hypnotism," to what
had been called "mesmerism" or " animal magnetism "; a
name conveying no theory of " magnetic " or other " fluids."
" Mesmerism " implies a theory of " emanations " from the
operator to the patient; "hypnotism" implies no such hypo-
thesis. In the middle of the igth century Dr Gregory and
Dr Mayo published their entertaining but unsystematic works,
Animal Magnetism and The Truths in Popular Superstitions
respectively. Esdaile and Elliotson were practical pioneers
in the medical use of induced sleep or somnambulism. For
their ideas and experiments The Zoist may be consulted. The
epidemic of " spiritualism " and of " turning tables " then
invaded Europe from America, and was discussed by Dr Car-
penter, Faraday, Gasparin, De Morgan and many others. The
adventures of Daniel Dunglas Home excited all Europe, and
his effects were studied by Sir William Crookes with especial
attention. Home disappeared after a lawsuit; his successes
remain an unsolved enigma. Believers explained them by the
agency of the spirits of the dead, the old savage theory. He
had many followers, most of whom, if not all, were detected in
vulgar impostures. Of the books of this period those of
Mr Richard Dale Owen (1810-1890) are the most curious, but
exact method was still to seek.
In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research, under the presi-
dency of Henry Sidgwick, professor of moral philosophy in the
university of Cambridge, was founded expressly for the purpose
of introducing scientific method into the study of the " debateable
phenomena." Other early members were Edmund Gurney,
F. W. H. Myers, Andrew Lang, Professor Barrett, Mrs Sidgwick,
F. Podmore, Lord Tennyson, Lord Rayleigh and Professor
Adams; while among presidents were Professor Balfour
Stewart, A. J. Balfour, Professor William James of Harvard
and Sir William Crookes. The society has published many
volumes of Proceedings. In France and in Germany and Italy
many men of distinguished scientific position have examined
the Italian " medium " Eusapia Palladino, and have contributed
experiments, chiefly in the field of hypnotism and " telepathy."
Hypnotism has been introduced into official experimental
psychology and medicine with some success.
It is plain that the range of psychical research is almost
unlimited. It impinges on anthropology (with its study of the
savage theory of spirits animism and of diabolical possession),
and on the usual province of psychology, in the problems of
the hallucinations both of morbid patients and of people in
normal mental health. The whole topic of the unconscious
or subconscious self is made matter not of mere metaphysical
speculation (as by Kant and Hamilton), but of exact observa-
tion, and, by aid of hypnotism and automatism, of direct
experiment. The six original committees of the society
undertook the following themes:
1. An examination of the nature and extent of any influence
which may be exerted by one mind upon another,
apart from any generally recognized mode of perception.
2. The study of hypnotism and the forms of so-called mesmeric
trance, clairvoyance and other allied phenomena.
3. A critical revision of Reichenbach's researches into certain
organizations called " sensitive."
.4. A careful investigation of any reports, resting on strong
testimony, regarding apparitions at the moment of
death or otherwise, or regarding disturbances in houses
reputed to be haunted.
5. An inquiry into the various physical phenomena commonly
called spiritualistic, with an attempt to discover their
causes and general laws.
6. The collection and collation of existing materials bearing
on the history of these subjects.
To these themes we might now add the study of "crystal-
gazing," and of the hallucinatory visions which a fair percentage
of people observe when staring into any clear deep, usually a
glass ball; but ink (with some experimenters) does as well, or
a glass water-jug. Of these themes, the third has practically
led to nothing. The experiments of Reichenbach on the per-
ception of flames issuing from magnets have not been verified.
The collection of historical examples, again (6), has not been
much pursued by the society, except in Mr Gurney's studies of
witchcraft in Phantasms of the Living, by himself, Mr Podmore
and Mr Myers. On the other hand, a vast number of experi-
ments were made in " thought transference." (i) Diagrams
drawn by A were reproduced by B; cards thought of, numbers
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
545
and so forth were also reproduced in conditions that appeared
to make the normal transference of the idea by sound, sight or
touch impossible, and to put chance coincidence out of court.
In one or two instances collusion was detected ingeniously.
In others two explanatory theories have been broached. People
may accidentally coincide in their choice of diagrams, or the
" unconscious whispering " of a person fixing his mind hard on
a number, card or what not may be heard or seen. But coin-
cidence in diagrams does not apply when a ship, dumb-bells, a
candlestick or a cat is drawn by both experimenters; nor can
" unconscious whispering " be heard or seen when the experi-
menters are in different rooms. On the whole, the inquirers
convinced themselves that one mind or brain may influence
another mind or brain through no recognized channel of sense.
This is, of course, an old idea (see Walton's Life of Donne, and
his theory of the appearance of Mrs Donne, with a dead baby,
to Dr Donne in Paris). The method of communication remains
a problem. Are there " brain waves," analogous to the X-rays,
from brain to recipient brain, or does mind touch mind in some
unheard-of way? The former appears to be the hypothesis
preferred by Sir William Crookes and Professor Flournoy
(Des Indes A la planete Mars, pp. 363-365). On this showing
there is nothing " supranormal " in " telepathy," as it is called.
The latter theory of " a purely spiritual communication " is
argued for by Mr Myers (Proceedings of the Society for Psychical
Research, xv. 407-410). If we accept telepathy as experi-
mentally demonstrated, and regard it as a physical process,
we reduce (4), " apparitions at the moment of death or other-
wise," to a normal though not very usual fact. Everyone
would admit this in the case of mere empty hallucinations. A,
in Paisley, sees P, in London, present in his room. P is neither
dying nor in any other crisis, and A is, as both continue to be,
in his normal health. Such experiences are by no means very
uncommon, when there is nothing to suggest that P has exercised
any telepathic influence on A. On the other hand, in Phantasms
of the Living, and in the report on the Census of Hallucinations
(Proceedings, vol. x.), the society has published large numbers
of " coincidental " hallucinations, the appearance of P to A
coinciding with the death or other crisis of the distant P. That
such " wraiths " do occur is the popular and savage belief. But,
it may be urged, many hallucinations occur and many deaths.
People only remember the hallucinations which happened, or
were made by erroneous reckoning to seem to happen, coin-
cidentally with the decease of the person seen. This is not quite
true, for a hallucination so vivid as to betaken for a real person
and addressed as such is not easily forgotten by a sober citizen,
even if " nothing happened " afterwards. None the less, the
coincidental hallucinations have certainly a better chance of
being remembered, while fancy is apt to exaggerate the closeness
of the coincidence. Nothing can demonstrate that coincidences
between death and hallucination occur more frequently than
by the doctrine of chance they ought to do, except a census of
the whole population. In the present indifference of govern-
ment to psychical science no party is likely to institute such a
census, and even if it were done, the frivolity of mankind would
throw doubt on the statistics. It would be necessary to cross-
examine each " percipient," and to ask for documentary or
other corroborative evidence in each case.
The Society for Psychical Research collected statistics in
proportion to its resources. More than 17,000 answers were
received to questions rather widely circulated. The affirmative
respondents were examined closely, their mental and physical
health and circumstances inquired into, and collectors of
evidence were especially enjoined to avoid selecting persons
known to be likely to return affirmative replies. There were
80 cases at first hand in which the death of the person seen
coincided, within twelve hours, with the visual hallucination of
his or her presence, out of 352 instances of such hallucinations.
By way of arriving at the true proportions, the hallucinations
which coincided with nothing were multiplied by four. In this
way allowance was made for obliviousness of non-coincidental
hallucinations. The verdict of the committee was that, on the
xxn. 18
evidence before them, hallucinations coincided with deaths
in a ratio of 440 times more than was to be expected by the law
of probabilities. The committee came to the conclusion that a
relation of cause and effect does exist between the death of A
and the vision of A beheld by P. The hallucination is apparently
caused from without by some unexplained! action of tie mind
or brain of A on the brain or mind of P. This effect is also
traced, where death does not occur, for example, in the many
instances of false " arrivals." A is on his way to X, or is dream-
ing that he is on his way, and is seen at X by P, or by P, Q and
R, as may happen. These cases are common, and were explained
in Celtic philosophy by the theory of the " Co- Walker," a kind
of " astral body." The facts are accounted for in the same
way by Scandinavian popular philosophy. Possibly in many
instances such hallucinations are the result of expectancy in
the beholder. Yet if we go out to shoot or fish, excepting
to encounter grouse or salmon, we do not usually see grouse or
salmon if they are not there! Where the arrival is not expected,
this explanation fails. In " second sight," even among savages,
these occurrences are not infrequent, and doubtless admit of
an explanation by telepathy. In two instances, known at
first hand to the present writer, persons dreamed, at a distance,
that they entered their own homes. In one the person was
seen, in the other distinctly heard, by the inmates of his or her
house. In several of these examples knocks are heard, as in
spiritualist seances. In fact, if we accept the evidence, living
but remote persons may, unconsciously, produce effects of
sounds and of phantasms exactly like those which popular
belief ascribes to the spirits of the dead.
If we admit the evidence, of which a great body exists, and
if we attribute the phenomena to telepathy, curious inferences
may be drawn. Thus if the phenomena are such as only the
spirits of the dead could be credited with producing if the
dead were frequently recognized by various good witnesses
it would follow (on the hypothesis of telepathy) that telepathy
is not a physical process caused by material waves or rays from
living brain to brain, the dead having no brains in working order.
On the other hand, if living brains may thus affect each other,
a subjective hallucination experienced by the living A may
conceivably be " wired on " to the living P. Thus A, in a given
house, may have a mere subjective hallucination of the presence
of the dead B, and may, unconsciously, infect with that hallu-
cination other persons who come to the house. Thus once
admit that any living brain may infect any other, and it becomes
practically impossible for a spirit of the dead to prove his
identity. Any information which he may give in any way
must either be known to living people, however remote, or
unknown. If known to a living person, he may, unconsciously,
" wire it on " to the seer. If wholly unknown to everybody, the
veracity of the information cannot be demonstrated, except
later, if it refers to the unknown future. Thus the theory of
telepathy, with a little good will, puts the existence and activity
of the souls of the dead beyond possibility of proof.
These remarks apply to the researches of the society into
alleged isolated phantasms of the dead, and into " haunted
houses." As to the former cases, it is admitted on all hands
that sane and sober people may have subjective hallucinations
of the presence of living friends, not dying or in any other crisis.
Obviously then, the appearance of a dead person may equally
be an empty hallucination. Thus, a member of the House of
Commons, standing at the entrance of a certain committee-room,
saw another member, of peculiar aspect and gait, pass him and
enter the room, his favourite haunt. Several hours passed
before the percipient suddenly recollected that the other member
had been dead for some'months. Even superstition cannot argue
that this appearance was a ghost. In the same way Hawthorne,
the celebrated novelist, frequently, he has written, saw a dead
club-man in his club. But suppose, for the sake of argument,
that at intervals members of the house kept seeing such appear-
ances of dead members of parliament, and suppose that they had
never seen the prototypes in their lifetime, but yet correctly
described them: then it might be said that their hallucinations
54-6
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
had merely been " wired on " from the brain of some living
member of parliament who knew the deceased.
Thus telepathy cuts two ways. It is, if accepted, a singular
discovery, but it throws an enormous burden of proof on a
" ghost " who wants Jo establish his identity. In the same way
telepathy cuts at the root of " clairvoyance," or lucid view of
events remote in space or distant in time. The vision may
have been " wired on " telepathically by a living person who
knew the remote event. The " supranormal " can only be
proved if the information conveyed by the hallucination is
verified in the future, or is proved by the finding of documents
not known to exist at the time of the hallucination, but after-
wards discovered. A curious possible instance was the dis-
covery in 1856 of a MS. inventory of the jewels of Mary Stuart
(1566), verifying in some degree a clairvoyant vision about the
jewels published some years earlier (see " Queen Mary's Jewels "
in the writer's Book of Dreams and Ghosts). For the same
reasons the information nominally given by " spirits " of the
dead through the mouth or by the automatic writing of Mrs Piper
(Boston, U.S.) and other mediums may be explained by tele-
pathy from the living who know the facts. This theory was
rejected, for example, in the case of Mrs Piper, by Myers and
Dr Richard Hodgson, who devoted much time to the examina-
tion of the lady (see Proceedings, vols. vi., viii., xiii., xiv., with
criticisms by Mrs Sidgwick and the present writer in vol. xv.
pt. xxxvi). In the late Dr Hodgson's opinion, the dead do
communicate through the automatic writing or speaking of
Mrs Piper. The published evidence (much is unpublished)
does not seem to justify the conclusion, which is not accepted
by Mrs Piper herself! Dr J. H. Hyslop has published
enormous and minute reports on Mrs Piper, convincing to
himself but not to most readers.
This leads us to the chief field of research in " automatisms,"
or actions of the subconscious or " subliminal " self. The proto-
type of such things is found in the performances of natural
somnambulists, who in all ages have seemed to exhibit faculties
beyond their power when in a normal condition. The experi-
ments of Mesmer, and of those who followed in his track, down
to the psychologists of to-day, proved (what had long been known
to savages and conjurers) that a state of somnambulism could
be induced from without. Moreover, it is proved that certain
persons can, as it were, hypnotize themselves, even unwittingly,
and pass into trance. In these secondary conditions of trance,
such persons are not only amenable to " suggestion, " but
occasionally evolve what are called secondary personalities:
they speak in voices not their own, and exhibit traits
of character not theirs, but in harmony with the impersonation.
The popular, savage and ancient theory of these phenomena
was that the people thus affected were inspired by a god or
spirit, or " possessed " by a demon or a dead man. Science
now regards the gods or demons or spirits as mere exhibi-
tions of the secondary personality, which wakens when the
normal personality slumbers. The knowledge and faculties
of the secondary personality, far exceeding those exhibited in the
normal state, are explained to a great extent by the patient's
command, when in the secondary state, of resources latent in
the memory. The same explanation is offered for other pheno-
mena, like those of automatic writing, knocking out answers
by tilting tables, or discovering objects by aid of the "divining
rod." The muscular actions that tilt the table, or wag the rod,
or direct the pencil or planchette, are unconsciously made, and
reveal the latent stores of subconscious knowledge, so that a
man writes or knocks out information which he possessed, but
did not suspect himself of possessing. These processes were
familiar to the Neoplatonists, and in one form or other are
practised by Chinese, Tibetans, Negroes, Malayans and Melan-
esians. A similar kind of automatism is revealed in the inspira-
tions of genius, which often astonish the author or artist himself.
An interesting example has been studied by Myers in the feats
of arithmetic recorded about " calculating boys," who are
usually unconscious of their methods. The whole of this vast
field of the unconscious, or subconscious, or subliminal self has
been especially examined by Myers, and by such psychologi;
as Ribot, Janet, Richet, Flournoy and many others.
The general result is a normal explanation, not yet complete,
of the phenomena hitherto attributed to witchcraft, inspiration,
possession, and so forth. Probably the devils, saints, angels
and spirits who have communicated with witches, living saints,
demoniacs and visionaries are mere hallucinatory reflections
from the subconscious self, endowed with its store of latent
memories and strangely acute percipient faculties. Thus a
curious chapter of human history is at last within possible reach
of explanation. Men regard phenomena as " supranormal " or
" supernatural," or reject them altogether, till their modus is
explained. But it would not be candid to say that the explana-
tion is complete, or nearly complete. The nature of the hyp-
notic trance itself remains a matter of dispute. The knowledge
'automatically revealed can by no means always be accounted
for, either by latent memory or by the sharpening of the normal
faculties of perception, while the limits of telepathy (if it be
accepted) are vaguely conjectured. Even the results of simple
experiments in '' crystal-gazing " are often very perplexing.
Further experiment may reveal some normal explanation, while
scepticism (which seldom takes the trouble to examine the
alleged facts with any care) can always repose on a theory of
malobservation and imposture. These, of course, are verae
causae, while in this, as in all provinces of human evidence,
bad memories and unconscious errors distort the testimony.
Psychical research encourages, or ought to encourage, the cool
impartiality in examining, collecting and recording facts, which
is usually absent, in greater or less degree, from the work even
of eminent historians. Men of equal honesty and acuteness
may believe or disbelieve in the innocence of Mary Queen of
Scots, or in the " spirits " which control Mrs Piper. As to
alleged " physical phenomena " of unknown cause, one, the
power of passing without lesion with naked feet over fire, has
recently been attested by numerous competent observers and
experimenters in the ritual of Fijians and other South Sea
Islanders, Japanese, Bulgarians, natives of southern India and
other races. (The evidence has been collected by the present
writer in Proceedings S.P. R. vol. xv. pt. xxxvi. pp. 2-15.
Compare a case examined and explained more or less by S. P.
Langley, Nature, August 22, 1901.) The much more famous
tales of movements of objects untouched have been carefully
examined, and perhaps in no instance have professional per-
formers proved innocent of fraud. Yet the best known living
medium, Eusapia Palladino, though exposed at Cambridge,
has been rehabilitated, after later experiments, in the opinion
of many distinguished Continental observers, who entirely
disbelieve in the old theory, the action of " spirits," and venture
no other hypothesis.
The results of psychical research, after several years of work,
are not really less than could be expected from toil in a field so
difficult. The theory of alternating, or secondary, personalities
is the key, as we have said, to a strange chapter in " the history
of human error." The provisional hypothesis of telepathy
puts a meaning into the innumerable tales of " wraiths " and
of " second sight." It is never waste of time to investigate the
area of human faculty; and practical results, in the medical
treatment of abnormal intellectual conditions, have already been
obtained. The conduct of our witch-burning ancestors now
becomes intelligible, a step on the way to being pardonable.
With their methods and inherited prejudices they could scarcely
have reasoned otherwise than they did in certain cases of hysteria
and autohypnotization. Many " miracles " of healing and of
" stigmatization " become credible when verified in modern
experience and explained by " suggestion "; though to " ex-
plain the explanation " is a task for the future. Such as it is,
the theory was accepted by St Francis de Sales in the case of
St Theresa. Results of wider range and of more momentous
interest may yet be obtained. The science of electrical pheno-
mena was not developed in a quarter of a century, and it would
be premature to ask more from psychical research than it has
achieved in a short period. The subject is not readily capable
STANDPOINT]
PSYCHOLOGY
547
of exact experiment, human faculty being, as it were, capricious,
when compared with ordinary physical processes. Imposture,
conscious or unconscious, is also an element of difficulty. But
already phenomena which are copiously reported throughout
the whole course of history have been proved to possess an actual
basis in fact, have been classified, and to some extent have been
explained. Even if no light is ever to be cast on spiritual
problems, at least the field of psychology has been extended.
The literature of psychical research is already considerable,
and a complete bibliography would occupy much space. Readers
who care to pursue the study will find their best guide in the
Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, which contains
a catalogue of the society s collection, including the Gurney Library
(hypnotism), with reviews of modern books in many languages
French, German, Italian, Russian as they appear. Among
rn English books may be recommended Phantasms of the Living,
by Gurney, Podmore and Myers; Studies in Psychical Research, by
Podmpre, with his Apparitions and Thought-Transference; and
Principles of Psychology, by Professor William James, of Harvard.
The historical side of the subject, especially as regards the beliefs
of savages and of classical antiquity, may be studied in E. B. Tylor's
Primitive Culture (under " Animism "), in Myers's Classical Essays
(under " Greek Oracles "), and A. Lang's Cock Lane and Common
Sense, and Making of Religion. Myers's work, Human Personality,
contains vast collections of facts, with a provisional theory. Myers's
regretted death prevented him from finally revising his book, which
contains certain inconsistencies. It is plain that he tended more
and more to the belief in the " invasion " and " possession " of living
human organisms by spirits of the dead. The same tendency
marks an article on " Psychical Research," by Sir Oliver Lodge, in
Harper's Magazine (August 1908). Other students can find, in the
evidence cited, no warrant for this return to the " palaeolithic
psychology " of " invasion " and " possession." Th. Flournoy's
Ues Indes a la planete Mars is a penetrating study of pseudo-spiritual
" messages." A criticism making against the notion of telepathy
may be found in Herr Parish's Hallucinations and Illusions (Eng.
trans.). Some errors and confusions in this work (due in part to the
expansion of the original text) are noted in A. Lang's Making of
Religion, appendix A. Such topics as TELEPATHY, CRYSTAL-
GAZING, HYPNOTISM, SECOND SIGHT, the POLTERGEIST, &c., are
dealt with under separate articles in this work. (A. L.)
PSYCHOLOGY tyvxh, the mind or soul, and Xo-yos, theory),
the science of mind, which can only be more strictly defined by
an analysis of what " mind " means.
i. In the several natural sciences the scope and subject-matter
of each are so evident that little preliminary discussion is called
for. But with psychology, however much it is freed
of "Mind." fr m metaphysics, this is different. It is indeed
ordinarily assumed that its subject-matter can be at
once defined. " It is what you can perceive by consciousness or
reflection or the internal sense, " says one, " just as the subject-
matter of optics is what you can perceive by sight." Or,
" psychology is the science of the phenomena of mind," we are
told again, " and is thus marked off from the physical sciences,
which treat only of the phenomena of matter." But, whereas
nothing is simpler than to distinguish between seeing and hear-
ing, or between the phenomena of heat and the phenomena of
gravitation, a very little reflection may convince us that we
cannot in the same fashion distinguish internal from external
sense, or make clear to ourselves what we mean by phenomena
of mind as distinct from phenomena of matter.
To every sense there corresponds a sense-organ; the several
senses are distinct and independent, so that no one sense can add
Internal and to or a ' ter tne mate rials of another: the possession
External ^ ^ ve s 611 ? 68 ' e -f- furnishing no data as to the character
of a possible sixth. Moreover, sense-impressions are
passively received and occur in the first instance without regard
to the feeling or volition of the recipient and without any
manner of relation to the " contents of consciousness " at the
moment. Now such a description will apply but very partially to
the so-called " internal sense." For we do not by means of it
passively receive impressions differing from all previous presenta-
tions, as the sensations of colour for one " couched " differ from all
he has experienced before: the new facts consist rather in the
recognition of certain relations among pre-existing presentations,
i.e. are due to our mental activity and not to a special mode of what
has been called our sensitivity. For when we taste we cannot hear
that we taste, when we see we cannot smell that we see; but when
we taste we may be conscious that we taste, when we hear we may
be conscious that we hear. Moreover, the facts so ascertained are
never independent of feeling and volition and of the contents of
consciousness at the time, as true sensations are. Also if we consult
the physiologist we learn that there is no evidence of any organ or
" centre " that could be regarded as the " physical basis " of this
inner sense; and, if self-consciousness alone is temporarily in abey-
ance and a man merely " beside himself," such state of delirium has
little analogy to the functional blindness or deafness that constitutes
the temporary suspension of sight or hearing.
To the concept of an internal perception or observation the
preceding objections do not necessarily apply that is to say, this
concept may be so defined that they need not. But then in propor-
tion as we escape the change of assuming a special sense which
furnishes the material for such perception or observation, in that
same proportion are we compelled to seek for some other mode of
distinguishing its subject-matter. For, so far as the mere mental
activity of perceiving or observing is concerned, it is not easy to see
any essential difference in the process whether what is observed be
psychical or physical. It is quite true that the so-called psycho-
logical observation is more difficult, because the facts observed are
often less definite and less persistent, and admit less of actual
isolation than physical facts do; but the process of recognizing
similarities or differences, the dangers of mal-observation or non-
observation, are not materially altered on that account. It may
be further allowed that there is one difficulty peculiarly felt in
psychological observation, the one most inaccurately expressed by
saying that here the observer and the observed are one. But this
difficulty is surely in the first instance due to the very obvious fact
that our powers of attention are limited, so that we cannot alter
the distribution of attention at any moment without altering the
contents of consciousness at that moment. Accordingly, where
there are no other ways of surmounting this difficulty, the psycho-
logical observer must either trust to representations at a later time,
or he must acquire the power of taking momentary glances at the
psychological 1 aspects of the phase of consciousness in question.
And this one with any aptitude for such studies can do with so slight
a diversion of attention as not to disturb very seriously either the
given state or that which immediately succeeds it. But very
similar difficulties have to be similarly met by physical "observers in
certain special cases, as, e.g. in observing and registering the phe-
nomena of solar eclipse ; and similar aptitudes in the distribution of
attention have to be acquired, say, by extempore orators or skilful
surgeons. Just as little, then, as there is anything that we can with
propriety call an inner sense, just so little can we find in the process
of inner perception any satisfactory characteristic of the subject-
matter of psychology. The question still is: What is it that is
perceived or observed ? and the readiest answer of course is: Internal
experience as distinguished from external, what takes place in the
mind as distinct from what takes place without.
This answer, it must be at once allowed, is adequate for most
purposes, and a great deal of excellent psychological work has been
done without ever calling it in question. But the distinction between
internal and external experience is not one that can be drawn from
the standpoint of psychology, at least not at the outset. From
this standpoint it appears to be either (i) inaccurate or (2) not
extra-psychological. As to (i), the boundary between the internal
and the external was, no doubt, originally the surface of the body,
withwhich the subject or self was identified ; and in this sense the
terms are of course correctly used. For a thing may, in the same
sense of the word, be in one space and therefore not in i.e. out of
another; but we express no intelligible relation if we speak of two
things as being one in a given room and the other in last week. Any
one is at liberty to say if he choose that a certain thing is "in his
mind " ; but if in this way he distinguishes it from something else
not in his mind, then to be intelligible this must imply one of two
statements either that the something else is actually or possibly
in some other mind, or, his own mind being alone considered, that
at the time the something else does not exist at all. Yet, evident
as it seems that the correlatives in and not-in must apply to the
same category, whether space, time, presentation (or non-presenta-
tion) to a given subject, and so forth, we still find psychologists
more or less consciously confused between " internal, meaning
" presented " in the psychological sense, and " external," meaning
not " not-presented ' but corporeal or oftener extra-corporeal.
But (2), when used to distinguish between presentations (some of
which, or some relations of which with respect to others, are called
" internal," and others or other relations, " external "), these terms
are at all events accurate; only then they cease to mark off the
psychological from the extra-psychological, inasmuch as psychology
has to analyse this distinction and to exhibit the steps by which it
has come about. But we have still to examine whether the distinc-
tion of phenomena of Matter and phenomena of Mind furnishes a
better dividing line than the distinction of internal and external.
A phenomenon, as commonly understood, is what is manifest,
sensible, evident, the implication being that there are eyes to see,
ears to hear, and so forth in other words, that there is
presentation to a subject ; and wherever there is presenta- *
tion to a subject it will be allowed that we are in the"'
domain of psychology. But in talking of physical phenomena
we, in a way, abstract from this fact of presentation. Though
consciousness should cease, the physicist would consider the sum
548
PSYCHOLOGY
[GENERAL ANALYSIS
total of objects to remain the same: the orange would stil
be round, yellow and fragrant as before. For the physicist
whether aware of it or not has taken up a position which for th
present may be described by saying that phenomenon with him
means appearance or manifestation, or as we had better say
object, not for a concrete individual, but rather for what Kant callec
Bewusstsein uberhaupt, or, as some render it, the objective conscious
ness, i.e. for an imaginary subject freed from all the limitations o
actual subjects save that of depending on " sensibility " for the
material of experience. However, this is not all, for, as we shall see
presently, the psychologist also occupies this position; at least i
he does not his is not a true science. But, further, the physicist
leaves out of sight altogether the facts of attention, feeling, and so
forth, all of which actual presentation entails. From the psycho
logical point of view, on the other hand, the removal of the subjec
removes not only all such facts as attention and feeling, but al
presentation or possibility of presentation whatever. Surely, then
to call a certain object, when we abstract from its presentation, c,
material phenomenon, and to call the actual presentation of this
object a mental phenomenon, is a clumsy and confusing way o
representing the difference between the two points of view. For
the terms ' material " and " mental " seem to imply that the two
so-called phenomena have nothing in common, whereas the same
object is involved in both, while the term " phenomenon " implies
that the point of view is in each case the same, when in truth what
is emphasized by the one the other ignores.
2. Paradoxical though it may be, we must then conclude that
psychology cannot be defined by reference to a special subject-
standpoint matter as such concrete sciences, for example, as
of Psycho- mineralogy and botany can be; and, since it deals in
lo &y- some sort with the whole of experience, it is obviously
not an abstract science in any ordinary sense of that term. To be
characterized at all, therefore, apart from metaphysical assump-
tions, it must be characterized by the standpoint from which this
experience is viewed. It is by way of expressing this that
widely different schools of psychology define it as subjective,
all other positive sciences being distinguished as objective.
But this seems scarcely more than a first approximation to the
truth, and, as we have seen incidentally, is apt to be misleading.
The distinction rather is that the standpoint of psychology is
what is sometimes termed " individualistic," that of the so-called
object-sciences being " universalistic," both alike being objective
in the sense of being true for all, consisting of what Kant would
call judgments of experience. For psychology is not a
biography in any sense, still less a biography dealing with
idiosyncrasies, and in an idiom having an interest and a
meaning for one subject only, and incommunicable to any
other. Locke, Berkeley and Hume have been severely handled
because they regarded the critical investigation of knowledge as
a psychological problem, and set to work to study the individual
mind simply for the sake of this problem. But none the less
their standpoint was the proper one for the science of psychology
itself; and, however surely their philosophy was foredoomed to a
collapse, there is no denying a steady psychological advance as
we pass from Locke to Hume and his modern representatives.
By " idea " Locke tells us he means " Whatsoever is the object
of the understanding when a man thinks " (i.e. is conscious), and
having, as it were, shut himself within such a circle of ideas he
finds himself powerless to explain his knowledge of a world that
is assumed to be independent of it ; but he is able to give a very
good account of some of these ideas themselves. He cannot
justify his belief in the world of things whence certain of his
simple ideas " were conveyed " any more than Robinson Crusoe
could have explored the continents whose products were drifted
to his desert island, though he might perhaps survey the island
itself well enough. Berkeley accordingly, as Professor Fraser
happily puts it, abolished Locke's hypothetical outer circle.
Thereby he made the psychological standpoint clearer than
ever hence the truth of Hume's remark, that Berkeley's argu-
ments " admit of no answer "; at the same time the epistemo-
logical problem was as hopeless as before hence again the truth
of Hume's remark that those arguments " produced no con-
viction." Of all the facts with which he deals, the psychologist
may truly say that their esse is percipi, inasmuch as all his facts
are facts of presentation, are ideas in Locke's sense, or objects
which imply a subject. Before we became conscious there was no
world for us; should our consciousness cease, the world for us
ceases too; had we been born blind, the world would for us have
had no colour; if deaf, it would have had no sounds; if idiotic, it
would have had no meaning. Psychology, then, never transcends
the limits of the individual. But now, though this Berkeleyan
standpoint is the standpoint of psychology, psychology is not
pledged to the method employed by Berkeley and by Locke.
Psychology may be individualistic without being confined ex-
clusively to the introspective method. There is nothing to
hinder the psychologist from employing materials furnished by
his observations of other men, of infants, of the lower animals,
or of the insane; nothing to hinder him taking counsel with the
philologist or even the physiologist, provided always he can
show the psychological bearings of those facts which are not
directly psychological. The standpoint of psychology is indi-
vidualistic; by whatever methods, from whatever sources its
facts are ascertained, they must to have a psychological im-
port be regarded as having place in, or as being part of, some
one's consciousness or experience. In this sense, i.e. as presented
to an individual^ " the whole choir of heaven and furniture of
earth " may belong to psychology, but otherwise they are
psychological nonentities. In denning psychology, however,
the propriety of avoiding the terms mind or soul, which it
implies, is widely acknowledged; mind because of the disastrous
dualism of mind and matter, soul because of its metaphysical
associations. Hence F. A. Lange's famous mot : modern
psychology is Psychologic ohne Seele. But consciousness, which
is the most frequent substitute, is continually confused with self-
consciousness, and so is apt to involve undue stress on the sub-
jective as opposed to the objective, as well as to emphasize the
cognitive as against the conative factors. Experience, it is
maintained, is a more fundamental and less ambiguous term.
Psychology then is the science of individual experience. The
problem. of psychology, in dealing with this complex subject-
matter, is in general first, to ascertain its ultimate constituents,
and, secondly, to determine and explain the laws of their
interaction.
General Analysis.
3. In seeking to make a first general analysis of experience,
we must start from individual human experience, for this alone
is what we immediately know. From this standpoint we must
endeavour to determine the " irreducible minimum " involved,
so that our concept may apply to all lower forms of experi-
ence as well. Etymologically experience connotes practical ac-
quaintance, efficiency and skill as the result of trial usually
repeated trial and effort. Many recent writers on comparative
psychology propose to make evidence of experience in this
sense the criterion of psychical life. The ox knoweth his owner
and the ass his master's crib, and so would pass muster; but the
ant and the bee, who are said to learn nothing, would, in spite
of their marvellous instinctive skill, be regarded as mere auto-
mata in Descartes's sense. That this criterion is decisive on the
positive side will hardly be denied; the question how far it is
available negatively we must examine later on. But it will be
well first briefly to note some of the implications of this positive
criterion: Experience is the process of becoming expert by experi-
ment. The chief implication, no doubt, is that which in psycho-
ogical language we express as the duality of subject and object.
Looking at this relation as the comparative psychologist has to
do, we find that it tallies in the main with the biological relation
of organism and environment. The individuality of the organ-
sm corresponds to, though it is not necessarily identical with,
the psychological subject, while to the environment and its
changes corresponds the objective continuum or lolum objectimim
as we shall call it. This correspondence further helps us to see
till more clearly the error of regarding individual experience as
wholly subjective, and at the same time helps us to find some
measure of truth in the naive realism of Common Sense. As
hese points have an important bearing on the connexion of
>sychology and epistemology, we may attempt to elucidate
hem more fully.
Though it would be unwarrantable to resolve a thing, as some
lave done, into a mere meeting-point of relations, yet it is
GENERAL ANALYSIS]
PSYCHOLOGY
549
perhaps as great a mistake to assume that it can be anything deter-
minate in itself apart from all relations to other things. By the
physicist this mistake can hardly be made: for him action and
reaction are strictly correlative: a material system can do no
work on itself. For the biologist, again, organism and environ-
ment are invariably complementary. But in psychology, when
presentations are regarded as subjective modifications, we have
this mistaken isolation in a glaring form, and all the hopeless
difficulties of what is called " subjective idealism " are the result.
Subjective modifications no doubt are always one constituent
of individual experience, but always as correlative to objective
modifications or change in the objective continuum. If experi-
ence were throughout subjective, not merely would the term
subjective itself be meaningless, not merely would the concep-
tion of the objective never arise, but the entirely impersonal and
intransitive process that remained, though it might be described
as absolute becoming, could not be called even solipsism, least
of all real experience. Common Sense, then, is right in positing,
wherever experience is inferred, (i) a factor answering to what
we know as self, and (2) another factor answering to what each
of us knows as the world. It is further right in regarding the
world which each one immediately knows as a coloured,
sounding, tangible world, more exactly as a world of sensible
qualities. The assumption of naive realism, that the world as
each one knows it exists as such independently of him, is
questionable. But this assumption goes beyond individual
experience, and does not, indeed could not, arise at this
standpoint.
Answering to the individuality and unity of the subjective
factor, there is a corresponding unity and individuality of the
objective. Every Ego has its correlative Non-Ego, whence in
the end such familiar saying as quot homines tot sententiae and
the like. The doctrine of Leibnitz, that " each monad is a
living mirror. . . representative of the universe according to
its point of view," will, with obvious reservations, occur to many
as illustrative here. In particular, Leibnitz emphasized one
point on which psychology will do well to insist. "Since the
world is a plenum," he begins, " all things are connected together
and everybody acts upon every other, more or less, according
to their distance, and is affected by their reaction; hence each
monad is a living mirror," 1 &c. Subject and Object, or (as it
will be clearer in this connexion to say) Ego and Non-Ego, are
then not merely logically a universe, but actually the universe,
so that, as Leibnitz put it, " He who sees all could read in each
what is happening everywhere " (Monadology, 61). Though
every individual experience is unique, yet the more Egoi is
similar to Egoj the more their complementaries Non-EgOi, Non-
Egoj are likewise similar; much as two perspective projections
are more similar the more adjacent their points of sight, and
more similar as regards a given position the greater its distance
from both points. No doubt we must also make a very exten-
sive use of the hypothesis of subconsciousness, just as Leibnitz
did, before we can say that the universe is the objective factor
in each and every individual's experience. But we shall have
in any case to allow that, besides the strictly limited " content "
rising above the threshold of consciousness, there is an indefinite
extension of the presentational continuum beyond it. And the
Leibnitzian Monadology helps us also to clear up a certain con-
fusion that besets terms such as " content of consciousness,"
or " finite centre of experience " a barbarous but intelligible
phrase that has recently appeared the confusion, that is, with
a mosaic of mutually exclusive areas, or with a scheme of mutu-
ally exclusive logical compartments. Consciousnesses, though
in one respect mutually exclusive, do not limit each other in this
fashion. For there is a sense in which all individual experiences
are absolutely the same, though relatively different as to
their point of view, i.e. as to the manner in which for each the
same absolute whole is sundered into subjective and objective
factors.
This way of looking at the facts of mind helps, again, to dispel
the obscurity investing such terms as subjective, intersubjeclive,
1 Principles of Nature and Grace, J 3.
transsubjeclive and objective, as these occur in psychological or
epistemological discussions. For the psychologist must main-
tain that no experience is merely subjective: it is only epistemo-
logists (notably Kant) who so describe individual experience,
because objects experienced in their concrete particularity per-
tain, like so many idiosyncrasies, to the individual alone. In
contrast with this, epistemologists then describe universal
experience the objects in which are the same for every experient
as objective experience par excellence. And so has arisen the
time-honoured opposition of Sense-knowledge and Thought-
knowledge: so too has arisen the dualism of Empiricism and
Rationalism, which Kant sought to surmount by logical analysis.
It is in the endeavour to supplement this analysis by a psycho-
logical genesis that the terms intersubjective and transsubjective
prove useful. The problem for psychology is to ascertain the
successive stages in the advance from the one form of experience
or knowledge to the other. " When ten men look at the sun or
the moon," said Reid, " they all see the same individual object."
But according to Hamilton this statement is not " philosophically
correct . . . the truth is that each of these persons sees
a different object. ... It is not by perception but by a process
of reasoning that we connect the objects of sense with existences
beyond the sphere of immediate knowledge." 1 Now it is to
this " beyond " that the term transsubjective is applied, and the
question before us is: How do individual subjects thus get
beyond the immanence or immediacy with which all experience
begins? By a " process of reasoning," it is said. But it is at
least true in fact, whether necessarily true or not, that such
reasoning is the result of social intercourse. Further, it will be
generally allowed that Kant's Analylik, before referred to, has
made plain the insufficiency of merely formal reasoning to yield
the categories of Substance, Cause and End, by which we
pass from mere perceptual experience to that wider experience
which transcends it. And psychology, again, may claim to have
shown that in fact these categories are the result of that
reflective self-consciousness to which social intercourse first
gives rise.
But such intercourse, it has been urged, presupposes the common
ground between subject and subject which it is meant to explain.
How, it is asked, if every subject is confined to his own unique
experience, does this intersubjective intercourse ever arise ? If no
progress towards intellective synthesis were possible before inter-
subjective intercourse began, such intercourse, as presupposing
something more than immediate sense-knowledge, obviously never
could begin. 3 Let up illustrate by an analogy which Leibnitz's
association of experience with a " point of view " at once suggests.
If it were possible for the terrestrial astronomer fq obtain observa-
tions of the heavens from astronomers in the neighbouring stars,
he would be able to map in three dimensions constellations which
now he can only represent in two. But unless he had ascertained
unaided the heliocentric parallax of these neighbouring stars, he
would have no means of distinguishing them as near from the distant
myriads besides, or of understanding the data he might receive ; and
unless he had first of all determined the still humbler geocentric
parallax of our sun, those heliocentric parallaxes would have been
unattainable. So in like manner we may say " intersubjective
parallax " presupposes what we may call " subjective parallax,"
and even this the psychological duality of object and subject. But
such subjective parallax or acquaintance with other like selves is
the direct outcome of the extended range in time which memory
proper secures; and when in this way self has become an object,
resembling objects become other selves or " ejects," to adopt with
slight modification a term originated by the late W. K. Clifford.
We may be quite sure that his faithful dog is as little of a solipsist
as the noble savage whom he accompanies. Indeed, the rudiments
of the social factor are, if we may judge by biological evidence, to
be found very early. Sexual union in the physiological sense occurs
in all but the lowest Metazoa, pairing and courtship are frequent
among insects, while " among tne cold-blooded fishes the battle of
the stickleback with his rivals, his captivating manoeuvres to lead
the female to the nest which he has built, his mad dance of passion
around her, and his subsequent jealous guarding of the nest, have
often been observed and admired." * Among birds and mammals
1 Lectures on Metaphysics, ii. 153.
1 And it is precisely for want of this mediation that Kant's " two
stems of human knowledge, which perhaps may spring from a common
but to us unknown root," leave epistemology still more or less
hampered with the old dualism of sense and understanding.
* Evolution of Sex, by Geddes and Thomson, 1st ed. p. 265.
550
PSYCHOLOGY
[GENERAL ANALYSIS
we find not merely that these psychological aspects of sexual life
are greatly extended, but we find also prolonged education of off-
spring by parents and imitation of the parents by offspring. Even
language, or, at any rate " the linguistic impulse," is not wholly
absent among brutes. 1 Thus as the sensori-motor adjustments of
the organism to its environment generally advance in complexity
and range, there is a concomitant advance in the variety and
intimacy of its relations specially with individuals of its kind. It is
therefore reasonable to assume no discontinuity between phases -of
experience that for the individual are merely objective and phases
that are also ejective as well; and once the ejectiye level is attained,
some interchange of experience is possible. So disappears the great
gulf fixed betwixt subjective or individual and intersubjective or
universal experience by rival systems in philosophy.
4. From this preliminary epistemological discussion we may
pass on to the psychological analysis of experience itself. As
to this, there is in the main substantial agreement; the ele-
mentary facts of mind cannot be expressed in less than three
propositions " I feel somehow," " I know something," " I do
something." But here at once there arises an important ques-
tion, viz. What after all are we to understand by the subject
of these propositions? The proposition " I feel somehow " is
not equivalent to " I know that I feel somehow." To identify
the two would be to confound consciousness with self-conscious-
ness. We are no more confined to our own immediate observa-
tions here than elsewhere; but the point is that, whether seeking
to analyse one's own consciousness or to infer that of a lobster,
whether discussing the association of ideas or the expression
of emotions, there is always an individual self or " subject " in
question. It is not enough to talk of feelings or volitions:
what we mean is. that some individual man or worm feels,
strives, acts, thus or thus. Obvious as this may seem, it has
been frequently either forgotten or gainsaid. It has been
forgotten among details or through the assumption of a medley
of faculties, each treated as an individual in turn, and among
which the real individual was lost. Or it has been gainsaid,
because to admit that all psychological facts pertain to an
experiencing subject or experient seemed to imply that they
pertained to a particular spiritual substance, which was simple,
indestructible, and so forth; and it was manifestly desirable
to exclude such assumptions from psychology as a science
aiming only at a systematic exposition of what can be known
and verified by observation. But, however, much assailed or
disowned, the concept of a " mind " or conscious
f subject is to be found implicitly or explicitly in all
psychological writers whatever not more in Berke-
ley, who accepts it as a fact, than in Hume, who treats it as a
fiction. This being so, we are far more likely to reach the truth
eventually if we openly acknowledge this inexpugnable assump-
tion, if such it prove, instead of resorting to all sorts of devious
periphrases to hide it. Now wherever the word Subject, or
its derivatives, occurs in psychology we might substitute the
word Ego and analogous derivatives, did such exist. But
Subject is almost always the preferable term; its impersonal
form is an advantage, and it readily recalls its modern correlative
Object. Moreover, Ego has two senses, distinguished by Kant
as pure and empirical, the latter of which was, of course, an object,
the Me known, while the former was subject always, the I know-
ing. By pure Ego or Subject it is proposed to denote here the
simple fact that everything experienced is referred to a Self
experiencing. This psychological concept of a self or subject,
then, is after all by no means identical with the metaphysical
concepts of a soul or mind-atom, or of mind-stuff not atomic;
it may be kept as free from metaphysical implications as the
concept of the biological individual or organism with which it is
so intimately connected.
The attempt, indeed, has frequently been made to resolve the
former into the latter, and so to find in mind only such an indi-
Attemots f viduality as has an obvious counterpart in this individu-
extrude <Ae?'' tv ^ tne organism, i.e. what we may call an objective
c_, individuality. But such procedure owes all its plausi-
bility to the fact that it leaves out of sight the _ dif-
ference between the biological and the psychological standpoints.
All that the biologist means by a dog is " the sum of the phenomena
1 Cf. Darwin, Descent of Man, i. 56.
which make up its corporeal existence." 2 And, inasmuch as its
presentation to any one in particular is a point of no import-
ance, the fact of presentation at all may be very well dropped
out of account. Let us now turn to psychology: Why should we
not here follow Huxley and take " tne word ' soul ' simply as a
name for the scries of mental phenomena which make up an indi-
vidual mind " ? 3 Surely the moment we try distinctly to under-
stand this question we realize that the cases are different. " Series
of mental phenomena " for whom ? For any passer-by such as
might take stock of our biological dog ? No, obviously only for
that individual mind itself; yet that is supposed to be made up of,
to be nothing different from, the series of phenomena. Are we,
then, (l) quoting J. S. Mill's words, " to accept the paradox that
something which ex hypothesi is but a series of feelings, can be
aware of itself as a series " ? 4 Or (2) shall we say that the several
parts of the series are mutually phenomenal, much as A may look
at B, who was just now looking at A ? Or (3) finally, shall we say
that a large part of the so-called series, in fact every term but one,
is phenomenal for the rest for that one ?
As to the first, paradox is too mild a word for it ; even contradiction
will hardly suffice. It is as impossible to express " being aware of "
by one term as it is to express an equation or any other relation by
one term: what knows can no more be identical with what is known
than a weight with what it weighs. If a series of feelings is what
is known or presented, then what knows, what it is presented to,
cannot be that series of feelings, and this without regard to the point
Mill mentions, viz. that the infinitely greater part of the series is
either past or future. The question is not in the first instance one
of time or substance at all, but simply turns upon the fact that
knowledge or consciousness is unmeaning except as it implies some-
thing knowing or conscious of something. But it may be replied:
Granted that the formula for consciousness is something doing some-
thing, to put it generally; still, if the two somethings are the same
when I touch myself or when I see myself, why may not agent and
patient be the same when the action is knowing or being aware of;
why may I not know myself in fact, do I not know myself ? Cer-
tainly not ; agent and patient never are the same in the same act ;
such terms as self-caused, self-moved, self-known, el id genus omne,
either connote the incomprehensible or are abbreviated expressions
as, e.g. touching oneself when one's right hand touches one's left.
And so we come to the alternative: As one hand washes the
other, may not different members of the series of feelings be subject
and object in turn ? Compare, for example, the state of mind of a
man succumbing to temptation (as he pictures himself enjoying
the coveted good and impatiently repudiates scruples of conscience
or dictates of prudence) with his state when, filled with remorse, he
sides with conscience and condemns this " former self " the
" better self " having meanwhile become supreme. Here the cluster
of presentations and their associated sentiments and motives, which
together played the r61e of self in the first situation, have only
momentarily it may be true, but still have for the time the place
of not-self; and under abnormal circumstances this partial alterna-
tion may become complete alienation, as in what is called " double
consciousness." Or again, the development of self-consciousness
might be loosely described as taking the subject or self of one stage
as an object in the next self being, e.g. first identified with the
body and afterwards distinguished from it. But all this, however
true, is beside the mark; and it is really a very serious misnomer to
speak, as e.g. Herbert Spencer does, of the development of self-
consciousness as a " differentiation of subject and object." It is, if
anything, a differentiation of object and object, i.e. in plainer
words, it is a differentiation among presentations a differentiation
every step of which implies just that relation to a subject which it is
supposed to supersede.
There still remains the alternative, expressed in the words of J. S.
Mill, viz. " the alternative of believing that the Mind or Ego is some-
thing different from any series of feelings or possibilities of them."
To admit this, of course, is to admit the necessity of distinguishing
between Mind or Ego, meaning the unity or continuity of conscious-
ness as a complex of presentations, and Mind or Ego as the subject
to which this complex is presented. In dealing with the body from
the ordinary biological standpoint no such necessity arises. But,
whereas there the individual organism is spoken of unequivocally,
in psychology, on the other hand, the individual mind may mean
either (i.) the series of feelings or " mental phenomena ' above
referred to; or (ii.) the subject of these feelings for whom they are
phenomena; or (Hi.) the subject of these feelings or phenomena plus
the series of feelings or phenomena themselves, the two being in that
relation to each other in which alone the one is subject and the
other a series of feelings, phenomena or objects. It is in this last
sense that Mind is used in empirical psychology. 5 Its exclusive use
in the first sense is favoured only by those who shrink from the
speculative associations connected with its exclusive use in the
* T. H. Huxley, Hume, " English Men of Letters Series," (1879),
P- 171-
3 Huxley, op. cit. p. 172.
4 Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy; ch. xii. fin.
6 A meaning better expressed, as said above, by experience.
GENERAL ANALYSIS]
PSYCHOLOGY
second. But psychology is not'called upon to transcend the relation
of subject to object or, as we may call it, the fact of presentation.
On the other hand, as has been said, the attempt to ignore one term
of the relation is hopeless; and equally hopeless, even futile, is the
attempt, by means of phrases such as consciousness or the unity
of consciousness, to dispense with the recognition of a conscious
subject.
5. We might now proceed to inquire more closely into the
character and relations of the three invariable constituents of
psychical life which are broadly distinguished as
' "*' cognitions, feelings and conations. But we should
be at once confronted by a doctrine which, strictly taken,
amounts almost to a denial of this tripartite classification of the
facts of mind the doctrine, viz. that feeling alone is primordial
and invariably present wherever there is consciousness at all.
Every living creature, it is said, feels, though it may never do
any more; only the higher animals, and these only after a time,
learn to discriminate and identify and to act with a purpose.
This doctrine, as might be expected, derives its plausibility partly
from the vagueness of psychological terminology, and partly from
the intimate connexion that undoubtedly exists between feeling
and cognition on the one hand and feeling and volition on the
other. As to the meaning of the term, it is plain that further
definition is requisite for a word that may mean (a) a touch,
as feeling of roughness; (6) an organic sensation, as feeling of
hunger; (c) an emotion, as feeling of anger; (d) feeling proper,
as pleasure or pain. But, even taking feeling in the last, its
stricter sense, it has been maintained that all the more complex
forms of consciousness are resolvable into, or at least have been
developed from, feelings of pleasure and pain. The only proof
of such position, since we cannot directly observe the beginnings
of conscious life, must consist of considerations such as the
following. So far as we can judge, we find feeling everywhere;
but, as we work downwards from higher to lower forms of life,
the possible variety and the definiteness of sense-impressions
both steadily diminish. Moreover, we can directly observe in
our own organic sensations, which seem to come nearest to the
whole content of primitive or infantile experience, an almost
entire absence of any assignable quale. Finally, in our sense-
experience generally, we find the element of feeling at a maximum
in the lower senses and the cognitive element at a maximum
in the higher. But the so-called intellectual senses are the most
used, and use (we know) blunts feeling and favours intellection,
as we see in chemists, who sort the most filthy mixtures by smell
and taste without discomfort. If, then, feeling predominates
more and more as we approach the beginning of conscious life,
may we not conclude that it is its only essential constituent ? On
the contrary, such a conclusion would be rash in the extreme.
Two lines, e.g. may get nearer and nearer and yet will never
meet, if the rate of approach is simply proportional to the dis-
tance. A triangle may be diminished indefinitely, and yet we
cannot infer that it becomes eventually all angles, though the
angles get no less and the sides do. Before, then, we decide
whether pleasure or pain alone can ever constitute a complete
experience, it may be well to inquire into the connexion between
feeling and cognition, on the one hand, and between feeling and
conation on the other, so far as we can now observe. And this
is an inquiry which will help us towards an answer to our main
question, namely, that concerning the nature and connexions
of what are commonly regarded as the three ultimate facts of
mind..
Broadly speaking, in any state of mind that we can directly
observe, what we find is (i) that we are aware of a certain change
Relation of i n our sensations, thoughts or circumstances, (2)
co'nftfoo tnat we are Pl easec > or P^ned with the change, and
andCona- (3) that we act accordingly. We never find that
tfon. feeling directly alters i.e. without the intervention
of the action of which it prompts either our sensations or
situation, but that regularly these latter with remarkable prompt-
ness and certainty alter it. We have not first a. change of feeling,
and then a change in our sensations, perceptions and ideas;
but, these changing, change of feeling follows. In short, feeling
appears to be an effect, which therefore cannot exist without
its cause, though in different circumstances the same immediate
cause may produce a different amount or even a different state
of feeling. Turning from what we may call the receptive phase
of an experience to the active or appetitive phase, we find in like
manner that feeling is certainly not in such cases as we can
clearly observe the whole of what we experience at any moment.
True, in common speech we talk of liking pleasure and disliking
pain; but this is either tautology, equivalent to saying we are
pleased when we are pleased and pained when we are pained;
or else it is an allowable abbreviation, and means that we like
pleasurable objects and dislike painful objects, as when we say
we like feeling warm and dislike feeling hungry. But feeling
warm or feeling hungry, we must remember, is not pure feeling
in the stricter sense of the word. Within the limits of our
observation, then, we find that feeling accompanies some more
or less definite presentation which for the sake of it becomes the
object of appetite or aversion; in other words, feeling implies
a relation to a pleasurable or painful presentation or situation,
that, as cause of feeling or as end of the action to which feeling
prompts, is doubly distinguished from it. Thus the very facts
that lead us to distinguish feeling from cognition and conation
make against the hypothesis that consciousness can ever be all
feeling.
But, as already said, the plausibility of this hypothesis is in
good part due to a laxity in the use of terms. Most psycholo-
gists before Kant, and some even to the present day, Feeling and
speak of pleasure and pain as sensations. But it is Sensation
plain that pleasure and pain are not simple ideas, *** toet
as Locke called them, in the sense in which touches and tastes
are that is to say, they are never like these localized or
projected, nor are they elaborated in conjunction with other
sensations and movements into percepts or intuitions of the
external. This confusion of feeling with sensations is largely
consequent on the use of one word pain both for certain organic
sensations and for the purely subjective state of being pained.
But such pains not only are always more or less definitely
localized which of itself is so far cognition, they are also
distinguished as shooting, burning, gnawing, &c., all which symp-
toms indicate a certain objective quality. Accordingly psycholo-
gists have been driven by one means or another to recognize
two " aspects " (Bain), or " properties " (Wundt), in what they
call a sensation, the one a " sensible or intellectual " or " qualita-
tive," the other an " affective " or " emotive," aspect or property.
The term " aspect " is figurative and obviously inaccurate;
even to describe pleasure and pain as properties of sensation is
a matter open to much question. But the point which at
present concerns us is simply that when feeling is said to be the
primordial element in consciousness more is usually included
under feeling than pure pleasure and pain, viz. some character-
istic or quality by which one pleasurable or painful sensation is
distinguishable from another. No doubt, as we go downwards
in the chain of life the qualitative or objective elements in the
so-called sensations become less and less definite; and at the same
time organisms with well-developed sense-organs give place to
others without any clearly differentiated organs at all. But '
there is no ground for supposing even the amoeba itself to be
affected in all respects the same whether by changes of tempera-
ture or of pressure or by changes in its internal fluids, albeit all
of these changes will further or hinder its life and so presumably
be in some sort pleasurable or painful. On the whole, then,
there are grounds for saying that the endeavour to represent all
the various facts of consciousness as evolved out of feeling is
due to a hasty striving after simplicity, and has been favoured
by the ambiguity of the term feeling itself. If by feeling we
mean a certain subjective state varying continuously in intensity
and passing from time to time from its positive phase (pleasure)
to its negative phase (pain), then this purely pathic state implies
an agreeing or disagreeing something which psychologically
determines it. If, on the other hand, we let feeling stand for
both this state and the cause of it, then, perhaps, a succession
of such " feelings " may make up a consciousness; but then we
are including two of our elementary facts under the name of one
552
PSYCHOLOGY
[GENERAL ANALYSIS
Presents
tloa.
of them. The simplest form of psychical life, therefore, involves not
only a subject feeling but a subject having qualitatively distinguish-
able presentations which are the occasion of its feeling.
6. We may now try to ascertain what is meant by cognition
as an essential element in this life, or, more exactly, what we are
to understand by the term presentation. It was an
important step onwards for psychology when Locke
introduced that " new way of ideas " which Stilling-
fleet found alternately so amusing and so dangerous. By ideas
Locke told him he meant " nothing but the immediate objects
of our minds in thinking "; and it was so far a retrograde step
when Hume restricted the term to certain only of these objects,
or rather to these objects in a certain state, viz. as reproduced
ideas or " images." And, indeed, the history of psychology
seems to show that its most important advances have been made
by those who have kept closely to this way of ideas; the estab-
lishment of the laws of association with their many fruitful
applications and the 'whole Herbartian psychology may suffice
as instances (see HERB ART). The truth is that the use of such
a term is itself a mark of an important generalization, one
which helps to free us from the mythology and verbiage
of the " faculty-psychologists." All the various mental facts
spoken of as sensations, movements, percepts, images, in-
tuitions, concepts, notions, have two characteristics in com-
mon: (i) they admit of being more or less attended to, and
(2) they can be variously combined together and reproduced.
It is here proposed to use the term presentation to denote
them all, as being the best English equivalent for what
Locke meant by idea and what Kant and Herbart called a
Vorstellung.
A presentation has then a twofold relation first, directly to
the subject, and, secondly, to other presentations. The former
relation answers to the fact that a presentation is attended to,
that the subject is more or less conscious of it: it is " in his
mind" or presented. As presented to a subject a presentation
might with advantage be called an object, or perhaps a psychical
object, to distinguish it from what are called objects apart from
presentation, i.e. conceived as independent of any particular
subject. Locke, as we have seen, did so call it; still, to avoid
possible confusion, it may turn out best to dispense with the
frequent use of object in this sense. But on one account, at
least, it is desirable not to lose sight altogether of this, which
is after all the stricter as well as the older signification of object,
namely, because it enables us to express definitely, without
implicating any ontological theory, what we have so far seen
reason to think is the fundamental fact in experience. Instead of
depending mainly on that vague and treacherous word " con-
sciousness," or committing ourselves to the position that ideas
are modifications of a certain mental substance or identical with
the subject to whom they are presented, we may leave all this
on one side, and say that ideas are objects, and the relation of
objects to subjects that whereby the one is object and the other
subject is presentation; and it is because only objects sustain
this relation that they may be spoken of simply as presentations.
On the side of the subject this relation implies what, for want
of a better word, may be called attention, extending the denota-
tion of this term so as to include even what we
ordinarily call inattention. Attention so used will
thus cover part of what is meant by consciousness so much of
it, that is, as answers to being mentally active, active enough
at least to " receive impressions." Attention on the side of the
subject implies intensity on the side of the object: we might
indeed almost call intensity the matter of a presentation, without
which it is a nonentity. 1
The inter-objective relations of presentations, on which
Continuity their second characteristic, that of revivability and
of Con- associability depends, though of the first import-
Kiousaes*. ance ; n themselves, hardly call for examination in
a general analysis like the present. But there is one point
1 Cf. Kant's Principe of the Anticipations of Perception: "In
all phenomena the real, which is the object of sensation, has intensive
magnitude."
Attention.
still more fundamental that we cannot wholly pass by: it
is in part at any rate what is commonly termed the unity
or continuity of consciousness. From the physical standpoint
and in ordinary life we can talk of objects that are isolated
and independent and in all respects distinct individuals. The
screech of the owl, for example, has physically nothing to do
with the brightness. of the moon: either may come or go without
changing the order of things to which the other belongs. But
psychologically, for the individual percipient, they are parts of
one whole; the more his attention is given to the one the more
it is taken from the other. Also the actual recurrence of the
one will afterwards entail the re-presentation of the other
also. Not only are they still parts of one whole, but such
distinctness as they have at present is the result of a gradual
differentiation.
It is quite impossible for us now to imagine the effects of years
of experience removed, or to picture the character of our infantile
presentations before our interests had led us habitually to
concentrate attention on some and to ignore others. In place
of the many things which we can now see and hear, not merely
would there then be a confused presentation of the whole
field of vision and of a mass of undistinguished sounds, but even
the difference between sights and sounds themselves would be
without its present distinctness. Thus the further we go back
the nearer we approach to a total presentation having the
character of one general continuum in which differences are latent.
There is, then, in psychology, as in biology, what may be called
a principle of "progressive differentiation or specialization"; 2
and this, as well as the facts of reproduction and association,
forcibly suggests the conception of a certain objective continuum
forming the background or basis to the several relatively dis-
tinct presentations that are elaborated out of it the equiva-
lent, in fact, of that unity and continuity of consciousness
which has been supposed to supersede the need for a conscious
subject.
There is one class of objects of special interest even in a
general survey, viz. movements or motor presentations. These,
like sensory presentations, admit of association and
reproduction, and seem to attain to such distinctness sea t a tioas
as they possess in adult human experience by a
gradual differentiation out of an original diffused mobility which
is little besides emotional expression. Of this, however, more
presently. It is primarily to such dependence upon feeling
that movements owe their distinctive character, the possession,
that is, under normal circumstances, of definite and assignable
psychical antecedents, in contrast to sensory presentations,
which are devoid of them. We cannot psychologically explain
the order in which particular sights and sounds occur; but the
movements that follow them, on the other hand, can be ade-
quately explained only by psychology. The twilight that sends
the hens to roost sets the fox to prowl, and the lion's roar
which gathers the jackals scatters the sheep. Such
diversity in the movements, although the sensory selection!
presentations are similar, is due, in fact, to what we
might call the principle of " subjective or hedonic selection "-
that, out of all the manifold changes of sensory presentation
which a given individual experiences, only a few are the occasion
of such decided feeling as to become objects of possible appetite
or aversion. It is thus by means of movements that we are
more than the creatures of circumstances and that we can
with propriety talk of subjective selection. The represen-
tation of what interests us comes then to be associated with
the representation of such movements as will secure its
realization, so that although no concentration of attention
will secure the requisite intensity to a pleasurable object
present only in idea we can by what is strangely like a con-
centration of attention convert the idea of a movement into
the fact, and by means of the movement attain the coveted
reality.
* The biological principle referred to is that known as von Baer's
law, viz. " that the progress of development is from the general to
the special."
GENERAL ANALYSIS].
PSYCHOLOGY
553
7. And this has brought us round naturally to the third of
the commonly accepted constituents of experience. What is
conation, or rather conative action? For there are two ques-
_ a tions often more or less confused, the question of
motive or spring of action, as it is sometimes called
why is there action at all? and the question of means how
do definite actions come about? The former question relates
primarily to the connexion of conation and feeling. It is only
the latter question that we now raise. In ordinary voluntary
movement we have first of all an idea or re-presentation of the
movement, and last of all the actual movement itself a new
presentation which may for the present be described as the
filling out of the re-presentation, which thereby attains that
intensity, distinctness and embodiment we call reality. How
does this change come about? The attempt has often been
made to explain it by a reference to the more uniform, and
apparently simpler, case of reflex action, including under this
term what are called sensori-motor and ideo-motor actions. In
all these the movement seems to be the result of a mere trans-
ference of intensity from the associated sensation or idea that
sets on the movement. But when by some chance or mischance
the same sensory presentation excites two or more nascent
motor changes that conflict, a temporary block is said to occur;
and, when at length one of these nascent motor changes
finally prevails, then, it is said, " there is constituted a state
of consciousness which displays what we term volition." l But
this assumption that sensory and motor ideas are associated
before volition, and that volition begins where automatic or
reflex action ends, is due to that inveterate habit of confound-
ing the psychical and the physical which is the bane of modern
psychology. How did these particular sensory and motor
presentations ever come to be associated? The only psycho-
logical evidence we have of any very intimate connexion between
sensory and motor representations is that furnished by our
acquired dexterities, i.e. by such movement as Hartley 2
styled " secondarily automatic." But then all these have been
preceded by volition: as Herbert Spencer says, " the child
learning to walk wills each movement before making it." Surely,
then, a psychologist should take this as his typical case and
prefer to assume that all automatic actions that come within
his ken at all are in this sense secondarily automatic, i.e. to
say that either in the experience of the individual or of his
ancestors, volition or something analogous to it, preceded habit.
But, if we are thus compelled by a sound method to regard
sensori-motor actions as degraded or mechanical forms of
voluntary actions, instead of regarding voluntary actions as
gradually differentiated out of something physical, we have not
to ask: What happens when one of two alternative movements
is executed? but the more general question: What happens
when any movement is made in consequence of feeling? It is
obvious that on this view the simplest definitely purposive
movement must have been preceded by some movement simpler
still. For any distinct movement purposely made presupposes
the ideal presentation, before the actual realization, of the move-
ment. But such ideal presentation, being a re-presentation,
equally presupposes a previous actual movement of which it is
the so-called mental residuum. There is then, it would seem,
but one way left, viz. to regard those movements which are
immediately expressive of pleasure or pain as primordial, and
to regard the so-called voluntary movements as elaborated out
of these. The vague and diffusive character of these primitive
emotional manifestations is really a point in favour of this
position. For such " diffusion " is evidence of an underlying
continuity of motor presentations parallel to that already
discussed in connexion with sensory presentations, a continuity
which, in each case, becomes differentiated in the course of
experience into comparatively distinct and discrete movements
and sensations respectively.'
1 Compare Spencer's Principles of Psychology, i. 217, 8.
' D. Hartley, Observations on Man (6th ed., 1834), pp. 66 sqq.
' It may be well to call to mind here that Alexander Bam also
regarded emotional expression as a possible commencement of action,
But whereas we can only infer, and that in a very roundabout
fashion, that our sensations are not absolutely distinct but are
parts of one massive sensation, as it were, we are still liable under
the influence of strong emotion directly to experience the corre- .
spending continuity in the case of movement. Such motor-
continuum we may suppose is the psychical counterpart of that
permanent readiness to act, or rather that continual nascent
acting, which among the older physiologists was spoken of as
" tonic action." This " skeletal tone," as it is now called, is
found to disappear more or less completely from a limb when its
sensory nerves are divided. " In the absence of the usual *
stream of afferent impulses passing into it, the spinal cord
ceases to send forth the influences which maintain the tone." 4
And a like intimate dependence, we have every reason to believe,
obtains throughout between sensation and movement. We
cannot imagine the beginning of life but only life begun. The
simplest picture, then, which we can form of a concrete state
of mind is not one in which there are movements before there
are any sensations or sensations before there are any movements,
but one in which change of sensation is followed by change
of movement, the link between the two being a change of
feeling.
Having thus simplified the question, we may now ask again:
How is this change of movement through feeling brought about?
The answer, as already hinted, appears to be: Dependence
By a change of attention. We learn from such of Action of
observations as psychologists describe under the FeeUn i>
head of fascination, imitation, hypnotism, &c., that the mere
concentration of attention upon a movement is often enough
to bring the movement to pass. But, of course, in such cases
neither emotion nor volition is necessarily implied; but none
the less they show the close connexion that exists between
attention and movement. Everybody, too, must often
have observed how the execution of any but mechanical
movements arrests attention to thoughts or sensations, and
how, vice versa, a striking impression or thought interrupts
him in the performance of skilled movements. Let us
suppose, then, that we have at any given moment a certain
distribution of attention between sensory and motor presenta-
tions; a change in that distribution then will mean a change
in the intensity of some of all of these. But, in the case of
motor presentations, change of intensity means change of
movement. Such changes are, however, quite minimal in
amount so long as the given presentations are not conspicu-
ously agreeable or disagreeable. So soon as they are, however,
there is evidence of a most intimate connexion between feeling
and attention ; but it is hardly possible adequately to exhibit '
this evidence without first attempting to ascertain the charac-
teristics of the presentations, or groups of presentations, that
are respectively pleasurable and painful, and this must occupy
us later on.
8. We are now at the end of our analysis, and the results
may perhaps be most conveniently summarized by first throwing
them into a tabular form and then appending a primordial
few remarks by way of indicating the main purport F**** of
of the table. Taking no account of the specific Mlad -
difference between one concrete state of mind and another,
and supposing that we are dealing with presentations
but only to reject it in favour of his own peculiar doctrine of " spon-
taneity," which, however, is open to the objection that it makes
movement precede feeling instead of following it an objection
that would c>e serious even if the arguments advanced to support
his hypothesis were as cogent as only Bain supposed them to be.
Against the position maintained above he objects that " the emo-
tional wave almost invariably affects a whole group of movements,"
and therefore does not furnish the " isolated promptings that are
desiderated in the case of the will " (Mental and Moral Science,
p. 323). But to make this objection is to let heredity count for noth-
ing. In fact, wherever a variety of isolated movements is physically
possible there also we always find corresponding instincts, " that
untaught ability to perform actions," to use Bain's own language,
which a minimum of practice suffices to perfect. But then these
suggest gradual ancestral acquisition.
4 Foster, Text-Book of Physiology, 597.
554
PSYCHOLOGY
[ATTENTION
in their simplest form, i.e. as sensations and movements, we
have :
(i) non- voluntarily attend-")
ing to changes in the } Presentation
sensory-continuum; 1 J of sensory
[Cognition]
A SUBJECT
(2) being, in consequence,
either pleased or
pained ;
[Feeling]
and (3) by voluntary atten-"|
tion or " innervation " I ,
producing changes in [
the motpr-continuum.'J
[Conation]
Presentation
of motor
^OBJECTS.
Of the three phases or functions, thus analytically distinguish-
able, but not really separable, the first and the third correspond
in the main with the receptive and active states or powers of the
older psychologists. The second, being more difficult to isolate,
was long overlooked; or, at all events, its essential characteristics
were not distinctly marked, so that it was confounded either with
(i) which is its cause, or with (3), its effect. But perhaps the most
important of all psychological distinctions is that which traverses
both the old bipartite and the prevailing tripartite analysis,
viz. that between the subject on the one hand, as acting and
feeling, and the objects of this activity on the other. With
this distinction clearly before us, instead of crediting the sub-
ject with an indefinite number of faculties or capacities, we must
seek to explain not only reproduction, association, &c., but all
varieties of thinking and acting, by the laws pertaining to ideas
or presentations, leaving to the subject only the one power of
variously distributing that attention upon which the intensity
of a presentation in part depends. What we call activity in
the narrower sense (as e.g. purposive movement and intellection)
is but a special form of this single subjective activity, although
a very important one.
According to this view, then, presentations, attention, feeling,
are not to be regarded as three co-ordinate genera, each of which
is a complete " state of mind or consciousness," i.e. as being all
alike included under this one supreme category. There is, as
Berkeley long ago urged, no resemblance between activity and
an idea ; nor is it easy to see anything common to pure feeling
and an idea, unless it be that both possess intensity. Classifica-
tion seems, in fact, to be here out of place. Instead, therefore, of
the one summum genus, state of mind or consciousness, with its
three co-ordinate subdivisions cognition, emotion, conation-
our analysis seems to lead us to recognize three distinct and
irreducible components attention, feeling, and objects or
presentations as together, in a. certain connexion, constituting
one concrete state of mind or psychosis. Of such concrete
states of mind or psychoses we may then say so far agreeing
with the older, bipartite psychology that there are two forms,
corresponding to the two ways in which attention may be
determined and the two classes of objects attended to in each,
viz. (i) the senary or receptive attitude, when attention is
non-voluntarily determined, i.e. where feeling follows the act
of attention; and (2) the motor or active attitude, where feel-
ing precedes the act of attention, which is thus determined
voluntarily.
Attention.
9. Instead of a congeries of faculties we have assumed a
single subjective activity and have proposed to call this attention.
Some further explication of this position seems to be desirable.
We start with the duality of subject and object as fundamental.
We say of man, mouse, or monkey that it feels, perceives,
remembers, infers, strives, and so forth. Leaving aside the first
term, it is obvious that all the rest imply both an activity and
an object. Is it possible to resolve these instances into a form
in which the assumed diversity of the act will appear as a diver-
sity of the object? At first sight it looks rather as if the kind
1 To cover more complex cases we might here add the words " or
trains of ideas."
of activity might vary while the object remained the same;
that e.g. we perceived an object and later on remembered or
desired it. It would then be most natural to refer these several
activities to corresponding faculties of perception, memory
and desire. This, indeed, is the view embodied in common
speech, and for practical purposes it is doubtless the simplest
and the best. Nevertheless, a more thorough analysis shows that
when the supposed faculty is different the object is never entirely
and in all respects the same. Thus in perception, e.g. we deal
with " impressions " or primary presentations, and in memory
and imagination with " ideas " (in the later sense) or secondary
presentations. In desire the want of the object gives it an
entirely different setting, adding a new characteristic, that of
value or worth, so that its acquisition becomes the end of a series
of efforts or movements. The older psychology, by its accept-
ance of the Cartesian doctrine that all the facts of immediate
experience are to be interpreted as subjective modifications,
failed to distinguish adequately between the subject as active
and the objects of its activity. Hence the tendency to rest
content with the popular distinction of various faculties in spite
of the underlying sameness implied in the common application
of " conscious " to them all. In fact, Locke's definition of idea
(in the older and wider sense) as the immediate object of con-
sciousness or thinking was censured by Reid as " the greatest
blemish in the Essay on Human Understanding." But, accepting
this definition as implied in the duality of subject and object,
and accepting too the underlying sameness which the active
form "conscious" undeniably implies, we have simply to ask:
" Which is the better term to denote this common element-
consciousness or attention?"
Consciousness, as the vaguest, most protean and most treach-
erous of psychological terms, will hardly serve our purpose.
Attention, on the other hand, has an invariable active sense,
and there is an appropriate verb, to attend. But many things,
it may be said, are presented while few are attended to; if atten-
tion is to be made coextensive with the activity implied in
consciousness, will not the vital distinction between attention
and inattention be lost? In fact, however, this distinction
implies a covert comparison, not an absolute contrast. In
everyday life we recognize many degrees of attention, ranging
from an extreme of intense concentration to one of complete
remission, as Locke long ago pointed out. 2 Between these
extremes there is perfect continuity, and not a difference of
kind; to apply the one term attention to the whole range is
very like applying the one term magnitude to large and small
quantities alike.
But it is not enough to show that when we commonly talk
of different faculties we also find psychological differences of
object, and to assert that if there is one common factor in all
psychical activity this factor is attention. To make our position
secure it is needful to show directly that all the various faculties
with which a subject can be credited are resolvable into attention
and various classes or relations or states of presentations that
are attended to. How far this is possible remains to be seen as
we proceed. In the case of the so-called " intellectual powers "
the position is generally conceded, but so far as the voluntary
or active powers are concerned it is as generally denied. Now,
in so far as volition implies not merely action, overt or intended,
but also motives, in so far also it must be acknowledged it
contains a factor not resolvable into attention to motor presenta-
tions. This further factor, which has been called " the volitional
character of feeling," we here leave aside. Apart from this
direct spring of action, then, the question is whether the active
process itself differs from the cognitive or receptive process
" That there are ideas, some or other, always present in the
mind of a waking man, every one's experience convinces him ; though
the mind employs itself about them with several degrees of attention.
Sometimes the mind fixes itself with such intention . . . that it shuts
out all other thoughts and takes no notice of the ordinary impressions
made on the senses; . . .at other .times it barely observes the train of
ideas . . . without directing and pursuing any of them; and at other
times it lets them pass almost quite unregarded as faint shadows
that make no impression " (Essay, ii. 19, 3, 4).
THEORY OF PRESENTATIONS]
PSYCHOLOGY
555
save in being attention to a special class of objects. First of
all, it is noteworthy that both have the same characteristics.
Thus, what Hamilton called " the law of limitation " holds
of each alike and of either with respect to the other; and it holds
too not only of the number of presentations but also of the
intensity. We can be absorbed in action just as much as in
perception or thought; also, as already said, movements, unless
they are mechanical, inhibit ideas; and vice versa, ideas, other
than associated trains, arrest movements. Intoxication, hypno-
tism or insanity, rest or exhaustion, tell on apperception as well
as on innervation. The control of thoughts, equally with the
control of movements, requires effort; and as there is a strain
peculiar to intently listening or gazing, which is known to have
a muscular concomitant, so too there is a strain characteristic
of recollection and visualization, which may quite well turn out
to be muscular too. When movements have to be associated,
the same continuous attention is called for as is found requisite
in associating sensory impressions; and, when such associations
have become very intimate, dissociation is about equally difficult
in both cases.
There is one striking fact that brings to light the essential
sameness of apperception and innervation, cited by Wundt
for this very purpose. In so-called " reaction-time " experi-
ments it is found, when the impression to be registered follows
on a premonitory signal after a certain brief interval, that then
the reaction (registering the impression) is often instantaneous;
the reaction-time, in other words, is nil. In such a case the
subject is aware not of three separate events, (i) the perception
of the impression; (2) the reaction; (3) the perception of this;
but the fact of the impression is realized and the registering
movement is actualized at once and together; the subject is
conscious of one act of attention and one only.
Theory of Presentations.
10. We come now to the exposition of the objects of attention
or consciousness, i.e. to what we may call the objective or
presentational factor of psychical life. The treatment of this
will fall naturally into two divisions. In the first we shall have
to deal with its general characteristics and with the fundamental
processes which all presentation involves. In view of its general
and more or less hypothetical character we may call it the
theory of presentation. We can then pass on to the special
forms of presentations, known as sensations, percepts, images,
&c., and to the special processes to which these forms lead up.
This exposition will be simplified if we start with a supposition
that will enable us to leave aside, at least for the present, the
Assumption difficult question of heredity. We know that in
of a Psycho- the course of each individual's life there is more
logical or igss O f progressive differentiation or development.
r/vtfua/. p ur ther, it is believed that there has existed a series
of sentient individuals beginning with the lowest form of life
and advancing continuously up to man. Some traces of the
advance already made may be reproduced in the growth of each
human being now, bu for the most part such traces have been
obliterated. What was experience in the past has become
instinct in the present. The descendant has no consciousness
of his ancestor's failures when performing by " an untaught
ability " what they slowly and perhaps painfully acquired.
But, if we are to attempt to follow the genesis of mind from
its earliest dawn, it is the primary experience rather than the
eventual instinct that we have first of all to keep in view. To
this end, then, it is proposed to assume that we are dealing with
one individual who has continuously advanced from the begin-
ning of psychical life, and not with a series of individuals of
whom all save the first inherited certain capacities from their
progenitors. The life-history of such an imaginary individual,
that is to say, would correspond with all that was new in the
experience of a certain typical series of individuals each of whom
advanced a certain stage in mental differentiation. On the
other hand, from this history would be omitted that inherited
reproduction of the net results, so to say, of ancestral experience,
that innate tradition by which alone, under the actual conditions
of existence, progress is possible. The process of thus reproduc-
ing the old might differ as widely from that of producing the new
as electrotyping does from engraving. However, the point is
that as psychologists we know nothing directly about it ; neither
can we distinguish precisely at any link in the chain of life what
is old and inherited original in the sense of Locke and Leibnitz
from what is new or acquired original in the modern sense.
But we are bound as a matter of method to suppose all com-
plexity and 'differentiation among presentations to have been
originated, i.e. experimentally acquired, at some time or other.
So long, then, as we are concerned primarily with the progress
of this differentiation we may disregard the fact that it has not
actually been, as it were, the product of one hand dealing with
one tabula rasa to use Locke's originally Aristotle's figure,
but of many hands, each of which, starting with a reproduction
of what had been wrought on the preceding tabulae, put in more
or fewer new touches before devising the whole to a successor
who would proceed in like manner.
n. What is implied in this process of differentiation and
what is it that becomes differentiated ? these are the questions
to which we must now attend. Psychologists have The Pn-
usually represented mental advance as consisting *eatation-
fundamentally in the combination and recombina- Co""*""""-
tion of various elementary units, the so-called sensations
and primitive movements: in other words, as consisting
in a species of " mental chemistry. " If we are to resort to
physical analogies at all a matter of very doubtful pro-
priety we shall find in the growth of a seed or an embryo
far better illustrations of the unfolding of the contents of con-
sciousness than in the building up of molecules: the process
seems much more a segmentation of what is originally continuous
than an aggregation of elements at first independent and distinct.
Comparing higher minds or stages of mental development with
lower by what means such comparison is possible we need not
now consider we find in the higher conspicuous differences
between presentations which in the lower are indistinguishable
or absent altogether. The worm is aware only of the difference
between light and dark. The steel-worker sees half a dozen
tints where others see only a uniform glow. To the child, it is
said, all faces are alike; and throughout life we are apt to note
the general, the points of resemblance, before the special, the
points of difference. But even when most definite, what we
call a presentation is still part of a larger whole. It is not
separated from other presentations, whether simultaneous or
successive, by something which is not of the nature of presenta-
tion, as one island is separated from another by the intervening
sea, or one note in a melody from the next by an interval of
silence. In our search for a theory of presentations, then,
it is from this " continuity of consciousness " that we must take
our start. Working backwards from this as we find it now, we
are led alike by particular facts and general considerations to
the conception of a tolum objectivum or objective continuum
which is gradually differentiated, thereby giving rise to what we
call distinct presentations, just as some particular presentation,
clear as a whole, as Leibnitz would say, becomes with mental
growth a complex of distinguishable parts. Of the very begin-
ning of this continuum we can say nothing; absolute beginnings
are beyond the pale of science. Experience advances as this
continuum is differentiated, every differentiation being a change
of presentation. Hence the commonplace of psychologists
We are only conscious as we are conscious of change.
But " change of consciousness " is too loose an expression
to take the place of the unwieldy phrase differentiation of a
presentation-continuum, to which we have been Qr a auiDH-
driven. For not only does the term " consciousness " ienati*tioa
confuse what exactness requires us to keep distinct, an ofPntea-
activity and its object, but also the term "change" '"<"'
fails to express the characteristics which distinguish
new presentations from other changes. Differentiation implies
that the simple becomes complex or the complex more complex;
it implies also that this increased complexity is due to the per-
sistence of former changes; we may even say such persistence is
556
PSYCHOLOGY
[THEORY OF PRESENTATIONS
essential to the very idea of development or growth. In trying,
then, to conceive our psychological individual in the earliest
stages of development we must not picture him as experiencing
a succession of absolutely new sensations, which, coming out
of nothingness, admit of being strung upon the " thread of
consciousness " like beads picked up at random, or cemented
into a mass like the bits of stick and sand with which the young
caddis covers its nakedness. The notion, which Kant has done
much to encourage, that psychical life begins with a confused
manifold of sensations devoid not only of logical but even of
psychological unity is one that becomes more inconceivable
the more closely we consider it. An absolutely new presentation,
having no sort of connexion with former presentations till the
subject has Synthesized it with them, is a conception for which
it would be hard to find a warrant either by direct observation,
by inference from biology, or in considerations of an a priori
kind. At any given moment we have a certain whole of
presentations, a " field of consciousness, " psychologically one
and continuous; at the next we have not an entirely new field
but a partial change within this field. Many who would allow
this in the case of representations, i.e. where idea succeeds idea
by the workings of association, would demur to it in the case of
primary presentations or sensations. " For, " they would say,
" may not silence be broken by a clap of thunder, and have not
the blind been made to see? " To urge such objections is to
miss the drift of our discussion, and to answer them may serve
to make it clearer. Where silence can be broken there are
representations of preceding sounds and in all probability even
subjective presentations of sound as well; silence as experienced
by one who has heard is very different from the silence of Con-
dillac's statue before it had ever heard. The question is rather
whether such a conception as that of Condillac's is possible;
supposing a sound to be, qualitatively, entirely distinct from a
smell, could a field of consciousness consisting of smells be
followed at once by one in which sounds had part? And, as
regards the blind coming to see, we must remember not only
that the blind have eyes but that they are descended from
ancestors who could see. What nascent presentations of
sight are thus involved it would be hard to say; and the problem
of heredity is one that we have for the present left aside.
The view here taken is (i) that at its first appearance in
psychical life a new sensation or so-called elementary presenta-
tion is really a partial modification of some pre-existing presenta-
tion which thereby becomes as a whole more complex than it
was before; and (2) that this complexity and differentiation of
parts never become a plurality of discontinuous presentations,
having a distinctness and individuality such as the atoms or ele-
mentary particles of the physical world are supposed to have.
Beginners in psychology, and some who are not beginners, are apt
to be led astray by expositions which set out from the sensations
of the special senses, as if these furnished us with the type of an
elementary presentation. The fact is we never experience a
mere sensation of colour, sound, touch, and the like; and what
the young student mistakes for such is really a perception, a
sensory presentation combined with various sensory and motor
presentations and with representations and having thus a
definiteness and completeness only possible to complex pre-
sentations. Moreover, if we could attend to a pure sensation
of sound or colour by itself, there is much to justify the suspicion
that even this is complex and not simple, and owes to such com-
plexity its clearly marked specific quality. In certain of our
vaguest and most diffused organic sensations there is probably
a much nearer approach to the character of the really primitive
presentations.
In such sensations we can distinguish three variations, viz.
variations of quality, of intensity, and of what Bain called
Diffusion rnassiveness, or, as we shall say, extensity. This
and last characteristic, which everybody knows who
Restriction. k nO ws the difference between the ache of a big
bruise and the ache of a little one, between total and
partial immersion in a bath, is, as we shall see later on, an
essential element in our perception of space. But it is certainly
not the whole of it, for in this experience of massive sensation
alone it is impossible to find other elements which an analysis
of spatial intuition unmistakably yields. Extensity and exten-
sion, then, are not to be confounded. Now, we find, even at our
level of mental evolution, that an increase in the intensity of a
sensation is apt to entail an increase in its extensity too. In
like manner we observe a greater extent of movement in emo-
tional expression when the intensity of the emotion increases.
Even the higher region of imagination is no exception, as is shown
by the whirl and confusion of ideas incident to delirium, and,
indeed, to all strong excitement. But this " diffusion " or
" radiation, " as it has been called, diminishes as we pass from
the class of organic sensations to the sensations of the five senses,
from movements expressive of feeling to movements definitely
purposive, and from the tumult of ideas excited by passion to
the steadier sequences determined by efforts to think. Increased
differentiation seems, then, to be intimately connected with
increased " restriction." Probably there may be found certain
initial differentiations which for psychology are ultimate facts
that it cannot explain. As already said, the very beginning of
experience is beyond us, though it is our business working from
within to push back our analysis as far as we can. But some
differentiations being given, then it may be safely said that, in
accordance with what we have called the principle of subjective
selection (see 6), attention would be voluntarily concentrated
upon certain of these and upon the voluntary movements
specially connected with them. To such subjectively initiated
modifications of the presentation-continuum, moreover, we may
reasonably suppose "restriction" to be in large measure due.
But increased restriction would render further differentiation
of the given whole of presentation possible, and so the two
processes might supplement each other. These processes have
now proceeded so far that at the level of human consciousness
we find it hard to form any tolerably clear conception of a field
of consciousness in which an intense sensation, no matter what,
might so to say diffuse over the whole. Colours, e.g. are
with us so distinct from sounds that except as regards the
excitement of attention or the drain upon it there is nothing
in the intensest colour to affect the simultaneous presentation
of a sound. But at the beginning whatever we regard as the
earliest differentiation of sound might have been incopresentable
with the earliest differentiation of colour, if sufficiently diffused,
much as a field of sight all blue is now incopresentable with
one all red. Or, if the stimuli appropriate to both were active
together, the resulting sensation might have been not a blending
of two qualities, as purple is said to be a blending of red and
violet, but rather a neutral sensation without the specific qualities
of either. Now, on the other hand, colours and sounds are
necessarily so far localized that we are directly aware that the
eye is concerned with the one and the ear with the other. This
brings to our notice a fact so ridiculously obvious laco-
that it has never been deemed worthy of mention, present-
although it has undeniably important bearings ability.
the fact, viz. that certain sensations or movements are an
absolute bar to the simultaneous presentation of other sensa-
tions or movements. We cannot see an orange as at once
yellow and green, though we can feel it at once as both smooth
and cool; we cannot open and close the same hand at the same
moment, but we can open one hand while closing the other.
Such incopresentability or contrariety is thus more than mere
difference, and occurs only between presentations belonging
to the same sense or to the same group of movements. Strictly
speaking, it does not always occur even then; for red and yellow,
hot and cold, are presentable together provided they have
certain other differences which we shall meet again presently as
differences of " local sign. "
12. In the preceding paragraphs we have had occasion to
distinguish between the presentation-continuum or whole field
of consciousness, as we may for the present call it,
i j-o- i_- ..i-- u Retentive-
and those several differentiations within this field nesSf
which are ordinarily spoken of as presentations,
and to which now that their true character as parts is clear
THEORY OF PRESENTATIONS]
PSYCHOLOGY
557
we too may confine the term. But it will be well in the next
place, before inquiring more closely into their characteristics,
to consider for a moment that persistence of preceding modifica-
tions which the principle of progressive differentiation implies.
This persistence is best spoken of as retentiveness. It is often
confused with memory, though this is something much more
complex and special; for in memory there is necessarily some
contrast of past and present, whereas here there is simply the
persistence of the old. But what is it that persists ? On our
theory we must answer, the continuum as differentiated, not the
particular differentiation as an isolated unit. If psychologists
have erred in regarding the presentations of one moment as
merely a plurality of units, they have erred in like manner
concerning the so-called residua of such presentations. As we
see a certain colour or a certain object again and again, we do
not go on accumulating images or representations of it, which
are somewhere crowded together like shades on the banks of the
Styx; nor is such colour, or whatever it be, the same at the
hundredth time of presentation as at the first, as the hundredth
impression of a seal on wax would be. There is no such lifeless
fixity in mind. The explanations of perception most in vogue
are far too mechanical and, so to say, atomistic; but we must
fall back upon the unity and continuity of our presentation-
continuum if we are to get a better. Suppose that in the course
of a few minutes we take half a dozen glances at a strange and
curious flower. We have not as many complex presentations
which we might symbolize as FI, Fi, Ft. But rather, at first
only the general outline is noted, next the disposition of petals,
stamens, &c., then the attachment of the anthers, position of
the ovary, arid so on; that is to say, symbolizing the whole
flower as [p'(ab) s' (c d) o' (fg)], we first apprehend say [p'. . s'
..o'}, then \p' (ab) s'..o'.}, or [p' (a..) s' (c..) o' (/..)], and
so forth. It is because the traits first attended to persist that
the later form an addition to them till the complex is at length
complete. There is nothing in this instance properly answering
to what are known as the reproduction and association of ideas;
in the last and complete apprehension as much as in the first
vague and inchoate one the flower is there as a primary presenta-
tion. There is a limit, of course, to such a procedure, but the
instance taken, we may safely say, is not such as to exceed the
bounds of a simultaneous field of consciousness. Assuming
then that such increase of differentiation through the persistence
of preceding differentiations holds of the presentation-continuum
as a whole, we conclude that, in those circumstances in which we
now have a specific sensation of, say, red or sweet, there would
be for some more primitive experience nothing but a vague,
almost organic, sensation, which, however, would persist, so
that on a repetition of the circumstances it could be again
further differentiated. The earlier differentiations, in short,
do not disappear like the waves of yesterday in the calm of to-
day, nor yet last on like old scars beside new ones; but rather
the two are blended and combined, so that the whole field of
consciousness, like a continually growing picture, increases
indefinitely in complexity of pattern.
13. Assimilation. This process, in which later differentiations
blend with and thereby further restrict and specialize what is retained
of earlier and less definite presentations, is thus a further implication
of the principle of the progressive development of the presentational
continuum. When not ignored altogether this further process has
been commonly regarded as merely a simple form of " association,"
its peculiarity being, as it was supposed, that the presentations
associated though numerically distinct were in quality perfectly
identical. In point of fact, both these assumptions seem to be
erroneous and due to the so-called psychologist's fallacy. 1 For the
experiencing subject there is apparentjy at this stage as we have
already urged neither the numerical distinctness nor the qualitative
identity which the words " past impression (Ai) " and " present
impression (A ; ) " suggest. Still the connexion between this process
of mere blending or fusion, which we shall call assimilation, and the
process of association proper is so close, and the detailed analysis
called for so complex, that we must needs defer further discussion
11 we come to treat of association as a whole (cf. below, 24). It
may then be possible to show that we have here to do with a process
1 As, e.g. in interpreting the conduct of children as if they were
already " grown-up " persons; cf. J. Ward, //. of Spec. Phily.
(1882), pp. 369 fin. 374; James, Prin. of Psychy. (1890), i. 196.
much simpler and more fundamental than association. But it is at
least clear at once that if the term association is to be correctly used
it will imply that the presentations associated are from the first
distinct, are attended to as distinct, are associated solely in conse-
quence of such attention, and remain to the last distinguishable.
In view of the intimate connexion between differentiation, reten-
tiveness and assimilation it will sometimes be convenient to refer to
all three together as constituting what we may call the plasticity of
the presentational continuum.
14. This will be the most convenient place to take note of
certain psychological doctrines which, though differ-
ing in some material respects, are usually included
under the term Law of Relativity.
a. Hobbes's Sentire semper idem et non sentire ad idem recidunl
is often cited as one of the first formulations of this law; and if
we take it to apply to the whole field of consciousness it becomes
at once true and trite: a field of consciousness unaltered either
by change of impression or of idea would certainly be a blank
and a contradiction. Understood in this sense the Law of
Relativity amounts to what Hamilton called the Law of Variety:
" that we are conscious only as we are conscious of difference." 1
But, though consciousness involves change, it is still possible
that particular presentations in the field of consciousness may
continue unchanged indefinitely. When it is said that " a
constant impression is the same as a blank," what is meant turns
out to be something not psychological at all, as, e.g., our insen-
sibility to the motion of the earth or to the pressure of the air
cases in which there is obviously no presentation, nor even any
evidence of nervous change. Or else this paradox proves to be
but an awkward way of expressing what we may call accommoda-
tion, whether physiological or psychological. Thus the skin
soon adapts itself to certain seasonal alterations of temperature,
so that heat or cold ceases to be felt: the sensation ceases because
the nervous change, its proximate physical counterpart, has
ceased. Again, there is what James Mill calls " an acquired
incapacity of attention," such that a constant noise, for example,
in which we have no interest, is soon inaudible. In such a case
of psychological accommodation we should expect also to find
on the physiological side some form of central reflection or isola-
tion more or less complete. As a rule, no doubt, impressions
do not continue constant for more than a very short time; still
there are sad instances enough in the history of disease, bodily
and mental, to show that such a thing can quite well happen,
and that such constant impressions (and " fixed ideas," which
are in effect tantamount to them), instead of becoming blanks,
may dominate the entire consciousness, colouring or bewildering
everything.
b. From the fact that the field of consciousness is continually
changing it has been supposed to follow, not only that a constant
presentation is impossible, but as a further consequence
that every presentation is essentially nothing but a transition
or difference. " All feeling," says Bain, the leading exponent
of this view, " is two-sided. . . . We may attend more to one
member of the couple than to the other. . . . We are more
conscious of heat when passing to a higher temperature, and of
cold when passing to a lower. The state we have passed to is
our explicit consciousness, the state we have passed from is our
implicit consciousness." But the transition need not be from
heat to cold, or vice versa: it can equally well take place from
a neutral state, which is indeed the normal state, of neither
heat nor cold; a new-born mammal, e.g. must experience cold,
having never experienced heat. Again, suppose a sailor becalmed
gazing for a whole morning upon a stretch of sea and sky,
what sensations are implicit here? Shall we say yellow as
the greatest contrast to blue, or darkness as the contrary of
light, or both? What, again, is the implicit consciousness
when the explicit is sweet; is it bitter or sour, and from
what is the transition in such a case? For one thing it
seems clear that the transition of attention from one pre-
sentation to another and the differences between the presenta-
tions themselves are distinct facts. It is strange that the
psychologist who has laid such stress on neutral states of surprise
* The Works of Thos. Reid, supplementary note, p. 932.
558
PSYCHOLOGY
[THEORY OF PRESENTATIONS
as being akin to feeling and so distinct from special presentations,
should in any way confound the two. The mistake is perhaps
accounted for by the fact that Bain, in common with the rest
of his school, nowhere distinguishes between attention and the
presentations that are attended to. If " change of impression "
and being conscious or mentally alive are the same thing, it is
then manifestly tautologous to say that one is the indispensable
condition of the other. If they are not the same thing, then the
succession of shocks or surprises cannot wholly determine the
impressions which successively determine them.
But we have still to consider whether the impressions them-
selves are nothing but differences or contrasts. " We do not
know any one thing of itself but only the difference between it
and another thing," said Bain. But it is plain we cannot speak
of contrast or difference between two states or things as a
contrast or difference, if the states or things are not themselves
presented; the so-called contrast or difference would then be
itself a single presentation, and its supposed " relativity " but an
inference. Difference is not more necessary to the presentation
of two objects than two objects to the presentation of difference.
And, what is more, a difference between presentation is not at all
the same thing as the presentation of that difference. The former
must precede the latter; the latter, which requires active com-
parison, need not follow. There is an ambiguity in the words
" know," " knowledge," which Bain seems not to have con-
sidered: " to know " may mean either to perceive or apprehend,
or it may mean to understand or comprehend. 1 Knowledge in
the first sense is only what we shall have presently to discuss as
the recognition or assimilation of an impression (see below,
18); knowledge in the latter sense is the result" of intellectual
comparison and is embodied in a proposition. Thus a blind
man who cannot know light in the first sense can know about
light in the second if he studies a treatise on optics. Now in
simple perception or recognition we cannot with any exactness
say that two things are perceived: straight is a thing, i.e. a
definite object presented; not so not-straight, which answers to no
definite object at all. Only when we rise to intellectual know-
ledge is it true to say: " No one could understand the meaning
of a straight line without being shown a line not straight, a bent
or crooked line." 2 Two distinct presentations are necessary
to the comparison that is here implied; but we must first re-
cognize our objects before we can compare them, and this further
step we may never take. We need, then, to distinguish between
the comparativity of intellectual knowledge, which we must
admit for it rests at bottom on a purely analytical proposition
and the " differential theory of presentations," which, however
plausible at first sight, must be wrong somewhere, since it com-
mits us to absurdities. Thus, if we cannot have a presentation
X but only the presentation of the difference between Y and Z,
it would seem that in like manner we cannot have the presen-
tation of Y or Z, nor therefore of their difference X, till we have
had the presentation of A and B say, which differ by Y, and
of C and D, which we may suppose differ by Z.
The lurking error in this doctrine, that all presentations are
but differences, may perhaps emerge if we examine more closely
what may be meant by difference. We may speak of (a) dif-
ferences in intensity between sensations supposed to be qualita-
tively identical, as e.g. between the taste of strong and weak
tea; or of (b) differences in quality between presentations of the
same sense, as e.g. between red and green; or of (c) differences
between presentations of distinct senses, as e.g. between blue
and bitter. Now as regards (a) and (b), it will be found that the
difference between two intensities of the same quality, or between
two qualities of the same order, may be itself a distinct pre-
1 Other languages give more prominence to this distinction ;
compare yvSivai and tUivtu, noscere and scire, kennen and wissen,
connaUre and savoir. On this subject there are some acute remarks
in a little-known book, the Exploratio philosophica, of Professor J.
Grote. Hobbes, too, was well awake to this difference, as e.g. when
he says, " There are two kinds of knowledge; the one, sense or know-
ledge original and remembrance of the same; the other, science or
knowledge of the truth of propositions, derived from understanding."
* Bain, Logic, i. 3.
sentation, that is to say, in passing from a load of 10 Ib to one of
20 Ib, for example, or from the sound of a note to that of its
octave, it is possible to experience the change continuously,
and to estimate it as one might the distance between two places on
the same road. But nothing of this kind holds of (c). 3 In pass-
ing from the scent of a rose to the sound of a gong or a
sting from a bee we have no such means of bringing the
two into relation scarcely more than we might have of
measuring the length of a journey made partly on the com-
mon earth and partly through the looking-glass. In (c),
then, we have only a diversity of presentations, but not a
special presentation of difference; and we only have more than
this in (a) or (b) provided the selected presentations occur
together. We say that we know the difference between a sound
and a taste; but what we mean is simply that we know what it
is to pass from attending to the one to attending to the other.
It is simply an experience of change. Change, however, im-
plies continuity, and there is continuity here in the movement
of attention and the affective state consequent on that, but
not directly in the qualities themselves.
c. If red follows green we may be aware of a greater difference
than we could if red followed orange; and we should ordinarily
call a 10 Ib load heavy after one of 5 Ib and light after one
of 20 Ib. Facts like these it is which make the differential
theory of presentations plausible. On the strength of such
facts Wundt has formulated a law of relativity, free, apparently,
from the objections just urged against Bain's doctrine.
It runs thus: " Our sensations afford no absolute but only
a relative measure of external impressions. The intensities of
stimuli, the pitch of tones, the qualities of light, we apprehend
(empfinden) in general only according to their mutual relation,
not according to any unalterably fixed unit given along with
or before the impression itself." 4
But if true this law would make it quite immaterial what the
impressions themselves were: provided the relation continued
the same, the sensation would be the same too, just as the ratia
of 2 to i is the same whether our unit be miles or millimetres.
In the case of intensities, e.g. there is a minimum sensibile and a
maximum sensibile. The existence of such extremes is alone
sufficient to turn the flank of the thoroughgoing relativists; but
there are instances enough of intermediate intensities that are
directly recognized. A letter-sorter, for example, who iden-
tifies an ounce or two ounces with remarkable exactness iden-
tifies each for itself and not the first as half the second; of an
ounce and a half or of three ounces he may have a compara-
tively vague idea. And so generally within certain limits of
error, indirectly ascertained, we can identify intensities, each for
itself, neither referring to a common standard nor to one that
varies from time to time to any intensity, that is to say, that
chances to be simultaneously presented; just as an enlisting
sergeant will recognize a man fit for the Guards without a yard
measure and whether the man's comrades are tall or short. As
regards the qualities of sensations the outlook of the relativists
is, if anything, worse. In what is called Meyer's experiment
(described under VISION) what appears greenish on a red ground
will appear of an orange tint on a ground of blue; but this
contrast is only possible within certain very narrow limits. In
fact, the phenomena of colour-contrast, so far from proving,
distinctly disprove that we apprehend the qualities of light only
according to their mutual relation. In the case of tones it is very
questionable whether such contrasts exist at all. Summing up
on the particular doctrine of relativity of which Wundt is the
most distinguished adherent, the truth seems to be that, in some
cases where two presentations whose difference is itself present-
able occur in close connexion, this difference as we indirectly
learn exerts a certain bias on the assimilation or identification
* Common language seems to recognize some connexion even here
or we should not speak of harsh tastes and harsh sounds, or of dull
sounds and dull colours and so forth. All this is, however, super-
added to the sensation, probably on the ground of similarities in the
accompanying organic sensations.
4 Physiologische Psychologic, 1st ed., p. 421 ; the doctrine reappears
in later editions, but no equally general statement of it is given.
THEORY OF PRESENTATIONS]
PSYCHOLOGY
559
of one or both of the presentations. There is no " unalterably
fixed unit " certainly, but, on the other hand, " the mutual
relations of impressions " are not everything.
15. The term " field of consciousness " has occurred sundry
times in the course of this exposition: it is one of several em-
Subcon- ployed in describing what have been incidentally
Kiousaess. re f errec j to as " degrees or grades of consciousness "
a difficult and perplexing topic that we must now endeavour
further to elucidate. Sailors steering by night are said to look
at the pole-star, " the cynosure of every eye," but this does not
prevent them from seeing the rest of the starry vault. At a
conversazione we may listen to some one speaker while still
hearing the murmur of other voices, and while b'stening we may
also see the speaker and thereby identify him the better. What
in these instances is looked at or listened to has been called the
" focus " of consciousness, the rest of what is heard or seen or
otherwise presented being called the " field " within which
attention is thus concentrated or brought to a point. Of these
objects beyond the focus we have then only a lower degree of
consciousness, and the more " distant " they are from the
centre of interest the fainter and obscurer they are supposed
to be or to become. Now, it is obvious that the continuity here
implied, if strictly taken, logically commits us to a field of con-
sriousness extending with ever diminishing intensity ad in-
drjinitum. But we have next to notice certain new features
that have led psychologists to give to the term field of con-
sciousness a more restricted meaning. A meteor Sashing
across the sky would certainly divert the helmsman's attention,
and for the nonce he would look at that and not at the star in
the Little Bear's tail; a voice at our elbow accosting us, we
should turn to the new speaker and listen to him, still hearing
it may be, but no longer " following," the discourse thus for
us interrupted. In these cases a change in the field of con-
sciousness brings about a non-voluntary change in the focus.
But it only does so provided it is sufficiently intense and abrupt,
and the more attention is already concentrated the less effective
a given disturbance will be. A whole swarm of meteors might
have streaked the sky unheeded while Ulysses, life in hand,
steered between Scylla and Charybdis, just as all the din of the
siege failed to distract Archimedes bent over his figures in the
sand. On the other hand, we can voluntarily transfer the focus
of consciousness to any object within the field, provided again
this is sufficiently differentiated from the rest. But, more than
that, we can not only of our own motion turn to look at or to
listen to what we have only seen or heard, but not noticed before;
we can also look out or listen for something not as yet distinguish-
able, perhaps not as yet existing at all. And here again the con-
centration of attention may be maximal, as when a shipwrecked
crew scan the horizon for a sail, or a beleaguered troop hearken
for the oncoming of rescue. Now, such anticipated presentations
as soon as they are clearly discernible have already a certain
finite intensity, and so they are said to have passed over " the
threshold " to use Herbart's now classic phrase and to have
entered the field of consciousness. Afterwards any further
increase in their intensity is certainly gradual; are we then to
suppose that before this their intensity changed instantly from
zero to a finite quantity and not rather that there was an ultra-
liminal or subliminal phrase where too it only changed con-
tinuously? The latter alternative constitutes the hypothesis
of subconsciousness.
According to this hypothesis the total field with which we
began is divided into two parts by what Fechner emphatically
called "the fact of the threshold," and the term field of con-
sciousness is henceforth restricted to that part within which the
focus of consciousness always lies, the outlying part being the
region of subconsciousness. Difficulties now begin to be
apparent. The intensity or vivacity of a presentation within
the field of consciousness depends partly on what we may call
its inherent or absolute intensity, partly on the attention that
it receives; but this does not hold of presentations in subcon-
sciousness. These sub-presentations, as we ought perhaps to
call them, cannot be severally and selectively attended to,
cannot be singled out as direct objects of experience. Many psy-
chologists have accordingly maintained not only that they cannot
with propriety be called presentations, but that they have no
strictly psychical existence at all. This, however, is too extreme
a view. If nothing of a presentational character can exist
save in the field of consciousness as thus circumscribed by a
definite boundary or threshold, a breach of continuity is implied
such as we nowhere else experience: even the field of sight,
from which the metaphor of a field of consciousness is derived,
has no such definite margin. The threshold then is not com-
parable to a mathematical line on opposite sides of which there
is an intensive discontinuity. This has been amply proved
by the psychophysical investigations of Fechner and others.
We listen, say, to a certain sound as it steadily diminishes; at
length we cease to hear it. Again, we listen for this same sound
as it steadily increases and presently just barely hear it. In
general it is found that its intensity in the former case is less
than it is in the latter, and there is also in both cases a certain
margin of doubt between clear presence and clear absence; the
presentation seems to flicker in and out, now there and now
gone. Further, in comparing differences in sensations of
weight, brightness, temperature, &c. we may fail wholly to
detect the difference between a and b, b and c, and yet the
difference between a and c may be clearly perceived. We have
thus to recognize the existence of a difference between sensa-
tions, although there is no so-called " sensation of difference."
But if this much continuity must be admitted we can hardly
fail to admit more. If differences of presentation exist within
the field of consciousness beyond the outermost verge of the
" threshold of difference," we cannot consistently deny the
existence of any presentations at all beyond the threshold of
consciousness. Since the field of consciousness varies greatly and
often suddenly with the amount and distribution of attention,
we must, as already said, either recognize such subconscious
presentations or suppose that clearly differentiated presenta-
tions, presentations that is to say of finite intensity, pass
abruptly into or out of existence with every such variation of
the field.
The hypothesis of subconsciousness, then, is in the main
nothing more than the application to the facts of presentation
of the law of continuity, its introduction into psychology being
due to Leibnitz, who first formulated that law. Half the diffi-
culties in the way of its acceptance are due to our faulty ter-
minology. With Leibnitz consciousness was not coextensive
with all psychical life, but only with certain higher phases of
it. 1 Of late, however, the tendency has been to make con-
sciousness cover all stages of mental development, and all grades
of presentation, so that a presentation of which there is no con-
sciousness resolves itself into the manifest contradiction of an
unpresented presentation a contradiction not involved in
Leibnitz's " unapperceived perception." But such is not the
meaning intended when it is said, for example, that a soldier in
battle is often unconscious of his wounds or a scholar unconscious
at any one time of most of the knowledge " hidden in the obscure
recesses of his mind." There would be no point in saying a
subject is not conscious of what is not presented at all; but to say
that what is presented lacks the intensity requisite in the given
distribution of attention to change that distribution appreciably
is pertinent enough. Subconscious presentations may tell on
conscious life as sunshine or mist tells on a landscape, or the
underlying writing on a palimpsest although lacking either
the intensity or the individual distinctness requisite to make
them definite features. Even if there were no facts to warrant
1 The following brief passage from his Principes de la nature et de
la grace ( 4) shows his meaning: " II est bon de faire distinction
entre la Perception, qui est l'tat intdrieur de la Monade reprfeentant
les chpses externes, et I' Apperception, qui est la Conscience, ou la
connaissance reflexive de cet <tat interieur, laquclle n'est point
donnde a toutes les ames, ni toujours a la menu Ante. Et c'est faute
de cette distinction que les Cartesiens ont manque, en comptant
pour rien les perceptions dont on ne s'appercoit pas, comme le peuple
compte pour rien les corps insensibles (Op. Phil. Erdmann's ed.,
P- 7I5)-
560
PSYCHOLOGY
[SENSATION
this concept of an ultra-liminal presentation of impressions it
might still claim an a priori justification.
The subconscious presentation of ideas as distinct from im-
pressions calls, however, for some special consideration. As we
can turn our attention to the sensory threshold
*c/ous"deas an( ^ awa ' t tne entrance of an expected impression,
' so we may await the emergence of a "memory-
image "; and again the threshold turns out to be not a mathe-
matically exact boundary but a region of varying depth. 1 What
we are trying to recollect seems first to waver, now at the tip of
our tongue and the next moment completely gone, then per-
haps a moment afterwards rising into clear consciousness.
Sometimes when asked, say, for the name of a certain college
contemporary we reply: I cannot tell, but I should know the
name if I heard it. We are aware that we could " recognize,"
though we cannot " reproduce. " At other times we are con-
fident that even recognition is no longer possible, and still if we
met the man himself in the old scenes and heard his voice his
name might yet recur. Nevertheless, it may be urged, it is
surely incredible that all the incidents of a long lifetime and all
the items of knowledge of a well-stored mind that may possibly
recur " the infinitely greater part of our spiritual treasures,"
as Hamilton says are severally retained and continuously pre-
sented in the form and order in which they were originally
experienced or acquired. This, however, is not implied. Images
in contrast to impressions have always a certain generality.
The same image may figure in very various connexions, as may
the same letter, for example, in many words, the same word in
many sentences. We cannot measure the literature of a language
by its vocabulary, nor may we equate the extent of our " spiritual
treasures " when these are successively unfolded with the
psychical apparatus, so to say, in which they are subconsciously
involved. 2 Take the first book of the Aeneid, which, as Macaulay
would say, every schoolboy knows: as subconsciously involved,
when the boy is not thinking of it, his knowledge is more com-
parable to a concordance than to the text itself, which never-
theless can be reproduced from it. In the text Aeneas occurs
many times, in the concordance as a heading but once. But
give him the cue Aeneas scopulum, and the boy reels off from the
iSoth line; or Praecipue plus Aeneas, and he starts with the 22oth.
But ask him for the sSoth line; he is probably helpless, while
a dunce with the book in his hand can read it off at once. Say
instead Et paler Aeneas, and the boy can straightway com-
plete the line while the dunce is now helpless. So though its
explicit revival is successional, occurs, so to say, in single file,
a whole scheme in which many ideas are involved may rise
towards the threshold together. When our schoolboy, for
example, turns from classics to geography, the mention of
Atlas, which might then have recalled a Titan, now leads him
to think only of his book of maps. And there is a like sudden
shifting of the substratum of our thoughts, when, taking up the
morning paper, we glance first at the foreign telegrams, then at
the money market, and then at the doings of our political
friends. Yet more remote than all, obscurer but more per-
vasive, like the clouds of cherubs or imps vaguely limned in
medieval pictures, are the indefinite constituents of our emo-
tional atmosphere, " gay motes that people the sunbeams "
of our cheerfulness and make all couleur de rose, or " horrid
shapes and sights unholy " that overcast the outlook when we
" have the blues." And as attention relaxes, these advance into
the foreground and become more or less palpable hopes or fears.
1 Herbart and Fechner describe subconscious presentations gener-
ally as existing below the threshold. On the other hand, we have
spoken of subconscious sensations as existing beyond it. In view of
the important differences between the two forms of presentations
primary and secondary, this distinction of ultra-liminal and sub-
liminal seems convenient and justifiable.
2 This doctrine of the involution and evolution of ideas we owe
to Leibnitz. Herbart attempted in a very arbitrary and a priori
fashion to develop it into a physical statics and dynamics with the
result usual to extreme views that later psychologists neglected
it altogether. There are now signs of a fresh reaction, and we shall
. continually come across evidence of the wide range and great import-
ance of the doctrine as we proceed.
Because of the manifold forms into which they may evolve,
subconscious images, while still involved, are sometimes called
" psychical " or more definitely " presentational dispositions."
The word disposition means primarily an arrangement, as when
we talk of the disposition of troops in a battle or of cards in
a game; the disposita, that is to say, are always something
actual. Which of several potential dispositions they will actually
assume will depend upon circumstances, but at least, as Leibnitz
long ago maintained, " les puissances veritables ne sont jamais
des simples possibilites." What is requisite to the realization
of a given potentiality is sometimes a condition to be added,
sometimes it is one to be taken away. A locomotive with the
fire out has no tendency to move, but with steam up it is only
hindered from moving by the closure of the throttle-valve or
the friction of the brake. Now presentational dispositions we
assume to be of the latter sort. They are processes or functions
more or less inhibited, and the inhibition is determined by their
relation to other psychical processes or functions. The analysis
and genesis of these presentational interactions will occupy us
at length by and by; it may then be possible to explain the
gradual involution of what was successively unfolded in ex-
plicit consciousness into those combinations which Herbart
called " apperception-masses," combinations devoid of the con-
crete hints of date and place which are essential to memory.
Meanwhile the evidence adduced decidedly cogent though
admittedly indirect together with the difficulties besetting
the extreme view that beyond or, below the threshold of con-
sciousness there is nothing presentational, seems clearly to
justify the hypothesis of subconsciousness. At the same time
the principle of continuity, everywhere of fundamental im-
portance when we are dealing with reality, forbids the attempt
arbitrarily to assign any limits to the subconscious.
Many psychologists have proposed to explain subconscious
retention by habit. But it is obvious that habit itself implies
retention and is practically synonymous with disposition; it
must therefore presuppose disposita if we are to escape the
absurdities of puissances ou facultes mtes, with which in this
very connexion Leibnitz twitted Locke. Yet, obvious as all
this may be, it is frequently ignored even by those who are fond
of exposing the pretended explanations of the " faculty-psycho-
logists " and quoting Moliere to confute them. Thus we find
J. S. Mill arguing: " I have the power to walk across the room
though I am sitting in my chair; but we should hardly call this
power a latent act of walking." 3 Nor should we call it a power
at all if Mill had been paralysed, or if, instead of sitting in his
chair, he had been lying in his cradle. What we want is the
simplest psychological description of the situation after the
power has been acquired by practice and is still retained. In
such a case we can be conscious of the " idea " of the move-
ment without the movement actually ensuing; yet only in such
wise that the idea is more apt to pass over into action the in-
tenser it is, and often actually passes over in spite of us. Surely
there must be some functional activity answering to this con-
scious presentation; why may not a much less amount of it
be conceived possible in subconscious presentation?
Sensation, Movement and the External World.
16. On the view of experience here maintained, we are
bound to challenge the description of sensations 4 as due to
physical stimuli widely current though it is as
one that is psychologically inappropriate. The
following definition, given by Bain, may be taken
as a type: " By sensations, in the strict meaning, we under-
stand the mental impressions, feelings or states of consciousness
following on the action of external things on some part of the
body, called on that account sensitive." 6 It is true, no
doubt, that what the psychologist calls sensibility has as its
invariable concomitant what physiologists call sensibility,
3 Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy, 3rd ed., p. 329.
4 For a detailed account of the various sensations and perceptions
pertaining to the several senses the reader is referred to the articles
VISION; HEARING; TOUCH; TASTE; SMELL, &c.
6 Senses and Intellect, 4th ed. (1894), p. 101.
SENSATION]
PSYCHOLOGY
561
or what the more careful of them call irritability; and, true
again, that this irritability is invariably preceded by a
physical process called stimulation. But it may be urged,
why not recognize a connexion that actually obtains, since
otherwise sensation must remain unexplained ? Well, in
the first place, such " psychophysical " connexion is not a
psychological explanation: it cannot be turned directly to
account in psychology, either analytic or genetic. Next the
psychological fact called sensation always is, and at bottom
always must be, independently ascertained; for the physiological
" neurosis " or irritation has not necessarily a concomitant
" psychosis " or sensation and, strictly dealt with, affords no
hint of such. Finally, this inexplicability of sensation is a
psychological fact of the utmost moment: it answers to what
we call reality in the primary sense of the term. The psycho-
. physicist, in setting out to explain sensation, has unawares to
himself left this fundamental reality behind him. For it
belongs essentially to individual experience, and this in as-
suming the physical standpoint he has of course transcended.
Nevertheless the mistake of method that here reveals itself was
perhaps inevitable, for the facts of another's sense-organs and
their physical excitants must have obtruded themselves on
observation long before the reflective attitude was advanced
enough to make strictly psychological analysis possible. The
psychophysical standpoint, that is to say, was attained before
the purely psychological; and the consequent bias is only
now in process of correction. A series of physical processes,
first without and then within the organism ethereal or aerial
vibrations, neural and cerebral excitations was the starting-
point. What comes first, immediately, and alone, in the indi-
vidual's experience, and is there simply and positively real,
was then misinterpreted as subjective modification, mental
impression, species sensibiles, or the like. For from the days
of Democritus to our own the same crude metaphor has pre-
vailed without essential variation. And here the saying holds:
Vestigia nulla retrorsum. Into the man's head the whole
world goes, including the head itself. Such thoroughgoing
" introjection " affords no ground for subsequent " projection."
Thus the endeavour to explain sensation overreaches itself: the
external object or thing that was supposed to cause sensations
and to be therefore distinct from them, was in the end wholly
resolved into these and regarded as built out of them by asso-
ciation (Mill) or by apperceptive synthesis (Kant). But no
" mental chemistry," no initial alchemy of " forms," can
generate objective reality from feelings or sense-impressions as
psychophysically defined. 1 A's experience as it is for B is not
real but inferential; and if the grounds of the inference, which are
the only realities for B, are to be regarded as the causes of which
A's experiences are merely the effects, then the two experiences
are on a wholly different footing. When A treats B in the same
fashion we get the world in duplicate: (i) as original and out-
side, i.e. as cause, and (2) as copied within each percipient's
head, i.e. as effect. But when B interprets his own experience
as he had interpreted A's we seem to have lost the real world
altogether. In presence of this dilemma, the philosophers
of our time, as already said, are feeling it needful to revise their
psychology. The question of method is vital. If the psycho-
physical standpoint were the more fundamental, psychology
would be based on physiology, and the old definition of
sensation might stand. If, on the other hand, it is the exclusive
business of psychology to analyse and trace the development
of individual experience as it is for the experiencing individual,
then however much neurological evidence may be employed
as a means of ascertaining psychological facts the facts them-
selves must be scrupulously divested of all physical implications,
the psychophysical method takes a secondary place, and the
objective reality of " sensory " presentations stands unim-
peached.
The duality of subject and object in experience compels us also
to object to the description of sensations as " states of conscious-
1 Nothing shows this more plainly than the newly-coined term
epiphcnomenon now applied in this connexion.
ness." Since it is the subject, not the object that is conscious, the
term state of consciousness implies strictly a subjective reference;
and so it is only applicable to sensations, if they are regarded as
subjective modifications, either affective or active. The former
would identify sensation with feeling, and this for reasons already
given we must disallow. But it is true that a sensation, like other
presentations, implies the subjective activity we call attention; it
is not, however, a modification or state of this activity, but the object
of it This relation is expressed in German by means of the distinc-
tion generally of Vorstellen and Vorstellung and in the present case
of Empfinden and Empfindung; and German psychology has gained
in clearness in consequence. The distinction of conception and
concept (conceit) is to be found in older English writers and was
revived by Sir W. Hamilton, who suggested also the analogous
distinction of perception and percept. It would be a great gain if
there were a corresponding pair of terms to distinguish between
" the sensing act " and the object " sensed," as some have been
driven to say. Reception and recept at once occur and seem unex-
ceptionable apart, of course, from their novelty.* At any rate, if
we are to rest content with our present untechnical terminology we
must understand sensations to mean objective changes as they first
break in upon the experience of our psychological individual ; in this
respect Locke's term " impression " has a certain appropriateness.
What we ordinarily call a single sensation has not only a
characteristic quality but it is also quantitatively determined
in respect of intensity, protensity (or duration) and extensity.
A plurality of properties, it may be said, straightway implies
complexity of some sort. This is obvious and un- character-
deniable; psychological as distinct from psychical s l*tk*of
analysis of simple sensations is possible, and the Se"saaoa.
description just given is reached by means of it. Such analysis,
however, presupposes the comparison of many sensations; but
to the complexity it discloses there is no answering plurality
discernible in the immediate experience of a single sensa-
tion. To make this clearer let us start from a case in which
such plurality can be directly verified. In a handful of rose
petals we are aware at once of a definite colour, a definite odour
and a definite " feel." Here there is a plurality (a+b+c),
any part of which can be withdrawn from our immediate experi-
ence without prejudice to the rest, for we can close the eyes,
hold the nose, or drop the petals on the table. Let us now
turn to the colour alone; this we say has a certain quality, in-
tensity, extensity, &c. But not only have we not one sense
for quality, another for intensity, &c., but we cannot reduce the
intensity to zero and yet have the quality remaining; nor can
we suppress the quality and still retain the extensity. In this
case then what we have is not a plurality of presentations (a+b
+c), but a single presentation having a plurality of attributes
(a b c) so related that the absence of any one annihilates the
whole. But though, as already said, such single presentation
gives, as it stands, no evidence of this plurality, yet it is to be
remembered that in actual experience we do not deal with
sensations in isolation; here, accordingly, we find evidence in
plenty to justify our psychological analysis. In innumerable
cases we experience varieties of intensity with little or no ap-
parent change of quality, as happens, for example, when a
sounding pitch-pipe is moved towards or away from the ear;
and continuous changes of quality without any change of in-
tensity, as happens when the pipe is shortened or lengthened
without any alteration of position. We may have tactual or
visual sensations which vary greatly in extensity without any
striking change of quality, and we may have such sensations
in every possible variety of quality without any changes of
extensity.
The numerous and striking diversities among our present
sensations are obviously not primordial; what account then
can we give of their gradual differentiation ? Some psycho-
logists have assumed the existence of absolute " units of
1 Reception docs not in English suggest the taking back of the
Latin recipere; it expresses only the comparative passivity of sense.
In contrast to percipere (to take entire possession of) it implies
the absence of that assimilation which is essential to perception; and
finally it contrasts appropriately with retention.
3 This distinction, though continually overlooked, is vitally impor-
tant. By psychological analysis we mean such analysis as the
psychological observer can reflectively make, by psychical analysis
only such analysis as is possible in the immediate experience of the
subject observed.
562
PSYCHOLOGY
[SENSATION
sensibility," all identically the same, and explain the unlike-
nesses in our existing sensations as resulting " from unlike
Differentia- modes of integration of these absolute units." 1
ttoa of The sole evidence on which they rely is physiological,
Sensation. ^jj e supposed existence of a single nerve shock or
neural tremor. It is true that in an extirpated nerve what is
known as the " negative variation " is approximately such an
isolated event of uniform quality. But the same cannot be
said of what happens during the stimulation of a nerve in situ
with its peripheral and central connexions still intact. The
only evidence apparently to which we can safely appeal in this
inquiry is that furnished by biology. Protoplasm, the so-
called " physical basis of life," is amenable to stimulation by
every form of physical agency mechanical, chemical, thermal,
photical, electrical with the single exception of magnetism;
and in keeping with this it is found that unicellular organisms
respond, and respond in ways more or less peculiar, to each
of these possible modes of excitation. Since, so far as is known,
there is no morphological separation of function in these lowest
forms of life, it is reasonably assumed that the single cell acts
the part of " universal sense-organ," and that the advance to
such complete differentiation of sense-organs as we find among
the higher vertebrates has been a gradual advance. Numerous
facts can now be adduced of the occurrence of " transitional "
or " alternating " sense-organs among the lower forms of multi-
cellular animals; organs, that is to say, which are normally
responsive to two or more kinds of stimulus, and thus hold
an intermediate position between the universal sense-organ
of the Protozoa and the special sense-organ of the Mammalia.
For example, a group of cells which would behave towards all
stimuli impartially were they independent unicellular organ-
isms become, as an organ in a multicellular organism, amenable
only to mechanical or only to chemical stimuli, become, that is
to say, an organ of touch and of hearing, or an organ of taste
and also of smell; until, finally, when differentiation is suffi-
ciently advanced, the group ends by becoming exclusively
the organ of one specified sense, touch or hearing in the one case,
taste or smell in the other. 2 Of course the imperfectly special-
ized sensations, say of the leech, and still more the wholly
unspecialized sensations of the amoeba, cannot be regarded
as blends of some or all of those which we are said to receive
through our five senses. We must rather suppose that sen-
sations at the outset corresponded very closely with the general
vital action of stimuli as distinct from their action on specially
differentiated sensory apparatus. Even now we are still aware
of the general effects of light, heat, fresh air, food, &c., as in-
vigorating or depressing quite apart from their specific qualities.
Hence the frequent use of the term general or common sen-
sibility (coenesthesis) . But, though less definitely discriminated,
the earlier, and what we call the lower, sensations are not any
less concrete than the later and higher. They have been called
general rather than specific, not because psychologically they
lack any essential characteristic of sensation which those ac-
quired later possess, but simply because physiologically they
are not, like these, correlated to special sense-organs.
But, short of resolving such sensations into combinations
of one primordial modification of consciousness, if we could
Complexity conceive such, there are many interesting facts
of which point clearly to a complexity that we can
Sensations. se id om directly detect. Several of our supposed
sensations of taste, e.g., are complicated with sensations of touch
and smell: thus the pungency of pepper and the dryness of wine
are tactual sensations, and their spicy flavours are really smells.
How largely smells mingle with what we ordinarily take to be
simply tastes is best brought home to us by a severe cold in the
head, as this temporarily prevents the access of exhalations
to the olfactory surfaces. The difference between the smooth
feel of a polished surface and the roughness of one that is
1 Cf. G. H. Lewes, Problems of Life and Mind (1879), vol. iii.
pp. 250 sqq. ; H. Spencer, Principles of Psychology, vol. i. 60.
* Cf. W. A. Nagel, " Die Phylogenese specifischer Sinnesorgane,"
Bibliotheca zoologica (1894), pp. 1-42.
unpolished, though to direct introspection an irresolvable differ-
ence of quality, is probably due to the fact that several nerve-
terminations are excited in each case: where the sensation is one
of smoothness all are stimulated equally; where it is one of
roughness the ridges compress the nerve-ends more, and the
hollows compress them less, than the level parts do. The most
striking instance in point, however, is furnished by the differences
in musical sounds, to which the name limbre is given. To the
inattentive or uninstructed ear notes or "compound tones"
appear to be only qualitatively diverse and not to be com-
plexes of simple tones. Yet it is possible with attention and
practice to distinguish these partial tones in a note produced
on one instrument, a horn, say, and to recognize that they are
different from those of the same note produced on a different
instrument, for example, a violin.
In like manner many persons believe that they can discriminate*
in certain colours, hence called " mixed," the elementary colours of
which they are held to be composed ; red and yellow, for example, in
orange, or blue and red in violet. But in so thinking they appear
to be misled, partly by the resemblance that certainly exists between
orange and red, on the one hand, and orange and yellow on the other,
the two colours between which in the colour spectrum it invariably
stands; and partly by the knowledge that, as a pigment, orange is
obtainable by the mixture of red and yellow pigments; and so in the
other cases. As we shall see later, however ( 39), in this particular
case of sensory continua, resemblance is no proof of complexity.
Were it otherwise we should have to conclude that a given tone,
since this also resembles the two between which it is intermediate,
ought to be a blend of both ; whereas, in point of fact, the tone d
though as regards pitch it has a certain resemblance to c and e, its
neighbours on either side differs widely from the chord c-e, which is
made up of these. In all cases in which the psychical complexity
of a sensation is beyond dispute the partial sensations are distin-
guished by discernible differences of extensity, and usually of inten-
sity as well. Thus, if the skin be touched by the point of a hot or
cold bradawl the temperature sensation has not the punctual
character of the touch but seems rather to surround this as a sort of
penumbra. Similarly, the ground-tone of a clang-complex has not
only a greater intensity but also a greater extensity than any of the
over-tones. 3 There is also in such cases a certain rivalry or antago-
nism between the complex as an unanalysed whole and the complex
as analysed, and even between the several partial sensations after
such analysis. In the absence of such direct evidence it is unwarrant-
able to infer psychical complexity from complexity in the physical
stimuli, even when this is really present. In the case of pigment
mixture, however, there is no such physical complexity as is vulgarly
supposed. And it is worth noting that white light is physically the
most complex of all, whereas the answering sensation is not only
simple but probably the most primitive of all visual sensations.
Every sensation within the fields of consciousness has sen-
sibly some continuous duration and seems sensibly to admit
of some continuous variation in intensity and ex-
tensity. But whether this quantitative continuity
of presentational change is more than apparent has
been questioned. Sensations of almost liminal intensity are
found to fluctuate every few seconds, and, as already remarked,
when the threshold of intensity is actually reached, they seem
intermittently to appear and disappear, a fact which Hume long
ago did not fail to notice. The results of numerous experi-
ments, however, justify the conclusion that these variations
are due primarily to oscillation of attention, and furnish so far
no ground for the assumption that even the liminal sensation
is discontinuous. But again we can only detect a difference
of intensity when this is of finite amount and bears a certain
constant ratio to the initial intensity with which it is compared
a fact commonly known as Weber's Law. But this imper-
fection in our power of discrimination is no proof that our sen-
sations vary discontinuously; and not only is there no positive
evidence in favour of such discontinuity, but it is altogether
improbable on general grounds. Lastly, there is always more
or less distinctness in the several nerve-endings as well as
isolation of the nerve-fibres themselves. The skin, for example,
when carefully explored, turns out to be a complex mosaic of
so-called " spots," severally responding to stimulation by sen-
sations of pressure, heat, cold and pain. But from this to
argue that the extensity of a sensation is really a mere aggre-
gate without any continuity is on a par with calling a lake a
* Cf . Stumpf , Tonpsychologie, ii. 58 seq.
SENSATION]
PSYCHOLOGY
5 6 3
'
collection of pools because it is fed by separate streams. If
it could be shown that in the brain as a whole there is no func-
tional continuity a formidable psychophysical problem would
no doubt arise.
As regards the quality of sensations the primitive sensation
of sight appears to consist only of the single quality we call
" light," a quality which ranges in intensity from
a dazzling brightness that becomes painful and
blinding down to a zero of complete darkness; a limit
which, however, is never completely attained, since the retina
is always more or less internally stimulated hence what is
called the eye's own light (Eigenlichl). The first responses to
light-stimulation seem to be very much on a par with our own
to diffused heat or cold; some organisms seek the light and
others shun it. As little as our temperature-sense yields us a
perception of form does the light-sense at this level yield any.
Not until the stage of visual spatial perception is reached and
some discrimination of form is possible, do black and white
attain the meaning they now have for us. An object can be
visually perceived only when its colour or shade differs from
that of the surrounding field; so far black as a " secondary
quality " is on a par with colour, that is to say, when we are
talking of things it may be called a quality. But there is
still an important difference; in a light field many colours or
shades may be distinguished, but in a dark field none. Though
it is correct to speak of perceiving a black object, must we not
then maintain that so far as it is really black 1 the object
yields us directly no sensation? Similarly, the piper is said to
" feel " the holes in his whistle when actually he only touches
the solid metal in which they are pierced; or the soldier is said
to hear the tattoo, though he has no auditory sensation of the
silence intervening between successive taps on the drum. And
it has yet to be shown that there is any more justification for
speaking of visual sensations without luminosity. Meanwhile
we must maintain that in absolute darkness we do not see black,
since we do not see at all. No doubt we ate prone to identify
the two concepts darkness and blackness, for what we may call
their sensory content is the same, viz. the absence of visual
sensation.
Whereas in nature the only diffused light we need consider is
that emitted by the sun, the rays transmitted by the things about us
vary in physical quality and in their effects upon protoplasm. As
soon, therefore, as visual forms can be distinguished, a differentiation
among light-sensations becomes obviously advantageous. The first
colours to be differentiated were probably yellow ana blue, or perhaps
it would be truer to say " warm " colour and " cold " colour, upon
which there followed a further differentiation of the warm colour
into red and green. 1 It is interesting to note that all possible sensa-
tions of colour constitute a specific continuum. We may represent it
by a sphere, in which (a) the maximum of luminosity is at one pole
and the minimum at the other; (6) the series of colours proper (red
to violet and through purple back to red), constituting a closed
line, are located round the equator or in zones parallel to it, according
to shade; and (c) the amount of saturation (or absence of white) for
any given zone of illumination increases with distance from the axis.
In dealing with the quality of auditory sensations we have to
distinguish between the simple sensations called tones and the
sensation-complexes, either clangs or noises, which result from
their combination. Simple tones also constitute a qualitative con-
tinuum, but it has only one dimension, their so-called " pitch ";
this may be represented by a straight line ranging between two
more or less indefinite extremes. If intensity, that is to say
loudness, is taken into account, we have of course a continuum
of two dimensions. The tone-continuum is also universally
regarded as steadily diminishing in massiveness or extensity
as the pitch rises. And, in fact, as we approach the lower
1 As a matter of fact there are no objects absolutely black, none
that are devoid of all lustre and completely absorbent of light. But
this does not affect the argument.
1 It is assumed that the physiological differentiation of the retina
has advanced from the centre.where vision is most distinct, towards
the margin where it is least so; and it is found that stimulation of
the margin yields none but achromatic sensations, stimulation of a
certain intermediate zone only sensations of yellow or blue, and
central stimulation alone sensations of every hue. Further, total
colour-blindness is extremely rare, whereas red-green colour-blind-
ness is comparatively common.
limit, the so-called deep or grave tones become less " even," till
at length distinct, more or less pervasive, tremors are felt rather
than heard as distinct impulses on the ear-drum. The so-called
high or acute tones again, as we approach their limit, are
accompanied by tactual, often more or less painful, sensations,
as if the ear were pierced by a fine needle. This connexion of
auditory with tactual sensations confirms the independent
evidence of biology pointing to an original differentiation of
sound from touch. The special characteristics of tone-com-
plexes, whether clangs or noises, are due to the remarkable
analytic power which belongs to the sense of hearing. Two
colours cannot be simultaneously presented unless they are
differently localized, but several tones may form one complex
whole within which they, as " partial " tones, are distinguish-
able, though spatially undifferentiated.
Unlike the higher senses of sight and hearing, the lower senses
of touch, taste, smell, &c., do not constitute qualitative con-
tinua. Temperatures may indeed be represented as ranging
in opposite directions, i.e. through heat or through cold,
between a zero of no sensation and the organic sensations due
to the destructive action of both extremes, heat and cold alike.
But the continuity in this case is intensive rather than qualita-
tive. Tastes fall into the four isolated qualities known as sweet,
sour, bitter, saline; but smells hardly admit of classification
at all. Sensations of touch and sight have in a pre-eminent
degree a certain peculiar continuity which differentiations of
extensity entail, and which we shall have presently to consider
further under the title of local signs. The various sensations
classed together as organic, hunger, thirst, physical pain, &c.,
are left to the physiologist to describe.
Our motor presentations contrast with the sensory by their
want of striking qualitative differences. They are divided
into two groups: (a) motor presentations proper and
(b) auxilio-motor of kinaesthetic presentations. The
former answer to our " feelings of muscular effort " or " feelings
of innervation." The latter are those presentations due to
the straining of tendons, stretching and flexing of the skin, and
the like, by which the healthy man knows that his efforts to
move are followed by movement, and so knows the position
of his body and limbs. It is owing to the absence of these
presentations that the anaesthetic patient cannot directly tell
whether his efforts are effectual or not, nor in what position his
limbs have been placed by movements from without. Thus
under normal circumstances motor presentations are always
accompanied by auxilio-motor; but in disease and in passive
movements they are separated and their distinctness thus
made manifest. Originally we may suppose kinaesthetic pre-
sentations to have formed one imperfectly differentiated
continuum, but now, as with sensations, they have become
a collection of special continua, viz. the groups of movements
possible to each limb and certain combinations of these
movements.
But whereas kinaesthetic presentations were commonly allowed
to be purely sensory, the concomitants of centripetal excitations
hence the older name of " muscular or sixth sense " applied to them
by Sir Charles Bell, Weber, Sir William Hamilton and others
concerning motor presentations proper, a very different view, first
tentatively advanced by the great physiologist Johannes Miiller,
and adopted by Helmholtz, Wundt, and especially by Bain, long
prevailed. It is, however, now generally discredited, if not com-
pletely overthrown.* According to this view, " the characteristic
feeling of exerted force " must be regarded, Bain maintained, " not
as arising from an inward transmission . . . but as the concomitant
of the outgoing current by which the muscles are stimulated to act "
(op. cit. p. 79). The necessity for this assumption has certainly not
been established on physiological grounds, nor apparently did Bain
rely primarily on these; for at the very outset of his discussion we
find him saying " that action is a more intimate and inseparable
property of our constitution than any of our sensations, and enters
as a component part into every one of our senses " (op. cit. p. 59).
But this important psychological truth is affirmed as strenuously by
some, at any rate (e.g. Professor James) of Bain's opponents as it was
by Bain himself. Unhappily many, under the same psychophysical
1 Cf. Bastian, The Brain as an Organ of Mind (1880), pp. 691 sqq. ;
Ferrier, The Functions of the Brain (1886), and ed. pp. 382 sqq.;
James, Principles of Psychology (1890), ch. xxvi.
PSYCHOLOGY
[PERCEPTION
bias and so induced, like the upholders of this innervation theory, to
look for evidence of subjective activity in the wrong place, have been
led to doubt or to deny the reality of this .activity altogether. In
fact, this theory, while it lasted, tended to sustain an undue separa-
tion of so-called " sensory " from so-called " motor " presentations,
as if living experience were literally an alternation of two independent
states, one wholly passive and the other wholly active, corresponding
to the anatomical distinction of organs of sense and organs of move-
ment. The subject of experience or Ego does not pass to and fro
between a sensorium commune or intelligence department and a
motorium commune or executive, is not in successive intervals
receptive and active, still less always passive, but rather always
actively en rapport with an active Non-Ego, commonly called the
External World.
Perception.
17. In treating apart of the differentiation of our sensory
and motor continua, as resulting merely in a number of dis-
Meatai Sya- tinguishable sensations and movements, we have
thesis or been compelled by the exigencies of exposition
integration. j- o i eave O ut of sight another process which really
advances pari passu with this differentiation, viz. the
integration or synthesis of these proximately elementary
presentations into those complex presentations which are
called percepts, intuitions, sensori-motor reactions and the
like. It is, of course, not to be supposed that in the
evolution of mind any creature attained to such variety of dis-
tinct sensations and movements as a human being possesses
without making even the first step towards building up this
material into the most rudimentary knowledge and action. On
the contrary, there is every reason to think, as has been said
already incidentally, that further differentiation was helped
by previous integration, that perception prepared the way for
distincter sensations, and purposive action for more various
movements. This process of synthesis, which is in the truest
sense a psychical process, deserves some general consideration
before we proceed to the several complexes that result from it.
Most complexes, certainly the most important, are conse-
quences of that principle of subjective selection whereby in-
teresting sensations lead through the intervention of feeling to
movements; and the movements that turn out to subserve such
interest come to have a share in it. In this way which we
need not stay to examine more closely now it happens that
a certain sensation, comparatively intense, and a certain move-
ment, definite enough to control that sensation, engage atten-
tion, to the more or less complete exclusion of the other less
intense sensations and fnore diffused movements that accompany
them. Apart from this intervention of controlling movements,
the presentation-continuum, however much differentiated, would
remain for all purposes of knowledge little better than the dis-
connected manifold for which Kant took it. At the same time
it is to be remembered that the subject obtains command of
particular movements out of all the mass involved in emotional
expression only because such movements prove on occurrence
adapted to control certain sensations. A long process, in
which natural selection probably played the chief part at the
outset subjective selection becoming more prominent as the
process advanced must have been necessary to secure as much
purposive movement as even a worm displays. We must look
to subjective interest to explain, so far as psychological ex-
planation is possible, those syntheses of motor and sensory
presentations which we call spatial perception and the in-
tuitions of material things. For example, some of the earliest
lessons of this kind seem to be acquired as we may presently
see, in the process of exploring the body by means of the limbs,
a process for which grounds in subjective interest can
obviously never be wanting.
Perception sometimes means only the recognition of a sen-
sation or movement as distinct from its original presentation,
Meaaia t t ' ms ^ m P^ n S tne more or less definite revival
Perception. * certam residua of past experience which re-
sembled the present. More frequently it is used
as the equivalent of what has been otherwise called the
" localization and projection " of sensations that is to say,
of sensations apprehended either as affections of some part of
our own body regarded as extended or as states of some foreign
body beyond it. According to a former usage, strictly taken,
there might be perception without any spatial presentation
at all; a sensation that had been attended to a few times
might be perceived as familiar. According to the latter, an
entirely new sensation, provided it were complicated with motor
experiences in the way required for its localization or pro-
jection, would be perceived. But as a matter of fact actual per-
ception probably invariably includes both cases: impressions
which we recognize we also localize or project, and impressions
which are localized or projected are never entirely new they are,
at least, perceived as sounds or colours or aches, &c. It will,
however, frequently happen that we are specially concerned with
only one side of the whole process, as is the case with a tea-
taster or a colour-mixer on the one hand, or, on the other, with the
patient who is perplexed to decide whether what he sees and
hears is " subjective," or whether it is " real." But there is
still a distinction called for: perception as we now know it in-
volves not only recognition (or assimilation) and localization, or
" spatial reference," as it is not very happily termed, but it usually
involves " objective reference " as well. We may perceive
sound or light without any presentation of that which sounds or
shines; but none the less we do not regard such sound or light
as merely the object of our attention, as having only immanent
existence, but as the quality or change or state of a thing, an
object distinct not only from the subject attending but from all
presentations whatever to which it attends. Here again the
actual separation is impossible, because this factor in perception
has been so intertwined throughout our mental development
with the other two. Still a careful psychological analysis will
show that such " reification," as we might almost call it, has
depended on special circumstances, which we can at any
rate conceive absent. These special circumstances are briefly
the constant conjunctions and successions of impressions, for
which psychology can give no reason, and the constant move-
ments to which they prompt. Thus we receive together, e.g.
those impressions we now recognize as severally the scent,
colour, and " feel " of the rose we pluck and handle. We might
call each a " percept," and the whole a " complex percept."
But there is more in such a complex than a sum of partial per-
cepts; there is the apprehension or intuition of the rose as a
thing having this scent, colour and texture. We have, then,
under perception to consider (a) the recognition and (6) the
localization of impressions, and (c) the intuition of things.
18. The range of the terms recognition or assimilation of
impressions is wide: between the simplest mental process they
may be supposed to denote and the most complex Asslmlla-
there is a great difference. The penguin that tloa of
watched unmoved the first landing of man upon its impressions.
lonely rock becomes as wild and wary as more civilized
fowl after two or three visits from its molester: it then
recognizes that featherless biped. His friends at home also
recognize him though altered by years of peril and exposure.
In the latter case some trick of voice or manner, some " strik-
ing" feature, calls up and sustains a crowd of memories of the
traveller in the past events leading on to the present scene.
The two recognitions are widely different, and it is from states
of mind more like the latter than the former that psychologists
have usually drawn their description of perception. At the
outset, they say, we have a primary presentation or impression
P, and after sundry repetitions there remains a mass or a series
of P residua, pip?p3 . . . ; perception ensues when, sooner
or later, P n " calls up " and associates itself with these repre-
sentations or ideas. Much of our later perception, and especially
when we are at all interested, awakens, no doubt, both distinct
memories and distinct expectations; but, since these imply
previous perceptions, it is obvious that the earliest form of re-
cognition, or, as we might better call it, assimilation, must be
free from such complications, can have nothing in it answering
to the overt judgment, P n is a P. Assimilation involves re-
tentiveness and differentiation, as we have seen, and prepares
the way for re-presentation; but in itself there is no confronting
PERCEPTION]
PSYCHOLOGY
565
the new with the old, no determination of likeness, and no sub-
sequent classification. The pure sensation we may regard as a
psychological myth; and the simple image, or such sensation
revived, seems equally mythical, as we may see later on. The
nth sensation is not like the first: it is a change in a presen-
tation-continuum that has itself been changed by those pre-
ceding; and it cannot with any propriety be said to reproduce
these past sensations, for they never had the individuality which
such reproduction implies. Nor does it associate with images
like itself, since where there is association there must first have
been distinctness, and what can be associated can also, for some
good time at least, be dissociated.
19. To treat of the localization of impressions is really to
give an account of the steps by which the psychological
Localization individual comes to a knowledge of space. At
ofimprei- the outset of such an inquiry it seems desirable first
iions. O f an to make plain what lies within our purview,
and what does not, lest we disturb the peace of those who, con-
founding philosophy and psychology, are ever eager to fight for
or against the a priori character of this element of knowledge.
That space is a priori in the epistemological sense it is no con-
cern of the psychologist either to assert or to deny. Psycho-
logically a priori or original in such sense that it has been either
actually or potentially an element in all presentation from the
very beginning it certainly is not. It will help to make this
matter clearer if we distinguish what philosophers frequently
confuse, viz. the concrete spatial experiences, constituting
actual localization for the individual, and the abstract con-
cept of space, generalized from what is found to be common in
such experiences. A gannet's mind " possessed of " a philoso-
pher, if such a conceit may be allowed, would certainly afford
its tenant very different spatial experiences from those he might
share if he took up his quarters in a mole. So, any one who
has revisited in after years a place from which he had been
absent since childhood knows how largely a " personal equa-
tion," as it were, enters into his spatial perceptions. Or the
same truth may be brought home to him if, walking with a
friend more athletic than himself, they come upon a ditch, which
both know to be twelve feet wide, but which the one feels he can
clear by a jump and the other feels he cannot. In the concrete
" up " is much more than a different direction from " along."
The hen-harrier, which cannot soar, is indifferent to a quarry a
hundred feet above it to which the peregrine, built for soaring,
would at once give chase but is on the alert as soon as it de-
scries prey of the same apparent magnitude, but upon the ground.
Similarly, in the concrete, the body is the origin or datum to
which all positions are referred, and such positions differ not
merely quantitatively but qualitatively. Moreover, our various
bodily movements and their combinations constitute a net-
work of co-ordinates, qualitatively distinguishable but geo-
metrically, so to put it, both redundant and incomplete. It
is a long way from these facts of perception, which the brutes
share with us, to that scientific concept of space as having three
dimensions and no qualitative differences which we have
elaborated by the aid of thought and language, and which reason
may see to be the logical presupposition of what in the order of
mental development has chronologically preceded it. That the
experience of space is not psychologically original seems obvious
quite apart from any successful explanation of its origin
from the mere consideration of its complexity. Thus we must
have a plurality of objects A out of B, B beside C, distant
from D, and so on; and these relations of externality, juxtapo-
sition, and size or distance imply further specialization; for with
a mere plurality of objects we have not straightway spatial
differences. Juxtaposition, e.g. is only possible when the related
objects form a continuum; but, again, not any continuity is
extensive. Now how has this complexity come about?
The first condition of spatial experience seems to lie in what
has been noted above ( n) as the extensity of sensation. This
ExtcasH muc h we may allow is original; for the longer we
reflect the more clearly we see that no combination
or association of sensations varying only in intensity and
quality, not even if motor presentations are added, will
account for this space-element in our perceptions. A series
of touches a, b, c, d may be combined with a series of move-
ments mi, mi, m,, m t ; both series may be reversed; and finally
the touches may be presented simultaneously. In this way we
can attain the knowledge of the coexistence of objects that have
a certain quasi-distance between them, and such experience is an
important element in our perception of space; but it is not the
whole of it. For, as has been already remarked by critics of the
associationist psychology, we have an experience very similar
to this in singing and hearing musical notes or the chromatic
scale. The most elaborate attempt to get extensity out of
succession and coexistence is that of Herbert Spencer. He has
done, perhaps, all that can be done, and only to make it the more
plain that the entire procedure is a txrrepov irportpov. We
do not first experience a succession of touches or of retinal
excitations by means of movements, and then, when these
impressions are simultaneously presented, regard them as
extensive, because they are associated with or symbolize the
original series of movements; but, before and apart from
movement altogether, we experience that massiveness or extensity
of impressions in which movements enable us to find positions,
and also to measure. 1 But it will be objected, perhaps not with-
out impatience, that this amounts to the monstrous absurdity
of making the contents of consciousness extended. The edge of
this objection will best be turned by rendering the concept of
extensity more precise. Thus, suppose a postage stamp pasted
on the back of the hand; we have in consequence a certain sen-
sation. If another be added beside it, the new experience
would not be adequately described by merely saying we have
a greater quantity of sensation, for intensity involves quantity,
and increased intensity is not what is meant. For a sensa-
tion of a certain intensity, say a sensation of red, cannot be
changed into one having two qualities, red and blue, leaving
the intensity unchanged; but with extensity this change is pos-
sible. For one of the postage stamps a piece of wet cloth of
the same size might be substituted and the massiveness of the
compound sensation remain very much the same. Intensity
belongs to what may be called graded quantity: it admits of
increment or decrement, but is not a sum of parts. Extensity,
on the other hand, does imply plurality: we might call it latent or
merged plurality or a " ground " of plurality, inasmuch as to
say that a single presentation has massiveness is to say that
a portion of the presentation-continuum at the moment
undifferentiated is capable of differentiation.
Attributing this property of extensity to the presentation-
continuum as a whole, we may call the relation of any particular
sensation to this larger whole its local sign, and can see
that, so long as the extensity of a presentation admits '
of diminution without the presentation becoming nil such presen-
tation either has or may have two or more local signs its parts,
taken separately, though identical in quality and intensity,
having a different relation to the whole. Such difference of
relation must be regarded fundamentally as a ground or possi-
bility of distinctness of sign whether as being the ground or
possibility of different complexes or otherwise rather than as
being from the beginning such an overt difference as the term
" local sign," when used by Lotze, is meant to imply. 1 From
_ * We are ever in danger of exaggerating the competence of a new
discovery; and the associationists seem to have fallen into this
mistake, not only in the use they have made of the concept of asso-
ciation in psychology in general, but in the stress they have laid
upon the fact of movement when explaining our space-perceptions in
particular. Indeed, both ideas have here conspired against them
association in keeping up the notion that we have only to deal with
a plurality of discrete impressions, and movement in keeping to the
front the idea of sequence. Mill's Examination of Hamilton (3rd ed.,
p. 266 seq.) surely ought to convince us that, unless we are prepared
to say, as Mill seems to do, " that the idea of space is at bottom one
of time " (p. 276), we must admit the inadequacy of our experience
of movement to explain the origin of it.
* To illustrate what is meant by different complexes it will be
enough to refer to the psychological implications of the fact that
scarcely two portions of the sensitive surface of the human body are
anatomically alike. Not only in the distribution and character of
566
PSYCHOLOGY
[PERCEPTIOiV
this point of view we may say that more partial presentations
are concerned in the sensation corresponding to two stamps than
in that corresponding to one. The fact that these partial
presentations, though identical in quality and intensity, on the
one hand are not wholly identical, and on the other are presented
only as a quantity and not as a plurality, is explained by the
distinctness along with the continuity of their local signs.
Assuming that to every distinguishable part of the body there
corresponds a local sign, we may allow that at any moment only
a certain portion of this continuum is definitely within the field
of consciousness; but no one will maintain that a part of one
hand is ever felt as continuous with part of the other or with
part of the face. Local signs have thus an invariable relation
to each other: two continuous signs are not one day coincident
and the next widely separate. 1 This last fact is only implied in
the mere massiveness of a sensation in so far as this admits of
differentiation into local signs. We have, then, when the differ-
entiation is accomplished, a plurality of presentations constitut-
ing an extensive continuum, presented simultaneously, and
having certain fixed and invariable relations to each other. Of
such experience the typical case is that of passive touch, though
the other senses exemplify it. It must be allowed that our
concept of space in like manner involves a fixed continuity of
positions; but then it involves, further, the possibility of move-
ment. Now in the continuum of local signs there is nothing
whatever of this; we might call this continuum an implicit
plenum. It only becomes the presentation of occupied space
after its several local signs are complicated in an orderly way with
active touches, when in fact we have experienced the contrast
of movements with contact and movements without, i.e. in
vacua. It is quite true that we cannot now think of this plenum
except as a space, because we cannot divest ourselves of these
motor experiences by which we have explored it. We can, how-
ever, form some idea of the difference between the perception
of space and this one element in the perception by contrasting
massive internal sensations with massive superficial ones, or
the general sensation of the body as " an animated organism "
with our perception of it as extended. Or we may express the
difference by remarking that extension implies the distinction of
here and there, while extensity rather suggests ubiquity.
It must seem strange, if this conception of extensity is essential
to a psychological theory of space, that it has escaped notice so
long. The reason may be that in investigations into the origin
of our knowledge of space it was always the concept of space and
not our concrete space percepts that came up for examination.
Now in space as we conceive it one position is distinguishable
from another solely by its co-ordinates, i.e. by the magnitude
and signs of certain lines and angles, as referred to a certain
datum, position or origin; and these elements our motor
experiences seem fully to explain. But on reflection we ought,
surely, to be puzzled by the question, how these coexistent
positions could be known before those movements were made
which constitute them different positions. The link we thus
suspect to be missing is supplied by the more concrete experiences
we obtain from our own body, in which two positions have a
qualitative difference or " local colour " independently of move-
ment. True, such positions would not be known as spatial
without movement; but neither would the movement be known
as spatial had those positions no other difference than such as
the nerve-endings but in the variety of the underlying parts in one
place bone, in another fatty tissue, in others tendons or muscles
variously arranged we find ample ground for diversity in " the
local colouring of sensations. And comparative zoology helps us
to see how such diversity has been developed as external impressions
and the answering movements have gradually differentiated an
organism originally almost homogeneous and symmetrical. Between
one point and another on the surface of a sphere there is no ground
of difference ; but this is no longer true if the sphere revolves round a
fixed axis, still less if it also runs in one direction along its axis.
1 The improvements in the sensibility of our " spatial sense " con-
sequent on practice, its variations under the action of drugs, &c., are
obviously no real contradiction to this; on the contrary, such facts
are all in favour of making extensity a distinct factor in our space
experience and one more fundamental than that of movement.
arises from movement. In a balloon drifting steadily in a
;og we should have no more experience of change of position
than if it hung becalmed and still.
We may now consider the part which movement plays in
elaborating the presentations of this dimensionless continuum
into percepts of space. In so doing we must
bear in mind that while this continuum implies the
incopresentability of two impressions having the
same local sign, it allows not only of the presentation of
sensations of varying massiveness, but also of a sensation
involving the whole continuum simultaneously, as in Bain's
classic example of the warm bath. As regards the motor
element itself, the first point of importance is the incopre-
sentability and invariability of a successive series of auxilio-
motor or kinaesthetic presentations, PI, P 2 , Pj, P. P t
cannot be presented along with P 2 , and from P< it is impos-
sible to reach PI again save through PS and P 2 . Such a
series, taken alone, could afford us, it is evident, nothing
but the knowledge of an invariable sequence of impressions
which it was in our own power to produce. Calling the series
of P's " positional signs," the contrast between them and local
signs is obvious. Both are invariable, but succession character-
izes the one, simultaneity the other; the one yields potential
position without place, the other potential place (TOTTOS) without
position; hence we call them both merely signs. 2 But in the
course of the movements necessary to the exploration of the
body probably our earliest lesson in spatial perception these
positional signs receive a new significance from the active and
passive touches that accompany them, just as they impart to
these last a significance they could never have alone.
It is only in the resulting complex that we have the presenta-
tions of actual position and of spatial magnitude. For space,
though conceived as a coexistent continuum, excludes the notion
of omnipresence or ubiquity; two positions Id and l e must coexist,
but they are not strictly distinct positions so long as we conceive
ourselves present in the same sense in both. But, if Ft and F,
are, e.g. two impressions produced by compass points touching
two different spots as Id and l f on the hand or arm, and we place
a finger upon /,; and move it to /,, experiencing thereby the
series Pi, Pz, PS, ?4, this series constitutes Id and I, into positions
and also invests F& and F e with a relation not of mere distinct-
ness as TOTTOI but of definite distance. The resulting complex
perhaps admits of symbolization as follows:
Tttt
P&pspt
Here the first line represents a portion of the tactual continuum,
Fd and F r being distinct " feels," if we may so say, or passive
touches presented along with the fainter sensations of the con-
tinuum as a whole, which the general " body-sense " involves;
T stands for the active touch of the exploring finger and PI for
the corresponding kinaesthetic sensation regarded as " posi-
tional sign "; the rest of the succession, as not actually present at
this stage but capable of revival from past explorations, is sym-
bolized by the lit and pipspi.
When the series of movements is accompanied by active
touches without passive there arises the distinction between one's
own body and foreign bodies; when the initial movement of a
series is accompanied by both active and passive touches, the
final movement by active touches only, and the intermediate
movements are unaccompanied by either, we get the further
presentation of empty space lying between us and them but
only when by frequent experience of contacts along with those
intermediate movements we have come to know all movement
as not only succession but change of position. Thus active
touches come at length to be projected, passive touches
alone being localized in the stricter sense. But in actual
fact, of course, the localization of one impression is not perfected
before that of another is begun, and we must take care lest our
necessarily meagre exposition give rise to the mistaken notion
1 Thus a place may be known topographically without its position
being known geographically, and vice versa.
PERCEPTION]
PSYCHOLOGY
567
that localizing an impression consists wholly and solely in
performing or imaging the particular movements necessary to
add active touches to a group of passive impressions. That this
cannot suffice is evident merely from the consideration that a
single position out of relation to all other positions is a contra-
diction. Localization, though it depends on many special
experiences of the kind described, is not like an artificial product
which is completed a part at a time, but is essentially a growth,
its several constituents advancing together in definiteness and
interconnexion. So far has this development advanced that we
do not even imagine the special movements which the localization
of an impression implies, that is to say, they are no longer dis-
tinctly represented as they would be if we definitely intended to
make them: the past experiences are " retained," but too much
blended in the mere perception to be appropriately spoken of
as remembered or imaged.
A propos of this almost instinctive character of even our earliest
spatial percepts it will be appropriate to animadvert on a misleading
implication in the current use of such terms as " localization,"
" projection," " bodily reference," " spatial reference " and the like.
The implication is that external space, or the body as extended, is
in some sort presented or supposed apart from the localization,
projection or reference of impressions to such space. That it may
lie possible to put a book in its place on a shelf there must be (i)
the book, and (2), distinct and apart from it, the place on the shelf.
But in the evolution of our spatial experience impressions and
positions are not thus presented apart. We can have, or at least
we can suppose, an impression which is recognized without being
localized as has been already said; but if it is localized this means
that a more complex presentation is formed by the addition of new
elements, not that a second distinct object is presented and some
indescribable connexion established between the impression and it,
still less that the impression is referred to something not strictly
presented at all. The truth is that the body as extended is from the
psychological point of view not perceived at ajl apart from localized
impressions. In like manner impressions projected (or the absence
of impressions projected) constitute all that is perceived as the
occupied (or unoccupied) space beyond. It is not till a much later
stage, after many varying experiences of different impressions
similarly localized or projected, that even the mere materials are
present for the formation of such an abstract concept of space as
spatial reference " implies. 1 Psychologists, being themselves at
this later stage, are apt to commit the oversight of introducing it
into the earlier stage which they have to expound.
20. In a complex percept, such as that of an orange or a piece
of wax, may be distinguished the following points concerning
which psychology may be expected to give an
Things account : (o) the object 's reali ty , (b) its solidity or occu-
pation of space, (c) its unity and complexity, (d) its per-
manence, or rather its continuity in time and (e) its substantiality
and the connexion of its attributes and powers. Though, in
fact, these items are most intimately blended, our exposition will
be clearer if we consider each for a moment apart.
a. The terms actuality and reality have each more than one
meaning. Thus what is real, in the sense of material, is opposed
to what is mental; as the existent or actual it is
opposed to the non-existent ; and again, what is actual
is distinguished from what is possible or necessary. But
here both terms, with a certain shade of difference, in so far as
actual is more appropriate to movements and events, are used,
in antithesis to whatever is ideal or represented, for what is
sense-given or presented. This seems at least their primary
psychological meaning; and it is the one most in vogue in Eng-
lish philosophy at any rate, over-tinged as that is with psycho-
logy. 2 Any examination of this characteristic will be best
deferred till we come to deal with ideation generally (see 21
below). Meanwhile it may suffice to remark that reality or
actuality is not a single distinct element added to the others
which enter into the complex presentation we call a thing,
1 Cf. on this point Poincarfi, La Science et I'hypothkse, pp. 74 sqq.
* Thus Locke says, " Our simple ideas [i.e. presentations or
impressions, as we should now say] are all real . . .and not fictions at
pleasure ; for the mind . . . can make to itself no simple idea more
than what it has received " (Essay, ii. 30, 2). And Berkeley says,
" The ideas imprinted on the senses by the Author of Nature are
called real things; and those excited in the imagination, being less
regular, vivid_and constant, are more properly termed ideas or images
of things, which they copy or represent " (Prin. of Hum. Know.,
Pt- i- 33).
* '
as colour or solidity may be. Neither is it a special relation
among these elements, like that of substance and attribute, for
example. In these respects the real and the ideal, the actual
and the possible, are alike; all the elements or qualities within
the complex, and all the relations of those elements to each other,
are the same in the rose represented as in the presented rose.
The difference turns not upon what these elements are, regarded
as qualities or relations presented' or represented, but upon
whatever it is that distinguishes the presentation from the
representation of any given qualities or relations. Now this dis-
tinction, as we shall see, depends partly upon the relation of such
complex presentation to other presentations in consciousness
with it, partly upon its relation as a presentation to the subject
whose presentation it is. In this respect we find a difference,
not only between the simple qualities, such as cold, hard, red and
sweet in strawberry ice, e.g. as presented and as represented,
but also, though less conspicuously, in the spatial, and even the
temporal, relations which enter into our intuition as distinct
from our imagination of it. So then, reality or actuality is not
strictly an item by itself, but a characteristic of all the items that
follow.
b. In the so-called physical solidity or impenetrability of
things our properly motor presentations or " feelings of effort
or innervation " come specially into play. They
are not entirely absent in those movements of
exploration by which we attain a knowledge of
space; but it is when these movements are definitely resisted,
or are only possible by increased effort, that we reach the full
meaning of body as that which occupies space. Heat and cold,
light and sound, the natural man regards as real, and by and by
perhaps as due to the powers of things known or unknown, but not
as themselves things. At the outset things are all corporeal like his
own body, the first and archetypal thing, that is to say: things are
intuited only when touch is accompanied by pressure; and, though
at a later stage passive touch without pressure may suffice, this
is only because pressures depending on a subjective initiative,
i.e. on voluntary muscular exertion, have been previously ex-
perienced. It is of more than psychological interest to remark
how the primordial factor in materiality is thus due to the pro-
jection of a subjectively determined reaction to that action
of a not-self of which sense-impressions consist an action of
the not-self which, of course, is not known as such till this pro-
jection of the subjective reaction has taken place. Still we must
remember that accompanying sense-impressions are a condition
of its projection: muscular effort without simultaneous sensa-
tions of contact would not yield the distinct presentation of
something resistant occupying the space into which we have
moved and would move again. Nay more, it is in the highest
degree an essential circumstance in this experience that muscular
effort, though subjectively initiated, is still only possible when
there is contact with something that, as it seems, is making an
effort the counterpart of our own. But this something is so far
no more than thing-stuff; without the elements next to be
considered our psychological individual would fall short of the
complete intuition of distinct things.
c. The remaining important factors in the psychological
constitution of things might be described in general terms as
the time-relations of their components. Such rela-
tions are themselves in no way psychologically det
mined; impressions recur with a certain order or want
of order quite independently of the subject's interest or of any
psychological principles of synthesis or association whatever.
It is essential that impressions should recur, and recur as
they have previously occurred, if knowledge is ever to begin;
out of a continual chaos of sensation, all matter and no form,
such as some philosophers describe, nothing but chaos could
result. But a. flux of impressions having this real or sense-given
order will not suffice; there must be also attention to and
retention of the order, and these indispensable processes at
least are psychological.
But for its familiarity we should marvel at the fact that out
of the variety of impressions simultaneously presented we do
5 68
PSYCHOLOGY
[IMAGINATION
not instantly group together all the sounds and all the colours,
all the touches and all the smells; but, dividing what is given
together, single ou.t a certain sound or smell as belonging
together with a certain colour and feel, similarly singled out
from the rest, to what we call one thing. We might wonder, too
those at least who have made so much of association by
similarity ought to wonder that, say, the white of snow calls
up directly, not other shades of white or other colours, but the
expectation of cold or of powdery softness. The first step in
this process has been the simultaneous projection into the same
occupied space of the several impressions which we thus come
to regard as the qualities of the body filling it. Yet such simul-
taneous and coincident projection would avail but little unless
the constituent impressions were again and again repeated in
like order so as to prompt anew the same grouping, and unless,
further, this constancy in the one group was present along with
changes in other groups and in the general field. There is
nothing in its first experience to tell the infant that the song of
the bird does not inhere in the hawthorn whence the notes pro-
ceed, but that the fragrance of the mayflower does. It is only
where a group, as a whole, has been found to change its position
relatively to other groups, and apart from casual relations
to be independent of changes of position among them, that such
complexes can become distinct unities and yield a world of
things. Again, because things are so often a world within
themselves, their several parts or members not only having
distinguishing qualities but moving and changing with more or
less independence of the rest, it comes about that what is from
one point of view one thing becomes from another point of view
several like a tree with its separable branches and fruits, for
example. Wherein then, more precisely, does the unity of a
thing consist? This question, so far as it here admits of answer,
carries us over to temporal continuity.
d. Amidst all the change above described there is one thing
comparatively fixed: our own body is both constant as a group
and a constant item in every field of groups; and not
"coaonuity onlv so > ^ ut Jt is Beyond all other things an object
' of continual and peculiar interest, inasmuch as our
earliest pleasures and pains depend solely upon it and what
affects it. The body becomes, in fact, the earliest form of self,
the first datum for our later conceptions of permanence and
individuality. A continuity like that of self is then transferred
to other bodies which resemble our own, so far as our direct
experience goes, in passing continuously from place to place
and undergoing only partial and gradual changes of form and
quality. As we have existed or, more exactly, as the body has
been continuously presented during the interval between two
encounters with some other recognized body, so this is regarded
as having continuously existed during its absence from us.
However permanent we suppose the conscious subject to be, it
is hard to see how, without the continuous presentation to it of
such a group as the bodily self, we should ever be prompted to
resolve the discontinuous presentations of external things into
a continuity of existence. It might be said: Since the second
presentation of a particular group would, by the mere workings
of psychical laws, coalesce with the image of the first,
this coalescence would suffice to " generate " the concept of
continued existence. But such assimilation is only the
ground of an intellectual identification and furnishes no motive,
one way or the other, for real identification: between a second
presentation of A and the presentation at different times of two
A's there is so far no difference. Real identity no more involves
exact similarity than exact similarity involves sameness of
things; on the contrary, we are wont to find the same thing
alter with time, so that exact similarity after an interval, so
far from suggesting one thing, is often the surest proof that
there are two concerned. Of such real identity, then, it would
seem we must have direct experience; and we have it in the
continuous presentation of the bodily self; apart from this it
could not be " generated " by association among changing
presentations. Other bodies being in the first instance personified,
that then is regarded as one thing from whatever point of view
we look at it, whether as part of a larger thing or as itself com-
pounded of such parts which has had one beginning in time.
But what is it that has thus a beginning and continues
indefinitely? This leads to our last point.
e. So far we have been concerned only with the combination
of sensory and motor presentations into groups and with the
differentiation of group from group; the relations to
each other of the constituents of each group still
for the most part remain. To these relations in the
main must be referred the correlative concepts of substance
and attribute, the distinction in substances of qualities and
powers, of primary qualities and secondary, and the like. 1
Of all the constituents of things only one is universally present,
that above described as physical solidity, which presents itself
according to circumstances as impenetrability, resistance or
weight. Things differing in temperature, colour, taste and smell
agree in resisting compression, in filling space. Because of
this quality we regard the wind as a thing, though it has neither
shape nor colour, while a shadow, though it has both but not
resistance, is the very type of nothingness. This constituent
is invariable, while other qualities are either absent or change
form altering, colour disappearing with light, sound and smells
intermitting. Many of the other qualities colour, temperature,
sound, smell increase in intensity if we advance till we touch a
body occupying space; with the same movement too its visual
magnitude varies. At the moment of contact an unvarying
tactual magnitude is ascertained, while the other qualities and
the visual magnitude reach a fixed maximum; then first it
becomes possible by effort to change or attempt to change the
position and form of what we apprehend. This tangible plenum
we thenceforth regard as the seat and source of all the qualities
we project into it. In other words, that which occupies space
is psychologically the substantial; the other real constituents
are but its properties or attributes, the marks or manifestations
which lead us to expect its presence.
Imagination or Ideation. 1
21. Before the intuition of things has reached a stage so com-
plete and definite as that just described, imagination or ideation
as distinct from perception has well begun. In
, ... r i i i < f
passing to the consideration of this higher form of
mental life we must endeavour first of all analytically
to distinguish the two as precisely as may be and then to trace
the gradual development of the higher.
To begin, it is very questionable whether Hume was right
in applying Locke's distinction of simple and complex to ideas
in the narrower sense as well as to impressions. " That idea
of red," says Hume, " which we form in the dark and that
impression which strikes our eyes in the sunshine differ only in
degree, not in nature." 3 But what he seems to have overlooked
is that, whereas we may have a mere sensation red, we can only
have an image or representation of a red thing or a red form, i.e of
red in some way ideally projected or intuited. In other words,
there are no ideas though there are concepts answering to
simple or isolated impressions. The synthesis which has taken
place in the evolution of the percept can only partially fail in
the idea, and never so far as to leave us with a chaotic " manifold "
of mere sensational remnants. On the contrary, we find that
in " constructive imagination " a new kind of effort is often
requisite in order partially to dissociate these representational
complexes as a preliminary to new combinations. But it is
doubtful whether the results of such an analysis are ever the
ultimate elements of the percept, that is, merely isolated
impressions in a fainter form. We may now try to ascertain
further the characteristic marks which distinguish what is
imaged from what is perceived.
1 The distinction between the thing and its properties is one that
might be more fully treated under the head of " Thought and Con-
ception." Still, inasmuch as the material warrant for these concepts
is contained more or less implicity in our percepts, some considera-
tion of it is in place here.
1 Ideation " a word of my own coining," says James Mill.
* Treatise of Human Nature, bk. i. pt. i. I.
.
Impressions
IMAGINATION]
PSYCHOLOGY
5 6 9
The most obvious difference is that which Hume called
" the force or liveliness " of primary presentations as compared
Character- with secondary presentations. But what exactly
istki ot are we to understand by this somewhat figurative
Idea*. language ? A simple difference of intensity cannot
be all that is meant, for though we may be momentarily
confused we can perfectly well distinguish the faintest
impression from an image; moreover, we can reproduce such
faintest impressions in idea. The whole subject of the intensity
of representations awaits investigation. Between moonlight
and sunlight or between midday and dawn we can discriminate
many grades of intensity; but it does not appear that there
is :uiy corresponding variation of intensity between them when
they are not seen but imagined. Many persons suppose they
can imagine a waxing or a waning sound or the gradual abate-
ment of an intense pain; but what really happens in such cases
is probably not a rise and fall in the intensity of a single repre-
sentation, but a change in the complex represented. In the
primary presentation there has been a change of quality along
with change of intensity, and not only so, but most frequently
a change in the muscular adaptations of the sense-organs too,
to say nothing of organic sensations accompanying these changes.
A representation of some or all of these attendants is perhaps
what takes place when variations of intensity are supposed to
be reproduced. Again, hallucinations are often described as
abnormally intense images which simply, by reason of their
intensity, are mistaken for percepts. But such statement,
though supported by very high authority, is almost certainly
false, and would probably never have been made if physiological
and epistemological considerations had been excluded as they
ought to have been. Hallucinations, when carefully examined,
seem just as much as percepts to contain among their consti-
tuents some primary presentation either a so-called subjective
sensation of sight and hearing or some organic sensation due
to deranged circulation or secretion. Intensity alone, then, will
not suffice to discriminate between impressions and images.
What we may call superior steadiness is perhaps a more
constant and not less striking characteristic of percepts. Ideas
are not only in a continual flux, but even when we attempt
forcibly to detain one it varies continually in clearness and com-
pleteness, reminding one of nothing so much as of the illuminated
devices made of gas jets, common at fetes, when the wind sweeps
across them, momentarily obliterating one part and at the same
time intensifying another. There is not this perpetual flow
and flicker in what we perceive. The impressions entering
consciousness at any one moment are psychologically independent
of each other; they are equally independent of the impressions
and images presented the moment before independent, i.e. as
regards their order and character, not, of course, as regards the
share of attention they secure. Attention to be concentrated
in one direction must be withdrawn from another, and images
may absorb it to the exclusion of impressions as readily as a
first impression to the exclusion of a second. But, when
attention w secured, a faint impression has a fixity and definite-
ness lacking in the case of even vivid ideas. One ground for
this definiteness and independence lies in the localization or
projection which accompanies all perception. But why, if so,
it might be asked, do we not confound percept and image when
what we imagine is imagined as definitely localized and projected ?
Because we have a contrary percept to give the image the lie;
where this fails, as in dreams, or where, as in hallucination, the
image obtains in other ways the fixity characteristic of im-
pressions, such confusion does in fact result. But in normal
waking life we have the whole presentation-continuum, as it
were, occupied and in operation: we are distinctly conscious of
being embodied and having our senses about us.
But how is this contrariety between impression and image
possible ? With eyes wide open, and while dearly aware of the
actual field of sight and its filling, one can recall or imagine a
wholly different scene: lying warm in bed one can imagine one-
self out walking in the cold. It is useless to say the times are
different, that what is perceived is present and what is imaged
is past or future. 1 The images, it is true, have certain temporal
marks of which more presently by which they may be referred
to what is past or future; but as imaged they are present, and,
as we have just observed, are regarded as actual whenever there
are no correcting impressions. We cannot at once see the sky red
and blue; how is it we can imagine it the one while perceiving it
to be the other? When we attempt to make the field of sight at
once red and blue, as in looking through red glass with one eye
and through blue glass with the other, either the colours merge
and we see a purple sky or we see the sky first of the one colour
and then of the other in irregular alternation. That this does
not happen between impression and image shows that, whatever
their connexion, images as a whole are distinct from the presenta-
tion-continuum and cannot with strict propriety be spoken of
as revived or reproduced impressions. This difference is
manifest in another respect, viz. when we compare the effects
of diffusion in the two cases. An increase in the intensity of a
sensation of touch entails an increase in the extensity; an increase
of muscular innervation entails irradiation t6 adjacent muscles;
but when a particular idea becomes clearer and more distinct,
there rises into consciousness an associated idea qualitatively
related probably to impressions of quite another class, as when
the smell of tar calls up memories of the sea-beach and fishing-
boats. Since images are thus distinct from impressions, and yet
so far continuous with each other as to form a train in itself un-
broken, we should be justified, if it were convenient, in speaking
of images as changes in a new continuum; and later on we may
see that this is convenient.
Impressions then unlike ideas have no associates to whose
presence their own is accommodated and on whose intensity
their own depends. Each bids independently for attention, so
that often a state of distraction ensues, such as the train of ideas
left to itself never occasions. The better to hear we listen; the
better to see we look; to smell better we dilate the nostrils and
sniff; and so with all the special senses: each sensory impression
sets up nascent movements for its better reception. 2 In like
manner there is also a characteristic adjustment for images which
can be distinguished from sensory adjustments almost as readily
as these are distinguished from each other. We become most
aware of this as, mutatis mutandis, we do of them, when we
voluntarily concentrate attention upon particular ideas instead
of remaining mere passive spectators, as it were, of the general
procession. To this ideational adjustment may be referred
most of the strain and " head-splitting " connected with recol-
lecting, reflecting and all that people call head work; and the
" absent look " of one intently thinking or absorbed in reverie
seems directly due to the absence of sensory adjustment that
accompanies the concentration of attention upon ideas.
22. But, distinct as they are, impressions and images are still
closely connected. In the first place, there are two or three
well-marked intermediate stages, so that, though we connexion
cannot directly observe it, we seem justified in assum- of impm-
ing a steady transition from the one to the other. As * loas ""'
the first of such intermediate stages, it is usual to m * f "'
reckon what are often, and so far as psychology goes
inaccurately, styled after-images. They would be better de-
scribed as after-sensations, inasmuch as they are due either
(i) to the persistence of the original peripheral excitation
after the stimulus is withdrawn, or (2) to the effects of
the exhaustion or the repair that immediately follows this
excitation. In the former case they are qualitatively identical
with the original sensation and are called " positive," in the
latter they are complementary to it and are called " negative "
(see VISION). These last, then, of which we have clear
instances only in connexion with sight, are obviously in no
1 Moreover, as we shall see, the distinction between present and
past or future psychologically presupposes the contrast ol impression
and image.
1 Organic sensations, though distinguishable from images by their
definite though often anatomically inaccurate localization, furnish no
clear evidence of such adaptations. But in another respect they are
still more clearly marked off from images, viz. by the pleasure or pain
they directly occasion.
PSYCHOLOGY
[IDEATION
sort re-presentations of the original impression, but a sequent
presentation of diametrically opposite quality; while positive
after-sensations are, psychologically regarded, nothing but
the original sensations in a state of evanescence. It is this
continuance and gradual waning after the physical stimulus has
completely ceased that give after-sensations their chief title to
a place in the transition from impression to image. There is,
however, another point: after-sensations are less affected by
movement than impressions are. If we turn away our eyes we
cease to see the flame at which we have been looking, but the
after-image remains still projected before us and continues
localized in the dark field of sight, even if we close our eyes
altogether. This fact that movements do not suppress them, and
the fact that yet we are distinctly aware of our sense-organs being
concerned in their presentation, serve to mark off after-sensations
as intermediate between primary and secondary presentations.
The after-sensation is in reality more elementary than either
the preceding percept or its image. In both these, in the case
of sight, objects appear in space of three dimensions, i.e. with
all the marks of solidity and perspective; 1 but the so-called
after-image lacks all these.
Still further removed from normal sensations (i.e. sensations
determined by the stimuli appropriate to the sense-organ) are
the " recurrent sensations " often unnoticed but probably expe-
rienced more or less frequently by everybody cases, that is,
in which sights or sounds, usually such as at the time were
engrossing and impressive, suddenly reappear several hours or
even days after the physical stimuli, as well as their effects on
the terminal sense-organ, seem entirely to have ceased. Thus
workers with 'the microscope often see objects which they have
examined during the day stand out clearly before them in the
dark; it was indeed precisely such an experience that led the
anatomist Henle first to call attention to these facts. But he
and others have wrongly referred them to what he called a
" sense-memory "; all that we know is against the supposition
that the eye or the ear has any power to retain and reproduce
percepts. " Recurrent sensations " have all the marks of per-
cepts which after-sensations lack; they only differ from what
are more strictly called " hallucinations " in being independent
of all subjective suggestion determined by emotion or mental
derangement.
In what Fechner has called the " memory after-image " or the
primary memory-image, as it is better termed, we have the image
proper in its earliest form. As an instance of what is meant may
be cited the familiar experience that a knock at the door, the
hour struck on the clock, the face of a friend whom we have
passed unnoticed, may sometimes be recognized a few minutes
later by means of the persisting image, although apparently
the actual impression was entirely disregarded. But in vision
the primary memory-image can always be obtained, and is
obtained to most advantage, by looking intently at some object
for an instant and then closing the eyes or turning them away.
The image of the object will appear for a moment very vividly
and distinctly, and can be so recovered several times in succes-
sion by an effort of attention. Such reinstatement is materially
helped by rapidly opening and closing the eyes, or by suddenly
moving them in any way. In this respect a primary memory-
image resembles an after-sensation, which can be repeatedly
revived in this manner when it would otherwise have disappeared.
This seems to show that the primary memory-image in such cases
1 The following scant quotation from Fechner, one of the best
observers in this department, must suffice in illustration. " Lying
awake in the early morning after daybreak, with my eyes motionless
though open, there usually appears, when I chance to close them for
a moment, the black after-image of the white bed immediately before
me and the white after-image of the black stove-pipe some distance
away against the opposite wall. . . . Both [after images] appear as
if they were in juxtaposition in the same plane; and, though when
my eyes are open I seem to see the white bed in its entire length,
the after-image-^-when my eyes are shut presents instead only a
narrow black stripe owing to the fact that the bed is seen considerably
foreshortened. But the memory-image on the other hand com-
pletely reproduces the pictorial illusion as it appears when the eyes
are open" (ELemente der Psychophysik, ii. 473).
owes its vivacity in part to a positive after-sensation; at any rate
it proves that it is in some way still sense-sustained. But
in other respects the two are very different: the after-sensation
is necessarily presented if the intensity of the original excitation
suffices for its production, and cannot be presented otherwise,
however much we attend. Moreover, the after-sensation is
only for a moment positive, and then passes into the negative
or complementary phase, when, so far from even contributing
towards the continuance of the original percept, it directly
hinders it. Primary memory-images on the other hand, and
indeed all images, depend mainly upon the attention given to the
impression; provided that was sufficient, the faintest impression
may be long retained, and without it very intense ones will soon
leave no trace. The primary memory-image retains so much of
its original definiteness and intensity as to make it possible with
great accuracy to compare two physical phenomena, one of which
is in this way " remembered " while the other is really present.
For the most part this is indeed a more accurate procedure than
that of dealing with both together, but it is only possible for a
very short time. From Weber's experiments with weights and
lines 2 it would appear that even after 10 seconds a considerable
waning has taken place, and after 100 seconds all that is dis-
tinctive of the primary image has probably ceased.
On the whole, then, it appears that the ordinary memory-
image is a joint effect; it is not the mere residuum of changes
in the presentation-continuum, but an effect of these only
when there has been some concentration of attention upon
them. It has the form of a percept, but is not constituted of
revived impressions, for the essential marks of impressions are
absent; there is no localization in, or projection into, external
space, neither is there the motor adaptation, nor the tone of
feeling, incident to the reception of impressions. Ideas do not
reproduce the intensity of these original constituents, but only
their quality and complication. What we call the vividness of
an idea is of the nature of intensity, but it is an intensity very
partially and indirectly determined by that of the original
impression; it depends much more upon the state of what we
shall call the memory-continuum and the attention the idea
receives. The range of vividness in ideas is probably compara-
tively small; what are called variations in vividness are often
really variations in distinctness and completeness.* Where we
have great intensity, as in hallucinations, primary presentations
may be reasonably supposed to enter into the complex.
It is manifest that the memory-continuum has been in some-
way formed out of or differentiated from the presentation-
continuum by the movements of attention, but the precise con-
nexion of the two continua is still very difficult to determine.
We see perhaps the first distinct step of this evolution in the
primary memory-image: here there has been no cessation in
presentation, and yet the characteristic marks of the impression
are gone, so much so, indeed, that superposition without " fusion "
with an exactly similar impression is possible. We have now to
inquire into the genesis and development of ideation.
Genesis and Development of Ideation.
23. We find ourselves sometimes engrossed in present percep-
tions, as when tracing, for example, the meanderings of an ant;
at other times we may be equally absorbed in reminiscences;
or, again, in pure reverie and " castle-building." Here are three
well-marked forms of conscious life: the first being concerned
with what is, the second with what has been, and the third with
the merely possible. Again, the first involves definite spatial
and temporal order, though the temporal order, as just said,
is in the main restricted to the " sensible present "; the second
involves only definite time-order; and the last neither in a defi-
nite way. Thus, analytically regarded, perception, memory,
imagination, show a steady advance. In infancy the first
2 Die Lehre vom Tastsinne, &c., pp. 86 seq.
* As we have seen that there is a steady transition from percept to
image, so, if space allowed, the study of hallucinations might make
clear an opposite and abnormal process the passage, that is to say,
of images into percepts, for such, to all intents and purposes, are
hallucinations of perception, psychologically regarded.
IDEATION]
PSYCHOLOGY
predominates, while senility lapses back to the second; in the
third, where similarities suggest themselves and the contrast of
actual and possible is explicit, we have at length the groundwork
of logical comparison. Nevertheless, since imagination plays a
conspicuous part in child life before much personal reminiscence
appears, it would seem probable that ideas' do not first arise as
definite memory-images or reminiscences. On the other hand,
in the so-called homing instincts of the lower animals we
have evidence of isolated " memories " of a simpler form than
ours.
The subject is as difficult as it is interesting and important, and
we can hardly hope at present for a final solution. One chief
n:le, as is so often the case in psychology, lies in the unsettled
connotation of such leading terms as memory, association and idea.
: what is most fundamental of all, that " plasticity " which
we have analysed into retentiveness, differentiation and integration,
is sometimes described as if it already involved memory-ideas and
their association. Ideas, that is to say, are identified with mere
" residua " of former " impressions," and yet at the same time are
n of as " copies " of these: which is much like saying the even-
ing twilight is a replica of the noonday glare as well as its parting
gleam. Again, the continuous differentiation and redintegration of
the presentational continuum which mark the progress of perceptual
experience are resolved into an original multiplicity of presenta-
tional atoms which are associated by " adhesion " of the contiguous.
Yet before the differentiation there was no plurality, and after the
integration there is only a complex unity, comparable perhaps with
another organic whole, but certainly not with a mosaic stuck
together with cement. This mistaken identification by the Associa-
tionist psychology of later processes with simpler and earlier ones,
by which they are only partially explained, has not only obscured
the science with inappropriate concepts but has prevented the ques-
tion on which we are entering that concerning the genesis and
development of ideas from being ever effectually raised. The dis-
cussion of this question will incidentally yield the best refutation
of those views.
Experience, we say, is the acquisition of practical acquaintance
and efficiency as the result of repeated opportunity and effort.
This means that strangeness on the cognitive side gives place to
familiarity, and that on the active side clumsiness is superseded
by skill. But though analytically distinct, the two sides are, as
we have already insisted, actually inseparable: to the uninterest-
ing we are indifferent, and what does not call for active response
is ignored. If the original presentations whether sensory or
motor, be A, B, C, we find then that they gradually acquire a
new character, become, let us say, AT, Br, O, y representing the
eventual familiarity or facility, as the case may be. We find,
again, a certain sameness in this character, however various the
presentations to which it pertains, a sameness which points to
the presence of subjective constituents, and to these we may assign
the " feelings " that enter into accommodation and adjustment.
This factor is important as evidence of a subjective co-operation
which may enable us to dispense with the mutual " adhesions "
and " attractions" among presentations, on which the Associa-
tionists rely. But it is obvious that there must be an objective
factor as well; and it is this objective factor in the process giving
rise to y that now primarily concerns us. We have described
that process as assimilation or immediate recognition: the older
psychology described it as association of the completely similar,
or as automatic association. That the two views have some-
thing in common is shown by the juxtaposition of " automatic "
and " immediate," " similarity " and " assimilation." To pre-
pare the way for further discussion, let us first ascertain these
points of agreement. " When I look at the full moon," said
Bain, " I am instantly impressed with the state arising from all
my former impressions of her disc added together." This we may
symbolize in the usual fashion as A-f-On + fls + ai + <Ji-
Now, it will be granted (i) that the present occurrence (full
moon) has been preceded by a series of like occurrences, enumer-
able as i, 2, 3, ; (2) that the present experience (AT) is
what it is in consequence of the preceding experiences of these
occurrences; and (3) that it " arises instantly " as the joint result
of such preceding experiences. But it is denied (i) that this
present experience is the mere sum, or even the mere " fusion,"
of the experiences preceding it; (2) that they were qualitatively
identical; (3) that they persist severally unaltered, in such wise
that experience "drags at each remove a lengthening chain"
of them. In the case of dexterities, where y answers to facility,
it is obvious that there is no such series of identicals (a\, at,
On) at all. From the first rude beginning say the school-
boy's pothooks up to the finished performance of the adept
there is continuous approximation: awkward and bungling
attempts, passing gradually into the bold strokes of mastery.
Nor is the case essentially different in cognition where y answers
to familiarity; if we attend, as it is plain we ought, not to the
physical fact cognized, but to the individual's perception of it.
This, too, is an acquisition, has entailed activity, and is marked
by gradual approximation towards clearness and distinctness.
The successive experiences of identical occurrences does not then
result in an accumulation of n identical residua. The ineptness
of the atomistic psychology with its "physical " and " chemical "
analysis is nowhere more apparent than here. Considering the
intimate relation of life and mind, and the strong physiological
bias shown by the Associationists from Hartley onwards, it
is surely extraordinary how completely they have failed to
appreciate the light-bearing significance of such concepts as
function and development. Facility and faculty (or function)
are much the same, both etymologically and actually. As the
perfected structure is not so many rudimentary structures
" added together," but something that, supersedes them com-
pletely, must we not say the same of the perfected function?
The less fit is not embodied in the fittest that finally survives.
Development implies change of form in a continuous whole:
every growth into means an equal growth out of: thus one
cannot find the caterpillar in the butterfly. Between organic
development and mental development there is then more than
an analogy.
But though assimilation cannot be analysed into a series of
identical ideas (a,, a?, a), either "added together" or
" instantaneously fused," yet it does result in an- a which may
provisionally be called an idea. Such idea is, however, neither a
memory-idea in the proper sense nor an idea within the meaning
of the term implied in imagination or ideation. For it is devoid
of the temporal signs 1 indicated by the subscript numerals in
fli, 2, , and it does not yet admit of reproduction as part of
an ideational continuum, one, that is, divested of the character-
istics belonging to the actual and sensibly present. It is, so to
say, embryonic, something additional to the mere sensation
assimilated, and yet something less than a " free or independent
idea." It is, as it has been happily called, 2 a tied (gebundene)
or implicit idea. We have clear evidence of the sense-bound
stage of this immature " idea " in the so-called " memory after-
image " (cf. 22). There is, however, nothing in this of memory,
save as the term is loosely used for mere retentiveness; and after-
percept would therefore be a less objectionable name for it.
This after-percept is entirely sense-sustained and admits of no
ideal recall, though in minds sufficiently advanced it may
persist for a few moments, and so form the basis of such compari-
son with a second sensation, as we find in the experiments of
Weber, Fechner and others. 3 At a still lower level, or in actual
perception, we cannot assume even this amount of partial
independence, though continuity clearly points to something
beyond the bare sensation, which is a pure abstraction, as we
may presently see.
It is saying too little to maintain, as some do, that this " some-
thing " is subconscious, on the ground that it is not discoverable
by direct analysis. Yet it is saying too much, regardless of this
defect, to describe a percept as a presentative-representative
1 On this term cf. below, 24, 28.
1 Cf. Drobisch, Empirische Psychologie (1842), 31 ; Hoffding,
" Ueber Wiederkennen, Association und psychische Activitat," m
Vierteljahrsschr. f. vnssenschaftl. Philosophic, Bd. xiii. and xiv. To
Hoffding we are also indebted for the term Bekanntheitsqualitdt,
which has suggested the y character used above. Cf. also Ward,
" Assimilation and Association," Mind (1894-1895).
1 Recent experiments, however, seem to prove that the after-
percept is not the sole factor, and often is not a factor at all in such
successive comparison (so-called); but that what is now termed
" the absolute impression " may supplement it or even replace it
altogether. As to what is meant by absolute impression, cf.
14- c.
572
PSYCHOLOGY
[IDEATION
complex, if representation is to imply the presence of a free or
independent idea. To call this " something " a tied or nascent idea
on the ground of its possible later development into an independent
representation seems, then, nearest the truth. The same meaning
is sometimes expressed in a wholly different and designedly para-
doxical way, by saying that all cognition (perception) is recognition.
This statement has been met by elaborate expositions of the differ-
ence between knowing and knowing again, the irrelevance of which
any lexicon would show ; and, further, by the demand : How on such
a view is a first cognition possible, or how is an indefinite regress of
assimilation to be avoided? We may confidently reply that it
cannot be avoided: an absolute beginning of experience, whether
phylogenetically or ontogenetically, is beyond us. Assimilation
means further assimilation ; in this sense all cognition is further
cognition, and a bare sensation is, as said, an abstraction representing
a limit to which we can never regress.
We find evidence, again, of ideas in the making in what Lewes
called*preperception. Of this instances in plenty are furnished
by everyday illusions, as when a scarecrow is hailed by the travel-
ler who mistakes it for a husbandman, or when what is taken
for an orange proves to be but an imitation in wax. In reality
all complex percepts involve preperception; and, so far, it must
be allowed that such percepts are directly analysable into
presentative-representative complexes. Nevertheless, the repre-
sentative element is not yet, and may never become, an idea
proper. The sight of ice yields a forefeel of its coldness, the
smell of baked meats a foretaste of their savour. Such pre-
percepts differ from free ideas just as after-percepts do: they are
still sense-bound and sense-sustained. Nor can this complica-
tion be with any propriety identified either with the association
pertaining to memory or with that specially pertaining to idea-
tion; though, no doubt, the two processes complication and
association are genetically continuous, as are their respective
constituents, nascent and free ideas. 1 The whole course of
perceptual integration being determined and sustained by
subjective interest, involves from the outset, as we have seen,
concurrent conative impulses; and thus the same assimilation
that results in familiarity and preperception on the subjec-
tive side results in facility and purpose on the conative.
Knowing immediately what to do is here the best evidence of
knowing what there is to do with; the moth that flies into
the candle has assuredly no preperception of it, and does not
act with purpose. Bearing this in mind, we may now see
one way, and probably the earliest, in which tied ideas become
free.
The contrast between the actual and the possible constitutes,
as we have seen, the main difference beween experience at the
perceptual and experience at the ideational stage. A subject
confined to the former level knows not yet this difference. Such
knowledge is attained, not through any quasi-mechanical inter-
action of presentations, but usually through bitter experience.
The chapter of accidents is the Bible of fools, it has been said;
but we are all novices at first, and get wisdom chiefly by the
method of trial and failure. Things are not always different in
what to us are their essential properties, but they so differ from
time to time. Resemblances are frequent enough to give us
familiarity and confidence; yet uniformity is flecked by diversity,
and thwarted intentions disclose possibilities for which we were
not prepared. What was taken for sugar turns out to be salt;
what was seized as booty proves to be bait. We catch many
Tatars, and so learn wariness in a rough school. In such wise
preperceptions displaced by the actual fact yield the " what "
severed from the " that," the " ideal " freed at length from the
exclusive hold of the real. In a new situation after such adven-
tures the attitude assumed if, for brevity, we describe it in
terms of our own still more advanced experience is of this sort :
" It may be a weasel, if so, I back; it may be a rabbit, if it is, I
spring." Instead of unquestioned preperception that "makes
1 Hence the earlier process has been named " impressional
association " (Stout, Analytic Psychology, 1896, ii. pp. 27-29), and
again " animal association " (Thorndike, Animal Intelligence, an
Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals, 1898,
pp. 71, 87, and passim). But it seems preferable to confine the term
' association " to the later process, in which alone the component
presentations have that amount of distinctness and individuality
which the term properly connotes.
the mouth water," we have the alternative possibilities present
as " free ideas," and action is in suspense, the alternative courses
that is to say, again present only in idea. It is easy to see how
in such situations one free idea, a " what " sundered from its
" that," will tend to loosen the sensory ties of alternative, still
implicit ideas. On' the cognitive side, from immediate assimil-
ation an advance is made towards mediate cognition, towards
comparison; on the active side there is advance from impulsive
action towards deliberate action. 2
We conclude, then, that implicit ideas the products of
assimilation, and integrated as such in complex percepts and the
motor co-ordinations to which they lead are more likely to
emerge as free ideas the more this perceptual complexity increases.
Perception in the lower animals, who give no signs of either
memory or ideation, has apparently no such complexity. A
fish, for example, can feel, smell, taste, see, and even hear, but
we cannot assume solely on that account that it has any percepts
to which its five senses contribute, as they do to our percept, say,
of an orange or a peppermint. Taking voluntary movements
as the index of psychical life, it would seem that the fish's move-
ments are instigated and guided by its senses, not collectively
but separately. Thus a dog-fish, according to Steiner, seeks its
food exclusively by scent; so that when its olfactory bulbs are
severed, or the fore-brain, in which they end, isdestroyed, it ceases
to feed spontaneously. The carp, on the other hand, appears
to search for its food wholly under the guidance of sight, and
continues to do so just as well when the fore-brain is removed,
the mid-brain, whence the optic nerves spring, seeming to be
the chief seat of what intelligence it has. 3 Again, Bateson
observes: " There can be no doubt that soles also perceive objects
approaching them, for they bury themselves if a stroke at them
is made with a landing-net; yet they have no recognition of a
worm hanging by a thread immediately over their heads, and
will not take it even if it touch them, but continue to feel for it
aimlessly on the bottom of the tank, being aware of its presence
by the sense of smell." 4 To this inability to combine simple
percepts into one complex percept of a single object or situation
we may reasonably attribute the fish's lack of true ideas, and
consequent lack of sagacity. The sagacity even of the higher
animals does not amount to " general intelligence," such as
enables a child " t6 put two and two together," as we say,
whatever " two and two " may stand for. So far as life consists
of a series of definite situations and definite acts, so far the
things done or dealt with together, the contents of the several
foci or concentrations of attention, form so many integrated
and comparatively isolated wholes. Round the more compli-
cated of these, and closely connected with them, free ideas arise
as sporadic groups, making possible those "lucid intervals,"
those fitful gleams of intelligence in the very heat of action, which
occasionally interrupt the prevailing irrationality of the brutes.
And as we cannot credit even the higher animals with general
trains of ideas, just as little can we credit them with a continuous
memory: indeed, it is questionable how far memory of the past,
as past, belongs to them at all. For they live entirely in an
up-stream, expectant attitude, and it is in this aspect that
" free ideas " arise when they arise at all. We cannot imagine
a dog regretting, like one of Punch's heroes, that he " did not
lave another slice of that mutton." 6
The free idea (a) then at its first emergence has neither an
assignable position in a continuous memory-record, as a\ or 02,
nor has it a definite relation as a " generic idea " to possible
specializations such as a' or a". These further developments
bring us to the general consideration of mental association.
1 Some light is perhaps here thrown on the reciprocal relation of
association by contrast " and " association by similarity " as
severally the differentiation of partial similars and the integration of
martial dissimilars.
' J. Steiner, Die Functionen des Cenlralnervensytems u.s.w., 2te
Abth. Die Fische (1888), pp. 50, 126, 19 seq., 101.
4 W. Bateson, " The Sense-Organs and Perceptions of Fishes,"
Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. (1890), p. 239.
5 Cf. Stout, Manual of Psychology (1899), vol. ii. ch. i.; also F. H.
Sradley, " Memory and Inference," Mind (1899), pp. 145 sqq.; and
especially Thorndike, Animal Intelligence, cited above.
MENTAL ASSOCIATION]
PSYCHOLOGY
573
Mental Association and the Memory-Continuum.
24. Great confusion has been occasioned, as we have seen
incidentally, by the lax use of the term " association," and this
confusion has been increased by a further laxity in
"the use of the term "association by similarity."
Hy not In so far as the similarity amounts to identity, as in
Funds- assimilation, we have a process which is more
mental. fundamental than association by contiguity, but
then it is not a process of association. And when the reviving
presentation is only partially similar to the presentation revived,
the nature of the association does not appear to differ from that
operative when one " contiguous " presentation revives another.
In the one case we have, say, a b x recalling a b y , and in the
other a b c recalling d e f. Now anybody who will reflect
must surely see that the similarity between a b x and a b y, as
distinct from the identity of their partial constituent a b, cannot
be the means of recall; for this similarity is nothing but the
state of mind to be studied presently which results when
ab x and a b y, having been recalled are in consciousness together
and then compared. But if a b, having concurred with y before
and being now present in a b x, again revives y, the association,
so far as that goes, is manifestly one of contiguity, albeit as soon
as the revival is complete, the state of mind immediately incident
may be what Bain loved to style " the flash of similarity." So
far as the mere revival itself goes, there is no more similarity in
this case than there is when a b c revives d ef. For the very a b c
that now operates as the reviving presentation was obviously
never in time contiguous with the d e f that is revived; if all
traces of previous experiences of a b c were obliterated there
would be no revival. In other words, the a b c now present
must be " automatically associated," or, as we prefer to say,
must be assimilated to those residua of a b c which were " con-
tiguous " with d ef, before the representation of this can occur.
And this, and nothing more than this, we have seen, is all
the " similarity " that could be at work when a b x " brought
up " a b y.
On the whole, then, we may assume that the only principle
of association we have to examine is the so-called association by
contiguity, which, as ordinarily formulated, runs:
Continuity 1.1.
inexplicable. Any presentations whatever, which are in conscious-
ness together or in close succession, cohere in such a
way that when one recurs it tends to revive the rest, such ten-
dency increasing with the frequency of the conjunction. It has
been often contended that any investigation into the nature of
association must be fruitless. 1 But, if association is thus a first
principle, it ought at least to admit of such a statement as shall
remove the necessity for inquiry. So long, however, as we are
asked to conceive presentations originally distinct and isolated
becoming eventually linked together, we shall naturally feel
the need of some explanation of the process, for neither the
isolation nor the links are dear not the isolation, for
we can only conceive two presentations separated by other
presentations intervening; nor the links, unless these are
also presentations, and then the difficulty recurs. But, if
for contiguity we substitute continuity and regard the associated
presentations as parts' of a new continuum, the only important
inquiry is how this new whole was first of all integrated.
To ascertain this point we must examine each of the two
leading divisions of contiguous association that of simultaneous
Formation presentations and that of presentations occurring
of Memory- in close succession. The last, being the clearer, may
Continuum. b e taken first. In a series of associated presentations
A B C D E, such as the movements made in writing, the words
of a poem learned by heart, or the simple letters of the alphabet
themselves, we find that each member recalls its successor but
not its predecessor. Familiar as this fact is, it is not perhaps
easy to explain it satisfactorily. Since C is associated both
with B and D, and apparently as intimately with the one as with
the other, why does it revive the later only and not the earlier?
B recalls C; why does not C recall B? We have seen that any
1 So Hume, Treatise of Human Nature, pt. i. 4 (Green and
Grose's ed., p. 321); also Lotze, Metaphysik, 1st ed., p. 526.
reproduction at all of B, C or D depends primarily upon its
having been the object of special attention, so as to occupy at
least momentarily the focus of consciousness. Now we can in
the first instance only surmise that the order in which they are
reproduced is determined by the order in which they were thus
attended to when first presented. The next question is whether
the association of objects simultaneously presented can be
resolved into an association of objects successively attended to.
Whenever we try to recall a scene we saw but for a moment there
are always a few traits that recur, the rest being blurred and
vague, instead of the whole being revived in equal distinctness
or indistinctness. On seeing the same scene a second time our
attention is apt to be caught by something unnoticed before,
as this has the advantage of novelty; and so on, till we have
" lived ourselves into " the whole, which may then admit of
simultaneous recall. Bain, who is rightly held to have given the
best exposition of the laws of association, admits something very
like this in saying that " coexistence is an artificial growth
formed from a certain peculiar class of mental successions."
But, while it is easy to think of instances in which the associated
objects were attended to successively, and we are all perfectly
aware that the surest not to say the only way to fix the
association of a number of objects is by thus concentrating
attention on each in turn, it seems hardly possible to mention
a case in which attention to the associated objects could not
have been successive. In fact, an aggregate of objects on which
attention could be focused at once would be already associated.
The exclusively successional character of contiguous association
has recently been denied, and its exclusively simultaneous character
maintained instead. It is at once obvious that this opposition of
succession and simultaneity cannot be pressed so as to exclude dura-
tion altogether and reduce the whole process to an instantaneous
event. Nor is there any ground for saying that there is a fixed and even
distribution of attention to whatever is simultaneously presented:
facts all point the other way. Still, though we cannot exclude the
notion of process from consciousness, we may say that presentations
attended to together become pro tanto a new whole, are synthesized
or complicated. Such primary synthesis leads not to an association
of ideas, but rather to the formation of one percept, which may be-
come eventually a free idea. The disconcerted preperception which
sets this free may likewise liberate a similar or contrasting idea,
but it will not resolve either complex into the several " ideas of its
sensory or motor constituents, with which only the psychologist is
familiar. The actual recurrence of some of these constituents may
again reinstate the rest, not, however, as memories or as " thoughts, '
but only as tied ideas in a renewed perception.
Again, it has become usual to distinguish the association of
contiguous experiences and the so-called association of similars or
opposites as respectively external and internal forms of association.
The new terminology is illuminating: the substitution of forms for
laws marks the abandonment of the old notion that association
was by " adhesion " of the contiguous and " attraction " of the
similar. We are thus left to find the cause of association in interested
attention ; and that, we may safely say, is an adequate, and appar-
ently the sole adequate, cause for the two commonly recognized
forms of external association, the so-called simultaneous and the
successive. But these two are certainly not co-ordinate; and if our
analysis be sound, the former for which we would retain the
Herbartian term complication yields us not members of an associa-
tion but a member for association. So far, then, we should have but
one form of association, that of the successive contents of focalized
attention: and but one result, the representation or memory -con-
tinuum, 2 in contrast to the primary- or presentation-continuum,
whence its constituents arise. Turning now to the distinction of
external and internal, it at once strikes the unprejudiced mind that
" internal association " is something of an anomaly, since the very
notion of association implies externality. Also, on closer inspection
what we find is not an association of similars or opposites as such,
but something quite distinct a similarity or contrast of associates;
of ideas, that is to say, which are contiguous members of the memory
(or experience) continuum, or of ideas which have become contiguous
through its reduplication.
The only case, then, that now remains to be considered is
that to take it in its simplest form of two primary presenta-
tions A and X, parts of different special continua or distinct
i.e. non-adjacent parts of the same, and occupying the focus
of consciousness in immediate succession. This constitutes
1 ExperienceK:ontinuum would perhaps be a better name, since
it is only a preliminary to a true memory record, as we shall presently
574
PSYCHOLOGY
[MENTAL ASSOCIATION
their integration; for the result of this occupation may be
regarded as a new continuum in which A and X become adjacent
parts. For it is characteristic of a continuum that an increase
in the intensity of any part leads to the intenser presentation
of adjacent parts; and in this sense A and X, which were not
originally continuous, have come to be so. We have here,
then, some justification for the term secondary- or memory-
continuum when applied to this continuous series of representa-
tions to distinguish it from the primary or presentation-
continuum from which its constituents are derived. The most
important peculiarity of this continuum, therefore, is that it is
a series of representations integrated by means of the movements
of attention out of the differentiations of the primary or presenta-
tion-continuum, or rather out of so much of these differentia-
tions as pertain to what we know as the primary memory-image.
These movements of attention, if the phrase may be allowed,
come in the end to depend mainly upon interest, but at first
appear to be determined entirely by mere intensity. 1 To them
it is proposed to look for that continuity which images lose in so
far as they part with the local signs they had as percepts and
cease to be either localized or projected. Inasmuch as it is
assumed that these movements form the connexion between one
representation and another in the memory-train, they may
be called "temporal signs." 2 The evidence for their existence
can be more conveniently adduced presently; it must suffice to
remark here that it consists almost wholly of facts connected
with voluntary attention and the voluntary control of the flow
of ideas, so that temporal signs, unlike local signs, are funda-
mentally motor and not sensory. And, unlike impressions,
representations can have each but a single sign, 3 the continuum
of which, in contrast to that of local signs, is not rounded and
complete, but continuously advancing. But in saying this we
are assuming for a moment that the memory-continuum forms
a perfectly single and unbroken train. If it ever actually were
such, then, in the absence of any repetition of old impressions
and apart from voluntary interference with the train, conscious-
ness, till it ceased entirely, would consist of a fixed and mechanical
round of images. Some approximation to such a state is often
found in uncultured persons who lead uneventful lives, and still
more in idiots, who can scarcely think at all.
25. In actual fact, however, the memory-train is liable to
change in two respects, which considerably modify its structure,
viz. (i) through the evanescence of some parts, and (2) through
the partial recurrence of like impressions, which produces
reduplications of varying amount and extent in other parts. As
regards the first, we may infer that the waning or sinking
towards the threshold of consciousness which we can observe
Formation in the primary mental image continues in sub-
of ideational consciousness after the threshold is past. For the
Continuum. i on g er the time that elapses before their revival
the fainter, the less distinct, and the less complete are the images
when revived, and the more slowly they rise. All the elements
of a complex are not equally revivable, as we have seen already:
tastes, smells and organic sensations, though powerful as im-
pressions to revive other images, have little capacity for ideal
1 This connexion of association with continuous movements of
attention makes it easier to understand the difficulty above referred
to, viz. that in a series A B C D . . . B revives C but not A , and so on
a difficulty that the analogy of adhesiveness or links leaves unac-
countable. To ignore the part played by attention in association,
to represent the memory-continuum as due solely to the concurrence
of presentations, is perhaps the chief defect of the associationist
psychology, both English and German. Spencer's endeavour to
show " that psychical life is distinguished from physical life by
consisting of successive changes only instead of successive and
simultaneous changes " (Principles of Psychology, pt. iv. ch. ii., in
particular pp. 403, 406) is really nothing but so much testimony to
the work of attention in forming the memory-continuum, especially
when, as there is good reason to do, we reject his assumption that
this growing seriality is physically determined.
2 A term borrowed from Lotze (Metaphysik, ist ed., p. 295), but
the present writer is alone responsible for the sense here given to it
and the hypothesis in which it is used.
8 Apart, that is to say, of course, from the reduplications of the
memory-train spoken of below.
reproduction themselves, while muscular movements, though
perhaps of all presentations the most readily revived, do not so
readily revive other presentations. Idiosyncrasies are, however,
frequent; thus we find one person has an exceptional memory
for sounds, another for colours, another for forms. Still it is in
general true that the most intense, the most impressive, and
the most interesting presentations persist the longest. But the
evanescence, which is in all cases comparatively rapid at first,
deepens sooner or later into real or apparent oblivion. In this
manner it comes about that parts of the memory-continuum
lose all distinctness of feature and, being without obliviscence
recognizable content, shrivel up to a dim and meagre
representation of life that has lapsed a representation that just
suffices, for example, to show us that " our earliest recollections "
are not of our first experiences, or to save them from being not
only isolated but discontinuous. Such discontinuity can, of
course, never be absolute; we must have something represented
even to mark the gap. Oblivion and the absence of all representa-
tion are thus the same, and the absence of all representation
cannot psychologically constitute a break. The terms " evolu-
tion " and " involution " have in this respect been happily
applied to the rising and falling of representations. When we
recall a particular period of our past life, or what has long ceased
to be a familiar scene, events and features gradually unfold and,
as it were, spread out as we keep on attending. A precisely
opposite process may then be supposed to take place when they
are left in undisturbed forgetfulness; this process is called
obliviscence.
More important changes are produced by the repetition of
parts of the memory-train. The effect of this is not merely
to prevent the evanescence of the particular image n epetltloa
or series of images, but by partial and more or less
frequent reduplications of the memory-train or " thread "
upon itself to convert it into a partially new continuum, which
we might perhaps call the ideational continuum or "tissue." 4
The reduplicated portions of the train are strengthened, while at
the points of divergence it becomes comparatively weakened,
and this apart from the effects of obliviscence. One who had
seen the king but once would scarcely be likely to think of
him without finding the attendant circumstances recur as well;
this could not happen after seeing him in a hundred different
scenes. The central representation of the whole complex would
have become more distinct, whereas the several
diverging lines would tend to dissipate attention and, /m"ages.
by involving opposing representations, to neutralize
each other, so that probably no definite background would be re-
instated. Even this central representation would be more or less
generalized. It has been often remarked that one's most familiar
friends are apt to be mentally pictured less concretely and vividly
than persons seen more seldom and then in similar attitudes
and moods; in the former case a " generic image " has grown out
of such more specific representations as the latter affords. Still
further removed from memory-images are the images that result
from such familiar percepts as those of horses, houses, trees, &c.
Thus as the joint effect of obliviscence and reduplication we
are provided with trains of ideas distinct from Ihe memory-
thread and thereby with the material, already more
or less organized, for intellectual and volitional f,j eas ,
manipulation. We do not experience the flow of
ideas save very momentarily and occasionally altogether
undisturbed; even in dreams and reverie it is continually
interrupted and diverted. Nevertheless it is not difficult to
ascertain that, so far as it is left to itself, it takes a very
different course from that which we should have to retrace if
bent on reminiscence and able to recollect perfectly. The readi-
ness and steadiness of this flow are shown by the extremely
small effort necessary in order to follow it. Nevertheless
from its very nature it is liable, though not to positive breaches
4 This contrast of thread and tissue is suggested, of course, by
Herbart's terms Reihe and Gewebe. It is justified by the fact that
memory proper follows the single line of temporal continuity, while
ideation furnishes the basis for manifold logical connexions.
REMINISCENCE]
PSYCHOLOGY
575
of continuity from its own working, yet to occasional blocks
or impediments to the smooth succession of images at points
where reduplications diverge, and either permanently or at
the particular time neutralize each other. 1
The flow of ideas is, however, exposed to positive interruptions
from two distinct sides by the intrusion of new presentations and
of voluntary interference. The only result of such
' interruptions which we need here consider is the conflict
Prrseata- O j presentations that may ensue. Herbart and his
iu/i.s. followers have gone so far as to elaborate a complete
system of psychical statics and dynamics, based on the concep-
tion of presentations asj forces and on certain more ori less
improbable assumptions as to the modes in which such forces
interact. Since our power of attention is limited, it continually
happens that attention is drawn off by new presentations at the
expense of old ones. But, even if we regard this non-voluntary
redistribution of attention as implying a struggle between presenta-
tions, still such conflict to secure a place in consciousness is very
different from a conflict between presentations that are already
there. Either may be experienced to any degree possible without
the other appearing at all ; thus, absorbed in watching a starry sky,
one might be unaware of the chilliness of the air, though recognizing
at once, as soon as the cold is felt, that, so far from being incom-
patible, the clearness and the coldness are causally connected.
This difference between a conflict of presentations to enter the field
of consciousness if we allow for a moment the propriety of the
expression and that opposition or incompatibility between presenta-
tions which is only possible when they are in consciousness has
been strangely confused by the Herbartians. In the former the
intensity of the presentation is primarily alone of account; in the
latter, on the contrary, quality and content are mainly concerned.
Only the last requires any notice here, since such opposition arises
when the ideational continuum is interrupted in the ways just
mentioned, and apparently arises in no other way. Certainly there
is no such opposition between primary presentations: there we have
the law of incopresentability preventing the presentation of opposites
with the same local sign; and their presentation with different local
signs involves, on this level at all events, no conflict. But what has
never been presented could hardly be represented, if the ideational
process were undisturbed: even in our dreams white negroes or
round squares, for instance, never appear. In fact, absurd and
bizarre as dream-imagery is, it never at any moment entails overt
contradictions, though contradiction may be implicit.
But between ideas and percepts actual incompatibility is frequent.
In the perplexity of Isaac, e.g. " The voice is Jacob's voice, but the
hands are the hands of Esau " we have such a case in a familiar
form. There is here not merely mental arrest but actual conflict:
the voice perceived identifies Jacob, at the same time the hands
identify Esau. The images of Esau and Jacob by themselves are
different, but do not conflict; neither is there any strain, quite the
contrary, in recognizing a person partly like Jacob and partly like
Esau. For there is no direct incompatibility between smooth and
rough, so long as one pertains only to voice and the other only to
hands, but the same hands and voice cannot be both smooth and
rough. Similar incompatibilities may arise without the intrusion
of percepts, as when, in trying to guess a riddle or to solve a problem,
or generally to eliminate intellectual differences, we have images
which in themselves are only logically opposite, psychologically
opposed, or in conflict, because each strives to enter the same com-
plex. In all such conflicts alike we find, in fact, a relation of presenta-
tions the exact converse] of that which constitutes similarity.
In the latter we have two complete presentations, a b x and o b y,
as similar, each including the common part a b ; in the former vie have
two partial presentations, x and y, as contraries, each excluding the
other from the incomplete a b. And this a b, it is to be noted, is
not more essential to the similarity than to the conflict. But in
the one case it is a generic image (and can logically be predicated
of two subjects) ; in the other it is a partially determined individual
(and cannot be subject to opposing predicates). Except as thus
supplementing a b, x and y do not conflict ; black and white are not
incompatible save as attributes of the same thing. The possibility
of most of these conflicts of all, indeed, that have any logical
interest lies in that reduplication of the memory-continuum which
gives rise to these new complexes, generic images or general ideas.
Reminiscence and Expectation: Temporal Perception.
26. Having thus attempted to ascertain the formation of the
ideational continuum out of the memory-train, the question
arises: How now are we to distinguish between imagining and
remembering, and again, between imagining and expecting?
1 It is a mark of the looseness of much of our psychological termin-
ology that facts of this kind are commonly described as cases of
association. Dr Bain calls them " obstructive association," which
is about on a par with " progress backwards " ; Mr Sully's " divergent
^association " is better. But it is plain that what we really have is
an arrest or inhibition consequent on association, and nothing that
is either itself association or that leads to association.
It is plainly absurd to make the difference depend on the presence
of belief in memory and expectation and on its absence in mere
imagination; for the belief itself depends on this difference instead
of constituting it. One real and obvious distinction, however,
which Hume pointed out as regards memory, is the fixed order
and position of the ideas of what is remembered or expected as
contrasted with " the liberty " of the imagination
to transpose and change its ideas. This order and '
position in the case of memory are, of course, norm-
ally those of the original impressions, but it seems rather naive
of Hume to tell us that memory " is tied down to these without
any power of variation," while imagination has liberty to trans-
pose as it pleases, as if the originals sat to memory for their
portraits, while to imagination they were but studies. Such
correspondence being out of the question as Hume takes care
to state as soon as it suits him all we have, so far, is this fixity
and definiteness as contrasted with the kaleidoscopic instability
of ideation. In this respect what is remembered or expected
resembles what is perceived: the grouping not only does not
change capriciously and spontaneously, but resists any mental
efforts to change it. But, provided these characteristics are
there, we should be apt to believe that we are remembering,
just as, mutatis mutandis, with like characteristics we might
believe that we were perceiving: hallucination is possible in
either case.
This fixity of order and position is, however, not sufficient
to constitute a typical reminiscence where the term is exactly
used. But remembering is often regarded as equivalent to
knowing and recognizing, as when on revisiting some once
familiar place one remarks, " How well I remember it!" What
is meant is that the place is recognized, and that its recognition
awakens memories. Memory includes recognition; recognition
as such does not include memory. In human consciousness, as
we directly observe it, there is, perhaps, no pure recognition:
here the new presentation in not only assimilated to the old, but
the former framing of circumstance is reinstated, and so perforce
distinguished from the present. It may be there is no warrant
for supposing that such redintegration of a preceding field is ever
absolutely nil, still we are justified in regarding it as extremely
vague and meagre, both where mental evolution is but slightly
advanced and where frequent repetition in varying and irrelevant
circumstances has produced a blurred and neutral zone. The
last is the case with a great part of our knowledge; the writer
happens to know that bos is the Latin for " ox " and bufo the
Latin for " toad," and may be said to remember both items of
knowledge, if " remember " is only to be synonymous with
" retain." But if he came across bos in reading he would think
of an ox and nothing more; bufo would immediately call up not
only " toad " but Virgil's Georgia, the only place in which he has
seen the word, and which he never read but once. In the former
there is so far nothing but recognition (which, however, of course
rests upon retentiveness) ; in the latter there is also remembrance
of the time and circumstances in which that piece of knowledge
was acquired. Of course in so far as we are aware that we
recognize we also think that remembrance is at any rate possible,
since what we know we must previously have learned recog-
nition excluding novelty. But the point here urged is that there
is an actual reminiscence only when the recognition is accom-
panied by a reinstatement of portions of the memory-train
continuous with the previous presentation of what is now recog-
nized. Summarily stated, we may say that between knowing
and remembering on the one hand and imagining on the other
the difference primarily turns on the fixity and completeness of
the grouping in the former; in the latter there is a shifting play
of images more or less " generic," reminding one of " dissolving
views." Hence the first two approximate in character to per-
ception, and are rightly called recognitions. Between them,
again, the difference turns primarily on the presence or absence
of temporal signs. In what is remembered these are still intact
enough to ensure a localization in the past of what is recognized;
in what is known merely such localization is prevented, either
because of the obliviscence of temporal connexions or because
PSYCHOLOGY
[REMINISCENCE
the reduplications of the memory-train that have consolidated
the central group have entailed their suppression. There is
further the difference first mentioned, which is often only a
difference of degree, viz. that reminiscences have more circum-
stantiality, so to say, than mere recognitions have: more of the
collateral constituents of the original concrete field of conscious-
ness are reinstated. But of the two characteristics of memory
proper (a) concreteness or circumstantiality, and (b) localization
in the past the latter is the more essential. It sometimes
happens that we have the one with little or nothing of the other.
For example, we may have but a faint and meagre representation
of a scene, yet if it falls into and retains a fixed place in the memory
train we have no doubt that some such experience was once
actually ours. On the other hand, as in certain so-called illusions
of memory, we may suddenly find ourselves reminded by what
is happening at the moment of a preceding experience exactly
like it some even feel that they know from what is thus recalled
what will happen next; and yet, because we are wholly unable
to assign such representation a place in the past, instead of a
belief that it happened, there arises a most distressing sense of
bewilderment, as if one were haunted and had lost one's personal
bearings. 1 It has been held by some psychologists 2 that
memory proper includes the representation of one's past self
as agent or patient in the event or situation recalled. And this
is true as regards all but the earliest human experience, at any
rate; still, whereas it is easy to see that memory is essential
to any development of self consciousness, the converse is not
at all clear, and would involve us in a needless circle.
27. Intimately connected with memory is expectation. We
may as the result of reasoning conclude that a certain event
Expectation w ^ happen; we may also, in like manner, conclude
' that a certain other event has happened. But as we
should not call the latter memory, so it is desirable to distinguish
such indirect anticipation as the former from that expectation
which is directly due to the interaction of ideas. Any man
knows that he will die, and may make a variety of arrangements
in anticipation of death, but he cannot with propriety be said
to be expecting it unless he has actually present to his mind a
series of ideas ending in that of death, such series being due to
previous associations, and unless, further, this series owes its
representation at this moment to the actual recurrence of some
experience to which that series succeeded before. And as
familiarity with an object or event in very various settings may
be a bar to recollection, so it may be to expectation: the average
Englishman, e.g. is continually surprised without his umbrella,
though only too familiar with rain, since in our climate one not
specially attentive to the weather obtains no clear representation
of its successive phases. But after a series of events A B C D E
. . . has been once experienced we instinctively expect the
recurrence of B C . . . on the recurrence of A , i.e. provided
the memory-train continues so far intact. Such expectation,
at first perhaps slight a mere tendency easily overborne
becomes strengthened by every repetition of the series in the
old order, till eventually, if often fulfilled and never falsified, it
becomes certain and, as we commonly say, irresistible. To have
a clear case of expectation, then, it is not necessary that we should
distinctly remember any previous experience like it, but only
that we should have actually present some earlier member of
a series which has been firmly associated by such previous
experiences, the remaining members, or at least the next, if they
continue serial, being revived through that which is once again
realized. This expectation may be instantly checked by
reflection, just as it may, of course, be disappointed in fact; but
these are matters which do not concern the inquiry as to the
nature of expectation while expectation lasts.
We shall continue this inquiry to most advantage by widening
it into an examination of the distinction of present, past and
future. To a being whose presentations never passed through
1 Any full discussion of paramnesia, as these very interesting
states of mind are called, belongs to mental pathology.
8 As, e.g. James Mill (Analysis of the Human Mind, ch. x.), who
treats this difficult subject with great acuteness and thoroughness.
the transitions which ours undergo first divested of the
strength and vividness of impressions, again reinvested with
them and brought back from the faint world of ideas Present,
the sharp contrasts of "now" and "then," and Past, and
all the manifold emotions they occasion, would be Future -
quite unknown. Even we, so far as we confine our activity and
attention to ideas are almost without them. Time-order, suc-
cession, antecedence, and consequence, of course, there might be
still, but in that sense of events as " past and gone for ever,"
which is one of the melancholy factors in our life; and in the
obligation to wait and work in hope or dread to what is " still to
come " there is much more than time-order. It is to presenta-
tions in their primary stage, to impressions, that we owe what real
difference we find between now and then, whether prospective or
retrospective, as it is to them also that we directly owe our sense
of the real, of what is and exists as opposed to the non-existent
that is not. But the present alone and life in a succession of
presents, or, in other words, continuous occupation with impres-
sions, give us no knowledge of the present as present. This we
first obtain when our present consciousness consists partly of
memories or partly of expectations as well. An event expected
differs from a like event remembered chiefly in two ways in its
relation to present impressions and images and in the active
attitude to which it leads. The diverse feelings that accompany
our intuitions of time and contribute so largely to their colouring
are mainly consequences of these differences. Let us take a
series of simple and familiar events A B C D E, representing
ideas by small letters, and perceptions by capitals whenever
it is necessary to distinguish them. Such series may be present
in consciousness in such wise that abed are imaged while E is
perceived anew, i.e. the whole symbolized as proposed would be
a b c d E; such would be, e.g. the state of a dog that had just
finished his daily meal. 1 Again, there may be a fresh impression
of A which revives b c d e; we should have then (i) A bed e the
state of our dog when he next day gets sight of the dish in which
his food is brought to him. A little later we may have (2) a b C d e.
Here a b are either after-sensations or primary memory-images,
or have at any rate the increased intensity due to recent
impression; but this increased intensity will be rapidly on the
wane even while C lasts, and a b will pale still further when C
gives place to D, and we have (3) a b c D e. But, returning to
(2), we should find d e to be increasing in intensity and definite-
ness, as compared with their state in (i), now that C, instead of
A , is the present impression. For, when A occupied this position,
not only was e raised less prominently above the threshold of
consciousness by reason of its greater distance from A in the
memory-continuum, but, owing to the reduplications of this
continuum, more lines of possible revival were opened up, to be
successively negatived as B succeeded to A and C to B; even
dogs know that " there is many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip."
But, where A B C D E is a series of percepts such as we have
here supposed and a series of simpler states would hardly afford
much ground for the distinctions of past, present and future
there would be a varying amount of active adjustment of sense-
organs and other movements supplementary to full sensation.
In (2), the point at which we have a b C d e, for instance, such
adjustments and movements as were appropriate to b would
cease as B lapsed and be replaced by those appropriate to C.
Again, as C succeeded to B, and d in consequence increased in
intensity and definiteness, the movements adapted to the
reception of D would become nascent, and so on. Thus, psycho-
logically regarded, the distinction of past and future and what
we might call the oneness of direction of time depend, as just
described, (i) upon the continuous sinking of the primary
memory-images on the one side, and the continuous rising of
the ordinary images on the other side, of that member of a series
of percepts then repeating which is actual at the moment; and
(2) on the prevenient adjustments of attention, to which such
words as " expect," " await," " anticipate," all testify by their
etymology. These conditions in turn will be found to depend
upon all that is implied in the formation of the memory-train
and upon that recurrence of like series of impressions which we
REMINISCENCE]
PSYCHOLOGY
577
attribute to the " uniformity of nature. " If we never had the
same series of impressions twice, knowledge of time would be
impossible, as indeed would knowledge of any sort.
28. Time is often figuratively represented as a line, and we
may perhaps utilize this figure to make clear the relation of our
perception of time to what we call time itself. The
"' present, though conceived as a point or instant of
time, is still such that we actually can and do in that moment
attend to a plurality of presentations to which we might other-
wise have attended to severally in successive moments. Grant-
ing this implication of simultaneity and succession, we may, if
we represent succession as a line, represent simultaneity as a
second line at right angles to the first; pure time or time-length
without time-breadth, we may say is a mere abstraction. Now
it is with the former line that we have to do in treating of time
as it is (or as we conceive it), and with the latter in treating of
our perception of time, where, just as in a perspective represen-
tation of distance, we are confined to lines in a plane at right
angles to the actual line of depth. In a succession of events
A B C D E . . . the presence of B means the absence of A and of
C, but the presentation of this succession involves the simulta-
neous presence, in some mode or other, of two or more of the
presentations A B C D. In our temporal perception, then, all
that corresponds to the differences of past, present and future is
presented simultaneously.. To this fact the name of " specious
present " or " psychical present " has been given. What we
have is not a moving point or moment of objective time, but
rather a moving line, the contents of which, continuously
changing, simultaneously represent a portion of the line of objec-
tive succession, viz. the immediate past as still present in primary
memory-images, and the immediate future as anticipated in
prepercepts and nascent acts. 1 This truism or paradox that
all we know of succession is but an interpretation of what is
really simultaneous or coexistent, we may then concisely express
by saying that we are aware of time only through time-perspec-
tive, and experience shows that it is a long step from a succession
of presentations to such presentation of succession. The first
condition of such presentation is that we should have represented
together presentations that were in the first instance attended
to successively, and this we have both in the persistence of
primary memory-images and in the simultaneous reproduction
of longer or shorter portions of the memory-train. In a series
thus secured there may be time-marks, though no time, and by
these marks the series will be distinguished from other simul-
taneous series. To ask which is first among a number of simul-
taneous presentations is unmeaning; one might be logically
prior to another, but in time they are together and priority is
excluded. Nevertheless after each distinct representation
a, b, c, d there probably follows, as we have supposed, some trace
of that movement of attention of which we are aware in passing
from one presentation to another. In our present reminiscences
we have, it must be allowed, little direct proof of this inter-
position, though there is strong indirect evidence of it in the
tendency of the flow to follow the order in which the presen-
tations were first attended to. With the movements themselves
we are familiar enough, though the residua of such move-
ments are not ordinarily conspicuous. These residua, then,
are our temporal signs, and, together with the representations
connected by them, constitute the memory-continuum. But
temporal signs alone will not furnish all the pictorial exactness
of the time-perspective. They give us only a fixed series; but
the working of obliviscence, by insuring a progressive variation
in intensity and distinctness as we pass from one member of the
series to the other, yields the effect which we call time-distance.
By themselves such variations would leave us liable to confound
more vivid representations in the distance with fainter ones
nearer the present, but from this mistake the temporal signs save
us; and, as a matter of fact, where the memory-train is imperfect
such mistakes continually occur. On the other hand, where
these variations are slight and imperceptible, though the memory -
1 Cf. W. James, Principles of Psychology, i. 629 sqq. ; L. W. Stern,
'Psychische Prascnzzeit, Z.f. Psych., (1897), xiii. 325 sqq.
xxn. ig
continuum preserves the order of events intact, we have still no
such distinct appreciation of comparative distance in time as we
have nearer the present where these perspective effects are
considerable.
29. When in retrospect we note that a particular presentation
X has had a place in the field of consciousness, while certain
other presentations, A BCD..., have succeeded
each other, then we may be said in observing this
relation of the two to perceive the duration of X. And it is in
this way that we do subjectively estimate longer periods of time.
But first, it is evident that we cannot apply this method to
indefinitely short periods without passing beyond the region of
distinct presentation; and, since the knowledge of duration implies
a relation between distinguishable presentations .4 BCD and X,
the case is one in which the hypothesis of subconsciousness can
hardly help any but those who confound the fact of time with the
knowledge of it. Secondly, if we are to compare different
durations at all, it is not enough that one of them should last
out a series A B C D, and another a series L M N O; we also
want some sort of common measure of those series. Locke was
awake to this point, though he expresses himself vaguely (Essay,
ii. 14, 9-12). He speaks of our ideas succeeding each other
" at certain distances not much unlike the images in the inside
of a lantern turned round by the heat of a candle, " and
" guesses " that " this appearance of theirs in train varies not
very much in a waking man." Now what is this " distance " that
separates A from B, B from C, and so on, and what means have
we of knowing that it is tolerably constant in waking life ? It
is probably that the residuum of which we have called a temporal
sign; or, in other words, it is the movement of attention from A
to B. But we must endeavour here to get a more exact notion
of this movement. Everybody knows what it is to be distracted
by a rapid succession of varied impressions, and equally what it is
to be wearied by the slow and monotonous recurrence of the
same impressions. Now these " feelings " of distraction and
tedium owe their characteristic qualities to movements of atten-
tion. In the first, attention is kept incessantly on the move;
before it is accommodated to A, it is disturbed by the sudden-
ness, intensity, or novelty of B; in the second, it is kept all but
stationary by the repeated presentation of the same impression.
Such excess and defect of surprises make one realize a fact which
in ordinary life is so obscure as to escape notice. But recent
experiments have set this fact in a more striking light, and
made clear what Locke had dimly before his mind in talking of a
certain distance between the presentations of a waking man. In
estimating very short periods of time, of a second or less indicated
say by the beats of a metronome it is found that there is a certain
period for which the mean of a number of estimates is correct,
while shorter periods are on the whole over-estimated, and longer
periods under-estimated. This we may perhaps take to be
evidence of the time occupied in accommodating or fixing atten-
tion. Whether the " point of indifference " is determined by the
rate of usual bodily movement, as Spencer asserts and Wundt
conjectures, or conversely, is a question we need not discuss just
now. But, though the fixation of attention does of course really
occupy time, it is probably not in the first instance perceived as
time, i.e. as continuous " protensity, " to use a term of Hamil-
ton's, but as intensity. Thus, if this supposition be true, there
is an element in our concrete time-perception which has no place
in our abstract conception of time. In time conceived as physical
there is no trace of intensity; in time psychically experienced
duration is primarily an intensive magnitude, witness the
comparison of times when we are " bored " with others when
we are amused. It must have struck every one as strange who
has reflected upon it that a period of time which seems long in
retrospect such as an eventful excursion should have appeared
short in passing; while a period, on the contrary, which in memory
has dwindled to a wretched span seemed everlasting till it was
gone. But, if we consider that in retrospect length of time is
represented primarily and chiefly by impressions that have sur-
vived, we have an explanation of one-half; and in the intensity of
the movements of attention we shall perhaps find an explanation
5
57 8
PSYCHOLOGY
[MEMORY AND ASSOCIATION
of the other. What tells in retrospect is the series a b c d e,
&c. ; what tells in the wearisome present is the intervening t
&c.,orrather the original accommodation of which these temporal
signs are the residuum. For, as we have seen elsewhere, the
intensity of a presentation does not persist, so that in memory the
residuum of the most intense feeling of tedium may only be so
many t's in a memory-continuum whose surviving members are
few and uninteresting. But in the actual experience, say, of
a wearisome sermon, when the expectation of release is continu-
ally balked and attention forced back upon a monotonous
dribble of platitudes, the one impressive fact is the hearer's
impatience. On the other hand, so long as we are entertained,
attention is never involuntary, and there is no continually deferred
expectation. Just as we are said to walk with least effort when
our pace accords with the rate of swing of our legs regarded as
pendulums, so in pastimes impressions succeed each other at the
rate at which attention can be most easily accommodated, and
are such that we attend willingly. 1 We are absorbed in the
present without being unwillingly confined to it ; not only is there
no motive for retrospect or expectation, but there is no feeling
that the present endures. Each impression lasts as long as it
is interesting, but does not continue to monopolize the focus of
consciousness till attention to it is fatiguing, because uninter-
esting. In such facts, then, we seem to have proof that our
perception of duration rests ultimately upon quasi-motor acts
of varying intensity, the duration of which we do not directly
experience as duration at all. They do endure and their
intensity is a function of their duration; but the intensity is
all that we directly perceive. In other words, it is here con-
tended that what Locke called an instant or moment " the time
of one idea in our minds without the succession of another,
of one wherein therefore we perceive no succession at all " is
psychologically not " a part in duration " in that sense in which,
as he says, " we cannot conceive any duration without succession "
(Essay, ii. 16, 12).
But, if our experience of time depends primarily upon acts of
attention to a succession of distinct objects, it would seem that
/s time time, subjectively regarded, must be discrete and not
Discrete or continuous. This, which is the view steadily main-
.., tained by the psychologists of Herbart's school, was
sr implied if not stated by Locke, Berkeley and Hume.
Locke hopelessly confuses time as perceived and time as con-
ceived, and can only save himself from pressing objections by
the retort, " It is very common to observe intelligible discourses
spoiled by too much subtlety in nice divisions." But Berkeley and
Hume, with the mathematical discoveries of Newton and Leibnitz
before them, could only protest that there was nothing answering to
mathematical continuity in our experience. And, whereas Locke
had tried to combine with his general psychological account the
inconsistent position that " none of the distinct ideas we have of
either [space or time] is without all manner of composition," Berkeley
declares, " For my own part, whenever I attempt to frame a simple
idea of time, abstracted from the succession of ideas in my mind,
which flows uniformly and is participated by all beings, I am lost
and embrangled in inextricable difficulties. I have no notion of
it at all, only I hear others say it is infinitely divisible, and speak of
it in such a manner as leads me to harbour odd thoughts of my
existence. . . _. Time therefore being nothing, abstracted from the
succession of ideas in our minds, it follows that the duration of any
finite spirit must be estimated by the number of ideas or actions
succeeding each other in that same spirit or mind " (Principles of
Knowledge, i. 98). Hume, again, is at still greater pains to show
that " the idea which we form of any finite quality is not infinitely
divisible, but that by proper distinctions and separations we may
run this idea up to inferior ones, which will be perfectly simple and
indivisible . . . that the imagination reaches a minimum, and may
raise up to itself an idea of which it cannot conceive any subdivision,
and which cannot be diminished without a total annihilation "
(Human Nature, pt. ii. I, Green's ed., pp. 334 seq.).
At first blush we are perhaps disposed to accept this account
of our time-perception, as Wundt, e.g. does, and to regard the attri-
bution of continuity as wholly the result of after-reflection. 2 But
it may be doubted if this is really an exact analysis of the case.
1 To this rate the " indifference point " mentioned above is
obviously related. It has also been called " adequate time " or
" optional time." It is, however, a tempo that varies with the
subject-matter attended to ; when effective attention is more difficult
the tempo is slower than it is when to attend is easv.
2 Cf. Wundt, Logik, i. 432.
Granted that the impressions to which we chiefly attend are distinct
and discontinuous in their occupation of the focus of consciousness,
and that, so far, the most vivid element in our time-experience is
discrete; granted further that in recollection and expectation such
objects are still distinct all which seems to imply that time is a mere
plurality yet there is more behind. The whole field of conscious-
ness is not occupied by distinct objects, neither are the changes in
this field discontinuous. The experimental facts above-mentioned
illustrate the transition from a succession the members of which are
distinctly attended to to one in which they are indistinctly attended
to, i.e. are not discontinuous enough to be separately distinguished.
Attention does not move by hops from one definite spot to another,
but, as Wundt himself allows, by alternate diffusion and concentra-
tion, like the foot of a snail, which never leaves the surface it is
traversing. We have a clear presentation discerned as A or B when
attention is gathered up; and, when attention spreads out, we have
confused presentations not admitting of recognition. But, though
not recognizable, such confused presentations are represented, and
so serve to bridge over the comparatively empty interval during
which attention is unfocused. Thus our perception of a period of
time is not comparable to so many terms in a series of finite units
any more than it is to a series of infinitesimals. When attention
is concentrated in expectation of some single impression, then, no
doubt, it is brought to a very fine point (" zugespitzt," as Herbart
would say); and a succession of such impressions would be repre-
sented as relatively discrete compared with the representation of the
scenery of a day-dream. But absolutely discrete it is not and cannot
be. In this respect the truth is rather with Herbert Spencer, who,
treating of this subject from another point of view, remarks, " When
the facts are contemplated objectively, it becomes manifest that,
though the changes constituting intelligence approach to a single
succession, they do not absolutely form one " (Psychology, i. 180).
On the whole, then, we may conclude that our concrete time-
experiences are due to the simultaneous representation of a
series of definite presentations both accompanied and separated
by more or fewer indefinite presentations more or less confused ;
that, further, the definite presentations have certain marks
or temporal signs due to the movements of attention; that the
rate of these movements or accommodations is approximately
constant ; and that each movement itself is primarily experienced
as an intensity.
Experimental Investigations concerning Memory and
Association.
30. Of the vast mass of experimental work undertaken in
recent years, that relating to memory and association is probably
the most important. A brief account of some of it is therefore
offered at this point, by way of illustrating the character of the
" new psychology."
The learning and retaining of a stanza of poetry, say, is
obviously a function of many variables, such as the mode of
presentation (whether the words are heard only, or heard and
seen, or both heard, seen and spoken aloud), the length,
familiarity with the words and ideas used, the number of
repetitions, the attention given, &c. Familiarity of course
implies previous learning and retaining; the first essential, there-
fore, in any attempt to study these processes from the beginning,
is the exclusion of this factor. Accordingly Ebbinghaus, the
pioneer in experiments of this kind, 3 devised the new material,
which is now regularly employed, namely, closed monosyllables,
not themselves words, and strung together promiscuously into
lines of fixed length so as never to form words: bam, rit, par, sig,
nef, gud, &.C., is an instance of such " senseless verses." With
very slight attention most persons would be able to reproduce
three or four such syllables on a single reading or hearing; and
by greater concentration six or seven might be so reproduced.
This maximum, called sometimes the " span of prehension, "
has been repeatedly made the subject of special inquiry. In
idiots it is found, as might be expected, remarkably low; in
school children it increases rapidly between the ages of eight
and fourteen, and then remains almost stationary, individual
differences being small compared with the striking differences
that appear when longer lines make repetitions necessary. 4
This comparatively constant span of prehension is doubtless
3 H. Ebbinghaus, " Ueber das Gedachtniss: Untersuchungen zur
experimentellen Psychologic " (1885).
4 Cf. J. Jacobs and F. Galton on the " Span of Prehension," Mind
(1887), pp. 75 sqq.; Bourdon, " Influence de 1'age sur la m6moire
immediate," Rev. phil. (1894), xxxviii., 148 sqq.
MEMORY AND ASSOCIATION]
PSYCHOLOGY
579
closely connected with certain other psychical constants, such as
the duration of the psychical present and of the primary memory-
image, the tempo of movements of attention ( 28, 29), &c.
There are isolated investigations of these several conditions,
but the subject as a whole still awaits systematic treatment. 1
That it is not wanting in interest is evident when we consider
that if our span of prehension were enlarged, a corresponding
increase in the variety and range of metre and rhyme in poetry,
of " phrase " in music, and of evolution in the dance would be
possible. The limits at present imposed on these and like
complexities find their ultimate explanation in the constants
just mentioned.
With lines of greater length than seven syllables some repeti-
tion is requisite before they can be said correctly: the number of
such repetitions was found by Ebbinghaus to increase very
rapidly with the number of syllables to be learnt. In his own
case, for lines of 12, 16, 24, 36 syllables the repetitions necessary
were on the average 16-6, 30, 44, 55 respectively. Thus for a
line exceeding in length that of the span of prehension only
about five times, he required fifty-five times as many repetitions,
if we may call the single presentation of the syllables a " repeti-
tion." Substituting poetry for gibberish of equal amount,
Ebbinghaus found that one-tenth the number of repetitions suf-
ficed; the enormous saving thus effected showing how numerous
and intimate are the ready-made associations that " rhyme
;ind reason " involve. But at one and the same time to memorize
live verses even of sense requires more than five times as many
repetitions as the memorizing of one. Two or three lines of
inquiry here present themselves, e.g. (i) as to the comparative
value of successive repetitions when several are taken together;
(2) as to retention after an interval, as (a) a function of the
number of repetitions previously made, and as (ft) a function of
the time; (3) as to the respective effects of more or less cumu-
lating, or more or less distributing, the repetitions, on the number
of these required.
1 . It is at once obvious that beyond a certain point exhaustion
of attention renders further repetition for a time futile; thus
Ebbinghaus found 64 repetitions at one sitting of six i6-syllable
nonsense verses, a task lasting some three-quarters of an hour,
'' was apt to bring on asthenia, a sort of epileptic aura, and
the like!" But keeping well within this heroic limit, a certain
'' law of diminishing return," to use an economic analogy,
discloses itself. Thus taking a line of 10 syllables, the number of
syllables reproduced correctly and in their proper order, after
i, 3, 6, 9 and 12 " repetitions," were 2-2, 2-5, 2-8, 3-4, 3-9 respec-
tively, as the averages of a series of experiments with each of
eight persons. 2 " The first repetition is undoubtedly the best,"
assuming, of course, that the subjects start with their attention
fully concentrated. Some persons naturally do this, many do
not; the experimenter has therefore to take special precautions
to secure uniformity in this respect.
2. (a) On relearning a line after an interval of twenty-four
hours there was in Ebbinghaus's case an average saving of one
repetition for every three made the day before. A line of 16
syllables, for example, required some 30 repetitions, and could
then be said off correctly. If only 8 repetitions were taken at
first, the line being " underlearnt," it probably appeared quite
strange the next day, yet the proportional saving was no less; on
the other hand, if an additional 30 repetitions followed immedi-
ately on the first, the line being " doubly learnt," in spite of the
1 Cf. Dietze, " Untersuchungen tiber den Umiane des Bewusst-
seins u.s.w.," Phil. Studien (1885), pp. 362 sqq.; L. W. Stern, " Psy-
chische Prasenzzeit," Ztschr. f. Psychologic (1897), xiii. 325 sqq.;
Daniels, " Memory After-image and Attention," Am. Jour, of
Psychology (rSgj), vi. 558 sqq.
* W. G. Smith, " The Place of Repetition in Memory," Psycho-
logical Rev. (1896), pp. 20 sqq. The figures given are unquestionably
low, partly, as the writer pomtr put, in consequence of the method
employed, but partly, as his detailed tables show, in consequence of
the lax attention of three out of his eight subjects. Objections have
been taken to the plan of this investigation, but it is doubtful if they
invalidate the result here mentioned. Cf. Jost, " Die Associations-
festigkeit in ihrer Abhangigkeit von der Vertheilung der Wiederho-
lungen," Ztschr. f. Psychologie, xiv. 455 sqq.
familiarity next day apparent, the proportional saving was no
greater. The absolute saving would, of course, be less. We are
so far led to infer that the stronger associations effected by many
repetitions at one time fall off more rapidly than weaker
associations effected by fewer repetitions in the same way.
Herbart in his " psychical dynamics " influenced probably
by physical analogies conjectured that the " sinking " or
" inhibition " of presentations generally was proportional to
their intensity: the less there was to sink, the slower the sinking
became. Recent experiments certainly point in this direction.
(b) As to retention as a function of the time we all know that
memories fade with time, but not at what precise rate. Ebbing-
haus, by a. series of prolonged experiments, ascertained the
rate to be proportional to the logarithm of the time a result
already implied in that connecting retention and intensity;
albeit in inquiries of this kind independent confirmation is
always of value.
3. Had the proportional saving just described held good
indefinitely, some 100 repetitions of the 16 syllables at one time
should have dispensed with any further repetition twenty-four
hours afterwards; whereas, in fact, this result seemed never
attainable. Beyond a certain degree of accumulation, an ever-
diminishing return was manifest, and that apparently short of
the stage at which exhaustion of attention began to be felt.
But, contrariwise, when the repetitions were distributed over
several days, an ever-increasing efficiency was then the result.
Thus, for Ebbinghaus, 38 repetitions spread over three days were
as effective as 68 taken together. The results of careful experi-
ments by Jost with two different subjects, using G. E. Mtiller's
" method of telling " (to be described later on), are still more
conclusive. Comparing 8 repetitions on three successive days
with 4 repetitions on six, and 2 on twelve, the efficiencies,
tested twenty-four hours later, were respectively as 11-5, 35, and
54; and probably, as Jost surmises, the effect of the maximum
distribution single " repetition " on twenty-four successive
days would have been more advantageous still, securing in
fact the superiority of a first impression (cf. i, above) on every
occasion. This result again, is in part explained by the law of
sinking already found. For if the sinking were simply pro-
portional to the time, or were independent of the intensity, there
would so far be no reason why one mode of distributing a given
number of repetitions should be more economical than another.
There is, however, another reason for this superiority, less clearly
implied, to which we shall come presently.
Invariably, and almost of necessity, a more or less complex
rhythmical articulation becomes apparent as the syllables are
repeated, even when as in the improved methods of G. E. M tiller
and his collaborates s they are presented singly and at regular
intervals. A series of twelve syllables, for example, would
be connected into six trochees, with a caesura in the middle of
the verse; while in each half of it the first and last accented
syllables would be specially emphasized; thus:
bam fis | lup t51 | gen kSr || dub nif | &c.
In trying to suppress this tendency and to repeat the syllables
in a monotonous, staccato fashion, just as they were presented,
the tempo, though really unchanged, seemed to be distinctly
quickened, a consequence, doubtless, of the greater effort
involved. Moreover, the attempt, which was seldom successful,
about doubled the number of repetitions required for learning
off, thereby showing how much is gained by this psychical
organization of disconnected material. But the 'gain thus
ensured was manifest in other ways. Each foot, whether
dissyllabic or trisyllabic, became a new complex unit, the
elements to be connected by successive association being thereby
reduced to a half or a third, and the whole line seemingly
shortened. The varied intonation, again, helped to fix the place
of each foot in the verse, thus further facilitating the mind's
survey of the whole. Such a transformation can hardly be
accounted for so long as retention and association are regarded
as merely mechanical and passive processes.
Psychical rhythm, upon which we here touch, has also been
expenmentally^investigated at great length, alike in its physiological
5 8
PSYCHOLOGY
[MEMORY AND ASSOCIATION
psychological and aesthetical aspects. The topic is far too intricate
and unsettled for discussion here, yet two or three points may be
noted in passing. We are not specially concerned with objective
rhythms, recurring series of impressions that is to say, in which
there are actually periodic variations of intensity, interval and the
like. What is remarkable is that even a perfectly regular succession
of sounds (or touches), qualitatively and quantitatively all alike, a
series therefore devoid of all objective rhythm, is nevertheless
apprehended as rhythmically grouped, provided the rate lies between
the limits of about 0-8* and 0-14 . The slower of these rates leads
to simple groups of two, replaced by groups of four or eight as the
rate increases; groups of three and six also occur, though less fre-
quently. The average duration of the groups, whether these are
large or small, is comparatively constant, measuring rather more
than one second. The subject usually keeps time by taps, nods or
other accompanying movements; the pulse and respiration are also
implicated. These organic rhythms have even been regarded as the
prime source of all psychical rhythm and of its manifold aesthetic
effects. Some connexion there is unquestionably. As the decimal
system corresponds to our possession of ten fingers, and our move-
ments to the structure of our limbs, so here we may assume that
physiological processes fix the limits within which psychical rhythm
is possible, but yet may be as little an adequate cause of it or its
developments as fingers are of arithmetic, or legs of an Irish jig.
In motor rhythms, such as the last, the initiative is obviously
psychical, and the respiratory and other periodic organic processes
simply follow suit. And even sensory rhythms can often be varied
at the subject's own choice, or on the suggestion of another; and then
again the breathing is altered in consequence. Familiar instances
of such procedure are to be found in the " tunes " so readily attri-
buted to the puff of a locomotive, to the churning of a steamer's screw,
and the like. Psychical rhythm, then, we may conclude, is due to
attention or apperception, but the conditions determining it are
many, and their relations very complex. If the presentations to
be " rhythmized " (the rhythmizomenon, as the Germans say) succeed
each other slowly, the length (or shall we say the breadth?) of the
"psychical present" tells one way: the first impression is below
the threshold when the third appears. If they arrive rapidly, their
intensity and duration and the span of prehension tell another way;
for it is essential that they retain their individual distinctness
and only so many can be grasped at once. But if the series continue
long enough, or be frequently experienced, sub-groups may be treated
as individuals; and indeed till some facility is acquired, the subject
attending is aware of no rhythm. In the act of attention itself there
are phases, in so far as expectation involves preadjustment to what
is coming: usually the first members of a tact are predominant,
and the rhythm tends to "fall"; several alternations of accent
within a complex rhythmic whole are of course still compatible
with this. But it is important to note that, whether simple or
complex, the rhythm is an intuited unity as truly as a geometrical
figure may be. Unlike a geometrical figure, however, it rarely
or never has symmetry. We cannot reverse a tune and obtain an
effect comparable with that obtained by reprinting the score
backwards in line with the original. We now pass to a question in
which the psychological bearing of this fact becomes apparent. 1
But first a new method of dealing with memory-problems must
be mentioned, in which the connexion between rhythmizing and
memorizing has been turned to account by the Gottingen psycholo-
gists. The method of Ebbinghaus consisted in ascertaining the
repetitions saved in consequence of previous repetitions, when the
verse was relearnt some fixed time later. Hence this method is
called the learning method or the method of saving. When, a
given time after a certain number of repetitions (say) in trochaic
measure, the subject is confronted with one of the accented syllables
and asked to name the unaccented syllable that belongs to it, he
will answer sometimes rightly, sometimes wrongly, and sometimes
be unable to answer at all. This, the new, method is therefore
named Treffer-methode, the method of " shots," or, let us say, the
telling method. It enables the experimenter to obtain far more
insight into details than was possible before, for the " misses " as
well as the " hits " are instructive. Moreover, by measuring the
time of each answer (Trefferzeit) and comparing these times together,
much can be learnt ; in stronger or recent associations, for example,
the answers being quicker than in weaker or older ones.
Does association work forwards only or backwards also, as the
middle link of a chain, when lifted, raises the contiguous links
on either side of it? This is certainly not the case when the
forward direction makes sense, but with nonsense verses, if the
mechanical analogy is a sound one, such reversal is to be expected.
For here there are none of the " obstructing associations " which
1 The following are among the more important papers on rhythm:
T. L. Bolton, " Rhythm," Am. Journ. of Psychology (1894), pp. 145
sqq.; E. E. Meumann, " Untersuchungen z. Psychologic u. Aesthetik
des Rhythmus," Phil. Studien (1894), x. 249 sqq., 393 sqq.; M. K.
Smith, " Rhythmus und Arbeit," Phil Studien (1900), xvi. 71 sqq.
197 sqq.; Arbeit und Rhythmus (1899), by K. Bucher, a well-known
economist, bringing out the teleological aspects of rhythm.
" rhyme and reason " imply. In learning a verse backwards
Ebbinghaus found a saving of 12-4 % of the time originally
taken up in learning it forwards. A saving almost as great
(10-4 %) was effected by relearning a like verse forwards, but
skipping one syllable: the order of syllables, that is to say, being
i, 3, S. IS, 2, 4, ... 16. Even when learning backwards
and skipping one syllable, Ebbinghaus found a saving of 5 %.
But the number of his experiments (four) was too few to give
this result much value, as he fully admits. These experiments as
a whole, then, might incline us to suppose that association does
work in both directions, though the connexions backwards are
considerably weaker. But if so the associations both ways should
be alike at least in form continuous, that is to say, backwards,
d c b a, as well as forwards, abed. The facts at present
available are, however, against this. In two or three hundred
experiments by Muller and Pilzecker, verses of twelve syllables
were repeated a set number of times in anapaestic measure
accented, that is to say, on the 3rd, 6th, gth and i2th.
After a fixed interval the subject, confronted with one of the
accented syllables, mentioned any of the other syllables which he
called to mind. Now the cases in which the syllable immediately
preceding was revived were only about half as frequent as those
in which the syllable next but one preceding was revived; the
time of telling ( Trefierzeit) for the latter was also shorter. This
result is incompatible with the theory of continuous backward
association, but it is readily explained by the fact that the group
of three syllables had become one complex whole, and it shows
that the tendency to reinstate the initial member of the group
is stronger than that to reinstate the middle. The saving
effected in Ebbinghaus's experiment is also thus explained. 2
A somewhat paradoxical situation is brought to light when
the method of saving and the method of telling are used together.
In the experiments by Jost, mentioned above, the series of verses
were repeated thirty times; after an interval of twenty-four
hours one series was tested by the first method and the other by
the second. Two new series were then taken : the first repeated
four times, and after an interval of a minute tested by the first
method ; the other was then repeated in like manner, and tested
after the same interval by the second method. The old series was
found (by the method of saving) to require on an average 5-85
repetitions for relearning, and the new 9-6; yet on the method
of telling, the new series yielded 2-7 " hits," with an average
time of about if second for each, while the old yielded only -9
" hits," with an average time of 45 seconds for each. Thus one
may be able to reproduce relatively little of a given subject-
matter, and yet require only a few repetitions in order to learn
it off anew; on the other hand, one may know relatively much,
and still find many more repetitions requisite for such complete
learning. The " age " of the associations is then important.
Other things being equal, we may conclude that each fresh
repetition effects more for old associations than for recent ones. It
might be supposed that the strength of the old associations was
more uniform and on the average greater than the strength of the
new; so that while none of the old were far below the threshold,
few, if any, were above it; whereas more of the new might
be above the threshold though the majority had lapsed entirely.
And the latter would certainly be the case if the subject of
experiment tried to make sure of a few " hits," and paid no atten-
tion to the rest of the series. Due care was, however, taken that
the ends of the experiment should not in this way be defeated.
Also, there is ample evidence to show that the supposed greater
uniformity in strength of old associations is not, in fact, the rule.
We seem left, then, to conjecture that the difference is the effect
of the process of assimilation working subconsciously that
psychical aspect of nervous growth which Professor James has
aptly characterized by saying that " we learn to skate in summer
and to swim in winter." It continually happens that we can
recognize connexions that we are quite unable to reproduce.
To the diminished " strength " of an association, as tested by the
8 There are still other forms of what seems at first sight to be
regressive association, but none that do not admit of explanation
without this assumption.
FEELING]
PSYCHOLOGY
581
method of telling, there may then quite well be an equivalent
set-off in more developed assimilation. As a seed germinates
it has less latent energy, but this is replaced by growth in root
and stem: similar relations may obtain when an old association
is said merely to lose " strength." On the other hand within the
range of the primary memory-image we can often reproduce
what after a longer interval we should fail to recognize. We seem
warranted, then, in concluding that this conception of " associa-
tion-strength," so freely used by G. E. Muller and his co-workers,
requires more analysis than it has yet received. The two factors
which their methods disclose in it appear to confirm the distinc-
tion we have already made between impressions and free ideas.
They help us also to understand, further, the superiority of dis-
tributed over cumulated repetition, of " inwardly digesting "
over " cram."
Feeling.
31. Such summary survey as these limits allow of the more
elementary facts of cognition is here at an end; so far the most
conspicuous factors at work have been those of what might be
termed the ideational mechanism. In the higher processes of
thought we have to take more account of mental activity and of
the part played by language. But it seems preferable, before
entering upon this, to explore also the emotional and active
constituents of mind in their more elementary phases.
In our preliminary survey we have seen that psychical life consists
in the main of a continuous alternation of predominantly receptive
and predominantly reactive consciousness. In its earliest form
expenence is simply an interplay of alternations of sensation and
movement. At a later stage we find that in the receptive phase
ideation is added to sensation; and that in the active phase thought
and fancy, or the voluntary manipulation and control of the idea-
tional trains, are added to the voluntary manipulation and control
of the muscles. At this higher level also it is possible that either
form of receptive consciousness may lead to either form of active:
sensations may lead to thought rather than to action in the restricted
sense, and ideas apart from sensations may prompt to muscular
exertion. There is a further complication still : not only may either
sensations or ideas lead to either muscular or mental movements,
but movements themselves, whether of mind or limb, may as mere
presentations determine other movements of either kind. In this
respect, however, movements and thoughts either in themselves or
through their sensational and ideational accompaniments may be
regarded as pertaining to the receptive side of consciousness. With
these provisos, then, the broad generalization may hold that re-
ceptive states lead through feeling to active states, and that presen-
tations that give neither pleasure nor pain meet with no responsive
action. But first the objection must be met that presentations that
are in themselves purely indifferent lead continually to very energetic
action, often the promptest and most definite action. To this
there are two answers. First, on the higher levels of psychical life
presentations in themselves indifferent are often indirectly inter-
esting as signs of, or as means to, other presentations that are more
directly interesting. It is enough for the present, therefore, if it
be admitted that all such indifferent presentations are without
effect as often as they are not instrumental in furthering the realiza-
tion of some desirable end. Secondly, a large class of movements,
such as those called sensori-motor and ideo-motor, are initiated
by presentations that are frequently, it must be allowed, neither
pleasurable nor painful. In all such cases, however, there is
probably only an apparent exception to the principle of subjective
selection. They may all be regarded as instances of another im-
portant psychological principle which we shall have to deal with more
fully by and by, viz. that voluntary actions, and especially those
that either only avert pain or are merely subsidiary to pleasure-
giving actions, tend at length, as the effect of habit in the individual
and of heredity in the race, to become " secondarily automatic,"
as it has been called. Such mechanical or instinctive dexterities
make possible a more efficient use of present energies in securing
pleasurable and interesting experiences, and, like the rings of former
growths in a tree, afford a basis for further advance, as old interests
pall and new ones present themselves. Here, again, it suffices
for our present purpose if it be granted that there is a fair presumption
in favour of supposing all such movements to have been originally
initiated by feeling, as certainly very many of them were.
Of the feeling itself that intervenes between these sensory and
motor presentations there is but little to be said. The chief
points have been already insisted upon, viz. that it is not itself a
presentation, but a purely subjective state, at once the effect of a
change in receptive consciousness and the cause of a change in
motor consciousness; hence its continual confusion either with
the movements, whether ideational or muscular, that are its
Cautcs of
Feeling.
expression, or with the sensations or ideas that are its cause.
For feeling as such is, so to put it, matter of being rather than
of direct knowledge; and all that we know about it we know
from its antecedents or consequents in presentation.
Pure feeling, then, ranging solely between the opposite
extremes of pleasure and pain, we are naturally led to inquire
whether there is any corresponding contrast in the
causes of feeling on the one hand, and on the other
in its manifestations and effects. To begin with
the first question, which we may thus formulate: What, if any,
are the invariable differences characteristic of the presentations
or states of mind we respectively like and dislike; or, taking
account of the diverse sources of feeling sensuous, aesthetic,
intellectual, active is there anything that we can predicate
alike of all that are pleasurable and deny of all that are painful,
and vice versa? It is at once evident that at least in presen-
tations objectively regarded no such common characters will be
found; if we find them anywhere it must be in some relation to
the conscious subject i.e. in, the fact of presentation itself.
There is one important truth concerning pleasures and pains
that may occur at once as an answer to our inquiry, and that is
often advanced as such, viz. that whatever is pleasurable tends
to further and perfect life, and whatever is painful to disturb
or destroy it. The many seeming exceptions to this law of
self-conservation, as it has been called, probably all admit of
explanation in conformity with it, so as to leave its substantial
truth unimpeached. 1 But this law, however stated, is too
teleological to serve as a purely psychological principle, and, as
generally formulated and illustrated, it takes account of matters
quite outside the psychologist's ken. We are not now concerned
to know why a bitter taste e.g. is painful or the gratification of
an appetite pleasant, but what marks distinctive of all painful
presentations the one has and the other lacks. From a biological
standpoint it may be true enough that the final cause of sexual
and parental feelings is the perpetuation of the species; but this
does not help us to ascertain what common character they have
as actual sources of feeling for the individual. From the biologi-
cal standpoint again, even the senile decadence and death of the
individual may be shown to be advantageous to the race; but it
would certainly be odd to describe this as advantageous to the
individual; so different are the two points of view. What we
are in search of, although a generalization, has reference to some-
thing much more concrete than concepts like race or life, and
does not require us to go beyond the consciousness of the moment
to such ulterior facts as they imply.
Were it possible it would be quite unnecessary to examine
in detail every variety of pleasurable and painful consciousness
in connexion with a general inquiry of this sort. It will be best
to enumerate at the outset the only cases that specially call for
investigation. Feeling may arise mainly from (a) single sen-
sations or movements, including in these what recent psycholo-
gists call their tone; or it may be chiefly determined by (6) some
combination or arrangement of these primary presentations
hence what might be styled the lower aesthetic feelings. We have
thus among primary presentations a more material and a
more formal cause or ground of feeling. The mere representation
of these sources of feeling involves nothing of moment: the idea
of a bright colour or a bitter taste has not definiteness or intensity
enough to produce feeling; and the ideal presentation of a
harmonious arrangement of sounds or colours does not in itself
differ essentially as regards the feeling it occasions from the
actual presentation. When we advance to the level at which
there occur ideas more complex and more highly representative
or re-representative, as Mr Spencer would say than any we
have yet considered we can again distinguish between material
and formal grounds of -feeling. To the first we might refer,
e.g. (c) the egoistic, sympathetic, and religious feelings; this
class will probably require but brief notice. The second, con-
sisting of (rf) the intellectual and (e) the higher aesthetic feelings,
is psychologically more important. There is a special class of
1 See Spencer, Data of Ethics, chs. i.-iv. ; G. H. Schneider,
Freud und Leid des MenschengescUechts, ch. i.
PSYCHOLOGY
[FEELING
feelings, which might be distinguished from all the preceding as
reflex, since they arise from the memory or expectation of feelings
but in fact these are largely involved in all the higher feelings,
and this brief reference to them will suffice: of such hope, fear,
regret are examples.
a. The quality and intensity as well as the duration and
frequency of a sensation or movement all have to do with
Sensations determining to what feeling it gives rise. It will
and More- be best to leave the last two out of account for a time.
meats. Apart from these, the pleasantness or painfulness
of a movement appears to depend solely upon its intensity,
that is to say, upon the amount of effort necessary to effect it,
in such wise that a certain amount of exertion is agreeable
and any excess disagreeable. Some sensations also, such as
those of light and sound, are agreeable if not too intense, their
pleasantness increasing with their intensity up to a certain point,
on nearing which the feeling rapidly changes and becomes
disagreeable or even painful. Other sensations, as bitter tastes,
e.g. are naturally unpleasant, however faint though we must
allow the possibility of an acquired liking for moderately bitter
or pungent flavours. But in every case such sensations produce
unmistakable manifestations of disgust, if at all intense. Sweet
tastes, on the other hand, however intense, are pleasant to an
unspoiled palate, though apt before long to become mawkish,
like " sweetest honey, loathsome in his own deliciousness," as
confectioners' apprentices are said soon to find. The painfulness
of all painful sensations or movements increases with their
intensity without any assignable maximum being reached.
A comparison of examples of this kind, which it 'would be
tedious to describe more fully and which are indeed too familiar
to need much description, seems to show (i) that, so far as feeling
is determined by the intensity of a presentation, there is pleasure
so long as attention can be adapted or accommodated to the
presentation, and pain so soon as the intensity is too great for
this; and (2) that, so far as feeling is determined by the quality
of a presentation, those that are pleasurable enlarge the field of
consciousness and introduce or agreeably increase in intensity
certain organic sensations, while those that are painful contract
the field of consciousness and introduce or disagreeably increase
in intensity certain organic sensations. There are certain other
hedonic effects due to quality, the examination of which we must
for the present defer. Meanwhile as to the first point it may be
suggested, as at any rate a working hypothesis, that in itself any
and every simple sensation or movement is pleasurable if there
is attention forthcoming adequate to its intensity. In the earliest
and simplest phases of life, in which the presentation-continuum
is but little differentiated, it is reasonable to suppose that
variation in the intensity of presentation preponderates over
changes in the quality of presentation, and that to the same
extent feeling is determined by the former and not by the latter.
And, whereas this dependence on intensity is invariable, there
is no ground for supposing the quality of any primary presen-
tation, when not of excessive intensity, to be invariably dis-
agreeable; the changes above-mentioned in the hedonic effects
of bitter tastes, sweet tastes, or the like tend rather to prove the
contrary. This brings us to the second point, and it requires
some elucidation. We need here to call to mind the continuity
of our presentations and especially the existence of a background
of organic sensations or somatic consciousness, as it is variously
termed. By the time that qualitatively distinct presentations
have been differentiated from this common basis it becomes
possible for any of these, without having the intensity requisite
to affect feeling directly, to change it indirectly by means of the
systemic sensations accompanying them, or, in other words, by
their tone. The physiological concomitants of these changes of
somatic tone are largely reflex movements or equivalents of
movements, such as alterations in circulatory, respiratory and
excretory processes. Such movements are psychologically
movements no longer, and are rightly regarded as pertaining
wholly to the sensory division of presentations. But originally
it may have been otherwise. To us now, these organic reflexes
seem but part and parcel of the special sensation whose tone they
form, and which they accompany even when that sensation,
so far as its mere intensity goes, might be deemed indifferent.
But perhaps at first the special qualities that are now throughout
unpleasant may have been always presented with an excessive
intensity that would be painful on this score alone, and the
reflexes that at present pertain to them may then have been
psychologically the expression of this pain. 1 At any rate it is
manifestly unfair to refuse either to seek out the primitive effects
of the sensations in question and allow for the workings of
heredity, or to reckon this accompanying systemic feeling as part
of them. The latter seems the readier and perhaps, too, the
preferable course. A word will now suffice to explain what is
meant by enlarging and contracting the field of consciousness and
agreeably increasing or decreasing certain elements therein.
The difference in point is manifest on comparing the flow of
spirits, buoyancy and animation which result from a certain
duration of pleasurable sensations with the lowness or depression
of spirits, the gloom and heaviness of heart, apt to ensue from
prolonged physical pain. Common language, in fact, leaves us
no choice but to describe these contrasted states by figures which
clearly imply that they differ in the range and variety of the
presentations that make up consciousness, and in the quickness
with which these succeed each other. 2 It is not merely that in
hilarity as contrasted with dejection the train of ideas takes a
wider sweep and shows greater liveliness, but as it were at the
back of this, on the lower level of purely sensory experience,
certain organic sensations which are ordinarily indifferent
acquire a gentle intensity, which seems by flowing over to quicken
and expand the ideational stream as we see, for instance, in
the effects of mountain air and sushine. Or, on the other hand,
these sensations become so violently intense as to drain off and
ingulf all available energy in one monotonous corroding care, an
oppressive weight which leaves no place for free movement, no
life or leisure to respond to what are wont to be pleasurable
solicitations. 3
As regards the duration and the frequency of presentation,
it is in general true that the hedonic effect soon attains its maxi-
mum, and then, if pleasant, rapidly declines, or even changes
to its opposite. Pains in like manner decline, but more slowly
and without in the same sense changing to pleasures. The like
holds of too frequent repetition. Physiological explanation
of these facts, good as far as it goes, is, of course, at once forth-
coming: sensibility is blunted, time is required for restoration,
and so forth; but at least we want the psychological equivalent
of all this. In one respect we find nothing materially new; so
1 In the lowly organisms that absorb food directly through the
skin such bitter juices as exist naturally might at once produce very
violent effects comparable, say, to scalding; and the reflexes
then established may have been continued by natural selection so as
to save from poisoning the higher organisms, whose absorbent
surfaces are internal and only guarded in this way by the organ of
taste. Some light is thrown on questions of this kind by the very
interesting experiments of Dr Romanes; for a general account of
these see his Jelly-fish, Star-fish, and Sea-urchins, ch. ix.
1 This is one among many cases in which the study of a vocabulary
is full of instruction to the psychologist. The reader who will be at
the trouble to compare the parallel columns under the heading
" Passive Affections," in Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and
Phrases, will find ample proof both of this general statement and of
what is said above in the text.
3 Observation and experiment show that the physical signs of pain
in the higher animals consist in such changes as a lowered and
weaker pulse, reduction of the surface temperature, quickened
respiration, dilatation of the iris, and the like. And so far as can be
ascertained these effects are not altogether the emotional reaction
to pain but in large measure its actual accompaniments, the physical
side of what we have called its tone. The following is a good descrip-
tion of these general characteristics of feeling: " En mime temps,
il se fait une serie de mouvements generaux de flexion, comme si
1'animal voulait se rendre plus petit, et offrir moins de surface a la
douleur. II est interessant de remarquer que, pour 1'homme comme
pour tous les animaux, on retrouve ces mfimes mouvements ^generaux
de flexion et d'extension repondant aux sentiments differents de
plaisir et de la douleur. Le plaisir repond a un mouvement d'epa-
nouissement, de dilatation, d'extension. Au contraire, dans la
douleur, on se rapetisse, on se referme sur soi ; c'est un mouvement
general de flexion " (C. Richet, L'Homme et I' Intelligence: la douleur,
P- 9)-
FEELI.VC]
PSYCHOLOGY
583
far as continued presentation entails diminished intensity we
have nothing but diminished feeling as a consequence; so far
as its continued presentation entails satiety the train of agreeable
accompaniments ceases in which the pleasurable tone consisted.
But in another way long duration and frequent repetition
produce indirectly certain characteristic effects on feeling in
consequence of habituation and accommodation. We may get
used to a painful presentation in such wise that we cease to be
ious of it as positively disagreeable, though its cessation
is at once a source of pleasure; in like manner we come to
require things simply because it is painful to be without them,
although their possession has long ceased to be a ground of
positive enjoyment. This loss (or gain) consequent on accom-
modation ' has a most important effect in changing the sources
of feeling: it helps to transfer attention from mere sensations to
what we may distinguish as interests.
b. Certain sensations or movements not separately unpleasant
become so when presented together or in immediate succession;
Comh/na- an( ^ contrariwise, some combinations of sensations
tioas of or of movements may be such as to afford pleasure
Sensations distinct from, and often greater than, any that
they separately yield. Here again we find that in
'some cases the effect seems mainly to depend on
intensity, in others mainly on quality, (i.) As instances of the
former may be mentioned the pleasurableness of a rhythmic
succession of sounds or movements, of symmetrical forms and
curved outlines, of gentle crescendos and diminuendos in sound,
and of gradual variations of shade in colour, and the painfulness
of flickering lights, " beats " in musical notes, false time, false
steps, false quantities, and the like. In all these, whenever the
result is pleasurable, attention can be readily accommodated
is, so to say, economically meted out; and, whenever the result
is painful, attention is surprised, balked, wasted. Thus we can
make more movements and with less expenditure of energy
when they are rhythmic than when they are not, as the perform-
ances of a ball-room or of troops marching to music amply
testify. Of this economy we have also a striking proof in the
ease with which rhythmic language is retained, (ii.) As instances
of the latter may be cited those arrangements of musical tones
and of colours that are called harmonious or the opposite.
Harmony, however, must be taken to have a different meaning
in the two cases. When two or three tones harmonize there
results, as is well known, a distinct pleasure over and above any
pleasure due to the tones themselves. On the other hand, tones
that are discordant are unpleasant in spite of any pleasantness
they may have singly. Besides the negative condition of
absence of beats, a musical interval to be pleasant must fulfil
certain positive conditions, sufficiently expressed for our purpose
by saying that two tones are pleasant when they give rise to
few combination-tones, and when among these there are several
that coincide, and that they are unpleasant when they give rise
to many combination-tones, and when among these there are
few or none that coincide. Too many tones together prevent
any from being distinct. But where tones coincide the number
of tones actually present is less than the number of possible
tones, and there is a proportionate simplification, so to put it:
more is commanded and with less effort. An ingenious writer*
on harmony, in fact, compares the confusion of a discord to
that of " trying to reckon up a sum in one's head and failing
because the numbers are too high." A different explanation
must be given of the so-called harmonies of colour. The pleasur-
able effect of graduations of colour or shade to which, as
Ruskin tells us, the rose owes its victorious beauty when com-
pared with other flowers has been already mentioned: it is
rather a quantitative than a qualitative effect. What we are
tt has been definitely formulated, but in physiological language,
by Bain as the Law of Novelty : " No second occurrence of any
great shock or stimulus, whether pleasure, pain, or mere excite-
ment, is ever fully equal to the first, notwithstanding that full time
has been given for the nerves to recover from their exhaustion "
(Mind and Body, p. 51). Cf. also his Emotions and Will, 3rd ed.,
I'- M.
1 rreyer, Akuslische Untersuchungen, p. 59
now concerned with are the pleasurable or painful combinations
of different ungraduated colours. A comparison of these seems
to justify the general statement that those colours yield good
combinations that are far apart in the colour circle, while those
near together are apt to be discordant. The explanation given,
viz. that the one arrangement secures and the other prevents
perfect retinal activity, -seems on the whole satisfactory
especially if we acknowledge the tendency of all recent investi-
gations and distinguish sensibility to colour and sensibility to
mere light as both psychologically and physiologically two
separate facts. Thus, when red and green are juxtaposed, the
red increases the saturation of the green and the green that of
the red, so that both colours are heightened in brilliance. But
such an effect is only pleasing to the child and the savage; for
civilized men the contrast is excessive, and colours less completely
opposed, as red and blue, are preferred, each being a rest from
the other, so that as the eye wanders to and fro over their border
different elements are active by turns. Red and orange, again,
are bad, in that both exhaust in a similar manner and leave the
remaining factors out of play.
c. The more or less spontaneous workings of imagination, as
well as that direct control of this working necessary to thinking
in the stricter sense, are always productive of pain
or pleasure in varying degrees. Though the ex-
position of the higher intellectual processes has
not yet been reached, there will be no inconvenience in at
once taking account of their effects on feeling, since these are
fairly obvious and largely independent of any analysis of the
processes themselves. It will also be convenient to include
under the one term " intellectual feelings," not only the feelings
connected with certainty, doubt, perplexity, comprehension,
and so forth, but also what the Herbartian psychologists whose
work in this department of psychology is classical have called
par excellence the formal feelings that is to say, feelings which
they regard as entirely determined by the form of the flow of
ideas, and not by the ideas themselves. Thus, be the ideas
what they may, when their onward movement is checked by
divergent or obstructing lines of association, and especially
when in this manner we are hindered, say, from recollecting
a name or a quotation (as if, e.g. the names of Archimedes,
Anaximenes and Anaximander each arrested the clear revival
of the other), we are conscious of a certain strain and oppressive-
ness, which give way to momentary relief when at length what is
wanted rises into distinct consciousness and our ideas resume
their flow. Here again, too, as in muscular movements, we have
the contrast of exertion and facility, when " thoughts refuse to
flow " and we work " invita Minerva," or when the appropriate
ideas seem to unfold and display themselves before us like i
vision before one inspired. To be confronted with propositions
we cannot reconcile i.e. with what is or appears inconsistent,
false, contradictory is apt to be painful; the recognition of
truth or logical coherence, on the other hand, is pleasurable.
The feeling in either case is, no doubt, greater the greater our
interest in the subject-matter; but the mere conflict of ideas as
such is in itself depressing, while the discernment of agreement,
of the one in the many, is a distinct satisfaction. Now in the
one case we are conscious of futile efforts to comprehend as one
ideas which the more distinctly we apprehend them for the pur-
pose only prove to be the more completely and diametrically
opposed: we can only affirm and mentally envisage the one by
denying and suppressing the representation of the other; and
yet we have to strive to predicate both and to embody them
together in the same mental image. Attention is like a house
divided against itself: there is effort but it is not effective, for
the field of consciousness is narrowed and the flow of ideas
arrested. When, on the other hand, we discern a common
principle among diverse and apparently disconnected par-
ticulars, instead of all the attention we can command being
taxed in the separate apprehension of these " disjecta membra,"
they become as one, and we seem at once to have at our disposal
resources for the command of an enlarged field and the detection
of new resemblances.
5 8 4
PSYCHOLOGY
[FEELING
d. Closely related to these formal intellectual feelings are
certain of the higher aesthetic feelings. A reference to some
Higher of the commonplaces of aesthetical writers may be
Aesthetic sufficient briefly to exhibit the leading characteristics
Feelings, o f these feelings. There is a wide agreement among
men in general as to what is beautiful and what is not, and
it is the business of a treatise on empirical aesthetics from an
analysis of these matters of fact to generalize the principles of
taste to do, in fact, for one source of pleasure and pain what
we are here attempting in a meagre fashion for all. And these
principles are the more important in their bearing upon the
larger psychological question, because among aesthetic effects
are reckoned only such as are pleasing or otherwise in themselves,
apart from all recognition of utility, of possession, or of ulterior
gratification of any kind whatever. Thus, if it should be objected
that the intellectual satisfaction of consistency is really due to
its utility, to the fact that what is incompatible and incompre-
hensible is of no avail for practical guidance, at least this objec-
tion will not hold against the aesthetic principle of unity in
variety. In accordance with this primary maxim of art criticism,
at the one extreme art productions are condemned for monotony,
as incapable of sustaining interest because " empty," " bald "
and " poor "; at the other extreme they are condemned as too
incoherent and disconnected to furnish a centre of interest.
And those are held as so far praiseworthy in which a variety of
elements, be they movements, forms, colours or incidents,
instead of conflicting, all unite to enhance each other and to
form not merely a mass but a whole. Another principle that
serves to throw light on our inquiry is that which has been
called the principle of economy, 1 viz. that an effect is pleasing in
proportion as it is attained by little effort and simple means.
The brothers Weber in their classic work on human locomotion
discovered that those movements that are aesthetically beautiful
are also physiologically correct; grace and ease, in fact, are well-
nigh synonymous, as Herbert Spencer points out, and illustrates
by apt instances of graceful attitudes, motions and forms. The
same writer, 2 again, in seeking for a more general law underlying
the current maxims of writers on composition and rhetoric is led to
a special formulation of this principle as applied to style, viz. that
" economy of the recipient's attention is the secret of effect."
Perhaps of all aesthetical principles the most wide-reaching,
as well as practically the most important, is that which explains
aesthetic effects by association. Thus, to take one example
where so many are possible, the croaking of frogs and the mono-
tonous ditty of the cuckoo owe their pleasantness, not directly
to what they are in themselves, but entirely to their intimate
association with spring-time and its gladness. At first it might
'seem, therefore, that in this principle there is nothing fresh that
is relevant to our present inquiry, since a pleasure that is only
due to association at once carries back the question to its sources;
so that in asking why the spring, for example, is pleasant we
should be returning to old ground. But this is not altogether
true; aesthetic effects call up not merely ideas but ideals. A great
work of art improves upon the real in two respects: it intensifies
and it transfigures. It is for art to gather into one focus, cleared
from dross and commonplace, the genial memories of a life-
time, the instinctive memories of a race; and, where theory can
only classify and arrange what it receives, art in a measure free
from " the literal unities of time and place " creates and glorifies.
Still art eschews the abstract and speculative; however plastic
in its hands, the material wrought is always that of sense. We
have already noticed more than once the power which primary
presentations have to sustain vivid re-presentations, and the
bearing of this on the aesthetic effects of works of art must be
straightway obvious. The notes and colours, rhymes and
rhythms, forms and movements, which produce the lower
aesthetic feelings also serve as the means of bringing into view,
1 Cf. Fechner, Vorschide der Aesthctik, ii. 263. Fechner's full
style for it is " Princip der okonomischen Verwendung der Mittel
oder des kleinsten Kraftmasses."
* Essays, Scientific, Political and Speculative, vol. ii., Ess. I. and
VIII.
and maintaining at a higher level of vividness, a wider range and
flow of pleasing ideas than we can ordinarily command.
When we reach the level at which there is distinct self-
consciousness (cf. 44), we have an important class of
feelings determined by the relation of the presenta- Egoistic and
tion of self to the other contents of consciousness. Socialistic
And as the knowledge of other selves advances pari Peelings.
passu with that of one's own self, so along with the egoistic
feelings appear certain social or altruistic feelings. The two
have much in common; in pride and shame, for example,
account is taken of the estimate other persons form of us
and of our regard for them; while, on the other hand, when
we admire or despise, congratulate or pity another, we have
always present to our mind a more or less definite concep-
tion of self in like circumstances. It will therefore amply
serve all the ends of our present inquiry if we briefly survey
the leading characteristics of some contrasted egoistic feel-
ings, such as self-complacency and disappointment. When a
man is pleased with himself, his achievements, possessions or
circumstances, such pleasure is the result of a comparison of his
present position in this respect with some former position or with
the position of someone else. Without descending to details,
we may say that two prospects are before him, and the larger
and fairer is recognized as his own. Under disappointment or
reverse the same two pictures may be present to his mind, but
accompanied by the certainty that the better is not his or is his
no more. So far, then, it might be said the contents of his
consciousness are in each case the same, the whole difference
lying in the different relationship to self. But this makes all
the difference even to the contents of his consciousness, as we
shall at once see if we consider its active side. Even the idlest
and most thoughtless mind teems with intentions and expecta-
tions, and in its prosperity, like the fool in the parable, thinks
to pull down its barns and build greater, to take its ease, eat,
drink and be merry. The support of all this pleasing show and
these far-reaching aims is, not the bare knowledge of what
abundance will do, but the reflection These many goods are
mine. In mind alone final causes have a place, and the end can
produce the beginning; the prospect of a summer makes the
present into spring. But action is paralysed or impossible
when the means evade us. In so far as a man's life consists in
the abundance of the things he possesseth, we see then why it
dwindles with these. The like holds where self-complacency or
displicency rests on a sense of personal worth or on the honour
or affection of others.
32. We are now at the end of our survey of certain typical
pleasurable and painful states. The answer to our inquiry
which it seems to suggest is that there is pleasure
in proportion as a maximum of attention is effectively
exercised, and pain in proportion as such effective
attention is frustrated by distractions, shocks, or incomplete
and faulty adaptations, or fails of exercise, owing to the narrow-
ness of the field of consciousness and the slowness and smallness
of its changes. Something must be said in explication of this
formula, and certain objections that might be made to it must
be considered. First of all it implies that feeling is determined
partly by quantitative, or, as we might say, material conditions,
and partly by conditions that are formal or qualitative. As
regards the former, both the intensity or concentration of atten-
tion and its diffusion or the extent of the field of consciousness
have to be taken into account. Attention, whatever else it is,
is a limited quantity
Pluribus intentus minor est ad singula sensus
to quote Hamilton's pet adage. Moreover, as we have seen,
attention requires time. If, then, attention be distributed over
too wide a field, there is a corresponding loss of intensity, and
so of distinctness: we tend towards a succession of indis-
tinguishables indistinguishable, therefore, from no succession.
We must not have more presentations in the field of conscious-
ness than will allow of some concentration of attention: a
maximum diffusion will not do. A maximum concentration,
in like manner even if there were no other objection to it
FEELING)
PSYCHOLOGY
585
would seem to conflict with the general conditions of conscious-
ness, inasmuch as a single simple presentation, however intense,
would admit of no differentiation, and any complex presentation
is in some sort a plurality. The most effective attention, then,
as regards its quantitative conditions, must lie somewhere
between the two zeros of complete indifference and complete
absorption. If there be an excess of diffusion, effective atten-
tion will increase up to a certain point as concentration increases,
but beyond that point will decrease if this intensification con-
tinues to increase; and vice versa, if there be an excess of con-
centration. But, inasmuch as these quantitative conditions
involve a plurality of distinguishable presentations or changes
in consciousness, the way is open for formal conditions as well.
Since different presentations consort differently when above
the threshold of consciousness together, one field may be wider
and yet as intense as another, or intenser and yet as wide, owing
to a more advantageous arrangement of its constituents. 1
The doctrine here developed, viz., that feeling depends on
efficiency, is in the main as old as Aristotle; all that has been
done is to give it a more accurately psychological
expression, and to free it from the implications of
the faculty theory, in which form it was expounded
by Hamilton. Of possible objections there are at least
two that we must anticipate, and the consideration of
which will help to make the general view clearer. First, it may
be urged that, according to this view, it ought to be one con-
tinuous pain to fall asleep, since in this state consciousness
is rapidly restricted both as to intensity and range. This state-
ment is entirely true as regards the intensity and substantially
true as regards the range, at least of the higher consciousness:
certain massive and agreeable organic sensations pertain to
falling asleep, but the variety of presentations at all events grows
less. But then the capacity to attend is also rapidly declining;
even a slight intruding sensation entails an acute sense of strain
in one sense, in place of the massive pleasure of repose through-
out; and any voluntary concentration either in order to move
or to think involves a like organic conflict, futile effort, and arrest
of balmy ease. There is as regards the more definite constituents
of the field of consciousness a close resemblance between natural
sleepiness and the state of monotonous humdrum we call tedium
or ennui ; and yet the very same excitement that would relieve
the one by dissipating the weariness of inaction would disturb
the other by renewing the weariness of action: the one is com-
mensurate with the resources of the moment, the other is not.
Thus the maximum of effective attention in question is, as
Aristotle would say, a maximum " relative to us." It is possible,
therefore, that a change from a wider to a narrower field of
consciousness may be a pleasurable change, if attention is more
effectively engaged. Strictly speaking, however, the so-called
negative pleasures of rest do not consist in a mere narrowing of
the field of consciousness so much as in a change in the amount
of concentration. Massive organic sensations connected with
restoration take the place of the comparatively acute sensations
of jaded powers forced to work. We have, then, in all cases to
bear in mind this subjective relativity of all pleasurable or
painful states of consciousness.
1 As it is impossible to say that any distinguishable presentation
is absolutely simple, the hypothesis of subconsciousness would
leave us free to assume that any pleasantness or unpleasantness that
cannot be explained on the score of intensity is due to some obscure
harmony or discord, compatibility or incompatibility, of elements not
separately discernible. But this, though tempting, js not really a
very scientific procedure. If a particular presentation is pleasur-
able or painful in such wise as to lead to a redistribution of attention,
it is reasonable to look for an explanation primarily in its connexion
with the rest of the field of consciousness. Moreover, it is obvious
since what takes place in subconsciousness can only be explained
in analogy with what takes place in consciousness that, if we have
an inexplicable in the one, we must have a corresponding inex-
plicable in the other. If the feeling produced by what comports
itself as a simple presentation cannot be explained by what is in
consciousness, we should be forced to admit that some presentations
are unpleasant simply because they are unpleasant an inexplica-
bility which the hypothesis of subconsciousness might push farther
back but would not remove.
33. But there is still another and more serious difficulty to
face. It has long been a burning question with theoretical
moralists whether pleasures differ only quantita- DoPicaium
lively or differ qualitatively as well, whether psycho- Differ Quau-
logical analysis will justify the common distinction tttiv *<? f
of higher and lower pleasures or force us to recognize
nothing but differences of degree, of duration, and so
forth as expounded, e.g. by Bentham, whose cynical mot,
" pushpin is as good as poetry provided it be as pleasant," was
long a stumbling block in the way of utilitarianism. The entire
issue here is confused by an ambiguity in terms that has been
already noticed: pleasure and pleasures have not the same
connotation. By a pleasure or pleasures we mean some assign-
able presentation or presentations experienced as pleasant i.e.
as affording pleasure; by pleasure simply is meant this subjective
state of feeling itself. The former, like other objects of know-
ledge, admit of classification and comparison: we may dis-
tinguish them as coarse or as noble, or, if we will, as cheap and
wholesome. But while the causes of feeling are manifold, the
feeling itself is a subjective state, varying only in intensity and
duration. The best evidence of this lies in the general character
of the actions that ensue through feeling the matter which
has next to engage us. Whatever be the variety in the sources
of pleasure, whatever be the moral or conventional estimate
of their worthiness, if a given state of consciousness is pleasant
we seek so far to retain it, if painful to be rid of it: we prefer
greater pleasure before less, less pain before greater. This is,
in fact, the whole meaning of preference as a psychological term.
Wisdom and folly each prefer the course which the other rejects.
Both courses cannot, indeed, be objectively preferable; that,
however, is not a matter for psychology. But as soon as
reflection begins, exceptions to this primary principle of action
seem to arise continually, even though we regard the individual
as a law to himself. Such exceptions, however, we may presently
find to be apparent only. At any rate the principle is obviously
true before reflection begins true so long as we are dealing
with actually present sources of feeling, and not with their
re-presentations. But to admit this is psychologically to admit
everything, at least if experience is to be genetically explained.
Assuming then that we start with only quantitative variations
of feeling, we have to attempt to explain the development of
formal and qualitative differences in the character given to the
grounds of feeling. But, if aversions and pursuits result from
incommensurable states of pain and pleasure, there seems no
other way of saving the unity and continuity of the subject
except by speculative assumption the doctrine known as the
freedom of the will in its extremest form. The one position
involves the other, and the more scientific course is to avoid
both as far as we can.
The question, then, is : How, if action depends in the last
resort on a merely quantitative difference, could it ever come
about that what we call the higher sources of feeling should
supersede the lower? If it is only quantity that turns the
scales, where does quality come in, for we cannot say, e.g. that
the astronomer experiences a greater thrill of delight when a
new planet rewards his search than the hungry savage in finding
a clump of pig-nuts? Tempora mutantur tws et mutamur in illis
contains the answer in brief. We shall understand this answer
better if we look at a parallel case, or what is really our own
from another point of view. We distinguish between higher
and lower forms of life: we might say there is more life in a
large oyster than in a small one, other things being equal, but we
should regard a crab as possessing not necessarily more life
as measured by waste of tissue but certainly as manifesting
life in a higher form. How, in the evolution of the animal
kingdom, do we suppose this advance to have been made?
The tendency at any one moment is simply towards more life,
simply towards growth; but this process of self -conservation
imperceptibly but steadily modifies the self that is conserved.
The creature is bent only on filling its skin; but in doing this
as easily as may be it gets a better skin to fill, and accordingly
seeks to fill it differently. Though cabbage and honey are what
5 86
PSYCHOLOGY
[EMOTION
they were before, they have changed relatively to the grub now
it has become a butterfly. So, while we are all along preferring
a more pleasurable state of consciousness before a less, the
content of our consciousness is continually changing; the
greater pleasure still outweighs the less, but the pleasures to be
weighed are either wholly different, or at least are the same for
us no more. What we require then, is not that the higher
pleasures shall always afford greater pleasure than the lower
did, but that to advance to the level of life on which pleasure
is derived from higher objects shall on the whole be more pleasur-
able and less painful than to remain behind. And this condition
seems provided in the fact of accommodation above referred
to- and in the important fact that attention can be more effec-
tively expended by what we may therefore call improvements
in the form of the field of consciousness. But when all is said
and done a certain repugnance is apt to arise against any associa-
tion of the differences between the higher and lower feelings
with differences of quantity. Yet such repugnance is but
another outcome of the common mistake of supposing that the
real is obtained by pulling to pieces rather than by building up.
No logical analysis nay, further, no logical synthesis is
adequate to the fullness of things. For the rest, such aversion
is wholly emotional, and has no more an intellectual element
in it than has the disgust we feel on first witnessing anatomical
dissections. 1
Emotion and Emotional Expression.
34. We now pass from the causes of feeling to its effects.
We have assumed ( 7) that the simplest and earliest of these
effects are to be found in the various bodily move-
ments commonly described as the expression or
manifestation of emotion. But in a notorious
article, entitled "What is an Emotion?" Professor James 2
attempted to turn this, the common-sense position, upside
down. Before proceeding we must, therefore, examine his
alternative theory: " Common sense says: we lose our for-
tune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened
and run; we are insulted by a rival, are angry and strike."
But, Professor James continues, " the hypothesis here to be
defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect: that the
one mental state is not immediately induced by the other, that
the bodily manifestations must first be interposed between, and
that the more rational statement is that we feel sorry because
we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble,
and not that we cry, strike or tremble because we are sorry,
angry or fearful, as the case may be." In a word, whereas it
is commonly supposed that the emotion precedes and produces
the expression, it seems here to be maintained that the expres-
sion precedes and produces the emotion. But the sequence
denied in the first case is a psychological sequence, the sequence
maintained in the second is a physiological sequence. The
subject's experiences of the bodily expressions is here the
emotion, and these are physically, not psychically, determined.
" They are sensational processes," says Professor James;
" processes due to inward currents set up by physical happen-
ings."
The new theory is, then, in part psychological, in part psycho-
physical. As to the first part, which the author calls " the
vital point of the whole theory," it consists mainly in exposing
the ambiguity of the phrase " bodily expression of an emotion "
a phrase which is liable to mislead us into fancying that
1 " To look at anything in its elements makes it appear inferior to
what it seems as a whole. Resolve the statue or the building into
stone and the laws of proportion, and no worthy causes of the former
beautiful result seem now left behind. So, also, resolve a virtuous
act into the passions and some quantitative law, and it seems to be
rather destroyed than analysed, though after all what was there else
it could be resolved into? Sir A. Grant, Aristotle's Ethics, Essay
IV., "The Doctrine of the Mean," i. 210 (2nd ed.).
* Mind (1884), ix. 188 sgq.; and, again, .Principles of Psychology,
ch. xxv. Very similar views were advanced independently and
almost at the same time by the Danish physiologist C. Lange;
hence the name James-Lange theory, by which their views are
commonly known. Of Lange's work a German translation was
published in 1887.
emotion, like thought, may be antecedent to, or independent of,
any expression or utterance. My fear or anger may chance
to be expressive to another, but they are of necessity impressive
to me. " A disembodied human emotion is a sheer nonentity."
In so far as I have a certain emotion, in so far I have " the
feelings of its bodily symptoms." This is true, not to say trite;
but how do these symptoms arise? With this question we
pass to the psychophysical side of the theory, and here it be-
comes perplexing, and is itself perplexed; for to this question
it is driven to return two distinct and divergent answers.
First, we are told that it is not the emotion that gives rise to
the bodily expression, but that, on the contrary, " the bodily
changes follow directly the perception of the existing fact,"
it being beyond doubt " that objects do excite bodily changes
by a preorganised mechanism." Again: " Each emotion is,"
for Professor James, " a resultant of a sum of elements, and
each element is caused by a physiological process of a sort
already well known. The elements are all organic changes,
and each of them is the reflex effect of the existing object." The
old attempts at classification and description being contemptu-
ously dismissed as belonging only to " the lowest stage of
science," we are informed that now we step from a superficial
to a deep order of inquiry. " The questions now are causal:
' Just what changes vloes this object and what changes does
that object excite ?' and ' How come they to excite these
particular changes, and not others?'" But we have not had
to wait for the James-Lange theory to raise these questions,
and surely there are none that bring out its defects more
glaringly. "Objects " that determine bodily changes by means
of preorganized mechanism and without psychical interposition
might fairly be taken to be physical objects; and indeed the
whole process is expressly described as reflex. But only very
slovenly physiologists talk of " objects " exciting reflexes:
it is inexact even to say that sensations do so. All that reflex
action requires is a stimulus. " The essence of a reflex action,"
says Foster, " consists in the transmutation, by means of the
irritable protoplasm of a nerve-cell, of afferent into efferent
impulses." Let Professor James be confronted first by a chained
bear and next by a bear at large: to the one object he presents
a bun, and to the other a clean pair of heels; or let him first be
thrilled by a Beethoven symphony and then by a Raphael
Madonna. Will he now undertake to account, in terms of
stimuli and their reflex effects, for the very different results of
the similar " causes " in the one case, or for the similar results
of the very different " causes " in the other? Such a challenge
would certainly be declined, and Professor James would remind
us that in his nomenclature " it is the total situation on which
the reaction of the subject is made." 3 But there is just a world
of difference between " object " = stimulus transformed by
preorganised mechanism into an efferent discharge, and " object "
= total situation to which the subject reacts. The attempt to
explain emotion causally on the lines of the former meaning
lands us in the conscious automaton theory, with which we
must deal presently: this Professor James rejects. The latter
meaning, on the other hand, involves the recognition of the
subject's attitude as essential to the reaction, and of this as
determined .by pleasure, pain or by some " interest " resting
ultimately on these. Such, with scarcely an exception, has
always been, and still remains, the analysis of emotion in vogue
among psychologists. It brings to the fore a new category,
that of worth or value, one wholly extraneous to the physio-
logist's domain, and repugnant to the mechanical analogies
which are there in place. No doubt such a concept is attained
only by reflexion, but the experiences from which it is drawn,
the affective states and the conative tendencies of the subject
experiencing, must have preceded. From this central stand-
point alone the objective situation has a worth which explains
the subject's attitude, and here alone can we find the clue which
3 " Physical Basis of Emotion," Psychological Review (1894), p. 518.
In this reply to criticisms Professor James is supposed to have
modified his views: it would be nearer the truth to say that he has
made admissions incompatible with them.
EMOTIONAL ACTION]
PSYCHOLOGY
587
will enable us to answer the questions of cause that Professor
James propounds.
The experimental investigations of Mosso, Fer6, Lehmann, and
others have shown that the vaso-motor and such like bodily
changes as are prominent in emotional excitement are present also
to some extent in all forms of conscious activity. The more un-
wonted and interesting the situation, the more diffused movements
predominate over movements that are purposive; the further
.i^imilation, both on the cognitive and the reactive side, has ad-
vanced, the more diffusion is replaced by restriction and adapta-
tion. But we are not warranted in separating these factors of
voluntary activity into distinct processes, as the physiologist, for
example, separates the functions of striped and unstriped muscle.
Unless we are prepared to treat all activity as reflex as the
physiologist may quite well do, if he keep strictly to his own point
of view it does not seem possible to regard emotional expression
o much organic sensation with which purposive movement has
nothing to do. No doubt this connexion of vegetal and animal
functions remains one of the obscurest in all psycho-biology, though
its ideological fitness is obvious enough.
Nevertheless, Professor James's main position is that an emotion
is but a sum of organic sensations; and in order to establish this
he is led to the second and very different statement which we have
now to examine. Here, so far from suggesting inquiries as to the
" objects " that excite emotion, his point is to maintain that in
so far as the bodily cause is set up, be the means what they may,
in so far the emotion is present. 1 And here, at length, the con-
tention is explicit: Emotions are a certain complex of organic
sensations, and such complexes are emotions: the two are not
merely coexistent, they are identical. The exciting object is thus,
after all, physiological; that is to say, it is whatever stimulus sets
up the sensations. It cannot be psychological, " the total situation
for the reacting subject," for in this sense the emotion, it is main-
tained, may be " objectless." In support of his position Professor
lames first of all cites pathological cases of such objectless emotion.
He next follows up these with accounts of other cases in which
.emotional apathy seemed to keep pace with sensory anaesthesia,
arguing that, according to his theory, a subject absolutely anaesthetic
should also be incapable of emotion, although " emotion-inspiring
objects might evoke the usual bodily expression from him."
Whether any testimony from lunatics, hypnotics and other minds
diseased could suffice to establish this novel doctrine is questionable :
that the evidence so far adduced is insufficient, Professor James
himself seems to allow. There are some four or five of the apathetic
cases altogether: three of them are regarded by the mental patho-
loeists who describe them as adverse to Professor James's theory. 1
Of the fourth case, reported by a pathologist on Professor James's
side, the latter himself candidly observes, " We must remember
that the patient's inemotivity may have been a co-ordinate result
with the anaesthesia of his neural lesions, and not the anaesthesia's
mere effect." This missing link in the argument is supplied by the
experiments of Professor Sherrington, 3 and these show conclusively
that normal emotional states are possible along with complete
visceral anaesthesia. As to emotional excitement induced by intoxi-
cation or disease, and so far groundless, the most that can safely be
said is that the object may be vague, ill-defined and shifting, but
not that it is absent altogether. States of physical exaltation,
depression or irritability readily arouse by association appropriate
troupes of imagery; only when they fail of this are we entitled to
say that there is no object, and then we must add that there is also
no emotion.
Emotional and Conative Action.
35. As in dealing with the causes of feeling, so we may
now in like manner proceed to inquire whether in its manifesta-
tions or effects there is any contrast corresponding to the
opposing extremes of pleasure and pain. We have already
seen reasons for dismissing reflex movements or movements
not determined by feeling as psychologically secondary, the
effects of habit and heredity, and for regarding those diffusive
movements that are immediately expressive of feeling as
primordial such movements as are strictly purposive being
gradually selected or elaborated from them. But some dis-
tinction is called for among the various movements expressive
of emotion; for there is more in these than the direct effect
of feeling regarded as merely pleasure or pain. It has been
usual with psychologists to confound emotions with feeling,
because intense feeling is essential to emotion. But, strictly
1 Text-Book of Psychology (1890), p. 383.
1 G. H. J. Berkley, " Two Cases of General Cutaneous and Sensory
Anaesthesia without marked Psychical Implications," Brain (1891),
xiv. 441 sqq^.
" Experiments on the Value of Vascular and Visceral Factors for
the Genesis of Emotion," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1900), bcvi. 390 sqq.;
and Nature, Ixii. 328 sqq.
speaking, a state of emotion is a complete state of mind, a
psychosis, and not a psychical element, if we may so say. Thus
in anger we have over and above pain a more or less definite
object as its cause, and a certain characteristic reactive display
frowns, compressed lips, erect head, clenched fists, in a word,
the combative attitude as its effect, and similarly of other
emotions; so that generally in the particular movements
indicative of particular emotions the primary and primitive
effects of feeling are overlaid by what Darwin has called service-
able associated habits. The purposive actions of an earlier
stage of development become, though somewhat atrophied
as it were, the emotive outlet of a later stage: in the circum-
stances in which our ancestors worried their enemies we only
show our teeth. We must, therefore, leave aside the more
complex emotional manifestations and look only to the simplest
effects of pleasure and of pain, if we are to discover any funda-
mental contrast between them. 4
Joy finds expression in dancing, clapping the hands and
meaningless laughter, and these actions are not only pleasurable
in themselves but such as increase the existing
pleasure. Attention is not drafted off or diverted;
but rather the available resources seem reinforced,
so that the old expenditure is supported as well as the new.
To the pleasure on the receptive side is added pleasure on
the active side. The violent contortions due to pain, on the
other hand, are painful in themselves, though less intense than
the pains from which they withdraw attention; they are but
counter-irritants that arrest or inhibit still more painful thoughts
or sensations. Thus, according to Darwin, " sailors who are
to be flogged sometimes take a piece of lead into their mouths
in order to bite it with their utmost force, and thus to bear the
pain." When in this way we take account of the immediate
effects as well as of the causes of feeling, we find it still more
strikingly true that only in pleasurable states is there an efficient
expenditure of attention. It is needless now to dwell upon
this point, although any earlier mention of it would hardly
have been in place. But we should fail to realize the contrast
between the motor effects of pleasure and of pain if we merely
regarded them as cases of diffusion. The intenser the feeling
the intenser the reaction, no doubt, whether it be smiles or
tears, jumping for joy, or writhing in agony; but in the move-
ments consequent on pleasure the diffusion is the result of mere
exuberance, an overflow of good spirits, as we sometimes say,
and these movements, as already remarked, are always com-
paratively purposeless or playful. Even the earliest expressions
of pain, on the contrary, seem but so many efforts to escape
from the cause of it ; in them there is at least the blind purpose
to flee from a definite ill, but in pleasure only the enjoyment of
present fortune.
From Plato downwards psychologists and moralists have been
fond of discussing the relation of pleasure and pain. It has been
maintained that pain is the first and more fundamental fact, and
pleasure nothing but relief from pain; and, again, on the other
side, that pleasure is prior and positive, and pain only the negation
of pleasure. So far as the mere change goes, it is obviously true
that the diminution of pain is pro tanto pleasant, and the diminu-
tion of pleasure pro tanto unpleasant; and if relativity had the
unlimited range sometimes assigned to it this would be all we
could say. But we must sooner or later recognize the existence
of a comparatively fixed neutral state, deviations from which, of
comparatively short duration and of sufficient intensity, consti-
tute distinct states of pleasure or pain. Such states, if not of
liminal intensity, may then be further diminished without reversing
4 Of the three principles Darwin advances in explanation of emo-
tional expression that which he places last perhaps because it
admits of less definite illustration seems both psychologically and
physiologically more fundamental than the more striking principle
of serviceable associated habits which he places first; indeed the
following, which is his statement of it, implies as much: " Certain
actions which we recognize as expressive of certain states of mind
are the direct result of the constitution of the nervous system, and
have been from the first independent of the will, and to a large extent
of habit " (Expression of the Emotions, p. 66). It is in illustration
of this principle too that Darwin describes the movements expressive
of joy and grief, emotions which in some form or other are surely
the most primitive of any.
588
PSYCHOLOGY
[EMOTIONAL ACTION
their pleasurable or painful character. The turning-point here
implied may, of course, gradually change too as a result, in fact,
of the law of accommodation. Thus a long run of pleasure would
raise "the hedonistic zero," while to the small extent to which
accommodation to pain is possible a continuance of pain would
lower it. But such admission makes no material difference where
the actual feeling of the moment is alone concerned and retrospect
out of the question. On the whole it seems, therefore, most reason-
able to regard pleasure and pain as emerging out of a neutral state,
which is prior to and distinct from both not a state of absolute
indifference, but of simple contentment, marked by no special
active display. But it is by reference to such state of equilibrium or
i-raBia that we see most clearly the superior volitional efficacy of
pain upon which pessimists love to descant. " Nobody," says
Von Hartmann, " who had to choose between no taste at all for
ten minutes or five minutes of a pleasant taste and then five minutes
of an unpleasant taste, would prefer the last " Most men and all
the lower animals are content " to let well alone."
To ascertain the origin and progress of purposive action it
seems, then, that we must look to the effects of pain rather
than to those of pleasure. It is true that psy-
chologists not infrequently describe the earliest pur-
posive movements as appetitive; or at least they
treat appetitive and aversive movements as co-ordinate and
equally primitive, pleasures being supposed to lead to actions
for their continuance as much as pains to actions for their
removal. No doubt, as soon as the connexion between a pleasur-
able sensation and the appropriate action is completely estab-
lished, as in the case of imbibing food, the whole process is then
self-sustaining till satiety begins. But the point is that such
facility was first acquired under the teaching of pain the pain
of unsatisfied hunger. The term " appetite " is apt both by
its etymology and its later associations to be misleading. What
are properly called the " instinctive " appetites are when
regarded from their active side movements determined by
some existing uneasy sensation. So far as their earliest mani-
festation in a particular individual is concerned, this urgency
seems almost entirely of the nature of a vis a tergo; and the
movements are only more definite than those simply expressive
of pain because of inherited pre-adaptation, on which account,
of course, they are called " instinctive." But what one inherits
another must have acquired, and we have agreed here to leave
heredity on one side and consider only the original evolution.
But if none but psychological causes were at work this evolu-
tion would be very long and in its early stages very uncertain.
At first, when only random movements ensue, we may fairly
suppose both that the chance of at once making a happy hit
would be small and that the number of chances, the space for
repentance, would also be small. Under such circumstances
natural selection would have to do almost everything and
subjective selection almost nothing. So far as natural selection
worked, we should have, not the individual subject making a
series of tries and perfecting itself by practice, as in learning to
dance or swim, but we should have those individuals whose
structure happened to vary for the better surviving, increasing
and displacing the rest. How much natural selection, appar-
ently unaided, can accomplish in the way of complicated adjust-
ment we see in the adaptation of the form and colour of plants
and animals to their environment. Both factors, in reality,
operate at once, and it would be hard to fix a limit to either,
though to our minds natural selection seems to lose in compara-
tive importance as we advance towards the higher stages of
life.
But psychologically we have primarily to consider subjective
selection, i.e. first of all, the association of particular movements
with particular sensations through the mediation of feeling.
The sensations here concerned are mainly painful excitations
from the environment, the recurring pains of innutrition,
weariness, &c., and pleasurable sensations due to the satisfaction
of these organic wants pleasures which, although not a mere
" filling-up," as Plato at one time contended, are still preceded
by pain, but imply over and above the removal of this a certain
surplus of positive good. There seem only a few points to
notice, (a) When the movements that ensue through pleasure
are themselves pleasurable there is ordinarily no ground for
singling out any one; such movements simply enhance the
general enjoyment, which is complete in itself and so far
contains no hint of anything beyond, (b) Should one of these
spontaneous movements of pleasure chance to cause pain, no
doubt such movement is speedily arrested. Probably the most
immediate connexion possible between feeling and purposive
action is that in which a painful movement leads through pain
to its own suppression. But such connexion is not very fruitful
of consequences, inasmuch as it only secures what we may call
internal training and does little to extend the relation of the
individual to its environment, (c) Out of the irregular, often
conflicting movements which indirectly relieve pain some one
may chance to remove the cause of it altogether. Upon this
movement, the last of a tentative series, attention, released
from the pain, is concentrated; and in this way the evil and the
remedy become so far associated that on a recurrence of the
former the many diffused movements become less, and the one
purposive movement more, pronounced; the one effectual way
is at length established and the others, which were but palliatives,
disappear, (d) When things have advanced so far that some
one definite movement is definitely represented along with the
painful sensation it remedies, it is not long before a still further
advance is possible and we have preventive movements. Thanks
to the orderliness of things, dangers have their premonitions.
After a time, therefore, the occurrence of some signal sensation
revives the image of the harm that has previously followed in
its wake, and a movement either like the first, or another that
has to be selected from the random tries of fear occurs in time
to avert the impending ill. (e) In like manner, provided the
cravings of appetite are felt, any signs of the presence of pleasur-
able objects prompt to movements for their enjoyment or
appropriation. In these last cases we have action determined
by percepts. The cases in which the subject is incited to action
by ideas as distinct from percept require a more detailed con-
sideration; such are the facts mainly covered by the term
" desire."
By the time that ideas are sufficiently self-sustaining to form
trains that are not wholly shaped by the circumstances of the
present, entirely new possibilities of action are _
opened up. We can desire to live again through
experiences of which there is nothing actually present to
remind us, and we can desire a new experience which as yet
we only imagine. We often, no doubt, apply the term to
the simpler states mentioned under (e) in the last paragraph:
the fox in the fable is said to have desired, the grapes he vilified
because out of his reach. Again, at the other extreme' it is
usual to speak of a desire for honour, or for wealth, and the
like; but such are not so much single states of mind as inclina-
tions or habitual desires. Moreover, abstractions of this kind
belong to a more advanced stage of development than that at
which desire begins, and of necessity imply more complicated
grounds of action than we can at present examine. The essen-
tial characteristics of desire will be more apparent if we suppose
a case somewhere between these extremes. A busy man reads
a novel at the close of the day, and finds himself led off by a
reference to angling or tropical scenery to picture himself with
his rods packed en route for Scotland, or booked by the next
steamer for the fairyland of the West Indies. Presently, while
the ideas of Jamaica or fishing are at least as vividly imagined
as before, the fancied preparations receive a rude shock as the
thought of his work recurs. Some such case we may take as
typical and attempt to analyse it.
First of all it is obviously true, at least of such more concrete
desires, that what awakens desire at one time fails to do so at
another, and that we are often so absorbed or content with the
present as not to be amenable to (new) desires at all. A given
* or y cannot, then, be called desirable per se, it is only desir-
able by relation to the contents of consciousness at the moment.
Of what nature is this relation? (i) At the level of psychical
life that we have now reached very close and complete con-
nexions have been formed between ideas and the movements
necessary for their realization, so that when the idea is vividly
INTELLECTION]
PSYCHOLOGY
589
present these movements are apt to be nascent. This associa-
tion is the result of subjective selection i.e. of feeling but
being once established, it persists like other associations indepen-
dently of it. (2) Those movements are especially apt to become
nascent which have not been recently executed, which are
therefore fresh and accompanied by the organic sensations of
freshness, but also those which are frequently executed, and so
from habit readily aroused. The latter fact, which chiefly
concerns habitual desires, may be left aside for a time. (3) At
times, then, when there is a lack of present interests, or when
these have begun to wane, or when there is positive pain, atten-
tion is ready to fasten on any new suggestion that calls for more
activity, requires a change of active attitude, or promises
relief. Such spontaneous concentration of attention ensures
greater vividness to the new idea, whatever it be, and to its
belongings. In some cases this greater vividness may suffice.
This is most likely to happen when the new idea affords
intellectual occupation, and this is at the time congenial, or with
indolent and imaginative persons who prefer dreaming to doing.
(4) But when the new idea does not lead off the pent-up stream
of action by opening out fresh channels, when, instead of this,
it is one that keeps them intent upon itself in an attitude
comparable to expectation, then we have desire. In such a state
the intensity of the re-presentation is not adequate to the
intensity of the incipient actions it has aroused. This is most
obvious when the latter are directed towards sensations or
percepts, and the former remains only an idea. If it were
possible by concentrating attention to convert ideas into
percepts, there would be an end of most desires: "if wishes
were horses beggars would ride." (5) But our voluntary power
over movements is in general of this kind: here the fiat may
become fact. When we cannot hear we can at least listen,
and, though there be nothing to fill them, we can at least hold
out our hands. It would seem, then, that the source of desire
lies essentially in this excess of the active reaction above the
intensity of the re-presentation (the one constituting the " im-
pulse," the other the " object " of desire, or the desideratum),
and that this disparity rests ultimately on the fact that move-
ments have, and sensations have not, a subjective initiative.
(6) The impulse or striving to act will, as already hinted, be
stronger the greater the available energy, the fewer the present
outlets, and, habits apart, the fresher the new opening for
activity. (7) Finally, it is to be noted that, when such inchoate
action can be at once consummated, desire ends where it
begins: to constitute a definite state of desire there must be
not only an obstacle to the realization of the desideratum if
this were all we should rather call the state one of wishing
but an obstacle to its realization by means of the actions its
representation has aroused.
However the desire may have been called forth, its intensity
is primarily identical with the strength of this impulse to action,
Relation of an d has no definite or constant relation to the amount
Desire to of pleasure that may result from its satisfaction.
Feeling. <p ne f ee ij n g directly consequent on desire as a state
of want and restraint is one of pain, and the reaction which this
pain sets up may either suppress the desire or prompt to
efforts to avoid or overcome the obstacles in its way. To
inquire into these alternatives would lead us into the higher
phases of voluntary action; but we must first consider the
relation of desire to feeling more closely.
Instances are by no means wanting of very imperious desires
accompanied by the clear knowledge that their gratification
will be positively distasteful. 1 On the other hand it is possible
to recollect or picture circumstances known or believed to be
intensely pleasurable without any desire for them being
awakened at all: we can regret or admire without desiring.
Yet there are many psychologists who maintain that desire is
excited only by the prospect of the pleasure that may arise
through its gratification, and that the strength of the desire is
proportional to the intensity of the pleasure thus anticipated.
1 As such an instance may be cited Plato's story of Leontius, the
ton of Aglaeon, in Rep. iv. 439 fin.
Quidquid petitur pelilur sub specif boni is their main formula.
The plausibility of this doctrine rests partly upon a seemingly
imperfect analysis of what strictly pertains to desire and partly
on the fact that it is substantially true both of what we may
call " presentation-prompted " action, which belongs to an
earlier stage than desire, and of the more or less rational action
that comes later. In the very moment of enjoyment it may
be fairly supposed that action is sustained solely by the pleasure
received and is proportional to the intensity of that pleasure.
But there is here no re-presentation and no seeking; the con-
ditions essential to desire, therefore, do not apply. Again,
in rational action, where both are present, it may be true
to quote the words of an able advocate of the view here
controverted that " our character as rational beings is to
desire everything exactly according to its pleasure value."*
But consider what such conceptions as the good, pleasure value
and rational action involve. Here we have foresight and
calculation, regard for self as an object of permanent interest
Butler's cool self-love; but desire as such is blind, without either
the present certainty of sense or the assured prevision of reason.
Pleasure in the past, no doubt, has usually brought about
the association between the representation of the desired object
and the movement for its realization; but neither the recollec-
tion of this pleasure nor its anticipation is necessary to desire,
and even when present they do not determine what urgency
'it will have. The best proof of this lies in certain habitual
desires. Pleasures are diminished by repetition, whilst habits
are strengthened by it; if the intensity of desire, therefore,
were proportioned to the " pleasure value " of its gratification,
the desire for renewed gratification should diminish as this
pleasure grows less; but, if the present pain of restraint from
action determines the intensity of desire, this should increase
as the action becomes habitual. And observation seems to
show that, unless prudence suggests the forcible suppression
of such belated desires or the active energies themselves fail, they
do in fact become more imperious, although less productive of
positive pleasure, as time goes on.
In this there is, of course, no exception to the general principle
that action is consequent on feeling a greater pleasure being
preferred before a less, a less pain before a greater; for, though
the feeling that follows upon its satisfaction be less or even
change entirely, still the pain of the unsatisfied desire increases
as the desire hardens into habit. It is also a point in favour of
the position here taken that appetites, which may be compared
to inherited desires, certainly prompt to action by present pain
rather than by prospective pleasure.
Intellection.
36. Desire naturally prompts to the search for the means
to its satisfaction and frequently to a mental rehearsal of various
possible courses of action, their advantages and disadvantages.
Thus, by the time the ideational continuum has become mainly
by the comparatively passive working of association sufficiently
developed to furnish free ideas as thinking material, motives
are forthcoming for thinking to begin. It is obviously impos-
sible to assign any precise time for this advance; like all others,
it is gradual. Fitfully, in strange circumstances and under
strpng excitement, the lower animals give unmistakable signs
that they can understand and reason. But thought as a per-
manent activity may be fairly said to originate in and even to
depend upon the acquisition of speech. This indispensable
instrument, which more than anything else enables our pyscho-
logical individual to advance to the distinctly human or rational
stage, consists of gestures and vocal utterances, which were
originally and, indeed, are still to a large extent emotional
expressions.* Our space will only allow us to note in what
1 Bain, Emotions and Will, yA ed., p. 438.
1 It must be noted that, though we still retain our psychological
standpoint, the higher development of the individual is only possible
through intercourse with other individuals, that is to say, through
society. Without language we should be mutually exclusive and
impenetrable, like so many physical atoms; with it each several mind
may transcend its own limits and share the minds of others. As a
59
PSYCHOLOGY
[INTELLECTION
Distinction
between
Sense and
Under-
standing.
way language when it already exists, is instrumental in the
development as distinct from the communication of thought.
But first of all, what in general is thinking, of which language
is the instrument?
In entering upon this inquiry we are really passing one of the
hardest and fastest lines of the old psychology that between sense
and understanding. So long as it was the fashion
to assume a multiplicity of faculties the need was less
felt for a clear exposition of their connexion. A man
had senses and intellect much as he had eyes and ears;
the heterogeneity in the one case was no more puzzling
than in the other. But for psychologists who do not cut
the knot in this fashion it is confessedly a hard matter to explain the
relation of the two. The contrast of receptivity and activity hardly
avails, for all presentation involves activity and essentially the same
activity, that of attention. Nor can we well maintain that the
presentations attended to differ in kind, albeit such a view has been
held from Plato downwards. Nihil est in intellectu quod non fuerit
prius in sensu: the blind and deaf are necessarily without some
concepts that we possess. If pure being is pure nothing, pure
thought is equally empty. Thought consists of a certain elaboration
of sensory and motor presentations and has no content apart from
these. We cannot even say that the forms of this elaboration are
psychologically a priori; on the contrary, what is epistemologically
the most fundamental is the last to be psychologically realized.
This is not only true as a fact ; it is also true of necessity, in so far as
the formation of more concrete concepts is an essential preliminary
to the formation of others more abstract those most abstract,
like the Kantian categories, &c., being thus the last of all to be
thought out or understood. And though this formative work is
substantially voluntary, yet, if we enter upon it, the form at each
step is determined by the so-called matter, and not by us; in this
respect " the spontaneity of thought " is not really freer than the
receptivity of sense. 1 It is sometimes said that thought is synthetic,
and this is true; but imagination is synthetic also; and the processes
which yield the ideational train are the only processes at work in
intellectual synthesis. Moreover, it would be arbitrary to say at
what point the mere generic image ceases and the true concept
begins so continuous are the two. No wonder, therefore, that
English psychology has been prone to regard thought as only a special
kind of perception perceiving the agreement or disagreement of
ideas and the ideas themselves as mainly the products of associa-
tion. Yet this is much like confounding observation with experi-
ment or invention the act of a cave-man in betaking himself to a
drifting tree with that of Noah in building himself an ark. In
reverie, and even in understanding the communications of others,
we are comparatively passive spectators of ideational movements,
non-voluntarily determined. But in thinking or " intellection,"
as it has been conveniently termed, there is always a search for
something more or less vaguely conceived, for a clue which will be
known when it occurs by seeming to satisfy certain conditions.
Thinking may be broadly described as solving a problem finding
an AX that is B. In so doing we start from a comparatively fixed
central idea or intuition and work along the several diverging lines
of ideas associated with it hence far the aptest and in fact the oldest
description of thought is that it is discursive. Emotional excitement
and at the outset the natural man does not think much in cold
blood quickens the flow of ideas: what seems relevant is at once
contemplated more closely, while what seems irrelevant awakens
little interest and receives little attention. At first the control
acquired is but very imperfect; the actual course of thought of
even a disciplined mind falls far short of the clearness, distinctness,
and coherence of the logician's ideal. Familiar associations are apt
to hurry attention away from the proper topic, so that thought
herd of individuals mankind would have a natural history as other
animals have; but personality can only emerge out of intercourse
with persons, and of such intercourse language is the means. But
important as is this addition of a transparent and responsive world
of minds to the dead opaqueness of external things, the development
of our psychological individual still remains a purely individual
development. The only new point is and it is of the highest
importance to keep it in sight that the materials of this develop-
ment no longer consist exclusively of presentations elaborated by a
single mind in accordance with psychical laws. Nevertheless that
combination of individual experiences which converts subjective
idiosyncrasy and isolation into the objectivity and solidarity of
Universal Mind only affects the individual in accordance with
psychical laws, and we have no need therefore to overstep our
proper domain in studying the advance from the non-rational
phase to the phase of reason.
1 Locke, so often misrepresented, expressed this truth according to
his lights in the following: " The earth will not appear painted with
flowers nor the fields covered with verdure whenever we have a mind
to it. ... Just thus is it with our understanding: all that is volun-
tary in our knowledge is the employing or withholding any of our
faculties from this or that sort of objects and a more or less accurate
survey of them " (Essay, iv. 13, 2).'
becomes not only discursive but wandering; in place of concepts
of fixed and crystalline completeness, such as logic describes, we
may find a congeries of ideas but imperfectly compacted into one
generic idea, subject to continual transformation and implicating
much that is irrelevant and confusing.
Thus, while it is possible for thought to begin without language,
just as arts may begin without tools, yet language enables us
to carry the same process enormously farther. In
the first place it gives us an increased command of
even such comparatively concrete generic images
as can be formed without it. The name of a thing or action
becomes, for one who knows the name, as much an objective
mark or attribute as any quality whatever can be. The form
and colour of what we call an " orange " are perhaps even more
intimately combined with the sound and utterance of this word
than with the taste and fragance which we regard as strictly
essential to the thing. But, whereas its essential attributes
often evade us, we can always command its nominal attribute,
in so far as this depends upon movements of articulation. By
uttering the name (or hearing it uttered) we have secured to us,
in a greater or less degree, that superior vividness and definiteness
that pertain to images reinstated by impressions: our idea
approximates to the fixity and independence of a percept
(cf. 21 above). With young children and uncultured
minds who, by the way, not uncommonly " think aloud "-
the gain in this respect is probably more striking than those
not confined to their mother-tongue or those used to an analyti-
cal handling of language at all realize. 2 When things are thus
made ours by receiving names from us and we can freely manipu-
late them in idea, it becomes easier mentally to bring together
facts that logically belong together, and so to classify and
generalize. For names set us free from the cumbersome tangi-
bility and particularity of perception, which is confined to just
what is presented here and now. But as ideas increase in gener-
ality they 'diminish in definiteness and unity; they not only
become less pictorial and more schematic, but they become vague
and unsteady as well, because formed from a number of concrete
images only related as regards one or two constituents, and not
assimilated as the several images of the same thing may be.
The mental picture answering to the word " horse " has, so to
say, body enough to remain a steady object when under atten-
tion from time to time; but that answering to the word " ani-
mal " is perhaps scarcely twice alike. The relations of things
could thus never be readily recalled or steadily controlled if the
names of those relations, which as words always remain concrete,
did not give us a definite hold upon them make them compre-
hensible. Once these " airy nothings " have a name, we reap again
the advantages a concrete constituent affords: by its means
that which is relevant becomes more closely associated, and that
which is irrelevant abstracted from falls off. When what
answers to the logical connotation or meaning of a concept is in
this way linked with the name, it is no longer necessary that
such " matter or content " should be distinctly present in con-
sciousness. It takes time for an image to raise its associates
above the threshold; and, when all are there, there is more
demand upon attention in proportion. There is thus a manifest
economy in what Leibnitz happily styled " symbolic," in
contrast to " intuitive " thinking. Our power of efficient
attention is limited, and with words for counters we can, as
Leibnitz remarks, readily perform operations involving very
complex presentations, and wait till these operations are con-
cluded before realizing and spreading out the net result in
sterling coin.'
But this simile must not mislead us. In actual thinking
there never is any 'complete separation between the symbol
and the ideas symbolized: the movements of the
one are never entirely suspended till those of the
other are complete. " Thus," says Hume, " if,
instead of saying, that in war the weaker have always recourse
* Ruskin, in his Fors clavigera, relates that the sight of the word
" crocodile " used to frighten him when a child so much that he could
not feel at ease again till he had turned over the page on which it
occurred.
INTELLECTION]
PSYCHOLOGY
59 1
to negotiation, we should say, that they have always
recourse to conquest, the custom which we have acquired of
attributing certain relations to ideas still follows the words and
makes us immediately perceive the absurdity of that proposi-
tion." 1 How intimately the two are connected is shown by the
surprises that give what point there is to puns, and by the
small confusion that results from the existence of homonymous
terms. The question thus arises What are the properly
ideational elements concerned in thought? Over this question
psychologists long waged fight as either nominalists or con-
ceptualists. The former maintain that what is imaged in
connexion with a general concept, such as triangle, is some
individual triangle ''taken in a certain light,"* while the latter
maintain that an " abstract idea " is formed embodying such
constituents of the several particulars as the concept connotes,
hut dissociated from the specific or accidental variations that
distinguish one particular from another. As often happens in such
controversies, each side saw the weak point in the other. The
nominalists easily showed that there was no distinct abstract
idea representable apart from particulars; and the conceptualists
could as easily show that a particular presentation " considered
in a certain light " is no longer merely a particular presentation
nor yet a mere crowd of presentations. The very thing to
ascertain is what this consideration in a certain light implies.
IVrhaps a speedier end might have been put to this controversy
if either party had been driven to define more exactly what was
to be understood by image or idea. Such ideas as are possible
lo us apart from abstraction are, as we have seen, revived
percepts, not revived sensations, are complex total re-presenta-
tions made up of partial re-presentations, which may figure in
other totals (cf. 21). Reproductive imagination is so far
but a faint rehearsal of actual percepts, and constructive
imagination but a faint anticipation of possible percepts. In
either case we are busied with elementary presentations compli-
cated or synthesized to what are tantamount to intuitions, in
so far as the forms of intuition remain in the idea, though the
fact, as tested by movement, &c., is absent. The several
partial re-presentations, however, which make up an idea might
also be called ideas, not merely in the wide sense in which every
mental object may be so called, but also in the narrower sense
as secondary presentations, i.e. as distinguished from primary
presentations or impressions. But such isolated images of an
impression, even if possible, would no more be intuitions than the
mere impression itself would be one: taken alone the one would
be as free of space and time as is the other. Till it is settled,
therefore, whether the ideational elements concerned in concep-
tion are intuitive complexes or something answering to the
ultimate elements of these, nothing further can be done.
In the case of what are specially called " concrete " as distinct
from " abstract " concepts if this rough-and-ready, but
unscientific, distinction may be allowed the idea answering
to the concept differs little from an intuition, and we have
already remarked that the generic image (Gemeinbild of German
psychologists) constitutes the connecting link between imagina-
tion and conception. But even concerning these it is useless
to ask what does one imagine in thinking, e.g. of triangle or man
or colour. We never except for the sake of this very inquiry
attempt to fix our minds in this manner upon some isolated
concept; in actual thinking ideas are not in consciousness alone
and disjointedly, but as part of a context. When the idea " man"
is present, it is present in some proposition or question, as
Man is the paragon of animals; In man there is nothing great
but mind; and so on. It is quite clear that in understanding
or mentally verifying such statements very different constituents
out of the whole complex " man " are prominent in each. Fur-
ther, what is present to consciousness when a general term is
understood will differ, not only with a different context, but also
the longer we dwell upon it: we may either analyse its connota-
1 Treatise of Human Nature (Green and Grose's ed.), pt. i. vii.
P- 331.
' Cf. Berkeley, Principles of Human Knowledge, Introd. 16,
Hume, op. cit. 7.
lion or muster its denotation, as the context or the cast of our
minds may determine. Thus what is relevant is alone prominent,
and the more summary the attention we bestow the less the full'
extent and intent of the concept are displayed. To the nom-
inalist's objection, that it is impossible to imagine a man without
imagining him as either tall or short, young or old, dark or light,
and so forth, the conceptualist might reply that at all events
percepts may be clear without being distinct, that we can
recognize a tree without recognizing what kind of tree it is, and
that, moreover, the objection proves too much: for, if our
image is to answer exactly to fact, we must represent not only
a tall or a short man, but a man of definite stature one not
merely either light or dark, but of a certain precise complexion.
But the true answer rather is that in conceiving as such we do
not necessarily imagine a man or a tree at all, any more than
if such an illustration may serve in writing the equation to the
parabola we necessarily draw a parabola as well.
The individuality of a concept is thus not to be confounded with
the sensible concreteness of an intuition either distinct or indis-
tinct, and " the pains and skill " which Locke felt were required in
order to frame what he called an abstract idea are not comparable
to the pains and skill that may be necessary to discriminate
or decipher what is faint or fleeting. The material " framed "
consists no doubt of ideas, if by this is meant that in thinking
we work ultimately with the ideational continuum, but what
results is never a mere intuitive complex nor yet a mere group
of such. The concept or " abstract idea " only emerges when
a certain intelligible relation is established among the members
of such a group; and the very same intuition may furnish the
material for different concepts as often as a different geistiges
Band is drawn between them. The stuff of this bond, as we
have seen, is the word, and this brings into the foreground of
consciousness when necessary those elements whether they
form an intuition or not which are relevant to the concept.
Conception, then, is not identical with imagination, although
the two terms are still often, and were once generally, regarded
as synonymous. The same ultimate materials occur in each;
but in the one they start with and retain a sensible form, in
the other they are elaborated into the form which is called
" intelligible."
37. The distinctive character of this intellectual synthesis
lies, we have seen, in the fact that it is determined entirely
by what is synthesized, whether that be the elemen- _ .
tary constituents of intuitions or general relations character
of whatever kind among these. It differs, therefore, and Growth
in being selective from the synthesis of association, of/ atfllet>
which rests upon contiguity and unites together
whatever .occurs together. It differs also from any synthesis,
though equally voluntary in its initiation, which is determined
by a purely subjective preference, since intellection depends upon
objective relations alone. Owing to the influence of logic, which
has long been in a much more forward state than psychology,
it has been usual to resolve intellection into comparison, abstrac-
tion, and classification, after this fashion: ABCM and ABCN are
compared, their differences M and N left out of sight, and the
class notion ABC formed including both; the same process
repeated with ABC and ABD yields a higher class notion AB;
and so on. But our ideational continuum is not a mere string
of ideas of concrete things, least of all such concrete things as
this view implies. Not till our daily life resembles that of a
museum porter receiving specimens will our higher mental
activity be comparable to that of the savant who sorts such
specimens into cases and compartments. What we perceive
is a world of things in continual motion, waxirig, waning, the
centres of manifold changes, affecting us and apparently affected
by each other, amenable to our action and, as it seems, con-
tinually interacting among themselves. Even the individual
thing, as our analysis of perception has attempted to show,
is not a mere sum of properties which can be taken to pieces
and distributed like type, but a whole combined of parts very
variously related. To understand intellection we must look at
its actual development under the impetus of practical needs.
592
PSYCHOLOGY
[INTELLECTION
rather than to logical ideals of what it ought to be. Like other
forms of purposive activity, thinking is primarily undertaken
as a means to an end, and especially the end of economy. It is
often easier and always quicker to manipulate ideas than to
manipulate real things; to the common mind the thoughtful
man is one who " uses his head to save his heels." In all the arts
of life, in the growth of language and institutions, in scientific
explanation, and even in the speculations of philosophy, we may
remark a steady simplification in the steps to a given end or
conclusion, or what is for our present inquiry the same thing
the attainment of better results with the same means. The
earliest machines are the most cumbrous and clumsy, the earliest
speculations the most fanciful and anthropomorphic. Gradually
imitation yields to invention, the natural fallacy of post hoc, ergo
propler hoc to methodical induction, till what is essential and
effective is realized and appreciated and what is accidental
and inert is discarded and falls out of sight. In this way man
advances in the construction of a complete mental clue or master
key to the intricacies of the real world, but this key is still the
counterpart of the world it enables us to control and explain.
To describe the process by which such insight is attained
as a mere matter of abstraction deserves the stigma of " soulless
blunder " which Hegel applied to it. Of course if attention
is concentrated on X it must pro tanto be abstracted from Y,
and such command of attention may require " some pains and
skill." But to see in this invariable accompaniment of thinking
its essential feature is much like the schoolboy's saying that
engraving consists in cutting fine shavings out of a hard block.
The great thing is to find out what are the light-bearing and
fruit-bearing combinations. Moreover, thinking does not begin
with a conscious abstraction of attention from recognized
differences in the way logicians describe. The actual process
of generalization, for the most part at all events, is much simpler.
The same name is applied to different things or events because
only their more salient features are perceived at all. Their
differences, so far from being consciously and with effort left
out of account, often cannot be observed when attention is
directed to them: to the inexperienced all is gold that glitters.
Thus, and as an instance of the principle of progressive
differentiation already noted ( 6), we find genera recognized before
species, and the species obtained by adding on differences, not
the genus by abstracting from them. Of course such vague and
indefinite concepts are not at first logically general: they only
become so when certain common elements are consciously noted
as pertaining to presentations in other respects qualitatively
different, as well as numerically distinct. But actually thinking
starts from such more potential generality as is secured by
the association of a generic image with a name. So far
the material of thought is always general is freed, that
is, from the local and temporal and other defining marks of
percepts.
38. The process of thinking itself is psychologically much
better described as (i) an analysis and (2) a re-synthesis of
this material already furnished by the ideational
trains. The logical resolution of thought into
hierarchies of concepts arranged like Porphyry's
tree, into judgments uniting such concepts by means of a logical
copula, &c., is the outcome of later reflection mainly for
technical purposes upon thought as a completed product,
and entirely presupposes all that psychology has to explain.
The logical theory of the formation of concepts by generalization
(or abstraction) and by determination (or concretion) i.e. by
the removal or addition of defining marks assumes the previous
existence of the very things to be formed, for these marks or
attributes X's and Y's, A's and B's are themselves already
concepts. Moreover, the act of generalizing or determining
is really an act of judgment, so that the logician's account of
conception presupposes judgment, while at the same time his
account of judgment presupposes conception. But this is no
evil; for logic does not essay to exhibit the actual genesis of
thought but only an ideal for future thinking. Psychologically,
however that is to say, chronologically the judgment is
Thought at
Analytic.
first. The growing mind, we may suppose, passes beyond
simple perception when some striking peculiarity in what is at
the moment perceived is a bar to its recognition. The stalking
hunter is not instantly recognized as the destroying biped,
because he crawls en all fours; or the scarecrow looks like him,
and yet not like him, for, though it stands on two legs, it never
moves. There is thus no immediate assimilation; recognition
under such circumstances is in itself a judgment, involving an
analysis more or less explicit. But of more account is the further
judgment to which it leads, that which connects the new fact
with the generic idea. Though actually complex, generic images
are not explicitly known as complexes when they first enter
into judgments; as the subjects of such judgments they are but
starting-points for predication It crawls; It does not move; and
the like. Such impersonal judgments, according to most philo-
logists, are in fact the earliest; and we may reasonably suppose
that by means of them our generic images have been partially
analysed, and have attained to something of the distinctness
and constancy of logical concepts. But the analysis is rarely
complete : a certain confused and fluctuating residuum remains
behind. The psychological concept merges at sundry points
into those cognate with it in other words, the continuity of
the underlying memory-train still operates; only the ideal
concept of logic is in all respects totus, teres, atque rotundus.
Evidence of this, if it seem to any to require proof, is obtain-
able on all sides, and, if we could recover the first vestiges of
thinking, would doubtless be more abundant still.
But, if we agree that it is through acts of judgment which suc-
cessively resolve composite presentations into elements that con-
cepts first arise, it is still very necessary to inquire more
carefully what these elements are. On the one side we Logical
have seen logicians comparing them to so many letters, *
and on the other psychologists enumerating the several ">" C " 'JJ''
sensible properties of gold or wax their colour, weight, texture, &c.
as instances of such elements. In this way formal logic and sen-
sationalist psychology have been but blind leaders of the blind.
Language, which has enabled thought to advance to the level at
which reflection about thought can begin, is now an obstacle in the
way of a thorough analysis of it. A child or savage would speak
only of " red " and " not," but we of " redness " and " heat."
They would probably say, " Swallows come when the days are
lengthening and snipe when they are shortening "; we say, " Swal-
lows are spring and snipe are winter migrants. Instead of " The
sun shines and plants grow," we should say, " Sunlight is the cause
of vegetation." In short, there is a tendency to resolve all concepts
into substantive concepts; and the reason of this is not far to seek.
Whether the subject or starting-point of our discursive thinking be
actually what we perceive as a thing, or whether it be a quality,
an action, an effectuation (i.e. a transitive action), a concrete spatial
or temporal relation, or finally, a resemblance or difference in these
or in other respects, it becomes by the very fact of being the central
object of thought pro tanto a unity, and all that can be affirmed con-
cerning it may so far be regarded as its property or attribute. It
is, as we have seen, the characteristic of every completed concept
to be a fixed and independent whole, as it were, crystallized out of
the still-fluent matrix of ideas. Moreover, the earliest objects of
thought and the earliest concepts must naturally be those of the
things that live and move about us; hence, then to seek no deeper
reason for the present this natural tendency, which language by
providing distinct names powerfully seconds, to reify or personify
not only things but every element and relation of things which
we can single out, or, in other words, to concrete our abstracts. 1
It is when things have reached this stage that logic begins. But
ordinary, so-called formal, logic, which intends to concern itself
not with thinking but only with the most general structure of
thought, is debarred from recognizing any difference between
concepts that does not affect their relations as terms in a pro-
position. As a consequence it drifts inevitably into that compart-
mental logic or logic of extension which knows nothing of categories
or predicables, but only of the one relation of whole and part
qualitatively considered. It thus pushes this reduction to a com-
mon denomination to the utmost: its terms, grammatically re-
garded, are always names and symbolize classes or compartments
of things. From this point of view all disparity among concepts,
save that of contradictory exclusion, and all connexion, save that
of partial coincidence, are at an end.
Of a piece with this are the logical formula for a simple judgment,
X is Y, and the corresponding definitions of judgment as the com-
parison of two concepts and the recognition of their agreement or
1 See Wundt, Logik, i. 107 seq., where this process is happily styled
" die kategoriale Verschiebung der Begriffe.'
INTELLECTION]
PSYCHOLOGY
593
disagreement. 1 It certainly is possible to represent every
nu-iit as a comparison, although the term is strictly adequate only
to judgments of one kind ancT affords but a very artificial descrip-
tion of pthers. But for a logic mainly concerned with inference
i.e. with explicating what is implicated in any given statements
concerning classes there is nothing more to be done than to
ascertain agreements or disagreements; and the existence of these, if
not necessarily, is at least most evidently represented by spatial
relations. Such representation obviously implies a single ground of
comparison only and therefore leaves no room for differences of
category. The resolution of all concepts into class concepts and
that of all judgments into comparisons thus go together. On
this view if a concept is complex it can only be so as a class
combination ; and, if the mode of its synthesis could be taken account
of at all, this could only be by treating it too as an element in the
combination like the rest: iron is a substance, &c., virtue a quality,
&c., distance a relation, &c., and so on. There is much of directly
psychological interest in this thoroughgoing reduction of thought
to a form which makes its consistency and logical concatenation
conspicuously evident. But of the so-called matter of thought it
tells us nothing. And, as said, there are many forms in that matter
of at least equal moment, both for psychology and for epistemology :
these formal logic has tended to keep put of sight.
It has generally been under the bias of such a formal or com-
putational logic that psychologists, and especially English psycho-
logists, have entered upon the study of mind. They have brought
with them an analytic scheme which affords a ready place for sensa-
tions or " simple ideas " as the elements of thought, but none for
any differences in the combinations of these elements. Sensations
being in their very nature concrete, all generality becomes an affair
of names; and, as Sigwart has acutely remarked, sensationalism
and nominalism always go together. History would have borne
him out if he had added that a purely formal logic tends in like
manner to be nominalistic.
If we are still to speak of the elements of thought, we must
extend this term so as to include not only the sensory elements
we are said to receive but three distinct ways in
s/j*es/s. which this pure matter is combined: (i) the forms
of intuition Time and Space 2 ; (2) the real categories
Substance, Attribute, State, Act, Effect, End or Purpose,
&c. the exact determination of which is not here in place;
and (3) certain formal (logical and mathematical) categories
as Unity, Difference, Identity, Likeness. These cannot be
obtained by such a process of abstraction and generalization
as logicians and psychologists alike have been wont to describe.
They are not primarily concepts more general than all others in
the sense in which animal is more general than man, but
rather distinct methods of relating or synthesizing presentations.
Kant, though he accepted almost unquestioned the logic and
psychology current in his day, has yet been the occasion, in
spite of himself, "of materially advancing both, and chiefly by
the distinction he was led to make between formal and trans-
cendental logic. In his exposition of the latter he brings to
light the difference between the " functions of the understand-
ing " in synthesizing or, as we might say, organizing percepts
into concepts and the merely analytic subsumption of abc and
abd under ab a, b, c and d being what they may. Unlike
other concepts, categories as such do not in the first instance
signify objects of thought, however general, but these functions
of the understanding in constituting objects. In fine, they all
imply some special process, and the general characteristic of the
resulting products is what we have first of all to note.
Objects of Higher Order: their Analysis and Genesis.
39. By transposing a tune from one key to another we may
obtain two entirely diverse aggregates of notes, and yet the
melody may remain unchanged. On the other hand, by varying
the order of the notes two distinct tunes may result from the
same collection of tones. Sense furnishes merely the parts:
whence, then, this identity of the whole in spite of their diversity,
this diversity of the whole in spite of their identity? From
the sameness or difference of the several " intervals," it is replied.
But the answer is insufficient; for the tune is a unity, not a mere
series, and, further, with every interval the same problem recurs.
1 Cf. Hamilton: "To judge (tplvtiv, judicare) is to recognize
the relation of congruence or of connection in which two concepts,
two individual things, or a concept and an individual, compared
together, stand to each other " (Lectures on Logic, i. 225).
As to these it must suffice to refer to what has been already
said;cf. u and 28.
For the interval, too, is a whole, though a simpler one: it does
not necessarily change with a change of its constituents, nor
remain the same as long as their distance is unaltered. Feelings
and " associations," again, cannot account for the result, inasmuch
as such accompaniments are not invariably present: moreover,
they obviously presuppose the melody instead of producing it.
Of such complex wholes or combinations as distinct from mere
aggregates or collections there are many forms; as, for example,
geometrical figures and patterns, motions and other changes,
numbers, logical connexions, &c. In view of this variety it seems
to strike the unprejudiced as wild to expect that " the progress
of psychophysics " may disclose an explanation of such combina-
tions conforming to the old scholastic maxim, Nihil est in inlel-
lectu quod nonfuerit prius in sensu. Yet hopes of such a generatio
aequivoca are entertained 1 ' Meanwhile the "old psychology,"
at any rate, is content to regard such complex wholes as
new presentations, the products, that is to say, not of a quasi-
mechanical interaction of their constituents, but of intellectual
synthesis.
What is here said of the combinations whereby the items of
an aggregate are construed as parts of a whole holds equally
of the comparisons whereby such items are related, as like or
unlike, compatible or incompatible. Before either combination
or comparison is possible, such items or particulars must be
"given." But it is conceivable that they should be given and
no intellectual synthesis ensue; such a consciousness has been
happily named anoelic.* Wither or no it actually exists is
another matter: it is a conceivable limit, and has the theoretical
usefulness of limiting conceptions generally. But relative anoesis
suffices here. Suppose, then, we have: (a) item, a sound; item,
ditto; item, ditto; or (b) item, blue; item, green. The sensationalist,
from Hume onwards, has complained that he does not find in
the one case a further item: total three; nor in the other a further
item: unlikeness. After vainly seeking the living whole among
the dead particulars, he next surmises that they generate it by
their conjoint action! But whence this notion of "action";
and how, if such disjecta membra suffice, do they so often fail
of their effect, so that we cannot " see the wood for the trees "?
Combinations and comparisons then, we conclude, are not
given, but "grounded " on what is given, and is thus their
fundamentum. Hence Meinong, who has studied the psychology
of intellection with especial care, has called the new presentations,
due to this process of " grounding " (Fundiren), " objects of a
higher order," or ideal objects. 6 They have validity in respect
of the particulars on which they are grounded, but not reality
as data existing for perception alongside of such particulars.
The reader will here be reminded of Hume's distinction between
knowledge and probability. His four philosophical relations,
" which, depending solely upon ideas, can be the objects of know-
ledge and certainty resemblance, continuity, degrees in quality
and proportions in quantity or number " are objects of higher order
and ideal. " The other three, which depend not upon the idea,
and may be absent or present even while that remains the same "
namely, identity, the situations in time and place, and causation
are thus obviously not the result of grounding or noesis merely,
are not ideal but empirical, and have, that is to say, existential
import. In fact, the second of these, the situations, though they
imply synthesis in the wider sense in which all complex perception
does, do not involve intellectual synthesis at all : are neither ideal
combinations nor ideal relations. And since such temporal and
spatial situations enter into both the other two numerical identity
and causation the mixed, a posteriori character of these is obvious.
Whatever be the defects of Hume's psychology, his classification
of relations is so far sound, and its epistemological importance can
hardly be overrated. It is accordingly to be regretted that the
one vague term " relation " does not allow us to make these
distinctions more precise. The German language, with the two
terms Verhaltniss and Beziehung, can do more.
' Cf. e.g. F. Schumann, " Zur Psychologic der Zeitanschauung,"
Ztschr.f. Psychologie, xyii. 130, 136.
4 G. F. Stout, Analytic Psychology, i. 50 seq.
' A. Meinong, " Ueber Gegenstande hoherer Ordnung u.s.w.,"
Zlschr. f. Psychologie (1899), xxi. 182 sqq. Special mention must
be made of an earlier paper by C. v. Ehrenfels (" Ueber Gestaltquali-
taten," Vierteljahr sschr. f. vrissensch. Philosophic, 1890, pp. 249 sqq.),
round which the whole subsequent discussion of this topic centres.
Cf., too, Stout, op. cit. bk. i. en. iii.
594
PSYCHOLOGY
[CATEGORIES
It will be convenient at this point to digress somewhat for a
moment to consider a question of some psychological interest.
When we say that two " contents " are similar, and when too they
admit of analysis, we can, if need be, enumerate certain elements
as the ground of their partial likeness, and certain others as the
ground of their partial diversity. We may further say that, ab-
stracting from these last, we can regard the points of resemblance
as constituting a general class to which the two contents belong
as specific instances. But how is either comparison or abstraction
possible when the two resembling contents appear as simple, and
so far unanalysable? Instances, of course, are familiar to every one :
thus we call red and orange colours, and say they resemble each
other more than do red and blue. In presence of this question
logicians and psychologists are apt to be at loggerheads. The
logician maintains that abstraction and resemblance (as distinct
from qualitative identity) imply complexity; and surely here he
cannot be gainsaid. Yet there are the facts: reds and blues of
sorts and a whole scale of degrees of likeness and unlikeness; but
no constituent parts, no assignable marks of identity or diversity,
are forthcoming, such as we find when we class sugar and salt
together as solid or soluble, and pronounce them like in colour
and unlike in taste. Here the logician's symbols a+b+c,
a+b+d, have their counterparts: there for the percipient's
consciousness at all events they have not. We cannot " consider
and attend to either the sameness or the differences in " red and
blue, as we can to the like or the unlike properties in salt and sugar.
None the less it would be hasty to conclude that colours or any given
sensations are simple. We are often struck by the likeness of
complex wholes two faces, say long before we can discern the
exact points of resemblance. Still, so long as there is no perceptible
complexity in the individual presentations there can be no analysis
of them, and, therefore, neither abstraction nor comparison based
upon it. Can we find elsewhere the complexity that generalization
and comparison invariably imply? "Though colour may be regarded
as a general term applicable alike to red, green and blue, just as
animal is a general term applicable alike to bird, beast and fish,
it is a mistake to infer that the processes are the same because of
this similarity in their products. We seem bound to distinguish
between consciously logical or " noetic " processes and processes
that are unconsciously logical or " hyponoetic," as we may perhaps
call them. In the former the subjective aspect is left aside; in
the latter it cannot be. The only common mark we can psychologi-
cally assign to colours is that they are all seen, and to tones as the
element of notes and noises that they are all heard. So often as
we talk of tasting tastes, smelling smells, feeling touches, language
leads us to bear witness to this fact. When the sunset red changes
to the twilight grey, I still see; but when the thunder follows the
lightning there is a double change, though not an absolute one : from
seeing I pass to hearing, but I am sentient still. And if progressive
differentiation be the order of experience then the " universal "
sentience precedes the differentiations seeing, hearing, &c., and,
again, the " universal " colour the differentiations, red, green, blue,
&c. Such " first universals," then, are not reached by abstrac-
tion, but are given in the fundamental continuity of experience,
and their subsequent differentiation admits neither of definition
nor the classification applicable to discrete complexes, which are
the material of logical comparison only. When red is pronounced
liker or nearer to yellow than it is to green, this is because a smaller
change is experienced in the transition from red to yellow than in
that from red to green, and because in the latter yellow is reached
and passed before green appears. 1 Proximity and resemblance
are, then, so far one and the same; also both are equally relative,
admit of the same indefinite gradation, and have the same limit in
zero, regarded either as coincidence or identity. The conception
of " distance between " answers, then, to what we have called a
hyponoetic relation, and this is plainly distinct from the analysis
of discrete complexes, with which, as said, noetic comparison is
alone concerned : the one implies and the other excludes the notion of
continuity and change a fact which helps still further to distinguish
the two.
Categories.
40. We come now to deal with the categories in more detail.
To begin with what are par excellence formal categories,
Formal and among these with that which is the most funda-
Categorlea: mental and formal of all How do we come by the
Unity. conception of unity? " Amongst all the ideas we
have," says Locke, " as there is none suggested to the mind by
more ways, so there is none more simple than that of unity,
or one. It has no shadow of variety or composition in it ; every
object our senses are employed about, every idea in our under-
standings, every thought of our minds, brings this idea along
with it." 2 But to assign a sensible origin to unity is certainly
1 Assuming, of course, that the change is the simplest or directest
possible, i.e. a change of " colour proper " without change of
saturation.
1 Essay concerning Human Understanding, II. xvi. I.
a mistake one of a class of mistakes already more than once
referred to, which consist in transferring to the data of sense
all that is implied in the language necessarily used in speaking
of them. The term " a sensation " no doubt carries along
with it the idea of unity, but the bare sensation as received
brings along with it nothing but itself. And, if we consider
sensory consciousness merely, we do not receive a sensation,
and then another sensation, and so on seriatim; but we have
always a continuous diversity of sensations even when these are
qualitatively sharply differentiated. Moreover, if unity were
an impression of sense and passively received, it would, in
common with other impressions, be unamenable to change.
We cannot. see red as blue, but we can resolve many (parts)
into one (whole), and vice versa. 3 Unity, then, is the result
of an act the occasions for which, no doubt, are at first non-
voluntarily determined; but the act is still as distinct from them
as is attention from the objects attended to. It is to that
movement of attention already described in dealing with ideation
( 24) that we must look as the source of this category. This same
movement, in like manner, yields us temporal signs; and the
complex unity formed by a combination of these is what we
call number. When there is little or no difference between the
field and the focus of attention, unifying is an impossibility,
whatever the impressions received may be. On the other hand,
as voluntary acts of concentration become more frequent and
distinct the variegated continuum of sense is shaped into intui-
tions of definite things and events. Also, as soon as words
facilitate the control of ideas, it becomes possible to single out
special aspects and relations of things as the subjects or starting-
points of our discursive thinking. Thus the forms of unity are
manifold: every act of intuition or thought, whatever else it is,
is an act of unifying.
It is obvious that the whole field of consciousness at any
moment can never be actually embraced as one. What is
unified becomes thereby the focus of consciousness and so leaves
an outlying field; so far unity may be held to imply plurality.
But it cannot with propriety be said that in a simple act of atten-
tion the field of consciousness is analysed into two distinct parts,
i.e. two unities this (now attended to) and the other or the rest
(abstracted from). For the not-this is but the rest of a con-
tinuum and not itself a whole; it is left out but not determined,
as the bounding space is left out when a figure is drawn. To
know two unities we must connect both together; and herein
comes to light the difference between the unity .which is the form
of the concept or subject of discourse and the unity of a judgment.
The latter is of necessity complex; the former may or may not
be. But in any case the complexity of the two is different.
If the subject of thought is not only clear but distinct i.e.
not merely denned as a whole but having its constituents like-
wise more or less defined such distinctness is due to previous
judgments. At any future time these may of course be repeated;
such are the analytical or explicative judgments of logic. As the
mere subject of discourse it is, however, a single unity simul-
taneously apprehended; the relation ascertained between it and
its predicate constitutes the unity of judgment, a unity which is
comprehended only when its parts are successively apprehended.
But, though a judgment is always a complex unity, the extent
of this complexity seems at first sight to vary as the form of
synthesis varies. Formal logic, as we have seen, Law at
by throwing the form of synthesis into the predicate Dichotomy
has no difficulty in reducing every judgment to an or DuaUt y-
S is P. But, if we at all regard the matter thought,
it is certain, for example, that " It is an explosion " is less
:omplex than " The enemy explodes the mine." The first
answers one question; the second answers three. But as regards
the more complex judgment both the process of ascertaining
;he fact and the language in which it is expressed show that
:he three elements concerned in it are not synthesized at once.
* " We may regard one of the words here printed as one, in that
ay a definite act we unite a plurality of letters in our image and
separate it from its neighbours : we may also regard the one word as
many when we attend to the transition from one letter to another
and mark each step " (Sigwart, Logic, ii. 66).
CATEGORIES]
PSYCHOLOGY
595
Suppose we start from the explosion and changes or move-
ments are not only apt to attract attention first, but, when recog-
nized as events and not as abstracts personified, they call for
some supplementing beyond themselves then in this case we
may search for the agent at work or for the object affected, but
not for both at once. Moreover, if we find either, a complete
judgment at once ensues: " The enemy explodes," or " The
mine is exploded." The original judgment is really due to a
synthesis of these two. But, when the results of former judgments
are in this manner taken up into a new judgment, a certain
" condensation of thought " ensues. Of this condensation the
grammatical structure of language is evidence, though logical
manipulation with great pains obliterates it. Thus our more
complex judgment would take the form " The enemy is now
mine-exploding " or " The mine is enemy-exploded," according
as one or other of the simpler judgments was made first. An
examination of other cases would in like manner tend to show
that intellectual synthesis is always in itself and apart from
implications a binary synthesis. Wundt, to whom belongs
the merit of first explicitly stating this " law of dichotomy or
duality " * as the cardinal principle of discursive thinking,
contrasts it with synthesis by mere association. This, as running
on continuously, he represents thus A B C D . . . ; the
synthesis of thought, on the other hand, he symbolizes by forms
such as the following:
AB; AB CD; A
Thus, Socrates is a philosopher; the philosopher Socrates dis-
covered a method; the philosopher Socrates discovered the
dialectical method; &c. The point is that the one thing attended
to in an intellective act is the synthesis of two ideas, and of
two ideas only, because, as only one movement of attention
is possible at a time, only two ideas at a time can be synthesized.
In that merely associative synthesis by which the memory-
continuum is produced attention moves from A to B and thence
to C without any relation between A and B being attended to
at all, although they must have relations, that of sequence e.g.
at least.
" Difference," says Hume, " I consider rather as a negation
of relation than anything real or positive. Difference is of two
niftenncf kinds, as opposed either to identity or resemblance.
""I The first is called a difference of number, the other
of kind." The truth seems rather to be that differ-
ence in Hume's sense of numerical difference 2 is so far an element
in all relations as all imply distinct correlatives. To this extent
even identity or at least the recognition of it rests on differ-
ence, that form of difference, viz. which is essential to plurality.
But absolute difference (i.e. diversity) of kind may be considered
tantamount not, indeed, to the negation, but at least to the
absence of all formal relation. That this absolute difference
or disparateness, as we may call it affords no ground for rela-
tions becomes evident when we consider (i) that, if we had only
a plurality of absolutely different presentations, we should have
no consciousness at all (cf. n); and (2) that we never
compare although we distinguish presentations which seem
absolutely or totally disparate, as e.g. a thunderclap and the
taste of sugar, or the notion of free trade and that of the Greek
accusative. All actual comparison of what is qualitatively
different rests upon at least partial likeness. This being under-
stood, it is noteworthy that the recognition of unlikeness is,
if anything, more " real or positive " than that of likeness, and
is certainly the simpler of the two. In the comparison of
sensible impressions as of two colours, two sounds, the lengths or
the directions of two lines, &c. we find it easier in some cases to
have the two impressions that are compared presented together,
in others to have first one presented and then the other. But,
either way, the essential matter is to secure the most effective
presentation of their difference, which in every case is something
1 Wundt, Logik; tine Untersuchung dtr Principien der Erkenntniss
(2nd ed., 1893), i. 59 sqq.
1 Hume's numerical difference, that is to say, is really distinctness,
not quantitative difference.
positive and, like any other impression, may vary in amount
from bare perceptibility to the extremest distance that the
continuum to which it belongs will admit. Where no difference
or distance at all is perceptible there we say there is likeness
or equality. Is the only outcome, then, that when we pass
from ab to ac there is a change in consciousness, and that when
ab persists there is none? To say this is to take no account of
the operations (we may symbolize them as ac*ab:c, ab*ab:o)
by which the difference or the equality results. The change of
presentation (c) and absence of change (o) are not here what they
are as merely passive occurrences, so to put it. This is evident
from the fact that in the former there is positive presentation
and in the latter no presentation at all. The relation of unlikeness,
then, is distinguished from the mere " position " or fact of change
by (i) the voluntary concentration of attention upon ab and
ac with a view to the detection of this change as their difference,
and by (2) the act, relating them through it, in that they are
judged unlike to that extent. The type of comparison is such
superposition of geometrical lines or figures (as, e.g. in Euclid I.
iv.) : if they coincide we have concrete equality; if they do not
their difference is a line or figure. All sensible comparisons
conform essentially to this type. In comparing two shades we
place them side by side, and passing from one to the other seek
to determine not the absolute shade of the second but its shade
relative to the first in other words, we look out for contrast.
We do not say of one " It is dark," for in the scale of shades it
may be light, but " It is darker "; or vice versa. Where there is
no distance or contrast we simply have not two impressions, and,
as said if we consider the difference by itself no impression at
all. Two coincident triangles must be perceived as one. The
distinction between the one triangle thus formed by two coinciding
and the single triangle rests upon something extraneous to this
bare presentation of a triangle that is one and the same in both
cases. The marks of this numerical distinctness may be various:
they may be different temporal signs, as in reduplications
of the memory-continuum; or they may be constituents peculiar
to each, from which attention is for the moment abstracted,
any one of which suffices to give the common or identical con-
stituent a new setting. In general, it may be said (i) that the
numerical distinctness of the related terms is secured in the
absence of all qualitative difference solely by the intellectual
act which has so unified each as to retain what may serve
as an individual mark; and (2) that they become related as
like " either in virtue of the active adjustment to a change
of impression which their partial assimilation defeats, or in
virtue of an anticipated continuance of the impression which
this assimilation confirms.
It is in keeping with this analysis that we say in common
speech that two things in any respect simijar are so far the same.
This ambiguity in the word " same," whereby it
means either individual identity or indistinguishable Ideattt y-
resemblance has been often noticed, and from a logical or
objective point of view justly complained of as " engendering
fallacies in otherwise enlightened understandings." But appar-
ently no one has inquired into its psychological basis, although
more than one writer has admitted that the ambiguity is one
" in itself not always to be avoided."* It is not enough to
trace the confusion to the existence of common names and to
cite the forgotten controversies of scholastic realism. We are
not now concerned with the conformity of thought to things
or with logical analysis, but with the analysis of a psycho-
logical process. The tendency to treat presentations as if they
were copies of things the objective bias, as we may call it
is the one grand obstacle to psychological observation. Some
only realize with an effort that the idea of extension is not
extended; no wonder, then, if it should seem "unnatural"
to maintain that the idea of two like things does not consist
of two like ideas. But, assuming that both meanings of identity
have a psychological justification, it will be well to distinguish
*Cf. J. S. Mill, Logic, bk. i. ch. iii. n, and Examination of
Hamilton, trd ed., ch. xiv. p. 306, note; also Meinong, " Hutne-
Studien " II., Wiener Sitzungsberichte (Phil. Hist. Cl.), ci. 709.
PSYCHOLOGY
[CATEGORIES
them and to examine their connexion. Perhaps we might
term the one " material identity " and the other " individual
identity " following the analogy of expressions such as
" different things but all made of the same stuff," " the same
person but entirely changed." Thus there is unity and plurality
concerned in both, and herein identity or sameness differs
from singularity or mere oneness, which so far entails no rela-
tion. But the unity and the plurality are different in each,
and each is in some sort the converse of the other. In the
one, two different individuals partially coincide; in the other,
one individual is partially different; the unity in the one case
is an individual presentation, in the other is the presentation
of an individual.
In material identity the unity is that of a single presentation,
whether simple or complex, which enters as a common con-
. , stituent into two or more others. It may be possible,
Material , . ,. . , ,.
identity. <" course, to individualize it, but as it emerges in
a comparison it is a single presentation and nothing
more. On account of this absence of individual marks this
single presentation is what logicians call " abstract "; but this
is not psychologically essential. It may be a generic image
which has resulted from the neutralization of individual marks,
but it may equally well be a simple presentation, like red, to
which such marks never belonged. We come here from a new
side upon a truth which has been already expounded at length,
viz. that presentations are not given to us as individuals but as
changes in a continuum. Time and space the instruments,
as it were, of individualization, which are presupposed in the
objective sciences are psychologically later than this mere
differentiation.
The many vexed questions that arise concerning individual
identity are metaphysical rather than psychological. But it
will serve to bring out the difference between the
"deatity" two f rms f identity to note that an identification
cannot be established solely by qualitative compari-
son; an alibi or a breach of temporal continuity will turn the
flank of the strongest argument from resemblance. Moreover,
resemblance itself may be fatal to identification when the law
of being is change.
41. As regards the real categories, it may be said generally
that these owe their origin in large measure to the anthropo-
morphic or mythical tendency of human thought
Categories. T ^ o/wioj' re? 6fjLoi(f yivtooKtaOcu. Into the forma-
tion of these conceptions two very distinct factors
enter (i) the facts of what in the stricter sense we call " self-
consciousness," and (2) certain spatial and temporal relations
among our presentations themselves. On the one hand, it has
to be noted that these spatial and temporal relations are but the
occasion or motive and ultimately perhaps, we may say, the
warrant for the analogical attribution to things of selfness,
efficiency and design, but are not directly the source of the
forms of thought that thus arise. On the other hand, it is to
be noted also that such forms, although they have an independent
source, would never apart from suitable material come into
actual existence. If the followers of Hume err in their exclusive
reliance upon " associations naturally and even necessarily
generated by the order of our sensations " (J. S. Mill), the disciple
of Kant errs also who relies exclusively on " the synthetic unity
of apperception." The truth is that we are on the verge of error
in thus sharply distinguishing the two at all; if we do so moment-
arily for the purpose of exposition it behoves us here again to
remember that mind grows and is not made. The use of terms
like " innate," " a priori," " necessary," " formal," &c., without
further qualification leads only too easily to the mistaken notion
that all the mental facts so named are alike underived and original,
independent not only of experience but of each other; whereas
but for the forms of intuition the forms of thought would be
impossible that is to say, we should never have a self -conscious-
ness at all if we had not previously learnt to distinguish occupied
and unoccupied space, past and present in time, and the like.
But, again, it is equally true that, if we could not feel and move
as well as receive impressions, and if experience did not repeat
itself, we should never attain even to this level of spatial and
temporal intuition. Kant shows a very lame and halting
recognition of this dependence of the higher forms on the lower
both in his schematism of the categories, and again in correcting
in his Analytic the opposition of sense and understanding as
respectively receptive and active with which he set out in his
Aesthetic. Still, although what are called the subjective and
objective factors of real knowledge advance together, the former
is in a sense always a step ahead. We find again without us
the permanence, individuality, efficiency, and adaptation we
have found first of all within (cf. 20, b and d). But such
primitive imputation of personality, though it facilitates a first
understanding, soon proves itself faulty and begets the contra-
dictions which have been one chief motive to philosophy. We
smile at the savage who thinks a magnet must need food or the
child who is puzzled that the horses in a picture remain for ever
still; but few consider that underlying all common-sense thinking
there lurks the same natural precipitancy. We attribute to
extended things a unity which we know only as the unity of an
unextended subject; we attribute to changes among these
extended things what we know only when we act and suffer
ourselves; and we attribute further to thenj in their changes
a striving for ends which we know only because we feel. In asking
what they are, how they act, and why they are thus and thus,
we assimilate them to ourselves, in spite of the differences which
lead us by-and-by to see a gulf between mind and matter. Such
instinctive analogies have, like other analogies, to be confirmed,
refuted, or modified by further knowledge, i.e. by the very
insight into things which these analogies have themselves made
possible. That in their first form they were mythical, and that
they could never have been at all unless originated in this way,
are considerations that make no difference to their validity
assuming, that is, that they admit, now or hereafter, of a logical
transformation which renders them objectively valid. This
legitimation is, of course, the business of philosophy; we are
concerned only with the psychological analysis and origin of
the conceptions themselves.
42. As it must here suffice to examine one of these categories,
let us take that which is the most iraportant and central of the
three, viz. causality or the relation of cause and effect, . ft
as that will necessarily throw some light upon the con-
stitution of the others. To begin, we must distinguish three things,
which, though very different, are very liable to be confused, (i)
Perceiving in a definite case, e.g. that on the sun shining a stone
becomes warm, we may say the sun makes the stone warm. This
is a concrete instance of predicating the causal relation. In this
there is, explicitly at all events, no statement of a general law or
axiom, such as we have when we say (2) " Every event must have
a cause " a statement commonly known as the principle of causality.
This again is distinct from what is on all hands allowed to be an
empirical generalization, viz. (3) that such and such particular
causes have invariably such and such particular effects. With
these last psychology is not directly concerned at all: it has only
to analyse and trace to its origin the bare conception of causation
as expressed in (i) and involved in both these generalizations.
Whether only some events have causes, as the notion of chance
implies, whether all causes are uniform in their action or some
capricious and arbitrary, as the unreflecting suppose all this is
beside the question for us.
One point in the analysis of the causal relation Hume may be
said to have settled once for all: it does not rest upon or contain
tig j
of the cause before the e'ffect, are the only relations directly dis-
cernible. We say indeed " The sun warms the stone " as readily as
we say " The sun rises and sets," as if both were matters of direct
observation then and there. But that this is not so is evident from
the fact that only in some cases when one change follows upon
another do we regard it as following from the other: casual coin-
cidence is at least as common as causal connexion. Whence the
difference, then, if not from perception? _Hume's answer, 1 repeated
in the main by English psychologists since, is, as all the world
knows, that the difference is the result of association, that when a
change o in an object A has been frequently observed to precede a
change in another object B, this repetition determines
the mind to a transition from the one to the other. It is this
1 Treatise of Human Nature, pt. iii. xiv., " of the idea of necessary
connexion."
BELIEF]
PSYCHOLOGY
597
determination, which could not be present at first, that constitutes
" the third relation betwixt these objects." This " internal im-
ion " generated by association is then projected; " for 'tis a
common observation that the mind has a great propensity to spread
itself on external objects."
The subjective origin and the after-projection we must admit,
but all else in Hume's famous doctrine seems glaringly at variance
with facts. In one respect it proves too much, for not all constant
sequences are regarded as causal, as according to his analysis they
ought to be; again, in another respect it proves too little, for causal
connexion is continually predicated on a first occurrence. The
natural man has always distinguished between causes and signs
or portents; but there is nothing to show that he produced an
effect many times before regarding himself as the cause of it. J. S.
Mill has indeed obviated the first objection epistemologically by
adding to constant conjunction the further characteristic of " uncon-
ditionally." But this is a conception that cannot be psychologi-
cally explained from Hume's premisses, unless perhaps by resolving
it into the qualification that the invariability must be complete and
not partial, whereupon the second objection applies. " Uncondi-
tional " is a word for which we can find no meaning as long as we
confine our attention to temporal succession. It will not do to say
both that an invariable succession generates the idea, and that such
invariable succession must be not only invariable but also uncondi-
tional in order to generate it. We may here turn the master against
the disciple: "the same principle," says Hume, "cannot be both
the cause and the effect of another, and this is perhaps the only
proposition concerning that relation which is either intuitively
or demonstratively certain " (op. cit. p. 391). Unconditionality
is then part of the causal relation and yet not the product of
invariable repetition.
Perhaps the source of this element in the relation will become
clear if we examine more closely the so-called " internal impression "
of the mind, which according to Hume constitutes the whole of our
idea of power or efficacy. To illustrate the nature of this impression
Hume cites the instant passage of the imagination to a particular
idea on hearing the word commonly annexed to it, when " 'twill
scarce be possible for the mind by its utmost efforts to prevent
that transition " (op. cit. p. 393). It is this determination, then,
which is felt internally, not perceived externally, that we mis-
takenly transfer to objects and regard as an intelligible connexion
between them. But, if Hume admits this, must he not admit more?
Can it be pretended that it is through the workings of association
among our ideas that we first feel a determination which our utmost
efforts can scarce resist, or that we feel such determination under
no other circumstances? If it be allowed that the natural man is
irresistibly determined to imagine an apple when he hears its name
or to expect thunder when he sees lightning, must it not also be
allowed that he is irresistibly determined much earlier and in a
much more impressive way when overmastered by the elements or
by his enemies? But, further, such instances bnng to light what
Hume's " determination " also implies, viz. its necessary correla-
tive, effort or action. Even irresistible association can only be
known as such by efforts to resist it. Hume allows this when he
says that his principles of association "are not infallible causes;
for one may fix his attention during some time on any one object
without looking farther " (op. cit. p. 393). But the fact is, we know
both what it is to act and what it is to suffer, to go where we would
and to be carried where we would not, quite apart from the work-
jngs of association. And, had Hume not confused the two different
inquiries, that concerning the origin of the idea of causation and
that concerning the ground of causal inference or law of causation,
it could never have occurred to him to offer such an analysis of the
former as he does. ; ,
Keeping to the former and simpler question, it would seem that
when in ordinary thinking we say A causes this or that in B we
project or analogically attribute to A what we experience in acting,
and to B what we experience in being acted on ; and the structure of
language shows that such projection was made long before it was
suspected that what A once did and B once suffered will be done
ana suffered in the same circumstances again. The occasions suitable
for this projection are determined by the temporal and spatial
relations of the objects concerned, which relations are matter of
intuition. These are of no very special interest from a psychological
point of view, but the subjective elements we shall do well to consider
further. First of all, we must note the distinction of immanent
action and transuent action; the former is what we call action
simply, and implies only a single thing, the agent ; the latter, which
we might with advantage call effectuation, implies two things, a
patient as well as an agent. In scientific language the agent in an
intransitive act is called a causa, immanens and so distinguished
from the agent in effectuation or causa transiens. Common thought,
however, does not regard mere action as caused at all ; and we shall
find it, in fact, impossible to resolve action into effectuation. But,
since the things with which we ordinarily deal are complex, have
many parts, _ properties, members, phases, and in consequence
of the analytic procedure of thought, there ensues, indeed, a con-
tinual shifting of the point of view from which we regard any given
thing, so that what is in one aspect one thing is in another many
(cf. { 20). So it comes about that, when regarding himself as one, the
natural man speaks of himself as walking, shouting, &c. ; but, when
distinguishing between himself and his members, he speaks of raising
his voice, moving his legs, and so forth. Thus no sooner do we
resolve any given action into an effectuation, by analytically dis-
tinguishing within the original agent an agent and a patient, than
a new action appears. Action is thus a simpler notion than causa-
tion and inexplicable by means of it. It is certainly no easy problem
in philosophy to determine where the resolution pi the complex
is to cease, at what point we must stop, because in the presence
of an individual thing and a simple activity. At any rate, we
reach such a point psychologically in the conscious subject, and
that energy in consciousness we call attention. If this be allowed,
Hume's critique of the notion of efficacy is really wide of the mark.
" Some," l he says, " have asserted that we feel an energy or power
in our own mind; and that, having in this manner acquir d the
idea of power, we transfer that quality to matter, where we are not
able immediately to discover it. ... But to convince us how
fallacious this reasoning is, we need only consider that the will,
being here consider'd as a cause, has no more a discoverable con-
nexion with its effects than any material cause has with its proper
effect. . . .The effect is there [too] distinguishable and separable
from the cause, and could not be foreseen without the experience of
their constant conjunction " (op. cit. p. 455). This is logical analysis,
not psychological; the point is that the will is not considered as a
cause and distinguished from its effects, nor in fact considered at
all. It is not a case of sequence between two separable impressions;
for we cannot really make the indefinite regress that such logical
distinctions as that between the conscious subject and its acts implies.
Moreover, our activity as such is not directly presented at all:
we are, being active; and further than this psychological analysis
will not go.* There are, as we have seen, two ways in which this
activity is manifested, the receptive or passive and the motor or
active in the stricter sense (cf. 8) and our experience of these
we project in predicating the causal relation. But two halves
do not make a whole; so we have no complete experience of effectua-
tion, for the simple reason that we cannot be two things at once.
We are guided in piecing it together by the temporal and spatial
relations of the things concerned. Hence, perhaps, some of the
antinomies that beset this concept. In its earliest form, then,
the so-called necessary connexion of cause and effect is perhaps
nothing more than that of physical constraint. To this, no doubt,
is added the strength of expectation as Hume supposed when
the same effect has been found invariably to follow the same cause.
Finally, when upon the basis of such associated uniformities of
sequence a definite intellectual elaboration of such material ensues,
the logical necessity of reason and 'consequent finds a place, and so
far as deduction is applicable cause and reason become interchange-
able ideas.
Belief.
43. The mention of logical necessity brings us to a new topic,
viz. the " objectivity " of thought and cognition generally.
The psychological treatment of this topic is tantamount to an
inquiry into the characteristics of the states of mind we call
certainty, doubt, belief all of which centre round the one fact
of evidence. Between the certainty that a proposition is true
and the certainty that it is not there may intervene many grades
of uncertainty. We may know that A is sometimes B, or
sometimes not; or that some at least of the conditions of B are
present or absent; or the presentation of A may be too confused
for distinct analysis. This is the region of probability, possibility,
more or less obscurity. Leaving this aside, it will be enough to
notice those cases in which certainty may be complete. With
that certainty which is absolutely objective, i.e. with knowledge,
psychology has no direct concern; it is for logic to furnish the
criteria by which knowledge is ascertained.
Emotion and desire are frequent indirect cattses of subjective
certainty, in so far as they determine the constituents and the
1 Hume here has Locke and Berkeley specially in view. Locke as a
patient and acute inquirer was incomparably better as a psychologist
than a man addicted to literary foppery like Hume, for all his
genius, could possibly be. On the particular question, see Locke,
Essay, bk. ii. c. 21, 3-5.
1 In an article (Mind, 1886, p. 317) Mr F. H. Bradley created
some stir by declaring that " the present use of these phrases [active
energy] is little better than a scandal and a main obstacle in the
path of English psychology." In Mind for 1902 and 1903 he has
made important contributions towards clearing up the supposed
confusion, and the subject is still being debated. But the main
contention of the text, that activity is for psychology at all events
ultimate and unanalysable, seems still to await refutation. A brief
notice of some of the diverse views obtaining will be found in an
address, " The Problems of General Psychology," by J. Ward
Philosophical Review (1904), pp. 608 sqq.
PSYCHOLOGY
[PRESENTATION OF SELF
grouping of the field of consciousness at the moment " pack the
jury " or " suborn the witnesses," as it were. But the ground
of certainty is in all cases some quality or some relation of these
presentations inter se. In a sense, therefore, the ground of all
certainty is objective in the sense, that is, of being something
at least directly and immediately determined for the subject
and not by it. Where certainty is mediate, one judgment is
often spoken of as the ground of another; but a syllogism is
still psychologically a single, though not a simple, judgment,
and the certainty of it as a whole is immediate. Between the
judgment A is B and the question Is A B? the difference is not
one of content nor scarcely one of form: it is a difference which
depends upon the effect of the proposition on the subject judging,
(i.) We have this effect before us most clearly if we consider what
is by common consent regarded as the type of certainty and
evidence, the certainty of present sense-impressions whence it is
said, " Seeing is believing." The evident is here the actual,
and the " feeling or consciousness " of certainty is in this case
nothing but the sense of being taken fast hold of and forced to
apprehend what is there, (ii.) The like is true of memory and
expectation: in these also there is a sense of -being tied down
to what is given, whereas in mere imagination, however lively,
this non-voluntary determination is absent (cf. 26). Hume
saw this at times clearly enough, as, e.g. when he says, " An
idea assented to feels different from a fictitious idea that the
fancy alone presents to us." But unfortunately he not only
made this difference a mere difference of intensity, but spoke
of belief itself as " an operation of the mind " or " manner of
conception that bestowed on our ideas this additional force or
vivacity." 1 In short, Hume confounded one of the indirect
causes of belief with the ground of it, and again, in describing
this ground committed the vartpov Trporepov of making the mind
determine the ideas instead of the ideas determine the mind,
(iii.) In speaking of intellection he is clearer: " The answer is
easy with regard to propositions that are prov'd by intuition or
demonstration. In that case the person who assents not only
conceives the ideas according to the proposition, but is neces-
sarily determin'd to conceive them in that particular manner "
(op. cit. p. 395). It has been often urged as by J. S. Mill, for
example that belief is something " ultimate and primordial."
No doubt it is; but so is the distinction between activity and
passivity, and it is not here maintained that certainty can be
analysed into something simpler, but only that it is identical
with what is of the nature of passivity objective determination.
As Bain put it, " The leading fact in belief ... is our primitive
credulity. We begin by believing everything; whatever is is
true" (Emotions and Will, $d ed., p. 511). But the point is
that in this primitive state there is no act answering to " believe "
distinct from the non-voluntary attention answering to " per-
ceive," and no reflection such as a modal term like " true "
implies. With eyes open in the broad day no man says, " I am
certain there is light " ; he simply sees. He may by-and-by come
absolutely to disbelieve much that he sees e.g. that things are
nearer when viewed through a telescope just as he will come to
disbelieve his dreams, though while they last he is certain in
these too. The consistency we find it possible to establish among
certain of our ideas becomes an ideal, to which we expect to
find all our experience conform. Still the intuitive evidence of
logical and mathematical axioms is psychologically but a- new
form of the actual; we are only certain that two and two make
four and we are not less certain that we see things nearer through
a telescope.
Presentation of Self, Self-Consciousness and Conduct.
44. The concept of self we have just seen underlying and
to a great extent shaping the rest of our intellectual furniture;
on this account it is at once desirable and difficult to analyse
it and ascertain the conditions of its development. In attempt-
ing this we must carefully distinguish between the bare presenta-
tion of self and that reference of other presentations to it which
is often called specially self-consciousness, " inner sense," or
1 Treatise of Human Nature, Green and Grose's ed., i. 396.
internal perception. Concerning all presentations whatever
that of self no less than the rest it is possible to reflect, " This
presentation is mine; it is my object; I am the subject attending
to it." The presentation of self, then, is one presentation among
others, the result, like them, of the differentiation of the original
continuum. But it is obvious that this presentation must be in
existence first before other presentations can be related to it.
On the other hand, it is only in and by means of such relations
that the concept of self is completed. We begin, therefore,
with self simply as an object, and end with the concept of that
object as the subject or " myself " that knows itself. The self
has, first of all (a) a unique interest and (b) a certain inwardness,
(c) it is an individual that (d) persists, (e) is active, and finally
(/) knows itself. These several characteristics of self are inti-
mately involved; so far as they appear at all they advance in
definiteness from the lowest level of mere sentience to those
moments of highest self-consciousness in which conscience
approves or condemns volition.
The earliest and to the last the most important element in self
what we might perhaps term its root or material element is that
variously styled the organic sensations vital sense,
coenaesthesis, or somatic consciousness. This largely
determines the tone of the special sensations and enters, tbcBody.
though little suspected, into all our higher feelings. If, as some-
times happens in serious nervous affections, the whole body or any
part of it should lose common sensibility, the whole body or that
part is at once regarded as strange and even as hostile. In some
forms of hypochondria, in which this extreme somatic insensibility
and absence of zest leave the intellect and memory unaffected, the
individual doubts his own existence or denies it altogether. Ribot
cites the case of such a patient, who, declaring that he had been
dead for two years, thus expressed his perplexity: " J'existe, mais
en dehors de la vie reelle, materielle, et, malgre moi, rien ne m'ayant
donne la mort. Tout est mecanique chez moi et se fait inconsciem-
ment." 2 It is not because they accompany physiological functions
essential to the efficiency of the organism as an organism, but
simply because they are the most immediate and most constant
sources of feeling, that these massive but ill-defined organic sensa-
tions are from the first the objects of the directest and most unre-
flecting interest. Other objects have at the outset but a mediate
interest through subjective selection in relation to these, and never
become so instictively and inseparably identified with self, never
have the same inwardness. This brings us to a new point. As
soon as definite perception begins, the body as an extended thing
is distinguished from other bodies, and such organic sensations as
can be localized at all are localized within it. At the same time the
actions of other bodies upon it are accompanied by pleasures and
pains, while their action upon each other is not. The body also
is the only thing directly set in motion by the reactions of these
feelings, the purpose of such movements being to bring near to it
the things for which there is appetite and to remove it from those
towards which there is aversion. It is thus not merely the type of
occupied space and the centre from which all positions are reckoned,
but it affords us an unfailing and ever-present intuition of the actu-
ally felt and living self, to which all other things are external, more
or less distant, and at times absent altogether. The body then first
of all gives to self a certain measure of individuality, permanence
and inwardness.
But with the development of ideation there arises within this
what we may call an inner zone of self, having still more
unity and permanence. We have at this stage not
only an intuition of the bodily self doing or suffering loner Self.
here and now, but also memories of what it has been and done
under varied circumstances in the past. External impressions
have by this time lost in novelty and become less absorbing, while
the train of ideas, largely increased in number, distinctness and
mobility, diverts attention and often shuts out the things of sense
altogether. In all such reminiscence or reverie a generic image
of self is the centre, and every new image as it arises derives all its
interest from relation to this; and so apart from bodily appetites
new desires may be quickened and old emotions stirred again when
all that is actually present is dull and unexciting. But desires
and emotions, it must be remembered, though awakened by what
is only imaginary, invariably entail actual organic perturbations,
and with these the generic image of self comes to be intimately
united. Hence arises a contrast between the inner self, which the
natural man locates in his breast or <t>pfiv, the chief seat of these
emotional disturbances, and the whole visible and tangible body be-
sides. Although from their nature they do not admit of much ideal
representation, yet, when actually present, these organic sensations
exert a powerful and often irresistible influence over other ideas;
they have each their appropriate train, and so heighten in the very
2 " Bases affectives de la personnalite " in Revue philosophique,
xviii. 149.
PRESENTATION OF SELF]
PSYCHOLOGY
599
complex and loosely compacted idea of self those traits they
originally wrought into it, suppressing to an equal extent all the
rest. Normally there is a certain equilibrium to which they return,
and which, we may suppose, determines the so-called temperament,
nature] or disposition, thus securing some tolerable uniformity
and continuity in the presentation of self. But even within the
limits of sanity great and sudden changes of mood are possible,
:. in hysterical persons or those of a " mercurial temperament,'
or among the lower animals at the onset of parental or migratory
instincts. Beyond those limits as the concomitant apparently of
serious visceral derangements or the altered nutrition of parts of
the nervous system itself complete "alienation" may ensue. A
new self may arise, not only distinct from the old and devoid of all
s.ivi- the nio.st elementary knowledge and skill that the old possessed,
but diametrically opposed to it in tastes and disposition obscenity,
it m.iy be, taking the place of modesty and cupidity or cowardice
succeeding to generosity or courage. The most convincing illus-
trations of the psychological growth and structure of the presenta-
tion of self on the lower levels of sensation and ideation are furnished
by these melancholy spectacles of minds diseased ; but it is impossible
to refer to them in detail here. 1
Passing to the higher level of intellection,_ we come at length
upon the concept which every intelligent being more or less dis-
tinctly forms of himself as a person, M. or N., having
"" such and such a character, tastes and convictions, such
""' and such a history, and such and such an aim in life.
Thr main instrument in the formation of this concept, as of others,
is language, and especially the social intercourse that language
makes possible. Up to this point the presentation of self has shaped
that of not-self, that is to say, external things have been com-
prehended by the projection of its characteristics. But now the
order is in a sense reversed: the individual advances to a fuller
self-knowledge by comparing the self within with what is first dis-
: ernible in other persons without. So far avant I'homme est la societe;
it fs through the us " that we learn of the " me " (cf. 36, note i).
Collective action for common ends is of the essence of society, and
in taking counsel together for the good of his tribe each one learns
also to take counsel with himself for his own good on the whole;
with the idea of the common weal arises the idea of happiness
U distinct from momentary gratification. The extra-regarding
impulses are now confronted by a reasonable self-love,, and in the
deliberations that thus ensue activity attains to its highest forms
those of thought and volition. In the first we have a distinctly
active manipulation of ideas as compared with the more passive
spectacle of memory and imagination. Thereby emerges a contrast
between the thinker and these objects of his thought, including
among them the mere generic image of self, from which is now formed
this concept of self as a person. A similar, even sharper, contrast
also accompanies the exercise of what is very misleadingly termed
" self-control," i.e. control by this personal self of " the various
natural affections" to use Butler's. phrase which often hinder it
as external objects hindered them. It is doubtful whether the
reasoning, regulating self is commonly regarded as definitely local-
ized. The effort of thinking and concentrating attention upon
ideas is no doubt referred to the brain, but this is only compar-
able with the localization of other efforts in the limbs; when we
think we commonly feel also, and the emotional basis is of all the
most subjective and inalienable. If we speak of this latest phase
of self as par excellence " the inner self," such language is then mainly
figurative, inasmuch as the contrasts just described are contrasts
into which spatial relations do not enter.
45. The term " reflection," or internal perception is applied to
that state of mind in which some particular presentation or group
of presentations (x or y) is not simply in the field of
consciousness but there as consciously related to self,
which is also presented at the same time. Self here
may be symbolized by M, to emphasize the fact that it is in like
manner an object in the field of consciousness. The relation
of the two is commonly expressed by saying, " This (x or y) is
my (M's) percept, idea or volition; I (M) it is that perceive,
think, will it." Self-consciousness, in the narrowest sense, as
when we say " I know myself, I am conscious that I am," &c.,
is but a special, though the most important, instance of this
internal perception: here self (M) is presented in relation to
self (with a difference, M') ; the subject itself at least, so we say
is or appears as its own object.
It has been often maintained that the difference between
consciousness and reflection is not a real difference, that to know
and to know that you know are " the same thing considered in
1 This subject has a very wide literature. The following are
specially interesting: Ribot, Les Maladies de la personnalite (3rd ed.,
1889); Boris Sidis and S. P. Goodhart, Multiple Personality (1905);
Morton Prince, The Dissociation of a Personality (1906).
different aspects." 8 But different aspects of the same thing are
not the same thing, for psychology at least. Not only is it not
the same thing to feel and to know that you feel; but it might
even be held to be a different thing still to know that you feel
and to know that you know that you feel such being the
difference perhaps between ordinary reflection and psychological
introspection. 3 The difficulty of apprehending these facts and
keeping them distinct seems obviously due to the necessary
presence of the earlier along with the later; that is to say, we
can never know that we feel without feeling. But the converse
need not be true. How distinct the two states are is shown
in one way by their notorious incompatibility, the direct conse-
quence of the limitation of attention: whatever we have to do
that is not altogether mechanical is ill done unless we lose our-
selves in the doing of it. This mutual exclusiveness receives
a further explanation from the fact so often used to discredit
psychology, viz. that the so-called introspection, and indeed
all reflection, are really retrospective. It is not while we are
angry or lost in reverie that we take note of such states, but
afterwards, or by momentary side glances intercepting the main
interest, if this be not too absorbing.
But we require an exacter analysis of the essential fact in this
retrospect the relation of the presentation x or y to _ that of self
or M. What we have to deal with, it will be observed, is, implicitly
at least, a judgment. First of all, then, it is noteworthy that we
are never prompted to such judgments by everyday occurrences or
acts of routine, but only by matters of interest, and, as said, gener-
ally when these are over or have ceased to be all-engrossing. Now
in such cases it will be found that some effect of the preceding state
of objective absorption persists, like wounds received in battle,
unnoticed till the fight is over such e.g. as the weariness of
muscular exertion or of long concentration of attention; some
pleasurable or painful after-sensation passively experienced, or an
emotional wave subsiding but not yet spent; " the jar of interrupted
expectation," or the relief of sudden attainment after arduous
striving, making prominent the contrast of contentment and want
in that particular; or, finally, the quiet retrospect and mental
rumination in which we note what time has wrought upon us and
either regret or approve what we were and did. All such presenta-
tions are of the class out of which, as we have seen, the presentation
of self is built up, and so form in each case the concrete bond con-
necting the generic image of self with its object. In this way and in
this respect each is a concrete instance of what we call a state,
act, affection, &c., and the judgments in which such relations to
the standing presentation of self are recognized are the original
and the type of all real predications. The opportunities for re-
flection are at first few, the materials being as it were thrust upon
attention, and the resulting "percepts" are but vague. .By the
time, however, that a clear concept of self has been attained the
exigencies of life make it a frequent object of contemplation, and
as the abstract of a series of instances of such definite self-con-
sciousness we reach the purely formal notion of a subject or pure
ego. For empirical psychology this notion is ultimate; its specula-
tive treatment falls altogether usually under the heading^' rational
psychology " to metaphysics.
46. The growth of intellection and self-consciousness reacts
powerfully upon the emotional and active side of mind. To de-
scribe the various sources of feeling and of desire that conduct.
thus arise aesthetic, social and religious sentiments,
pride, ambition, selfishness, sympathy, &c. is beyond the scope
of systematic psychology, and certainly quite beyond the limits
of an article like the present. But at least a general rtsumf of
the characteristics of activity on this highest or rational level
is indispensable. If we are to gain any oversight in a matter
of such complexity it is of the first importance to keep steadily
in view, as a fundamental principle, that as the causes of feeling
become more complex, internal, and representative the con-
sequent actions change in like manner. We have noted this
1 So misled possibly by the confusions incident to a special
faculty of reflection, which they controvert James Mill, Analysis,
i. 224 seq. (corrected, however, by both his editors, pp. 227 and 230),
and also Hamilton, Lect. i. 192.
1 It has been thought a fatal objection to this view that it implies
the possibility of an indefinite regress; but why should it not?
We reach the limit of our experience in reflection, or at most in
deliberate introspection, just as in space of three dimensions we
reach the limit of our experience in another respect. But there is
no absurdity in supposing a consciousness more evolved and explicit
than our self-consciousness, and advancing on it as it advances on
that of the unreflecting brutes.
6oo
PSYCHOLOGY
[BODY AND MIND
connexion already in the case of the emergence of desires, and
seen that desire in prompting to the search for means to its end
is the primum movens of intellection (cf. 35). But intellect
does much more than devise and contrive in unquestioning
subservience to the impulse of the moment, like some demon of
Eastern fable; even the brutes, whose cunning is on the whole
of this sort, are not without traces of self-control. As motives
conflict and the evils of hasty action recur to mind, deliberation
succeeds to mere invention and design, In moments of leisure,
the more imperious cravings being stilled, besides the rehearsal
of failures or successes in the past, come longer and longer
flights of imagination into the future. Both furnish material for
intellectual rumination, and so we have at length (i) concepts
of general and distant ends, as wealth, power, knowledge, and
self-consciousness having arisen that concept also of the
happiness or perfection of self, and (2) maxims or practical
generalizations as to the best means to these ends. Instead of
actions determined by the vis a (ergo of blind passion we have
conduct shaped by what is literally prudence or foresight, the
pursuit of ends that are not esteemed desirable till they are
judged to be good. The good, it is truly urged, is not to be
identified with the pleasant, for the one implies a standard and
a judgment, and the other nothing but a bare fact of feeling;
thus the good is often not pleasant and the pleasant not good; in
talking of the good, in short, we are passing out of the region of
nature into that of character. It is so, and yet this progress
is itself so far natural as to admit of psychological explication.
As already urged ( 34), the causes of feeling change as the con-
stituents of consciousness change; also they depend more upon
the form of that consciousness as this increases in complexity.
When we can deliberately range to'and fro in time and circum-
stances, the good that is not directly pleasant may indeed be
preferred to what is only pleasant while attention is confined
to the seen and sensible; but then the choice of such good is
itself pleasant pleasanter than its rejection would have been.
The mention of deliberation brings us to the perennial problem
of " the freedom of the will." But to talk of will is to lapse into
Freedom t ' le con f us i ns f the old faculty psychology. As
' Locke long ago urged: "The question is not proper,
whether the will be free, but whether a man be free." l In the absence
of external constraint, when a man does what he likes, we say
he is "externally free"; but he may still be the slave of every
momentary impulse, and then it is said that he is not " internally
free. The existence and nature of this internal freedom is the
problem. But if such freedom is held to imply a certain sovereignty
or autonomy of self over against momentary propensions and blind
desires, there can obviously be no question of its existence till
the level of self-consciousness is reached and maxims or principles
of action are possible. The young child, the brute and the im-
becile, even when they do as they like, have not this freedom, though
they may be said to act spontaneously. A resolutely virtuous
man will have more of this freedom than the man of good moral
disposition who often succumbs to temptation; but it is equally
true that the hardened sinner has more of it than one still deterred
in his evil ways by scruples of conscience. A man is internally
free, then, whenever the ends he pursues have his whole-hearted
approval, whether he say with Milton's Satan, " Evil be thou my
good," or with Jesus, " Thy will be done." But this freedom is
always within our experience a relative freedom; hence at a later
time we often declare that in some past act of choice we were not
our true selves, not really free. But what is this true self more
than our ideal ? Or perhaps we prefer to say that we were free
and could have acted otherwise; and no doubt we might, if the
place of the purely formal and abstract concept of self had been
occupied by some other phase of that empirical self which is
continuously, but at no one moment completely, presented. It
must then be admitted that psychological analysis in this case is
not only actually imperfect, but must always remain so so long,
at any rate, as all that we discern by reflection is less than all we are.
But this admission does not commit us to allowing the possible
existence of a liberum arbitrium indifferentiae, sometimes called
"absolute indeterminism " ; for that would seem to differ in no
respect from absolute chance or caprice. On the other hand, the
rigidly determinist position can only be psychologically justified
by ignoring the activity of the experiencing subject altogether.
At bottom it treats the analysis of conduct as if it were a dynamical
problem pure and simple. But motives are never merely so many
quantitative forces playing upon something inert, or interacting
entirely by themselves. At the level of self-consciousness especi-
1 Essay concerning Human Understanding, II. xxi. 16 sqq.
ally motives are reasons and reason is itself a motive. In the blind
struggle of so-called " self-regarding " impulses might is the only
right; but in the light of principles or practical maxims right is
the only might. 2 This superiority in position of principles is only
explicable by reference to the inhibitory power of attention, which
alone makes deliberation possible and is essentially voluntary;
that is, subjectively determined. But no, it may be objected!
deliberation in such cases is just the result of painful experiences
of the evil of hasty action, and only ensues when this motive is
strong enough to restrain the impulse that would otherwise prevail.
Even if this be granted, it does not prove that the subject's action
is determined for and not by him; it merely states the obvious
fact that prudence and self-control are gradually acquired. Authori-
tative principles of action, such as self-love and conscience, are
no more psychologically on a par with appetites and desires than
thought and reason are on a par with the association of ideas.
Relation of Body and Mind.
47. The question of subjective initiative leads us naturally
to that concerning the connexion of mind and organism, to which
we now proceed. In development and efficiency, in
the intensity and complexity of their processes, mind
and brain keep invariably and exactly in line together. Striking
and impressive instances of this correspondence are to be
found in comparative psychology, and especially in mental
pathology; but it is needless here to enlarge on a point which
in the main is beyond dispute. In this correspondence lay the
plausibility of the old materialism. But a closer scrutiny dis-
closes an equally impressive disparity: we reject materialism,
accordingly, while still maintaining this psychoneural parallelism
to be a well-established fact. From this we must distinguish a
second sense of parallelism founded on the disparity just men-
tioned as pertaining to the psychical and neural correlates. We
may call this physiologico-psychological, or, more briefly, methodo-
logical, parallelism. It disclaims as illogical the attempt to
penetrate to psychical facts from the standpoint of physiology,
so persistently and confidently pursued by the old materialists.
It also forbids the psychologist to piece out his own shortcomings
with tags borrowed from the physiologist. The concepts of the
two sciences are to be kept distinct, as the facts themselves to
which they relate are distinct. Confusion is inevitable if the
psychologist, for example, talks of his volition as the cause of his
arm moving, when by arm movement he means the process
described by the physiologist in terms of efferent excitations,
muscular flexions, and so forth; or if the physiologist speaks of a
sensation of red as produced by retinal stimulation due to light-
waves of a certain length, when by sensation he means what
he immediately experiences on looking at a field poppy. This
methodological convention, as we may call it, implies a more
stringent interpretation of causation than that expounded by
J. S. Mill and his contemporaries. It does not, however, forbid
psychological inferences on the basis of physiological facts, nor
vice versa. But in spite of this distinctness of the facts, and of
the standpoints from which they are respectively studied, their
causal relation cannot be simply ignored: it is, however, a problem
that pertains strictly to the higher standpoint of philosophy.
There have been in all four different theories of this relation
within modern times: (i) that of mutual interaction the
common-sense view very inconsistently maintained by Des-
cartes; (2) the " occasionalism " substituted for this by Geulincx
and the later Cartesians; (3) the pre-established harmony of
Leibnitz; and (4) the monism of Spinoza, which reduced matter
and mind to parallel attributes of the One Substance. The last
of these severed, however, from Spinoza's metaphysics is still
perhaps the prevailing theory, and to it the term psychophysical
parallelism most properly applies. For whereas the parallelism
first mentioned states a real correspondence between psychical
processes and neural processes, but leaves open the question of
a possible interaction between matter and mind, modern
psychophysical parallelism is a pure hypothesis concerning the
relation of psychical facts to physical theories, on the ground of
which as we shall presently see any interaction between
matter and mind is expressly denied.
1 The right is only relative, of course, when the maxims are
" hypothetical " to use Kant's phrase, but it is absolute when
the maxim is " categorical."
BODY AND MIND]
PSYCHOLOGY
601
But in the exposition of this hypothesis these two meanings of
parallelism are frequently confused or interchanged. The same
term " body " is applied both to an aggregate of matter and to the
living organism. Now life must be regarded as either inherent in
matter, or as the result simply of a particular material configuration,
or as physically inexplicable. But, for the present at all events, it
cannot be explained physically; nor are we even within measurable
distance of such an explanation : so much is beyond cavil. Yet the
hypothesis of psychopnysical parallelism confines us to one or other
ol the former alternatives: at the same time its unwarrantable
identification with psychoneural parallelism where we find a real
correspondence between mind and organism tends to conceal the
gravity of such assumptions. The standpoint of physiology, there-
fore, must be describee not as identical with that of physics, but as
intermediate between it and the standpoint of psychology. If the
fact of life could be reduced to physical terms, physiology then, no
doubt, would have to fall into line with physics, much as chemistry,
for example, may have had to do. On trie other hand, till a physical
explanation of life is forthcoming, physiology belongs, with psycho-
logy, to the biological group of sciences, and cannot divest itself
completely of the ideological concepts essential to them, not a vestige
of which belongs to bare physics. It is just because of this commu-
nity in their concepts that there actually is a certain " point to point"
correspondence or parallelism between the psychical and the neural:
as an organ a neuron is a unit ; physically regarded, it ceases to be one.
Yet this illicit identification of organism and material body is thought
to be legitimate, inasmuch as pnysiological processes are found to
rt-^t invariably on a physical basis : and inasmuch as, though methodo-
logical parallelism forbids the physiologist to identify psychosis
with neurosis, no limits can be imposed on his efforts to ascertain
the mechanism of the neurosis itself. But if this be granted, is not
psychophysical parallelism justified, in principle at all events? By
no means: as little, for example, as an explanation of the mechanism
of a locomotive would justify us in ascribing its origin, its mainten-
ance or its guidance to the machine itself. When life and mind are ex-
plained by their mechanism the physicist may summon the biologist,
as Mephistopheles did Faust, " Her zu mir ": then, but not before.
A favourite mode of stating psychophysical parallelism is
that known as the Double Aspect Theory. In this, besides
Doable the unjustified identification of the first and third
Aspect" meanings, we find also an equally unjustified inter-
Theory. pretation of parallelism in the second sense. All
that methodology prescribes is that psychologists and neuro-
logists and, we may add, that physicists too shall severally,
as " specialists," mind their own business. Again, all that the
first two jointly ascertain is simply the fact of correspondence:
the explanation of it is still to seek. Two propositions are
now advanced which are held to meet this need. First and
negatively the connexion, it is said, is not causal: mind
does not act on body, nor body on mind: the changes
on each side form two independent series, each " going
along by itself." In other words, the series themselves are
said to exemplify what methodology enjoins on the sciences
that investigate them they mind their own business and
never intrude into each other's domains. Nevertheless their
interaction is not prima facie contradictory or absurd, and
ordinary thought, as we have seen, assumes that it exists. What
evidence, then, is there for denying it absolutely? Empirical
evidence for such a universal negative there can hardly be; it
must be established therefore if established at all on a priori
grounds. Meanwhile two facts, already noticed, make seriously
against it. On the psychical side sensations point to an intrusion
of some sort, and are not psychically explicable (cf. 16), and the
like for the present at all events must be said of the fact of
life on the physical side. Apart from all this, it seems plain
that methodological parallelism, so far from justifying the denial
of interaction, simply precludes its discussion on the dualistic
level to which that parallelism is confined. The gulf implied
is indeed not absolute of so much, parallelism in the first sense
assures us but those who are forced to keep to their own side
of it obviously are not the people to settle how it is crossed.
We are aware that the dualism is not absolute, it is replied:
it is only phenomenal, and the two series of phenomena are
conditioned by an underlying unity of substance. Such is the
second, and positive, proposition of the theory. Again asking
for evidence, we are told that this underlying unity is unknown
in fact, unknowable. This unknowable substance is assumed,
then, simply because the impossibility of causal connexion being
taken as established no other alternative remains. The nega-
tive proposition is thus the foundation of the theory, and without
it this agnostic monism becomes entirely arbitrary. We have,
therefore, to continue our search for the grounds on which the
possibility of interaction is denied. But it will be worth while
first to examine certain ambiguities besetting the positive
statement.
Difference of aspect may result solely from difference of stand-
point, or it may be due to difference in the reality itself. The
circle, seen as concave from within and as convex from without,
is an ancient instance of the first still in great favour; the pillar
that was cloud and darkness to the Egyptians, but light to the
children of Israel, may serve to exemplify the second. The
former we may call the phenomenal, and the latter the ontal,
meaning of " aspect." With these two very different meanings
our theory plays fast and loose, as suits its own convenience.
To do this is easy in so far as the reality is unknown and un-
knowable; and necessary since in the end, the reality, however
unknowable, must somehow include both the phenomenal
aspects and all that pertains to them, and so far therefore be
known. In dealing with " aspect " in the first sense, the one
question to be raised concerns the nature and relation of the
respective standpoints. To one belongs what we know as in-
dividual experience, and this is essentially concrete, immediate,
and qualitatively diverse; to the other belongs an abstract,
conceptual scheme, wholly quantitative, familiarly known as
the mechanical theory. Between these there is plainly no
such co-ordination as the inept comparison with the inside and
the outside of a circle implies. 1 Neither is there, on the other
hand, the same complete opposition; for the entire mechanical
theory is based upon individual experience as enlarged and
developed by inter-subjective intercourse. Both the sense-
knowledge of the one and the thought-knowledge of the other
relate to the one objective factor involved in both. So far, then,
there is fundamentally only one standpoint that of the sub-
jective factor to the objective factor, which is immediately
perceived in the one and mediately conceived in the other.
The question here raised is thus primarily epistemological,
but it is a question, as we have seen, in which psychology is
intimately concerned. " Aspect " hi the second sense is inde-
pendent of standpoints. We have here to deal with attributes
of the one reality, more or less in Spinoza's sense: this reality
itself, as possessed of disparate attributes, is so far dual, and the
question of causal connexion between these attributes is not
escaped. For to know that a thing has invariably two distinct
attributes does not enable us to determine straightway how the
changes or " modes " of the one are connected with those of the
other, (i) The same attribute might be always the initiating
or independent variant, and then would come the question of
finding out which of the two it was; or (2) it might be that now
one, now the other, took the lead, the grounds of this alternation
being then the topic for inquiry; or, finally, (3) it might be, as
our theory assumes, that there was but a single series of double
changes. The questions here raised are philosophical questions,
but again they are questions in which psychology is intimately
concerned. Our examination thus yields two results: first,
there is fundamentally only a single standpoint that of ex-
perience, now at the perceptual, now at the conceptual, level;
and secondly, the distinction of aspects is not merely pheno-
menal, but pertains " somehow " to reality. The question is
how; and this leads us to resume our inquiry into the grounds
on which interaction is denied.
These grounds neither pertain to psychology nor to physiology.
In spite of the outstanding difficulties connected with sensation
and life, which these sciences severally raise, such denial is upheld
1 In fact, if there were, since it is only as we contemplate finite
portions of the circle that the distinction of concave and convex is
present, the nearer we approximated to its elements the more this
difference of aspect would disappear. If on the physical side we
called these elements atoms, there would be an answering element
"' " mind-stuff " on the psychical ; and there would be no more
of
unity and no other diversity in a given man's mind than in his brain
regarded as a complex of primordial atoms. Wild as all this seems,
yet views of the kind have been seriously put forward more than once
as the logical outcome of psychophysical parallelism.
602
PSYCHOLOGY
[BODY AND MIND
mainly on the strength of an interpretation of the principle
known as the conservation of energy an interpretation of it,
however, which many of the ablest physicists disallow. The
energy of the physical world, it is maintained, is a strictly in-
variable amount; matter, therefore, cannot act on mind, for
such action would entail a decrease, nor can mind act on matter,
since that would entail an increase, of this energy. In other
words, the material world is held to be a "closed system";
and as all the changes within it are mass-motions, there can be
none which are not the effect and equivalent of antecedent mass-
motions. But now this statement must be established on
physical grounds: to assume it otherwise would be openly to beg
the very question at issue. For if mind does act on matter, the
physical mechanism is subject to changes from without, and so
often its motions are not due to antecedent motions; and this
the common-sense view cannot, of course, be summarily
dismissed as impossible or absurd. Now, energy is essentially
a metrical notion, and its conservation in finite and isolated
material systems has been ascertained by careful quantitative
experiments. To say that the energy of the material universe
is constant is only a way of expressing the generalization
of this result is tantamount, in other words, to saying that it
holds of all finite isolated systems. The whole universe may
perhaps be called isolated, but we do not know that it is
finite. We cannot, therefore, apply metrical concepts to it; and
consequently we cannot interpret the conservation of energy as
meaning that the physical part of it is a closed system. But
if not a closed system, then the energy of a given group of bodies
may be increased or decreased without interaction between that
group and other bodies may be increased or decreased by
psychophysical interaction, that is to say. And, moreover,
such psychophysical interaction would not invalidate the con-
servation of energy, rightly understood; for that merely means
that the energy of a group of bodies can be altered only from
without, and this might happen whenever such interaction
occurred. 1 We seem, therefore, justified for the present in re-
jecting psychophysical parallelism as one of the three possible
modes of relating mind and matter regarded as attributes of
the real. Not only are there psychological as well as biological
objections which it has not yet overcome, but there are so far
no physical grounds in its favour.
At this point we may again for a moment turn aside to consider
a modified form of the doctrine the so-called Conscious Auto-
" Conscious maton Theory, an attempt to blend the old Cartesian
Auto- views concerning the minds of man and brute.
matoa" According to Huxley, 2 the best known modern
Theory. exponent of this theory, "our mental conditions
are simply the symbols in consciousness of the changes that
take place automatically in the organism." This conscious-
ness is supposed "to be related to the mechanism of the
body simply as a collateral product of its working, and to
be as completely without any power of modifying that
working as the steam-whistle ... is without influence upon
the locomotive's machinery ": thus " the feeling we call
volition is not the cause of a voluntary act, but the symbol
of that state of the brain which is the immediate cause of
that act." In other words, physical changes are held to be
independent of psychical, whereas psychical changes are de-
clared to be their " collateral products." They are called
collateral products, or " epiphenomena," to obviate the charge of
materialism, and to conform to the interpretation of the con-
servation of energy that we have just discussed. Such a theory
is, strictly speaking, one of parallelism no longer: rather it
adopts, instead, the first of the two possibilities we have noted
above as opposed to parallelism. According to it, matter is the
initiating or independent variant, on whose changes mind simply
follows suit. It is open to two fatal objections. First, it is
methodologically unsound: its psychology is physiological in the
1 The possibility is enough : we cannot tell what actually happens,
and do not, therefore, know how far the direction of matter by mind
calls for a modification or limitation of physical hypotheses. Cf.
Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism (3rd ed., 1906), ii. 73-86.
5 Essay on " Animal Automatism," Collected Essays, vol. i.
bad sense. It regards all states of consciousness as passive,
i.e. as ultimately either " feelings " or " reflexes." Volitional
activity is declared illusory; and if this be true, intellectual
activity must be illusory too. But to detect illusion requires
experience of reality we only know the sham by knowing
the genuine first; and even passive states could not be
experienced as such save by contrast with states that are
active. To the physical side, then, we naturally turn for this
knowledge which we are told is not to be found on the psychical;
and we do so the more readily as, according to the present theory,
the physical holds the primary place. But we turn in vain;
for matter is inert, and its energy only " works " by taking the
line of least resistance, like water running down hill. Moreover,
such activity as we are in search of could only be found here in
case the physical mechanism showed signs of being intelligently
directed, and that would also be evidence that psychical activity
is not illusory. Is, then, the physical side after all primary?
No, we reply: the assumption is epistemologically unsound.
This is our second objection. The order implied in the distinc-
tion of physical phenomena and psychical e^iphenomena is
contrary to all experience and indefensible. A physical pheno-
menon is either actually perceived or possibly perceptible; other-
wise it is devoid of empirical reality altogether. But objects
of perception are so far psychical; that is, they belong to im-
mediate or individual experience. Therefore we cannot regard
them as independent of this experience, nor this as their collateral
product, i.e. as epiphenomenal. Again, the phenomenality sup-
posed to be common to both involves, as we have already
seen, a fundamental identity in the standpoint of each: they
belong to the same continuous experience at different levels.
And lastly, .their abstract, merely quantitative, character shows
that it is the concepts of physics, and not the facts of
immediate experience, that are symbolic, and so to say epithetic.
The attempt either empirically or speculatively to outflank
mind by way of matter is an absurdity on a par with getting
into a basket in the hope of being able to carry oneself.
These epistemological considerations may help us to deal with
the prime and ultimate argument for strict parallelism. When
all is said and done, it is urged, still the interaction of mind and
matter remains inconceivable. But this is hardly a sufficient
reason for denying what is prima facie a fact. Occasionalists,
from Geulincx to Lotze, have acknowledged the same obscurity
in all cases of transeunt action. Yet they did not venture to
deny that sensations were interruptions in the psychical series,
the " occasions " for which were only to be found in the physical;
nor that purposive movements were interruptions in the physical
series, the " occasions " for which were only to be found in the
psychical. And surely such a position is more in harmony with
experience than that of the parallelists, who maintain that each
series " goes along of itself " a statement which, as we have
repeatedly urged, contradicts psychology and assumes the physi-
cal " explanation " of life. Whereas occasionalism leaves the
question of ultimate means to be dealt with by a metaphysics
which will respect the facts, 3 parallelism forecloses it on the basis
of a ready-made metaphysics modern naturalism, that is to
say in which psychology as an independent science is entirely
ignored. Starting with a dualism as absolute as that of Descartes
but replacing his two substances by one, enjoying the oliiini
cum dignitate of the Unknowable starting, too, from the physical
side, no wonder such a philosophy finds that what is for us the
most familiar and of the supremest interest, the concrete world
of sense and striving, is for it the altogether inconceivable, the
supreme " world riddle." And yet if the naturalist could deign
to listen to the plainest teachings of psychology and of epistemo-
logy, the riddle would seem no longer insoluble, for his phenomenal
dualism and his agnostic monism would alike disappear. The
material mechanism which he calls Nature would rank not as the
profoundest reality there is to know: it would rather become
what indeed " machine " primarily connotes an instrument-
ality subservient to the " occasions " of the living world of ends;
and so regarded, it would cease to be merely calculable, and
3 Cf. Lotze, Metaphysik, 61 fin.
COMPARATIVE]
PSYCHOLOGY
603
would be found intelligible as well. Psychophysical parallelism,
then, we conclude, is not a philosophically tenable position; and
pending the metaphysical discussion as to the ultimate nature
of interaction generally we have to rest content with the
second of the three possible modes of connexion above defined,
as occasionalism formulates it. According to this, the two
series, the psychical and the physical, are not independent and
" closed " against each other; but in certain circumstances e.g.
in perception physical changes are the occasion of psychical,
anil in certain circumstances e.g. in purposive movements
psychical changes are the occasion of physical: the one change
not being explicable from its psychical antecedents, nor the
other from its physical.
Into the metaphysical discussion we cannot, of course, enter
here. It must suffice to say that it will not be conducted on
the lines of our present inquiry: it will not start from a dualism
of matter and mind, either regarded as substances or as pheno-
mena. Its problem will rather be the interaction of subject
and object a duality in the unity of experience, which by no
means coincides with the dualism of matter and mind, neurosis
and psychosis, and the like.
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
48. Psychoneural parallelism is no doubt a well established
generalization; nevertheless, concerning its exact range and its
precise meaning there are differences of opinion. It is applicable,
every one will allow, so soon as there is evidence of experiences
individually acquired (cf. 3); and from such point onwards, in
ascending any biological phylum, we find that the psychical
and neural aspects differentiate and develop together. But
how when we descend? Interpreting the neural correlate
physiologically, and not morphologically, as referring primarily
to function and not to structure, we find that even in unicellular
organisms it is still present as irritability and conductivity
(leading to contraction, secretion, &c.). But as at higher levels
psychosis is correlative to neurosis, the principle of continuity
would seem to justify us in assuming a like correspondence
here. Moreover, " learning by experience," the comparative
psychologist's criterion, obviously presupposes some antecedent
and underlying process, of which it is the differentiation and
development. And our general analysis of mind, if correct,
enables us to describe this process " the irreducible psychical
minimum," of which we are here in search. We have such
complete psychosis and it is the simplest we know in the
emotional or diffused movements that follow immediately
upon sensation; and these are so far purposive though not
intentional that they tend to heighten or retain what is
pleasurable, and to alleviate or remove what is painful. Given
that plasticity, which is the psychological presupposition
of all acquisition, then learning by experience is a possible
development from such a primitive stage.
But though every psychosis have its concomitant neurosis,
it is uncertain how far the converse holds good. The action of
the heart, for example, depends upon neuroses of which we
have now no direct consciousness. Facts of this kind have led
to three hypotheses concerning the lowest forms of life, differing
more or less from that just proposed, (i.) Perfectibility and
instinct are found, it is said, to be in inverse ratio. Hence in the
lowest forms of life there is no " learning by experience," because
a stationary state of complete adjustment to environment has
been already attained, and all reactions have therefore become
"secondarily automatic": consciousness, having served its pur-
pose, has disappeared. To such a very Buddhistic psychology it
may be objected: (i) that even organic reflexes tell upon the so-
called vital sense or coenaesthesis, and so far the irreducible
minimum being still intact do not preclude all possibility
of learning, should occasion arise; and (2) that the psychical
life, even of a Protozoan, does not, according to the best evidence,
show any such mechanical finality as is here supposed. 1 (ii.)
According to the second view, which is advocated by Herbert
Spencer, the behaviour of the lower organisms is wholly made
1 Cf. H. S. Jennings, Behaviour of the Lower Organisms (1906).
up of such reflexes, supposed to be devoid of all psychical con-
comitants; but consciousness so far from having disappeared
first comes upon the scene at the opportune moment when the
increasing complexity of the mechanism calls for its guidance.
Psychologically this hypothesis is less defensible than the last,
and it has already been dealt with at some length (cf. 7). It
not only assumes, as that does, far more uniformity in the
interaction of organism and environment than the facts warrant,
but in regarding life as prior to mind, and as the means of its
evolution, it burdens science with two insoluble problems
instead of one. For even if it were possible chemically to build
up protoplasm, we should still be as far from organisms as a
heap of bricks are from putting themselves together as a house,
(iii.) The last view we have to notice is essentially an extension
of the preceding, and is chiefly interesting as a reductio ad
absurdum of that. The physics of colloidal substances at
present wanting, but confidently expected " in the near future "
by certain biologists is the key which is to unlock the mysteries
of protoplasm. Certain organisms, regarded as varieties of such a
substance, react positively to a given physical property of the
environment, and others negatively: thus a moth flies towards
the light, and a centipede runs from it the one is positively,
the other negatively, " heliotropic "; the radicle of a seed,
growing downwards, is, positively, the plumule, growing up-
wards, is, negatively, " geotropic." Instincts are but complexes
of such tropisms, and owe their character entirely to the sym-
metrical form and definite structure of the colloidal substance.
Now if it facilitate the work of the biologist to say that when
what we ordinarily regard as a hungry caterpillar climbs to the
tip of a branch it is forced so to do by positive heliotropism;
that then positive chemiotropism sets up mastication of the
young buds; and that, lastly, " we can imagine this process lead-
ing to the destruction of the substances in the skin of the animal
that are sensitive to light, and upon which the heliotropism
depended," so leaving it free to crawl downwards and come in
contact with the new buds which have in the meantime unfolded J
if such language serve any useful purpose, all well and good;
only it must be applied to the hungry man too: in short, all
behaviour must be described in the same terms. For the
champion of colloids to betake himself to consciousness as he
approaches the higher forms of life is as much a breach of
methodological parallelism as it is for the psychologist to fall
back upon protoplasm as he approaches the lower. But to
suppose that psychical processes first appear in the complicated
form of association of ideas which learning by experience is
taken to imply and at the same time to assume that such
experience, even when it appears, is " ultimately due to the
motions of colloidal substances," these are incongruous absurd-
ities which only the grossest ignorance would be bold enough
to maintain.
Concluding, as we have done, that mind and matter as we
may provisionally call them do really interact, we naturally
infer that organic structures are not the result solely of material
processes, but involve the co-operation of mental direction and
selection: in other words, we are led to regard structure as partly
shaped and perfected by function, rather than function as
solely determined by structure, itself mechanically evolved. And
such a view is justified by the fact that mechanical evolution is
primarily a process of " degradation " rather than development,
a case of facilis descensus contrasting with the upward struggle
of life per aspera ad astra. Still, the notion of life or mind as
formative and directive has its difficulties. In the first place, we
have no experience of mind organizing matter no experience
of the actual process, that is to say however sure we may feel
of the fact. 3 Hence the occasionalism to which here, at any rate,
science is confined. But even so, the difficulty is not wholly
removed. In the handicrafts whence we derive the conception
1 Cf. J. Loeb, Comparative Psychology (IQOI), pp. 188 sqq. an
interesting book, full of psychological crudities.
* But, of course, a thoroughgoing spiritualism ought to explain
the very existence of matter as really the appearance or manifesta-
tion of mind.
604
PSYCHOPHYSICS PTERIA
of organs the artificer handles, but does not literally order, his
tools as if they too were intelligent. The conscious direction
of such movements is doubtless facilitated by the fact that many
of the complex co-ordinations actually involved in them are
carried out automatically, thanks to structural modifications,
either inherited or acquired. And, regarding life phylogeneti-
cally, we can imagine this process carried back indefinitely.
Indeed, if it be illogical to talk of mechanisms evolving them-
selves and giving rise to the beings whose ends they serve, we
have no choice but to accept this dualism of mind-shaping and
matter inert. No choice, that is, unless we can establish the
primacy of the psychological standpoint. Here we have duality
but not dualism, and the object is not inert, i.e. is not matter.
But still there remain two difficulties possibly resolvable
into one the plasticity already referred to as involved in all
biological development and hereditary transmission; as to
these, psychology is almost wholly in the dark. 1
AUTHORITIES. Historical: There are few good works on the his-
tory of psychology; the only one in English, R. Blakey, History of the
Philosophy of Mind from the Earliest Period to the Present Time
(London, 1848), is poor. F. A. Carus's Geschichte der Psychologic
(Leipzig, 1808) is at least useful for reference. A work bearing the
same title by H. Siebeck (the first part consisting of two divisions
(i.) Die Psychologic von Aristoteles, (ii.) Die Psychologic von Aristoteles
bis zu Thomas von Aquino (Gotha, 1880 and 1884) is thoroughly
and carefully done. Siebeck has also contributed a series of articles,
" Zur Psychologic der Scholastik," to the Archiv f. d. Gesch. d.
Philos. (vols. i.-iii.). Die Philosophic in ihrer Geschichte (I. Psycho-
logic), by Professor Harms (Berlin, 1878), is also good. T. A. Ribot's
La Psychologic anglaise contemporaine (yd ed., 1892) and La Psycho-
logic dllemande contemporaine (and ed., 1885) are lucid and concise
in style, though the latter work in places is superficial and inaccurate.
Of Max Dessoir's Geschichte der neueren deutschen Psychologic the
section dealing with the 17th-century writers prior to Kant went
into a second edition in 1897; it contains a useful collection of
material. From Les Origines de la psychologic contemporaine (2nd
ed., 1908), by the neo-Thomist scholar Mgr. D. Mercier, much may
be learnt, though its purpose is not primarily historical.
Positive: The recent output of systematic works on psychology
has been voluminous. Among the most important of these may be
mentioned J. Sully's The Human Mind (2 vols., 1892) ; W. James,
Principles of Psychology (2 vols., 1890); G. F. Stout, Analytic Psych-
ology (2 vols., 1896) ; A Manual of Psychology (2nd. ed., 1901) ; H.
Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology (1891 ; translated from the Danish) ;
G. T. Ladd, Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory (1894) ; W.
Wundt, Grundriss der Psychologic (4th ed., 1901, translated); F.
Jodl, Lehrbuch der Psychologic (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1902). Dealing
mainly with experimental psychology are: Kiilpe, Grundriss der
Psychologic auf experimenteller Grundlage dargestellt (1893 ; translated) ;
Ebbinghaus, Grundzuge der Psychologic (3rd ed., 1908), Bd. I.; and
E. B. Titchener, Experimental Psychology : a Manual of Laboratory
Practice (2 vols., 1901) ; C. S. Myers, Experimental Psychology (1908).
Of the older more advanced textbooks Professor Volkmann's
Lehrbuch der Psychologic (2 vols., 3rd ed., 1885; edited by Cornelius)
is written in the main from a Herbartian standpoint. To the
honoured name of Lotze belongs a distinguished place in any enu-
meration of modern productions in philosophy; his Medicinische
Psychologic (Gottingen, 1852) is still valuable. A large part of his
Mikrokosmos (3 vols., 3rd ed., 1876-1880; trans, into English, 2 vols.,
1885) and one book of his Metaphysik (2nd ed., 1884; also trans.
into English) are, however, devoted to psychology. The doctrine
of evolution has been as fruitful in this study as in other sciences
that deal with life. In this respect Herbert Spencer's Principles
of Psychology (2 vols., 3rd ed., 1881) and Data of Ethics (1879) occupy
a foremost place. Dr Alexander Bain's standard volumes, The
Senses and the Intellect (4th ed., 1894) and The Emotions and the Will
(3rd ed., 1875), contain a good deal of " physiological psychology,"
but no adequate recognition of the importance of the modern
theory of development. Wundt's Physiologische Psychologic (3 vols.,
6th ed., 1908 seq.) is indispensable to the student of this subject.
Specially interesting as treating psychological problems on new
lines are La Psychologic des idees-forces, by A. Fouillee (2 vols., 1893)
perhaps the best French contribution to recent psychology; its
cardinal point is the fundamentally dynamical character of the
psychical. R. Avenarius, Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (2 vols.,
1888-1890; 2nd ed., 1908), is an attempt, on the model of Kirchhoff
and Mach's treatment of physics, to describe experience, taking the
relation of the central nervous system to the environment as starting-
point. Its strange and forbidding terminology prevented the timely
recognition of its merits; but since the author s death in 1896 from
overwork and disappointment quite a literature has grown up,
1 On the subject of comparative psychology generally, see Animal
Behaviour (1900), by Professor C. Lloyd Morgan; L. T. Hobhouse,
Mind in Evolution (1901).
partly expository, partly controversial, devoted to this latest
critique. H. Cornelius, Psychologic als Erfahrungswissenschaft
(1897), rather epistemological than psychological, claims affinity
with the critiques of Kant and Avenarius. In J. Rehmke's Lehr-
buch der allgemeinen Psychologic (2nd ed., 1905) a psychology with
.a soul, and claiming to be philosophy as well the problems of
perception and of psychoneural interaction are discussed at length.
F. Brentano, Psychologic vom empirischen Standpunkte (1874), vol. i.,
treats presentations and judgments as fundamentally distinct,
feeling and willing, on the other hand, as fundamentally one. His
influence on Austrian psychologists has been considerable, and is
more or less apparent in the following: K. Twardowski, Zur Lehre
vom Inhalt und Gegenstand der Vorstellungen (1894); A. Meinong,
Psychologisch-ethische Untersuchungen zur Werththeorie (1894), and
also numerous important papers; v. Ehrenfels, System der Werth-
theorie (2 vols., 1897-1898); A. Hofler, Psychologic (1897).
Important as treating of particular topics are C. Stumpf, Ton-
psychologic (2 vols., 1883-1890) ; A. Lehmann, Die Hauptgesetze des
menschlichen Gefuhlsleben (trans, from the Danish; 1892); various
monographs by T. A. Ribot on diseases of memory, will, personality,
on the psychology of attention, of the emotions, of general ideas, &c.,
all translated into English; J. M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Inter-
pretations in Mental Development (1897); W. Wundt, Volkerpsycho-
logie (3 vols., 1900); W. McDougall, An Introduction to Social
Psychology (1908).
There are several periodicals devoted exclusively to psychology,
the chief being the American Journal of Psychology; the Psychological
Review; Zeitschrift fur Psychologic und Physiologic der Sinnesorgane;
L'Annee psychologique; the British Journal of Psychology; and Archiv
fur die gesammte Psychologic. (J. W.*)
PSYCHOPHYSICS (from Gr. \lwxh, soul, <for, nature), a
department of psychology which deals with the physiological
aspects of mental phenomena, and in particular investigates
the quantitative relations between stimuli and the resultant
sensations. Following the introspective school of which the
last leader was Alexander Bain, the tendency of psychological
investigation, in the hands of Fechner, Helmholtz, Wundt,
Miinsterberg, was predominantly psychophysical, and psycho-
logical study, especially in Germany, where the first fully-
equipped laboratory was set up in Leipzig (1879) by Wundt,
and in America became largely a matter of experiment and
apparatus. Such apparatus has been devised for optical,
acoustical, haptical (Gr. &vrfiv, touch), taste and smell experi-
ments. Haptical apparatus includes the kinesimeter (for cuta-
neous sensation), the thermaesthesiomeler (for heat and cold sensa-
tion), the algometer or algesimeter (for pain sensations), the
aeslhesiometer (e.g. those of Jastrow and Miinsterberg). Among
important apparatus for measuring the time relations of mental
processes are the d' Arsonval chronometer, which marks hundredths
of a second, and the Hipp chronoscope l in which the stimulus and
the clock are electrically connected.
For authorities see Baldwin's Diet, of Philos. and Psych, s.v.
" Laboratory," and the latest psychological textbooks.
PTARMIGAN (Lagopus mutus or alpinus), a gallinaceous bird
akin to the grouse (q.v.). The word in Gaelic is tarmachan,
which appears from the end of the i6th century in many forms,
such as lormican, tarmichen, and even " termagant."
PTERIA (mod. Boghaz Keui), the ancient capital of the
" White Syrians " of Cappadocia, which Croesus of Lydia is
stated by Herodotus to have taken, enslaved and ruined, after
he had declared war on the rising power of Persia and crossed
the Halys (after the middle of the 6th century B.C.). Thereafter
he fought a drawn battle near the city, and retired again across
the river to his ultimate defeat and doom. Pteria is mentioned
by no other ancient authority, but it is of great interest if, as
seems highly probable, (i) its " White Syrian " inhabitants were
what we call " Hittites " (q.v.), or at least, participants in the
" Hittite civilization "; (2) its remains are to be seen in the
immense prehistoric city and remarkable rock-sculptures near
Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia, about 100 m. east of Angora and
beyond the Kizil Irmak (Halys). This is the chief " Hittite "
site in Asia Minor, far superior in extent to either Euyuk or
Giaur Kalesi, which seem to have been its dependencies, and
a centre from which roads, marked by the occurrence of
" Hittite " monuments, radiate towards Syria and the Aegean.
Sir W. M. Ramsay has shown with great probability that it was
the importance of Pteria and its bridge over the Halys which
PTERIDOPHYTA
605
diverted the Persian " royal road " far to the north of its natural
line. This road, in fact, followed an earlier main track whose
ultimate objective had been different.
The remains of Boghaz Keui are indubitably pre-Persian and pre-
Greek. They consist of a large fortified city on a steep slope enclosed
by two deep ravines, and falling to northward over 800 ft. from
summit to base. The acropolis was strengthened with a circle of
stone redoubts, between which led very narrow gateways, and with
internal redoubts as well. Just inside what seems to have been its
principal entrance is a rock face inscribed with nine lines of " Hittite "
characters, greatly perished (Nishan Tash), and a similar inscription,
equally illegible, can be detected on a neighbouring rock. Below the
acropolis on the north-east is a residential quarter, containing large
ruins of what seems to have been a palace or temple built round a
central court. The whole site is surrounded by a strong wall, 14 ft.
thick, with towers about 100 ft. apart. The monument, however,
which earliest rendered Boghaz Keui famous is the sculptured rock
grotto, i m. to the east, called Yasili Kaya. Here two hypaethral
galleries are adorned with reliefs in panels, the larger gallery
showing two processions, which, starting on both walls from the
entrance, meet at the head of the grotto. On the left wall are
45 figures, headed by a gigantic male figure, erect on the bent necks
of two men. On the right wall he is opposed by a female of almost
equal stature standing on a leopard or lioness, and followed by a
young male with battle-axe, erect on a similar beast. Behind these
are some 20 figures of mitred priests, &c. There can be no doubt
that the female is the great Nature goddess of western Asia, attended
by her spontaneously-generated son, with whose help she creates
the world (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE Gops). Priests or minor
divinities follow them. The other procession, according to the
analogy of other monuments, should be composed of mortals bearing
sacra and headed by their king, who makes offering or dedicates his
city to, or engages in some mystic union with, the goddess. The
figure following him seems to be that of his high priest. " Hittite "
symbols are carved above many of the figures. Besides the proces-
sions there are five independent reliefs in the small gallery and its
approach, one repeating the figure of the high priest.
In 1906, as the result of the discovery of cuneiform tablets at
Boghaz Keui by E. Chantre in 1890, a concession for the excavation
of the site was obtained by the Berlin Oriental Society, and H.
Winckler was sent to make a preliminary examination. He found a
number of tablets in two languages, Babylonian and local, the latter
being that of the Arzawa letters found at Tell el-Amarna. Among
them was a cuneiform copy of the treaty made by Rameses II. in
his 2oth year with the king of the Kheta, and inscribed on a wall
at Karnak. In 1907 Winckler returned with O. Puchstein and others
and made regular excavations, laying bare much of the fortifications
and two temples, and finding inscribed monuments and many more
tablets. From those written in Babylonian Winckler has established
the fact that Boghaz Keui was the capital of a powerful Hatti
dynasty from the middle of the i6th century B.C. to at least 1200 B.C.
He claims further that its ancient name was Hatti. At the height
of its power it ruled all Asia Minor down to the Aegean and northern
Syria to the headwaters of the Orontes, and was also overlord of
the Mitanni and the Amurri (Amarru) in Mesopotamia. It had
continual relation on terms of equality with Egypt and Babylonia.
The four kings of the Kheta, alluded to by name in Egyptian texts,
have been identified with kings of Boghaz Keui. The decline of
Hatti power began with the expansion of Assyria after noo B.C.
and Cappadocia seems to have been inferior to Phrygia after the
rise of the Midaean dynasty in the gth and 8th centuries. It should
be added that the identification of Boghaz Keui with the Pteria of
Heroditus has not yet been confirmed, and the latter name has been
claimed for a primitive site at Ak-alan near Samsun by Th. Makridi
Bey, as the result of his excavations for the Constantinople Museum
in 1907 (see HITTITES).
AUTHORITIES. C.Ritter, Erdkunde, xviii ; C.Texier,Z7cr. del'Asie
Mineure (i., 1843); J. Hamilton, Researches, &c. (1842); H. Barth,
Reise von Trapezunt, &c. (Ergdnz, Petermann's Geog. MM.; 1860);
G. Perrot and E. Guillaume, Expl. arch, de la Galatie (1862-1872);
K. Humann and O. Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien u. Nordsyrien
(1890); Murray's Guide to Asia Minor (1894); G. Perrot and C.
Chipiez, Hist, de I' art (1886) vol. iv. ; Lord Warkworth, Notes of a
Diary, &c. (1898) ; E. Chantre, Mission en Cappadocie (1898). (For
recent excavations see HITTITES.) (D. G. H.)
PTERIDOPHYTA (Gr. irripts, fern, and <t>vr6t> plant), or as
they are frequently called, the Vascular Cryptogams, the third
of the large subdivisions of the vegetable kingdom. The Ferns
form the great majority of existing Pteridophytes; the importance
and interest of the other groups, of which the Club-mosses and
Horsetails are the most familiar examples, depend largely on
the fact that they are the surviving representatives of large
families of plants which flourished in earlier geological periods.
(See PALAEOBOTANY.)
The relation which exists between the two alternating stages
or generations, which together constitute the complete life-cycle
of all plants higher than the Thallophyta, is perhaps the most
natural characteristic of the Pteridophyta. From the
germinated spore of a fern plant, which must not be
confused with the " seed " of seed-bearing plants, a small, flat,
green organism is developed; this is the prothallus (gametophyte,
sexual generation; fig. 7). As the result of fertilization of an
ovum produced by this, the fern plant (sporophyte, asexual
generation) originates; from it spores are ultimately set free,
with the germination of which the life-history again commences.
The point common to all Pteridophyta is that from the first the
gametophyte is an independent organism, while the sporophyte,
though in the first stages of its development it obtains nutriment
from the prothallus, becomes physiologically independent
when its root develops. This independence of the two genera-
tions for the greater part of their lives distinguishes this group
FIG. i. Diagrammatic sketches of prothalli of
a, Equisetum. . e, Selaginella.
b, Lycopodium cernuum. /, Botrychium virginianum.
c, L. phlegmaria. g, Helminthostachys.
A, A Fern.
i, Salvinia.
d, L. clavatum.
on the one hand from the Bryophyta (in which the sporophyte
is throughout its life attached to the gametophyte), and on the
other hand from the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (in which
the more or less reduced gametophyte remains enclosed within
the tissues of the sporophyte). The gametophyte, which is
usually dorsiventraj, though in some cases radially symmetrical
(fig. i , b) , is a small thallus attached to the soil by rhizoids. In
structure it is equally simple, being composed of parenchyma-
tous tissue without any clearly marked conducting system.
Usually it grows exposed to the light and contains chlorophyll,
but subterranean saprophytic prothalli also occur in the Lyco-
podiaceae and Ophioglossaccae (fig. i,c,d,f,g). In the hetero-
sporous forms the gametophyte is more or less reduced (fig. i,
e, i). The reproductive organs ultimately produced on the same
or on different individuals are of two kinds, the anthcridia and
archegonia; the origin of both is from single superficial cells of
the prothallus. The antheridium (fig. 8) at maturity consists
of a layer of cells forming the wall which encloses a group of
small cells; from each of the latter a single motile spermatozoid
originates. The archegonium (fig. 9) consists of a more or less
projecting neck and the venter, which is usually enclosed by the
tissue of the prothallus. A central series of cells can be distin-
guished in it, the lowest of which is the ovum; above this come
6o6
PTERIDOPHYTA
the ventral canal cell and one or more canal cells. When the
archegonium has opened by the separation of the terminal cells
of the neck, the disintegration of the canal cells leaves a tubular
passage, at the base of which is the ovum (fig. 9, 6). Down this
FIG. 2. Diagrammatic sketches of spore-producing members of
a, Equisetum. d, Ophioglossum. g, Nephrodium.
6, Lycopodium. e, Kaulfussia. h, Salvinia.
c, Psilotum. /, Angiopteris.
(All except d represent vertical sections of sporangiophore or sorus.)
canal the spermatozoid, which in the Ferns has been shown to
be attracted by reason of its positive irritability to malic acid,
passes and fuses with the ovum. After fertilization the latter
surrounds itself with a cell-wall and develops into the sporo-
phyte. The early segmentation of the embryo differs in the
several groups, but usually the first leaf or leaves, the apex of the
stem and the first root are differentiated early, while a special
absorbent organ (the foot) maintains for some time the physio-
logical connexion between the sporophyte and the prothallus.
The sporophyte is always highly organized both as regards
form and structure. Root, stem and leaf can be distinguished
even in the simplest forms, and the plant is traversed by a well-
developed vascular system. The reproductive organs of the
sporophyte are the sporangia, within which the spores are
produced; the sporangia are often borne on or in relation to
leaves, which may be more or less distinct from the foliage
leaves in form and structure (cf. fig. 2). The cells of the wall
of the sporangium are usually so constructed as to determine
the dehiscence of the sporangium and the liberation of its spores.
The spores produced in each sporangium vary from very many
to a single one in the case of some heterosporous forms. These
latter bear spores of two kinds, microspores and megaspores,
in separate sporangia. From the microspore an extremely
reduced male prothallus and from the megaspore the female
prothallus, develops (cf. fig. i,e). The spores of the homosporous
Vascular Cryptogams are usually of small size; the prothalli
produced from them usually bear both antheridiaandarchegonia,
though under special conditions an imperfect sexual differen-
tiation may result. The complete life-history, with its regular
alternation of gametophyte and sporophyte, is now known in all
except a few rare genera of recent Pteridophyta, and will be
described in connexion with the several groups. A cytological
difference of great importance between the two generations can
only be mentioned in passing. The nuclei of the cells of the
sexual generation possess a definite number of chromosomes
and this number is also characteristic of the sexual cells. On
fertilization the number is doubled and all the cells of the spore-
bearing generation have the double number. On the formation
of the spores a reduction to the number characteristic of the
gametophyte takes place.
The systematic arrangement of the Vascular Cryptogams
for the purposes of identification and description necessarily
remains unchanged, while the comparative morpho-
logy is being more fully worked out. But modifica-
tions in the order of placing the natural groups are of
importance in expressing the results of such investigations.
Such a scheme may be placed here in a tabular form before
entering on the consideration of the life-history, natural
history, morphology, and classification of the several groups:
Pteridophyta.
I. EQUISETALES .
II. SPHENOPHYLLALES
III. PSILOTALES . .
IV. LYCOPODIALES .
V. OPHIOGLOSSALES .
VI. FlLICALES .
J Equisetaceae.
I Calamariaceae.
( Sphenophyllaceae.
) Cheirostrobaceae.
Psilotaceae.
f Lycopodiaceae.
I Selaginellaceae.
I Lepidodendraceae.
I Isoetaceae.
Ophioglossaceae.
Filicaceae
Hydropterideae
Marattiaceae.
Osmundaceae.
Schizaeaceae.
Cleicheniaceae.
Matoniaceae.
Loxsomaceae.
Hymenophyllaceae.
Cyatheaceae.
Polypodiaceae.
Salviniaceae.
Marsiliaceae.
These main subdivisions are of unequal size and importance.
The Sphenophyllales are only known in a fossil state, while the
Equisetales, Lycopodiales and Filicales include both living and
extinct representatives. The small groups of recent plants forming
the Psilotales and Ophioglossales are given independence in this
scheme of classification owing to their exact affinities with the other
phyla being at present doubtful.
I. EQUISETALES. The plants of the single living genus
Equisetum, which vary in height from a few inches to 40 ft.,
have subterranean rhizomes, from which the erect shoots arise.
The habit of the plant depends on the degree of branching rather
than upon the foliage. The internodes are elongated and
hollow. The leaves are borne in whorls, those of each whorl
cohering, except at their extreme tips, to form a sheath. The
leaves of successive whorls alternate with one another, and this
applies also to the branches which arise in the axil of the leaf
sheath. In most species many of these buds, which alternate
with the leaves, remain dormant, but in others the aerial shoots
are copiously and repeatedly branched. In some species
branches of the rhizome with tuberous internodes are formed,
which serve as a means of vegetative reproduction. The roots
which arise from the base of the lateral buds remain undeveloped
on the aerial stem. The vascular bundles equal in number the
leaf-teeth from which they enter the stem and form a single ring.
Each bundle runs downwards through one internode and then
divides into two branches which insert themselves on the alter-
nating bundles entering at this node. The young stems, and the
older stems of certain species, are clearly monostelic; but in
other species an inner and outer endodermis may be present,
or an endodermal layer surrounds each bundle. The vascular
bundles themselves are collateral, the xylem consisting of the
protoxylem, towards the centre of the stem, and two groups of
xylem, between which the phloem is situated; the protoxylem
elements soon break down, giving rise to the carinal canal.
Only the median or carinal strand of xylem is common to stem
and leaf; the lateral cauline strands possibly represent the
remains of a centripetally developed mass of primary xylem.
There is no secondary thickening except at the node in E.
maximum, where some short tracheides, arranged in radial rows,
arise from a cambium. The stems, the surface of which exhibits
a number of ridges with intervening furrows, perform the greater
part of the work of assimilation. The chlorophyll-containing
tissue reaches the surface at the sides and base of the furrows,
PTERIDOPHYTA
607
where storaata of peculiar form occur in the epidermis, while
subepidermal strands of sclerenchyma occupy the ridges. In
the cortical tissue beneath each furrow a wide intercellular space
is present running the length of the internode, and called the
(C, D. E from Strasburger's Lchrbuch der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.)
FIG. 3. Equiselum maximum.
A, Longitudinal section of the rhizome, including a node and
portions of the adjoining internodes; k, septum between the two
mternodal cavities, hh; gg, vascular bundles; /, vallecular canal;
i, leaf-sheath.
B, Transverse section of the rhizome ; g, vascular bundle; I, valle-
cular canal.
C, Fertile shoot showing two leaf-sheaths and the terminal
strobilus.
D, E, Sporophylls bearing sporangia, which in E have opened.
vallecular canal. The central cylinder of the root, in which
there are several xylem and phloem strands, has around it a
two-layered endodermis, the inner layer of which appears to
take the place of a pericycle. The sporangia are borne upon
lateral outgrowths of the axis (the sporangiophores), which
arise in whorls and are associated in definite strobili or cones
(fig. 3, C); at the base of the cone an outgrowth of the axis like
a rudimentary leaf sheath (the annulus) is present. Each
sporangiophore (fig. 3 D) consists of a stalk expanding into
a peltate disk of hexagonal outline; from the inner surface of
the latter six to nine large sporangia hang parallel with the stalk.
The single vascular bundle supplies a branch to the base of each
sporangium. The latter arises from a number of superficial
cells, the cells destined to form the spores being derived from a
single one of these. A tapetal layer is derived from the cells
surrounding the sporogenous group, and the arrest of a number
of the spore-mother-cells further contributes to the nourishment
of the remainder, each of which gives rise to four spores. The
outermost layer of the cell-wall of the ripe spore splits along
spiral lines, giving rise to the elaters; these two long strips of
wall, attached by their middle points to the spore, tend to
straighten out in dry, and close round the spore in damp air.
They thus assist in the opening of the sporangium, which takes
place by a slit on its inner face. Further, several spores will be
likely to germinate together owing to their elaters becoming
entangled; a fact of some importance, since the antheridia and
archegonia, though occurring sometimes on the same prothallus,
are more often borne on separate individuals. The prothalli
contain abundant chlorophyll, and are dorsiventral. Those
that bear the antheridia are the smaller, and are either filamen-
tous, or flattened, and irregularly lobed. The antheridia are
deeply sunk in the tissue; the spermatozoids consist of a spiral
of two or three coils, the numerous cilia being attached to the
pointed anterior end. The female prothalli, which are sometimes
branched, consist of a thick cushion bearing thin, erect lobes, at
the base of which the archegonia are situated. The necks
of the latter are short, the central series of cells consisting of
ovum, ventral canal cell and one or two canal cells. The
half of the embryo directed towards the archegonial neck
gives rise to the apex of the stem and a sheath of three leaves,
the other half to the small foot and the primary root. The first
shoots are of limited growth, being replaced by lateral branches,
which gradually acquire the number of leaf-teeth characteristic
of the species.
Fossil species, some of which attained a great size, are known, to
which the name Equisetites is given, since they appear to be closely
allied to the existing forms. Two other extinct genera, Phyllotheca
and Schizoneura, may be mentioned here. Abnormal specimens of
Equisetum in which the strobilus is interrupted by whorls of leaves
are of interest for comparison with the fructification of Phyllotheca.
The most important and best known of the extinct Equisetales are,
however, the Calamites (see PALAEOBOTANY : Palaeozoic). In the
primary structure of the stem the Calamites present many points
of resemblance to Equisetum, but secondary thickening went on in
both stem and root. These plants, which appear to have grown
in swampy soil, thus attained the dimensions of considerable trees.
The leaves, which were of simple form (except in Archaeocalamites,
where they forked), were inserted in whorls at the nodes; they were
either free from one another or cohered by their bases into a sheath.
The branches alternated in position with the leaves, and sprang
from just above the insertion of the latter. Some of the branches
terminated in cones, which present a general similarity to those of
Equisetum. This similarity is closest in Archaeocalamites, an ancient
type found in Upper Devonian rocks; in this the strobilus consists
of peltate sporangiophores inserted in whorls on the axis. In the
other Calamarian strobili known the whorls of sporangiophores are
separated by whorls of bracts. In some the sporangiophores stood
midway between the sterile whorls, while in others they approached
the whorl above or below. There is a close resemblance between
these sporangiophores and those of Equiselum, but as a rule only
four sporangia were borne on each. Some Calamites were hetero-
sporous, sporangia with microspores and megaspores being found
in the same cone.
Our knowledge of the extinct Equisetales, full as it is with respect
to certain types, does not suffice for a strictly phylpgenetic classifica-
tion _of the group. -The usual subdivision is into Equisetaceae
including Equisetum and Equisetites (with which Phyllotheca and
Schizoneura may be provisionally associated), and Calamariaceae,
including Calamites and Archaeocalamites.
II. SPHENOPHYLLALES. The two very distinct genera
Sphenophyllum and Cheirostrobus, included in this group, are
known only from the Palaeozoic rocks. Though the high
specialization of this ancient group of plants renders the deter-
mination of their natural affinities difficult, indications are
afforded by anatomy and the morphology of the strobilus.
In general appearance the species of Sphenophyllum (the remains
of Cheirostrobus known do not allow of any idea of its habit being
formed) present some resemblances to the Equisetales. The long,
sparingly branched stem bore at the somewhat swollen nodes whorls
of six to eighteen wedge-shaped or linear leaves, which did not alter-
nate in successive whorls. Both the broader and narrower leaves
may be more or less deeply divided, and both forms may occur on
the same shoot. From the relation of the thickness of the stem to its
length it may be inferred that the shoots of Sphenophyllum derived
support from adjoining plants. Without entering into detail regard-
ing the anatomy, it may be stated that secondary thickening took
place in both genera. The single stele in the stem consisted of the
phloem surrounding a solid central strand of xylem, the groups of
protoxylem being situated at the projecting angles. In Spheno-
phyllum, in which trie transverse section of the xylem is triangular,
there were three or six protoxylem groups; in Cheirostrobus they were
more numerous. The anatomy of the stem is thus very unlike that
characteristic of the Equisetales, and presents essential points of
resemblance to the Lycopodiales and especially to the Psilotales.
The general morphology of the cones, on the other hand, suggests
some affinity with the Equisetales. The cone of Sphenophyllum
consisted of an axis bearing at the nodes whorls of bracts, united
below into a sheath. The overlapping bracts afforded protection
to the sporangia, which were borne on sporangiophores springing
from the upper surface of the coherent bracts near their origin
from the axis; two sporangiophores usually arose from each bract,
and sometimes adhered to its upper surface for some distance.
Each bent round at the upper end, and bore one or two sporangia
an the side turned towards the axis. The mature sporangium
had a wall of a single layer of cells, which were larger towards the
6o8
PTERIDOPHYTA
base, where they continued into the epidermis of the sporangiophore.
In Sphenophyllum fertile both the ventral lobes of the sporophyll
(corresponding to the sporangiophores in other species) and the dorsal
lobes, which in other species are sterile, were developed as peltate
sporangiophores. In other species of Sphenophyllum, which are
known only as impressions, single sporangia, or groups of four,
appear to have been inserted directly on the upper surface of the
bracts. In Cheirostrobus a similar relation of sporangiophores to
bracts existed, but here each bract was divided into three segments.
From each segment, near its base, a stalked peltate sporangiophore
arose; this bore four sporangia, which hung parallel to the stalk.
That these three sterile segments, with their sporangiophores, are
together comparable to one of the bracts of Sphenophyllum, with its
sporangiophores, is shown by the vascular supply in each case being
derived from a single leaf -trace. So far as is at present known,
the Sphenophyllales were homosporous. The differences between the
two genera described above are sufficiently marked to justify the
division of the Sphenophyllales into the two orders Sphenophyllaceae
and Cheirostrobaceae. A consideration of the characters of both
shows that the Psilotales are the nearest living representatives of
the Sphenophyllales, while resemblances suggesting actual relation-
ship exist between this group and the Equisetales and Lycopodiales.
It has been suggested that the Sphenophyllales may have sprung
from a very old stock which existed prior to the divergence of the
latter groups. So long, however, as pur knowledge of these phyla
is confined, as at present, to specialized forms, the nature of the
relationship between them must remain to some extent hypothetical.
III. PSILOTALES. The two genera Psilotum and Tmesipteris,
which are provisionally isolated in this group, have usually been
classed with the Lycopodiales. Recent work both on their
anatomy and on the morphology and structure of their spore-
producing organs has however tended to show that their
peculiarities can be best understood in the light of our knowledge
of the Sphenophyllales. Some authorities place them in this
group and there is much to be said in support of the close rela-
tionship implied. The Psilotaceae, however, differ from the
Sphenophyllales in a number of definite features, such as the
arrangement of the leaves singly and not in whorls, and the mode
of branching. These differences and our comparatively im-
perfect knowledge of the Sphenophyllaceous plants which most
closely resemble the Psilotaceae appear to justify the provisional
isolation of the latter as a distinct group, showing affinities with
both the Sphenophyllales and Lycopodiales. In both Psilotum
and Tmesipteris the functions of the root-system, which is com-
pletely absent, are performed by leafless rhizomes bearing
absorbent hairs and inhabited by an endophytic fungus. Psilo-
tum lives epiphytically or in soil rich in humus, while Tmesipteris
is epiphytic (and, it has been suggested, partially parasitic)
upon stems of tree ferns: the former has small scale-like leaves;
those of the latter are of considerable size. The stem is mono-
stelic, the piotoxylem groups being towards the periphery of
the xylem, the development of which is thus centiipetal; the
centre of the stele is occupied by sclerenchymatous tissue. The
leaves, which bear the sporangia, are dichotomous, and do not
form definite cones, but alternate in irregular zones with the
foliage leaves. The sporophylls may exceptionally undergo
further dichotomies and bear more numerous synangia. The
sporangia of the Psilotaceae are associated in synangia, which
occupy the same position relatively to the sporophyll, as the
single sporangium of Lycopodium or the group of sporangia in
Spenophyllum majus. The careful study of the development
of the synangium of Tmesipteris, which consists of two loculi,
and of Psilotum, which consists of three, has shown that their
structure can be explained as originating by the septation of a
single sporangium resembling that of Lycopodium. Other
views of the nature of the Psilotaceous synangium are, however,
possible, and indeed the existence of both simple and complicated
sporangiophores in the Sphenophyllaceae leaves the question
open as to whether the synangium in existing Psilotaceae is a
relatively simple type of sporangiophore which has persisted
unaltered or is the result of reduction from a more elaborate
structure. There is some reason to believe that the prothallus
of Psilotum resmbles some Lycopodium prothalli, but conclu-
sive evidence is wanting; that of Tmesipteris is unknown.
IV. LYCOPODIALES. The living representatives of this group
are of small size compared with the related plants which lived in
Palaeozoic times. A large proportion of the living species are
tropical, though others have a wide distribution. As general
characteristics of the Lycopodiales, the simple form of the
leaves, which are generally of small size, and the situation
of the sporangia on the upper surface of the sporophylls,
which are often associated in cones, close to their insertion on
the axis, may be mentioned; there aie both homosporous and
heterosporous forms, the piothalli exhibiting corresponding
differences. A number of species of Lycopodium are epiphytic
and those of Isoetes live submerged in water. Vegetative
reproduction is effected in various ways: by the separation of
the branches of a creeping stem in some Lycopodia, the persis-
tence through the winter of the apex of the shoot in L. inundatum,
and by the formation of leafy bulbils on the aerial stem of
L. Selago and others. A highly specialized means of vegetative
reproduction is seen in the tubers of Phylloglossum and the
embryos of some Lycopods. The modifications shown by the
gametophyte of Lycopodium will be described below. All such
special relations of the plant to its environment, which might
be expected in the few forms of a large group which has per-
sisted beyond the others, are less marked in the genus Selaginella.
It would appear as if the latter was more suited to the conditions
of the existing flora, and many of the specific forms within it may
rather be regarded as recently evolved than as simply persistent.
Lycopodiaceae. This order contains the two genera Phylloglossum
and Lycopodium ; the former has a single species, confined to Australia,
Tasmania and New Zealand, while nearly one hundred species of
Lycopodium are known. Erect and creeping terrestrial plants and
(From Strasburger's Lchrbuch der Botanik.)
FIG. 4. Lycopodium clavatum.
A, Old prothallus.
B, Prothallus bearing young sporophyte.
G, Portion of a mature plant showing the creeping habit, the
adventitious roots and the specialized erect branches bearing the
strobili or cones.
H, Sporophyll bearing the single sporangium on its upper surface.
J, Spore, highly magnified.
pendulous epiphytes occur in the latter genus. The simple leaves,'
which are of small size and do not possess a ligule, are arranged
spirally around the branched stem in the majority of the species.
The roots of the erect forms often grow downwards in the cortex
of the stem to reach the soil. The anatomy of Lycopodium presents
considerable variety in detail, but the stem is always monostelic
and the development of the xylem centripetal, the protoxylems
being situated at the periphery of the stele; pericycle and endo-
dermis surround the stele, and the wide cortex may be more or less
PTERIDOPHYTA
609
sclerenchymatous. The central cylinder of the root often shows a
striking resemblance to that of the stem. The Lycoppdiaceae are
homos] K>rous. Thr spores are formed in sporangia of considerable size,
itiiated on the upper surface and near the base of the sporophylls.
I In- latter may differ from the foliage leaves and be arranged in
ilcliiiite C-OIK-S, or the two may be similar and occupy alternate
. of a shoot with continued growth; sometimes rudiments of
sporangia are found at the bases of the leaves (fig. 4). In _ the
ill velopment of the sporangium the sporogenous tissue is derived
from a number of superficial cells by divisions parallel to the surface.
Thr tapetum is derived from the layer of cells surrounding the sporo-
us group. Short trabeculae of sterile tissue have been found to
project into the cavity of the sporangium of some species. The
s|ires, when liberated by the dehiscence of the sporangium, give
10 the prothallus, which is now, owing mainly to the investiga-
>l Treub and Bruchmann, known in a number of tropical and
inn|>erate species. In habit and mode of life of the prothallus
these present striking differences, which may be correlated with
it nations inhabited by the sporophyte, and are perhaps to be
led as adaptations which have enabled the species to survive.
Thus in L. cernuum and others the prothallus is green and grows
on the surface of the soil (fig. I, b) ; in the species living on the moors
it is subterranean and saprophytic, though sometimes capable of
developing chlorophyll when exposed to fight (fig. I, d); while in
/,. I'Uegmaria and other epiphytic forms the prothallus consists of
fine branches growing saprophytically in rotting wood (fig. I, c).
niparison of these various types would appear to indicate that
the primitive form of prothallus in the genus was radially symmetri-
ind contained chlorophyll. The prothalli of L. cernuum come
ne.irrst to this; in them the meristem forms a zone slightly below the
summit, which may bear a number of green Iol>es. The different
forms of the prothallus found in L. Selago give an idea of how the
more extremely modified types could be derived from such a prothal-
lus as that of L. cernuum. All the saprophytic prothalli contain
an endophytic fungus in definite layers of their tissue. The antheri-
di.i and archegonia are produced above the meristematic zone, and
are more or less sunk in the tissues of the prothallus. The most
important difference in the sexual organs concerns the length of the
.irchegonial neck; this is shortest and has only a single canal cell
in L. cernuum, while in L. complanatum it is longer than in any other
Vascular Cryptogam, and contains a number of canal cells. The
natozoids are biciliate. The embryo in L. cernuum and other
forms with superficial green prothalli is attached to the prothallus
by a small foot, and develops at first as a tuberous body (the proto-
corm) bearingVhizoids ; this forms a number of simple leaves, and upon
it the apex of the shoot arises later. In the saprophytic forms the
protocorm is absent, and in some of them the foot is of large size
(tig. 4, B). When new individuals of species which possess a proto-
nrm arise vegetatively from the leaves or roots of young plants,
the protocorm appears in the young sporophyte. This fact leads to
the consideration of Phylloglossum, which
resembles the embryo of Lycopodium
cernuum in so many respects that it has
been spoken of as a permanently em-
bryonic form of Lycopod : it is in some
respects the simplest existing Pterido-
phyte. Its prothallus resembles that of
L. cernuum, but wants the crown of assimi-
lating lobes. The plant is reproduced by
tubers, which resemble the protocorm in
bearing first a number of protophylls and
later the upright shoot with its single
terminal strobilus. The sporangia agree
with those of Lycopodium in structure
and position.
Selaginellaceae. The single genus of
this order (Selaginella) contains between
three and four hundred species. There
is considerable diversity among them as
regards external form, the majority having
, dorsiventral aerial shoots with dimorphic
leaves (fig. 5, A), while in others the shoots
are radially symmetrical and the leaves
alike. The stem contains one, two or several
steles; in one species the stele is tubular.
The phloem completely surrounds the
xylem, which usually develops from two
(From Strasburgcr's Ldtrbiuk protroxylem groups. In the aerial stem
of the Britisli species (S. spinosa) the
FIG. 5. Selaginella. radial stele has a number of protpxylem
A, S. helvetica (nat. size). groups arranged round the periphery,
B, S. denticulata, young much as in Lepidodendron. The cells of
plant attached to the the endodermis are developed as trabe-
megaspore (enlarged), culae, which traverse the continuous
air-space surrounding each stele. The
simple, uni-nerved leaves have a ligule near the base; the base
: ligule is somewhat sharply marked off from the other
ssues of the leaf. In some specie? a depression of the leaf-surface
encloses the ligule, regarding the function of which little is known.
I he roots, the stele of which is monarch, may arise directly from
XXII. 2O
A
the stem, or are borne on rhizophores, which spring from the
shoot at the point of branching, and root on reaching the soil.
In structure they resemble the roots, but their morphological nature
is uncertain. The sporophylls are arranged radially in the cones,
which are terminal on the branches. A single sporangium is borne
on the axis just above the insertion of each sporophyll. Selaginella
is heterosporous, the megasporangia being often found towards the
base of the cone. The development of the micro- and mega-
sporangia is the same up to the stage of isolation of the
spore mother-cells. The sporogenous tissue, which is referable
to several archcsporial cells, is surrounded by a tapetum, mostly
derived from the sporogenous group. In the microspprangium
all the mother-cells undergo the tetrad division, giving rise to the
numerous microspores. In the megasporangium, on the other hand,
the four megaspores, which arise from a single mother-cell, are
nourished at the expense of the other sporogenous cells and of the
tapetum. On germination the microspores give rise to a reduced
prothallus, consisting of the small cell first cut off and a wall of cells
enclosing two to four central ones; from these latter the biciliate
spermatozoids originate. The megaspore becomes filled with the
female prothallus, the formation of cell-walls commencing at the
pointed end of the spore, where from the first the nuclei are more
numerous, and later extending to the base. The surface of the
prothallus, which is exposed when the thick wall of the spore is
ruptured, may produce a few rhizoids; upon it the archegonia, con-
sisting of a short neck and the central series of ovum, ventral canal
cell and canal cell, arise (fig. I, e). After fertilization the embryo
forms a short suspensor ; the apex of the stem, with a leaf on each side
of it, is first distinguishable; at the base of this is the foot; while
the root arises on the farther side of the latter. Thus the position
of the root in Selaginella is different from what obtains in the other
Vascular Cryptogams. A point of interest in this heterosporous
genus is that the formation of the prothallus may commence before
the megaspore is liberated from the sporangium.
Lepidodendraceae. This order includes only extinct forms, the
best known of which are the plants placed in the genera Lepido-
dendron and Sigillaria. These plants, a fuller description of which
must be sought in ths article PALAEOBOTANY: Palaeozoic, under-
went secondary increase in thickness and attained the size of large
trees; the aerial stem was more or less branched dichotomously.
The leaves, which were of simple form and provided with a ligule,
were, as the leaf-scars on the stem show, variously arranged. In
Sigillaria the latter form vertical rows, while in Lepidodendron
the arrangement is a complicated spiral. The stem had a single
stele, the primary xylem of which was polyarch and centripetally
developed. The upright stems were attached to the soil by a
number of dichotomously branched members (Stigmaria), which,
whatever their morphological nature may be, appear to have per-
formed the function of roots: they bore numerous cylindrical appen-
dages, which penetrated the soil on all sides. The cones, which in
some instances at least were heterosporous, presented a general
resemblance to those of Lycopodium and Selaginella, a single sporan-
gium being situated on the upper surface of each sporophyll. The
cavities of the large sporangia were sometimes traversed by trabe-
culae of sterile tissue resembling those found in Isoetes. In some of
the heterosporous forms (Lepidocarppn, Miadesmia) the sporangia
were sometimes surrounded by an integument; and since only a
single megaspore attained maturity, the structure of the mega-
sporangium suggests a comparison with an ovule.
Isoetaceae. The single genus (Isoetes) contains about fifty, mostly
aquatic, species, though a few are amphibious or terrestrial. The
plants present considerable uniformity in general habit, consisting
of a short, unbranched stem, bearing the closely-crowded awl-shaped
leaves, which in the larger species attain the length of a foot. Each
leaf bears a ligule resembling that of Selaginella in structure and
position. The stem is monostelic, the centre of the stele being
occupied by a mass of short tracheides; but little can be said as to
the primary structure of the central cylinder, which appears to be
reduced. A meristematic zone forms a short distance outside the
xylem, from which secondary tissue is developed both internally
and externally ; that to the inside contains both xylem and phloem
elements. By the unequal development of the secondary cortex
the stem becomes two- or three-lobed; the roots, which branch
dichotomously, spring from the furrows between the lobes. The
leaves have a single main bundle, and in the mesophyll are four
longitudinal series of large intercellular spaces separated by trans-
verse diaphragms. The sporangia, which are situated singly on the
adaxial surface of the leaves, between their insertion on the stem and
the ligule, arise from a considerable number of epidermal cells.
The cells composing the young sporangium are at first similar, but
ultimately become differentiated into sterile trabeculae, which may
stretch from the inner to the outer wall, and the mother-cells of the
spores. The latter are more numerous in the microsporangium than
in the megasporangium. The tapetal layer is partly formed from the
sporangia! wall and partly as a layer covering the trabeculae. The
spores, which are set free by the rotting of the sporangia! wall,
germinate much as in the case of Selaginella, though the similarity
may be a case of independent resemblance. Important points of
difference are found in the multiciliate spermatozoids, and in the
embryo, which has no suspensor.
6io
PTERIDOPHYTA
The several orders of Lycopodiales described above, while
presenting a number of features in common, are distinctly
isolated from one another. A natural classification of such
specialized plants can only be obtained when the extinct forms
are more fully known. What is known at present, while it
does not indicate the phytogeny of the Lycopodiales, at least
shows that such living orders as Lycopodiaceae and Selaginel-
laceae cannot be regarded as forming a linear series. The
difficulty is increased when it is borne in mind that the small
surviving forms probably have a long geological history, and may
have coexisted with the Lepidodendraceae. For these reasons
no attempt has been made to arrange the orders in larger divi-
sions, since such a division as that of the ligulate and eligulate
forms, while convenient for practical purposes, may not express
the phylogeny of the group. The Psilotaceae, formerly in-
cluded in the Lycopodiales, have been described separately
owing to their resemblance to the Sphenophyllales. It remains
to be mentioned that the Isoetaceae have been regarded as more
nearly allied to the Filicales than to the former, near which they
are here placed.
V. OPHIOGLOSSALES. The peculiarities of this small order
of Pteridophyta render their systematic position a matter of
doubt, especially in the absence of evidence as to their geological
history, and justify their separation for the present from the other
main natural groups. In the three genera, Ophioglossum,
Botrychium and Helminthoslachys, there is an underground
rhizome, from which one leaf or a few leaves with sheathing bases
are produced annually; the roots arise in more or less definite
relation to the insertion of the leaves. The latter are simple,
or irregularly lobed in Ophioglossum, more or less compoundly
pinnate in Botrychium and palmately pinnate in Helminlhostachys.
The fertile branch or branches are situated on the adaxial surface
of the leaves, and may be simple, as in Ophioglossum (fig. 2, d),
or more or less compound, the degree of branching in the
sterile and fertile segments exhibiting a general parallelism.
The stem is monostelic, the arrangement of the xylem and
phloem being collateral. The endodermis and pericycle
surround the whole stele in Botrychium and Helminthostachys',
in Ophioglossum each bundle has a separate sheath. Well-
marked secondary thickening occurs in Botrychium. In the
roots of Ophioglossum and Botrychium and in the first formed
roots of Helminlhostachys an endophytic fungus is present,
forming a mycorhiza the stele in the larger roots has the usual
radial arrangement of xylem and phloem; monarch roots
occur in Ophioglossum. The morphology of the fertile spike is
a disputed question, upon the answer to which the systematic
position of the Ophioglossaceae largely rests. The spike is most
simple in Ophioglossum, where it bears on each side a row of
large sporangia, which hardly project from the surface, the
vascular bundles occupying a central position. In the young
spike, which arises when the leaf is still very small, a band of
tissue derived from superficial cells is distinguishable along
either side; this sporangiogenic band gives rise to the sporo-
genous groups, the sterile septa between them, and the outer
walls of the sporangia. The spike of Helminthostachys corre-
sponds to that of Ophioglossum, but in it the sporangia are
borne on two lateral rows of branched sporangiophores. The
sporangia themselves resemble those of Botrychium, which project
from the ultimate subdivisions of the branched spike; each is
developed from a number of cells, the sporogenous tissue arising
from a single cell. Two diverse views of the morphology of
the fertile spike in these plants have been entertained. The
older view was that it was a fertile segment of the leaf; and
though its ventral position presents a difficulty, this must be
regarded as a possible explanation; the occasional occurrence
of sporangia on the lamina in Botrychium has been regarded as
supporting it. On the other hand, the spike has been ex-
plained as due to the elaboration of a single sporangium
occupying a similar position with regard to the leaf as in the
Lycopodiales, and evidence of considerable weight has been
brought forward in support of this interpretation. The im-
portant bearing of this question on the relationship of the
Ophioglossaceae to the phyla of the Filicales and Lycopodiales
will be obvious.
The position of the fertile spike in relation to the leaf corresponds
to that of the synangium or sporangiophores in the Psilotales and
Sphenophyllales. The Ophioglossaceae are homosporous, and the
prothalli, which are known in species of all three genera, are sub-
terranean and saprophytic (fig. i, f, g). The prothallus of 0.
pedunculosum, as observed by Mettenius, subsequently reached the
surface and produced green lobes; those of the other species known
are wholly saprophytic, and contain an endophytic fungus. Those
of Ophioglossum are cylindrical, while the dorsiventral prothallus
of Botrychium bears the sexual organs on the upper surface. They
present a general, but probably homoplastic, resemblance to the
saprophytic prothalli of certain Lycopodia. Important points of
difference exist, however, in the apical position of the menstera
of the Ophioglossaceous prothalli, in the presence of a basal cell to
the archegonium, and in the multiciliate spermatozoids. In these
respects, in the megaphyllous habit and in certain anatomical
features, the Ophioglossaceae approach the Filicales. Some species
ot Botrychium have recently been found to have embryos provided
with a suspensor. The position of the Ophioglossaceae can at
present only be regarded as an open question, in considering which
the possible antiquity of the group must be borne in mind.
VI. FILICALES. This group of Pteridophyta differs from the
others in being well represented in our present flora by forms,
many of which can be regarded not as archaic types which
have persisted to the present day, but as having been evolved
in comparatively recent periods. The Ferns exhibit a wide
range in size from the minute epiphytic Hymenophyllaceae,
with leaves barely a centimetre in length, to gigantic tree-ferns
80 ft. or more in height. A general characteristic of their habit
is the large size of the leaves, which are often highly compound,
relatively to the stem. Some ferns have a longer or shorter
erect stem often clothed by the persistent bases of the leaves;
in others the stem creeps on the surface of the substratum or is
subterranean. Its surface is clothed with filamentous or scaly
hairs (paleae), which protect the growing point; and adventi-
tious roots spring from it. The position of the branches varies
in the group; they are only exceptionally axillary (Hymenophyl-
laceae, Botryopterideae). The anatomy of the stele in the stem
exhibits on the whole a progression from a solid protostele
through a tubular solenostele to one or more circles of separate
steles derived by the breaking up of the solenostele. The leaf-
traces usually interrupt the continuity of
the stele of the axis on their departure.
The sporangia are borne in groups (sori)
on the under surface of the leaves; some-
times the fertile leaves differ more or less
from the purely vegetative ones. The
form of the sorus and the structure of
the sporangium are of great systematic
importance. The sorus is frequently pro-
tected by an outgrowth from the surface
or margin of the leaf called the indusium.
Heterospory is only known in the Hydro-
pterideae. The prothallus developed
from the spore is green and in most
cases dorsiventral, bearing the archegonia
and antheridia on the under surface.
Some of the more striking adaptive
modifications in the gametophyte and
sporophyte, and certain effects of al-
tered external conditions which have
been ascertained experimentally, may be
briefly mentioned. The dorsiventrality
of the prothallus has been shown to
depend mainly on the illumination, the
filamentous form being retained in feeble
light ; a similar result is obtained when the (From strasburger's
prothalli are cultivated in water. These ' bttc * d " *'*"'">
facts may have a bearing on the filamen- ^/^f ff" ,"""
tous prothalli of some Hymenophyllaceae. size.)
The reproduction of the prothallus by
gemmae in species of Trichomanes, Vitlaria and Monogramme is
another interesting adaptation; the prothallus of Gymnogramme
PTERIDOPHYTA
611
leptophyllti is perennial, the sporophyte being annually borne on it.
The phenomena of apogamy and apospory which have now been
veil in a number of Ferns, may be mentioned here. In
the former the prothallus produces one or more fern-plants
vegetatively, the projection which develops into the sporophyte
in many cases occupying the position of an archegonium. In
some apogamous Ferns sporangia may occur on the prothallus
and the vegetative organs of the sporophyte may also occur
singly. In apospory the converse phenomenon is seen, the
gametophyte springing vegetatively from the sporangium, re-
ceptacle of the sorus, or leaf-marpin of the fern-plant. In a
number of cases; though not in all, apospory appears to be
. orrelated with a failure of the sporangia to develop.
(From Strasburger's Lthrbuch der Botanik.)
FIG. 7. Nephrodium filix-mas.
.!, I'roth.illus viewed from the lower surface; or, archegonia;
an. ;intheridia; rh, rhizoids (much enlarged).
K, Prothallus tearing a young fern plant; b, first leaf; vr,
primary root. (X 8.)
The adaptations in the vegetative organs of the sporophyte are
similar to those in the Flowering Plants. Thus there are a few
Ferns which climb, others are
water plants, while many, es-
pecially those which live as
epiphytes, are more or less xero-
phytic. Some of the epiphytic
forms (Polypodium quercifolium,
Platycerium) have strongly di-
morphic leaves, the sterile leaves
serving in some cases to catch
falling debris, and thus to provide
the plant with soil. Lastly, the
symbiotic relation between the
plant and ants is found in Ferns,
the rhizome of Polypodium car-
Vic. 8. Polypodium vulgare. nosum containing cavities in-
.1. Mature aiuheridium. habited by these insects. The
B, Empty antheridium; p, existence of these myrmecophilous
prothdli.il cell; i, 2, cells of Ferns suggests a possible explana-
nthendul walls; 3, cap cell. u f th nectaries on the leaves
( . D. Spermatozoids. , . ,
(A, B X 240; C, D X 540.) of some other species, such as the
Common Bracken.
The main existing groups of the Filicaceae may now be briefly
described, with special reference to the characters of gametophyte
and sporophyte, which have been found of value in determining
affinities.
Marattiaceae. These are ferns of considerable size, the large
It -.u <-. of \\hich are borne on a short, erect, swollen stem (Angioptens,
Maratlia), or arise from a more or less horizontal rhizome (Danaea,
Kaulfussia). The leaves, at the base of which are two large stipule-
like outgrowths, have a thick leaf-stalk, and are simple or simply
pinnate in Danaea, pinnate in Archangiopteris , bi- to tri-pinnate
in Marattia and Angiopteris, and digitately lobed in Kaiilfussia.
The stem, from the ground tissue of which sclerenchyma is absent,
has a complicated system of steles arranged in concentric circles;
the thick roots, the central cylinders of which have several alter-
nating groups of xylem and phloem, arise in relation to these. The
pinnae, except in a few filmy forms, are thick; in Kaulfussia large
Strasburger's Lekrbuch
der Bolanik.)
pores derived from stomata occur in the epidermis. The son are
borne on the under surface of the pinnae, usually in a single row on
either side of the midrib, but in Kaulfussia dotted over the expanded
lamina. The large sporangia, each of which originates from a
numtar of superficial cells, are here incompletely separated from one
another and arranged in a single circle forming a synangium. The
(From Strasburger's Lehrtnuh der Bolanik.)
FIG. 9. Polypodium vulgare.
A, Unopened archegonium; o, ovum; k", ventral canal cell; k',
neck-canal-cell.
B, Mature opened archegonium. ( X 240.)
association is closest in Danaea, where the individual sporangia of
the elongated sorus, which is sunk in a depression of the leaf, open
by pores; in Marattia and Kaulfussia (fig. 2, e) they dehisce by slits
on the inner face; while in Angiopteris (fig. 2, /) they are almost
free from one another. The spores produce a green prothallus of
large size, the sexual organs of which hardly project from the surface.
The cotyledon and stem grow up vertically through the prothallus,
the root turning downwards into the soil.
Osmundaceae. The two genera of this group, Osmunda and
Todea, have thick erect stems, covered with the closely crowded leaf
bases. The stem is monostelic, the vascular tissues being separated
into curved groups comparable with collateral vascular bundles,
which surround the pith. The somewhat thick roots are diarch.
The leaves are large and pinnate; their lamina is usually thick,
though filmy species of Todea occur. The leaf-base shows indica-
tions of stipular outgrowths. In Todea the sori, each of which
consists of a single circle of bulky sporangia, are borne on the under
surface of the pinnae. In Osmunda the region of the leaf which
bears the sporangia has its lamina little developed ; the leaf thus
bears sterile and fertile pinnae, or, as in O. cinnamomea, sterile and
fertile leaves may be present. The sporangia originate from single
cells, though surrounding cells may contribute to the formation of the
stalk. The latter is thick and short, and the wall of the sporangium,
which opens by a median slit, has a group of thick-walled cells at
the summit, forming the annulus. The prothalli are similar to those
of the other Filicaceae, but more massive; the same may be said
of the archegonia and antheridia, which, however, project more than
in the preceding group.
Schizaeaceae. The anatomy of the stem differs in the four recent
genera of this order, and presents a series possibly illustrating the
origin of a number of concentric steles from a solid stele, the inter-
mediate step being represented by those forms in which the central
cylinder is tubular. The sporangia are borne singly or in sori of two
or three on the margin or under surface of leaves, the fertile pinnae of
which differ more or less from the sterile segments. The sporangium
is of considerable size, and dehisces by a median slit, the annulus
being a more or less definitely limited horizontal ring of cells near
the apex. The prothallus and sexual organs may resemble those
of the Polypodiaceae; in Aneimia and Mohria the prothallus, though
flattened, is not bilaterally symmetrical, the growing point being on
one side; a filamentous type of prothallus is known in Schizaea.
Gleicheniaceae. These forms have a horizontal rhizome, from
which simply pinnate leaves arise in Platyzoma, while Gleichenia
bears compound pinnate leaves with continued apical growth. The
rhizome usually has a solid central cylinder inCleifhenia, while that
of Platyzoma is tubular. The sporangia arise simultaneously in the
sorus, which is borne on the under surface of the ordinary pinna;
in those species with large sporangia the latter form a single circle,
in others sporangia may also arise from the central part of the
receptacle. The annulus is horizontal and the dehiscence median.
The prothalli, while resembling those of the Polypodiaceae, have
points of similarity with those of the preceding groups.
Matoniaceae. This contains the single genus Matonia, two species
of which are known from the eastern tropics. They are of special
interest, since they have been shown to be the surviving forms of
a group species which have been identified from Jurassic and
Cretaceous rocks. The living species have a long rhizome, from the
upper surface of which the large leaves arise; these are branched
in a pedate manner, each branch being pinnate. The structure of
the rhizome is complicated, a transverse section showing that the
centre may be occupied by a solid stele, outside of which are two
tubular steles. The sori are borne on the under surface of the pinnae,
6l2
PTERIDOPHYTA
each consisting of a single series of large sporangia covered by a
coriaceous indusium, which is attached to the central part of the
receptacle. The sporangium, which corresponds on the whole
to that of the Gleicheniaceae, has a somewhat oblique annulus; the
dehiscence also is not truly median. The gametophyte is unknown.
Loxsomaceae. The single genus Loxsoma has a tubular stele in
its rhizome, which bears leaves resembling those of some Davallias.
The elongated receptacle of the marginal sori is surrounded by a
basal cup-shaped indusium. The sporangia, which arise in basipetal
succession on the receptacle, dehisce by a median slit, though the
annulus is somewhat oblique ; they have resemblances to the Gleich-
eniaceae. When mature, the sporangia are raised above the margin of
the indusium by the elongation of the receptacle, thus facilitating
the dispersion of the spores. The gametophyte is- unknown.
Hymenophyllaceae. This group, which contains the two genera
Hymenophyllum and Trichomanes, is characterized by the prevalent
" filmy texture of the leaves. Many of. the species inhabit
situations in which the air is constantly moist, especially in the
tropics; some are terrestrial; others, some of which are very minute,
are epiphytic on tree-stems. A single solid central cylinder is found
in the rhizome. The sori, which are marginal, have a long receptacle,
bearing the sporangia in basipetal succession, and are surrounded
by a cup-shaped indusium. The sporangia present a considerable
range in size, the largest being found in species of Hymenophyllum,
the smallest in Trichomanes. Each has an almost horizontal
annulus resembling that of Gleichenia, but the dehiscence is lateral.
The gametophyte in Hymenophyllum is flat and variously lobed;
that of Trichomanes may be simjlar, but in other species is filamentous.
The archegonia and antheridia present points of similarity to those
of the Gleicheniaceae.
Cyatheaceae. This order includes the majority of existing tree-
ferns, as well as some of smaller size. The stem has a ring of flattened
steles. The sorus has a somewhat elongated receptacle, on which
the sporangia arise basipetally; the indusium may be cup-shaped,
bivalve or wanting. The dehiscence of the sporangium is almost
transverse, as in the Polypodiaceae, but the annulus is slightly
oblique. The prothalli correspond to those of the next group.
Polypodiaceae. -This group, which contains the remaining ferns,
includes a number of distinct lines of descent and will doubtless
require subdivision as our knowledge of the morphology of the genera
classed in it becomes extended. Space will not allow of an account
of the progress already made in this direction. The stem in the more
primitive forms has a tubular stele (solenostele) ; for the most part
two to many steles, arranged in a ring (dictyostele). In a number of
genera, which there is reason to regard as relatively primitive,
the sporangia show the same regular basipetal succession as in some
of the preceding groups; in the great majority, however, the succes-
sion is not regular, but those of various ages are intermixed in the
sorus (fig. 2, g). The sporangia dehisce by a transverse slit, the
annulus being truly vertical or, in some of the genera in which they
are regularly arranged, very slightly oblique. The structure of the
prothallus and sexual organs will be evident from figs. 7, 8 and 9;
some of the more interesting modifications have been referred to
above.
Our knowledge of the extinct Filicales cannot be readily
summarized, since it is in a transition state, owing to the recent
evidence which has shown that many of the fern-like plants of
the Palaeozoic period belonged to a group of seed-bearing plants
derived from a filicineous ancestry. There is, however, abundant
evidence that the Ferns were represented in the most ancient
floras known, though they were not such a dominant group as
has hitherto been supposed. The best known of these ancient
Ferns belong to the Botryopterideae; the characters of this
group point to its having been the starting-point of several series
of existing Ferns (see PALAEOBOTANY: Palaeozoic).
A consideration of the Filicaceae as arranged above will show
that the several sub-orders may in general terms be said to form
a series between those in which the sorus consists of a single
circle of bulky sporangia and those Polypodiaceae in which the
numerous small sporangia appear to be grouped without order
in the sorus. When the survey is extended to the extinct Ferns
of which the fructification is known, many of those from the
more ancient rocks are found to group themselves with the exist-
ing sub-orders with large sporangia, such as the Marattiaceae,
Gleicheniaceae and Schizaeaceae; the Polypodiaceae, on the
other hand, do not appear until much later. The extinct forms
cannot be dealt with in detail here; but it may be pointed out
that their order of appearance affords a certain amount of direct
evidence that the existing Ferns with a single circle of large
sporangia in the sorus are relatively primitive. The series
which can be constructed from a study of the sorus is in general
supported by the anatomy of the sporophyte, and by the
structure and sexual organs of the gametophyte. A more detailed
investigation of all the characters of the Ferns will be needed
before the course of evolution thus broadly indicated can be
traced, but the results obtained afford a deeper insight into the
general method of progression and the selective factors in the
process. On the ground mainly of an examination of the sorus
and sporangium, Bower has shown that the Filicaceae may be
divided into three groups the Simplices, Gradatae and Mixlae
in which the sporangia arise simultaneously, in basipetal
succession, or irregularly in the sorus respectively. The first
includes the Marattiaceae, Osmundaceae, Schizaeaceae, Gleicheni-
aceae and Matoniaceae; the second the Loxsomaceae, Hymeno-
phyllaceae, Cyatheaceae and the Dennstaedtineae (a group
including species placed in the Synopsis Filicum in Dicksonia
and Davallia) ; while the remaining Polypodiaceae constitute the
Mixtae. The change from the one type of sorus to the other
may have taken place in several different lines of descent, some
of which have been traced. A consideration of the biology of
the sorus gives an insight into the advantages obtained by the
one type over the preceding, as regards protection, spore pro-
duction and the dispersal of _ the spores, and thus indicates the
way in which natural selection may have acted. The differences
in the form and mode of dehiscence of the sporangia (those of
the Simplices having median dehiscence and a horizontal annulus,
those of the Gradatae a more or less oblique position of the
annulus and of the plane of dehiscence, while in the Mixtae the
annulus is vertical and the dehiscence transverse) stand in rela-
tion to the position of the sporangia in the sorus relatively to
one another. The application of the important criteria which
Bower has thus pointed out to the construction of a strictly
phylogenetic classification of the Filicaceae cannot be made
until the anatomy, the sexual generation and the palaeobotanical
evidence have been further examined from this point of view.
Though on this account and because the subdivisions Simplices,
Gradatae and Mixtae do not correspond to definite phylogenetic
groups, they have not been used in classifying the Ferns above;
they are of great importance as an advance towards a natural
classification.
HYDROPTERIDEAE. Two very distinct orders of hetero-
sporous Filicales, the Salviniaceae and the Marsiliaceae, are in-
cluded in this group. The difficulty of determining their exact
relationship to the other orders of Ferns is increased by the more
or less completely aquatic habit of the plants and the modifica-
tions and reductions in structure associated with this. The
absence of an annulus from their indehiscent sporangia makes it
impossible to compare them with the other Ferns in respect of
this important character. It has been suggested with con-
siderable probability that the Marsiliaceae are allied to the
Schizaeaceae, while the Salviniaceae may possibly be related to
the Hymenophyllaceae or to some other family of the Gradatae.
Space will only permit of a brief general account of the more
obvious features of the several genera, the structure and life-
history of which are known in great detail. Unlike as they are
in many respects, the two orders agree in being heterosporous.
The microspores on germination produce a small, greatly reduced
male prothallus bearing one or two antheridia which give rise to
a number of spirally coiled, multiciliate spermatozoids. The
single large megaspore contained in each megasporangium pro-
duces a small prothallus, which bears one or a few archegonia;
these are exposed on the surface of the prothallus at the summit
of the germinated megaspore (fig. i, i).
i. The Salviniaceae include the two genera Salvinia (fig. 10) and
Azolla. The small dorsiventral plants are in both cases floating
aquatics. Azolla has roots depending from the lower surface of the
stem into the water, while these organs are completely wanting in
Salvinia, their place being taken functionally by highly divided
leaves borne on the ventral surface of the stem. Nostoc colonies are
constantly present in a special cavity of the dorsal lobe of the leaf in
Azolla. The sporangia in both genera are associated in sori enclosed
by indusia springing from the base of the receptacle. In Salvinia
(fig. 2, h) the sori are borne towards the base of the submerged
leaves, in Azolla on the reduced ventral lobe of the leaf. They consist
either of microspprangia or megasporangia, which are arranged in
basipetal succession on the receptacle. In the megasorus of Azolla
PTERIDOPHYTA
613
there is only the one terminal, functional sporangium. The micro-
spores are united by means of hardened protoplasm into one or
more manses, while the solitary megasporcs have a more or less
complicated episporium.
(Reduced. After BLschoff from Strasburger's
Lehrbuch der Botatuk.)
FIG. 10. Salvinia natans.
A, From the side. B, From above.
2. The Marsiliaceaealso include two genera, Marsilia and Pilularia,
the latter of which is found in Britain. The plants grow as a rule
in marshy places, though some species of Marsilia are xerophytic.
The creeping stem produces roots from the ventral surface and leaves
from the dorsal surface; the leaves when young are circinately coiled.
The leaves are simple and linear in Pilularia, but in Marsilia bear
a pinnate four-lobed lamina. The highly specialized sporocarps are
borne on the basal portions of the leaves, as a rule singly, but in some
species of Marsilia in numbers. The development of the sporocarp
snows that it corresponds to a pinna, although when mature it may
appear to occupy a -ventral position in relation to the vegetative
portion of the leaf. It has a complicated structure in both genera;
in Pilularia its shape is nearly spherical, while in Marsilia it is elon-
gated and bean-shaped. The sori are developed in depressions and
are thus protected within the resistent outer wall of the sporocarp.
There are usually four sori in Pilularia, while in Marsilia they form
two longitudinal rows. Each sorus includes both microsporangia,
with numerous spores, and megasporangia, each of which contains
a single megaspore with a complicated wall. Enclosed within the
sporocarp they can endure a period of drought, but on the return
of moist conditions are extruded from the sporocarp by the swelling
of a special mucilaginous tissue and the spores become free. The
development of the prothalli is in general similar to that of the
S.ilviniureae, though the resemblance may behomoplastic. The stem
in the less reduced forms is solenostelic with sclerenchymatous ground
tissue occupying the centre of the stele.
In the absence of direct evidence from Palaeobotany, and
bearing in mind the modifications associated with adaptation
to an aquallw life in other plants, the recognition of any more
definite affinity for these heterosporous ferns than that indicated
above appears to be inadvisable. Further evidence is necessary
before they can be removed from such a position of convenience
as is assigned to them here and placed in proper relation to the
series of the Filicaceae.
The several phyla of Pteridophyta having now been briefly
described, their relationship to one another remains for con-
Phyhgeay sideration. The available evidence does not suffice
to solve this question, although certain indications
exist. In the earliest land vegetations of which we have any
sufficient record specialized forms of Equisetales, Lycopodiales,
Sphenophyllales and Filicales existed, so that we are reduced to
hypotheses founded on the careful comparison of the recent and
extinct members of these groups. In this connexion it may be
pointed out that the fuller study of the extinct forms has as yet
been of most use in emphasizing the difficulty of the questions at
issue. It has thus led to a condition of uncertainty as regards the
relationship of the great groups of Vascular Cryptogams, in
which, however, lies the hope of an ultimate approach to a
satisfactory solution. The study of the Sphenophyllales, how-
ever, as has been pointed out above, appears to indicate that
the Equisetales and Lycopodiales may be traced back to a com-
mon ancestry. As to the relationship of the Filicales to the
other phyla, evidence from extinct plants appears to be wanting.
If, as has been suggested by Bower, the strobiloid types are
relatively primitive, the large-leaved Pteridophyta must be
supposed to have arisen early from such forms. The question
cannot be discussed fully here, but enough has been said above
to show that in the light of our present knowledge the main
phyla of the Vascular Cryptogams cannot be placed in any serial
relationship to one another.
It may even be regarded as an open question whether some of
them may not have arisen independently and represent parallel
lines of evolution from Bryophytic or Algal forms. This leads
us to consider the question whether any indications exist
as to the manner in which the Pteridophyta arose. It will be
evident that no direct record of this evolution can be expected,
and recourse must be had to hypotheses founded on the indirect
evidence available. There appears to be no reason to doubt
that the sexual generation is homologous with the thallus of a
Liverwort, or of such an Alga as Coleochaete. It is with regard
to the origin of the spore-bearing generation of the Pteridophyta
that differences of opinion exist. This, though at first depen-
dent on the prothallus, soon becomes independent. It may be
regarded as derived from a wholly dependent sporogonium not
unlike that of some of the simpler Bryophyta; the latter are
assumed to have arisen from primitive Algal forms, in which, as
the first step in the interpolation of the second generation in
the life cycle, the fertilized ovum gave rise to a group of swarm
spores, each of which developed into a new sexual plant. On
this view the origin of the sporophyte is looked for in the gradual
development of sterile tissue in the generation arising from the
fertilized ovum, and a consequent postponement of spore-forma-
tion. Certain green Algae (e.g. Oedogonium, Coleochaete), the
Bryophyta, and the simpler Pteridophyta, such as Phyllo-
glossum, have been regarded as illustrating the method of
progression, though there is no reason to regard the existing
forms as constituting an actual series. For a discussion of
this view, which regards the alternation of generations in
Pteridophytes as antithetic and the. two generations as
not homologous with one another, reference may be made
to the works of Celakovsky and Bower. Although the anti-
thetic theory is supported by many facts regarding the life-
history and structure of the group of plants under consideration,
it is quite possible that a stage in which the sporophyte was
wholly dependent on the gametophyle may never have been
passed through in their evolution. The spore-bearing genera-
tion may throughout its phylogenetic history have been inde-
pendent at one part of its life, and have been derived by
modification of individuals homologous with those of the sexual
generation, and not by the progressive sterilization of a structure
the whole of which was originally devoted to asexual reproduc-
tion. A number of facts regarding the Algae, and also those
relating to such deviations from the normal life cycle as apogamy
or apospory, may be regarded as lending support to this view,
which, in contrast to the theory of antithetic alternation, has
been called that of homologous alternation. Without entering
further into the discussion of these alternative theories, for
which the literature of the subject must be consulted, it may be
pointed out that on the latter view the strobiloM forms of
Pteridophyta would not necessarily be regarded as primitive
relatively to the large-leaved forms, and also that the early stages
of the origin of the sporophyte in the two cases may have pro-
ceeded on different lines.
Another question of great interest, which can only be touched
upon here and may fitly close the consideration of this division
of the Vegetable Kingdom, concerns the evidence as to the
derivation of higher groups from the Pteridophyta. The most
important positive evidence on this point indicates that the most
ancient Gymnosperms were derived from the Filicales rather
than from any other phylum of the Vascular Cryptogams.
Extinct forms are known intermediate between the Ferns and
the Cycads, and a number of these have been shown to bear seeds
and must be classed as Pteridospermae. These forms will,
however, be found discussed in the articles treating of extinct
plants and the Gymnosperms, but their recognition will serve
614
PTEROBRANCHIA
to emphasize, in conclusion, the important position the Pterido-
phyta hold with regard to the existing flora.
Cultivation. Numerous species of ferns, both temperate and
tropical, are cultivated as valued ornamental plants. Species of the
other groups are occasionally grown for scientific purposes in the
larger botanic gardens, but their cultivation, which often presents
special difficulties, need not be referred to here. While a number of
ferns can be multiplied vegetatively, by buds formed on the leaves
and in other ways, the regular mode of propagation is by sowing the
spores shed from the ripe sporangia. The spores should be thinly
sprinkled on the surface of the soil in well-drained pots, which should
stand in saucers filled with water and be covered with glass plates.
After the prothalli have attained some size and bear sexual organs
the pots should be occasionally sunk in water so as to flood the pro-
thalli for a few minutes and facilitate fertilization. The young
plants developed on the prothalli should be carefully pricked out
into other pans and later transferred to 3-in. pots. When the pots
are fairly filled with roots the plants may be shifted into larger ones.
The best time for a general repotting of ferns is in spring, just
before growth commences. Those with creeping rhizomes can be
propagated by dividing these into well-rooted portions, and, if a
number of crowns is formed, they can be divided at that season.
In most cases this can be performed with little risk, but the Glei-
chenias, for example, must only be cut into large portions, as small
divisions of the rhizomes are almost certain to die; in such cases,
however, the points of the rhizomes can be led over and layered into
small pots, several in succession, and allowed to remain unsevered
from the parent plant until they become well rooted. In potting
the well-established plants, and all those of considerable size, the
soil should be used in a rough turfy state, not sifted but broken,
and one-sixth of broken crocks or charcoal and as much sand as will
insure free percolation should be mixed with it.
The stove ferns require a day temperature of 65 to 75, but do
not thrive in an excessively high or close dry atmosphere. They
require only such shade as will shut out the direot rays of the sun,
and, though abundant moisture must be supplied, the atmosphere
should not be loaded with it. The water used should always be at
or near the temperature of the house in which the plants are growing.
Some ferns, as the different kinds of Gymnogrammae and Ctieilanthes,
prefer a drier atmosphere than others, and the former do not well
bear a lower winter temperature than about 60 by night. Most
other stove ferns, if dormant, will bear a temperature as low as
55 by night and 60 by day from November to February. About
the end of the latter month the whole collection should be turned
out of the pots and redrained or repotted into larger pots as required.
This should take place before growth has commenced. Towards
the end of March the night temperature may be raised to 60, and
the day temperature to 70 or 75, the plants being shaded in bright
weather. Such ferns as Gymnogrammas, which have their surface
covered with golden or silver powder, and certain species of scaly-
surfaced Cheilanlhes and Nothochlaena, as they cannot bear to have
their fronds wetted, should never be syringed ; but most other ferns
may have a moderate sprinkling occasionally (not necessarily daily)
and as the season advances sufficient air and light must be admitted.
AUTHORITIES. Scott, Structural Botany: Flowerless Plants
(London, 1896), Studies in Fossil Botany (Edinburgh, 1900) ;* Camp-
bell, Mosses and Ferns (London, 1895);* Engler and Prantl, Die
naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Theil i. Abth. 4.; Leipzig, 1898-1902);
Bower, The Origin of a Land Flora (London, 1908); Goebel, Organo-
graphy of Plants (Oxford, 1905) ; Hooker and Baker, Synopsis
Filicum (London, 1874); Baker, Fern Allies (London, 1887); Christ,
Die F,ankrduter der Erde (Jena, 1897); Seward, Fossil Botany, vol. i.
(Cambridge, 1898). In those works marked with an asterisk copious
references to the recent literature of the subject will be found.
(W. H. L.)
PTEROBRANCHIA, a zoological group established by Ray
Lankester in 1877. It contained at that time the single genus
Rhabdopleura, a minute animal dredged by Sars off the Lofoten
Islands, and by Norman off the Shetlands. Rhabdopleura was
at first regarded as an aberrant Polyzoon, but with the publica-
tion of the Challenger Report (Cephalodiscus) in 1887, it became
clear that Cephalodiscus, the second genus now included in the
order, had affinities in the direction of the Enteropneusta. The
connexion of the Pterobranchia with the Polyzoa is in the highsst
degree questionable.
Rhabdopleura is no doubt of world-wide distribution, since it
has been recorded in various localities from Greenland to South
Australia, usually in water of not less than forty fathoms.
Cephalodiscus, which for many years was known solely as the
result of a single dredging by the " Challenger " from 245 fathoms
in the Straits of Magellan, has recently been found in entirely
different parts of the world, as for instance between Japan and
Korea at 100 fathoms, at about half that depth off the south-east
coast of Celebes, and between tide-marks on the coast of Borneo.
It appears to be common in the neighbourhood of Cape Town,
while the recent Antarctic expeditions have shown that it occurs
in various localities from the Falkland Islands to the Antarctic-
circle. No less than twelve species, referred to three sub-genera
(Demiolhecia, Idiothecia, Orlhoecus), have now been described;
but it is at present uncertain whether more than a single species
of Rhabdopleura is valid, although several specific names have
been suggested for specimens from different localities.
Both genera are characterized by their habit of secreting a
tubular gelatinoid investment, the "coenoecium," composed of
a number of superposed lamellae, doubtless the result of its
intermittent secretion, mainly though perhaps not exclusively, by
the proboscides of the zooids. In Rhabdopleura each zooid forms
its own delicate tube composed of a characteristic series of distinct
rings. In Cephalodiscus the coenoecium is more massive, and
may contain a continuous irregular cavity in which the zooids
live (Demiothecia) , or may be secreted in such a way that each
zooid has its own independent tube (Idiolhecia, Orthoecus).
The zooids are a modification of the type of structure known
in Balanoglossus, from which they differ principally in the follow-
ing respects: (i.) The alimentary canal, instead of being straight,
has a U-shaped flexure, the dorsal line between the mouth and
the anus being short, (ii.) The proboscis (fig. I, b), known as
the " buccal shield," is a large organ, strongly flattened in an
(From a drawing by Professor Mclntosh.)
FIG. i. Zooid of Cepltalodiscus dodecalophus (X 50).
a, a, Buds. d, Arms and tentacles.
b, Proboscis. e, Ventral edge of proboscis.
c, Stalk. f, Its dorsal edge.
antero-posterior direction, its ventral lobe usually concealing the
mouth, (iii.) The collar is produced dprsally into arms (one pair
in Rhabdopleura, four to eight pairs in Cephalodiscus), each of
which bears numerous ciliated tentacles, the organs by which the
microscopic food-particles are conveyed to the mouth, (iv.) The
third division of the body, the metasome, is prolonged ventrally
into a relatively enormous outgrowth containing the loop of the
alimentary canal, beyond which projects a stalk (fig. I, c), of a
length varying with the state of contraction and perhaps with the
species, (v.) The stalk gives rise to buds, by which the colonial
habit is acquired. While in Rhabdopleura the buds remain in
organic continuity with the parent, in Cephalodiscus they become
free at an early stage, and the coenoecium accordingly contains a
number of separate individuals. In' the living Cephalodiscus a zooid
can crawl by means of its proboscis over the gelatinous processes
of the outer side of the coenoecium, a position which it can assume
owing to the very great extensibility of the stalk, the proximal
suctorial end of which remains attached to the inner surface of
some part of the coenoecium (Andersson, 1907).
In correspondence with the fundamental constitution of the zooid,
each of the three segments has its own body-cavity separated from
the others. The main proboscis-cavity (fig. 2, b.c. 1 ) is unpaired,
and opens to the exterior by the two proboscis pores (p.p.). It
contains a closed vesicle regarded by.Schepotieflf as a right proboscis-
cavity and in any case representing the pericardium of Balanoglossus,
the glomerulus of which is also probably represented. The collar-
cavity (b.c.-) is paired, although its ventral mesentery is not complete.
It extends into the arms, which originate in the bud (fig. i) as dorsal
outgrowths of the collar. The ventral and lateral parts of the anterior
PTEROBRANCHIA
615
margin of the collar constitute the so-called operculum (op.), a.
structure which not only acts as a lower lip, but must be important
in separating the food-current produced by the cilia of the tentacles
from the external apertures of the collar-canals and gill-slits. The
rullar-canals (fig. 3, c.p.) are a pair of ovoid organs which open from
the collar-cavity to the exterior, their external pores lying immedi-
ately behind the base of the operculum.
PP
n s
a,
cvd
or
b.c>.
uvb -'
(Attcr Harracr.)
FIG. 2. Median (sagittal) section of Cephalodiscus dodecalophus.
a. Anus. op., Operculum, or ventral lip.
6.c 1 ., Body-cavity of proboscis. ov., Ovary.
b.c*., Of collar. ovd., Oviduct.
b.c'.. Of mctasome. ph.. Pharynx.
int., Intestine. p.p., Proboscispore.
m.. Mouth. p.s., Proboscis.
nth., Notochord. St., Stomach.
n.s.. Central nervous system. stk.. Stalk.
oes.. Oesophagus.
\\'hile it is not improbable that the collar-pores and the proboscis-
pores may evacuate excretory substances, there can be little doubt
that their primary function is to regulate the turgidity of the seg-
ment to which they respectively belong. A pair of gill-slits
(fig- 3= g- s -), which do not occur in Rhabdopleura, open immediately
In-hind the collar-pores. It is probable that they serve to strain off
the superfluous water which is introduced into the mouth during
the process of feeding. An anterior median diverticulum of the
pharynx (fig. 2, nch.), growing forwards in the septum between
the proboscis-cavity and the collar-cavities, and supported dorsally
by the median mesentery of the collar, is the representative of
the so-called notochord or stomochord of Balanoglossus ; and
if the view that this organ is really a notochord is well founded,
it may be regarded as the homologue of the anterior end of the
Vrriebrate notochord.
The metasome contains nearly the whole of the alimentary
1. in which pharynx (fig. 2, ph.), oesophagus (oes.), stomach (st.)
and intestine (int.) may be distinguished. The remarkable position
of the anus (a) on the dorsal side has already been alluded to.
The metasomatic cavities are divided by dorsal (fig. 3, d.mes.) and
ventral mesenteries, the latter following the outer curvature of the
loop of the alimentary canal. The most conspicuous blood vessel
possessed by Cephalodiscus is the dorsal vessel (d.b.v.). A ventral
vessel occurs on the anterior side of the mctasome and forms a loop
'"ling down the entire length of the stalk, while a " heart '
projects into the cavity of the pericardium, probably connected on
the ventral side of the notochord with the ventral vessel, and on
its dorsal side with the dorsal vessel. At their opposite ends the
dorsal and ventral vessels arc probably connected with one another
by means of a splanchnic sinus surrounding the stomach. The
original specimen of C. dodecalophus contained exclusively female
zooids, in which a sinele pair of ovaries (figs. 2, 3, ov.) lie in the meta-
somatic cavities, and open to the exterior dorsally by short, highly
rec
pigmented oviducts (fig. 2, ovd.). In C. nigrescens and in some other
species a zooid may contain a pair of ovaries, a pair of testes, or
an ovary and a testis, although the males, females and herma-
phrodites do not differ from one another in external characters.
In C. sibogae (Celebes) the single colony known is of the male sex.
The reproductive individuals have undergone an extraordinary
simplification of the organs concerned with the collection and diges-
tion of food. Thus the
arms are reduced to a single
pair and possess no tenta-
cles, there is no definite
operculum, and the alimen-
tary canal is vestigial. The
testes, which correspond in
position with the ovaries
of a female Cephalodiscus,
constitute the greater part
of the animal. Associated
with these males are neuter
zooids, which usually pos-
sess no functional repro-
ductive organs, but have in
other respects the struc-
ture of an ordinary female
Cephalodiscus. It appears
probable that there is a
vascular connexion be-
tween these and the male
individuals, which thus de-
rive their nutriment from
the neuters. The reproduc-
tive organs of Rhabdopleura (A(ter Masterman.)
have but seldom been ob-
served They resemble FIG. 3- Sec* 10 " transverse to the
those 'of Cephalodiscus in ' on B axis ol Cephalodiscus dodecalophus
structure and in position, (morphologically a frontal section),
except that in each sex the &.<;., Body cavity of metasome.
gonad occurs on the right c .p. t Collar-canal, above which is
side of the body only seen the operculum.
(Schepotieff, 1906). d.b.v., Dorsal blood-vessel.
The eggs of Cephalodiscus d.mes.,Dorsa\ mesentery,
possess a large amount of e p., Proboscis,
yolk, and it is practically g SM Gill-slit,
certain that there is no fa.'. Intestine,
pelagic larval form. The i x _ c , t Left collar-cavity,
embryos are hatched in an m _ t Mouth,
early stage, but their meta- OT . t
morphosis has not been plch,
observed. The early de-
velopment appears to re-
semble that of the large- r.c.c.,
yolked species of Bala-
noglossus. In the bud-
development, the three-segmented condition is extremely conspicu-
ous, and a striking feature is the great relative size of the proboscis
(fig. i). A considerable part of the alimentary canal is said to be
derived from the ectoderm in the buds of both Cephalodiscus and
Rhabdopleura. Schepotieff (1907) states that in the young buds
of the latter the central part of the alimentary canal is developed
from cells which are apparently not of ectodermic origin.
The affinity of the Pterobranchia to the Enteropneusta may
be regarded as definitely established. Considering the wide
differences between the two groups in the size and external
characters, and in the mode of life, including the mode of feeding,
it is indeed surprising that in every important organ the two
groups should show a fundamental morphological identity.
Their relations to Phoronis are doubtful (see PHOROMDEA).
The question of their affinity to other divisions of the animal
kingdom depends principally on the views which are held with
regard to the relationships of the Enteropneusta and Phoronidea
respectively. The suggestion has been made by Allmann and
recently upheld by Schepotieff that Rhabdopleura is related to
some of the Graptolites.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) Andersson, " Die Pterobranchier," Wiss.
Ergebn.-Schwed. Svdpolar Exp. (1907) vol. v. ; (2) Fowler, " Rhab-
dopleura," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1893), Hi. 132; Festschr. Leuckarts
(1892), p. 293; art. ""Hemichorda, Ency. Brit. (1902), suppl. vols.
xxix. p. 249; Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1905), xlviii. 23; (3) Harmer,
" Appendix to report on Cephalodiscus,' Challenger Rep. (1887),
vol. xx. pt. Ixii. p. 39; " Pterobranchia," Sibona Rep. (1905), Monogr.
vol. xxvi. bis.; (4) Lankester, " Rhabdopleura," Quart. Journ. Mic.
Sci (1884), xxiv. 622; art. " Polyzoa," Ency. Brit., gth ed.
(1885), xix. 430, 434; " Cephalodiscus nigrescens," Proc. Roy.
Soc. (1905), B. Ixxvi. 400; (5) M'Intosh, " Report on Cephalo-
discus," Challenger Rep. (1887), vol. xx. pt. Ixii.; (6) Masterman,
" Cephalodiscus, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1898). xl- 34o;
Ovary.
Vacuolated tissue of pharyngeal
wall, the so-called " pleuro-
chords " of Masterman.
Right collar-cavity.
6i6
PTERODACTYLES PTOLEMIES
(1903), vol. xlvi. 715; " Cephalodiscus: Budding," &c., Tram.
Roy. Soc. Edin. (1900), vol. xxxix. 507; (7) Ridewood, " Cephalo-
discus" Mar. Invest. S. Africa (1906), vol. iv. 173; National
Antarctic Exp., Nat. Hist., ii. (1907) ; Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1907),
vol. ii., 221; (8) G. O. Sars, " Rhabdppleura," Christiania Univ.
Program. (1869), vol. i.; (9) Schepotieff, " Rhabdopleura," Zool.
Jahrb. Abt. Anal. (1906), vol. xxiii., 463; (1907), vol. xxiv., 193;
" Cephalodiscus " (1907), vol. xxiv. 553; " Rhabdopleura and Grapto-
lites," Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral (1905), Bd. ii. p. 79. (S. F. H.)
PTERODACTYLES (Gr. for wing-fingers), an extinct order
of flying reptiles, variously known as Pterosauria (Gr. for
wing-lizards) or Ornithosauria (Gr. for bird-lizards), whose
remains occur in all Mesozoic formations from the Lower
Lias to the Upper Cretaceous inclusive. Their bones are of very
light, though strong construction, and hollow like those of flying
Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus: restoration by O. C. Marsh, showing extent of
flying membranes (} nat. size). Upper Jurassic (Lithographic stone) ; Bavaria.
birds, with well-fitting articulations, quite different from those
of ordinary reptiles. The head is large and remarkably bird-
like in shape, while it is fixed on the neck at the same angle
as in birds. The brain is small, but resembles that of birds in
its general conformation. The trunk is relatively small, with
few slender ribs and a keeled breastbone (sternum). The fore-
limbs are always a pair of wings, the fifth digit or " little " finger
being enormously elongated for the support of a smooth flying
membrane (seen in specimens from the lithographic stone of
Bavaria). The wings are thus constructed on the same plan as
those of a bat, but instead of four fingers, only one is elongated
to bear the membrane. The hind-limbs are comparatively
feeble, and must have been of very little use for walking.
The remains of pterodactyles are found chiefly in marine
deposits, so that these reptiles must have frequented the coast-
lines. They probably fed partly on fish, partly on insects; but
no traces of food have hitherto been observed within the fossil
skeletons. The oldest satisfactorily known member of the group
is Dimorphodon from the Lower Lias of Dorsetshire. The typical
species has a skull about 20 centim. in length, with large teeth
in front, srrlaller teeth behind: its tail is much elongated and
slender. Equally fine skeletons of Campylognaihus have been
found in the Upper Lias of Wiirttemberg. Other long-tailed
pterodactyles occur well preserved in the Upper Jurassic
(lithographic stone) of Bavaria and Wiirttemberg, which is so
fine-grained as to show impressions of the wing-membrane.
In Rhamphorhynchus there is also a rhomboidal expansion of
membrane at the end of the tail. The short-tailed Pterodactylus
itself, sometimes no larger than a sparrow, is also found in the
same formation. It was originally described by Collini in 1784
as an unknown sea-animal, and its true nature was first deter-
mined by Cuvier in 1809, when he named it " Pterodactyle."
The Pterosaurians of the Cretaceous period, just before their
extinction both in Europe and in North America, were of
enormous size, and some became toothless. A pair of wings
of the toothless Pteranodon from the Chalk of Kansas, now in
the British Museum, measures about five and a half metres in
span. Fragments of equally large pterodactyles with teeth are
found in the English Chalk.
See H. G. Seeley, The Ornithosauria (Cambridge, 1870) and
Dragons of the Air (London, 1901) ; S. W. Williston, paper in Kansas
University Quarterly (1897), vi. 35; G. F. Eaton, papers in Amer.
Journ. Science (1903-1904), 4th series, vols. xvi., xvii.
(A. S. Wo.)
PTERON (Gr. irnpbv, a wing), an architectural term used by
Pliny for the peristyle of the tomb of Mausolus, which was
raised on a lofty podium, and so differed from an ordinary
peristyle raised only on a stylobate, as in Greek temples, or on a
low podium, as in Roman temples.
PTOLEMAEUS, of Alexandria, surnamed Chennus, Greek
grammarian during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. According
to Suldas, he was the author of an historical drama named
Sphinx, of an epic, Anthomeros, in 24 books (both lost) and a
Strange History. The last is probably identical with the work
of which an abridgment has been preserved in Photius (cod. 190).
It contains a medley of all sorts of legends and fables belonging
to both the mythological and historical periods. It is probable
that Chennus was also the author of a lost treatise on the life
and works of Aristotle, ascribed to " Ptolemaeus "
in an Arabic list of his works, taken from a
Syriac version of the Greek original (A. Baum-
stark, Aristoteles bei den Syrern vom v.-viii.
Jahrh., Leipzig, 1900).
See editions of Photius's abridgment by J. Roulez
(1834); and in A. Westermann, Mythographi graeci
(1843); R. Hercher, Ober die Glaubwurdigkeit der
neuen Geschichte des Ptolemdus Chennus (Leipzig,
1856); J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship
(and ed., 1906).
PTOLEMIES, a dynasty of Macedonian kings
who ruled in Egypt from -323 to 30 B.C.
The founder, PTOLEMY (IlToXejuaios), son of
Lagus, a Macedonian nobleman of Eordaea, was
one of Alexander the Great's most trusted
generals, and among the seven " body-guards " attached to his
person. He plays a principal part in the later campaigns of
Alexander in Afghanistan and India. At the Susa marriage
festival in 324 Alexander caused him to marry the Persian
princess Artacama; but there is no further mention of
this Asiatic bride in the history of Ptolemy. When Alexander
died in 323 the resettlement of the empire at Babylon is said
to have been made at Ptolemy's instigation. At any rate he
was now appointed satrap of Egypt under the nominal kings
Philip Arrhidaeus and the young Alexander. He at once took a
high hand in the province by killing Cleomenes, the financial
controller appointed by Alexander the Great; he also subju-
gated Cyrenalca. He contrived to get possession of Alexander's
body which was to be interred with great pomp by the imperial
government and placed it temporarily in Memphis. This act led
to an open rupture between Ptolemy and the imperial regent
Perdiccas. But Perdiccas perished in the attempt to invade
Egypt (321). In the long wars between the different Macedonian
chiefs which followed, Ptolemy's first object is to hold his posi-
tion in Egypt securely, and secondly to possess the Cyrenalca,
Cyprus and Palestine (Coele-Syria). His first occupation of
Palestine was in 318, and he established at the same time a
protectorate over the petty kings of Cyprus. When Antigonus,
master of Asia in 315, showed dangerous ambitions, Ptolemy
joined the coalition against him, and, on the outbreak of war,
evacuated Palestine. In Cyprus he fought the partisans of
Antigonus and reconquered the island (313). A revolt of Cyrene
was crushed in the same year. In 312 Ptolemy, with Seleucus,
the fugitive satrap of Babylonia, invaded Palestine and beat
Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, in the great battle of Gaza.
Again he occupied Palestine, and again a few months later,
after Demetrius had won a battle over his general and Antigonus
entered Syria in force, he evacuated it. In 311 a peace was
concluded between the combatants, soon after which the
surviving king Alexander was murdered in Macedonia, leaving
the satrap of Egypt absolutely his own master. The peace did
not last long, and in 309 Ptolemy commanded a fleet in person
which detached the coast towns of Lycia and Caria from Anti-
gonus and crossed to Greece, where Ptolemy took possession
of Corinth, Sicyon and Megara (308). In 306 a great fleet under
Demetrius attacked Cyprus, and Ptolemy's brother, Menelaus,
was defeated and captured in the decisive battle of Salamis.
The complete loss of Cyprus followed. Antigonus and Demetrius
PTOLEMIES
617
now assumed the title of kings; Ptolemy, as well as Cassander,
Lysimachus and Seleucus, answered this challenge by doing the
same. In the winter (306-5) Antigonus tried to follow up the
victory of Cyprus by invading Egypt, but here Ptolemy was
M rung, and held the frontier successfully against him. Ptolemy
led no further expedition against Antigonus overseas. To the
Rhodians, besieged by Demetrius (305-4), he sent such help
as won him divine honours in Rhodes and the surname of Soter
(" saviour ") When the coalition was renewed against Anti-
gonus in 302, Ptolemy joined it, and invaded Palestine a third
time, whilst Antigonus was engaged with Lysimachus in Asia
Minor. On a report that Antigonus had won a decisive victory,
for a third time he evacuated the country. But when news
came that Antigonus had been defeated and skin at Ipsus (301)
by Lysimachus and Seleucus, Ptolemy occupied Palestine for
the fourth time. The other members of the coalition had
assigned Palestine to Seleucus after what they regarded as
Ptolemy's desertion, and for the next hundred years the question
of its ownership becomes the standing ground of enmity between
the Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties. Henceforth, Ptolemy
seems to have mingled as little as possible in the broils of Asia
Minor and Greece; his possessions in Greece he did not retain,
but Cyprus he reconquered in 295-4. Cyrene, after a series of
rebellions, was finally subjugated about 300 and placed under
his stepson Magas (Beloch, Griech. Gesch. III. [ii.], p. 134 seq.).
In 285 he abdicated in favour of one of his younger sons by
Berenice (q.v.), who bore his father's name of Ptolemy; his
eldest (legitimate) son, Ptolemy Ceraunus, whose mother,
Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater, had been repudiated,
fled to the court of Lysimachus. Ptolemy I. Soter died in 283
at the age of 84. Shrewd and cautious, he had a compact and
well-ordered realm to show at the end of fifty years of wars.
His name for bonhomie and liberality attached the floating
soldier-class of Macedonians and Greeks to his service. Nor
did he neglect conciliation of the natives. He was a ready patron
of letters, and the great library, which was Alexandria's glory,
owed to him its inception. He wrote himself a history of
Alexander's campaigns, distinguished by its straightforward
honesty and sobriety.
PTOLEMY II. Philaddphus (309-246), was of a delicate constitu-
tion, no Macedonian warrior-chief of the old style. His brother
Ptolemy Ceraunus found compensation by becoming king in
Macedonia in 281, and perished in the Gallic invasion of 280-79
(see BRENNUS). Ptolemy II. maintained a splendid court in
Alexandria. Not that Egypt held aloof from wars. Magas of
Cyrene opened war on his half-brother (274), and Antiochus I.,
the son of Seleucus, desiring Palestine, attacked soon after.
Two or three years of war left Egypt the dominant naval power
of the eastern Mediterranean; the Ptolemaic sphere of power
extended over the Cyclades to Samothrace, and the harbours
and coast towns of Cilicia Trachea (" Rough Cilicia "), Pam-
phylia, Lycia and Caria were largely in Ptolemy's hands (Theoc.
Idyll, xvii. 86 seq.). The victory won by Antigonus, king of
Macedonia, over his fleet at Cos (between 258-56; see Beloch,
III. [ii.], p. 428 seq.) did not long interrupt his command of the
Aegean. In a second war with the Seleucid kingdom, under
Antiochus II. (after 260), Ptolemy sustained losses on the sea-
board of Asia Minor and agreed to a peace by which Antiochus
married his daughter Berenice (250?). Ptolemy's first wife,
Arsinoe' (I.), daughter of Lysimachus, was the mother of his
legitimate children. After her repudiation he married, probably
for political reasons, his full-sister Arsinoe (II.), the widow of
Lysimachus, by an Egyptian custom abhorrent to Greek
morality. The material and literary splendour of the Alexan-
drian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Pomps and
gay religions flourished. Ptolemy deified his parents as the
Btol dStX^oi, and his sister-wife, after her death (270), as Phila-
delphus. This surname was used in later generations to distin-
guish Ptolemy II. himself, but properly it belongs to Arsinoe"
only, not to the king. Callimachus, made keeper of the library,
Theocritus, and a host of lesser poets, glorified the Ptolemaic
family. Ptolemy himself was eager to increase the library and
to patronize scientific research. He had the strange beasts of far-
off lands sent to Alexandria. But, an enthusiast for Hellenic
culture, he seems to have shown but little interest in the native
religion. The tradition which connects the Septuagint trans-
lation of the Old Testament into Greek with his name is
not historical. Ptolemy had many brilliant mistresses, and
his court, magnificent and dissolute, intellectual and artificial,
has been justly compared with the Versailles of Louis XIV.
PTOLEMY III. Euergetes I. (reigned 246-221), son of Ptolemy
II. and Arsinoe I. At the beginning of his reign he reunited
the Cyrenaica to Egypt by marrying Berenice the daughter and
successor of Magas (who had died about 250). At the same time
he was obliged to open war on the Seleucid kingdom, where
Antiochus II. was dead and his sister Berenice had been mur-
dered, together with her infant son, by Antiochus's former wife,
Laodice, who claimed the kingdom for her son Seleucus II.
Ptolemy marched triumphantly into the heart of the Seleucid
realm, as far at any rate as Babylonia, and received the formal
submission of the provinces of Iran, while his fleets in the Aegean
recovered what his father had lost upon the seaboard, and made
fresh conquests as far as Thrace. This moment marks the
zenith of the Ptolemaic power. After Ptolemy returned home,
indeed, Seleucus regained northern Syria and the eastern
provinces, but the naval predominance of Egypt in the Aegean
remained, although there are traces of its being replaced locally,
towards the end of Euergetes' reign, by that of Macedonia in
Amorgos, Naxos, Syros, Nisyros, Cos and parts of Crete (see
Beloch, III. [ii.], p. 463). After his final peace with Seleucus,
Ptolemy no longer engaged actively in war, although his forces
might occasionally mingle in the broils of Asia Minor, and he
supported the enemies of Macedonia in Greece. It seems
probable that his internal policy differed from his father's in
patronizing the native religion more liberally; he has left larger
traces at any rate among the monuments that are known to-day.
PTOLEMY IV. Philopator (reigned 221-204), son of the pre-
ceding, was a wretched debauchee under whom the decline of the
Ptolemaic kingdom began. His reign was inaugurated by the
murder of his mother, and he was always under the dominion of
favourites, male and female, who indulged his vices and con-
ducted the government as they pleased. Self-interest led his
ministers to make serious preparations to meet the attacks of
Antiochus III. (the Great) on Palestine, and the great Egyptian
victory of Raphia (217), at which Ptolemy himself was present,
secured the province till the next reign. The arming of Egyp-
tians in this campaign had a disturbing effect upon the native
population of Egypt, so that rebellions were continuous for the
next thirty years. Philopator was devoted to orgiastic forms
of religion and literary dilettantism. He built a temple to
Homer and composed a tragedy, to which his vile favourite
Agathocles added a commentary. He married (about 215) his
sister Arsinoe (III.), but continued to be ruled by his mistress
Agathoclea, sister of Agathocles.
PTOLEMY V. Epiphanes reigned 204-181), son of Philopator
and Arsinoe, was not more than five years old when he came
to the throne, and under a series of regents the kingdom was
paralysed. Antiochus III. and Philip V. of Macedonia made a
compact to divide the Ptolemaic possessions overseas. Philip
seized several islands and places in Caria and Thrace, whilst the
battle of Panium (198) definitely transferred Palestine from the
Ptolemies to the Seleucids. Antiochus after this concluded
peace, giving his own daughter Cleopatra to Epiphanes to wife
(193-192). Nevertheless, when war broke out between Antiochus
and Rome Egypt ranged itself with the latter power. Epiphanes
in manhood was chiefly remarkable as a passionate sportsman;
he excelled in athletic exercises and the chase. Great cruelty
and perfidy were displayed in the suppression of the native
rebellion, and some accounts represent him as personally
tyrannical.
The elder of his two sons, PTOLEMY VI. Philometor (181-145),
succeeded as an infant under the regency of his mother Cleo-
patra. Her death was followed by a rupture between the
Ptolemaic and Seleucid courts, on the old question of Palestine.
6i8
PTOLEMY
Antiochus IV. Epiphancs invaded Egypt (170) and captured
Philometor.
The Alexandrians then put his younger brother PTOLEMY VII.
Euergetcs II. (afterwards nicknamed Physkon, on account of his
bloated appearance) upon the throne. Antiochus professed
to support Pliilometor, but, when he withdrew, the brothers
agreed to be joint-kings with their sister Cleopatra as queen and
wife of Philometor. Antiochus again invaded Egypt (168),
but was compelled by the Roman intervention to retire. The
double kingship led to quarrels between the two brothers in
which fresh appeals were continually made to Rome. In 163
the Cyrenaica was assigned under Roman arbitration to Euer-
getes as a separate kingdom. As he coveted Cyprus as well, the
feud still went on, Rome continuing to interfere diplomatically
but not effectively. In 154 Euergetes invaded Cyprus but was
defeated and captured by Philometor. He found his brother,
however, willing to pardon and was allowed to return as king
to Cyrene. In 152 Philometor joined the coalition against the
Seleucid king Demetrius I. and was the main agent in his de-
struction. The protege of the coalition, Alexander Balas, married
Philometor's daughter Cleopatra (Thea), and reigned in Syria
in practical subservience to him. But in 147 Philometor broke
with him and transferred his support, together with the person
of Cleopatra, to Demetrius II., the young son of Demetrius I.
He himself at Antioch was entreated by the people to assume
the- Seleucid diadem, but he declined and installed Demetrius
as king. In 145 in the battle on the Oenoparas near Antioch,
in which Alexander Balas was finally defeated, Philometor
received a mortal wound. Philometor was perhaps the best of
the Ptolemies. Kindly and reasonable, his good nature seems
sometimes to have verged on indolence, but he at any rate took
personal part, and that bravely and successfully, in war.
Philometor's infant son, Ptolemy Philopator Neos (P) 1 , was
proclaimed king in Alexandria under the regency of his mother
Cleopatra. Euergetes however, swooping from Cyrene, seized the
throne and married Cleopatra, making away with his nephew.
He has left an odious picture of himself in the historians a man
untouched by benefits or natural affection, delighting in deeds
of blood, his body as loathsome in its blown corpulence as his
soul. Something must be allowed for the rhetorical habit of
our authorities, but that Euergetes was ready enough to shed
blood when policy required seems true. He soon found a more
agreeable wife than Cleopatra in her daughter Cleopatra, and
thenceforth antagonism between the two queens, the " sister "
and the " wife," was chronic. In 130-1 Cleopatra succeeded
in driving Euergetes for a time to Cyprus, when he revenged
himself by murdering the son whom she had borne him (sur-
named Memphites). Massacres inflicted upon the Alexandrians
and the expulsion of the representatives of Hellenic culture are
laid to his charge. On the other hand, the monument and papyri
show him a liberal patron of the native religion and a considerable
administrator. In fact, while hated by the Greeks, he seems to
have had the steady support of the native population. But
there are also records which show him, not as an enemy, but a
friend, like his ancestors, to Greek culture. He himself published
the fruit of his studies and travels in a voluminous collection of
notebooks, in which he showed a lively eye for the oddities of
his fellow kings. The old Ptolemaic realm was never again a
unity after the death of Euergetes II. By his will he left the
Cyrenaica as a separate kingdom to his illegitimate son Ptolemy
Apion (116-96), whilst Egypt and Cyprus were bequeathed to
Cleopatra (Kokke) and whichever of his two sons by her,
PTOLEMY VIII. Soter II. (nicknamed Lathyros) and PTOLEMY IX.
Alexander I., she might choose as her associate. The result was,
of course, a long period of domestic strife. From 116 to 108
Soter reigned with his mother, and at enmity with her, in Egypt,
whilst her favourite son, Alexander, ruled Cyprus. Cleopatra
compelled Soter to divorce his sister-wife Cleopatra and marry
another sister, Selene. Cleopatra plunged into the broils of
1 Or, according to another view, Eupator. On the obscure ques-
tions raised by these two surnames, see L. Pareti, Ricerche sui
Tolemei Eupatore e Neo Filopatore (Turin, 1908).
the Seleucid house in Syria and perished. In 108 Cleopatra
Kokke called Alexander to Egypt, and Soter flying to Cyprus
took his brother's place and held the island against his mother's
forces. The attempts which Soter and Cleopatra respectively
made in 104-3 to obtain a predominance in Palestine came to
nothing. Alexander now shook off his mother's yoke and
married Soter's daughter Berenice. Cleopatra Kokke died in
101 and from then till 89 Alexander reigned alone in Egypt.
In 89 he was expelled by a popular uprising and perished the
following year in a sea-fight with the Alexandrian ships off
Cyprus. Soter was recalled (88) and reigned over Egypt and
Cyprus, now reunited, in association with his daughter Berenice.
This, his second; reign in Egypt (88-80), was marked by a native
rebellion which issued in the destruction of Thebes. On his death
Berenice assumed the government, but the son of Alexander I.,
PTOLEMY X. Alexander II., entering Alexandria under Roman
patronage, married, and within twenty days assassinated, his
elderly cousin and stepmother. He was at once killed by the
enraged people and with him the Ptolemaic family in the legiti-
mate male line became extinct. Ptolemy Apion meanwhile,
dying in 96, had bequeathed the Cyrenaica to Rome. The
Alexandrian people now chose an illegitimate son of Soter II.
to be their king, PTOLEMY XI. Philopator Philadelphus Neos
Dionysus, nicknamed Auletes, the flute-player (80-51), setting
his brother as king in Cyprus. The rights of these kings
were doubtful, not only because of their illegitimate birth, but
because it was claimed in Rome that Alexander II. had be-
queathed his kingdom to the Roman people. Two Seleucid
princes, children of Soter's sister Selene, appeared in Rome in
73 to urge their claim to the Ptolemaic throne. Ptolemy
Auletes was thus obliged to spend his reign in buying the support
of the men in power in Rome. Cyprus was annexed by Rome in
58, its king committing suicide. From 58 to 55 Auletes was in
exile, driven out by popular hatred, and worked by bribery and
murder in Rome to get himself restored to Roman power. His
daughter Berenice meanwhile reigned in Alexandria, a husband
being found for her in the Pontic prince Archelaus. In 55
Auletes was restored by the proconsul of Syria, Aulus Gabinius.
He killed Berenice and, dying in 51, bequeathed the kingdom
to liis eldest son, aged ten years, who was to take as wife his
sister Cleopatra, aged seventeen. In the reign of PTOLEMY XII.
Philopator (51-47) and Cleopatra Philopator, Egyptian history
coalesces with the general history of the Roman world, owing to
the murder of Pompey off Pelusium in 48 and the Alexandrine
War of Julius Caesar (48-47). In that war the young king
perished and a still younger brother, PTOLEMY XIII. Philopator,
was associated with Cleopatra till 44, when he died, probably
by Cleopatra's contriving. From then till her death in 30, her
son, born in 47, and asserted by Cleopatra to be the child of
Julius Caesar, was associated officially with her as PTOLEMY XIV.
Philopator Philometor Caesar; he was known popularly as
Caesarion. (For the incidents of Cleopatra's reign see CLEO-
PATRA, ARSINOE.) After her death in 30 and Caesarion's murder
Egypt was made a Roman province. Cleopatra's daughter by
Antony (Cleopatra Selene) was married in 25 to Juba II. of
Mauretania. Their son Ptolemy, who succeeded his father
(A.D. 23-40), left no issue. 2
See Mahaffy, The Empire of the Ptolemies (1895) and Egypt under
the Ptolemaic Dynasty (1899); Strack, Die Dynastie der Ptolemaer
(1897); Bouche'-Leclercq, Ilistoire des Lagides (1904, 1907); Meyer,
Das Heerwesen der Ptolemaer und Romer (Leipzig, 1900).
(E. R. B.)
PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS), the celebrated mathema-
tician, astronomer and geographer, was a native of Egypt, but
there is an uncertainty as to the place of his birth. Some
ancient manuscripts of his works describe him as of Pelusium,
but Theodorus Meliteniota, a Greek writer on astronomy of the
2 The Ptolemies were not in antiquity distinguished by the
ordinal numbers affixed to their names by modern scholars and
represented according to the usual convention by Roman figures.
This is merely done for our convenience. In the case of the later
Ptolemies different systems of notation prevail according as the
problematic Eupator and Philopator Neos are reckoned in or not.
MATHEMATICS]
PTOLEMY
619
1 2th century, says that he was born at Ptolemais Hermii, a
(, re-dan city of the Thcbaid. It is certain that he observed at
Alexandria during the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, and
that he survived Antoninus. Olympiodorus, a philosopher of
the Neoplatonic school who lived in the reign of the emperor
Justinian, relates in his scholia on the Pltaedo of Plato that
Ptolemy devoted his life to astronomy and lived for forty years
in the so-called \\rtpa. rov Kavutiov, probably elevated terraces
of the temple of Serapis at Canopus near Alexandria, where they
raised pillars with the results of his astronomical discoveries
engraved upon them. This statement is probably correct; we
have indeed the direct evidence of Ptolemy himself that he made
astronomical observations during a long series of years; his first
recorded observation was made in the eleventh year of Had-
rian, 127 A.I).,' and his last in the fourteenth year of Antoninus,
151 A.D. Ptolemy, moreover, says, " We make our observations
in the parallel of Alexandria." St Isidore of Seville asserts that
he was of the royal race of the Ptolemies, and even calls him king
'. lexandria; this assertion has been followed by others, but
there is no ground for their opinion. Indeed Fabricius shows
by numerous instances that the name Ptolemy was common in
Egypt. Weidler, from whom this is taken, also tells us that
according to Arabian tradition Ptolemy lived to the age of
seventy-eight years; from the same source some description
of his personal appearance has been handed down, which is
generally considered as not trustworthy, but which may be seen
in Weidler, Historia astronomiae, p. 177, or in the preface to
Halma's edition of the Almagest, p. 61.
Mathematics.
Ptolemy's work as a geographer is discussed below, and an
account of the discoveries in astronomy of Hipparchus and
Ptolemy is given in the article ASTRONOMY: History. Their
contributions to pure mathematics, however, require to
be noticed here. Of these the chief is the foundation of
trigonometry, plane and spherical, including the formation
of a table of chords, which served the same purpose as our table
of sines. This branch of mathematics was created by Hippar-
chus for the use of astronomers, and its exposition was given by
Ptolemy in a form so perfect that for 1400 years it was not
surpassed. In this respect it may be compared with the doctrine
as to the motion of the heavenly bodies so well known as the
Ptolemaic system, which was paramount for about the same
period of time. There is, however, this difference, that, whereas
the Ptolemaic system was then overthrown, the theorems of
I lipparchus and Ptolemy, on the other hand, will be, as Delambre
says, for ever the basis of trigonometry. The astronomical
and trigonometrical systems are contained in the great work
of Ptolemy, 'II ^dfyptcmKi} avvrafa, or, as Fabricius after
Synrellus writes it, M^dXr; ffi>vra.tt rijs dorpovo/uas; and in
like manner Sui'das says OUTOS [H-ToX.] typo^e r6v niyav aarpo-
rjToi ffivTa^LV. The Synlaxis of Ptolemy was called '0
d<TTpop6|uos to distinguish it from another collection called
'0 ninplK aarpovofim, also highly esteemed by the Alexandrian
school, which contained some works of Autolycus, Euclid,
Aristarchus, Theodosius of Tripolis, Hypsicles and Menelaus.
To designate the great work of Ptolemy the Arabs used the
superlative nfyiarri, from which, the article al being prefixed,
the hybrid name Almagest, by which it is now universally known,
is derived.
We proceed now to consider the trigonometrical work of Hippar-
i-hiis and Ptolemy. In the ninth chapter of the first book of the
Almagest Ptolemy shows how to form a table of chords. He sup-
poses the circumference divided into 360 equal parts (T/IIWIOTO), and
then liiscct> each of these parts. Further, he divides the diameter
into 120 equal parts, and then for the subdivisions of these he
employs the sexagesimal method as most convenient in practice, i.e.
he divides each ofthc sixty parts of the radius into sixty equal parts,
and each of these parts he further subdivides into sixty equal parts.
In the Latin translation these subdivisions become " partes minutac
primae " and l; partes minutae secundae," whence our " minutes "
' Weidler and Hal ma give the ninth year; in the account of the
eclipse of the moon in that year Ptolemy, however, does not say, as
in other similar cases, he had observed, but it had been observed
(Almagest, iv. 9).
and " seconds " have arisen. It must not be supposed, however,
that these sexagesimal divisions are due to Ptolemy; they must have
been familiar to his predecessors, and were handed down from the
Chaldaeans. Nor did the formation of the table of chords originate
with Ptolemy; indeed, Theon of Alexandria, the father of Hypatia,
who lived in the reign of Theodosius, in his commentary on the
Almagest says expressly that Hipparchus had already given the doc-
trine of chords inscribed in a circle in twelve books, and that Mene-
laus had done the same in six books, but, he continues, every one-
must be astonished at the case with which Ptolemy, by means of a
few simple theorems, has found their values; hence it is inferred that
the method of calculation in the Almagest is Ptolemy's own.
As starting-point the values of certain chords in terms of the
diameter were already known, or could be easily found by means of
the Elements of Euclid. Thus the side of the hexagon, or the chord
of 60, is equal to the radius, and therefore contains sixty parts.
The side of the decagon, or the chord of 36*, is the greater segment
of the radius cut in extreme and mean ratio, and therefore contains
approximately 37" 4' 55* parts, of which the diameter contains 120
parts. Further, the square on the side of the regular pentagon is
equal to the sum of the squares on the sides of the regular hexagon
and of the regular decagon, all being inscribed in the same circle
(Eucl. XIII. 10); the chord of 72 can therefore be calculated, and
contains approximately 7O P 32' 3*. In like manner, the square on
the chord of 90, which is the side of the inscribed square, is twice
the square on the radius; and the square on the chord of 120, or
the side of the equilateral triangle, is three times the square on the
radius; these chords can thus be calculated approximately. Further,
from the values of all these chords we can calculate at once the
chords of the arcs which are their supplements.
This being laid down, we now proceed to give Ptolemy's exposition
of the mode of obtaining his table of chords, which is a piece of
geometry of great elegance, and is indeed, as De Morgan says, " one
of the most beautiful in the Greek writers."
He takes as basis and sets forth as a lemma the well-known
theorem, which is called after him, concerning a quadrilateral
inscribed in a circle: The rectangle under the diagonals is equal to
the sum of the rectangles under the opposite sides. By means of
this theorem the chord of the sum or the difference of two arcs whose
chords are given can be easily found, for we have only to draw a
diameter from the common vertex of the two arcs the chord of
whose sum or difference is required, and complete the quadrilateral;
in one case a diagonal, in the other one of the sides is a diameter of
the circle. The relations thus obtained are equivalent to the funda-
mental formulae of our trigonometry
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B+cos A sin B,
sin (A B) =sin A cos B cos A sin B,
which can therefore be established in this simple way.
Ptolemy then gives a geometrical construction for finding the
chord of half an arc from the chord of the arc itself. By means of
the foregoing theorems, since we know the chords of 72 and of 60,
we can find the chord of 12; we can then find the chords of 6,
3, ij and three-fourths of i, and lastly, the chords of 4$, 7$,
9, loj, &c. all those arcs, namely, as Ptolemy says, which being
doubled are divisible by 3. Performing the calculations, he finds
that the chord of i$ contains approximately l p 34' 55', and the
chord of three-fourths of 1 contains OP 47' 8*. A table of chords
of arcs increasing by I J can thus be formed ; but this is not sufficient
for Ptolemy's purpose, which was to frame a table of chords increas-
ing by half a degree. This could be effected if he knew the chord
of one-half of l; but, since this chord cannot be found geometrically
from the chord of i j, inasmuch as that would come to the trisection
of an angle, he proceeds to seek in the first place the chord of i,
which he finds approximately by means of a lemma of great elegance,
due probably to Apollonius. It is as follows: If two unequal chords
be inscribed in a circle, the greater will be to the less in a less ratio
than the arc described on the greater will be to the arc described
on the less. Having proved this theorem, he proceeds to employ it
in order to find approximately the chord of I , which he does in the
following manner
chord to' < 60 ,-, < 4 ... chord , < 4 chord 45';
chord 45' 45 3 3
again
chor( ] 9[ < 22, ;.,. < 3, .-. chord i > 2 chord 90'.
chord 60 60 2 3
For brevity we use a modern notation. It has been shown that the
chord of 45' is o 47' 8' q.p., and the chord of 90' is i"34' 15" q.p.;
hence it follows that approximately
chord i < i" 2' 50' 40" and > I" 2' 50'.
Since these values agree as far as the seconds, Ptolemy takes I" 2' o*
as the approximate value of the chord of I . The chord of I being
thus known, he finds the chord of one-half of a degree, the approxi-
mate value of which is o p 31' 25*, and he is at once in a position to
complete his table of chords for arcs increasing by hah a degree.
Ptolemy then gives his table of chords, which is arranged in three
columns; in the first he has entered the arcs, increasing by half-
degrees, from o to 1 80; in the second he gives the values of the
620
PTOLEMY
[MATHEMATICS
chords of these arcs in parts of which the diameter contains 120,
the subdivisions being sexagesimal; and in the third he has inserted
the thirtieth parts of the differences of these chords for each half-
degree, in order that the chords of the intermediate arcs, which
do not occur in the table, may be calculated, it being assumed that
the increment of the chords of arcs within the table for each interval
of 30' is proportional to the increment of the arc. 1
Trigonometry, we have seen, was created by Hipparchus for the
use of astronomers. Now, since spherical trigonometry is directly
applicable to astronomy, it is not surprising that its development
was prior to that of plane trigonometry. It is the subject-matter
of the eleventh chapter of the Almagest, whilst the solution of plane
triangles is not treated separately in that work.
To resolve a plane triangle the Greeks supposed it to be inscribed
in a circle; they must therefore have known the theorem which
is the basis of this branch of trigonometry : The sides of a triangle
are proportional to the chords of the double arcs which measure
the angles opposite to those sides. In the case of a right-angled
triangle this theorem, together with Eucl. I. 32 and 47, gives the
complete solution. Other triangles were resolved into right-angled
triangles by drawing the perpendicular from a vertex oh the opposite
side. In one place (Aim. vi. ch. 7; i. 422, ed. Halma) Ptolemy
solves a triangle in which the three sides are given by finding the
segments of a side made by the perpendicular on it from the opposite
vertex. It should be noticed also that the eleventh chapter of the
first book of the Almagest contains incidentally some theorems and
problems in plane trigonometry. The problems which are met with
correspond to the following: Divide a given arc into two parts so
that the chords of the doubles of those arcs shall have a given ratio;
the same problem for external section. Lastly, it may be mentioned
that Ptolemy (Aim. vi. ch. 7; i. 421, ed. Halma) takes 3" 8' 30",
"3600
= 3-1416, as the value of the ratio of the circum-
ference to the diameter of a circle, and adds that, as had been
shown by Archimedes, it lies between 3^ and 3^-
The foundation of spherical trigonometry is laid in chapter xi.
on a few simple and useful lemmas. The starting-point is the well-
known theorem of plane geometry concerning the segments of the
sides of a triangle made by a transversal: The segments of any
side are in a ratio compounded of the ratios of the segments of the
other two sides. This theorem, as well as that concerning the
inscribed quadrilateral, was called after Ptolemy naturally, indeed,
since no reference to its source occurs in the Almagest. This error
was corrected by Mersenne, who showed that it was known to
Menelaus, an astronomer and geometer who lived in the reign of
the emperor Trajan. The theorem now bears the name of Menelaus,
though most probably it came down from Hipparchus; Chasles,
indeed, thinks that Hipparchus deduced the property of the spherical
triangle from that of the plane triangle, but throws the origin of the
latter farther back and attributes it to Euclid, suggesting that it was
given in his Porisms? Carnot made this theorem the basis of his
theory of transversals in his essay on that subject. It should be
noticed that the theorem is not given in the Almagest in the general
manner stated above ; Ptolemy considers two cases only of the theo-
rem, and Theon, in his commentary on the Almagest, has added
two more cases. The proofs, however, are general. Ptolemy then
lays down two lemmas : If the chord of an arc of a circle be cut in
any ratio and a diameter be drawn through the point of section, the
diameter will cut the arc into two parts the chords of whose doubles
are in the same ratio as the segments of the chord; and a similar
theorem in the case when the chord is cut externally in any ratio.
By means of these two lemmas Ptolemy deduces in an ingenious
manner easy to follow, but difficult to discover from the theorem
of Menelaus for a plane triangle the corresponding theorem for a
spherical triangle: If the sides of a spherical triangle be cut by an
arc of a great circle, the chords of the doubles of the segments of any
one side will be to each other in a ratio compounded of the ratios
of the chords of the doubles of the segments of the other two sides.
Here, too, the theorem is not stated generally; two cases only are
considered, corresponding to the two cases given in piano. Theon
has added two cases. The proofs are general. By means of this
theorem four of Napier's formulae for the solution of right-angled
spherical triangles can be easily established. Ptolemy does not give
them, but in each case when required applies the theorem of Mene-
laus for spherics directly. This greatly increases the length of his
demonstrations, which the modern reader finds still more cumbrous,
inasmuch as in each case it was necessary to express the relation in
terms of chords the equivalents of sines only, cosines and tangents
being of later invention.
Such, then, was the trigonometry of the Greeks. Mathe-
matics, indeed, has ever been, as it were, the handmaid ol
astronomy, and many important methods of the former arose
1 Ideler has examined the degree of accuracy of the numbers in
these tables and finds that they are correct to five places of decimals
1 On the theorem of Menelaus and the rule of six quantities
see Chasles, Aperfu historiyue sur I'origine et developpement des
mithodes en geometrie, note vi. p. 291.
Torn the needs of the latter. Moreover, by the foundation of
;rigonometry, astronomy attained its final general constitution,
n which calculations took the place of diagrams, as these latter
lad been at an earlier period substituted for mechanical
apparatus in solving the ordinary problems. 3 Further, we find
n the application of trigonometry to astronomy frequent ex-
amples and even a systematic use of the method of approxima-
tions the basis, in fact, of all application of mathematics to
practical questions. There was a disinclination on the part of
the Greek geometer to be satisfied with a mere approximation,
were it ever so close; and the unscientific agrimensor shirked
the labour involved in acquiring the knowledge which was
-indispensable for learning trigonometrical calculations. Thus
the development of the calculus of approximations fell to the
lot of the astronomer, who was both scientific and practical. 4
We now proceed to notice briefly the contents of the Almagest.
It is divided into thirteen books. The first book, which may be
regarded as introductory to the whole work, opens with a short
preface, in which .Ptolemy, after some observations on the distinc-
tion between theory and practice, gives Aristotle's division of the
sciences and remarks on the certainty of mathematical knowledge,
" inasmuch as the demonstrations in it proceed by the incontro-
vertible ways of arithmetic and geometry.' He concludes his preface
with the statement that he will make use of the discoveries of his
redecessors, and relate briefly all that has been sufficiently explained
_y the ancients, but that he will treat with more care and develop-
ment whatever has not been well understood or fully treated.
Ptolemy unfortunately does not always bear this in mind, and it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish what is due to him from that
which he has borrowed from his predecessors.
Ptolemy then, in the first chapter, presupposing some preliminary
notions on the part of the reader, announces that he will treat in
order what is the relation of the earth to the heavens, what is the
position of the oblique circle (the ecliptic), and the situation of the
inhabited parts of the earth ; that he will point out the differences
of climates; that he will then pass on to the consideration of the
motion of the sun and moon, without which one cannot have a
just theory of the stars; lastly, that he will consider the sphere of
the fixed stars and then the theory of the five stars called "planets."
All these things i.e. the phenomena of the heavenly bodies he
says he will endeavour to explain in taking for principle that which
is- evident, real and certain, in resting everywhere on the surest
observations and applying geometrical methods. He then enters
on a summary exposition of the general principles on which his
Syntaxis is based, and adduces arguments to show that the heaven
is of a spherical form and that it moves after the manner of a sphere,
that the earth also is of a form which is sensibly spherical, that the
earth is in the centre of the heavens, that it is but a point in com-
parison with the distances of the stars, and that it has not any
motion of translation. With respect to the revolution of the earth
round its axis, which he says some have held, Ptolemy, while
admitting that this supposition renders the explanation of the
phenomena of the heavens much more simple, yet regards it as
altogether ridiculous. Lastly, he lays down that there are two
principal and different motions in the heavens one by which all
the stars are carried from east to west uniformly about the poles of
the equator; the other, which is peculiar to some of the stars, is in
a contrary direction to the former motion and takes place round
different poles. These preliminary notions, which are all older than
Ptolemy, form the subjects of the second and following chapters.
He next proceeds to the construction of his table of chords, of
which we have given an account, and which is indispensable to
practical astronomy. The employment of this table presupposes
the evaluation of the obliquity of the ecliptic, the knowledge of
which is indeed the foundation of all astronomical science. Ptolemy
in the next chapter indicates two means of determining this angle
by observation, describes the instruments he employed for that
purpose, and finds the same value which had already been found
by Eratosthenes and used by Hipparchus. This " is followed by
spherical geometry and trigonometry enough for the determination
of the connexion between the sun's right ascension, declination and
longitude, and for the formation of a table of declinations to each
degree of longitude. Delambre says he found both this and the table
of chords very exact." 6
In book ii., after some remarks on the situation of the habitable
parts of the earth, Ptolemy proceeds to make deductions from the
principles established in the preceding book, which he does by
means of the theorem of Menelaus. The length of the longest
day being given, he shows how to determine the arcs of the horizon
intercepted between the equator and the ecliptic the amplitude
of the eastern point of the ecliptic at the solstice for differen
* Comte, Systbme de politique positive, iii. 324.
4 Cantor, Vorlesungen ilber Geschichte der Mathematik, p. 356.
* De Morgan, in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography,
s.v. " Ptolemaeus, Claudius."
MATHEMATICS)
PTOLEMY
621
degrees of obliquity of the sphere; hence he finds the height of the
pole and reciprocally. From the same data he shows how to find
at what places and times the sun becomes vertical and how to
i .ilrnlate the ratios of gnomons to their equinoctial and solstitial
sh.ulows at noon and conversely, pointing out, however, that the
Later method is wanting in precision. All these matters he con-
i fully and works out in detail for the parallel of Rhodes.
Theon gives us three reasons for the selection of that parallel by
Ptolemy : the first is that the height of the pole at Rhodes is 36 ,
a whole number, whereas at Alexandria he believed it to be 30 58';
tin- second is that llipparchus had made at Rhodes many observa-
tions; the third is that the climate of Rhodes holds the mean place
of the seven climates subsequently described. Delambre suspects
a fourth reason, which he thinks is the true one, that Ptolemy had
t.iki-n his examples from the works of Hipparchus, who observed at
Rhodes and had made these calculations for the place where he lived,
hi chapter vi. Ptolemy gives an exposition of the most important
pro|xTties of each parallel, commencing with the equator, which he
i .insiders as the southern limit of the habitable quarter of the earth.
I . ir each parallel or climate, which is determined by the length of the
longest day, he gives the latitude, a principal place on the parallel,
and the lengths of the shadows of the gnomon at the solstices and
equinox. In the next chapter he enters into particulars and inquires
what are the arcs of the equator which cross the horizon at the same
time as given arcs of the ecliptic, or, which comes to the same thing,
the time which a given arc of the ecliptic takes to cross the horizon
of a given place. He arrives at a formula for calculating ascensional
differences and gives tables of ascensions arranged by IO of longitude
for the different climates from the equator to that where the longest
day is seventeen hours. He then shows the use of these tables in
the investigation of the length of the day for a given climate, of the
manner of reducing temporal 1 to equinoctial hours and vice versa,
and of the nonagesimal point and the point of orientation of the
ecliptic. In the following chapters of this book he determines the
angles formed by the intersections of the ecliptic first with the
meridian, then with the horizon, and lastly with the vertical circle
and concludes by giving tables of the angles and arcs formed by the
intersection of these circles, for the seven climates, from the parallel
of Meroe (thirteen hours) to that of the mouth of the Borysthenes
(sixteen hours). These tables, he adds, should be completed by the
situation of the chief towns in all countries according to their
latitudes and longitudes; this he promises to do in a separate treatise
and has in fact done in his Geography.
Book iii. treats of the motion of the sun and of the length of the
year. In order to understand the difficulties of this question
Ptolemy says one should read the books of the ancients, and especi-
ally those of Hipparchus, whom he praises " as a lover of labour
and a lover of truth " (Avipi <t>i\o-x6i>tf rt AjuoO ical <iAuXj0i). He
begins by telling us how Hipparchus was led to discover the preces-
sion of the equinoxes; he relates the observations by which Hippar-
chus verified the eccentricity of the solar orbit imperfectly known to
his Chaldaean predecessors, and gives the hypothesis of the eccentric
by which he explained the inequality of the sun's motion. Ptolemy
concludes this book by giving a clear exposition of the circumstances
on which the equation of time depends. Ptolemy, moreover, applies
Apollonius's hypothesis of the epicycle to explain the inequality of
the sun's motion, and shows that it leads to the same results as the
hypothesis of the eccentric. He prefers the latter hypothesis as
more simple, requiring only one and not two motions, ana as equally
fit to clear up the difficulties. In the second chapter there are some
general remarks to which attention should be directed. We find
the principle laid down that for the explanation of phenomena one
should adopt the simplest hypothesis that it is possible to establish,
provided that it is not contradicted by the observations in any
important respect. 1 This fine principle, which is of universal
application, may, we think regard being paid to its place in the
Almagest be justly attributed to Hipparchus. It is the first law
of the " philosophia prima " of Comte.' We find in the same page
another principle, or rather practical injunction, that in investiga-
tions founded on observations where great delicacy is required we
should select those made at considerable intervals of time in order
that the errors arising from the imperfection which is inherent in
all observations, even in those made with the greatest care, may be
lessened by being distributed over a large number of years. In the
same chapter we find also the principle laid down that the object of
mathematicians ought to be to represent all the celestial phenomena
by uniform and circular motions. This principle is stated by
Ptolemy in the manner which is unfortunately too common with
him that is to say, he does not give the least indication whence he
derived it. We know, however, from Simplicius, on the authority
of Sosigenes,* that Plato is said to have proposed the following
1 KaipuaJ, temporal or variable. These hours varied in length
with the seasons; they were used in ancient times and arose from the
division of the natural day (from sunrise to sunset) into twelve parts.
1 Aim. ed. Halma, i. 159.
' Sys&me de politique positive, iv. 173.
4 This Sosigenes, as Th. H. Martin has shown, was not the astro-
nomer of that name who was a contemporary of Julius Caesar, but a
Peripatetic philosopher who lived at the end of the and century.
problem to astronomers: "What regular and determined motions
being assumed would fully account for the phenomena of the motions
of the planetary bodies t " We know, too, from the same source
that Eudemus says in the second book of his History of Astronomy
that " Eudoxus of (.'nidus was the first of the Greeks to take in hand
hypothesis of this kind," * that he was in fact the first Greek astro-
nomer who proposed a geometrical hypothesis for explaining the
periodic motions of the planets the famous system of concentric
spheres. It thus appears that the principle laid down here by
Ptolemy can be traced to Eudoxus and Plato; and it is probable that
they derived it from the same source, namely, Archytas and the
Pythagoreans. We have indeed the direct testimony of Geminus
of Rhodes that the Pythagoreans endeavoured to explain the
phenomena of the heavens by uniform and circular motions.'
Books iv., v. are devoted to the motions of the moon, which are
very complicated; the moon in fact, though the nearest to us of all
the heavenly bodies, has always been the one which has given
the greatest trouble to astronomers. 7 Book iv., in which Ptolemy
follows Hipparchus, treats of the first and principal inequality of
the moon, which quite corresponds to the inequality of the sun
treated of in the third book. As to the observations which should
be employed for the investigation of the motion of the moon,
Ptolemy tells us that lunar eclipses should be preferred, inasmuch as
they give the moon's place without any error on the score of parallax.
The first thing to be determined is the time of the moon's revolution ;
Hipparchus, by comparing the observations of the Chaldaeans with
his own, discovered that the shortest period in which the lunar
eclipses return in the same order was 126,007 days and I hour. In
this period he finds 4267 lunations, 4573 restitutions of anomaly
and 4612 tropical revolutions of the moon less 7$ q.p. ; this quantity
(7i) is a' 80 wanting to complete the 345 revolutions which the sun
makes in the same time with respect to the fixed stars. He con-
cluded from this that the lunar month contains 29 days and
31' 50* 8" 20" of a day, very nearly, or 29 days 12 hours 44' 3* 20".
These results are of the highest importance. In order |to explain this
inequality, or the equation of the centre, Ptolemy makes use of the
hypothesis of an epicycle, which he prefers to that of the eccentric.
The fifth book commences with the description of the astrolabe of
Hipparchus, which Ptolemy made use of in following up the observa-
tions of that astronomer, and by means of which he made his most
important discovery, that of the second inequality in the moon's
motion, now known by the name of the " evection." In order to
explain this inequality he supposed the moon to move on an epicycle,
which was carried by an eccentric whose centre turned about the
earth, in a direction contrary to that of the motion of the epicycle.
This is the first instance in which we find the two hypotheses
of eccentric and epicycle combined. The fifth book treats also
of the parallaxes of the sun and moon, and gives a description of
an instrument called later by Theon the parallactic rods "-
devised by Ptolemy for observing meridian altitudes with greater
accuracy.
The subject of parallaxes is continued in the sixth book of the
Almagest, and the method of calculating eclipses is there given.
The author says nothing in it which was not known before his
time.
Books vii., viii. treat of the fixed stars. Ptolemy verified the
fixity of their relative positions and confirmed the observations of
Hipparchus with regard to their motion in longitude, or the preces-
sion of the equinoxes. The seventh book concludes with the cata-
logue of the stars of the northern hemisphere, in which are entered
their longitudes, latitudes and magnitudes, arranged according to
their constellations; and the eighth book commences with a similar
catalogue of the stars in the constellations of the southern hemi-
sphere. This catalogue has been the subject of keen controversy
amongst modern astronomers. Some, as Flamsteed and Lalande,
maintain that it was the same catalogue which Hipparchus had drawn
up 265 years before Ptolemy, whereas others, of whom Laplace is one,
think that it is the work of Ptolemy himself. The probability
is that in the main the catalogue is really that of Hipparchus altered
to suit Ptolemy's own time, but that in making the changes which
were necessary a wrong precession was assumed. This is Delambre 's
opinion ; he says, " Whoever may have been the true author, the
catalogue is unique, and does not suit the age when Ptolemy lived ;
by subtracting 2 40' from all the longitudes it would suit the age of
Hipparchus; this is all that is certain." 8 It has been remarked
that Ptolemy, living at Alexandria, at which city the altitude of
the pole is 5 less than at Rhodes, where Hipparchus observed,
could have seen stars which are not visible at Rhodes; none of
these stars, however, are in Ptolemy's catalogue. The eighth book
contains, moreover, a description of the milky way and the manner
5 Brandis, Schol. in Aristot. tdidit acad. reg. borussica (Berlin,
1836), p. 498.
6 Elaaywy^i s r& <t>aiv6iitva, c. i. in Halma's edition of the works of
Ptolemy, vol. iii. (" Introduction aux phenomenes celestes, traduite
du grec de G4minus," p. 9), Paris, 1819.
7 This has been noticed by Pliny, who says, " Multiform! haec
(luna) ambage torsit ingenia contemplantium, et proximum ignorari
maxime sidus indignantium " (N.H., ii. 9).
* Delambre, Histoire de Vastronomie ancienne, ii. 264.
622
PTOLEMY
[MATHEMATICS
of constructing a celestial globe; it also treats of the configuration
of the stars, first with regard to the sun, moon and planets, and then
with regard to the horizon, and likewise of the different aspects of
the stars and of their rising, culmination and setting simultaneously
with the sun.
The remainder of the work is devoted to the planets. The ninth
book commences with what concerns them all in general. The
planets are much nearer to the earth than the fixed stars and more
distant than the moon. Saturn is the most distant of all, then
Jupiter and then Mars. These three planets are at a greater distance
from the earth than the sun. 1 So far all astronomers are agreed.
This is not the case, he says, with respect to the two remaining
planets, Mercury and Venus, which the old astronomers placed
between the sun and earth, whereas more recent writers 2 have
placed them beyond the sun, because they were never seen on the
sun. 3 He shows that this reasoning is not sound, for they might
be nearer to us than the sun and not in the same plane, and conse-
quently never seen on the sun. He decides in favour of the former
opinion, which was indeed that of most mathematicians. The
ground of the arrangement of the planets in order of distance was
the relative length of their periodic times; the greater the circle,
the greater, it was thought, would be the time required for its
description. Hence we see the origin of the difficulty and the
difference of opinion as to the arrangement of the sun, Mercury and
Venus, since the times in which, as seen from the earth, they appear
to complete the circuit of the zodiac are nearly the same a year. 4
Delambre thinks it strange that Ptolemy did not see that these
contrary opinions could be reconciled by supposing that the two
planets moved in epicycles about the sun ; this would be stranger
still, he adds, if it is true that this idea, which is older than Ptolemy,
since it is referred to by Cicero, 6 had been that of the Egyptians. 6
It may be added, as strangest of all, that this doctrine was held by
Theon of Smyrna, 7 who was a contemporary of Ptolemy or somewhat
senior to him. From this system to that of Tycho Brahe there is, as
Delambre observes, only a single step.
We have seen that the problem which presented itself to the
astronomers of the Alexandrian epoch was the following: it was
required to find such a system of equable circular motions as would
represent the inequalities in the apparent motions of the sun, the
moon and the planets. Ptolemy now takes up this question for
the planets; he says that " this perfection is of the essence of celestial
things, which admit of neither disorder nor inequality," that this
planetary theory is one of extreme difficulty, and that no one had
yet completely succeeded in it. He adds that it was owing to these
difficulties that Hipparchus who loved truth above all things, and
who, moreover, had not received from his predecessors observations
either so numerous or so precise as those that he has left had
succeeded, as far as possible, in representing the motions of the sun
and moon by circles, but had not even commenced the theory of the
five planets. He was content, Ptolemy continues, to arrange the
observations which had been made on them in a methodic order and
to show thence that the phenomena did not agree with the hypotheses
of mathematicians at that time. He showed that in fact each planet
had two inequalities, which are different for each, that the retro-
gradations are also different, whilst other astronomers admitted only
single inequality and the same retrogradation ; he showed further
that their motions cannot be explained by eccentrics nor by epi-
cycles carried along concentrics, but that it was necessary to com-
bine both hypotheses. After these preliminary notions he gives
from Hipparchus the periodic motions of the five planets, together
with the shortest times of restitutions, in which, moreover, he has
made some slight corrections. He then gives tables of the mean
motions in longitude and of anomaly of each of the five planets, 8
1 This is true of their mean distances; but we know that Mars at
opposition is nearer to us than the sun.
1 Eratosthenes, for example, as we learn from Theon of Smyrna.
3 Transits of Mercury and Venus over the sun's disk, therefore,
had not been observed.
4 This was known to Eudoxus. Sir George Cornewall Lewis (An
Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients, p. 155), confusing
the geocentric revolutions assigned by Eudoxus to these two planets
with the heliocentric revolutions in the Copernican system, which are
of course quite different, says that " the error with respect to Mercury
and Venus is considerable ' ; this, however, is an error not of Eudoxus
but of Cornewall Lewis, as Schiaparelli has remarked.
6 " Hunc [solem] ut comites consequuntur Veneris alter, alter
Mercurii cursus " (Somnium Scipionis, De rep. vi. 17). This
hypothesis is alluded to by Pliny, N.H. ii. 17, and is more explicitly
stated by Vitruvius, Arch. ix. 4.
6 Macrobius, Commentatius ex Cicerone in somnium Scipionis, i.
19-
7 Theon (Smyrnaeus Platonicus), Liber de astronomic, ed. Th. H.
Martin (Paris, 1849), pp. 174, 294, 296. Martin thinks that Theon,
the mathematician, four of whose observations are used by Ptolemy
(Aim. ii. 176, 193, 194, 195, 196, ed. Halma), is .not the same as
Theon of Smyrna, on the ground chiefly that the latter was not an
observer.
8 Delambre compares these mean motions with those of our
modern tables and finds them tolerably correct. By " motion in
and shows how the motions in longitude of the planets can be
represented in a general manner by means of the hypothesis of the
eccentric combined with that of the epicycle. He next applies his
theory to each planet and concludes the ninth book by the explana-
tion of the various phenomena of the planet Mercury. In the tenth
and eleventh books he treats, in like manner, of the various phe-
nomena of the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.
Book xii. treats of the stationary and retrograde appearances of
each of the planets and of the greatest elongations of Mercury and
Venus. The author tells us that some mathematicians, and amongst
them Apollonius of Perga, employed the hypothesis of the epicycle
to explain the stations and retrogradations of the planets. Ptolemy
goes into this theory, but does not change in the least the theorems
of Apollonius; he only promises simpler and clearer demonstrations
of them. Delambre remarks that those of Apollonius must have
been very obscure, since, in order to make the demonstrations in
the Almagest intelligible, he (Delambre) was obliged to recast them.
This statement of Ptolemy is important, as it shows that the mathe-
matical theory of the planetary motions was in a tolerably forward
state long before his time. Finally, book xiii. treats of the motions
of the planets in latitude, also of the inclinations of their orbits and
of the magnitude of these inclinations.
Ptolemy concludes his great work by saying that he has included
in it everything of practical utility which in his judgment should find
a place in a treatise on astronomy at the time it was written, with
relation as well to discoveries as to methods. His work was justly
called by him Maff-rujLariK-fiaiivTa^a, for it was in fact the mathematical
form of the work which caused it to be preferred to all others which
treated of the same science, but not by " the sure methods of
geometry and calculation." Accordingly, it soon spread from
Alexandria to all places where astronomy was cultivated ; numerous
copies were made of it, and it became the object of serious study on
the part of both teachers and pupils. Amongst its numerous
commentators may be mentioned Pappus and Theon of Alexandria
in the 4th century and Proclus in the 5th. It was translated into
Latin by Boetius, but this translation has not come down to us.
The Syntaxis was translated into Arabic at Bagdad by order of
the enlightened caliph Al-Mamun, who was himself an astronomer,
about 827 A.D., and the Arabic translation was revised in the follow-
ing century by Tobit ben Korra. The Almagest was translated from
the Arabic into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (o^.v.). In the I5th
century it was translated from a Greek manuscript in the Vatican
by George of Trebizond. In the same century an epitome of the
Almagest was commenced by Purbach (d. 1461) and completed
by his pupil and successor in the professorship of astronomy in the
university of Vienna, Regiomontanus. The earliest edition of this
epitome is that of Venice (1496), and this was the first appearance of
the Almagest in print. The first complete edition of the Almagest
is that of P. Liechtenstein (Venice, 1515) a Latin version from the
Arabic. The Latin translation of George of Trebizond was first
printed in 1528, at Venice. The Greek text, which was not known in
Europe until the 1 5th century, war> first published in the 1 6th by
Simon Grynaeus, who was also the first editor of the Greek text of
Euclid, at Basel (1538). This edition was from a manuscript in
the library of Nuremberg where it is no longer to be found
which had been presented by Regiomontanus, to whom it was given
by Cardinal Bessarion.
Other works of Ptolemy, which we now proceed to notice very
briefly, are as follow. (l) <batrtis dirXaxux daripuv Kal amayuy/l
tTnaij^aaiSiv, On the Apparitions of the Fixed Stars and a Collection of
Prognostics. It is a calendar of a kind common amongst the Greeks
under the name of irapdm^a, or a collection of the risings and
settings of the stars in the morning or evening twilight, which were
so many visible signs of the seasons, with prognostics of the principal
changes of temperature with relation to each climate, after the
observations of the best meteorologists, as, for example, Melon,
Democritus, Eudoxus, Hipparchus, &c. Ptolemy, in order to make
his Parapegma useful to all the Greeks scattered over the enlightened
world of his time, gives the apparitions of the stars not for one parallel
only but for each of the five parallels in which the length of the
longest day varies from 135 hours to 155 hours that is, from the
latitude of Syene to that of the middle of the Euxine. This work
was printed by Petavius in his Uranologium (Paris, 1630), and by
Halma in his edition of the works of Ptolemy, vol. iii. (Paris, 1819).
(2) 'TTroflttreis rdv ir\avunevwv tf T&V obpaviuv KVK\WV Kivfjatis, Oil the
Planetary Hypothesis. This is a summary of a portion of the Alma-
gest, and contains a brief statement of the principal hypotheses
for the explanation of the motions of the heavenly bodies. It was
first published (Gr., Lat.) by Bainbridge, the Savilian professor of
astronomy at Oxford, with the Sphere of Proclus and the Kavav
f}aai\ti.u>v (London, 1620), and afterwards by Halma, vol. iv. (Paris,
1820). (3) K.O.VWV flaai\tiGiv, A Table of Reigns. This is a chrono-
logical table of Assyrian, Persian, Greek and Roman sovereigns,
with the length of their reigns, from Nabonasar to Antoninus Pius.
This table (cf. G*. Syncellus, Chronogr. ed. Dind. i. 388 seq.) was
printed by Scaliger, Calvisius, Petavius, Bainbridge and by Halma,
longitude " must be understood the motion of the centre of the
epicycle about the eccentric, and by " anomaly " the motion of the
star on its epicycle.
GEOGR.M'HY]
PTOLEMY
623
vol. iii. (Paris, 1819). (4) ' kpiiovutSiv 0i0Xia /. This Treatise on
Music was published in ( .reck and Latin by Wallis at Oxford (1682).
It was afterwards reprinted with Porphyry's commentary in the
third volume of Wallis's works (Oxford, 1699). (5) Terpd^Xoj
at>rraa, Tetrabiblon or Quadripartitum. This work is astrological,
.il*> the small collection of aphorisms, called Kopirds or Centi-
loquium, by which it is followed. It is doubtful whether these works
are genuine, but the doubt merely arises from the feeling that they
are unworthy of Ptolemy. They were both published in Greek and
Latin by Camerarius (Nuremberg, 1535), ?"d by Melanchthon
''. '553)' (6) De analemmate. The original of this work of
Ptolemy is lost. It was translated from the Arabic and pubjished
by Commandine (Rome, 1562). The Analemma is the description
of the S]I!H re on a plane. We find in it the sections of the different
tin -I.-s, as the diurnal parallels, and everything which can facilitate
the intelligence of gnomonics. This description is made by perpen-
diculars let fall on the plane; whence it has been called by the
moderns "orthographic projection." (7) Planisphoerium, The
I'lunisphere. The C,reek text of this work also is lost, and we have
only a Latin translation of it from the Arabic. The " planisphere "
projection of the sphere on the equator, the eye being at the
pole in fact what is now called " stereographic " projection.
The best edition of this work is that of Commandine (Venice, 1558).
(8) Optics. This work is known to us only by imperfect manuscripts
in Paris and O.xford, which are Latin translations from the Arabic.
The Optics consists of five books, of which the fifth presents most
interest: it treats of the refraction of luminous rays in their passage
through media of different densities, and also of astronomical
refractions, on which subject the theory is more complete than that
of any astronomer before the time of Cassini. De Morgan doubts
whether this work is genuine on account of the absence of allusion to
the Almagest or to the subject of refraction in the Almagest itself;
but his chief reason for doubting its authenticity is that the author
of the Optifs was a poor geometer. (G. J. A.)
The publication of a new edition of Ptolemy's works under the
title, Claudii Ptolemaei opera quae exstant omnia, was recently
undertaken at Leipzig. The first volume (in two-parts, 1898, 1903)
contains the Greek text of the Almagest edited by J. L. Heiberg.
Consult also J. E. Montucla, Histoire des mathematiques, i. 293;
I. B. J. Delambre, Connaissance des temps (1816); and Histoire de
iastronomir aiuienne, vol. 2; J. J. A. Caussin, Nouvelles memoires de
I'acad. des inscriptions, t. vi. ; P. Tannery, Recherches sur I'histoire de
faslronomie ancienne, ch. vi.-xv. ; Narrieu, History of Astronomy
(1833); Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, ed. Harles, vol. 5; Halma's
1813-1816 edition of his Almagest (Greek with French translation);
A. Berry, A Short History of Astronomy, pp. 62-73; British Museum
Catalogue.
Geography.
Ptolemy is hardly less celebrated as a geographer than as an
astronomer, and his Geogiaphike syntaxis exercised as great an
influence on geographical progress (especially during the period
of the Classical Renaissance), as did his Almagest on astronomical.
This exceptional position was largely due to its scientific form,
which rendered it convenient and easy of reference; but, apart
from this, it was really the most considerable attempt of the
ancient world to place the study of geography on a scientific
basis. The astronomer Hipparchus had indeed pointed out,
three centuries before Ptolemy, that the only way to construct
a trustworthy map of the inhabited world would be by observa-
tions of the latitude and longitude of all the principal points on
its surface. But the materials for such a map were almost
wholly wanting, and, though Hipparchus made some approach
to a correct division of the known world into zones of latitude,
" climates " or klimata, as he termed them, trustworthy observa-
tions of latitude were then very few, while the means of deter-
mining longitudes hardly existed. Hence probably it arose
that no attempt was made to follow up the suggestion of
Hipparchus until Marinus of Tyre, who lived shortly before
Ptolemy, and whose work is known to us only through the latter.
Marinus' scientific materials being inadequate, he contented
himself mostly with determinations derived from itineraries and
other rough methods, such as are still employed where more
accurate means of determination are not available. The greater
part of Marinus' treatise was occupied with the discussion of
his authorities, and it is impossible, in the absence of the original
work, to decide how far his results attained a scientific form.
But Ptolemy himself considered them, on the whole, so satisfac-
tory that he made his predecessor's work the basis of his own in
regard to all the Mediterranean countries, that is, in regard to
almost all those regions of which he had definite knowledge. In
the more remote regions of the world, Ptolemy availed himself of
Marinus' information, but with reserve, and himself explains
the reasons that induced him sometimes to depart from his
predecessor's conclusions. It is unjust to term Ptolemy a
plagiarist from Marinus, as he himself fully acknowledges his
obligations to that writer, from whom he derived the whole mass
of his materials, which he undertook to arrange and present to
his readers in a scientific form. It is this form, unique among
those ancient geographical treatises which have survived, that
constitutes one great merit of Ptolemy's work. At the same
time it shows the increased knowledge of Asia and Africa
acquired since Strabo and Pliny.
I. Mathematical Geography. As an astronomer, Ptolemy was of
course better qualified to explain the mathematical conditions of the
earth and its relations to the celestial bodies than most preceding
geographers. His general views had much in common with those
of Eratosthenes and Strabo. Thus he assumed that the earth was
a globe, the surface of which was divided by certain great circles
the equator and the tropics parallel to one another, dividing the
earth into five zones, the relations of which with astronomical
phenomena were of course clear to his mind as a matter of theory,
though in regard to the regions bordering on the equator, as well as
to those adjoining the polar circle, he could have had no confirmation
of his conclusions from actual observation. He adopted also from
Hipparchus the division of the equatorial circle into 360 parts
(degrees, as they were subsequently called, though the word does not
occur in this sense in Ptolemy), and supposea other circles to be
drawn through this, from the equator to the pole, to which he gave
the name of meridians. He thus, like modern geographers, conceived
the whole surface of the earth as covered with a network of parallels
of latitude and meridians of longitude, terms which he himself was
the first extant writer to employ in this technical sense. Within the
network thus constructed it was his task to place the outline of the
world, so far as known to him.
But at the very outset of his attempt he fell into an error vitiating:
all his conclusions. Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.) was the first who
had attempted scientifically to determine the earth's circumference,
and his result of 250,000 (or 252,000) stadia, i.e. 25,000 (25,200)
geographical miles, was generally adopted by subsequent geo-
graphers, including Strabo. Poseidonius, however (c. 135-50 B.C.),
reduced this to 180,000, and the latter computation was inexplicably
adopted by Marinus and Ptolemy. This error made every degree
of latitude or longitude (measured at the equator) equal to only 500
stadia (50 geographical miles), instead of its true equivalent of 600
stadia. The mistake would have been somewhat neutralized had
there existed a sufficient number of points of which the position was
fixed by observation; but we learn from Ptolemy himself that such
observations for latitude were very few, while the means of deter-
mining longitudes were almost wholly wanting. 1 Hence the posi-
tions laid down by him were, with few exceptions, the result of
computations from itineraries and the statements of travellers,
liable to much greater error in ancient times than at the present day,
from the want of any accurate mode of observing bearings, of
measuring time (by portable instruments), or of estimating distances
at sea, except by the rough estimate of the time employed in
sailing from point to point. Even the use of the log was unknown
to the ancients. But, great as were the errors resulting from such
imperfect means of calculation, they were increased by the permanent
error arising from Ptolemy's system of graduation. Thus if he con-
cluded (from itineraries) that two places were 5000 stadia distant,
he would place them 10 apart, and thus in fact separate them by
6000 stadia.
Another source of permanent error (though of less importance),
which affected all his longitudes, arose from his prime meridian.
Here also he followed Marinus, who, supposing that the Fortunate
Islands (vaguely answering to our Canaries plus the Madeira group)
lay farther west than any part of Europe or Africa, had taken the
meridian through the (supposed) outermost of this group as his
prime meridian, from whence he calculated his longitudes eastwards
to the Indian Ocean. But as both Marinus and Ptolemy had no
exact knowledge of the islands in question, the line thus assumed
was purely imaginary, drawn through the supposed position of an
island which they placed 2j (instead of 9 20") west of the Sacred
Promontory (i.e. CapeSt Vincent, regarded by Marinus and Ptolemy,
as by previous geographers, as the westernmost point of Europe).
Hence all Ptolemy's longitudes, reckoned eastwards, were about 7
less than they would have been if really measured from the meridian
of Ferro, which continued so long in use. This error was the more
unfortunate as the longitude was really calculated, not from this
imaginary line, but from Alexandria, westwards as well as eastwards
(as Ptolemy himself has done in his eighth book), and afterwards
reversed, so as to suit the supposed method of computation.
1 Hipparchus pointed out the mode of determining longitudes
by observations of eclipses, but the instance to which he referred (of
the celebrated eclipse before the battle of Arbela, which was also seen
at Carthage) was a mere matter of popular observation, of no scien-
tific value. Yet Ptolemy seems to have known of no other.
624
PTOLEMY
[GEOGRAPHY
The equator was in like manner placed by Ptolemy at a consider-
able distance from its true geographical position. The place of
the equinoctial line was well known to him as a matter of theory,
but as no observations could have been made in those regions he
could only calculate its place from that of the tropic, which he
supposed to pass through Syene. And as he here, as elsewhere,
reckoned a degree of latitude as equivalent to 500 stadia, he inevi-
tably made the interval between the tropic and the equator too
small by one-sixth ; and the place of the former being fixed by obser-
vation, he necessarily carried up the supposed place of the equator
too high by more than 230 geographical miles. But as he had
practically no geographical acquaintance with the equinoctial
regions this error was of little importance.
With Marinas and Ptolemy, as with preceding Greek geographers,
the most important line for practical purposes was the parallel of
36 N., which, passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, Rhodes
Island and the Gulf of Issus, and thus dividing the Mediterranean
(as Dicaearchus and his successors usually regarded it) into two,
was continued in theory along the chain of Mt Taurus till it
joined the mountains north of India; thence to the Eastern Ocean
it was regarded as constituting the dividing line of the inhabited
world, along which the length of the latter must be measured.
But so inaccurate were the observations and so imperfect the
materials at command, even in regard to the best known regions,
that Ptolemy, following Marinus, describes this parallel as passing
through Caralis in Sardinia and Lilybaeum in Sicily, the one being
really in 39 12' lat., the other in 37 50'. Still more strangely he
places Carthage 1 20' south of the dividing parallel, while it really
lies nearly i north of it.
The problem that had especially attracted the attention of
geographers from Dicaearchus to Ptolemy was to determine the
length and breadth of the inhabited world. This question had been
fully discussed by Marinus, who had arrived at conclusions widely
different from his predecessors. Towards the north, indeed, there
was no great difference of opinion, the latitude of Thule being gen-
erally recognized as that of the highest northern land, and this was
placed both by Marinus and Ptolemy in 63 N., not far beyond the
true position of the Shetland Islands, which had come to be generally
identified with the mysterious Thule of Pythcas. The western
extremity, as already mentioned, had been in like manner determined
by the prime meridian drawn through the supposed position of the
outermost of the Fortunate Islands. But towards the south and
east Marinus gave an enormous extension to Africa and Asia, beyond
what had been known to or suspected by earlier geographers, and,
though Ptolemy reduced Marinus' calculations, he retained an
exaggerated estimate of their results.
The additions thus made to the estimated dimensions of the
known world were indeed in both directions based upon a real
extension of knowledge, derived from recent information ; but the
original statements were so perverted by misinterpretation as to
give results (in map-construction) differing widely from the truth.
The southern limit of the world had been fixed by Eratosthenes and
even by' Strabo at the parallel which passed through the eastern
extremity of Africa (Cape Guardafui), the Cinnamon Region (Somali-
land) and the country of the Sembritae (Sennaar). This parallel,
which would correspond nearly to that of 10 of true latitude, they
supposed to be situated at a distance of 3400 stadia (340 geographical
miles) from that of Meroe (the position of which was pretty accu-
rately known) and 13,400 to the south of Alexandria; while they
conceived it as passing eastward through Taprobane (Ceylon, often
Ceylon plus Sumatra?), universally recognized as the southernmost
land of Asia. Both these geographers were ignorant of the vast
extension of Africa to the south of this line and even of the
equator, and conceived it as trending away west from the Cinnamon
Land and then north-west to the Straits of Gibraltar. Marinus
had, however, learned from itineraries both by land and sea the
fact of this extension, of which he had conceived so exaggerated
an idea that even after Ptolemy had reduced it by more than half
it was still much in excess of the truth. The eastern coast of Africa
was indeed tolerably well known, being frequented by Greek and
Roman traders, as far as a place called Rhapta (opposite to Zanzi-
bar?), placed by Ptolemy not far from 7 S. To this he added a
bay extending to Cape Prasum (Delgado?), which he placed in
'5z S. At the same time he assumed the position in about the same
parallel of a region called Agisymba, inhabited by Ethiopians and
abounding in rhinoceroses, which was supposed to have been
discovered by a Roman general, Julius Maternus, whose itinerary
was employed by Marinus. Taking, therefore, this parallel as the
limit of knowledge to the south, while he retained that of Thule to
the north, Ptolemy assigned to the inhabited world a breadth of
nearly 80, instead of less than 60, as in Eratosthenes and Strabo.
It had been a common belief among Greek geographers, from the
earliest attempts at scientific geography, not only that the length
of the inhabited world greatly exceeded its breadth, but that it
was more than twice as.great, an unfounded assumption to which
their successors seem to have felt themselves bound to conform.
Thus Marinus, while extending his Africa unduly southward, exag-
gerated Asia still more grossly eastward. Here also he really
possessed a great advance in knowledge over all his predecessors,
the silk trade with China having led to an acquaintance, though of
a vague and general kind, with regions east of the Pamir and Tian
Shan, the limits of Asia as previously known to the Greeks. Marinus
had learned that traders proceeding eastward from the Stone Tower
(near the Pamir?) to Sera, the capital of the Seres (inland China?),
occupied seven months on the journey; thence he calculated that
the distance between the two points was 36,200 stadia or 3620
geographical miles. Ptolemy, while he points out the erroneous
mode of computation on which this conclusion was founded, could
not correct it by any real authority, and hence reduced it sum-
marily by one half. He therefore placed Sera (Singanfu?), the
easternmost point on his map of Asia, 45! from the Stone Tower,
which again he fixed, on the authority of itineraries cited by Marinus,
at 24,000 stadia or 60 of longitude from the Euphrates, reckoning
in both cases a degree of longitude (in this latitude) as equivalent
to 400 stadia. Both distances were greatly in excess, independently
of error arising from graduation. The distances west of the
Euphrates were of course comparatively well known, nor did
Ptolemy's calculation of the length of the Mediterranean differ very
materially from those of previous Greek geographers, though still
greatly exceeding the truth, after allowing for the permanent error
of graduation. This last, it must be remembered, would be cumu-
lative, the longitudes being computed from a fixed point in the west,
instead of being reckoned east and west from Alexandria, which was
undoubtedly the mode in which they were really calculated. These
causes of error combined to make Ptolemy allow 180 long., or 12
hours' interval, between the Fortunate Islands meridian and Sera
(really about 130).
But in thus estimating the length and breadth of the known
world, Ptolemy attached a very different sense to these terms
from that which they had generally borne. Most earlier Greek
geographers and " cosmpgraphers " supposed the inhabited world
to be surrounded on all sides by sea, and to form a vast island in the
midst of a circumfluous ocean. This notion (perhaps derived from
the Homeric " ocean stream," and certainly not based upon direct
observation) was nevertheless in accordance with truth, great as
was the misconception involved of the continents included. But
Ptolemy in this respect went back to Hipparchus, and assumed
that the land extended indefinitely north in the case of eastern
Europe, east, south-east and north in that of Asia, and south,
south-west and south-east in that of Africa. His boundary line was
in each of these cases an arbitrary limit, beyond which lay the
Unknown Land, as he calls it. But in Africa he was not content
with this extension southward; he also prolonged the continent
eastward from its southernmost known point, so as to form a
connexion with south-east Asia, the extent and position of which
he wholly misconceived.
In this last case Marinus derived from the voyages of recent
navigators in the Indian seas a knowledge of extensive lands hitherto
unknown to the Hellene-Roman world, and Ptolemy acquired more
information in this quarter. But he formed a false conception of
the bearings of the coasts thus made known, and of the position of
the lands to which they belonged, and, instead of carrying the line
of coast northwards from the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula)
to the Land of the Sinae (sea-coast China), he brought it down again
towards the south after forming a great bay, so that he placed
Cattigara the principal emporium in this part of Asia, and the
farthest point known to him on a supposed coast of unknown
extent, but with a direction from north to south, and facing west.
The hypothesis that this land was continuous with southernmost
Africa, so as to enclose the Indian Ocean as one vast lake, though a
mere assumption, is stated by him as definitely as if based upon
positive information. It must be noticed that Ptolemy's extension
of Asia eastwards, so as to diminish by 50 of longitude the interval
between easternmost Asia and westernmost Europe, fostered
Columbus' belief that it was possible to reach the former from the .
latter by direct navigation, crossing the Atlantic.
Ptolemy's errors respecting distant regions are one thing; it is
another thing to discover, in regard to the Mediterranean basin,
the striking imperfections of his geographical knowledge. Here
he had indeed some well-established data for latitudes. That
of Massilia had been determined, within a few miles, by Pytheas,
and those of Rome, Alexandria and Rhodes were approximately
known, all having been observation-centres for distinguished
astronomers. The fortunate accident that Rhodes lay on the same
parallel with the Straits of Gibraltar enabled Ptolemy to connect
the two ends of the Inland Sea on the famous parallel of 36 N.
Unfortunately Ptolemy, like his predecessors, supposed its course
to lie almost uniformly through the open sea, ignoring the great
projection of Africa towards the north from Carthage westward.
The erroneous position assigned to Carthage being supposed to rest
upon astronomical observation, doubtless determined that of all
North Africa. Thus Ptolemy's Mediterranean, from Massilia to
the opposite point of Africa, had a width of over 11 of latitude
(really 6J). He was still more at a loss in respect of longitudes,
for which he had no trustworthy observations; yet he came nearer
the truth than previous geographers, all of whom had greatly
exaggerated the length of the Inland Sea. Their calculations, like
those of Marinus and Ptolemy, could only be founded on the imper-
fect estimates of mariners; and Ptolemy, in translating these
conclusions into scientific form, vitiated his results by his system of
GEOGRAPHY]
PTOLEMY
625
graduation. Thus while Marimis < alcnlatcd 24,800 stadia as the
length of the Mediterranean from the Straits to the Gulf of Issus,
t hi* was .stated by Ptolemy at 62, or about 20 too much. Even
.iitrr correcting the error due to his computation of 500 stadia to a
di-nree, there remains an excess ol nearly 500 geographical miles.
Another error which disfigured the eastern portion of Ptolemy's
Mediterranean map was the |xjsition of Byzantium, which Ptolemy
( misled by Hipparchus) placed in the same latitude with Massilia,
i tins carrying it up more than 2 above its true position. This
pushed the whole Luxinc with whose general form and dimensions
he w.is fairly well acquainted too far north by the same amount;
Ix-biilrs this he enormously exaggerated the extent of the Palus
M.icotis (the Sea of Azov), which he also represented as having its
direction from south to north; by the combined effect of these two
errors lie carried up its northern extremity (with the Tanais estuary
and city) as high as 54 30' (the true south shore of the Baltic).
Ptolemy, however, was the first writer of antiquity who showed some
1 1 inception of the relations between the Tanais or Don (usually
considered by the ancients as the boundary between Europe and
Asia) and the Rha or Volga, which he correctly described as flowing
into the Caspian. He was also the first geographer after Alexander
tn return to the correct view (found in Herodotus and Aristotle)
that the Caspian was an inland sea, without communication with the
ocean.
As to north Europe, Ptolemy's views were vague and imperfect.
He had indeed more acquaintance with the British Islands than any
previous geographer, and showed a remarkable knowledge of certain
British coast-lines. But he (i) placed Ireland (Ivernia) farther
north than any part of Wales, and (2) twisted round the whole of
Scotland, so as to make its length from west to east and to place the
northern extremities of Britain and Ireland almost on the same
parallel. These errors are probably connected and arc naturally
accompanied by the placing of Thule, the Orkneys (Orcades) and the
I lebriues (Ebudae) indiscriminately on the left or north of Caledonia.
1 lere he was perhaps embarrassed by adopting Marinus' conclusion
that Thule lay in 63 N., while regarding it, like earlier geographers, as
t he northernmost of all lands. Ptolemy also supposed the northern
mast of Germany, beyond the Cimbric Chersonese (Denmark),
to be the southern shore of the Northern Ocean, with a general
direction from west to east. Of the almost wholly landlocked
Baltic he was entirely ignorant, as well as of the Scandinavian
Peninsula; his Scandia is an island smaller than Corsica, lying in the
true position of southern central Sweden. Some way east of the
Vistula, Ptolemy, however, makes the Sarmatian coast trend north,
to the parallel of Thule ; nor did he conceive this as an actual limit,
but believed the Unknown Land to extend indefinitely in this direc-
tion as also to the north of Asiatic Scythia.
As to the latter region, vague and erroneous as were his views
concerning this enormous tract from Sarmatia to China, they show
an advance on those of earlier geographers. Ptolemy was the first
who had anything like a clear idea of the great north-and-south
dividing range of Central Asia (the Pamir and Tian Shan), which he
railed Imaus, placing it nearly 40 too far east, and making it divide
Seythia into two portions (Within Imaus and Beyond Imaus),
somewhat corresponding to Russian and Chinese Central Asia.
Ptolemy also applies the term Imaus to a section of the backbone
range which in his system crosses Asia from west to east. This
section lies east of the Indian Caucasus, and forms an angle with the
other Imaus running north.
On the southern shores of Asia Ptolemy's geography is especially
faulty, though he shows a greatly increased general knowledge of
these regions. For more than a century the commercial relations
between western India and Alexandria, the chief eastern emporium
of the Roman Empire, had become more important and intimate
than ever before. The tract called the Periplus of the Erythraean
.Vii, about A.D. 80, contains sailing directions for merchants from the
Red Sea to the Indus and Malabar, and even indicates that the coast
from Barygaza (Baroch) had a general southward direction down to
and far beyond Cape Komari (Comorin), which, taken together with
its account of the shore-line as far as the Ganges, affords some
suggestions at least of a peninsular character for south India. But
Ptolemy, following Marinus, not only gives to the Indian coasts,
from Indus to Ganges, an undue extension in longitude, but .practi-
cally denies anything of an Indian peninsula, placing capes Komaria
and Kory (his southernmost points in India) only 48. of Barygaza,
the real interval being over 800 geographical miles, or, according to
Ptolemy's system of graduation, 16 of latitude. This error, distor-
ting the whole appearance of south Asia, is associated with another
as great, but of opposite tendency, in regard to Taprobane (in which
ancient ideas of Ceylon and Sumatra are confusedly mingled). The
size of this was exaggerated by most earlier Greek geographers;
but Ptolemy extended it through 15 of latitude and 12 of longitude,
so as to make it about fourteen times as large as the reality, and
bring down its southern extremity more than 2 south- of the
equator.
Similar distortions in regions beyond the Ganges, concerning
which Ptolemy is our only ancient authority, are less surprising.
Between the date of the Periplus and that of Marinus it seems
probable that Greek mariners had not only crossed the Gangetic
gulf and visited the land on the opposite side, which they called the
Golden Chersonese, but pushed considerably farther east, to Catti-
gara. But these commercial voyagers either brought back inaccu-
rate notions, or Ptolemy's preconceptions destroyed the value of
the new information, for nowhere does he distort the truth more
wildly. After passing the Great Gulf, beyond the Golden Cher-
sonese, he makes the coast trend southward, and thus places Catti-
gara (perhaps one of the south China ports) 8J south of the equator.
In this he was perhaps influenced by his notion of a junction of
Asia and Africa in a terra incognita south of the Indian Ocean.
In regard to West Africa, we may notice that he conceives this
coast as running almost due north and south to 10 N., and then
(after forming a great bay) as bending away to the unknown south-
west. Though the Fortunate Islands were so important to his
system as his prime meridian, he was entirely misinformed about
them, and extended the group through more than 5 of latitude, so
as to bring down the most southerly of them to the real parallel of
the Cape Verde Islands.
In regard to the mathematical construction or projection of his
maps, not only was Ptolemy greatly in advance of all his predeces-
sors, but his theoretical skill was altogether beyond the nature of
the materials to which he applied it. The methods by which he
obviated the difficulty of transferring the delineation of different
countries from the spherical surface of the globe to the plane surface
of an ordinary map differed little from those in use at the present
day, and the errors arising from this cause (apart from those produced
by his fundamental error of graduation) were really of little conse-
quence compared with the defective character of his information and
the want of anything approaching to a survey of the countries
delineated. He himself was well aware of his deficiencies in this
respect, and, while giving full directions for the scientific construction
of a general map, he contents himself, for the special maps of different
countries, with the simple method employed by Marinus of drawing
the parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude as straight lines,
assuming in each case the proportion between the two, as it really
stood with respect to some one parallel towards the middle of the
map, and neglecting the inclinations of the meridians to one another.
Such a course, as he himself repeatedly affirms, will not make any
material difference within the limits of each special map.
Ptolemy especially devoted himself to the mathematical branch
of his subject, and the arrangement of his work, in which his results
are presented in a tabular form, instead of being at once embodied
in a map, was undoubtedly designed to enable the student to
construct his maps for himself. This purpose it has abundantly
served, and there is little doubt that we owe to the peculiar form thus
given to his results their transmission in a comparatively perfect
condition to the present day. Unfortunately the specious appear-
ance of these results has led to the belief that what was stated in
so scientific a form must necessarily be based upon scientific observa-
tions. Though Ptolemy himself has distinctly pointed out in his
first book the defective nature of his materials, and the true character
of the data furnished by his tables, few readers studied this portion
of his work, and his statements were generally received with un-
doubting faith. It is only in modern times that his apparently
scientific work has been shown to be in most cases a specious edifice
resting upon no adequate foundations.
_ There can be no doubt that the work of Ptolemy was from the
time of its first publication accompanied with maps, which are
regularly referred to in the eighth book. But how far those which
are now extant represent the original series is a disputed point.
In two of the most ancient MSS. it is expressly stated that the
maps which accompany them are the work of one Agathodaemon of
Alexandria, who " drew them according to the eight books of
Claudius Ptolemy." This expression might equally apply to the
work of a contemporary draughtsman under the eyes of Ptolemy
himself, or to that of a skilful geographer at a later period, and
nothing is known from any other source concerning this Agatho-
daemon. The attempt to identify him with a grammarian of the
same name who lived in the 5th century is wholly without founda-
tion. But it appears, on the whole, most probable that the maps
appended to the MSS. still extant have been transmitted by unin-
terrupted tradition from the time of Ptolemy.
2. Progress of Geographical Knowledge in Certain Special Regions.
Ptolemy records, after Marinus, the penetration of Roman expedi-
tions to the land of the Ethiopians and to Agisymba, clearly some
region of the Sudan beyond the Sahara desert, perhaps the basin of
Lake Chad. But while this name was the only recorded result of
these expeditions, Ptolemy also gives much other information con-
cerning the interior of North Africa (whence derived we know not)
to which nothing similar is found in any earlier writer. Unfortu-
nately this new information was of so crude a character, and is
presented in so embarrassing a form, as to perplex rather than
assist. Thus Ptolemy's statements concerning the rivers Gir and
Nigir, and the lakes and mountains with which they were connected,
have baffled successive generations of interpreters. It may safely
be said that they present no resemblance to the real features of the
country as now known, and cannot be reconciled with them except
by arbitrary conjecture.
As to the Nile, both Greeks and Romans had long endeavoured
to discover the sources of this river, and an expedition sent out for
that purpose by the emperor Nero had undoubtedly penetrated as far
626
PTOMAINE POISONING PUBLICANI
as the marshes of the White Nile in about 9 N. Ptolemy's statement
that the Nile derived its waters from two streams which rose in
two lakes a little south of the equator was nearer the truth than
any of the theories concocted in modern times before the discovery
of the Victoria and Albert Nyanza. In connexion with this subject
he introduces a range of mountains running from east to west, which
he calls the Mountains of the Moon, and which, however little
understood by Ptolemy, may be considered to represent in a measure
the fact of the alpine highlands now known to exist in the neighbour-
hood of the Nyanzas and in British and German East Africa (Ruwen-
zori, Kenya, Kilimanjaro, &c.).
In Asia, as in Africa, Ptolemy had obtained, as we have seen, a
vague, sometimes valuable, often misleading, half-knowledge of
extensive regions, hitherto unknown to the Mediterranean world,
and especially of Chinese Asia and its capital of Sera (Singanfu).
North of the route leading to this far eastern land (supposed by
Ptolemy to be nearly coincident with the parallel of 40) lay a vast
region of which apparently he knew nothing, but which he vaguely
assumed to extend indefinitely northwards as far as the limits of
the Unknown Land. The Jaxartes, which since Alexander had been
the boundary of Greek geography in this direction, was still the
northern limit of all that was really known of Central Asia. Beyond
that Ptolemy places many tribes, to which he could assign no definite
locality, and mountain ranges which he could only place at hap-
hazard. As to south-east Asia, in spite of his misplacement of
Cattigara and the Sinae or Thinae, we must recognize in the latter
name a form of China; from the Sinae being placed immediately
south of the Seres, it is possible that Ptolemy was aware of the
connexion between the two the Chinese coast known only by
maritime voyages, and inland China, known only by continental
trade.
As to Mediterranean countries, we have seen that Ptolemy
professed (in the main) to follow Marinus; the latter, in turn, largely
depended on Timosthenes of Rhodes (fl. c. 260 B.C.), the admiral
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, as to coasts and maritime distances.
Claudius Ptolemy, however, introduced many changes in Marinus'
results, some of which he has pointed out though there are doubtless
many others which we have no means of detecting. For the interior
of the different countries Roman roads and itineraries must have
furnished both Marinus and Ptolemy with a mass of valuable
materials. But neither seems to have taken full advantage of these;
and the tables of the Alexandrian geographer abound with mistakes
even in countries so well known as Gaul and Spain which might
easily have been obviated by a more judicious use of such Roman
authorities.
In spite of the merits of Ptolemy's geographical work it cannot be
regarded as a complete or satisfactory treatise upon the subject. It
was the work of an astronomer rather than a geographer. Not only
did its plan exclude all description of the countries with which it
dealt, their climate, natural productions, inhabitants and peculiar
features, but even its physical geography proper is treated in an
irregular and perfunctory manner. While Strabo was fully alive
to the importance of the rivers and mountain chains which (in his
own phrase) " geographize " a country, Ptolemy deals with this part
of his subject in so careless a manner as to be often worse than useless.
In Gaul, for instance, the tew notices he gives of the rivers that play
so important a part in its geography are disfigured by some astound-
ing errors; while he does not notice any of the great tributaries of
the Rhine, though mentioning an obscure streamlet, otherwise
unknown, because it happened to be the boundary between two
Roman provinces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ptolemy's Geographia was printed for the first
time in a Latin translation, accompanied with maps, in I4&2(?),
and numerous other editions followed in the latter part of the 15th
and earlier half of the 1 6th centuries, but the Greek text did not
make its appearance till 1533, when it was published at Basel in
quarto, edited by Erasmus. All these early editions, however, swarrn
with textual errors, and are critically worthless. The same may be
said of the edition of P. Bcrtius (Gr. and Lat., Leiden, 1618, typ.
Elzevir), which was long the standard library edition. It contains
a new set of maps drawn by Mercator, as well as a fresh series
(not intended to illustrate Ptolemy) by Ortelius, the Roman Itiner-
aries, including the Tabula peutingeriana, and much other miscel-
laneous matter. The first attempt at a really critical edition was
made by F. G. Wilberg, and O. H. F. Grashof (410, Essen, 1838-
1845), but this only covered the first six books of the entire eight.
The edition of C. F. A. Nobbe (3 vols., i8mo., Leipzig, 1843), presents
the best Greek text of the whole work, and has a useful index.
The best edition, so far as completed, is that published in A. F.
Didot's Bibliotheca graecorum scriptorum (Claudii Ptolemaei
geographia; 2 vols., Paris, 1883 and 1901), originally edited by Carl
Muller and continued by C. T. Fischer, with a Latin translation
and a copious commentary, geographical as well as critical. See
also, F. C. L. Sickler, Claudii Ptolemaei Germania (Hesse Cassel,
1833); W. D. Cooley, Claudius Ptolemy and the Nile (London,
1854); J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India described by Ptolemy (Bombay,
1885), reprinted from Indian Antiquary (1884); Henry Bradley,
" Ptolemy's Geography of the British Isles," in Archaeologia, vol.
xlviii. (1885) ;T. G. Rylands, Geography of Ptolemy Elucidated (Dublin,
1893); and a Polish study of Ptolemy's Germany and Sarmatia, in
the Historical-Philosophical Series (2) of the Cracow University
(1902), vol. xvi. (E. H. B.; C. R. B.)
PTOMAINE POISONING (Gr. imo;ua, corpse), a phrase now
popularized in the sense of a certain class of food-poisoning.
The word " ptomaine " was invented by the Italian chemist
Selmi for the basic substances produced in putrefaction. They
belong to several classes of chemical compounds. (See MEDICAL
JURISPRUDENCE.)
PUBERTY (Lat. pubertas, from pubes, puber, mature, adult),
that period of life at which the generative organs in both sexes
become functionally active (see REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM). In
northern countries males enter upon sexual maturity between
fourteen and sixteen, sometimes not much before the eighteenth
year, females between twelve and fourteen. In tropical climates
puberty is much earlier. In English common law the age of
puberty is conclusively presumed to be fourteen in the male and
twelve in the female. Puberty is of much ethnological interest,
as being the occasion among many races for feasts and religious
ceremonies. In Rome a feast was given to the family and
friends: the hair of boys was cut short, a lock being thrown into
the fire in honour of Apollo, and one into water as an offering
to Neptune. Girls offered their dolls to Venus, and the
bulla a little locket of gold worn round children's necks, often
by boys as well as girls was taken off and dedicated in the
case of the former to Hercules or the household lares, in the
case of the latter to Juno. The attainment of puberty is
celebrated by savages with ceremonies some of which seem to
be directly associated with totemism. The Australian rites of
initiation include the raising of those scars on the bodies of
clansmen or clanswomen which serve as tribal badges or
actually depict the totem. Among many savage peoples lads
at puberty undergo a pretence of being killed and brought to
life again.
PUBLICANI, literally men employed " in connexion with the
revenue," (publicum, from populus, people), or possibly " in the
public service," the name given in ancient Rome to a body of
men who either hired state property or monopolies for a certain
period, during which they could farm such property to their own
profit, or bought of the state for a fixed sum the right to farm for
a term of years the taxes due to the treasury from the public land
in Italy (see AGRARIAN LAWS) or the land held by Roman
subjects in the provinces. In very early times the senate
entrusted to officials appointed for the purpose the control of
the sale of salt (Livy ii. 9); and it was a natural development
from this that the state, instead of appointing officials to manage
its monopolies, should let out those monopolies to individuals.
A regular system was soon established by which the censor,
who held office every fifth year, placed all the sources of public
revenue in the hands of certain individuals or companies, who
on payment of a fixed sum into the treasury, or on giving
adequate security for such payment, received the right to make
what profit they could out of the revenues during the five years
that should elapse before the next censorship. The assignment
was made to the highest bidder at a public auction held by the
censor. The same system was applied to the public works, the
publicanus (or company) in this case being paid a certain sum, in
return for which he took entire charge of a certain department
of the public works, and winning his appointment by making
the lowest tender. That this system was well established at the
time of the Second Punic War is assumed in Livy's account of the
various offers made by the wealthier class of citizens to relieve
the exhausted treasury after the battle of Cannae. On the
one hand we have companies offering a price for branches of the
revenue which was calculated rather to meet the needs of the
state than to ensure any profit for themselves (Livy xxiii. 49).
On the other hand individuals are represented as undertaking the
management of public works on the understanding that they
will expect no payment until the conclusion of the war (ibid.
xxiv. 18).
In very early times the puUicani may have been men closely
connected with the government. But since wealth was a neces-
sary qualification for the post, and wealth at Rome became more
and more confined to the commercial class, the Publkani became
PUBLIC HEALTH, LAW OF
627
identical with the leading representatives of the class of capital-
ists and traders. This class was always distinct at Rome from
tin- hereditary nobilty which monopolized the government of
the- si ale, and members of the senatorial class were excluded from
it by definite enactment (see SENATE). Although common
interest was strong enough to secure for the government in time
of external danger the loyal support of the commercial class,
Her the close of the great wars a market hostility grew up
between it and the government.
The extension of the Roman system of tax-farming to the
provim TS did not at first increase the importance of the publicuni
in Italy; for in the earlier provinces, in which the collection of
the revenues was put up to auction in the province itself, the
publicani were generally natives. But C. Gracchus, who carried
a hw that the taxes of the new province of Asia should be put
up to auction by the censor in Rome, gave to the Roman capital-
in opportunity of greatly extending their financial operations
and thus in a short time of securing important political powers.
It was in their capacity of publicani in the wealthiest provinces
that the capitalist or equestrian judices (see EQUITES) became a
menace to the provincial governors who represented the sena-
torial power. Cicero often applies the name publicani to the
whole order; and on the various occasions when the demands of
the equestrian party determined the policy of the state we can
dearly trace the interests of the publicani, who were involved in
an infinite number of commercial and financial transactions in
the provinces, as the motive of its action. Thus the cruel fate
of the Roman business men in Cirta led the capitalist class to
force the Jugurthine War upon the senate in 112 B.C.; the dis-
organization of Asiatic commerce by the pirates led the same
party to support the proposal to confer extraordinary powers on
I'ompey in 67 B.C.; and the rigour of the senate in opposing any
relaxation of the burdensome contract made by the tax-farmers
of Asia in 60 B.C. led to that estrangement between the senate
and the capitalist class which enabled the democratic party to
work its will and pave the way for the principate.
The companies of publicani continued some of their operations
in the provinces under the early principate, but they lost many
of their opportunities of oppression and embezzlement. We
hear of a vigorous attempt made by Nero to suppress their
unjust exactions, and they appear to have been kept under much
closer supervision.
The term publicanus was applied at this time, and probably
earlier, to the subordinate officials employed by the companies
of publicani for the actual collection of the revenue, and thus
acquired the general sense of " tax-collector," even in provinces
where the system of tax-farming by contract with societies of
pulilifinii was not in existence. (A. M. CL.)
PUBLIC HEALTH, LAW OF. State medicine as an organized
department of administration is entirely of modern growth.
By the common law of England the only remedy for any act or
omission dangerous to health was an action for damages or an
indictment for nuisance. The indictment for nuisance still lies for
many offences which are now punishable in a summary manner
under the powers of modern legislation. But for a long time it
was the only, not as now a concurrent, remedy. At a compara-
tively early date statutes were passed dealing with matters for
which the common law had provided too cumbrous a remedy,
while the plague called forth the act of i Jac. I. c. 31 (1603),
which made it a capital offence for an infected person to go
abroad after being commanded by the proper authority to keep
his house. The act for the rebuilding of London after the great
tire. 19 Car. II. c. 3 (1668), contained various provisions as to the
height of houses, breadth of streets, construction of sewers and
prohibition of noisome trades. Numerous local acts gave the
authorities of the more important towns power over the public
health. But it was not until 1848 that a general Public Health
Act, embracing the whole of England (except the Metropolis),
was passed. The Public Health Act 1848 created a general
board of health as the supreme authority in sanitary matters,
but greater local sanitary control was given by an act of 1858.
The local government board, the present central authority, was
created by an act of 1871. Numerous acts dealing with public
health were passed from 1849 to 1874; and the law was digested
into the Public Health Act 1875, as amended by the Local
Government Act 1894 and other acts.
The tendency of English sanitary legislation has been to place
local sanitary regulations in the hands of the local authorities,
subject to general superintendence by a government department.
The jurisdiction of a local authority is both preventive and remedial.
The matters falling under it are very numerous, but the more im-
portant will be found in the article ENGLAND: Local Government.
The act of 1875 was followed by the Public Health Acts Amend-
ment Act 1890, the Public Health Act 1896 and the Public Health
Acts Amendment Act 1907. The first of these statutes confers
enlarged powers on such local authorities as choose to adopt it
the right of adoption being general in the case of urban authorities,
and in that of rural authorities limited to certain specified pro-
visions unless extended by the local government board. The
Public Health Acts 1896 and 1904 abolished the old system of
quarantine (q.v.), and empowered the local government board
to make regulations as to the landing or embarking of infected
persons from ships, British or foreign; while the act of 1907
enabled local authorities to adopt many of the useful clauses intro-
duced into private bills from time to time, relating not only to
sanitary provisions, but to streets and buildings, milk, &c. supply,
recreation grounds, sky-signs, &c.
Elaborate provision has been made for the notification of infec-
tious diseases by the Infectious Diseases (Notification) Acts 1889
and 1899. The former statute was originally adoptive only, but
it has now been extended by the latter to every district in England
or Wales in London notification has been compulsory since 1891.
Reference should be made also to the following statutes: the
Infectious Disease (Prevention) Act 1890 provides for the inspection
of dairies, and the cleansing and disinfecting of premises, and
under the Public Health (Ports) Act 1896 the local government
board may by order assign to any port sanitary authority powers
or duties arising under this statute. The scope of the Baths and
Washhouses Acts 1846 to 1882 sufficiently appears from the title.
The Isolation Hospitals Act 1893 enables county councils to promote
the establishment of hospitals for the reception of patients suffering
from infectious diseases; the Cleansing of Persons Act 1897 enables
local authorities to permit persons who apply to them, on the
ground that they are infested with vermin, to have the gratuitous
use of cleansing apparatus; and the Vaccination Acts of 1898 and
1907 profoundly modified the law as to vaccination by giving a
discretion to magistrates. See top, among other acts, those of
1881 (alkali works), 1882 (fruit pickers), 1883 (epidemics), 1889
(cholera), 1904 (shop hours), 1905 (medical inspection of aliens)
and numerous others.
In addition to these statutes, account has to be taken of a large
body of legislation which relates indirectly to the law of public
health, or at least comes well within its range of operation. It
deals with a very great variety of subjects, and only the slightest
sketch of its results need be given here. (For factories and work-
shops, see LABOUR LEGISLATION, and for merchant shipping, see
SEAMEN.) The Coal Mines Regulation Act 1896 aims at the pre-
vention of accidents due to inflammable gas and coal-dust in coal
mines. The Cotton Cloth Factories Acts 1889 and 1897 enable
the home secretary to make regulations for health in cotton mills.
The Rivers Pollution Prevention (Borders Councils) Act 1898
enables joint committees of English and Scottish county councils
of counties on both sides of the Border to exercise the powers of
the Rivers Pollution Prevention Act 1876, in relation to any river
or tributary which is partly in England and ^partly in Scotland
an expression including the Tweed. The Notification of Births
Act 1907 and the Children Act 1908 (see CHILDREN: Law relating to)
have given great protection to infant life. Lastly, reference may
be made to the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act 1894, which
consolidated the law on this subject.
London. Down to the year 1891 London was governed in
matters of public health by a series of special statutes (especially
the Metropolitan Police Acts), and by provisions in the general
statutes. The law as to the Metropolis was consolidated, and is
now regulated by the Public Health (London) Act 1891. The
sanitary authorities for the execution of the act were the com-
missioners of sewers for the City of London, the vestries of the
larger and the district boards of some of the smaller parishes ; and
varying authorities for Woolwich and some other places. I'nder
the London Government Act 1899, the powers of each existing
vestry and district board are transferred to the council of the borough
comprising the area within the jurisdiction of such vestry and
district board; and the borough councils take over certain of the
powers of the county council (e.g. as to dairies, milk, slaughter-
houses and offensive businesses) and exercise concurrent jurisdiction
with it in other matters. Provision is made for the appointment
of medical officers of health and sanitary inspectors. The medical
officer is for some purposes placed on the footing of a district poor-
law medical officer, and he cannot be removed without the consent
of the local government board. In its structure and substance
6 2 8
PUBLIC HOUSE PUBLISHING
the Public Health (London) Act 1891, which consists of 144 sections,
closely resembles the general acts (see LONDON, | iv.).
The law of public health in London is also affected by a number
of later statutes relating to the Metropolis alone, such as the London
Building Acts 1894 and 1898, the Baths and Washhouses Act
1896, the Canals Protection (London) Act 1898, &c.
Scotland. Sanitary legislation occurs as early as the reign of
Alexander III. The Statute Glide, c. 19, forbade the deposit of
dung or ashes in the street, market, or on the banks of the Tweed
at Berwick, under a penalty of eight shillings. At a later date the
act of 1540, c. 20, enacted that no flesh was to be slain in Edinburgh
on the east side of the Leith Wynd; that of 1621, c. 29, fixed the
locality of fleshers and candlemakers. The various statutes re-
lating to public health in Scotland are now consolidated and amended
by the Public Health (Scotland) Act 1897, which, together with the
Infectious Diseases Notification Act 1889 and the Burgh Police
(Scotland) Act 1892, constitute the statutory law of Scottish
sanitary administration. The central authority is the local
government board for Scotland. The local authorities are (i.) in
burghs under the Burgh Police (Scotland) Act 1892, the town council
or burgh commissioners; (ii.) in other burghs, the town council or
board of police; (iii.) in districts where the county is divided into
districts, the district committee; (iv.) in counties not so divided,
the county council. The substantive provisions are similar to those
of the English acts.
Ireland. Several acts of the Irish parliament dealt with specific
nuisances, e.g. 5 Geo. III. c. 15, forbidding the laying of filth in
the streets of cities or county towns, and making regulations as to
sweeping and scavenging. There were also numerous private acts
dealing with water-supply and the obstruction of watercourses.
In 1878 the existing legislation was consolidated by the Public
Health (Ireland) Act 1878, a close copy of the English act of 1875.
Most of the English acts apply to Ireland with modifications and
adaptations.
United States. After the Civil War boards of health were estab-
lished in the chief cities. Public health is under the control of the
local authorities to a greater extent than in England. By the Act
of Congress of the 25th of February 1799 officers of the United
States are bound to observe the health laws of the states. A
national board of health was created by the act of the 3rd of March
1879, c. 202; and it was succeeded by the Public Health and
Marine Hospital Service, whose chief officer is the surgeon-general
and which has jurisdiction in quarantine and in epidemics of a
peculiarly dangerous nature.
AUTHORITIES. English: Glen, Public Health Acts, I3th edition
(London, 1906) ; Lumley, Public Health Acts, 7th edition (London,
1908); Redlich and Hirst, Local Government (1904); Hunter,
Open Spaces (London, 1896); Hunt, London Local Government
(London, 1897); Hunt, London Government Act 1899 (London,
1899); Macmorran, Lushington and Naldrett, London Government
Act 1899 (London, 1899) ; Shaw's Vaccination Manual (London,
1899); Macmorran, Public Health (London) Act 1891 (2nd ed.,
1910) ; Encyclopaedia of Local Government Law (by various authors),
begun in 1905; Annual Report of Local Government Board; Annual
Volume of Statutory Rules and Orders. Scottish: Macdougall
and Murray, Handbook of Public Health (Edinburgh). Irish:
Vanston, Public Health in Ireland (Dublin, 1892) ; Vanston's Public
Health Supplement (Dublin, 1897). American: Bouvier, Law
Diet., ed. Rawle (London and Boston, 1897).
PUBLIC HOUSE, in its general English acceptation, a house
in respect of which a licence has been obtained for the con-
sumption of intoxicating liquors. Public houses are frequently
distinguished as "tied" and "free." A tied house is one rented
from a person or firm from whom the tenant is compelled to
purchase liquors or other commodities to be consumed therein.
A free house has no such covenant. The keepers of public
houses (" publicans " or " licensed victuallers ") are subject, in'
the conduct of their business, to a number of restrictions laid
down by various acts of parliament; while, in order to ply their
trade, they require a justices' licence and an excise licence. (See
LIQUOR LAWS; TEMPERANCE.)
By the Parliamentary Elections Act (1853) a public house
must not be used for elections, meetings or committee rooms.
By the Payment of Wages in Public Houses Prohibition Act
(1883) it is illegal to pay wages to any workman in a public
house, except such wages as are paid by the resident owner or
occupier. By the Sheriffs Act (1887) when a debtor is arrested
he must not be taken to a public house without his free consent,
nor must he be charged with any sum for liquor or food, except
what he freely asks for.
PUB LI LI US (less correctly PUBLIUS) SYRUS, a Latin writer of
mimes, flourished in the ist century B.C. He was a native of
Syria and was brought as a slave to Italy, but by his wit and
talent he won the favour of his master, who freed and educated
him. His mimes, in which he acted himself, had a great success
in the provincial towns of Italy and at the games given by
Caesar in 46 B.C. Publilius was perhaps even more famous as
an improvisatore, and received from Caesar himself the prize
in a contest in which he vanquished all his competitors, includ-
ing the celebrated Decimus Laberius. All that remains of his
works is a collection of Sentences (Sententiae) , a series of moral
maxims in iambic and trochaic verse. This collection must have
been made at a very early date, since it was known to Aulus
Gellius in the 2nd century A.D. Each maxim is comprised in a 1
single verse, and the verses are arranged in alphabetical order
according to their initial letters. In course of time the collection
was interpolated with sentences drawn from other writers,
especially from apocryphal writings of Seneca; the number of
genuine verses is about 700. They include many pithy sayings,
such as the famous " judex damnatur ubi nocens absolvitur "
(adopted as its motto by the Edinburgh Review).
The best texts of the Sentences are those of E. Wolfflin (1869)
A. Spengel (1874) and W. Meyer (1880), with complete critical
apparatus and index verborum; recent editions with notes by
O. Friedrich (1880), R. A. H. Bickford-Smith (1895), with full
bibliography; see also W. Meyer, Die Sammlungen der Spruchverse
des Publilius Syrus (1877), an important work.
PUBLISHING. In the technical sense, publishing is the
business of producing and placing upon the market printed
copies of the work of an author (see BOOK). Before the inven-
tion of printing the actual maker of a manuscript was to a great
extent his own publisher and his own bookseller. Increase of
facilities for the production of copies led to a steady though
slow differentiation of functions. The author was the first
factor to be isolated and confined to a well-marked province,
yet we may find upon the title-page of some old books an
intimation that they might be purchased either at the shop
of the bookseller who published them or at the lodgings of the
author.
The separation of publishing from bookselling came later
(see BOOKSELLING). Booksellers were the first publishers of
printed books, as they had previously been the agents for the
production and exchange of authentic manuscript copies; and
as they are quite competent to make contracts with paper-
makers, printers and bookbinders, there is no particular reason
why they should not be publishers still, except the tendency of
every composite business to break up, as it expands, into
specialized departments. That tendency may be seen at work
in the publishing business itself. When publishers had con-
quered their own province, and had confined booksellers to
bookselling, they held in their own hands the entire business of
distribution to the trade. But a class of wholesale booksellers
has grown up, and although important retail booksellers in
London continue to deal directly with the publishers, the retail
booksellers throughout the country draw their supplies quite
largely from the wholesale agents.
The intellectual movement which was largely responsible for
the French Revolution, and the general stir and upheaval which
followed that portentous cataclysm, precipitated the separation
of production from distribution in the book trade, by the mere
expansion of the demand for books. That separation was
practically complete at the beginning of the ipth century,
although it would not be difficult to find survivals of the old
order of things at a much later date. The old bookseller-
publishers were very useful men in their time. They met
pretty fairly the actual needs of the public; and as regards the
author, they took the place of the private patron upon whom he
was previously dependent. No doubt the author had much
to endure at their hands, still, they did undoubtedly improve
his status by introducing him to public patronage and placing
him upon a sounder economic basis. If in the earlier days
they were less than liberal in their terms, it may be remem-
bered that their own business was not very extensive or very
remunerative. They were not equipped either with brains or
with capital to extend that business in answer to the growing
demand for books. By the daily routine of their shops they
PUBLISHING
629
were tied down to narrow views, and their timidity is charac-
teristically shown by the fact that to publish a book of any
importance required the co-operation of a number of 'book-
sellers who shared the expenses and the profits.
Enterprise could not be expected from a committee of that
kind and of that composition; hence there was not merely an
opportunity, but a clamorous demand for men of larger ideas
and wider outlook to undertake the proper business of publishing,
unhampered by the narrowing influences of retail trade.
Besides unconsciously improving the position of authors by
enabling them to appeal to the public instead of to patrons,
whom Johnson classed with other evils in the line " toil, envy,
want, the patron and the gaol, " the bookseller-publishers gave
them, or many of them, steady employment as literary assistants
and advisers.
As the demand for books increased, these worthy tradesmen
felt with growing acuteness their own want of literary ability
and of education. They called in men of letters to supply
their own deficiencies. No doubt they expected the lowest
kind of hack work from their assistants, no doubt the pay was
poor, no doubt they trampled upon the sensibilities of the man
of letters, and no doubt he irritated them by his unbusinesslike
habits. Still, the association was useful to both parties; and
indeed, one may lay down many books at the present day with
a sigh of regret that the writers had never been compelled to go
through an apprenticeship of the kind.
The emergence of the publishers as a separate class was
accompanied by differentiation of the functions of their literary
assistants. The routine drudgery which men of education and
ability formerly had to undergo fell to a class now known as
" proof readers, " who are on the watch for typographical errors,
grammatical slips, ambiguities of expression, obvious lapses of
memory and oversights of all kinds. Men of letters became
" publishers' readers, " and their duty was to appraise the worth
of the manuscripts submitted, and to advise their employers
as to the value of the matter, the originality of the treatment,
and the excellence of the style. Their advice was also sought
upon literary projects that may have suggested themselves to
the publishers, and novel suggestions emanating from themselves
were welcomed. Men of letters in positions of that kind could
obviously exercise very considerable influence over the proceed-
ings of the publishing firms to which they were attached, and
many an unknown writer has owed the acceptance of his work
to the sympathetic insight of the publishers' reader.
The man of letters as publisher's reader is, however, a trans-
itory phenomenon in the evolution of the publishing business.
His primary function is to tell the publisher what is intrinsically
good, but probably he has always to some extent discharged
the secondary function of advising the publisher as to what
it would pay to publish. The qualities which make a man a
sound critic of intrinsic worth are quite different from those
that make him a good judge of what the public will buy. When
books were comparatively few, and when the reading public
was comparatively small, select and disposed to give consider-
able attention to the few books it read, the critical faculty was of
more importance than the business one. But when the output
of books became large, and when, as the consequence of educa-
tional changes, the reading public became numerous, uncritical
and hurried and superficial in its reading, the importance of
the critical faculty in the publisher's reader dwindled, while
the faculty of gauging the public mind and guessing what
would sell became increasingly valuable. The publisher's
literary adviser belongs to the period when the publishing busi-
ness had expanded sufficiently to compel the publisher to look
for skilled assistance in working more or less upon the older
traditions. But when, as is now the case, expansion has gone
so far as to swamp the older traditions, and to make publishing
a purely commercial affair, the literary reader gives place to the
man of business with aptitude for estimating how many copies
of a given book can be sold. This is practically recognized by
at least one London publisher, who in recent years paid no salary
to his reader, but gave him a small commission upon every copy
that was sold of any book the publication of which he had
recommended. Nothing could more plainly indicate that
literary faculty is not wanted, and that the reader's function is
to judge, not literary value, but commercial utility.
The market is flooded with books badly written, badly
constructed, as poor in matter as in style, hastily flung together,
and outrageously padded to suit conventional relations between
size and price. They are books which no man of literary taste
or judgment could ever recommend for publication on their
merits, but they are published, just as crackers are at Christmas,
on a calculation that a certain number will find buyers. Even
if the publisher sees no prospect of an adequate sale, he pub-
lishes the books all the same, upon terms which ensure to him a
manufacturing profit and throw the risk of loss upon other
shoulders.
There is no reproach, stated or implied, to the publisher.
He is merely a man of his age carrying on his business upon
terms which the, age prescribes through a number of concurrent
causes. Any reproach that may fall upon him he invites by
sometimes giving himself the airs of one belonging to an earlier
age, and claiming credit for acting upon principles that are
obsolete.
An author, even if he be an immortal genius, is, from the
economic point of view, a producer of raw material. A publisher,
however eminent, is from the same point of view a middleman
who works up the author's raw material into a saleable form and
places it upon the market. The relationship between the two
is one that occurs with great frequency in business, always giving
rise to efforts by each party to adjust the division of profits for
his own advantage. If there be anything peculiar to the pub-
lishing business it is that the party who in that business most
successfully adjusts matters for his own advantage is liable to
be charged by the other with some form of moral obliquity.
The diatribes of authors against publishers are familiar to every
one; and publishers on their side have some hard, things to say
about authors, though their sentiments are less piquantly and
less publicly expressed. The publisher is usually a more or less
capable man of business, while the author is generally though
there are very notable exceptions quite ignorant of business
and apparently incapable of learning the rudiments. It neces-
sarily follows that the author, left to himself, accepts agreements
and signs contracts which are much less favourable than they
need be to his acquisition of a due share of the profits jointly
made by himself and the publisher. What makes his position
still worse is the circumstance that each author fights for his
own hand, whereas the publishers, although in competition with
one another, are also to some extent in combination.
In these circumstances it occurred to Sir Walter Besant and
some others that a remedy for this inferiority in position might
be found in a combination of authors for mutual help and
protection. After a troublesome period of incubation the
Society of Authors was established in London in 1883, with
Lord Tennyson as its first president, and with a goodly list of
35 vice-presidents. It offered useful assistance to authors igno-
rant of business in the way of examining contracts, checking
publishers' accounts, revising their sometimes too liberal esti-
mates of costs of production, and giving advice as to the publishers
to be applied to or avoided in any given case. It has ho doubt
been of great service in checking the abuses of the publishing
trade and in compelling the less scrupulous among the publishers
to conform more or less exactly to the practice of the more
honourable. On general questions such as that of copyright
it serves to focus the opinions of authors, though here it
champions their interests against the public rather than against
the publishers. But the society has never been an effective com-
bination of authors; and indeed the obstacles, material and moral,
to such a combination are so great as to render complete success
extremely improbable. Nothing could better illustrate this
difficulty than the fact that, concurrently with the Society of
Authors, a totally different machinery for the furtherance of the
interests of authors came into existence. The " literary agent "
made his appearance about 1880. He is supposed to be an
630
PUBLISHING
expert in all matters pertaining to publishing and to the book
market. He takes the author's business affairs entirely into his
hands; utilizes the competition among publishers to sell the
author's work to the highest bidder; checks accounts, estimates
and sales; keeps the author's accounts for him; and charges a
commission upon the proceeds. Here we have the author
fighting as of old for his own hand. The only difference is that
he does his fighting by proxy, hiring a stronger man than himself
to deal the blows on his account. There is no question whatever
of solidarity with his fellow-authors, and the whole system is a
direct negation of the principle upon which the Society of Authors
was founded.
On the other hand, both publishers and booksellers have long
had the disposition, and to some extent the ability, to co-operate,
and the efforts of both sets of men have unfortunately been in
the direction of maintaining, if not raising, the price of books
to the public. Since the formation of the Publishers' Association
in 1896 the publishing trade has been strongly organized on the
trade-union pattern, and its operations have been assisted by
the less powerful Booksellers' Association. Books, like many
other articles, are sold by the makers at list prices, and the
retailer's profit is furnished by discounts off these prices. Under
such a system competition among retailers takes the form of
the sacrifice by the more enterprising of a portion of their dis-
count. They prefer a large sale at a low profit to a small sale
at a high profit. It is always the desire of the less enterprising
to put an end to this 'competition by artificial regulations
compelling all to sell at the same price.
Many attempts have been made to destroy freedom of dealing
in books. In July 1850 twelve hundred booksellers within 12 m.
of the London General Post Office signed a stringent agreement
not to sell below a certain price. This agreement was broken
almost immediately. Another attempt was made in 1852; but at
a meeting of distinguished men of letters resolutions were adopted
declaring that the principles of the Booksellers' Association of
that period were opposed to free trade, and were tyrannical and
vexatious in their operations. The Times took an active part
in defending and enforcing the conclusions which they sanctioned.
The question was eventually referred to a commission, consisting
of Lord Campbell, Dean Milman and George Grote,which decided
that the regulations were unreasonable and inexpedient, and
contrary to the freedom which ought to prevail in commercial
transactions. An attempt was also made in 1869 to impose
restrictions upon the retail bookseller; but that also failed, mainly
by reason of the ineffective organization which the publishers
then had at command.
Feeling their hands greatly strengthened by the establishment
of their Association, the publishers were emboldened to make
another effort to put an end to reductions in the selling price
of books. ' After much discussion between authors, publishers
and booksellers, a new scheme was launched on the ist of January
1900. Books began to be issued at net prices, from which no
bookseller was permitted to make any deduction whatever.
This decree was enforced by the refusal of all the publishers
included in the Association to supply books to any bookseller
who should dare to infringe it in the case of a book published
by any one of them. In other words, a bookseller offending
against one publisher was boycotted by all. Thus, what is
known as the " net system" depended absolutely upon the close
trade union into which the publishers had organized themselves.
The Booksellers' Association signed an agreement to charge the
full published price for every net book, but that body had no
real power to impose its will upon recalcitrant booksellers. Its
assent to the terms of the publishers merely relieved them of
the fear of active opposition on the part of the wholesale
booksellers and the large retail booksellers, mainly located in
London.
All books were not issued at net prices even in 1910, though
the practice had extended enormously since it began in 1900.
But the principle was applied all round. In the case of such
books as six-shilling novels the discount price of four shillings
and sixpence was treated as the net price, and the usual penalty
was inflicted upon those who dared to sell at any lower price,
at all_ events within twelve months of the date of publication.
Owing to the fact that the net system was gradually intro-
duced, net books and discount books being issued side by side
with discount books in the majority, the full effect of the innova-
tion was not immediately apparent. But the establishment of
TheTimes Book Club in 1905 brought the system to the test. That
Club aimed at giving to the readers of The Times a much more
prompt and copious supply of new books than could be obtained
from the circulating libraries. The scheme was at first very
favourably received by the publishers, who saw in it the promise
of largely increased orders for their goods. They obtained these
orders, but then something else happened which they had not
foreseen. Of the books they issued the vast majority were of
only ephemeral interest. For a few weeks, sometimes only for
a few days, everybody wanted to glance at them, and then the
public interest dwindled and died. As the copies ceased to be
in demand for circulation the Book Club naturally tried to take
advantage of the buying demand, which always exists, though it
is always repressed by the very high prices charged by publishers
in Great Britain. The Book Club sold its surplus copies at
reduced prices, and was obliged to do so, since otherwise it would
have been swamped with waste paper. But the authors and
publishers now rose in arms. Forgetting that they had been
paid the full trade price for every copy, they said that the Book
Club was spoiling the market, and that a wholesale buyer had
no right to sell at the best price he could get. Hence arose what
came to be known as the Book War, between The Times and the
associated publishers and booksellers, the publishers withdrawing
their advertisements from The Times and doing their best to
refuse books to the Book Club. The conflict made a considerable
commotion, and the arguments on both sides were hotly con-
tested. It did not, however, alter the fact that the public will not
pay high prices for books having no permanent value.
The Booksellers' Association, dominated by the large book-
sellers in London and a few great towns, made common cause
with the Publishers' Association. Their interests were not
affected by the net system, and they saw in the Book Club an
energetic competitor. The small booksellers up and down the
country are injuriously affected, because it is more difficult than
ever for them to stock books on which there is a very small
margin of profit, and the sale of which they cannot any longer
push by the offer of a discount. Formerly, if a book did not sell
at the full price, they could sacrifice their profit and even part
of what they paid for it, thus saving at least part of their invested
capital. Now if a book does not sell at the net price they have
to keep it so long that it is probably unsaleable at any price and
forms a dead loss. Hence they cannot afford to stock books at
all, and that channel of distribution is blocked.
The cast-iron retail price is economically wrong. A book-
seller with a large turn-over in the midst of a dense population
can afford to sell at a small profit. He finds his reward in
increased sales. His action is good for the public, for the author,
and for the publisher himself, were he enlightened enough to see
it. But a small bookseller in a remote country town cannot
afford to sell at an equally low profit, because he has not access
to a public large enough to yield correspondingly increased sales.
Yet both are arbitrarily compelled to sell only at a uniform
price fixed by the publisher. What makes the matter worse
is that there is no cast-iron wholesale price. The small book-
seller has to pay more for his books than the large one who buys
in dozens of copies. Carriage on his small parcels often eats up
what profit is left to him. As he is not allowed to have books
" on sale or return," he has no chance whatever; and as a
distributing agency the small bookseller has become negligible.
It is not a necessary consequence of the net system that new
books should cost the public more than before. If it has become
the practice to sell a ten-shilling book for seven shillings and
sixpence, and if that practice be thought objectionable, the
obvious remedy, supposing publishers to have no other end in
view, is to publish the book at the price for which it is sold.
But the net system has been used to enforce the sale of the book
PUBLISHING
631
at the published price and nothing less, which obviously amounts
to compelling the public to pay more than before for the book.
Again, if the object were to benefit the retail bookseller by reliev-
ing the pressure of competition, it is plain that after abolishing
discounts the publishers would charge the same wholesale
prices as before to the booksellers. But, on the contrary, they
have so adjusted their prices that the retailer gets no more
profit upon a book sold net than he formerly obtained from a
book of the same published price after allowing a discount.
Thus the object and result of the net system is to increase the
profits of the publishers at the expense of the public. This has
been accomplished at a time when paper is cheaper than at any
previous period, and when machinery has reduced the cost of
composition, printing and binding to an almost equal extent.
It is a remarkable illustration of the power of combination
among quasi-monopolists to raise the price of their commodities
even in the face of a falling market.
The Book War came to an end in 1908; but though the pub-
lishers and booksellers appeared in the result to have brought
the Book Club within terms which were satisfactory to them, the
whole situation had really been changed. The public for the
first time had been educated. Public attention had been forcibly
directed to the fact that there is no reason in the nature of
things why the price of books should increase, but on the con-
trary, every reason why they should be cheaper than at any
previous period. A certain mystery which had hung over the
publishing trade was effectually dispelled: The man in the
street learned that books priced to him at six shillings can be
produced by the joint labours of the paper maker, the printer,
and the bookbinder for about sixpence, and that in many cases
the author gets little or nothing out of the difference. There
followed a quickening of the public demand for literature at
reasonable prices, and enterprising people were found to meet
the demand. A vast quantity of good literature, much better
than nine-tenths of what is written to-day, has been brought
within reach of persons of the smallest incomes. Hundreds of
standard works have appeared in convenient and readable
editions at a shilling, at sevenpence and even sixpence per
volume. These cheap editions have an enormous sale, not only
because they are low in price, but because they have permanent
value. For the cost of a novel which he will never look at twice,
and which perhaps was hardly worth reading once, a man may
obtain half a dozen books that have stood the test of time, and
i hat will become the valued companions of his leisure. He gets
them too in a form suited not only to his purse, but to the limited
storage accommodation at the disposal of the mass of modern
readers, who can neither buy nor house the stately editions
that adorn the libraries of the wealthy. Thus, in respect of
the large class of books read for recreation, we have reached
the paradoxical position that cheapness and excellence go
hand-in-hand; and that the disparaging adjective frequently
linked with " cheap" is more properly associated with dear and
pretentious.
Nor does the counter movement stop even here. There is a
growing tendency to bring out books of current production in
cheap editions, and also to publish the original edition at prices
which must give a painful shock to the authors of the net
system. Cheap magazines, and ihcfcuillctons which newspapers
are adopting from French practice, make considerable inroads
upon the province of the six-shilling novel; and as regards more
serious books the newspapers now give an amount of information
about their contents which goes far to console the public for
the prohibitive prices of the books themselves. These move-
ments are developing and will continue to develop, seriously
interfering >vith the plans of those who devised the net system.
The combination publishers have never understood that, apart
from the very small percentage of works which make real addi-
tions to the sum of knowledge or of genuine literary achievement,
the reading of the books they turn out is a pastime, which has
to compete in public favour with a great variety of other pastimes.
They have chosen to make their form of recreation extremely
expensive, with the double result that the public turn to others,
and that even their own is increasingly supplied by cheaper
agencies.
There are certain classes of books which must always be
relatively expensive, because they appeal only to students ot
some particular branch of science or of art or of literature,
whose number is not great. But these are books of enduring
value. Their price is justified not only by their prolonged
service, but by the erudition or the exceptional qualities which
go to the writing of them, as well as by the frequently excep-
tional cost of producing them. But as regards the vast output
of books which merely amuse an idle hour, the existence of a
large body of readers is the only excuse for their appearance,
and if they cannot be produced at a low price ensuring an exten-
sive sale they ought not to be produced at all. Thus there is
more than a mere money question involved in the 'contention
about price. An artificial system of prices leads to the printing
of a vast quantity of trash, which demoralizes the reading public
and is a serious obstacle to the success of the better books. Such
a system operates, in fact, as a protective duty in favour of
mediocrity and even of something worse. It is no defence of
such a system that it panders to the vanity of incompetent
scribblers, and enables publishers to make money by soiling paper
that had better have been kept clean.
A rational system of prices would automatically solve some
of the difficulties of the book-world. If a book is selling by tens
of thousands of copies, as every book printed for pastime ought
to do, it would not matter at what price any large buyer chose to
resell his purchases. They would only be a drop in the bucket,
and all the contention about second-hand prices would disappear.
Then there is the troublesome system of " remainders," that
is to say, the unsaleable copies of thousands of books published
every year. The editions are small enough probably not more
than one thousand copies yet, in spite of circulating libraries,
a third or a half of that modest number remains in the ware-
houses of the publishers. Sometimes they are sold for about the
cost of their flimsy covers; sometimes they simply go to be
reduced to their original pulp at the paper mills. If a book has
any sale justifying its production, there will be no question of
remainders, supposing its supply to have been regulated by the
most ordinary prudence. The sale of such a book never stops
dead, and any small surplus of copies can always be got rid of at a
small reduction in price.
Towards the end of the igth century came a large influx into
England of American literature, especially fiction. Not only
was there a growing appreciation of many American writers,
but the attractive "get-up" of American books made its influ-
ence felt upon the British market. Some of the American
methods of distribution were also introduced into Great Britain,
but at first with only partial success. The most successful
effort was the sale of important expensive works through the
medium of newspapers. Canvassing, which was a common
method of distributing books in the United States, met with
little support in the United Kingdom, although about the
middle of the ipth century a large trade was done through
,England and Scotland by canvassers, who sold in numbers and
parts such works as Family Bibles, Daily Devotions, Lives of
Christ and Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
The methods of publishing in America are similar to those adopted
in Great Britain, but the discount to the booksellers is generally
given pro rata according to the number purchased. It is, however,
in respect of the means of distribution that the systems of the two
countries differ most. In America the general stores to a large
extent take the place of the English bookseller, and by their energy
and extensive advertising a wider public is served. In the distribu-
tion of fiction the American plan of " booming " a book by copious
advertising, although expensive, is often the means of inducing
a large sale, and of bringing an author's name before the public.
In 1901 the net system, as adopted in Great Britain, was partially
introduced into America.
The continental methods of publishing and distributing, especi-
ally in Germany, differ, in many respects very materially, from those
of Great Britain. In even the smallest German towns there is
a bookseller who receives on sale, immediately upon publication,
a supply of such new books as he or the publisher may think suitable
to his class of book-buyers. The bookseller submits these books
632
PUCCINI PUDUKKOTTAI
to his customers, and by this method most books issued are at
once placed at the disposal of any buyer interested in the particular
subject. The large sums spent in other countries upon advertise-
ments are thus saved. At the book fairs held in Leipzig at Easter
and Michaelmas the accounts for books sent on sale are made up
and paid. In France all books have to be licensed before publica-
tion, but the methods of publication differ little from those of other
continental countries, in all of which book prices are much lower
than in England.
PUCCINI, GIACOMO (1858- ), Italian operatic composer,
was born at Lucca, of a family already distinguished in music ;
his great-great-grandfather Giacomo, great-grandfather Antonio,
grandfather Domenico, and father Michele, being all well known
in the art. He was educated at the Milan Conservatoire, and
in 1884 his opera Le Villi was performed at the Teatro del
Verme. In 1889 his Edgar was performed at La Scala, and in
1893 his Manon Lescaut in Turin. But it was the production
of La Boheme in Turin in 1896 that made him famous, and this
opera had a great success everywhere. Tosca followed in 1900,
and in 1904 Madama Butterfly confirmed the highest opinions
of his talent.
PUCHTA, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1798-1846), German jurist,
born at Kadolzburg in Bavaria on the 3151 of August 1798,
came of an old Bohemian Protestant family which had immi-
grated into Germany to avoid religious persecution. His
father, Wolfgang Heinrich Puchta (1769-1845), a legal writerand
district judge, imbued his son with legal conceptions and princi-
ples. From 1811 to 1816 young Puchta attended the gymnasium
at Nuremberg, where he acquired a taste for Hegelianism.
In 1816 he went to the university of Erlangen, where, in
addition to being initiated by his father into legal practice, he
fell under the influence of the writings of Savigny and Niebuhr.
Taking his doctor's degree at Erlangen, he established himself
here in 1820 as privatdozent, and in 1823 was made professor
extraordinary of law. In 1828 he was appointed ordinary
professor of Roman law at Munich. In 1835 he was appointed
to the chair of Roman and ecclesiastical law at Marburg, but he
left this for Leipzig in 1837, and in 1842 he succeeded Savigny at
Berlin. In 1845 Puchta was made a member of the council of
state (Staatsrat) and of the legislative commission (Gesetz-
gebungskommission). He died at Berlin on the 8th of January
1846. His chief merit as a jurist lay in breaking with past
unscientific methods in the teaching of Roman law and in
making its spirit intelligible to students. Among his writings
must be especially mentioned Lehrbuch der Pandekten (Leipzig,
1838, and many later editions), in which he elucidated the dog-
matic essence of Roman law in a manner never before attempted ;
and the Kursus der Institutionen (Leipzig, 1841-1847, and later
editions) , which gives a clear picture of the organic development
of law among the Romans. Among his other writings are Das
Gewohnheitsrecht (Erlangen, 1828-1837); and Einleitung in das
Recht der Kir die (Leipzig, 1840).
Puchta's Kleine zivilistische Schriften (posthumously published in
1851 by Professor A. A. Friedrich Rudorff), is a collection of thirty-
eight masterly essays on various branches of Roman law, and the
preface contains a sympathetic biographical sketch of the jurist.
See also Zeher, t)ber die von Puchta der Darsiellung des romischen
Rechts zu Grunde gelegten rechtsphilosophischen Ansichten (1853).
PUCKLER-MUSKAU, HERMANN LUDWIG HEINRICH,
FURST VON (1785-1871), German author, was born at Muskau
in Lusatia on the 3oth of October 1785. He served for some
time in the bodyguard at Dresden, and afterwards travelled
in France and Italy. In 1811, after the death of his father,
he inherited the barony of Muskau and a considerable fortune.
As an officer under the duke of Saxe- Weimar he distinguished
himself in the war of liberation and was made military and civil
governor of Bruges. After the war he retired from the army
and visited England, where he remained about a year. In 1822,
in compensation for certain privileges which he resigned, he was
raised to the rank of Fiirst by the king of Prussia. Some years
earlier he had married the Grafin von Pappenheim, daughter of
Fiirst von Hardenberg ; in 1826 the marriage was legally dissolved
though the parties did not separate. He again visited England
and travelled in America and Asia Minor, living after his
return at Muskau, which he spent much time in cultivating and
improving. In 1845 he sold this estate to Prince Frederick of
the Netherlands, and, although he afterwards lived from time
to time at various places in Germany and Italy, his principal
residence was his seat, Schloss Branitz near Kottbus, where he
laid out splendid gardens as he had already done at Muskau.
In 1863 he was made an hereditary member of the Prussian
Herrenhaus, and in 1866 he attended the Prussian general staff
in the war with Austria. He died at Branitz on the 4th of
February 1871, and, in accordance with instructions in his will,
his body was cremated. As a writer of books of travel he held
a high position, his power of observation being keen and his style
lucid and animated. His first work was Brief e eines Verstorbenen
(4 vols., 1830-1831), in which he expressed many independent
judgments about England and other countries he had visited
and about prominent persons whom he had met. Among his
later books of travel were Semilassos vorletzter Weltgang (3 vols.,
i&3$),SemilassoinAfrika (5 vols., 1836), AusMehemed-Alis Reich
(3 vols., 1844) and Die Riickkehr (3 vols., 1846-1848). He was
also the author of Andeutungen ilber Landschaftsgartnerei (1834).
See Ludmilla Assing, Puckler- Muskaus Briefwechsel und Tage-
biicher (9 vols., 18731876); Fiirst Hermann von Piickler- Muskau
(1873); and Petzold, Fiirst Hermann von Puckler- Muskau in seiner
Bedeutungfiir die bUdende Gartenkunst (1874).
PUDDING, a term, now of rather wide application, for a dish
consisting of boiled flour enclosing or containing meat, vegetables
or fruit, or of batter, rice, sago or other farinaceous foods boiled
or baked with milk and eggs. Properly a pudding should be one
boiled in a cloth or bag. There are countless varieties, of which
the most familiar are the Christmas plum-pudding, the Yorkshire
pudding and the suet pudding. The word was originally and
is still so used in Scotland for the entrails of the pig or other
animal stuffed with meat, minced, flavoured and mixed with
oatmeal and boiled. The etymology is obscure. The French
boudin occurs in the Scottish original sense at the same time as
poding (i3th century) in English. Boudin has been connected
with Italian boldone and Latin botulus, sausage, but the origins
of these words are quite doubtful. Attempts have been made to
find the origin in a stem pud-, to swell, cf. " podgy," L. Ger.
Pudde-ivurst, black-pudding, &c.
PUDSEY, a municipal borough in the Pudsey parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 6 m. W. by S.
of Leeds, on the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1891), 13,444;
(1901), 14,907. The principal buildings are the church of St
Lawrence in Gothic style, erected in 1821, and the mechanics'
institute, a fine building, comprising class-rooms, a library, a
public hall and a lecture hall. A public park was opened in
1889. The town has an important woollen trade and possesses
dyeing and fulling mills. Part of the parish, Tyersall, is in the
borough of Bradford. Pudsey is mentioned in Domesday. It
was sold by Edward II. to the Calverley family, from which it
passed to an ancestor of the Milners. The town was incor-
porated in 1899, and the corporation consists of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2399 acres.
PUDUKKOTTAI, a state of southern India, in subordination
to Madras, lying between the British districts of Tanjore and
Madura. Area, noo sq. m. Pop. (1901), 380,440, showing an
increase of 2% in the decade. The state consists mainly of
an undulating plain, nowhere of great fertility and in many parts
barren ; it is interspersed with rocky hills, especially in the south-
west. Granite and laterite are quarried, red ochre is worked,
and silk and cotton fabrics, bell-metal vessels and perfumes are
among the principal manufactures. There is also some export
trade in groundnuts and tanning bark. The chief, whose title
is tondaman, is of the Kalian or robber caste. His ancestors
received a grant of territory for loyal services to the British
during the wars in the Carnatic at the end of the i8th century.
Estimated gross revenue, 80,000; no tribute. The state has
for some years past been well administered under a council,
with a representative assembly. The town of Pudukkottai
had a population in 1901 of 20,347. It is well laid out, and
contains several fine new buildings.
PUEBLA PUELCHE
633
PUEBLA, a state of Mexico, occupying the south-east
angle of the great central plateau, or that part of it known
as the Anahuac table-land. It is bounded N. and E. by the
state of Vera Cruz, S. by the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero,
and W. by the states of Morelos, Mexico, Tlaxcala and Hidalgo.
Area, 12,204 sq. m. Pop. (1900), 1,021,133, largely civilized
Indians. Lofty mountains overlook the plateau from the
north-east and west, three of the highest peaks, Orizaba,
Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl rising above the .permanent
snow-line, while another, Malinche, lifts its isolated mass
nearly to that limit. In the south the table-land breaks away
and long fertile valleys lead downward toward the warm
southern plains. The central table-land forms part of the
watershed between the eastern and western drainage systems,
e of the streams in the north and south-east emptying
into the Gulf of Mexico, while the Atoyac, which has its
source in Tlaxcala, crosses the state and discharges into the
Pacific through the Mescala. Puebla has a temperate, healthful
climate, one of the best in Mexico. The soil is generally fertile
and the rainfall abundant. Agriculture is the principal industry.
The Mexican, Intcroceanic and Mexican Southern railways cross
the state and afford ample transportation facilities.
PUEBLA (full title La Puebla de los Angeles, and more recently,
Puebla de Zaragoza), a city of Mexico and capital of the state of
the same name, on the banks of the Atoyac river, 60 m. S.E. of
the city of Mexico, with which it is connected by two lines of
railway. Pop. (1900), 93,152, including a large percentage of
Indians. Its railway connexions put it in daily communication
with the national capital, Vera Cruz, Pachuca, Oaxaca, and the
terminal ports of the Tehuantepec railway Coatzacoalcos and
Salina Cruz. The city is built on a broad healthy plain, about
7200 ft. above sea-level. It is well provided with street railways,
electric and gas illumination, water and drainage. The great
Doric cathedral, about 165X320 ft., is perhaps the finest ecclesi-
astical building in Latin America. It was begun about 1552,
but not completed until 1649. Among other churches, famous
for their lavish decorations, are those of San Jose, San Cristobal,
Santa Catarina and San Domingo. The " Teatro Principal,"
built in 1790, is said to be the oldest existing theatre on the con-
tinent. There are two other theatres, and an immense bull-ring.
Among the more conspicuous public buildings are the palace of
justice, the building of the state legislature, a school of medicine
to which is attached the Palafoxiana Library of over 100,000
volumes, an academy of fine arts, and the national college.
At Fort Guadalupe, near the city, there are several hot sulphur
springs, which are used for medicinal baths. Puebla is one of
the busiest manufacturing cities in Mexico, and among its
products are cotton and woollen textiles, soap, glass, straw hats,
pottery and leather goods. There are also some large foundries.
Puebla was founded in 1532 by Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal,
archbishop of Santo Domingo, and the celebrated Franciscan
friarToribio Motolinia. In issoit became the see of the bishopric
originally created in 1526 at Tlaxcala. The appellation " de los
Angeles," which is now practically dropped, originated in a
popular belief that during the building of the cathedral two
angels every night added as much to the height of the walls as
the workmen had completed on the preceding day. Its present
title was given in honour of General Ignacio Zaragoza (1829-
1862), who successfully defended the city against the first French
attack in 1862. It was captured in the following year by the
French, and then by the Mexicans under Porfirio Diaz in 1867.
In the war between Mexico and the United States it was captured
by General Winfield Scott and was his headquarters from June to
August 1847.
PUEBLO, a city and the county-seat of Pueblo county, the
second largest city of Colorado, U.S.A., and one of the most
important industrial centres west of the Missouri river, situated
on the Arkansas river, about 120 m. S. by E. of Denver. Pop.
(1890), 24,558; (1900), 28,157, of whom 4705 were foreign-born,
1250 being Austrian, 587 German, 529 Italian, 415 Irish,
391 Swedish, 385 English and 341 English Canadian; (1910,
census), 44,395. It is served by five great continental railway
| systems the Denver & Rio Grande, the Atchison, Topeka &
Santa Fe, the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific and the Colorado & Southern, giving it altogether a
dozen outlets. It lies about 4680 ft. above the sea, in a valley
at the junction of the prairies with the foothills of the Rockies,
on both banks of the Arkansas river, near its confluence with
Fountain Creek; the city has an exceptionally good climate and
attracts many winter visitors. There are a state insane asylum
and four hospitals, of which the Minnequa Hospital (for the
employes of the Colorado Fuel & Iron Co.) and* St Mary's
Hospital are the most notable. Among the public buildings are
the McClelland public library (1891) and the court-house, the
latter of white stone quarried in the vicinity. The Mineral
Palace (1891), having a' roof formed of twenty-eight domes, in
the northern part of the city, contains a collection of the minerals
of the state. Pueblo is chiefly an industrial city, and is often
called the Steel City, or the Pittsburg of the West. Cheap fuel is
furnished by the excellent coal of Canyon City (about 30 m. west),
Walsenburg (about 40 m. south-west) and Trinidad (about 75 m.
south). Petroleum deposits in the immediate vicinity are of grow-
ing importance. Fluxing material is only about 50 m. away,
around Cripple Creek. The rich river valley yields abundant crops
of alfalfa, sugar beets, cantaloupes, apples and peaches, and the
dry lands behind its snores prove fertile under irrigation or under
the Campbell system of dry farming; on the plains livestock
interests are important. In 1005 Pueblo's total factory products
were valued at $2,197,293 (an increase of 52-6% since 1900);
if the output of the great smelting and refining establishments
just outside the city limits had been included, the value would
have been considerably larger. Pueblo is the greatest smelting
centre west of the Missouri and probably the greatest in the
United States. The bulk of the steel rails used on western
railways are from the mills of the Pueblo district.
Pueblo was originally a Mexican settlement. A considerable
body of Mormons settled here temporarily on their way to Utah
in 1846-1847, and a trading post was established in 1850; but
the site, owing principally to Indian troubles, had been practically
abandoned before 1858, when another settlement was made on
the Fontaine qui Bouille, or Fountain Creek. Two years later
Pueblo was surveyed and platted. The first railway the
Denver & Rio Grande came through in 1872. Pueblo was char-
tered as a city in 1870, and again, with an enlarged area, in 1887.
PUEBLO INDIANS, the Spanish name (pueblo = village) for
the town-building tribes of American Indians of the Keresan,
Shoshonean, Tanoan and Zunian stocks, whose representatives
are now practically confined to New Mexico and Arizona. For-
merly they had a far greater range. They were alike in their
sedentary agricultural characteristics, and had not the warlike
disposition of the Plains Indians. Their modern history begins
with their discovery in 1539 by Father Marcos de Niza. In the
following year they were subdued by Francisco Vasquez de
Coronado. Two years later they made a successful revolt,
but in 1586 they had again to submit. In 1680 they once more
rebelled, but by 1692 they were finally conquered. Their houses
are communal, generally but one structure for the whole village.
These houses are sometimes built of stone, but oftener of adobe,
several storeys high, each storey receding from the one below.
The common plan is a hollow square or curved figure, though in
some cases the form of a pyramid is followed. A feature of each
town is the underground chamber used for tribal ceremonies.
Many of the towns are built on high table-lands inaccessible
except by steep trails. The Pueblos are a short, sturdy type
of American Indians, very active, but mild-mannered and
much darker than those, of the plains. They are farmers and
herdsmen, and are skilful in basket-work, weaving, pottery
and carving. They are notable for their highly developed cere-
monial customs, and their blankets and earthenware are
decorated with religious symbolism.
PUELCHE, a tribe of South-American Indians of Araucanian
stock. Their home is the Pampas region of southern Argentina
around the Colorado river. They are chiefly nomadic, breeding
cattle and horses, and lead a wild, lawless life.
634
PUENTEAREAS PUFENDORF
PUENTEAREAS, a town of north-western Spain in the province
of Pontevedra; on the Tuy-Santiago de Compostella railway and
on the river Tea, a right-hand tributary of the Mino. Pop.
(1900), 13,452. Puenteareas is the chief town of a fertile hilly
region, which produces wine, grain and fruit, and contains many
cattle farms. The industries of the town itself are porcelain
manufactures, tanning and distilling. Close by are the ruins of
the castle of Sobroso, which played an important part in the
medieval civil wars.
PUENTE GENIL, or PUENTE JENIL, a town of southern Spain,
in the province of Cordova; on the right bank of the river Genii
or Jenil, a tributary of the Guadalquivir. Pop. (190x3), 12,956.
Puente Genii is on the Cordova-Malaga railway, and is the
starting-point of the line to Linares. A "bridge across the Genii,
from which the name of the town is derived, joins the lower part
of Puente Genii with the higher, which is built on rising ground
extending to the olive groves above. There are several convents,
schools for primary and higher education, hospitals, a municipal
library and a theatre. The principal industry is the manu-
facture of olive oil. There are also flour-mills and linen factories.
The alhondiga or permanent market is always well stocked with
grain, vegetables and livestock.
PUERPERAL FEVER (Lat. puerpcra, from puer, child, and
parere, to bring forth), the name given to the varieties of general
infection, long regarded as a specific disease (" child-bed fever,"
" lying-in fever "), to which women are subject after parturition,
owing to the genital tract being peculiarly exposed, in septic
surroundings, to the invasion of pathogenic bacteria (see SEPSIS).
Owing largely to the labours of I. P. Semmelweiss (q .11.) the grave
mortality formerly attending this condition has been enormously
reduced; and the necessity of rigid cleanliness in the treatment
of lying-in cases is fully recognized. When unhappily this is
not the case, and infection takes place, its complications must
be treated according to the circumstances, antiseptic douching
being employed, or preferably curetting the endometrium with
a sharp curette and swabbing with disinfectant solution. In
definitely septicaemic cases antistreptococcic serum may be
useful.
PUERTO CABELLO, a city and port of Venezuela, in the state
of Carabobo, 20 m. N. by W. of Valencia, the capital of the state.
Pop. (1891), 10,145. Puerto Cabello has railway connexions
with Valencia and Caracas. It stands on a small peninsula
which partly shelters a large bay, called " Golfo Triste," by
the early Spanish navigators. After La Guayra the harbour is
the principal port of Venezuela, and it is provided with mole,
wharves, railway communication with the interior, and other
facilities for the handling of merchandise and produce. The
town and harbour were strongly fortified in colonial times, but
the port defences were greatly damaged in 1902 in a bombard-
ment by some German vessels of the allied blockading fleet.
Among the exports are coffee, cacao, dyewoods, hides, skins,
and copper ores. Puerto Cabello suffered much in the War of
Independence, changing hands several times and remaining
in the possession of Spain down to 1823.
PUERTO CORTES (CORTEZ or CABALLOS), a seaport on the
Atlantic coast of Honduras; in 15 51' N. and 87 56' W., at
the northern terminus of the transcontinental railway from
Fonseca Bay, and near the mouth of the river Chamalecon.
Pop. (1905), about 2500. The harbour, an inlet of the Gulf
of Honduras, is deep, spacious and secure, and there is a railway
pier at which vessels can load and discharge. The exports
include bananas, coffee, cabinet woods, rubber, sarsaparilla,
livestock, deerskins and gold. The harbour was discovered
in 1527 by Gonzalo d'Avila, and the town was founded a few
years later by order of Hernando Cortes, from whom it derives
its name.
PUERTO DE SANTA MARIA, a seaport of southern Spain,
in the province of Cadiz, on the right bank of the river Guadalete,
with a station on the railway from Cadiz to Seville. Pop.
(1900), 20,120. Puerto de Santa Maria, commonly called " El
Puerto," is probably the Menesthei Portus of Ptolemy. Its
most important industry is the wine trade; there are also glass,
liqueur, alcohol, starch and soap manufactures. The principal
buildings are a Moorish citadel, a Gothic church founded in the
i3th century, a Jesuit college, and a bull-ring which accommodates
12,000 spectators. The town is noted for its bull-fights, that
given here in honour of Wellington being the subject of the
considerably idealized description in Byron's Childe Harold.
PUERTO PRJNCIPE (officially, CAMAGUEY), a city and the
capital of the province of Camaguey in east-central Cuba, about
528 m. E.S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1899), 25,102; (1907), 29,616.
In addition to the axis-railway of the island, which connects
it with Havana and Santiago, the city has connexion by a branch
line with Nuevitas. Puerto Principe lies on a broad plain about
equally distant from the north and south coasts of the island,
and between two small rivers, the Tinima and Hatibonica.
In appearance it is one of the most ancient of Cuban towns.
Many of the churches, convents and other ecclesiastical establish-
ments were built in the second half of the i8th century, some
in the first half; and some parts of the original cathedral of 1617
have probably survived later alterations and additions. Some
of the bridges, too, built in the i8th century, are picturesque.
The city hall was begun in 1733. There is a provincial institute
for secondary education. The city is the seat of a court of appeal.
Puerto Principe is connected by railway, 47 m. long, with its
port, Nuevitas (pop. in 1907, 4386), which is on the north side
of the island and has a spacious land-locked bay of good depth,
approached through a break in the off-lying coral keys and a
narrow canyon entrance. About 50 m. south of Puerto Principe
is Santa Cruz del Sur (pop. in 1907, 1640) dn the south coast.
Cabinet woods, fruit, tobacco, sugar, wax, honey and cattle
products are the leading exports. In 1514 Diego Velasquez
founded, on Nuevitas Bay (then known as the Puerto del Principe),
a settlement that was moved in 1515 or 1516 to the site of the
present city of Puerto Principe (or Santa Maria del Puerto del
Principe). From very early times the surrounding plains were
given over to horse and cattle-raising. As early as the beginning
of the 1 7th century Havana depended on this supply to furnish
the fleets of royal ships which monopolized trade between Spain
and America. From very early times, too, a prosperous clan-
destine trade was maintained with Providence, the Bahamas,
and especially with Curacoa and Jamaica (after its capture by
the English in 1655). After the capital, Puerto Principe was
the richest prize of the island when it was captured and plundered
in 1668 by a force of Frenchmen and Englishmen under Henry
Morgan, the buccaneer. In the i8th century land grants and
illicit trade led to serious disturbances. In 1775 Nuevitas was
resettled, and in 1780 was made a legal (habilitado) port. After
the cession of Santo Domingo to France in 1800, the Real
Audiencia, the supreme court of the Spanish West Indies, was
removed to Puerto Principe. A superior audiencia was created
for Havana in 1838, but the older court continued to exist
throughout the Spanish period. Puerto Principe boasts of being
the most Creole of Cuban cities. It was prominent in the war of
1868-78 and in the disaffection preceding and following it.
PUERTO REAL, a seaport of southern Spain, in the province
of Cadiz; on the north shore of the inner arm of the Bay of Cadiz
and on the Seville-Cadiz railway. Pop. (1900), 10,535. Puerto
Real (Port Royal) is the Portus Gaditanus of the Romans, and
is probably the most ancient trading-station on the Bay of Cadiz.
It owes its modern name to the fact that it was rebuilt in 1488
by Ferdinand and Isabella. The port has good quays, a dry
dock of the Spanish Transatlantic Company, connected with
their important works, and safe anchorage close to the wharves
for the largest steamers. The town has fine squares, and broad,
well-built streets, a handsome town-hall, many schools, a bull-
ring, several convents, and a 16th-century Gothic parish church,
with three naves and a remarkable atrium. There is an active
trade in wine and oils; other industries are the construction
and repairing of ships, and the production of salt.
PUFENDORF, SAMUEL (1632-1694), German jurist, was born
at Chemnitz, Saxony, on the 8th of January 1632. His father
was a Lutheran pastor, and he himself was destined for the
ministry. Educated at Grimma, he was sent to study theology
PUFF-BALL PUFF-BIRD
6 35
at the university of Leipzig. Its narrow and dogmatic teaching
was profoundly repugnant to him, and he soon abandoned it
for the study of public law. He went so far as to quit Leipzig
altogether, and betook himself to Jena, where he formed an
intimate friendship with Erhard Weigel the mathematician,
whose influence helped to develop his remarkable independence
of < hanu ter. Pufendorf quitted Jena in 1637 and became a
tutor in the family of Petrus Julius Coyet, one of the resident
ters of Charles Gustavus, king of Sweden, at Copenhagen.
At this time Charles Gustavus was endeavouring to impose upon
nark a burdensome alliance, and in the middle of the
negotiations he brutally opened hostilities. The anger of the
is turned against the envoys of the Swedish sovereign;
Co\ct. it is true, succeeded in escaping, but the second minister,
Bjelke, and the whole suite were arrested and thrown into
prison. Pufendorf shared this misfortune, and was subjected
strict captivity of eight months' duration. He occupied
himself during this time in meditating upon what he had read
in the works of Grotius and Hobbes. He mentally constructed
;em of universal law; and, when, at the end of his captivity,
he accompanied his pupils, the sons of Coyet, to the university
of Leiden, he was enabled to publish, in 1661, the fruits of his
lions under the title of Elcmenta jurisprudentiae universalis,
libri dim. The work was dedicated to Charles Louis, elector pala-
tine, who created for Pufendorf at Heidelberg a new chair, that of
the law of nature and nations, the first of the kind in the world.
In 1007 he wrote, with the assent of the elector palatine, a tract,
:tu imperil gsrmanici, liber unus. Published under the cover
of a pseudonym at Geneva in 1667, it was supposed to be addressed
by a gentleman of Verona, Severinus de Monzambano, to his
brother Laelius. The pamphlet made a great sensation. Its
author directly arraigned the organization of the Holy Roman
Empire and exposed its feebleness, denounced in no measured
terms the faults of the house of Austria, and attacked with
remarkable vigour the politics of the ecclesiastical princes.
Before Pufendorf, Philipp Bogislaw von Chemnitz, publicist
and soldier, had written, under the pseudonym of " Hippolytus
a l.apide," De ratione status in imperio nostro romano-germanico.
Inimical, like Pufendorf, to the house of Austria, Chemnitz
ha 1 pone so far as to make an appeal to France and Sweden.
Pafendorf, on the contrary, rejected all idea of foreign inter-
vention, and advocated that of national initiative. In 1670
Pufendorf was called to the university of Lund. His sojourn
there was fruitful. In 1672 appeared the De jure naturae el
gentium, libri octo, and in 1675 a resume of it under the title of
De officio itominis et civis.
In the De jure naturae et gentium Pufendorf took up in great
mi-usure the theories of Grotius and sought to complete them by
means of the doctrines of Hobbes and of his own ideas. His first
important point was that natural law docs not extend beyond the
limits of this life and that it confines itself to regulating external
He combated Hobbes's conception of the state of nature
and concluded that the state of nature is not one of war but of
pe.ice. But this peace is feeble and insecure, and if something
Iocs not come to its aid it can do very little for the preservation
of mankind. As regards public law Pufendorf, while recognizing
in the state (civitas) a moral person (persona moralis), teaches that
the will of the state is but the sum of the individual wills that
constitute it, and that this association explains the state. In this
a priori conception, in which he scarcely gives proof of historical
insight, he shows himself as one of the precursors of I. J. Rousseau
and of the Central social. Pufendorf powerfully defends the idea
that international law is not restricted to Christendom, but con-
stitutes a common bond between all nations because all nations
form part of humanity.
In 1677 Pufendorf was called to Stockholm as historiographer-
royal. To this new period belong Einleitung zur Historic der
wrnehmsten Reiche und Staaten, also the Commentarium de rebus
succicis, libri XXVI., ab expeditione Gustavi Adolphi regis in
Germanium ad abdicationcm usque Christinae and De rebus a
Carolo Gustavo gestis. In his historical works Pufendorf is
hopelessly dry; but he professes a great respect for truth and
generally draws from archives. In his De habitu religionis
cliristianac ad vitam civilem he traces the limits between ecclesi-
astical and civil power. This work propounded for the first
time the so-called " collegial " theory of church government
(Kollegialsyslem) , which, developed later by the learned Lutheran
theologian Christoph Maihaus Pfaff (1686-1760), formed the
basis of the relations of church and state in Germany and more
especially in Prussia.
This theory makes a fundamental distinction between the supreme
jurisdiction in ecclesiastical matters (Kirchenhoheit or jus circa
sacra), which it conceives as inherent in the power of the state
in respect of every religious communion, and the ecclesiastical
|x>wer (Kirchengewalt or jus in sacra) inherent in the church, but
in some cases vested in the state by tacit or expressed consent of
the ecclesiastical body. The theory was of importance because,
by distinguishing church from state while preserving the essential
supremacy of the latter, it prepared the way for the principle of
toleration. It was put into practice to a certain extent in Prussia
in the i8th century; but it was not till the political changes of
the igth century led to a great mixture of confessions under the
various state governments that it found universal acceptance in
Germany. The theory, of course, has found no acceptance in the
Roman Catholic Church, but it none the less made it possible for
the Protestant governments to make a working compromise with
Rome in respect of the Catholic Church established in their states.
In 1688 Pufendorf was called to the service of Frederick
William, elector of Brandenburg. He accepted the call, but he had
no sooner arrived than the elector died. His son Frederick III.
fulfilled the promises of his father; and Pufendorf, historio-
grapher and privy councillor, was instructed to write a history
of the Elector Frederick William (De rebus geslis Frederici
Wilhelmi Magni). The king of Sweden did not on this account
cease to testify his goodwill towards Pufendorf, and in 1694 he
created him a baron. In the same year, on the z6th of October,
Pufendorf died at Berlin and was buried in the church of
St Nicholas, where an inscription to his memory is still to
be seen.
Pufendorf was at once philosopher, lawyer, economist, historian
and statesman. His influence was considerable, and he has left
a profound impression on thought, and not on that of Germany
alone. But the value of his work was much under-estimated by
posterity. Much of the responsibility for this injustice rested
with Leibnitz, who would never recognize the incontestable
greatness of one who was constantly his adversary, and whom he
dismissed as " vir parum jurisconsultus et minime philosophus."
It was on the subject of the pamphlet of Severinus de Monzam-
bano that their quarrel began. The conservative and timid
Leibnitz was beaten on the battlefield of politics and public law,
and the aggressive spirit of Pufendorf aggravated yet more the
dispute, and so widened the division. From that time the two
writers could never meet on a common subject without attacking
each other.
See H. von Treitschke, " Samuel von Pufendorf," Pnussische
Jahrbucher (1875), xxxv. 614, and xxxyi. 61 ; Bluntschli, Deutsches
Staals-Worterbuch, yiii. 424, and Geschifhte des oMgemeinen Staals-
rechts und der Politik, p. 108; Lorimer, The Institutes of the Law of
Nations, i. 74; Droysen, " Zur Kritik Pufendorfs," in his Abhand-
lungen zur neueren Geschichte; Roscher, Geschichte der National-
Oekonomik in Deutschland, p. 304; Franklin, Das deutsche Reich
nach Severinus von Monzambano.
PUFF-BALL, in botany, the common name for a genus of
fungi (known botanically as Lycoperdon), and so called because
of the cloud of brown dust-like spores which are emitted when
the mature plant bursts. They are common in meadows and
woods and on heaths or lawns, and when young resemble white
balls, sometimes with a short stalk, and are fleshy in texture.
If cut across in this state, they show a compact rind enclosing a
loose tissue, in the interspaces of which the spores are developed;
as the fungus matures it changes to yellowish-brown and brown
and when ripe the rind tears at the apex and the spores escape
through the aperture when any pressure is applied to the ball.
When white and fleshy the fungus is edible. The fibrous mass
which remains after the spores have escaped has been used for
tinder or as a styptic for wounds. The giant puff-ball, Lycoperdon
gigtintrum, reaches a foot or more in diameter.
PUFF-BIRD, the name first given, according to W. Swainson
(Zoo/. Illustrations, ist series, vol. ii.. text to pi. 99), by English
residents in Brazil to a group of birds now placed in the sub-
family Bucconinae, which with the Galbulinae or jacamars form
6 3 6
PUFFIN PUGACHEV
the family Galbulidae of Coraciiform birds standing between the
trogons (q.v.) and barbels, , for a long time confounded, under
the general name of barbels, with the Capitonidae of modern
systematists. Each group has formed the subject of an elabo-
rate monograph the Capitonidae being treated by C. H. T.
and G. F. L. Marshall (London, 1870-1871), and the Bucconidae
by P. L. Sclater (London, 1879-1882). The Bucconinae are
zygodactylous birds confined to the neotropical region, in the
middle parts of which, and especially in its sub-Andean sub-
region, they are, as regards species, abundant; while only two
seem to reach Guatemala and but one Paraguay. As with
most South American birds, the habits and natural history
of the Bucconidae have been but little studied, and of only one
species, which happens to belong to a rather abnormal genus,
has the nidification been described. This is the Chelidoptera
tcnebrosa, which is said to breed in holes in banks, and to lay
white eggs much like those of the kingfisher and consequently
those of the jacamars. From his own observation Swainson
writes (loc. cit.) that puff-birds are very grotesque in appearance.
They will sit nearly motionless for hours on the dead bough of a
tree, and while so sitting " the disproportionate size of the head
is rendered more conspicuous by the bird raising its feathers
so as to appear not unlike a puff-ball. . . . When frightened
their form is suddenly changed by the feathers lying quite flat."
They are very confiding birds and will often station themselves
a few yards only from a window. The Bucconidae almost without
exception are very plainly-coloured, and the majority have a
spotted or mottled plumage suggestive of immaturity. The
first puff-bird known to Europeans seems to have been that
described by G. de L. Marcgrav, under the name of " lamatia,"
by which it is said to have been called in Brazil, and there is
good reason to think that his description and figure the last,
comic as it is in outline .and expression, having been copied by
F. Willughby and many of the older authors apply to the
Bucco maculatus of modern ornithology a bird placed by M.
J. Brisson (Ornithologie, iv. 524) among the kingfishers. But
if so, Marcgrav described and figured the same species twice,
since his " Matuitui " is also Brisson's " M ' artin-pescheur tacheti
du Bresil."
P. L. Sclater divides the family into 7 genera, of which Bucco
is the largest and contains 20 species. The others are Mala-
coptila and Monacha, each with 7, Nonnula with 5, Chelidoptera
with 2, and Micromonacha and Hapaloptila with i species each.
The most showy puff-birds are those of the genus Monacha,
with an inky-black plumage, usually diversified by white about
the head, and a red or yellow bill.
PUFFIN, the common English name of a sea-bird, the Fra-
lercula arctica of most ornithologists, known however on various
parts of the British coasts as the bottlenose, coulterneb, pope, sea-
parrot and tammy-norie, to say nothing of other still more
local designations, some (as marrott and willock) shared also
with allied species of Alcidae, to which family it belongs. Of
old time puffins were a valuable commodity to the owners of
their breeding-places, for the young were taken from the holes
in which they were hatched, and " being exceeding fat," as Carew
wrote in 1602 (Survey of Cornwall, fol. 35), were " kept salted,
and reputed for fish, as coming neerest thereto in their taste."
In 1345, according to a document from which an extract is
given in Heath's Islands of Stilly (p. 190), those islands were
held of the Crown at a yearly rent of 300 puffins 1 or 6s. 8d., being
one-sixth of their estimated annual value. A few years later
(1484), either through the birds having grown scarcer or money
cheaper, only 50 puffins are said (op. cit. p. 196) to have been
1 There cannot be much doubt that the name puffin given to
these young birds, salted and dried, was applied on account of
their downy clothing, for an English informant of Gesner's de-
scribed one to him (Hist, aviunt, p. no) as wanting true feathers,
and being covered only with a sort of woolly black plumage. It
is right, Tiowever, to state that Caius expressly declares (Rarior.
animal, libellus, fol. 21) that the name is derived " a natural! voce
pupin." Skeat states that the word is a diminutive, which favours
the view that it was originally used as a name for these young
birds. The parents were probably known by one or other of their
many local appellations.
demanded. It is stated by both Gesner and Caius that they
were allowed to be eaten in Lent. Ligon, who in 1673 published
a History of the Island of Barbadoes, speaks (p. 37) of the ill
taste of puffins " which we have from the isles of Stilly," and
adds " this kind of food is only for servants." Puffins used to
resort in vast numbers to certain stations on the coast, and are
still plentiful on some, reaching them in spring with remarkable
punctuality on a certain day, which naturally varies with the
locality, and after passing the summer there leaving their homes
with similar precision. They differ from most other Alcidae
in laying their single egg (which is white with a few grey markings
when first produced, but speedily begrimed by the soil) in a shal-
low burrow, which they either dig for themselves or appropriate
from a rabbit, for on most of their haunts rabbits have been
introduced. Their plumage is of a glossy black above the
cheeks grey, encircled by a black band and pure white beneath;
their feet are of a bright reddish orange, but the most remark-
able feature of these birds, and one that gives them a very comical
expression, is their huge bill. This is very deep and laterally
flattened, so as indeed to resemble a coulter, as one of the bird's
common names expresses; but moreover it is parti-coloured
blue, yellow and red curiously grooved and still more
curiously embossed in places, that is to say during the breeding-
season, when the birds are most frequently seen. But it had
long been known to some observers that such puffins as occa-
sionally occur in winter (most often washed up on the shore
and dead) presented a beak very different in shape and size, and
to account for the difference was a standing puzzle. Many
years ago Bingley (North Wales, i. 3^4) stated that puffins
" are said to change their bills annually." The remark seems
to have been generally overlooked; but it has proved to be very
near the truth, for after investigations carefully pursued during
some years by Dr Bureau of Nantes he was in 1877 enabled to
show (Bull. Soc. Zool. France, ii. 377~399) 2 that the puffin's
bill undergoes what may be called an annual moult, some of its
most remarkable appendages, as well as certain horny out-
growths above and beneath the eyes, dropping off at the end
of the breeding season, and being reproduced the following
year. Not long after the same naturalist announced (op. cit.)
iv. 1-68) that he had followed the similar changes which he
found to take place, not only in other species of puffins, as the
Fratercula corniculata and F. cirrhata of the Northern Pacific,
but in several birds of the kindred genera Ceratorhina and
Simorhynachus inhabiting the same waters. The name puffin
has also been given in books to one of the shearwaters which
belong to the sub-family Procellariina of the Petrels (q.v.), and
its latinized form Puffinus is still used in that sense in scien-
tific nomenclature. This fact seems to have arisen from a
mistake of Ray's who, seeing in Tradescant's Museum and that
of the Royal Society some young shearwaters from the Isle of
Man, prepared in like manner to young puffins, thought they
were the birds mentioned by Gesner as the remarks inserted in
Willughby's Ornithologia (p. 251) prove; for the specimens de-
scribed by Ray were as clearly shearwaters as Gesner's were
puffins.
PUGACHEV, EMEL'YAN IVANOVICH (? 1741-1775), Rus-
sian pretender, the date of whose birth is uncertain, was the
son of a small Cossack landowner. He married a Cossack girl
Sofia Nedyuzheva, in 1758, and the same year was sent with
his fellow Cossacks to Prussia, under the lead of Count Zachary
Chernuishev. In the first Turkish War (i 769-74) of Catherine II.
Pugachev, now a Cossack ensign, served under Count .Peter
Panin and was present at the siege of Bender. Invalided home,
he led for the next few years a wandering life; was more than
once arrested and imprisoned as a deserter; and finally, after
frequenting the monasteries of the " Old Believers," who
exercised considerable influence over him, suddenly proclaimed
himself (1773) to be Peter III. The story of Pugachev's strong
resemblance to the murdered emperor is a later legend. Pugachev
dubbed himself Peter III. the better to attract to his standard
all those (and they were many) who attributed their misery to
2 See Zoologist for 1878, pp. 233-240.
PUGET PUGILISM
637
the government of Catherine II., for Peter III. was generally
remembered as the determined opponent of Catherine. As
a matter of fact Pugachev and his followers were hostile to every
form of settled government. The one thought of the destitute
thousands who joined the new Peter was to sweep away utterly
the intolerably oppressive upper-classes. Pugachev's story
\\;i> that he and his principal adherents had escaped from the
clutches of Catherine, and were resolved to redress the griev-
;i iifos of the people, give absolute liberty to the Cossacks, and put
Catherine herself away in a monastery. He held a sort of mimic
court at which one Cossack impersonated Nikita Panin, another
Xachary Chernuishev, and so on. The Russian government
at first made light of the rising. At the beginning of October
1773 it was simply regarded as a nuisance, and 500 roubles was
considered a sufficient reward for the head of the troublesome
Cossack. At the end of November 28,000 roubles were promised
to whomsoever should bring him in alive or dead. Even
then, however, Catherine, in her correspondence with Voltaire,
affected to treat " I'ajfaire du Marquis de Pugachev "-as a mere
joke, but by the beginning of 1774 the joke had developed into
a very serious danger. All the forts on the Volga and Ural were
now in the hands of the rebels; the Bashkirs had jo'ined them;
and the governor of Moscow reported great restlessness among
the population of central Russia. Shortly afterwards Pugachev
captured Kazan, reduced most of the churches and monasteries
there to ashes, and massacred all who refused to join him.
General Peter Panin, the conqueror of Bender, was thereupon
sent against the rebels with a large army, but difficulty of trans-
|K>rt, lack of discipline, -and the gross insubordination of his ill-
paid soldiers paralysed all his efforts for months, while the in-
numerable and ubiquitous bands of Pugachev were victorious in
nearly every engagement. Not till August 1774 did General
Mikhelson inflict a crushing defeat upon the rebels near Tsar-
itsyn, when they lost ten thousand in killed and prisoners.
Panin's savage reprisals, after the capture of Penza, completed
their discomfiture. Pugachev was delivered up by his own
Cossacks on attempting to fly to the Urals (Sept. 14), and
was executed at Moscow on the nth of January 1775.
See N. Dubrovin, Pugachev and his Associates (Rus. ; Petersburg,
1884); Catherine II., Political Correspondence (Rus. Fr. Ger.;
Petersburg, 1885, &c.); S. I. Gnyedich, Emilian Pugachev (Rus.;
Petersburg, 1902). (R. N. B.)
PUGET, PIERRE (1622-1694), French painter, sculptor,
architect and engineer, was born at Marseilles on the 3ist of
October 1622. At the age of fourteen he carved the ornaments
of the galleys built in the port of his native city, and at sixteen
the decoration and construction of a ship were entrusted to
him. Soon after he went to Italy on foot, and was well
received at Rome by Pietro di Cortona, who employed him on
the ceilings of the Barberini Palace and on those of the Pitti at
Florence. In 1643 he returned to Marseilles, where he painted
portraits and carved the colossal figure-heads of men-of-war.
After a second journey to Italy in 1646 he painted also a great
number of pictures for Aix, Toulon, Cuers and La Ciotat, and
sculptured a large marble group of the Virgin and Child for the
church of Lorgues. His caryatides for the balcony of the H6tel de
Ville of Toulon were executed between 1655 and 1657. N. Fouquet
employed Puget to sculpture a Hercules for his chateau in
Vaux. The artist's desire to paint gradually subsided before
his passion for sculpture, and a serious illness in 1665 brought
Puget a prohibition from the doctors which caused him wholly
to put aside the brush. The fall of Fouquet in 1660 found
Puget at Genoa. Here he executed for Sublet des Noyers
his French Hercules (Louvre), the statues of St Sebastian and
of Alexandre Sauli in the church of Carignano (c. 1664), and
much other work. The Doria family gave him a church to
build; the senate proposed that he should paint their council
chamber. But Colbert bade Puget return to France, and in
1669 he again took up his old work in the dockyards of Toulon.
The arsenal which he had there undertaken to construct under
the orders of the duke of Beaufort was destroyed by fire, and
Puget, disheartened, took leave of Toulon. In 1685 he went
back to Marseilles, where he continued the long series of works
of sculpture on which he had been employed by Colbert. His
statue of Milo (Louvre) had been completed in 1682, Perseus
and Andromeda (Louvre) in 1684; and Alexander and Dio-
genes (bas-relief, Louvre) in 1685, but, in spite of the personal
favour which he enjoyed, Puget, on coming to Paris in 1688 to
push forward the execution of an equestrian statue of Louis XIV'.,
found court intrigues too much for him. He was forced to
abandon his project and retire to Marseilles, where he remained
till his death on the 2nd of December 1694. His last work,
a bas-relief of the Plague of Milan, which remained unfinished,
was placed in the council chamber of the town hall of his
native city.
In spite of Puget's visits to Paris and Rome his work never
lost its local character: his Hercules is fresh 'from the galleys of
Toulon; his saints and virgins are men and women who sj^ak
Provencal. His best work, the St Sebastian at Genoa, though
a little heavy in parts, shows admirable energy and life, as well
as great skill in contrasting the decorative accessories with the
simple surface of the nude. There is in the museum of Aix in
Provence the bust of a long-haired young man in pseudo-
classical costume which is believed to be a portrait of Louis XIV.
made by Puget at the time of the king's visit in 1660.
See Leon Lagrange, Pierre Pugel (Paris, 1868, with a catalogue of
works) ; Charles Ginoux, Annales de la vie de P. Puget (Paris, 1894) ;
Philippe Auquier, Pierre Puget . . . biographie critique (Paris, 1903).
PUGILISM (from Lat. pugil, boxer, Gr. irv, with clenched
fist), the practice or sport of fighting with the fists. The first
mention of such fighting in literature is found in the 2jrd book
of the Iliad, and shows that in Homer's time the art was already
highly developed. The occasion was the games at the funeral
of Patroclus, the champions engaged being Epeus, the builder
of the wooden horse, and Euryalus. Each combatant seems to
have been naked except for a belt, and to have worn the cestus.
The fight ends with the defeat of Euryalus. According to
Virgil (Aeneid, v.) similar games took place within the walls
of Troy at the funeral of Hector, the principal boxers being
Dares, the winner, and the gigantic Butex, a pupil of Amycus,
Paris, the Trojan champion, abstaining from the contests.
Further on we find the account of the games on the occasion
of the funeral of Anchises, in the course of which Dares, the
Trojan, receiving no answer to his challenge from the Sicilians,
who stood aghast at his mighty proportions, claims the prize;
but, just as it is about to be awarded him, Entellus, an aged but
huge and sinewy Sicilian, arises and casts into the arena as a
sign of his acceptance of the combat the massive cesti, all stained
with blood and brains, which he has inherited from King Eryx,
his master in the art of boxing. The Trojans are now appalled
in their turn, and Dares, aghast at the fearful implements, re-
fused the battle, which, however, is at length begun after Aeneas
has furnished the heroes with equally matched cesti. For
some time the young and lusty Dares circles about his gigantic
but old and stiff opponent, upon whom he rains a torrent of
blows which are avoided by the clever guarding and dodging
of the Sicilian hero. At last Entellus, having got his opponent
into a favourable position, raises his tremendous right hand on
high and aims a terrible blow at the Trojan's head; but the
wary Dares deftly steps aside, and Entellus, missing his adversary
altogether, falls headlong by the impetus of his own blow, with
a crash like that of a falling pine. Shouts of mingled exultation
and dismay break from the multitude, and the friends of the aged
Sicilian rush forward to raise their fallen champion and bear
him from the arena; but, greatly to the astonishment of all,
Entellus motions them away and returns to the fight more
keenly than before. The old man's blood is stirred, and he
attacks his youthful enemy with such furious and headlong
rushes, buffeting him grievously with both hands, that Aeneas
puts an end to the battle, though barely in time to save the
discomfited Trojan from being beaten into insensibility.
Although fist-fighting was supposed by the Greeks of the
classic period to have been a feature of the mythological games
at Olympia, it was not actually introduced into the historical
6 3 8
PUGILISM
Olympic contests until the 23rd Olympiad after the re-estab-
lishment of the famous games by Iphitus (about 880 B.C.).
Onomastos was the first Olympic victor. In heroic times the
boxers are supposed to have worn the fci^a, or belt, but in the
Greek games the contestants, except for the cestus, fought
entirely naked, since the custom had been introduced in the
i sth Olympiad, and was copied by the contestants at the
Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian and Panathenaic games (see GAMES,
CLASSICAL). At Olympia the boxers were rubbed with oil
to make them supple and limit the flow of perspiration, a pre-
caution the more necessary as the Olympic games were held
during the hottest part of the year. The cesti, of which there
were several varieties, were bound on the boxers' hands and wrists
by attendants or teachers acting as seconds. On account cf
the weight of the gloves worn, the style of boxing differed from
that now in vogue (see BOXING), the modern straight-from-the-
shoulder blow having been little used. Both Homer and Virgil
speak of " falling blows," and this was the common method of
attack, consisting more in swinging and hammering than in
punching. The statue of a Greek boxer in the Louvre shows
the right foot forward, the left hand raised as if to ward off a
blow from above, and the right hand held opposite the breast,
the whole attitude more resembling that of a warrior with sword
and shield than of a modern boxer. The pugilists of Rome,
who were in many cases Greeks and employed Greek methods,
exaggerated the brutality of the fist-fight to please the Roman
taste, and the sanguinary contest between Dares and Entellus,
described above, although in some respects an anachronism as
an account of a pugilistic battle in primitive times, was doubt-
less an exact portrayal of the encounters to be seen in Virgil's
day in the circuses of Rome. Nevertheless it must not be under-
stood that the boxing matches at the Greek games were not
themselves severe to the point of brutality, in spite of the fact
that style and grace of movement were sedulously taught by
the masters of the time. The Greek champions trained for
months before the games, but encounters between athletes
armed with such terrible weapons as the loaded cestus were
bound to result in very serious bruises and even disfigurement.
Pluck was as highly thought of as at the present day, and it
was related of a certain Eurydamas that, when his teeth were
battered in, he swallowed them rather than show that he was
hurt, whereupon his antagonist, in despair at seeing his most
furious blows devoid of effect, gave up the battle. As, on
account of the swinging style of blows, the ears were particu-
larly liable to injury ear-protectors (a/i0<ori6s) were generally
used in practice, though not in serious combats. The so-
called " pancratist's ear," swollen and mis-shapen, was a char-
acteristic feature of the Greek boxer. The satirists of the time
flung their grim jests at the champion bruisers. Lucilius writ-
ing of a Greek boxer of Etruria (Anthologia epigrammatum
graecoruni), says, " Aulos, the pugilist, consecrates to the God
of Pisa all the bones of his cranium, gathering up one by one.
Let him but return alive from the Nemean Games, O mighty
Jupiter, and he will also offer thee, without doubt, the vertebrae
of his neck, which is all he has left ! "
The rules of Greek boxing were strict. No wrestling, grap-
pling, kicking nor biting were allowed, and the contest ended
when one combatant owned himself beaten. On this account
pugilism and the pancratium (see below) were forbidden by
Lycurgus, lest the Spartans should become accustomed to an
acknowledgment of defeat (Plutarch, Lycurgus). In spite
of the terrible injuries which often resulted from these con-
tests it was strictly forbidden to kill an adversary, on pain of
losing the prize. Rhodes, Aegina, Arcadia and Elis produced
most of the Olympic victors in boxing, which was considered
as an excellent training for war. According to Lucan (Anach. 3)
Solon recommended it for pedagogic purposes, and the
contest with the sphairai, or studded cesti, was added by Plato
to his list of warlike exercises as being the nearest approach
to actual battle.
The Greek athletic contest called pancratium (ira.fKpa.Tiov,
complete, or all-round, contest), which was introduced into
the Olympic games in the 38th Olympiad, was a combination of
boxing and wrestling in which the contestants, who fought naked,
not wearing even the cestus, were allowed to employ any means
except biting to wring from each other the 'acknowledgment
of defeat. Boxing, wrestling, kicking, dislocation of joints,
breaking of bones, pulling of hair and strangling were freely
indulged in. The fight began with sparring for openings and
was continued on the ground when the contestants fell. Many
pancratists excelled in obtaining quick holds of their opponents'
fingers, which they crushed and dislocated so completely that
all effective opposition ceased. Sudden attacks resulting in the
dislocation of an arm or leg were also taught, reminding one of
the Japanese jiu-jitsu. The pancratium was considered by the
Greeks the greatest of all athletic contests and, needless to
say, only the most powerful athletes attempted it. It became
popular in Rome during the Empire and remained so until the
time of Justinian.
Diagoras of Rhodes, his three sons and many grandsons, who
were sung by Pindar (Olymp. 7), were the most celebrated of the
Olympic boxing champions. One of the sons, Dorieus, was three
times victorious -at Olympia in the pancratium, and during his
career won eight Olympian, eight Isthmian, seven Nemean and
one of the Pythian prizes. Many famous champions also came
from the Greek colonies, like the Locrian Euthymus, who con-
quered three times at Olympia. Another celebrated fighter
and wrestler was Milo of Crotona (520 B.C.).
Boxing was evidently in vogue in very ancient times in Italy,
imported, in all probability, from Greece, for Livy (i. 35)
relates that, at the first celebration of the great Roman games
(ludi, romani magnique varie appellali) by Tarquinius Priscus
(6th century B.C.), boxers were brought from outlying pro-
vinces; and there was an old tradition that a school of pugilism
flourished in Etruria in heroic times. During the republic
boxing was cultivated as a gentlemanly exercise, and we find
Cato the Elder giving his son instruction in the art (Plutarch,
Cato Major). Tacitus (Ann. xvi. 3) says that the emperor
Caligula imported the best Campanian and African pugilists
for the gladiatorial games, and Strabo (iii. 3) records that the
Lusitanians and also the Indians, who gave virgins as prizes,
boxed. The art remained popular in Italy down to a late
period of the Empire.
From the fall of the Roman Empire to the beginning of the
ipth century pugilism seems to have been unknown among
civilized nations with the single exception of the English.
The first references to boxing in England as a regular sport
occur towards the end of the i;th century, but little mention is
made of it before the time of George I., when " prize-fighters "
engaged in public encounters for money, with the backsword,
falchion, foil, quarter-staff and single-stick, and, to a less
extent, with bare fists, the last gradually gaining in popularity
with the decline of fencing. The most celebrated of these fighters
and the one who is generally considered to have been the first
champion of England, fighting with the bare fists, was James
Figg, who was supreme from 1719 to 1730. Figg was succeeded
by Pipes and Gretting, both of whom made way in 1734 for
Jack Broughton, who built the amphitheatre for public dis-
plays near Tottenham Court Road and who was undisputed
champion until 1750. Broughton seems to have been a man of
intelligence, and to him is ascribed the scientific development
of the art of boxing. During his time the sport became truly
national and the prize-fighter the companion of the greatest in
the land. Among Broughton's successors were Slack, " Big
Ben " Brain, Daniel Mendoza (a Jew who flourished about
1790 and was the proprietor of the Lyceum in the Strand), J.
Jackson, Tom Cribb, Jem Belcher, Pearce (called the " Game
Chicken"), and John Gully, who afterwards represented Ponte-
fract in Parliament.
To Broughton is ascribed the invention of boxing-gloves for
use in practice. All prize-fights, however, took place with
bare knuckles in roped-off spaces called rings, usually in the
open air. Pugilists toughened their hands by " pickling "
them in a powerful astringent solution. A fight ended when one
PUGIN
639
of the " bruisers," as they were called, was unable to " come
to the scratch," i.e. the middle of the ring, at the call cf the
referee at the beginning of a new round. Each round ended
when one fighter fell or was knocked or thrown to the ground,
but a pugilist " going down to avoid punishment," i.e. without
being struck by the opponent, was liable to forfeit the fight.
\\ rustling played an important rdle in the old prize-ring, and a
favourite method of weakening an adversary was to throw
him heavily and then fall upon him, seemingly by accident,
as the manoeuvre, if done intentionally, was foul. The fight-
ing was of the roughest description, low tricks of all kinds being
practised when the referee's attention was diverted, gouging
out an adversary's eye being by no means unknown. Until
1795 pugilists wore long hair, but during a fight in that year
Jai-kson caught Mendoza by his long locks and held him down
helpless while he hit him. This was adjudged fair by the referee,
with the result that prize-fighters have ever since cropped their
head. Nevertheless there were rules which no fighter dared
to overstep, such as those against kicking, hitting below the
lifit, and striking a man when he had fallen.
From the time of Cribb the English champions were Tom
Spring (1824), Jem Ward (1825), Jem Burke (1833), W.Thomp-
son, called "Bendigo" (1830-1845), Ben Gaunt (1841), W. Perry,
the "Tipton Slasher" (1850), Harry Broome (1851), Tom
rs (1857-1860), Jem Mace (1861-1863), Tom King (1863),
and again Mace, until 1872.
In America boxing began to be popular about the beginning
of the igth century. The first recognized national champion
was Tom Hyer (1841-1848), who was followed by James Ambrose
(born in Ireland), called " Yankee Sullivan "; John Morrissey
(afterwards elected to the United States Congress); John C.
Heenan; Tom Allen (of England); Jem Mace (of England);
J. Kilrain; John L. Sullivan (1880-1891); J. J. Corbett (1892-
1897); Robert Fitzsimmons (1897-1900) (born in Cornwall);
James J. Jeffries. The defeat of the last named by the negro
Jack Johnson in 1910 caused a great sensation.
What is still the most celebrated prize-fight of modern times
took place at Farnborough in April 1860, between Tom Sayers
and the huge youthful American pugilist J. C. Heenan, the
" Benicia Boy," who had been defeated in America by Morris-
sey, but had succeeded to the championship upon the latter's
retirement. The English champion was a much smaller and
lighter man than his challenger, a fact which increased the
popular interest in the fight. Although the local English
authorities endeavoured to prevent it taking place, Heenan
complaining that he had " been chased out of eight counties,"
the ring at Farnborough was surrounded by a company
containing representatives of the highest classes, and the
exaggerated statement was made that '' Parliament had been
emptied to patronize a prize-fight." The battle lasted for 2 hours
and 20 minutes, during which Heenan, owing to his superi-
ority in weight and reach, seemed to have the advantage,
although nearly blinded by Sayers's hard straight punches.
During one of the opening rounds a tendon in Sayers's right
forearm was ruptured in guarding, and he fought the rest of
the battle with a pluck which roused the enthusiasm of
the spectators. Heenan had neglected to harden his hands
properly, with the result that they soon swelled to unnatural
proportions, rendering his blows no more effective than if he
had worn boxing-gloves. Nevertheless towards the close of the
fight Heenan repeatedly threw Sayers violently, and held him on
the ropes enclosing the ring, which, just as the police interfered,
were cut by persons who asserted that Heenan was on the point
of strangling Sayers. In spite of the indecisive outcome of the
battle both fighters claimed the victory, but the match was
officially adjudged a draw. This was the last great prize-fight
with bare fists on English soil, as public opinion was aroused,
and orders were given to the police thenceforth to regard prize-
fights as illegal, as tending to a " breach of the peace." Several
surreptitious prize-fights did indeed occur within a few years
after the Sayers-Heenan battle; but more than once, notably in
the fight between Heenan and Tcm King, one of the participants
was " doctored," i.e. drugged, and this lack of fairplay, added
to the brutality of fist-fights, gave the death-blow to pugilism
of the old kind. In its place came fighting and boxing with
padded gloves, small ones weighing about 4 oz. being used by
professionals, while amateurs, who boxed and sparred rather
than fought (see BOXING), made use of larger and softer
gloves.
An added impetus was given to boxing as well as pugilism
in 1866 by the founding of the " Amateur Athletic Club " by
John C. Chambers, who, assisted by the marquessof Queensberry,
drew up the code of rules for competitions still in vogue and
called after that nobleman, who, in 1867, presented cups for
the amateur championships at the different weights. These
rules prohibit all rough and unfair fighting, as well as wrestling,
and divide a match into rounds of three (or two) minutes each,
with half a minute rest between the rounds. It is a matterof
agreement in professional battles whether in " breaking away "
after a clinch blows may be struck or not. When a contestant
is knocked down (a man on one knee is technically down) he is
allowed ten seconds, usually counted aloud by the referee, in
which to rise and renew the fight. Should he be unable to do
so he is " counted out " and loses the match.
See Fisliana (London, 1868); American Fistiana (New York,
1876); Egan, Boxia.no. (London, 1818-1824); Fencing, Boxing and
Wrestling, in the Badminton Library (London, 1889); R. G. A.
Winn, Boxing, Isthmian Library (London, 1897).
PUGIN, AUGUSTUS WELBY NORTHMORE (1812-1852),
English architect, son of Augustus Charles Pugin (1762-1832),
a Frenchman by birth who settled in London as an architectural
draughtsman and had several pupils who rose to fame, was born
in Store Street, Bedford Square, on the ist of March 1812. After
an education at Christ's Hospital he entered his father's office,
where he displayed a remarkable talent for drawing. His
father was for many years engaged in preparing a large series
of works on the Gothic buildings of England, almost, if not
quite, the first illustrated with accurate drawings of medieval
buildings; and the son's early youth was mostly occupied in
making minute measured drawings for these books. In this
way his enthusiasm for Gothic art was first aroused. All through
his life, both in England and during many visits to Germany
and France, he continued to make great numbers of drawings
and sketches, in pen and ink or with sepia monochrome, per-
fect in their delicacy and precision of touch, and masterpieces
of skilful treatment of light and shade. At first he acted as
assistant in his father's work, and his own Independent efforts
to obtain business were not very successful. In 1827 he was
employed to design furniture in a medieval style for Windsor
Castle; and in 1831 the year he married his first wife, Ann
Garnett, who died in childbirth a year later he designed
scenery for the new opera of Kcnilivorth at Her Majesty's
theatre. But he got into money difficulties, and soon after his
marriage he was imprisoned for debt. When he came out he
again incurred serious losses over an attempt to start a shop for
supplying architectural accessories of his own designing, which
he had to give up. But after his second marriage in 1833 to
Louisa Burton (d. 1844), and his reception into the Roman
Catholic Church shortly afterwards, he began to obtain more
steady architectural practice and by degrees he acquired the
reputation which has made his name stand foremost among
those responsible for the English Gothic revival (see ARCHI-
TECTURE: Modern: " The Gothic Revival "). No man had
so thoroughly mastered the principles of the Gothic style in its
various stages, both in its leading lines and in the minutest
details of its mouldings and carved enrichments. In 1837-1843
he assisted Sir Charles Barry by working out the details of the
designs for the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster; and
though his exact share in the designs was subsequently the
subject of bitter controversy after both he and Barry were dead,
there is no doubt that, while he was working as Barry's paid
clerk, a great deal in the excellence of the details was due to
him and to his training of the masons and carvers. His
conversion to Roman Catholicism, while part and parcel of his
640
PUISNE PULLEY
devotion to Gothic art, naturally brought him employment as
an architect mainly from Roman Catholics; and many of his
executed works suffered from the fact that his designs were not
fully carried out, owing to a desire to save money or to spend it so
as to make the greatest possible display. For this reason his
genius is often more fairly displayed by his drawings than by
the buildings themselves. In almost every case his design was
seriously injured, both by cutting down its carefully considered
proportions and by introducing shams (above all things hateful
to Pugin), such as plaster groining and even cast-iron carving.
The cathedral of St George at Southwark, and even the church
in Farm Street, Berkeley Square, London, are melancholy
instances of this. Thus his life was a series of disappoint-
ments; no pecuniary success compensated him for the de-
struction of his best designs, as in him the man of business was
thoroughly subordinate to the artist. He himself used to say
that the only church he had ever executed with unalloyed
satisfaction was the one at Ramsgate, which he not only de-
signed but paid for. Pugin was very broad in his love for the
medieval styles, but on the whole preferred what is really the
most suited to modern requirements, namely the Perpendicular
of the isth century, and this he employed in its simpler
domestic form with much success both in his own house at
Ramsgate and in the stately Adare Hall in Ireland built for Lord
Dunraven. The cathedral of Killarney and the chapel of the
Benedictine monastery of Douai were perhaps the ecclesiastic
buildings which were carried out with least deviation from
Pugin's original conception.
Apart from his work as an architect, his life presents little
of detail to record. In 1836 he published his Contrasts; or a
Parallel between the Architecture of the i$th and iglh centuries,
in which he seriously criticized the architecture of Protestantism.
His other principal publications were True Principles of Christian
Architecture (1841); Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament (1844);
and Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts (1851). He
was a skilful etcher, and illustrated in this way a number
of his works, which were written with much eloquence, great
antiquarian knowledge and considerable humour. This last
gift is exemplified in a series of etched plates in his Contrasts;
on one side is some noble structure of the middle ages, and on
the other an example of the same building as erected in the ipth
century. In 1849 he married a third wife, daughter of Thomas
Knill. Early in 1852 he was attacked by insanity, and he died
on the 1 4th of September that year. His eldest son by his
second wife, Edward Welby Pugin (1834-1875), was also an
accomplished architect, who carried on his father's work.
See B. Ferrez, Recollections of A. W. Pugin and his Father (London,
1861).
PUISNE (from O. Fr. puisne, modern puine, later born, in-
ferior; Lat. postea, afterwards, and natus, born), a term in law
meaning " inferior in rank." It is pronounced " puny," and
the word, so spelt, has become an ordinary adjective meaning
weak or undersized. The judges and barons of the common law
courts at Westminster, other than those having a distinct title,
were called puisne. By the Supreme Court of Judicature Act
1877, a " puisne judge " is defined as a judge of the High Court
other than the lord chancellor, the lord chief justice of England,
the master of the rolls, the lord chief justice of the common pleas,
and the lord chief baron, and their successors respectively.
PUJAH, or POOJA, the Hindu ceremonies in idol-worship.
Colloquially the word has come to be applied by Anglo-Indians
to any kind of rite; thus " pujah of the flag " is the sepoy term
for trooping of the colours.
PUKET (also known by the Chinese name Tongkah), the first
Siamese port on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, situated
on the eastern side of the island of Junk Ceylon (Malay, " Ujong
Salang") in 7 50' N. and 98 24' E. It is the headquarters of
the high commissioner of the Siamese administrative division
of the same name, and has a population of about 30,000, of which
more than a third is Chinese. Beneath the town and around
it lie deposits of tin ore which have been worked by Chinese
from ancient times, and the extraction of which still furnishes
occupation for the majority of the inhabitants. In 1907,
dredging for tin in the harbour was undertaken by a European
company. Puket has been a resort of European merchants
since the i6th century. During the ancient wars between Siam
and Burma it was more than once attacked by the latter, but
was relieved by forces from Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore)
on the mainland. The Siamese mining department has a branch
at Puket under control of European officers.
PULASKI, CASIMIR, COUNT (1748-1779), Polish soldier,
was born in Podolia in 1748, and took a prominent share, under
his father Count Joseph Pulaski, in the formation of the con-
federation of Bar and in the military operations which followed,
becoming ultimately commander-in-chief of the Polish patriot
forces. Driven into exile about 1772, Pulaski went to America
and joined the army of Washington in 1777. He distinguished
himself at once in the battle of Brandywine, was made a
brigadier-general and chief of cavalry by Congress, and fought
at Germantown, and in the battles of the winter 1777-78, after
which he raised a mixed corps called the Pulaski legion. At
the head of this force he won further distinction in the southern
theatre of war, and successfully defended Charleston in May
1779. He was mortally wounded soon afterwards at the un-
successful attack on Savannah (Oct. 9) and died two days
later on board ship. Congress voted a monument to his memory;
and though this vote has never been carried into execution,
Lafayette laid the corner-stone of a monument in Savannah in
1824, and this was completed in 1855.
PULCI, LUIGI (1431-1487), Italian poet, was bom at Florence,
of a well-connected family. His elder brother Luca (d. 1470)
was also a poet, author of Pistole, Driadeo d'amore, and
Ciri/o Cahaneo. Luigi was patronized by Cosimo, Piero, and
Lorenzo de' Medici, and was the author of various works
in poetry and prose. He is famous, however, as the first to
bring artistic romance into Italian literature in his heroic poem
Morgante Maggiore (Venice, 1481), an epic of a giant converted to
Christianity, who accompanies Orlando (Roland). (See ITALIAN
LITERATURE.)
PUL6AR, HERNANDO DE (1436-*. 1492), Spanish .prose-
writer, was born at Pulgar (near Toledo) in 1436 and was
educated at the court of John II. Henry IV. made him one of
his secretaries, and under Isabella he became councillor of state,
was charged with a mission to France, and in 1482 was appointed
historiographer-royal. He is said to have died in 1492. His
Crdnica de los Reyes Catolicos, wrongly ascribed in the first
edition (1565) to Antonio de Lebrija, is often inaccurate and
always obsequious; but the record is not without value as regards
events within the author's personal experience. Pulgar's
Claras Varones de Castilla (1486), an account of celebrities
at the court of Henry IV., is interesting in matter and style.
He compiled a commentary (1485?) on the Coplas de Mingo
Revulgo. His Letters, written to various persons of eminence,
were first published in 1485-1486.
PULICAT, a town of British India, in Chingleput district,
Madras, 25 m.N. of Madras city. Pop. (1901), 5448. The Dutch
built a fort here as early as 1609, and it was for a long
time their chief settlement on the Coromandel coast. Repeatedly
captured, it did not finally become British until 1825. It gives
its name to the Pulicat lake, a shallow lagoon stretching for
about 37m. along the coast. The seaward side is formed by the
island of Sriharikot, which supplies firewood to Madras city.
PULKOVO, or PULKOWA, a village of Russia, in the govern-
ment of St Petersburg, 10 m. S. of the city of St Petersburg.
Pop. 2000. It contains the Pulkovo observatory, on a hill
248 ft. high, in 59 46' 18" N. and 30 19' 40" E. It was built
in 1833-1839.
PULLEY, a wheel, either fixed to a turning axle or carried
freely on a stationary one, the periphery of which is adapted
to receive some form of wrapping connector. A pulley carried
on a rotating shaft and connected to another pulley on a second
shaft by an endless band consisting of a flat belt, rope, chain
or similar connector serves for the transmission of power from
the one shaft to the other and is known as a driving pulley;
PULLEY
641
while combinations of pulleys or " sheaves," mounted in fixed
or movable frames or " blocks," constitute mechanisms used
to facilitate the raising of heavy weights. The word appears
in Mid. Eng. as pulley or policy (late), also as poleyne
(Prompt. Pareul.). The first forms seem to be from the O.
Kr. poulie, which itself is regarded as coming from the O.
Eng. pullian, to pull. The Low Lat. forms polea, polegia,
whence Span, polea and Ital. poleggia, are apparently from
the Fr. poulie. The earliest form, poleyne, is represented in
Fr. by poulain, literally a colt, Low Lat. pullanus, pullus,
the young of any animal, the root of which is seen in English
" foal." Poulain was used of a rope to let casks down into a cellar
or to raise heavy weights. The use of the name of an animal
for a mechanical device is not uncommon, cf. " crane," or
,el," from Du. exel, literally " little ass."
Driving pulleys are usually constructed of cast iron, and are
of circular form, having a central nave by which they are secured
to the shaft by keys or other fastenings, and straight or curved
arms connecting the nave to the rim, which latter is of a form
adapted to the connector. Pulleys are usually cast in one
piece, and the proportions of the various parts are designed to
resist the unknown stresses due to contraction of the casting
in cooling, in addition to the stresses to which pulleys are sub-
jected in use. The rim is slightly wider than the belt, and is
of such a section as will suffice to resist the stress due to the
pull of the belt, which is commonly taken as 80 Ib per inch
of width for single belting and 140 Ib per inch of width for
double belting. The rim is also subject to a centrifugal
tension of amount wif/g pounds per square inch of section,
where iv is the weight in pounds of a length of one foot of
the pulley rim one square inch in section, and v is the velocity
of the rim in feet per second. This stress amounts to 1043 K>
per square inch, if the velocity is 100 ft. per second.
The combination of these stresses generally limits the rim
velocity of cast-iron pulleys to 80 or 100 ft. per second. The
dimensions of the nave depend to a large extent on the method
of keying or otherwise securing the pulley to the shaft. The
number of the arms is arbitrary, and they may be curved to
diminish the liability to fracture from contraction in the cooling
of the cast iron, but in other respects are preferably straight,
since they are then lighter and stronger. The arms are ellip-
tical in cross-section, diminishing from the nave to the rim, and
are usually designed as equally loaded cantilevers, fixed at the
nave and free at the rim. These assumptions are probably
not nearly correct and, as the stresses caused by the cooling of
the casting are unknown, it is necessary to choose a low working
stress of about one ton per square inch. The statical experi-
ments of C. H. Benjamin (American Machinist, 1898) on cast-
iron pulleys loaded by a belt to imitate the conditions in practice
led him to the conclusion that the rim is usually not sufficiently
rigid to load the arms equally, and that the ends of the arms
are subjected to bending movements of opposite sign, that at
the nave being almost invariably the greater.
Pulleys are also built up of wrought iron and steel, and can
then be constructed entirely free from internal stress; they are
thus much lighter and stronger, and are not liable to fly to pieces
like cast iron if they break.
Fig. i shows a built-up pulley
having a cast-iron nave A,
straight wrought-iron arms B,
screwed therein and connected
to a steel plate-rim C by
riveted ends, and also by
screwed flanges D riveted on
each side to the rim. The
pulley is in halves to facilitate
fixing, and when in place the
sections C are joined by plates
E, bolted or riveted to the rim.
The two halves of the nave
are secured by bolts or rivets
passing through the flanges F, and the pulley is connected to the
XXII. 21
FIG. i. Built-up Pulley.
shaft by a sunk key or by conical keys driven in between the
shaft and the boss, which latter is bored to suit. A modified form
of this arrangement of cone keys is shown in the figure, in which
a screwed conical bush M, divided into several parts longitu-
dinally, is clamped round the shaft, and screwed into the corre-
sponding part of the nave until the grip is sufficient. The
parts of the bush are glued to a sheet of emery paper, so that
its rough side may give a better grip on the shaft.
Pulleys are also made of paper, wood and other materials.
Wooden pulleys are preferably made of maple, the rim being
formed of small sections morticed, pinned and glued together,
with the grain set in such directions that any warping of the
material will leave the cylindrical form practically unaltered.
Wooden pulleys are generally made in two halves, bolted to-
gether at the rim and nave, and are provided with wooden
spokes dovetailed into the rim and secured by keys. The pulley
is secured to the shaft by conical keys, to give a frictional grip
on both the shaft and the pulley; these keys may have their
exterior surfaces eccentric to the shaft, with corresponding
recesses in the nave, so that the pulley and keys virtually form
one piece.
If the centre of gravity of a pulley is on the axis of rotation,
and the whole mass is distributed so that the axis of inertia
coincides with the axis of rotation, there can be no unbalanced
force or unbalanced couple as the pulley revolves. The mag-
nitude of the unbalanced force, for a mass of w pounds at a
radius of r feet and a velocity of feet per second, is expressed by
wtflgr Ib; and, since the force varies as the square of the velocity,
it is necessary carefully to balance a pulley running at a high
speed to prevent injurious vibrations. This can be accomplished
by attaching balance-weights to the pulley until it will remain
stationary in all positions, when its shaft rests on two horizontal
knife-edges in the same horizontal plane, or, preferably, the
pulley and shaft may be supported on bearings resting on springs,
and balanced by attached masses until there is no perceptible
vibration of the springs at the highest speed of rotation.
The rims of pulleys, round which flat bands are wrapped,
may be truly cylindrical, in which case the belt will run in-
differently at any part of the pulley, or the rim may be swelled
towards the centre, when the central line of the band will tend
to run in the diametral plane of the pulley. This self-guiding
property may be explained by the tendency which a flat band
has, when running upon a conical pulley in a direction normal
to its axis, to describe a spiral path as it wraps on to the surface
because of the lateral stiffness of the material; the advancing
side therefore tends to rise towards the highest part of the cone,
If two cones are placed back to back the belt tends to rise to
the ridge and stay there. In practice the pulley rim is curved
to a radius of from three to five times its breadth, and this
not only guides the belt, but allows the line of direction of the
advancing side to deviate to a small extent, depending on the
elasticity of the material.
Parallel shafts may be driven by flexible bands or connectors
passing over pulleys, the central planes of which coincide,
without any guiding arrangements for the belting. The shafts
revolve in the same or opposite directions, according as the
belt is open or crossed. Means of changing the relative speeds
of rotation are furnished by pulleys of continuously varying
diameter, or by speed cones (see MECHANICS: Applied). A
common arrangement for driving a lathe spindle, in either
direction at several definite speeds, is to provide a counter-
shaft on which are mounted two fixed pulleys and two loose
pulleys to accommodate two driving belts from the main shaft,
one of which is open and the other crossed. The belts are
moved laterally by the forks of a striking gear pressing on the
advancing sides of the belts, and the pulleys are arranged so that
the belts either wrap round the loose pulleys, or can be shifted
so that one wraps round a fixed pulley, while the other still re-
mains on its loose pulley. Motion in either direction is thereby
obtained, and a considerable variation in the speed of rotation
can be obtained by providing a cone pulley on the counter-
shaft, which drives the cone pulley secured to the lathe
5
642
PULLEY
spindle by a separate band. The dimensions of the pulleys
are generally so arranged that the return motion of the lathe
spindle is faster than the forward motion. An alternative
arrangement consists in providing two loose pulleys on the
counter-shaft, driven by open and crossed belts respectively,
and arranging two clutches on the shaft, so that by the
movement of a sliding block, controlled by hand, one or other
of the clutches can be put in gear.
The proportions of cone pulleys for open or crossed belts may
be determined by considering the expression for the half length
(/) of a belt wrapping round pulleys of radius r\ and r t respectively,
and with centres distant c apart. The value of / may be easily
shown to be (ri+r 2 )ir/2 + (ri r 2 )o-|-c cos o, where the positive
sign is to be'taken for a crossed belt and the negative sign for an
open belt. In determining the dimensions of corresponding drums
of cone pulleys it is evident that for a crossed belt the sum of the
radii of each pair remains a constant, since the angle o is constant,
while for an open belt a is variable and the values of the radii are
then obtained by solving the equations
r\ = l/ir c(a sin o + cos o) + Jc sin o,
rj = I\TC c(a sin o + cos o) \c sin a.
The value of a is in general small, and an approximate solution
may be obtained by substituting two or three terms of the expansions
for sin a and cos o. This, however, leads to a troublesome numerical
solution. An accurate geometrical solution by C. Culmann gives
FIG. 2.
the linear equivalents of the above equations in the following
manner. A rectangle ABCD (fig. 2), with side AB=jr c/2 and
AD=e, is constructed, and the quadrant AEF is drawn with
centre D and radius DA. F B is the evolute of this circle, and for
any radius DE at an angle a and corresponding tangent EG termin-
ated by the evolute, the perpendicular distance of G from the line
AD is c(cos o+o sin o). If now a line be drawn from A to the
bisector H of the side BC, it will meet the vertical through G in
I and IJ=c(cos o+o sin O)/TT. A circular arc, centre D and
radius c/2, meets D E in K, and the perpendicular KL gives \c sin o.
This distance is marked off from the point I in each direction,
whereby the points M and N are obtained, the distance apart of
which represents the value n r 2 . If now the value l/ir = O]
be marked off, and a horizontal line be drawn through the point
O, the line OM represents ri+r 2 . Repeating this construction
for all values of a between o and 90, we obtain a curve BPC,
which can be used for determining the ratios of corresponding
drums of cone pulleys or of conical drums for open belts. The
curve BPC is generally used with the abscissae spaced more con-
veniently for practical applications, and a modification of the
diagram by J. F. Klein (Journ. Franklin Inst., vol. Ixxix.) is often
used instead.
When pulleys are mounted on
shafts which are parallel to one
another, the band will retain its
position, provided that its cen-
tral line advances towards each
pulley in the diametral plane of this
latter. This condition is fulfilled in
the example shown by fig. 3, in
which the central planes of each
pulley pass through the points of
delivery of the other pulley for the
given direction of motion. If the
motion is reversed the condition is
no longer satisfied and the belt will
leave the pulleys. In more compli-
FIG. 3.
cated cases guide pulleys must be used. In the most general case
for inclined pulleys, any two points may be chosen on the line
of intersection of the diametral planes, and tangents drawn
to the pitch circles of the pulleys. Guide pulleys are set with
their diametral planes in the planes containing corresponding
pairs of tangents, and a continuous belt wrapped round these
pulleys in due order can then be run in either direction.
The rims of pulleys for hemp or other ropes or cords are
grooved, and the sides are usually either inclined at 45 or
curved to give a sharper angle at the outside than at the bottom
of the groove; in the latter case, as the rope wears it engages
in a groove of greater angle and less effective grip. Wire ropes
are injured by the lateral crushing of the material, and in this
case the grooves are wide enough to allow the rope to rest on
the rounded bottom, which is lined with leather or wood to
diminish the wear and increase the friction. In English prac-
tice there are as many separate endless ropes as there are pairs
of grooves in the two pulleys to be connected, but in cases of
American practice the rope is continuously wound round the
two pulleys, and the free end passes over a pulley mounted on a
movable weighted carriage to adjust the tension. It is of con-
siderable importance that the effective radius of action of the
rope remain constant throughout each pulley, otherwise the
wear on the rope becomes very great and its life is diminished.
The grooves must be turned exactly alike, and the rope must be
of the same diameter throughout to diminish slip.
Pulleys may be detachably connected to a shaft by friction
clutches, so that they may be thrown in and out of engagement
at will. The section, fig. 4, shows
a clutch for a rope-driven pulley
A, which runs freely on a bush
B on the shaft, and is provided
with an enlarged cylindrical
nave or clutch box C. A split
ring D, carried by the clutch
and turning with it, can be
thrust against the clutch box
by right- and left-handed screws
E, so that a sufficient grip is
obtained to cause the clutch and
the pulley to turn as one piece.
The engagement of the pulley
and clutch is determined by a
hand-controlled block F sliding
on the shaft, the movement of which is communicated to the
right- and left-handed screw shafts by links G connected to the
levers H.
The resistance to slipping of a flat belt on a pulley may be obtained
by considering the equilibrium of a small arc of the pulley surface
subtending an angle d6 at the centre, and having tensions T and
T+dT at its extremities. Neglecting quantities of the second
order, the pressure on the pulley is T20, and the friction is nldO
where it is the coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley.
We have therefore dT=ti.TdS and dT/T = ji0. Integrating the
expression for an angle of wrapping 0, we obtain the relation
log t Ti/T 2 = iiB, where Ti and T 2 are the end tensions. For leather
belts on cast-iron pulleys the value of ^ may be taken as 0-4, giving
a ratio of the tensions on the tight and slack sides of Ti/Tj = 3'5'4'
when the angle of wrapping is 180. For ropes in the grooves of
cast-iron pulleys, where <t> is the inclination of the sides of the grooves,
the value of the normal pressure is increased in the ratio of cosec \$
= l. A usual value of M for hemp ropes on cast-iron pulleys is
0-3, and the exponential log ratio is therefore o-37r cosec -J# when
6 =r. At high speeds the centrifugal tension of the belt or rope, of
amount ttrtf/g, may be considerable, and must be subtracted from
the end tensions.
Pulley Blocks. Frames or blocks containing pulleys or sheaves
are used in combination for lifting heavy weights. There are
usually two blocks, of which one A (fig. 5) is fixed, and the
other B is movable, and a rope or chain, with one end secured
to one of the blocks at C, passes round the sheaves in a
continuous coil, leaving a free end D at which the effort is
applied. In the arrangement shown there are three equal
sheaves in each block, and each set turns on a pin secured
in the framing. The load, supported by the lower hook, is
raised by hauling on the free end and, neglecting any slight
obliquity of the plies of rope, the free end moves six times as fast
PULLEY
643
as the lower block carrying the weight, and in the absence o)
friction and other resistances the mechanical advantage will be in
the same ratio of the effort to the resistance. In practice the
full advantage of this or any other similar
combination is not realized, because of the
friction of the sheaves against the pin or shaft,
and more important still is the stiffness of the
... rope, which requires work to be done upon it
L to bend it round the sheave and straighten it
s(~\ again. The effect of pin friction is equivalent
to diminishing the radius of the effort and
increasing that of the resistance.
For a single pulley of diameter D, turning on
a fixed pin of diameter d, the relation of the
effort E to the load W, where / is the coefficient of
friction, is expressed by E/W = (D+/<i)/(D -./<*) =
i +2fd/D approximately. The resistance of the
rope to bending causes an additional resistance,
which experiment shows can be expressed in the
form Wo*/cD where c is a coefficient. Hence
E = W(i +2fd/D+d'/CD) = AW for a single
pulley. In a six-sheaved pulley tackle the re-
lation between E and W may be expressed as
W = E (i/k+i/k t +i/k+i/k t +illi*+i/k t ) =
E(fc* i)/k?(li i), and with a probable value of
k = 1-1 this gives W = 4-355 E instead of
W = 6E. If the free end of the rope is re-
leased the weight will descend, and the tackle
is then said to overhaul. The conditions which
enable a pulley tackle to sustain a weight when
the effort is removed may be examined, to a first
approximation, if we assume that the internal
friction acts in such a way as virtually to diminish
5- ^heave the effort E and to increase the resistance R by
Pulley Block, amounts proportional to the magnitude of each,
and in addition to cause a loss M due to the weights of the parts
themselves. We may therefore express the relation in the form
(i-a)E = (i+&)R+M, whence we obtain R/E = (i-o)/(i-r-
6+M/R). If now the machine be reversed and R becomes an
effort corresponding to a resistance E' then we have R(i &) =
(i+a)E'-|-M, giving
If the load is self-sustaining E' is zero or negative, and hence
6 + M/Rmust be equal to or greater than unity, and therefore
it is impossible for the ratio of R/E to rise to a greater value than
(i o)/2, and hence at least half the effort is wasted if the tackle
H
FIG. 7. Moore and Head
Pulley Block.
FIG. 6. Weston Differential
Pulley Block. , .
has the valuable property of sustaining a load when the effort is
removed. If, however, an artificial resistance can be introduced,
to come into action only when the effort is removed, it is possible
to obtain a tackle of greater efficiency. As an example we may
ake the case where a brake is provided offering a resistance, c R,
proportional to the load sustained, and where the values a and 6
are small compared with unity. Equation (i) becomes E/R =
(l-6-c-M/R)/(i-o), and hence 6+c+M/R is equal to
or greater than unity when the load is self-sustained, and we thus
obtain a relation between R and E in the form i 0/2 c, which shows
to a first approximation, that as c approaches unity a high efficiency
is obtainable, while the self-sustaining power of the tackle is retainecf.
In order to obtain a greater ratio of R to E, without using a large
number ol sheaves, various arrangements are used, of which the
Weston differential pulley block is a typical example. The upper
block carries a pair of chain pulleys A (fig. 6), secured together
and of slightly different effective diameters D and d. An endless
chain B, passing through guides C and D, encircles these pulleys
and the single loose pulley E of the lower block, as indicated. With
this arrangement a single revolution of the upper sheave causes
the endless chain to wind up the chain on one side by an amount
irD, and to unwind an amount rd on the other side, and in conse-
quence the lower sheave is raised by r(Dd)/2. Hence, neglect-
ing friction, ExD = iRT(D-d), i.e. E = JR(i-<i/D). The
value d/D usually lies between the limits 10/11 and 15/16, and,
if a greater difference of E from R is required, a further mechanical
advantage can be obtained by employing a separate hand-wheel
and chain, or by forming the upper sheave with an annular spur-
wheel gearing with a pinion driven by a hand-wheel and chain,
as in the Tangye form of Weston pulley-block. The efficiency of
the Weston pulley-block is less than 50%, and it does not therefore
overhaul. An objection to this form of block is the great length
of the endless chain, which may drag on the ground and pick up
dirt and grit, and thereby interfere with the smooth working of
the mechanism. Other forms, which do not require so 'lengthy
a chain, sometimes employ an epicyclic train to obtain the reduced
velocity of the load. The Moore and Head block has two equal
chain-wheels A, B, fig. 7, loosely mounted on an axle C, and pro-
vided with annular toothed gear-wheels which usually differ by
one tooth. A spur pinion D, gearing with both wheels, is carried
loosely upon an eccentric E forming part of the central pin, so
that when this latter is turned by the hand-wheel F and chain G
the axis of the pinion describes a circle the diameter of which equals
the throw of the eccentric, and a small relative motion of the two
sheaves takes place, depending on the number of the teeth of the
annular wheels. The motion obtained is divided between the two
vertical parts of the chain H, which is wrapped round each sheave
in opposite directions, with a free loop I between, while the ends
are attached to the lifting hook. This form is self-sustaining at
all loads.
In order to obtain a self-sustaining pulley tackle, which will
have an efficiency of more than 50%, various arrangements are
adopted, which during lifting auto-
matically throw out of action a brake
and cause it to come into action
again when the effort is removed. A
worm-gear tackle of this description
is shown in fig. 8, in which a worm
A, operated by a hand-wheel B and
chain C, drives the worm-wheel D,
thereby coiling up a chain E, one end
F of which is secured to the upper
block, and the other end hangs loose-
ly, after passing round the sprocket-
wheel. The worm is of great pitch,
so that if the effort were removed the
weight would descend, did not the
axial end thrust of the worm shaft
throw into action a friction brake H,
the resistance of which prevents
motion downwards. In the brake
shown, the cone I is pressed against
a corresponding recess in the ratchet-
wheel J, which latter turns loosely in
the casing and is provided with a
pawl not shown in the figure; this
pawl allows freedom of motion when
the load is being raised. The fric-
tional grip between the two surfaces
prevents return motion of the worm
shaft and the load remains suspended,
but it may be lowered by turning the
hand-wheel so as to overcome the
friction brake. Various other arrange-
ments of friction brakes have been
devised to give a resistance propor-
tional to the load.
Blocks, for lifting very heavy
weights, are sometimes provided with
an electric motor for driving the
worm. The worm-wheel shaft then
sometimes carries a spur-pinion gear-
ul ! ey
Brake.
ng with a spur-wheel on the lifting shaft, whereby a much
greater mechanical advantage is obtained with a small loss by
riction of the spur gearing.
REFERENCES. W. J. M. Rankine, Machinery and Millwork and
s; W. C. Unwin, Machine Design; Ad. Ernst.
Applied Mechanics;
644
PULLMAN PUMA
Die Hebezeuge; A. Ritter, Lehrbuch der lechnischen Mechanik; J.
Weisbach and G. Herrmann, The Mechanics of Hoisting Machinery ;
F. Reuleaux, De.r Constructeur; A. B. W. Kennedy, Mechanics of
Machinery; ]. Perry, Applied Mechanics; W. E. Dalby, Balancing of
Engines. (E. G. C.)
PULLMAN, formerly a town of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
and now a part of the city of Chicago. Here are the works of
the Pullman Palace Car Company, steel forging plants, and
other factories. The place was founded in 1880 by George
Mortimer Pullman (1831-1897), the inventor of the Pullman
sleeping car, and the founder (1867) of the Pullman Palace
Car Company, who attempted to make it a " model town."
Even the public works were the property of the Pullman Com-
pany and were managed as a business investment. Popular
discontent with the conditions led to the annexation of Pullman
to Chicago in 1889, but until 1910 the corporation held most
of the property. In June and July 1894 a bitter railway strike
developed from a controversy between employed and employers
in the Pullman works. (See CHICAGO and ILLINOIS: History.)
PULPIT (from Lat. pulpitum, a staging, platform: equiva-
lents are Fr. chaire d'lglise, Ital. pulpito, Ger. Kanzel), a raised
platform with enclosed front, whence sermons, homilies, &c.,
were delivered. Pulpits were probably derived in their modern
form from theambonesin the early Christian Church (see AMBO).
There are many old pulpits of stone, though the majority are
of wood. Those in churches are generally hexagonal or octa-
gonal; and some stand on stone bases, and others on slender
wooden stems, like columns. The designs vary accordingly to
the periods in which they were erected, having panelling,
tracing, cuspings, crockets, and other ornaments then in use.
Some are extremely rich, and ornamented with colour and
gilding. A few also have fine canopies or sounding-boards.
Their usual place is in the nave, mostly on the north side,
against the second pier from the chancel arch. Pulpits for
addressing the people in the open air were common in the
medieval period, and stood near a road or cross. Thus there was
one at Spital Fields, and one at St Paul's, London. External
pulpits still remain at Magdalen College, Oxford, and at Shrews-
bury. Pulpits, or rather places for reading during the meals
of the monks, are found in the refectories at Chester, Beaulieu,
Shrewsbury, &c., in England; and at St Martin des Champs,
St Germain des Pres, &c., in Paris; also in the cloisters at
St Die and St Lo. Shortly after the Reformation the canons
ordered pulpits to be erected in all churches where there were
none before. It is supposed that to this circumstance we owe
many of the time of Elizabeth and James. Many of them are
very beautifully and elaborately carved, and are evidently of
Flemish workmanship. The pulpits in the Mahommedan
mosques, which are known as " mimbars " are quite different
in, form, being usually canopied and approached by a straight
flight of steps. These have a doorway at the foot, with an
enriched lintel and boldly moulded head; the whole of the work
to this and to the stairs, parapet and pulpit itself being of
wood, richly inlaid, and often in part gorgeously painted and
gilt.
PULQUE, or PULQUE FUERTE, the national beverage of
the Mexican natives. It is prepared by fermenting the juice of
a number of species of the agave (agava potatorum, americana,
&c.). The cultivation of the agave for purposes of pulque
manufacture constitutes a considerable local industry, the
capital invested running into several millions sterling. The
juice obtained by tapping the agave is termed aguamiel. A
quantity of this is allowed to ferment naturally for about ten
days, and the product so obtained is termed madre pulque
(mother of pulque). A small quantity of this is added to fresh
aguamiel, and thereby a rapid fermentation is induced, the
pulque being ready for consumption within a day or two. It
has a somewhat heavy flavour, resembling sour milk, but it is
much esteemed by the natives on account of its cooling, and
according to them wholesome and nutritious, properties.
PULSE, (i) (O. Fr. pols, Lat. puts, pultis, Gr. wiX-ros, a
porridge of beans, peas, &c.), in botany, a collective term for
beans, peas, and other members of the order Leguminosae
(q.v.), which is characterized by having a legume or pod for the
fruit. (2) (M. Eng. pous, pouce, O. Fr. pous, mod. pousse, Lat.
pulsus, sc. oenarum, the beating of the veins, pellere, to drive,
beat), throbbing or beating; in physiology the rhythmical
beating due to the changes of blood-tension in the arteries
consequent on the contractions of their elastic tissues (see
VASCULAR SYSTEM).
PULSZKY, FERENCZ AUREL (1814-1897), Hungarian
politician and author, was born on the i7th of September 1814
at Eperjes. After studying law and philosophy at the high schools
of his native town and Miskolcz, he travelled abroad. England
particularly attracted him, and his fascinating book, A us dem
Tagebach eines in Grossbritannien reisenden Ungarns (Pesth,
183 7) , gained for him the membership of the Hungarian Academy.
Elected to the Reichstag of 1840, he was in 1848 appointed
to a financial post in the Hungarian government, and was
transferred in like capacity to Vienna under Esterhazy. Sus-
pected of intriguing with the revolutionists, Pulszky fled to
Budapest to avoid arrest. Here he became an active member
of the committee of national defence, and when obliged to fly
the country he joined Kossuth in England and with him made a
tour in the United States of America. In collaboration with his
wife he wrote a narrative of this voyage, entitled White, Red,
Black (3 vols., London, 1853). He was condemned to death
(1852) in contumaciam by a council of war. In 1860 he went to
Italy, took part in Garibaldi's expedition to Aspromonte (1862),
and was interned as a prisoner of war in Naples. Amnestied
by the emperor of Austria in 1866, he returned home and re-
entered public life; was from 1867-1876, and again in 1884, a
member of the Hungarian Diet, joining the Deak party. In
addition to his political activity, he was president of the literary
section of the Hungarian Academy, and director of the National
Museum at Budapest, where he became distinguished for his
archaeological researches. He employed his great influence to
promote both art and science and Liberal views in his native
country. He died on the 9th of September 1897. Among his
writings are Die Jacobiner in Ungarn (Leipzig, 1851) and Elelem
6s Korom (Pest, 1880), and many treatises on Hungarian
questions in the publications of the Academy of Pest.
Some Reminiscences of Kossuth and Pulszky were published by
F. W. Newman in 1888.
PULTUSK, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of
Warsaw, 33 m. N. of the city of Warsaw, on the right bank of
the Narew. Pop. (1897), 15,878. The town was almost entirely
destroyed by fire in 1875. It is now well built, and had before
the fire a palace (1319) which was formerly a residence of the
bishops of Plock. The industries include woollen, linen and
hosiery mills, copper works and potteries. In 1703 Charles
XII. of Sweden defeated and captured the greater part of a
Saxon army near this town, and in the same locality the French
defeated the Russians in December 1806. The town was
founded as early as 956.
PUMA, a name, probably of native origin, introduced into
European literature by the early Spanish writers on South
America (as Garcilaso de la Vega and Hernandez) for one of the
largest cats (Felis concolor) of the New World. It is generally
called " couguar " by the French, " Icon " by the Spanish
Americans, and " panther " by the Anglo-American hunters
of the United States (see CARNIVORA). Though often spoken
of as the American lion, chiefly on account of its colour, it rather
resembles the leopard of the Old World in size and habits:
usually measuring from nose to root of tail about 40 in.,
the tail being rather more than half that length. The head
is small compared with that of other cats and has no mane.
The ears are large and rounded. The tail is cylindrical, with
some bushy elongation of the hairs near the end, but not forming
a distinct tuft. The general colour of the upper parts and sides
of the adult is a tawny yellowish brown, sometimes having a
grey or silvery shade, but in some cases dark or inclining to
red; and upon these and other differences, which are probably
PUMICE PUMP
645
constant locally, a number of sub-species have been named.
The lower parts, inner surface of the limbs, throat, chin and
upper Up are dirty white; the outside of the ears, particularly
at their base, and a patch on each side of the muzzle black;
the end of the tail dusky. The young are, when first born,
spotted with dusky brown and the tail ringed. These markings
generally fade, and quite disappear before the animal becomes
full grown.
The puma has an exceedingly wide range of geographical
distribution, extending over a hundred degrees of latitude, from
Canada in the north to Patagonia in the south, and formerly
was generally diffused in suitable localities from the Atlantic
to the Pacific Ocean, but the advances of civilization have
curtailed the extent of the districts which it inhabits. In
The Puma (Felis concolor).
Central America it is still common in the dense forests which
clothe the mountain ranges as high as 8000 or 9000 ft. above
the sea level. Though an expert climber, it is by no means
confined to wooded districts, being frequently found in scrub
and reeds along the banks of rivers, and even in the open pampas
and prairies. Its habits much resemble those of the rest of
the group to which it belongs; and, like the leopard, when it
happens to come within reach of an abundant and easy prey,
as the sheep or calves of an outlying farming station, it kills
far more than it can eat, either for the sake of the blood only or
to gratify its propensity for destruction. It rarely attacks man,
and when pursued escapes if possible by ascending trees.
Several instances have occurred of pumas becoming tame in
captivity. Edmund Kean, the actor, had one which followed
him about like a dog. When caressed pumas purr like domestic
cats.
PUMICE (Lat. pumex, spumex, spuma, froth), a very porous,
froth-like, volcanic glass. It is an igneous rock which was
almost completely liquid at the moment of effusion and was so
rapidly cooled that there was no time for it to crysfallize.
When it solidified the vapours dissolved in it were suddenly
sed and the whole mass swelled up into a froth which
immediately consolidated. Had it cooled under more pressure
.t would have formed a solid glass or obsidian (q.v.); in fact
if we take fragments of obsidian and heat them in a crucible till
they fuse they will suddenly change to pumice when their
dissolved gases are set free. Hence it can be understood that
pumice is found only in recent volcanic countries. Artificial
substances resembling pumice can be produced by blowing
steam through molten glass or slag, and when a mass of slag
3 suddenly cooled by being tipped into the sea (as is the case at
the blast furnaces of Whitehaven in Cumberland) it swells up
into a pumiceous form so light and full of vesicles that it will
float on water. Any type of lava, if the conditions are favourable,
may assume the pumiceous state; but basalts and andesites
do not so often occur in this form as do trachytes and rhyolites.
Pumices are most abundant and most typically developed from
acid rocks; for which reason they usually accompany obsidians,
in fact in Lipari and elsewhere the base of a lava flow may be
black obsidian while the upper portion is a snow white pumice.
Small crystals of various minerals occur in many pumices;
the commonest are felspar, augite, hornblende and zircon. If
they are abundant they greatly diminish the economic value
of the rock, as they are hard and wear down more slowly than the
glassy material; consequently they produce scratches. The
cavities of pumice are sometimes rounded, but may also be
elongated or tubular owing to the flowing movement of the
solidifying lava. The glass itself forms threads, fibres and thin
partitions between the vesicles. Rhyolite and trachyte pumices
are white, contain 60 to 75% of silica and the specific gravity
of the glass is 2-3 to 2-4; andesite pumices are often yellow or
brown; while pumiceous basalts, such as occur in the Sandwich
Islands, are pitch black when perfectly fresh.
Good pumice is found in Iceland, Hungary, Nevada, Teneriffe,
New Zealand, Pantellaria and the Lipari Islands. The last-named
are the chief sources of pumice for the arts and manufactures.
At Campo Bianco in Lipari there is an extinct volcanic cone with
a breached crater from which a dark stream of obsidian has flowed.
For industrial purposes the best varieties are obtained from Monte
Pelato and Monte Chirica. The pumice is extracted by means of
shafts and tunnels driven through the soft incoherent stone. It
is brought out in blocks of irregular shape and size and is trimmed
into slabs and graded into several qualities before it is exported
to Canneto, which is the centre of the pumice trade. The workmen
say that the good pumice occurs in beds or veins, which are probably
lava flows and are separated by valueless rock or by obsidian.
The value depends entirely on the regularity, size and shape of the
steam cavities and on the absence of minute crystals. From time
immemorial the extraction and sale of pumice have been one of the
principal sources of wealth to the inhabitants of this island. An
inferior pumice, known in Lipari as Alessandrina, is used for smooth-
ing oilcloth. Though all the Aeolian Isles are volcanic no pumice
is exported from any of the others. In Iceland, Teneriffe and
Hungary pumice also occurs, but not in sufficient quantity or of
such quality as to render it worth working on a large scale. It
is estimated that in Lipari there are 170 pumice quarries (or mines)
giving employment to 1200 persons and producing 6000 tons of
pumice per annum. The price varies with the quality : from 3
lire per 100 kilogrammes for the commonest sorts to 200 or 300
lire for the best pieces, the average being about 15 lire. Much
pumice is also used nowadays in the form of a fine powder, pro-
duced by crushing the rock, and forms an ingredient of metal
polishes and some kinds of soap. It is often confounded with diatom
earth or tripoli powder, but can easily be recognized by the aid
of the microscope or by simple chemical tests.
Among the older volcanic rocks pumice occurs, but usually has
its cavities filled up by deposits of secondary minerals introduced
by percolating water; hence it is of no value for industrial pur-
poses. Pumice, in minute fragments, has been shown to have an
exceedingly wide distribution over the earth's surface at the present
day. It occurs in all the deposits which cover the floor of the
deepest portion of the oceans, and is especiajly abundant in the
abysmal red clay. In some measure this pumice has been derived
from submarine volcanic eruptions, but its presence is also accounted
for by the fact that pumice will float on water for months, and is
thus distributed over the sea by winds and currents. After a long
time it becomes waterlogged and sinks to the bottom, where it
gradually disintegrates and is incorporated in the muds and oozes
which are gathering there. After the great eruption of Kralcatoa
in 1883 banks of pumice covered the surface of the sea for many
miles and rose in some cases for four or five ft. above the water
level. In addition to this much finely broken pumice was thrown
into the* air to a great height and was borne away by the winds,
ultimately settling down in the most distant parts of the continents
and oceans. (J. S. F.)
PUMP, 1 a machine which drives a liquid from one point to
another, generally at different levels, the latter being usually
the higher; an air-pump is an appliance for exhausting or
1 The word appears apparently first in English in the Promp-
torium Parvulorum, c. 1440, of a ship's pump (hauritorium), in
Dutch (pompe), a little later, dialectically, of a conduit pipe for
water, but in the sense of a means of raisingwater it does not occur
in Dutch or Ger. before the i6th century. The Fr. pompe is derived
from Teut. The Ger. variant of Pumpe is Plumpe, which is gener-
ally taken as being an echoic word, imitating the sound of the
plunger, but the primary notion seems to be that of a pipe or tube.
Cf. Ital. term, trpmba, i.e. trumpet, pipe (see the note on the word
in the New English Dictionary).
6 4 6
PUMP
removing the air or other gas from a vessel, whilst a compression
pump compresses the air. The simplest forms of pumps em-
ployed for forcing liquids are " plunger pumps," consisting
essentially of a piston moving in a cylinder, provided with
inlet and outlet pipes, together with certain valves. The
disposition of these valves divides this type of pump into
suction pumps and force pumps.
Fig. i shows the arrangement in a suction pump. A is the cylinder
within which the piston B is moved up and down by the rod C.
D is the inlet pipe (the lower extremity of which
is placed beneath the surface of the liquid to be
removed), and G is the outlet pipe. E is a valve
in the inlet pipe opening into the cylinder; and
the piston is perforated by one or more holes,
each fitted with valves opening outwards on its
upper surface. On raising the piston, the valve
P remains closed and a vacuum tends to be
created in the cylinder, but the pressure of the
atmosphere forces the liquid up the tube D and
it raises the valve E and passes into the
cylinder. On reversing the motion the valve E
closes and the liquid is forced through the valve
F to the upper part of the cylinder. On again
raising the piston, more liquid enters the lower
part of the cylinder, whilst the previously raised
liquid is ejected from the delivery pipe. Obviously
the action is intermittent. Moreover, the height
of the lift is conditioned by the atmospheric pressure, for this is the
driving force; and since this equals 34 ft. of water, the lift cannot
be theoretically more than this distance when water is being pumped.
In practice it may be considerably less, owing to leakage at the
valves and between the piston and cylinder.
In the force pump (fig. 2) there is no such limitation to the lift.
In this case the piston is solid, and the outlet pipe, G which is
placed at the bottom of the cylinder,
has a valve F opening outwards,
the inlet pipe and valve are the same
as before. On raising the piston
the liquid rises in the cylinder, the
valve E opening and F remaining
shut. On reversing the motion the
valve E closes and the liquid is
driven past the valve F. On again
raising the piston the valve E opens
admitting more liquid whilst F re-
mains closed. It is seen that the
action is intermittent, liquid only
being discharged during a down
stroke, but since the driving force
is that which is supplied to the
piston rod, the lift is only con-
ditioned by the power available and
D
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
Mechankal. !
by the strength of the pump. A continuous supply can be obtained
by leading the delivery pipe into the base of an air chamber H,
which is fitted with a discharge pipe J of such a diameter that the
liquid cannot escape from it as fast as it is pumped in during a
down stroke. The air inside is compressed in consequence and
during an upstroke of the piston this air tends to regain its
original volume and so expels the water, thus bringing about a
continuous supply. For a description of modern pumps, see
HYDRAULICS.
^4*r-^Mz/i. Pumps for evacuating vessels may be divided
into three classes: (i) mechanical, (2) mercurial, and (3) jet
r pumps; the last named are treated in HYDRAULICS.
' The invention of the mechanical air-pump is generally
attributed to Otto von Guericke, consul of Magdeburg, who
exhibited his instrument in 1654; it was first described in 1657
by Caspar Schott, professor of mathematics at Wiirttemberg,
in his Mechanka hydraulico-pneumatica, and afterwards (in 1672)
by Guericke in his Experimenta nova Magdeburgica de vacus
spatia. It consisted of a spherical glass vessel opening below
by means of a stop-cock and narrow nozzle into the cylinder of
an " exhausting syringe," which inclined upwards from the
extremity of the nozzle. The cylinder, in which a well-fitting
piston worked, was provided at its lower end with two valves.
One of these opened from the nozzle into the cylinder, the other
from the cylinder into the outside air. During the down-stroke
of the piston the former was pressed home, so that no air entered
the nozzle and vessel, while the latter was forced open by the
air which so escaped from the cylinder. During the return-
stroke the latter was kept closed in virtue of the partial vacuum
formed within the cylinder, while at the same time the former
was forced open by the pressure of the denser air in the vessel
and nozzle. Thus, at every complete stroke of the piston, the
air in the vessel or receiver was diminished by that fraction of
itself which is expressed by the ratio of the volume of the avail-
able cylindrical space above the outward opening valve to the
whole volume of receiver, nozzle and cylinder. The action is
essentially that of the common suction pump. The construction
was subsequently improved by many experimenters, notably
by Boyle, Hawksbee, Smeaton and others; and more recently
two pump barrels were employed, so obtaining the same degree
of exhaustion much more rapidly. This type of pump is,
however, not very efficient, for there is not only leakage about
the valves and between the piston and cylinder, but at a certain
degree of exhaust the air within the vessel is insufficient to
raise the inlet valve; this last defect has been met in some
measure by using an extension of the piston to open and close
the valve.
The so-called oil air-pumps are much more efficient ; the valve
difficulty is avoided, and the risk of leakage minimized; whilst
in addition there is no air clearance between the piston and the
base of the cylinder as in the older mechanical forms. The
Fleuss pump may be taken as an example. The piston, provided
with a valve opening upwards, is packed in the cylinder by a
leather cup which is securely pressed against the sides of the
cylinder by the atmospheric pressure. The piston rod passes
through a valve in the upper part of the cylinder which is held
to its seat by a spring. The inlet pipe enters an elliptical vessel
which communicates with the cylinder a little way up from its
base, whilst at the base there is a relief tube leading into the
elliptical vessel already mentioned. Oil is placed both above
the upper valve seating, and also in the cylinder up to the
height of the lower edge of the inlet pipe. The action is as
follows: On raising the piston it cuts off communication with
the inlet pipe and then compresses the air above, forcing it
through the upper valve and oil into the atmosphere. Some
of the oil is also driven out, but as the valve does not close until
the piston has descended a short distance, a certain amount of
oil returns. On lowering the piston its valve opens and air
passes in from the vessel to be exhausted; this is further rarefied
on the next stroke and so on. The Max Kohl pumps are based
on the same principle, but are constructed with more elaborate
detail, leading to a greater efficiency, an exhaust of 0-0008 mm.
being claimed as readily obtainable.
The invention of the barometer and Torricelli's explanation
of the vacuity above the mercury column placed before the
members of the Florentine academy a ready method
... , , .. Mercurial.
of obtaining vacua; for to exhaust a vessel it was
only necessary to join, by means of a tube provided with stop-
cocks, the vessel to a barometer tube, fill the compound vessel
with mercury and then to invert it in a basin containing this
liquid, whereupon the mercury column fell, leaving a Torricellian
vacuum in the vessel, which could be removed after shutting
off the stop-cocks. This was the only method known until
the invention of the mechanical air-pumps; it was subsequently
employed by Count Rumford, and as late as 1845, Edward A.
King patented filament electric lamps exhausted by the same
methods. Although modern mercurial pumps have assumed
a multiplicity of forms, their actions can be reduced to two
principles, one statical, the other hydrodynamical at the
same time instruments have been devised utilizing both these
principles.
Statical Pumps. The earliest mercurial pump, devised by
Swedenborg and described in his Miscellanea observata circa res
nalurales "(1722), was statical in action, consisting essentially
in replacing the solid piston of the mechanical pump by a column
of mercury, which by being alternately raised and lowered
gradually exhausted a vessel. A more complicated pump, but
of much the same principle, was devised in 1784 by Joseph
Baader, to be improved by C. F. Hindenburg in 1787, by A. N.
Edelcrantz in 1804 and by J. H. Patten in 1824; whilst in 1881
Rankine Kennedy resuscitated the idea for the purpose of
exhausting filament electric lamps. The pump devised by
PUMPKIN PUN
647
H. Geissler of Bonn, and first described in 1858 by W. H. Theo.
Meyer in a pamphlet Ueber das geschichtete electrische Licht
surpassed all previous forms in both simplicity and efficiency.
The general scheme of Geisler's pump is shown in fig. 3. A
and B are pear-shaped glass vessels connected by a long narrow
india-rubber tube, which must be sufficiently
strong in the body (or strengthened by a
linen coating) to stand an outward pressure
of i to i $ atmospheres. A terminates below
in a narrow vertical tube c which is a few
inches longer than the height of the baro-
meter, and to the lower end of this tube
the india-rubber tube is attached which con-
nects A with B. At the upper end of A is
a glass two-way stop-cock, by turning which
the vessel A can either be made to com-
municate with the vessel to be exhausted,
or with the atmosphere, or can be shut off
from both when the cock holds an inter-
mediate position. The apparatus, after
having been carefully cleaned and dried, is
charged with pure and dry mercury which
must next be worked backwards and for-
wards between A and B to remove all the
air-bells. The air is then driven out of A by
FIG. 3. lifting B to a sufficient level, turning the cock
Gtisler's Air-Pump. so as to communicate with the atmosphere
and letting the mercury flow into A until it gets to the other side
of the stop-cock, which is then placed in the intermediate posi-
tion. Supposing the vessel to be exhausted to have already been
securely connected to the pump, we now lower the reservoir B
so as to reduce the pressure in A sufficiently below the tension
in the gas to be sucked in, and, by turning the cock so as to
connect A with the vessels to be exhausted, cause the gas to
expand into and almost fill A. The cock is now shut against
both communications, the reservoir lifted, the gas contents of
A discharged and so on, until, when after an exhaustion mercury
is let into A, the metal strikes against the top without inter-
position of a gas-bell. In a well-made apparatus the pressure
in the exhausted vessel is now reduced to j 3 , or ,\, of a milli-
metre, or even less. An absolute vacuum cannot be produced
on account of the unavoidable air-film between the mercury
and the walls of the apparatus.
As it takes a height of about 30 in. of mercury to balance the pres-
sure of the atmosphere, a Geisler pump necessarily is a somewhat
long-legged and unwieldy instrument; in addition, the long tube
ilile to breakage. It can be considerably shortened, the two
vessels A and B brought more closely together, and the somewhat
objectionable india-rubber tube be dispensed with, if we connect
the air-space in B with an ordinary air pump, and by means of it
do the greater part of the sucking and the whole of the lifting
work. An instrument thus modified was constructed by Poggen-
dorff in 1865.
Even a Geisler's stop-cock requires to be lubricated to be abso-
lutely gas-tight, and this occasionally proves a nuisance. Hence
a number of attempts have been made to do without stop-cocks
altogether. In the pump generally attributed to Topler, but which
w.i-, previously devised by J. Mile of Warsaw in 1828, who termed
it a hydrostatic air-pump without cylinders, taps, lids or stoppers,"
his is attained by using, both for the inlet and the outlet, vertical
capillary glass tubes, soldered, the former to somewhere near the
ttom, the latter to the top of the vessel. These tubes, being more
than 30 in. high, obviously act as efficient mercury-traps; but
: already considerable height of the pump is thus multiplied
by two. This consideration led Alexander Mitscherlich, F. Nt't-rn
and others to introduce glass valves in lieu of stop-cocks. A pump
similar to Tppler's construction was devised by \fendel6cff, and the
original device has been much improved by Wiedemann, Bessel-
Hagen and others.
The best -known pump of this type was invented in 1865 by
H. Sprengel, although the idea had been previously conceived
The by Magnus and Buff. The instrument, in its original
nyaamk (simplest) form (fig. 4), consists of a vertical capillary
" mp ' glass tube a of about i mm. bore, provided with
a lateral branch 6 near its upper end, which latter, by an
india-rubber joint governable by a screw-clamp, communicates
with a funnel. The lower end is bent into the shape of a
hook, and dips into a pneumatic trough. The vessel to
be exhausted is attached to b, and, in
order to extract its gas contents, a
properly regulated stream of mercury
is allowed to fall through the vertical
tube. Every drop of mercury, as it
enters from the funnel, entirely closes
the narrow tube like a piston, and in
going past the place where the side
tube enters entraps a portion of air and
carries it down to the trough, where it
can be collected. If the vertical tube,
measuring from the point where the
branch comes in, is a few inches greater
than the height of the barometer,
and the glass and mercury are per-
fectly clean, the apparatus slowly but
surely produces an almost absolute
vacuum.
The great advantages of Sprengel 's
pump lie in the simplicity of its construc-
tion and in the readiness with which it
adapts itself to the collecting of the gas.
It did excellent service in the hands of
Graham for the extraction of gases
occluded in metals. Many improvements
upon the original construction have been
proposed. Sprengel s Air-Pump.
Many other devices have been introduced for facilitating the
production of vacua. For example Raps in 1893 described an
automatic arrangement to be used in connexion with a Topler
pump; whilst in 1893 Schulze-Berge devised a rotary form. For
the description of these forms see Winkelmann, Handbuch der
Physik (1906), i. 1316. The history of mercurial pumps is treated by
S. P. Thompson, The Development of the Mercurial Air Pump (1888).
For the production of high vacua, see VACUUM TUBE; LIQUID
GASES.
PUMPKIN, the fruit of the gourd Cucurbita Pepo, well-known
in English cottage gardens, and largely cultivated in continental
Europe and North America. The pumpkin varies much in form,
being sometimes nearly globular, but more generally oblong
or ovoid in shape; the rind is smooth and very variable in colour.
It is a useful plant to the American backwoods farmer, yielding,
both in the ripe and unripe condition, a valuable fodder for his
cattle and pigs, being frequently planted at intervals among the
maize that constitutes his chief crop. The .larger kinds acquire
a weight of 40 to 80 K> but smaller varieties are in more esteem
for garden culture. When ripe, the pumpkin is boiled or baked,
or made into various kinds of pie, alone or mixed with other
fruit; while small and green it may be eaten like the vegetable
marrow. The name squash is applied in America to this and
other species of the genus Cucurbita. The name is adapted from
an American Indian word (see L. H. Bailey, Cyclopaedia of
American Horticulture, where is a fuller account of the squashes).
Summer squashes are mostly varieties of C. Pepo; winter
squashes are either C. maxima or C. moschata, chiefly the former.
The varieties of pumpkins and squashes are numerous and of
great variety in size and shape; it is difficult to keep them pure if
various kinds are grown together, but the true squashes
(C. maxima) do not hybridize with the true pumpkin species. 1
If carefully handled to avoid cracking of the skin, and kept dry
and fairly warm, winter squashes may be kept for months.
PUN, a play upon words, particularly the use of a word
in two or more different applications or of two or more words
similar in sound but with different meanings by which a
humorous or ludicrous effect is produced; thus Charles I.'s Court
Jester is said to have made the punning grace " great praise
be to God and little Laud to the devil " for which the archbishop
dismissed him from his service. Another famous pun was that
upon The Beggar's Opera, which " made Gay rich and Rich gay."
Thomas Hood was the king of pun-makers. " They went and
told the sexton, and the sexton toll'd the belj " (" Sally Brown ")
is one example among the innumerable puns with which his
poems are filled. The derivation of the word is not known.
It first appears in the second half of the i?th century. Skeat
6+8
PUNCH
(Etym. Did., 1898) identifies it with an obsolete and dialectal
variant of " pound," to beat in the sense of " to pound words, to
beat them into new senses, to hammer at forced similes " The
New English Dictionary considers it was probably one of the
shortened words, like " mob," " tit," &c., which were common
in slang after the Restoration. In R. L'Estrange, Counsellor
Manners's Last Legacy (1676). " pun " is found with punnet,
pundigrion and quibble, " of which fifteen will not make up one
single jest." Possibly these may be all referred to " punctilio "
(It. puntiglio, dim. of punto, point, Lat. punctum), a small, fine
point, a cavil or quibble. No historical connexion, however,
has been found between the words.
PUNCH, the abbreviated form of Punchinello (Ital. Policinetta,
Pulcinella), the most popular of the puppets or marionettes
(q.v.), and the chief figure in the " Punch and Judy " show.
It is of Italian origin, though its history is by no means free from
obscurity. The earlier etymologists sought to trace the name
to various mythical individuals, by whom, it was alleged, the
type was first furnished. F. Galiani adopts the theory which
derives it from the name of Puccio d'Aniello, a vintager of
Acerra near Naples, who, having by his wit and grotesque
appearance vanquished some strolling comedians in their own
sphere, was induced to join the troop, and whose place, by reason
of his popularity, was supplied after his death by a masked actor
who imitated his dress and manner. The claims of other
individuals Paolo Cinella, Polliceno, and Pulcinella, a Nea-
politan dealer in fowls have also found supporters, and the
derivation of the name and character from some old mystery repre-
senting Pontius (O. Eng. Pawnee; Fr. Ponce) Pilate and Judas,
or the Jews, was formerly popular. It has even been suggested
that the title is a modification of iro\ii Kiveu (I move much) as
expressive of the restlessness which is characteristic of the
puppet; and the assumption that the character was invariably
of diminutive size has given rise to its reference to the word
pollice, the thumb (cf. Daumling, Tom Thumb). The most
plausible theory, however, regards the name in its Italian form
as a diminutive of pulcino, fern, pulcina, a chicken. It is some-
times stated that, in consequence of the habit of using the word
"chicken" as a term of endearment, it came to mean " a little
child," and hence "a puppet" (W. Skeat). But this again involves
the assumption that the application of the name to the character
was in some measure determined by the size of the puppets,
whereas it would appear to have been transferred from the
comic stage to the puppet show and the Pulcinella of the stage
was not necessarily, a dwarf. The choice, therefore, seems to
lie between the theory of Quadrio, that it was applied on account
of the resemblance of the hooked nose to a beak, and that of
J. Baretti, which ascribes its employment to the nasal squeak
and timorous impotence of the original character. With respect
to the development of the modern type, it has been assumed that
the whole family of Italian maschere (Arlecchino, Brighella,
and the like) are modified survivals of the principal Oscan
characters of the Atellanae, and that Punchinello is the repre-
sentative of Maccus, the fool or clown. In proof of this it is
urged that Acerra, the supposed residence of Puccio d'Aniello
and the traditional source of the character, is in the neighbour-
hood of Aversa, the old Atella; and reference is also made to a
bronze statue of Maccus, discovered at Rome in 1727, an engrav-
ing of which has been preserved in Ficoroni's Le Maschere
sceniche e le figure comiche d'antichi Romani. But the
resemblance of the statue to the puppet is scarcely to be termed
a striking one, and the large nose and deformed figure are some-
what hazardous ground on which to base a theory especially
in view of the fact that such points of likeness as there are in it
to the northern Punch are not to be found in the Neapolitan
Pulcinella. It is possible that some relic of the old Ludi Osci,
transmitted through the Vice of the mystery plays, is to be
found in the character; but any direct descent from the Maccus of
the Atellanae seems precluded by the fact that, while there are
traces of the gradual development of the northern Punch from
the Neapolitan Pulcinella, the latter with its grey hat, white
smock and trousers, masked face, and undistorted body is widely
different from its alleged prototype. It seems necessary,
therefore, to regard the Pulcinella as in large part a distinct
creation of comparatively modern date. Prior to the i7th
century there is no indication in the Italian burlesque poets
of the existence of Pulcinella, though L. A. Riccoboni places
the creation of the part before 1600.
Andrea Perrucci (1699) and Gimma assert with some show
of authority that Silvio Fiorillo, a comedian named after his
principal part Captain Matamoros (the Italian Miles Gloriosus),
invented the Neapolitan Pulcinella. It was afterwards improved
by Andrea Calcese, surnamed Ciuccio, who died of the plague
in 1656, and who, according to Gimma, imitated in the character
the peasants of Acerra. This would place the origin of the
Italian Pulcinella somewhere about the commencement of the
1 7th century, the original character appearing to have been
that of a country clown, hook-nosed, shrill-voiced, cowardly,
boastful and often stupid, yet given at times to knavish tricks
and shrewd sayings. In thorough accordance with this date,
we find that the earliest known appearance of Polichinelle in
France is at the beginning of the reign of Louis XIV., in the show
of the puppet-playing dentist Jean Brioche. It might have
been expected that the shrewder and wittier side of the character
would most commend itself to the French mind, and there is
good reason to believe that the Polichinelle of Brioche was
neither a blunderer nor a fool. The puppet was almost imme-
diately seized upon as the medium of political satire of the kind
exemplified in the Letter of Polichinelle to Cardinal Mazarin
(1649), and it is described in the Combat de Cyrano de Bergerac,
as a " petit Esope de bois, remuant, tournant, virant, dansant,
riant, parlant, petant " and as " cet .heteroclite marmouset,
disons mieux, ce drolifique bossu." In this there appears
signs of transformation, whether the importation to France took
place before or after the alleged improvements of Calcese. The
hunchback had been long associated in France with wit and
laughter, and there are, therefore, some grounds for C. Magnin's
theory that the northern Punch is of French origin, a Gallic
type under an Italian name, though there does not seem to be
sufficient reason for adopting his suggestion that Polichinelle
was a burlesque portrait of Bearnais. The date of its intro-
duction into England has been disputed, J. Payne Collier being
of opinion that Punch and King William came together, a
second theory suggesting an earlier origin with the Huguenot
refugees. In view of its popularity in France prior to the
Restoration, however, it would be strange if its migration had
been so long delayed, and it is more than probable that it crossed
the channel in the wake of the Royalists. Apart from the
general references by S. Pepys (1662) and by J. Evelyn (1667)
to an Italian puppet-show at Covent Garden, the former makes
mention (1669) of some poor people who called their fat child
Punch, " that word being become a word of common use for
all that is thick and short." An allusion to " Punchinellos "
is also to be found in Butler's satire on English imitation of
the French, and Aubrey speaks of " a Punchinello holding a
dial " as one of the ornaments of Sir Samuel Lely's house at
Whitehall. But, though the puppet did not travel in the train
of William of Orange, allusions to it became far more frequent
after the Revolution of 1688, and the skill of the Dutch in their
treatment of puppet mechanism may have enhanced its attract-
iveness. In 1703 it was introduced at Bartholomew Fair into
a puppet play of the creation of the world; in 1709 (Taller,
No. 16) it was to be found in a representation of the Deluge,
though in a different part from that of the Momus Polichinelle
of Alexis Piron's Arlequin-Deucalion (1722); and in 1710
(Spectator, No. 14) it is mentioned as a leading figure in Powell's
puppet-show at Covent Garden. The alleged satire on Robert
Walpole, entitled A Second Tale of a Tub, or the History /.
Robert Powel, the Puppet-Showman (1715), furnishes some
details of Punch performances, and has an interesting frontis-
piece representing Powell with Punch and his wife. The Judy
(or Joan, as she appears to have been sometimes called) is not
of a specially grotesque order, but the Punch is easily recogniz-
able in all but the features, which are of the normal puppet type.
PUNCH PUNIC WARS
649
Other allusions are to be found in Gay's Shepherd's Week
Saturday (1714) and Swift's Dialogue between Mad Mullinix and
Timothy (1728). The older Punchinello was far less restricted
in his actions and circumstances than his modern successor. He
fought with allegorical figures representing want and weari-
ness as well as with his wife and with the police, was on intimate
terms with the patriarchs and the seven champions of Christen-
dom, sat on the lap of the queen of Sheba, had kings and dukes
for his companions, and cheated the Inquisition as well as the
common hangman. Powell seems to have introduced a trained
pig which danced a minuet with Punch, and the French (among
whom Punch is now usually styled Guignol, originally a puppet
hailing from Lyons) having occasionally employed a cat in the
of the dog Toby, whose origin is somewhat uncertain.
A typical version of the modern play, with illustrations, was
published by Payne Collier and Cruikshank in 1828 ($rd ed.,
1844). (R. M. W.)
PUNCH, (i) To pierce, perforate, make a hole or stamp a
mark, &c., with a tool known as a " puncheon " or " punch."
The verb is derived from the substantive; the original is Lat.
punctio, a pricking, from pungere, to prick. This gave Ital.
punzone, O. Fr. poinson, mod. poin$on. Both these French
forms mean also a cask, from which the English "puncheon,"
a liquid measure varying in capacity from 72 to 120 gallons is
taken. This is probably the same word as that for the tool,
and refers to a mark or sign stamped or " punched " on the cask.
The origin may therefore be paralleled by the explanation of
" hogshead " as referring to a mark of an " oxhead " branded
on the measure. (2) To beat or hit, especially in such collo-
quialisms, as " to punch one's head." This is not the same word
as (i) but is a shortened form of " punish," from Lat. punire,
of which the ultimate origin is poena, penalty, from which is
derived " pain." (3) The name of a drink, composed of spirits,
water, sliced lemons or limes, or lemon-juice, together with
sugar and spice, and served hot. According to the spirit with
which it is made, it is known as brandy, whisky, rum punch, &c.
Milk-punch is made of milk and spirit, bottled and served cold.
The word is the English representative of the Hindostani panch,
five (from the number of ingredients), and was introduced from
the East.
PUNCTUATION (Lat. punctum, a point), the theorv or art of
" pointing " a literary composition so as to divide it properly
into sentences and portions of sentences, which the " points "
are used to mark at their close, with a view to precision in the
meaning of a continuous set of written words, by the indication
of what would be pauses or changes of expression if they were
spoken. The uses of the chief " points " are explained as fol-
lows in the " Rules for Compositors " at the Oxford University
Press, compiled by Mr Horace Hart, the university printer:
The "full stop" or "period" (.) marks the end of a sentence.
The "colon" (:) Greek KuiKov, a limb is at the transition
point of the sentence. The " semicolon " (;) separates different
statements. The " comma " (,) Gr. KbuiM, from nbwrtiv,
i.e. a piece cut off separates clauses, phrases and particles.
(The terms " period " Greek xpo5o$ " colon," " comma,"
now identified in punctuation with the signs here given, were
borrowed from the Greek grammarians, who originally described
either the whole sentence or a longer or shorter part of it
respectively in this way.) Among other signs, the " dash "
( ) marks abruptness or irregularity. The " exclamation "
(!) marks surprise. The " interrogation " or " query " (?) asks
a question. The apostrophe (') marks elisions or the possessive
case. " Quotes," quotation-marks or " inverted commas "
(" ") define quoted words. Irregularities or interpolations in
a sentence are marked by various forms of bracket ( ) or paren-
thesis. Literary usage and the practice of printing-houses vary,
however, so much that it is impossible to define exactly and
shortly the part played by some of these points in a reasonable
system of punctuation. The Oxford Rules already mentioned,
which deal also with spelling and other pitfalls in literary
composition and printing, carry the authority of such experts
as Dr J. A. H. Murray and Dr Henry Bradley; and the art of
punctuation may be studied also in such works as H. Beadnell's
Spelling and Punctuation, P. Allardyce's Stops: or how to punc-
tuate, T. L. de Vinne's Correct Composition, and T. Lefevre's
Guide pratique du compositeur. The acceptance of a conven-
tional system of modern punctuation is mainly due to the
invention of printing, and to the ingenuity and care of individual
typographers. In the earlier forms of writing the letters ran
on continuously in lines; it was only by degrees that actual
words were divided from one another by spacing within the
line; then later came the distribution of words into sentences
by means of points, and the introduction by Aldus Manutius
in the i6th century of a regular system for these. The chief
signs were inherited by the printers from the dots of the Greek
grammarians, but often with altered meanings; thus the Greek
interrogation mark (;) becomes the modern semicolon. (See
PALAEOGRAPHY and TYPOGRAPHY.)
PUNDIT (Hindi pandit; Skr. pandita), a learned man, a teacher,
particularly one skilled in Sanskrit and Hindu law, religion
and philosophy. Before the institution of the High Courts
in 1862, the Supreme Court of India had a law officer styled the
Pundit of the Supreme Court, who advised the English judges
on points of Hindu law. The term is frequently applied,
somewhat derisively, or humorously, to learned persons, to
those who claim by long official or other experience to lay down
the law or dictate principles of conduct.
PUNIC WARS, a name specially appropriated to the wars
between Rome and Carthage in the 3rd and and centuries B.C.
The origin of these conflicts is to be sought in the position which
Rome acquired about 275 B.C. as suzerain and protector of all
Italy. Her new obligation to safeguard the peninsula against
foreign interference made it necessary that she should not allow
the neighbouring island of Sicily to fall into the hands of a
strong and expansive power. Carthage, on the other hand, had
long been anxious to conquer Sicily and so to complete the
chain of island posts by which she controlled the western
Mediterranean.
First Punic War (264-241 B.C. 1 ). The proximate cause of
the first outbreak was a crisis in the city of Messana, commanding
the straits between Italy and Sicily. A band of Campanian
mercenaries, which had forcibly esablished itself within the
town and was being hard pressed in 264 by Hiero II. of Syracuse,
applied for help both to Rome and Carthage and thus brought
a force from either power upon the scene. The Carthaginians,
arriving first, occupied Messana and effected a reconciliation
with Hiero. The Roman commander nevertheless persisted
in throwing troops into the city, and by seizing the person of the
Carthaginian admiral during a parley induced him to withdraw
his garrison. The Romans thus won an important strategic
post, but their aggression was met by a declaration of war from
Carthage and Syracuse.
Operations began with a joint attack upon Messana, which
the Romans easily repelled. In 263 they advanced with a
considerable force into Hiero's territory and induced him to
seek peace and alliance with them. Having thus secured their
foothold on the island they set themselves to wrest it completely
from Carthage. In 262 they besieged and captured the enemy's
base at Agrigentum, and proved that Punic mercenary troops
could not stand before the infantry of the legions. But they
made little impression upon the Carthaginian fortresses in the
west of the island and upon the towns of the interior which
mostly sided against them. Thus in the following campaigns
their army was practically brought to a standstill.
In 260 the war entered upon a new phase. Convinced that
they could gain no serious advantage so long as the Carthaginians
controlled the sea and communicated freely with their island
possessions, the Romans built their first large fleet of standard
battleships. At Mylae, off the north Sicilian coast, their
admiral C. Duilius defeated a Carthaginian squadron of superior
manceuvring capacity by a novel application of grappling and
1 The chronology here given is the traditional one, but recent
researches tend to show that many events have been antedated by
one year.
650
PUNIC WARS
boarding tactics. This victory left Rome free to land a force on
Corsica and expel the Carthaginians (259), but did not suffice to
loosen their grasp on Sicily.
After two more years of desultory warfare the Romans de-
cided to carry the war into the enemy's home territory. A large
armament sailed out in 256, repelled a vigorous attack by
the entire Carthaginian fleet off Cape Ecnomus (near Agrigen-
tum) and established a fortified camp on African soil at Clypea.
The Carthaginians, whose citizen levy was utterly disorganized,
could neither keep the field against the invaders nor prevent
their subjects from revolting. A single campaign compelled
them to sue for peace, but the terms which the Roman com-
mander Atilius Regulus offered were intolerably harsh. Accord-
ingly they equipped a new army in which, by the advice of a
Greek captain of mercenaries named Xanthippus, cavalry and
elephants formed the strongest arm. In 255, under Xanthippus's
command, they offered battle to Regulus, who had taken up
position with an inadequate force near Tunes, outmanoeuvred
him and destroyed the bulk of his army. A second Roman
armament, which subsequently reached Africa after defeating
the full Carthaginian fleet off Cape Hermaeum, did not venture
to reopen the campaign, but withdrew all the remaining troops.
The Romans now directed their efforts once more against
Sicily. In 254 they carried the important fortress of Panormus
(Palermo) by an attack from the sea; but when Carthage threw
reinforcements into the island the war again came to a standstill.
In 251 at last the Roman general L. Metellus brought about a
pitched battle near Panormus in which the enemy's force was
effectively crippled. This victory was followed by an investment
of the chief Punic base at Lilybaeum by land and sea. The
besiegers met with a gallant resistance, and in 249 were com-
pelled to withdraw by the loss of their fleet in a surprise attack
upon the neighbouring harbour of Drepanum (Trapani), in
which the admiral Claudius Pulcher was repulsed with a loss of
93 ships. Meanwhile- other losses in storms on the high seas
so reduced the Roman fleet that the attack upon Sicily had to
be suspended. At the same time the Carthaginians, who felt
no less severely the financial strain of the prolonged struggle
and had a war in Africa on their hands, reduced their armaments
and made no attempt to deliver a counter-attack. The only
noteworthy feature of the ensuing campaigns is the skilful
guerilla war waged by a new Carthaginian commander, Hamilcar
Barca, from his strong positions on Mt Ercte (247-244) and
Mt Eryx (244-242) in Western Sicily, by which he effectually
screened Lilybaeum from the Roman land army.
In 242 Rome resumed operations on sea. By a magnificent
effort on the part of private citizens a fleet of 200 warships was
equipped and sent out to renew the blockade of Lilybaeum.
The Carthaginians hastily collected a relief force, but in a battle
fought off the Aegates or Aegusae islands (west of Drepana)
their fleet was caught at a disadvantage and mostly sunk or
captured (March 10, 241). This victory, by giving the Romans
undisputed command of the sea, rendered certain the ulti-
mate fall of the Punic strongholds in Sicily. The Carthaginians
accordingly opened negotiations and consented to a peace by
which they ceded Sicily and the Lipari Islands to Rome and paid
an indemnity of 3200 talents (about 800,000).
The Interval between the First and Second Wars (241-218 B.C.).
The loss of naval supremacy not only deprived Carthage of
her predominance in the western Mediterranean, but exposed
her oversea empire to disintegration under renewed attacks
by Rome. The temper of the Roman people was soon made
manifest during a conflict which broke out between the Cartha-
ginians and their discontented mercenaries. Italian traders
were allowed to traffic in munitions of war with the mutineers,
and a gross breach of the treaty was perpetrated when a Roman
force was sent to occupy Sardinia, whose insurgent garrison
had offered to surrender the island (239). To the remonstrances
of Carthage the Romans replied with a direct declaration of war,
and only withheld their attack upon the formal cession of Sardinia
and Corsica and the payment of a further indemnity.
From this episode it became clear that Rome intended to
use her victory to the utmost. To avoid complete humiliation
Carthage had no resource but to humiliate her adversary. The
recent complications of foreign and internal strife had indeed
so weakened the Punic power that the prospect of renewing
the war under favourable circumstances seemed remote enough.
But the scheme of preparing for a fresh conflict found a worthy
champion in Hamilcar Barca, who sought to compensate for the
loss of Sicily by acquiring a dominion in Spain where Carthage
might gain new wealth and form a fresh base of operations against
Rome. Invested with an unrestricted foreign command, he
spent the rest of his life in founding a Spanish empire (236-228).
His work was continued by his son-in-law Hasdrubal and his
son Hannibal, who was placed at the head of the army in 220.
These conquests aroused the suspicions of Rome, which in a
treaty with Hasdrubal confined the Carthaginians to the south
of the Ebro, and also guaranteed the independence of Saguntum,
a town on the east coast which pretended to a Greek origin.
In 219 Hannibal laid siege to Saguntum and carried the town in
spite of a stubborn defence. It has always been a debateable
point whether his attack contravened the new treaty. The
Romans certainly took this view and sent to Carthage to demand
Hannibal's surrender. But his defiant policy was too popular
to be disavowed; the Carthaginian council upheld Hannibal's
action, and drew upon itself an immediate declaration of war.
Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.) : a. The "Hannibalic" War.
It seemed as though the superiority of the Romans at sea
must enable them to choose the field of battle. They decided
to embark one army for Spain and another for Sicily and Africa.
But before their preparations were complete Hannibal began
that series of operations by which he dictated the course of the
war for the greater part of its duration. Realizing that so long
as Rome commanded the resources of an undivided Italian
confederacy no foreign attack could beat her down beyond
recovery, he conceived the plan of cutting off her supply of
strength at the source by carrying the war into Italy and causing
a disruption of the League. His chances of ever reaching Italy
seemed small, for the sea was guarded by the Roman fleets and
the land route was long and arduous. But the very boldness of
his enterprise contributed to its success; after a six months'
march through Spain and Gaul and over the Alps, which the
Romans were nowhere in time to oppose, Hannibal arrived in
the plain of the Po with 20,000 foot and 6000 horse, the pick of
his African and Spanish levies (autumn 218: for details see
HANNIBAL).
His further advance was here disputed by some Roman
troops which had been recalled from the Spanish expedition.
But the superiority of the Carthaginian cavalry and the spread
of insurrection among the Gaulish inhabitants forced the
defenders to fall back upon the Apennines. At the end of the
year the Roman army was reinforced by the division from Sicily
and led out to battle on the banks of the Trebia. Hannibal,
by superior tactics, repelled the assailants with heavy loss, and
thus made his position in north Italy secure.
In 2 1 7 the campaign opened in Etruria, into which the invading
army, largely reinforced by Gauls, penetrated by an unguarded
pass. A rash pursuit by the Roman field force led to its being
entrapped on the shore of Lake Trasimene and destroyed with
a loss of 40,000 men. This catastrophe left Rome completely
uncovered; but Hannibal, having resolved not to attack the
capital before he could collect a more overwhelming force,
directed his march towards the south of Italy, where he hoped
to stir up the peoples who had formerly been Rome's most
stubborn enemies. The natives, however, were everywhere
slow to join the Carthaginians, and a new Roman army under the
dictator Q. Fabius Maximus (" Cunctator "), which, without
ever daring to close with Hannibal, persistently dogged his steps
on his forays through Apulia and Campania, prevented his
acquiring a permanent base of operations.
The eventful campaign of 216 was begun by a new aggressive
move on the part of Rome. An exceptionally strong field army,
estimated at 85,000 men, was sent forth in order to crush the
Carthaginians in open battle. On a level plain near Cannae in
PUNIC WARS
651
Apulia, which Hannibal had chosen for his battle-ground, the
Roman legions delivered their attack. Hannibal deliberately
allowed his centre to be driven in by their superior numbers,
while Hasdrubal's cavalry wheeled round so as to take the enemy
in tlank and rear. The Romans, surrounded on all sides and so
cramped that their superior numbers aggravated their plight,
were practically annihilated, and the loss of citizens was perhaps
greater than in any other defeat that befel the Republic. The
moral effect of the battle was no less momentous. The south
Italian nations at last found courage to secede from Rome, the
leaders of the movement being the people of Capua, the second
greatest town of Italy. Reinforcements were sent from Carthage,
and several neutral powers prepared to throw their weight into
the scale on Hannibal's behalf. At first sight it seems strange
that the battle of Cannae did not decide the war. But the
resources of Rome, though terribly reduced in respect both
of men and of money, were not yet exhausted. In north and
centra! Italy the insurrection spread but little, and could be
sufficiently guarded against with small detachments. In
the south the Greek towns of the coast remained loyal, and the
numerous Latin colonies continued to render important service
by interrupting free communication between the rebels and
detaining part of their forces. In Rome itself the quarrels
between the nobles and commons, which had previously unsettled
her policy, gave way to a unanimity unparalleled in the annals of
the Republic. The guidance of operations was henceforth left
to the senate, which by maintaining a firm and persistent policy
until the conflict was brought to a successful end earned its
greatest title to fame.
The subsequent campaigns of the Italian War assume a new
character. Though the Romans contrived at times to raise
200,000 men, they could only spare a moderate force for field
operations. Their generals, among whom the veterans Fabius
and M. Claudius Marcellus frequently held the most important
commands, rarely ventured to engage Hannibal in the open,
and contented themselves with observing him or skirmishing
against his detachments. Hannibal, whose recent accessions
of strength were largely discounted by the necessity of assigning
troops to protect his new allies or secure their wavering loyalty,
was still too weak to undertake a vigorous offensive. In the
ensuing years the war resolved itself into a multiplicity of
minor engagements which need not be followed out in detail.
In 216 and 215 the chief seat of war was Campania, where
Hannibal vainly attempted to establish himself on the coast and
experienced a severe repulse at Nola. In 214 the main Cartha-
ginian force was transferred to Apulia in hopes of capturing
Tarentum. Though Croton and Locri on the Calabrian coast
had fallen into his hands, Hannibal still lacked a suitable harbour
by which he might have secured his oversea communications. For
two years he watched in vain for an opportunity of surprising
the town, while the Romans narrowed down the sphere of re-
volt in Campania and defeated other Carthaginian commanders.
In 212 the greater part of Tarentum and other cities of the
southern seaboard at last cameinto Hannibal's power. But in the
same year the Romans found themselves strong enough to place
Capua under blockade. They severely defeated a Carthaginian
relief force, and could not be permanently dislodged even by
Hannibal himself. In 211 Hannibal made a last effort to relieve
his allies by a feint upon Rome itself, but the besiegers re-
fused to be drawn away from their entrenchments, and even-
tually Capua was starved into surrender. Its fall was a sign
that no power could in the long run uphold a rival Italian
coalition against Rome. After a year of desultory fighting the
Romans in 200 gained a further important success by recovering
Tarentum. Though Hannibal from time to time still won
isolated engagements, yet slowly but surely he was being driven
back into the extreme south of the peninsula.
In 207 the arrival of a fresh invading force produced a new
crisis. Hasdrubal, who in 200-208 had marched overland from
Spain, appeared in north Italy with a force scarcely inferior
to the army which his brother had brought in 218. After levying
contingents of Gauls and Ligurians he marched down the east
coast with the object of joining hands with his brother in central
Italy for a direct attack upon Rome. By this time the drain
of men and money was telling so severely upon her confederacy
that some of her most loyal allies protested their inability to
render further help. Yet by a supreme effort the Romans
raised their war establishment to the highest total yet attained
and sent a strong field army against either Carthaginian leader.
The danger to Rome was chiefly averted by the prompt insight
and enterprise of the consul C. Nero, who commanded the main
army in the south. Having discovered that Hannibal would
not advance beyond Apulia until his brother had established
communications with him, Nero slipped away with part of his
troops and arrived in time to reinforce his colleague Livius,
whose force had recently got into touch with Hasdrubal near
Sena Gallica (Sinigaglia) . The combined Roman army frus-
trated an attempt of Hasdrubal to elude it and forced him to
fight on the banks of the Metaurus. The battle was evenly
contested until Nero by a dexterous flanking movement cut the
enemy's retreat. Hasdrubal himself fell and the bulk of his
army was destroyed.
The campaign of 207 decided the war in Italy. Though
Hannibal still maintained himself for some years in Calabria,
this was chiefly due to the exhaustion of Rome after the pro-
digious strain of past years and the consequent reduction of her
armaments. In 203 Italy was finally cleared of Carthaginian
troops. Hannibal, in accordance with orders from home, sailed
back to Africa, and another expedition under his brother Mago,
which had sailed to Liguria in 205 and endeavoured to rouse
the slumbering discontent in Cisalpine Gaul and Etruria, was
driven back on the coast and withdrawn about the same time.
b. The Subsidiary Campaigns. Concurrently with the great
struggle in Italy the Second Punic War was fought out on several
other fields. It will suffice merely to allude to the First Mace-
donian War (214-205) which King Philip V. commenced when
the Roman power seemed to be breaking up after Cannae.
The diversions which Roman diplomacy provided for Philip
in Greece and the maintenance of a patrol . squadron in the
Adriatic prevented any effective co-operation on his part with
Hannibal.
In view of the complete stagnation of agriculture in Italy
the Romans had to look to Sardinia and Sicily for their food
supply. Sardinia was attacked by a Carthaginian
armament in 215, but a small Roman force sufficed
to repel the invasion. In Sicily a more serious
conflict broke out. Some isolated attacks by Punic squadrons
were easily frustrated by the strong Roman fleet. But in 215
internal complications arose. The death oi Hiero II., Rome's
steadfast friend, left the kingdom of Syracuse to his inexpe-
rienced grandson Hieronymus. Flattered by the promises of
Carthaginian emissaries the young prince abruptly broke with
the Romans, but before hostilities commenced he was assas-
sinated. The Syracusan people now repudiated the monarchy
and resumed their republican constitution, but they were
misled by false threats of terrible punishment at the hands of
Rome to play into the hands of the Carthaginians. The attacks
of a Roman army and fleet under Marcellus which speedily ap-
peared before the town were completely baffled by the mechanical
contrivances of the Syracusan mathematician Archimedes (213).
Meantime the revolt against Rome spread in the interior, and
a Carthaginian fleet established itself in the towns of the
south coast. In 212 Marcellus at last broke through the defence
of Syracuse and in spite of the arrival of a Carthaginian relief
force mastered the town by slow degrees. A guerilla warfare
succeeded in which the Carthaginians maintained the upper hand
until in 210 they lost their base at Agrigentum. Thereupon they
were rapidly dislodged from their remaining positions, and by
the end of the year Sicily was wholly under the power of Rome.
The conflict in Spain was second in importance to the Italian
War alone. From this country the Carthaginians drew large
supplies of troops and money which might serve to sotin
reinforce Hannibal; hence it was in the interest' of the
Romans to challenge their enemy within his Spanish domain.
652
PUNIC WARS
Though the force which Rome at first spared for this war was
small in numbers and rested entirely upon its own resources,
the generals Publius and Gnaeus Scipio by skilful strategy and
diplomacy not only won over the peoples north of the Ebro
and defeated the Carthaginian leader Hasdrubal Barca in his
attempts to restore communication with Italy, but carried their
arms along the east coast into the heart of the enemy's domain.
But eventually their successes were nullified by a rash advance.
Deserted by their native contingents and cut off by Carthaginian
cavalry, among which the Numidian prince Massinissa rendered
conspicuous service, the Roman generals were slain and their
troops were destroyed in detail (212 or 211).
Disturbances in Africa prevented the Punic commanders
from reaping the full fruit of their success. Before long the
fall of Capua enabled Rome to transfer troops from Italy to
Spain, and in 209 the best Roman general of the day, the young
son and namesake of the recently slain P. Scipio, was placed
in command. The new leader signalized his arrival by a bold
and successful coup-de-main upon the great arsenal of Carthago
Nova. Though he failed to prevent Hasdrubal Barca from march-
ing away to Italy, Scipio profited by his departure to push
back the remaining hostile forces the more rapidly. A last
effort by the Carthaginians to retrieve their losses with a fresh
army was frustrated by a great victory at Ilipa (near Corduba),
and by the end of 206 they were completely driven out of the
peninsula.
In 205 Scipio, who had returned to Rome to hold the consul-
ship, proposed to follow up his victories by an attack upon the
home territory of Carthage. Though the presence
in Africa. f Hannibal in Italy at first deterred the senate
from sanctioning this policy, the general popularity
of the scheme overbore all resistance. Scipio was granted a
force which he organized and supplemented in Sicily, and in
204 sailed across to Africa. He was here met by a combined
levy of Carthage and King Syphax of Numidia, and for a time
penned to the shore near Utica. But in the winter he extricated
himself by a surprise attack upon the enemy's camp, which
resulted in the total loss of the allied force by sword or flame.
In the campaign of 203 a new Carthaginian force was destroyed
by Scipio on the Great Plains not far from Utica, their ally
Syphax was captured, and the renegade Massinissa (<?..) rein-
stated in the kingdom from which Syphax had recently expelled
him. These disasters induced the Carthaginians to sue for
peace, but before the very moderate terms which Scipio offered
could be definitely accepted a sudden reversal of opinion caused
them to recall Hannibal's army for a final trial of war, and to
break off negotiatiops. In 202 Hannibal assumed command of
a composite force of citizen and mercenary levies stiffened with
a corps of his veteran Italian troops. After an abortive con-
ference with Scipio he prepared for a decisive battle at Zama (an
inland site not yet identified with certainty). Scipio's force was
smaller in numbers, but well trained throughout and greatly
superior in cavalry. His infantry, after evading an attack by the
Carthaginian elephants, cut through the first two lines of the
enemy, but was unable to break the reserve corps of veterans.
The battle was ultimately decided by the cavalry of the Romans
and their new ally Massinissa, which by a manoeuvre recalling
the tactics of Cannae took Hannibal's line in the rear and com-
pletely destroyed it. The Carthaginians having thus lost their
last army again applied for peace and accepted the terms which
Scipio offered. They were compelled to cede Spain and the
Mediterranean islands still in their hands, to surrender their war-
ships, to pay an indemnity of 10,000 talents (about 2,400,000)
within fifty years and to forfeit their independence in affairs
of war and foreign policy.
The Second Punic War, by far the greatest struggle in which
either power engaged, had thus ended in the complete triumph
of Rome. This triumph is not to be explained in the main
by any faultiness in the Carthaginians' method of attack. The
history of the First Punic War, and that of the Second outside
of Italy, prove that the Romans were irresistible on neutral
or Carthaginian ground. Carthage could only hope to win by
invading Italy and using the enemy's home resources against
him. The failure of Hannibal's brilliant endeavour to realize these
conditions was not due to any strategical mistakes on his part.
It was caused by the indomitable strength of will of the Romans,
whose character during this period appears at its best, and
to the compactness of their Italian confederacy, which no
shock of defeat or strain of war could entirely disintegrate. It
is this spectacle of individual genius overborne by corporate
and persevering effort which lends to the Second Punic War its
peculiar interest.
The Third Punic War (140-146 B.C.) The political power
of Carthage henceforth remained quite insignificant, but its
commerce and material resources revived in the 2nd century
with such rapidity as to excite the jealousy of the growing
mercantile population of Rome and the alarm of its more timid
statesmen. Under the influence of these feelings the conviction
sedulously fostered by Cato the Elder, the Censor that
" Carthage must be destroyed " overbore the scruples of more
clear-sighted statesmen. A casus belli was readily found in a
formal breach of the treaty, committed by the Carthaginians
in 1 54, when they resisted Massinissa's aggressions by force of
arms. A Roman army was despatched to Africa, and although
the Carthaginians consented to make reparation by giving
hostages and surrendering their arms, they were goaded into
revolt by the further stipulation that they must emigrate to
some inland site where they would be debarred from commerce.
By a desperate effort they created a new war equipment and
prepared their city for a siege (149). The Roman attack for
two years completely miscarried, until in 147 the command was
given to a young officer who had distinguished himself in the
early operations of the war Scipio Aemilianus, the adoptive
grandson of the former conqueror of Carthage. Scipio made the
blockade stringent by walling off the isthmus on which the town
lay and by cutting off .its sources of supplies from oversea.
His main attack was delivered on the harbour side, where he
effected an entrance in the face of a determined and ingenious
resistance. The struggle did not cease until he had carried
house by house the streets that led up to the citadel. Of a
population probably exceeding half a million only 50,000
remained at the final surrender. The survivors were sold into
slavery; the city was razed to the ground and its site con-
demned by solemn imprecations to lie desolate for ever. The
territory of Carthage, which had recently been much narrowed
by Massinissa's encroachments, was converted into a Roman
province under the name of " Africa."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Ancient Authorities. For the First Punic
War Polybius, bk. I, provides a trustworthy and impartial account,
but owing to his conciseness leaves many problems of chronology
and strategy unexplained. For the Second War bks. 2 and 3 of
Polybius present a complete and detailed record down to Cannae;
bks. 715 contain fragmentary notices of which the most continuous
deal with the campaigns of Scipio. Livy (bks. 2330) gives a con-
tinuous and detailed narrative, partly based upon Polybius and
other good authorities, partly upon untrustworthy Roman annalists.
The Third War is described in Appian's Res Libycae, chs. 67 sqq.,
and the fragments of Polybius, bks. 36-39.
The subsidiary authorities are : Diodorus, bks. 20-27, 32 ;, Appian,
Res Libycae, Hispanicae, Hannibalicae; Zonaras's epitome of Dio
Cassius, frs. 43, 54, 57; Plutarch's Lives of Fabius and Marcellus;
Cornelius Nepos's Lives of Hamilcar and Hannibal, and short
references in Justin, Eutropius, Aurelius Victor and Orosius. The
sources and methods of composition of these authors have been
discussed in numerous articles and dissertations, mostly German,
of which the most important are mentioned in Niese's work (quoted
below). These essays have brought out few certain results, but
they tend to show that the narratives, so far as they are not based
on Polybius or earlier authorities, are of little value.
2. Modern Works, a. For general accounts, see the respective
passages in the general histories of Rome, especially Mommsen
(Eng. trans., 1894, vol. ii.), and Ihne (Eng. trans., vol. ii.);also
C. Neumann, Das Zeitalter der punischen, Kriege (Breslau, 1883),
and R. B. Smith, Rome and Carthage (London, 1881).
6. For the First War. O. Meltzer, Geschichte der Karthager,
ii. 252-356 (Berlin, 1879-1886); J. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte,
vol. iii. pt. i. pp. 664-684 (Strassburg, 1893-1904); B. Niese,
Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten, ii. 174-
199 {Gotha, 1893-1903); W. W. Tarn, "The Fleets of the First
Punic War," in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1907), pp. 48-60. For
PUNISHMENT- -PUNJAB
653
the chronology, see F. Reuss, in Philologus (1901), pp. 102-148,
and especially P. Varese, in Studi di storia antiea, vol. iii. (Rome,
c. For the period 241-238. O. Gilbert, Rom und Karthago
513-536 A.u.c. (Leipzig, 1876); Meltzer, op. cit. ii. 357-456.
d. For the Second War. T. Arnold, The Second Punic War
VV. T. Arnold; London, 1886); T. A. Dodge, Great Captains,
Hannibal (Boston and New York, 1889); G. Bossi, in Studi di
storia e diritto, vols. x.-xiii. ; P. Cantalupi, Legioni romane nella
guerra d' Annibale (Studi di storia antiea, 1891, i. 3-48); Th. Zielinski,
Die letzten Jahre des zweiten punischen Krieges (Leipzig, 1880).
e. Special articles.-^On Sicily: Niese, op. cit. ii. 505-561. On
Spain : J. Frantz, Die Kriege der Scipionen in Spanien (Munich,
For further bibliographical references consult B. Niese, Grundriss
der romischen Geschichte, pp. 81-88, 94-108, 138-142 (Munich,
1906). See also the articles on chief personages (especially
HANNIBAL and SCIPIO), and under ROME: Ancient History;
CARTHAGE; SICILY. (M. O. B. C.)
PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena,
punishment, Gr. trourii), the infliction of some kind of pain or
loss upon, a person for a misdeed, i.e. the transgression of a law
or command. Punishment may take forms varying from capital
punishment, flogging and mutilation of the body to imprison-
ment, fines, and even deferred sentences which come into opera-
tion only if an offence is repeated within a specified time. The
progress of civilization has resulted in a vast change alike in
the theory and in the method of punishment. In primitive
society punishment was left to the individuals wronged or their
families, and was vindictive or retributive: in quantity and
quality it would bear no special relation to the character or
gravity of the offence. Gradually there would arise the idea
of proportionate punishment, of which the characteristic type
is the lex talionis, 1 " an eye for an eye." The second stage
was punishment by individuals under the control of the state,
or community; in the third stage, with the growth of law, the
state took over the primitive function and provided itself with
the machinery of " justice " for the maintenance of public
order. Henceforward crimes are against the state, and the
exaction of punishment by the wronged individual is illegal
(cf. LYNCH LAW). Even at this stage the vindictive or retributive
character of punishment remains, but gradually, and specially
after the humanist movement under thinkers like Beccaria
and Jeremy Bentham, new theories begin to emerge. Two
chief trains of thought have combined in the condemnation
of primitive theory and practice. On the one hand the retribu-
tive principle itself has been very largely superseded by the
protective and the reformative; on the other punishments
involving bodily pain have become objectionable to the general
sense of society. Consequently corporal and even capital
punishment occupy a far less prominent position, and tend
everywhere to disappear. It began' to be recognized also that
stereotyped punishments, such as belong to penal codes, fail
to take due account of the particular condition of an offence
and the character and circumstances of the offender. A fixed
fine, for example, operates very unequally on rich and poor.
Modern theories date from the i8th century, when the humani-
tarian movement began to teach the dignity of the individual
and to emphasize his rationality and responsibility. The
result was the reduction of punishment both in quantity and in
severity, the improvement of the prison system, and the first
attempts to study the psychology of crime and to distinguish
between classes of criminals with a view to their improvement (see
CRIME; PRISON; CHILDREN'S COURTS; JUVENILE OFFENDERS).
These latter problems are the province of criminal anthropology
and criminal sociology, sciences so called because they view
crime as the outcome of anthropological and social conditions.
The man who breaks the law is himself a product of social
evolution and cannot be regarded as solely responsible for his
disposition to transgress. Habitual crime is thus to be treated
as a disease. Punishment can, therefore, be justified only in
so far as it (i) protects society by removing temporarily or
1 Talio, in juridical Latin, the abstract noun from lalis, such,
alike, hence " retaliation." See Exod. xxi. 24; Lev. xxiv. 20;
Deut. xix. 21.
permanently one who has injured it, or acting as a deterrent,*
or (2) aims at the moral regeneration of the criminal. Thus the
retributive theory of punishment with its criterion of justice as
an end in itself gives place to a theory which regards punishment
solely as a means to an end, utilitarian or moral, according as
the common advantage or the good of the criminal is sought.
AUTHORITIES. Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles
of Morality and Legislation; Henry Maine, Ancient Law; C. B. de
Beccaria, Crimes ana Punishments ; also works quoted under C RIMINO-
LOGY; CAPITAL PUNISHMENT; Prison ; and articles on e.g. ROMILLY,
SIR SAMUEL and HOWARD, JOHN.
PUNJAB, a province of British India, so named from the
"five rivers" by which it is watered: the Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all tributaries of the Indus. Geographic-
ally the Punjab is the triangular tract of country of which
the Indus and the Sutlej to their confluence form the two sides,
the base being the lower Himalaya hills between those two
rivers; but the British province now includes a large tract outside
those boundaries. Along the northern border Himalayan
ranges divide it from Kashmir and Tibet. On the west it is
separated from the North- West Frontier province by the Indus,
until that river reaches the border of Dera Ghazi Khan district,
which is divided from Baluchistan by the Suliman range. To
the south lie Sind and. Rajputana, while on the east the rivers
Jumna and Tons separate it from the United Provinces.
The Punjab includes two classes of territory, that belonging
to the British Crown, and that in possession of 34 feudatory
chiefs, almost all of whom pay tribute. The total area
of the province is 133,741 sq. m., of which 97,209 sq. m.
are British territory, and the remainder belongs to
native states. The British territory is divided into 29 districts,
grouped under the five divisions of Delhi, Lahore, Jullundur,
Rawalpindi and Multan; while the native states vary in size
from Bahawalpur, with an area of 15,000 sq. m., to the tiny
state of Darkoti, with an area of 8 sq. m. and a total popula-
tion of 518 souls. They may be grouped under three main heads:
the Phulkian states of Patiala, Jind and Nabha and the Sikh
state of Kapurthala, occupying the centre of the eastern plains;
the Mahommedan state of Bahawalpur between the Sutlej and
the Rajputana desert; and the hill states, among the Punjab
Himalayas held by ancient Rajput families, including Chamba,
Mandi, Suket, Sirmur and the Simla states.
Physical Features. The mountain regions of the Punjab
fall under four separate groups. To the north-east of the pro-
vince lies the Himalayan system, with the fringing range of
the Siwaliks at its foot. In the south-eastern' corner the Aravalli
system sends out insignificant outliers, which run across Gurgaon
and Delhi districts and strike the Jumna at Delhi. The lower
portion of the western frontier is constituted by the great
Suliman chain ; while the north-western districts of the province
are traversed by the hill system known as the Salt range. The
mountain system of the Himalayas, so far as it concerns the
Punjab, consists primarily of three great ranges running in a
generally north-westerly direction from the head-waters of the
Sutlej to the Indus: the western Himalayas or Zanskar or Bara
Lacha range, the mid-Himalayas or Pir Panjal range, and the
outer or sub-Himalayas. From these three great ranges spring
numerous minor ranges, as ribs from a backbone, the whole
forming a confused system of mountain chains and valleys,
the breadth of which is some 90 m. at its eastern extremity from
Lahul to the Siwaliks of Hoshiarpur, and some 1 50 m. measured
at its western extremity across Kashmir.
The " five rivers " of the Punjab are each of large volume;
but, on account of the great width of sandy channel in their
passage through the plains, their changing courses,
and shifting shoals, they are of no value for steam mf en *
navigation, though they all support a considerable
boat-traffic. Of recent years most of them have been utilized
for purposes of irrigation, and have turned the sandy desert of
* This idea combined with the retributive is found as early as
Deut. xix. 20, " And those which remain shall hear and fear, and
shall henceforth commit no more any such evil."
PUNJAB
the Punjab into one of the great wheat fields of the British
Empire.
While the general name Punjab is applied to the whole
country of the " five rivers," there are distinct names for each
of the doabs (do, two; ab, water) or tracts between two adjoining
rivers. The country between the Sutlej and the Beas is called
the Jullundur Doab; it includes the districts of Jullundur
and Hoshiarpur. The long strip between the Beas and the
Ravi, containing the greater part of Gurdaspur, Amritsar,
Lahore, Montgomery, and Multan districts, is called the Bari
Doab. Rechna Doab is the tract between the Ravi and the
Chenab, embracing Sialkot and Gujranwala districts, with the
trans-Ravi portions of the districts of the Bari Doab. Chaj
or Jech is the doab between the Chenab and the Jhelum (Gujrat
and Shahpur districts and part of Jhang), and Sind Sagar
is the name of the large doab between the Jhelum and the
Indus, including Rawalpindi, Jhelum and Muzaffargarh dis-
tricts, with parts of Shahpur, Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan.
The higher and dryer parts of the doabs are called bar. They
are waste, but not barren, scantily covered with low shrubs,
and capable, when watered, of being well cultivated. The bar
is the great camel-grazing land. Large areas of Muzaffargarh
and Multan districts are thai, barren tracts of shifting sand.
The middle part of the Bari Doab, in Amritsar district, bears
the distinctive name of Manjha (middle) as the centre and
headquarters of the Sikh nation, containing their two sacred
tanks of Amritsar and Taran Taran. The Malwa Sikhs,
again, are those of the cis-Sutlej country.
South of the Himalayas stretch the great plains, which
constitute by far the larger proportion of the province. With
the exception of the Himalayan and Salt range
Plains tracts the Punjab presents, from the Jumna on the
east to the Sulimans in the west, one vast level,
unbroken save by the wide eroded channels within which the
great rivers ever shift their beds, by the insignificant spurs of
the Aravalli range in the south-eastern corner, and the low
hills of Chiniot and Kirana in Jhang. The whole of these vast
plains is of alluvial formation. Stones are unknown save at
the immediate foot of the hills; micaceous river sand is to be
found everywhere at varying depths; and the only mineral is
nodular accretions of limestone, called kankar, which is used
for the construction of roads. The soil is a singularly uniform
loam, the quality being determined by the greater or smaller
proportion of sand present. In the local hollows and drainage
lines the constant deposit of argillaceous particles has produced
a stiff tenacious soil, especially adapted to rice cultivation,
while in the beds of the great rivers, and on the wind-fretted
water-sheds pure sand is commonly found. Where neither
sand nor the saline efflorescence called reh is present, the soil
is uniformly fertile, if only the rainfall be sufficient or means
of irrigation be available. Throughout the greater part of the
western plains, however, the insufficiency of rainfall is a
permanent condition; and until recently the uniform aspect
of the country was that of wide steppes of intrinsically fertile
soil, useful, however, only as grazing grounds for herds of
camels or cattle.
The Punjab may be divided into four great natural divisions:
the Himalayan tract, the submontane tract, the eastern and
Natural western plains and the Salt range tract, which have
Dili characteristics widely different from each other. The
"** Himalayan tract, which includes the Punjab hill states,
consists of 20,000 sq. m. of sparsely inhabited mountain, with tiny
hamlets perched on the hill-sides or nestling in the valleys. The
people consist chiefly of Rajputs, Kanets, Ghiraths, Brahmans and
Dagis or menials. The eastern and western plains, which are divided
from each other by a line passing through Lahore, are dissimilar
in character. _ The eastern are arable plains of moderate rainfall
and almost without rivers, except along their northern and eastern
edges. They are inhabited by the Hindu races of India, and contain
the great cities of Delhi, Amritsar and Lahore. They formed,
until the recent spread of irrigation, the most fertile, wealthy and
populous portion of the province. The western plains, except
where canal irrigation has been introduced, consist of arid pastures
with scanty rainfall, traversed by the five great rivers, of which the
broad valleys alone are cultivable. They are inhabited largely
by Mahommedan tribes, and it is in this tract that irrigation has
worked such great changes. The Chenab and Jhelum Canal colonies
are already pronounced successes, and it is hoped that in process
of time the Lower Bari Doab and the Sind-Sagar Doab will be
similarly fertilized. The submontane tract, skirting the foot of
the hills, has an area of 10,000 sq. m., consisting of some of the most
fertile and thickly populated portions of the province. Its popula-
tion comes midway between the peoples of the hills and of the plains
in race, religion and language, Mahommedanism being less prevalent,
Hindi more generally spoken, and Rajputs and hill menials more
common than in the plains. The Gujars form a special feature of
this zone. Its only large town is Sialkot. The Salt range tract
includes the districts of Rawalpindi and Jhelum and a small portion
of Shahpur district, and consists of some 9000 sq. m. of broken
and confused country.
Geology. By far the greater part of the Punjab is covered by
alluvial and wind-blown deposits of the plain of the Indus. The
Salt range Jiills form a plateau with a steeply scarped face to the
south, along which there is an axis of abrupt folding, accompanied
by faulting. The rocks found in the Salt range belong to the
Cambrian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic and Jurassic systems,
while Tertiary beds cover the plateau behind. The extensive and
valuable deposits of salt, from which the range takes its name,
occur near the base of the Cambrian beds. Gypsum, kieserite and
other salts are also found. Between the Cambrian and the Carboni-
ferous beds there is an unconformity, which, however, is not very
strongly marked, in spite of the lapse of time which it indicates.
At the bottom of the Carboniferous series there is usually a boulder
bed, the boulders in which have been brought from a distance and
are scratched and striated as if by ice. It is generally admitted
that this deposit, together with contemporaneous boulder beds in
the peninsula of India, in Australia and in 'South Africa, indicate
a southern glacial period in late Carboniferous times. Above the
sandstone series at the base of which the boulder bed lies, come
the Productus and Ceratite limestones. The former is believed to
belong to the Upper Carboniferous and Permian, the latter to the
Trias. Jurassic beds are found only in the western portion of
the range.
Climate. Owing to its sub-tropical position, scanty rainfall
and cloudless skies, and the wide expanse of untilled plains, the
climate of the Punjab presents greater extremes of both heat and
cold than any other part of India. From the middle of April to
the middle of September it is extremely hot, while from the begin-
ning of October to the end of March there is a magnificent cool
season, resembling that of the Riviera, with warm bright days
and cool nights. Frosts are frequent in January. In the first
three months of the hot season, from April till the end of June,
a dry heat is experienced, with a temperature rising to 120 F. in
the shade. At the end of June the monsoon arrives, the rains
break, and though the heat is less intense the air is moist,
and from the middle of August the temperature gradually falls.
This is the most unhealthy period of the year, being exceedingly
malarious. The Punjab enjoys two well-marked seasons of rain-
fall; the monsoon period, lasting from the middle of June till the
end of September, on which the autumn crops and spring sowings
depend ; and the winter rains, which fall early in January, and though
often insignificant in amount materially affect the prosperity of
the spring harvest. Excepting in the Himalayas the rainfall is
greatest in the east of the province, as the Bombay monsoon is
exhausted in its passage over the great plains of Sind and Raj-
putana, while the west winds from Baluchistan pass over an arid
tract and leave such moisture as they may have collected on the
western slopes of the Suliman range; so that the Punjab depends
for its rain very largely on the south-east winds from the Bay of
Bengal. The submontane tract has an annual average of 36 to
32 in., the eastern plains vary from 20 to 14 in., and the western
plains from 10 to 5 m.
Minerals. Besides rock-salt, the mineral products of the Punjab
are not many. Limestone, good for building, is obtained at
Chiniot on the Chenab and at a few other places. There are ex-
tensive alum-beds at Kalabagh on the Indus. A small quantity
of coal is found in the Salt range in disconnected beds, the Dandot
colliery in the Jhelum district being worked by the North-Western
railway. Petroleum is found in small quantities at a number of
places in Rawalpindi, being gathered from the surface of pools
or collected in shallow pits. In almost all parts of the Punjab
there is kankar, rough nodular limestone, commonly found in thick
beds, a few feet below the surface of the ground, used for road
metal and burned for lime.
Agriculture. As in other parts of India, there are commonly
two harvests in the year. The spring crops are wheat, barley,
gram, various vegetables, oil-seeds, tobacco and a little poppy;
the autumn crops are rice, millets, maize, pulses, cotton, indigo
and sugar-cane. Wheat has become the most important export
of the province. In the spring of 1906 an area of _8$ million acres
was harvested, producing 3$ million tons. Tea is cultivated in
Kangra district. Flax has been produced successfully, but the
cultivation has not been extended. Hops have been grown ex-
perimentally, for the Murree brewery, on neighbouring hills; the
PUNJAB
655
cultivation in Kashmir has been more encouraging. Potatoes
are grown extensively on cleared areas on the hills. The Punjab
produces freely many of the Indian fruits. Grapes are grown in
many of the Himalayan valleys where the rain is not excessive;
but they are inferior to those brought from Kabul.
Forests. The forest area of the Punjab consists of 9278 sq. m.,
of which 1916 sq. m. are reserved and 4909 sq. m. protected. The
wasteful destruction of trees is checked in the hill forests rented from
native states by the British government. The principal reserved
forests are the deodar (Cedrus Deodara) and chil (Pinus longifolia)
tracts in the hills, the plantations of shisham (Dalbergia Sissu)
and sal (Shorea robusta) in the plains, and the fuel rakhs or preserves
(Acacia, Prosopis, &c.).
Manufactures. Most of the native manufactures of the Punjab
are those common to other parts of India, such as the ordinary
cotton fabrics, plain woollen blankets, unglazed pottery, ropes and
cord, grass matting, paper, leather-work, brass vessels, simple
agricultural implements and the tools used in trades. Other manu-
factures, not so general, yet not peculiar to the Punjab, are woollen
fabrics, carpets and shawls, silk cloths and embroidery, jewelry
and ornamental metal-work, wood and ivory carving, turned and
lacquered woodwork, glazed pottery, arms and armour and musical
instruments. But some of these classes of manufacture are repre-
sented by work of special kinds or special excellence in particular
parts of the Punjab, notably the silk fabrics of Multan and Bahawal-
pur; the carpets of Lahore and Amritsar; the kashi or glazed tile-
work (an ancient art still practised in a few places); koft-kari,
inlaid metal-work (gold wire on steel), chiefly made at Gujrat and
Sialkot; shawls and other fine woollen fabrics, made by Kashmiri
work-people at Ludhiana and Nurpur, as well as in Kashmir; silk
embroidery for shawls, scarfs and turbans, at Delhi, Lahore and
Multan; embroidery on cloth for elephant-trappings, bed and
table covers, &c., at Lahore and Multan; enamelled ornaments,
in Kangra and Multan; quill embroidery on leather, in Kangra and
Simla; lacquered woodwork, at Pak Pattan. Cotton-weaving
gives employment to about a million persons, but the most flourish-
ing industry is the woollen factories of Amritsar, Gurdaspur and
elsewhere. Injury has been done to some of the native arts of the
Punjab, as of other parts of India, by unwise copying of European
patterns. The Lahore School of Art attempts to correct this and
promote the study and execution of native forms and designs.
The Lahore Museum contains illustrations of the arts and manu-
factures, as well as raw products, of the Punjab; and also a large
collection of the sculptures, mostly Buddhist, and many of Greek
workmanship, found in the north-west of the province.
Trade. The trade of the Punjab is almost wholly dependent
upon agriculture. In a normal year the principal feature of the
trade is the movement of wheat to Karachi, which is the chief
port for the province. But in a bad season, when the rains fail,
this movement is at once checked, the wheat is held up in reserve
and an eastward movement in cheaper grains begins. In 1904
32 i million maunds of wheat were exported, but 1905 was a bad
season and the amount fell to 21 million maunds. The other
chief articles of export are pulse and raw cotton. The chief imports
are European cotton and woollen piece-goods and yarn, Indian
piece-goods, sugar, metals and jute goods. The through trade in
the main staples of grain and piece-goods is in the hands of large
European and native firms. In addition to the foreign trade there
is a considerable provincial trade with the United Provinces, and
a trans-frontier trade with Kashmir, Ladakh, Yarkand and Tibet
on the north, and with Afghanistan on the west.
Irrigation. Irrigation for large areas is from canals and from
reservoirs, and for smaller areas from wells. The canals are of
two kinds: those carrying a permanent stream throughout the
year, and those which fill only on the periodical rising of the rivers,
the latter being known as " inundation canals." There are only
a few parts of the country presenting facilities for forming reservoirs,
by closing the narrow outlets of small valleys and storing the ac-
cumulated rainfall. The old canals made by the Mahommedan
rulers, of which the principal are Feroz's Canal from the Jumna
and the Hasli Canal from the Ravi, have been improved or re-
constructed by the British government. The principal new canals
are the Sirhind, drawn from the Sutlej near Rupar, which irrigates
parts of the native states of 1'atiala, Nabha and Jhind, as well as
British territory; the Bari Doab Canal from the Ravi; the Chenab
Canal from the Chenah, irrigating the prosperous Chenab colony;
and the Jhelum Canal irrigating the Jhelum colony. The total
area irrigated by the canals of the province in 1905-1906 was
6,914,500 acres, the eight major works, the Western Jumna, Bari
Doab, Sirhind, Lower Chenab, Lower Jhelum, Upper Sutlej,
Sidhnai and Indus accounting for all but 751,000 acres. The ravages
of the boll-worm in the cotton crop made 1906 an unfavourable
year; but in spite of that the Lower Chenab Canal paid nearly 21 %
on the capital invested, the Bari Doab 1 1 % and the Western
Jumna nearly 10%.
Railways. The Punjab is well supplied with railways, which
have their central terminus at Delhi. One main line of the North-
Western runs from Umballa through Lahore and Rawalpindi
towards Peshawar; another main line runs from Lahore to Multan,
and thence to the sea at Karachi; while a third runs along the
left bank of the Indus, from Attock southwards. From Delhi to
Umballa there are two lines, one of the North-Western through
Meerut and Saharanpur in the United Provinces, and a more
direct one, which is continued to Kalka, at the foot of the hills,
whence a further continuation to Simla has been opened. The
south-east of the province is served by two branches of the Rajputana
system, which have their termini at Delhi and Ferozepore; and also
by the Southern Punjab, which runs from Delhi to Bahawalpur.
Population. The total population of the Punjab (including
native states) according to the census of 1001 was 24,754,737,
showing an increase of 6-4% in the decade. The Jats, who
number some five millions, form the backbone of the cultivating
community. Large numbers of them have become Sikhs
or Mahommedans in the tracts where those religions predomi-
nate. The Rajputs, with a total of. over a million and three-
quarters, comprise tribes of different religions, races and social
systems. By religion they are mostly Mahommedan, only
about one-fourth being Hindus, while a very few are Sikhs.
By race they include the ancient ruling tribes of the Jumna
valley, the Tomar and Chauhan, which gave Delhi its most
famous Hindu dynasties; the Bhattis of the south and
centre, which have migrated from Bikanir and Jeysulmere into
their present seats; the Sials of Jhang; and the Punwars of
the south-west. In the northern or submontane districts the
Rajputs also represent the old ruling tribes, such as the Chibbs
of Gujrat, the Janjuas of the Salt range and others, while in
Kangra district they preserve a very old type of Hindu aristo-
cracy. The Gujars are an important agricultural and pastoral
tribe. They are most numerous in the eastern half of the
province and in the districts of the extreme north-west, especi-
ally in Gujrat, to which they have given their name. Baluchis
and Pathans are strongly represented in the south-west. The
distinctive religion of the Punjab is Sikhism (q.v.), though Sikhs
form only 8-5% of the total population. Of the rest, Mahom-
medans are more numerous than Hindus.
Language. Of the 24,754,737 people in the Punjab about
18,000,000 speak the provincial language, Punjabi, which varies
in character in different parts of the province. About 4,000,000
speak Hindustani (see HINDOSTANI), this number including those
whose ordinary vernacular is Hindi, but who understand and are
gradually adopting the more comprehensive Hindustani. These
two languages are the most generally used throughout the
province, but not equally in all parts. The other languages in
use are more or less local. The hill dialects, known as Pahari, are
akin to the language spoken in Rajputana; and so also is the
speech of the Gujars. Hindustani is the language of the law
courts and of all ordinary officials and other communications
with chiefs and people.
Administration. The administration is conducted by a
lieutenant-governor, who is appointed by the governor-general,
subject to the approval of the Crown. Two commissioners
take the place of the board of revenue in most other provinces.
A survival of the " non-regulation " system is to be found in the
title of deputy-commissioner for the district officer elsewhere
called collector. The highest judicial authority is styled the
chief court, consisting of five judges, which corresponds to the
high court elsewhere. A legislative council, first created in
1897, was enlarged in 1909 to 26 members, of whom ten are
officials and five are elected. The province is distributed into
five divisions or commissionerships. Most of the commissioners
also exercise political functions over the native states within
their jurisdiction.
Education. The Punjab University, which was founded in
1882, differs from other Indian universities in being more than a
merely examining body. It is responsible for the management
of the Oriental College at Lahore, and takes a part in the improve-
ment of vernacular literature. It also conducts Oriental exami-
nations side by side with those in English, and has been the first
to introduce a series of examinations in science from matricula-
tion to the degree, as well as a final school examination in clerical
and commercial subjects. The higher and special educational
institutions are the Lahore Government College, the Cambridge
6 5 6
PUNJAB
University Mission College at Delhi, the Medical School and the
Mayo School of Art at Lahore; and the Punjab Chiefs' College,
also at Lahore.
History. For the early history of the Punjab from the Aryan
immigration to the fall of the Mogul dynasty see INDIA: History.
It deserves, however, to be noted here that from the time of
Alexander onwards Greek settlers remained in the Punjab, and
that Greek artists gave their services for -Buddhist work and
introduced features of their own into Indian architecture.
Besides the bases and capitals of large Greek columns at Shah-
deri (Taxila) and elsewhere, numerous sculptures of Greek work-
manship have been found at various places. These are single
statues (probably portraits), also figures of Buddha, and repre-
sentations of scenes in his legendary history, and other subjects.
They are obtained from ruins of monasteries and other buildings,
from mounds and the remains of villages or monumental topes.
Of Buddhist buildings now remaining the most conspicuous as
well as distinctive in character are the topes (stupa), in shape
a plain hemisphere, raised on a platform of two or more stages.
One of the largest of these is at Manikiala, 14 m. east of
Rawalpindi. These Buddhist buildings and sculptures are all
probably the work of the two centuries before and the three or
four after the beginning of the Christian era. The character of
the sculptures is now well known from the specimens in the
India Museum, South Kensington, and both originals and casts
of others in the Lahore Museum. Unfortunately they have no
names or inscriptions, which give so much value to the sculptures
of the Bharhut tope.
The several bodies of settlers in the Punjab from the earliest
times have formed groups of families or clans (not identical with
Indian castes, but in many cases joining them), which have
generally preserved distinct characteristics and followed certain
classes of occupation in particular parts of the country. Some
of the existing tribes in the Punjab are believed to be traceable
to the early Aryan settlers, as the Bhatti tribe, whose special
region is Bhattiana south of the Sutlej, and who have also in the
village of Pindi Bhattian a record of their early occupation of a
tract of country on the left bank of the Chenab, west of Lahore.
The Dogras, another Aryan clan, belong to a tract of the lower
hills between the Chenab and the Ravi. Others similarly have
their special ancient localities. To the earlier settlers the
dark race (Dasyu) whom the Aryans found in the country, and
who are commonly spoken of as aborigines belonged, as is
supposed, the old tribe called Takka, whose name is found in
Taksha-sila or Taxila. And from the later foreigners again,
the Indo-Scythians, are probably descended the great Jat tribe
of cultivators, also the Gujars and others.
It was during the events which brought Baber, the first of the
Mogul dynasty, to the throne, that the sect of the Sikhs was
founded by Nanak; and it was under the persecution of Aurangzeb
that they were raised into a nation of warriors by Govind Singh,
the tenth and last of the gurus. For their tenets and history see
SIKHISM.
The break-up of the Mogul Empire in the i8th century allowed
the Sikhs to establish themselves, as a loosely organized commu-
nity of marauders, in the eastern plains of the Punjab, on both
banks of the Sutlej. Here, after long internecine warfare, one of
their chieftains succeeded in enforcing his authority over the
rest. This was Ranjit Singh, the " Lion of the Punjab," born
in 1780, who acquired possession of Lahore as his capital in 1799.
Ranjit was a man of strong will and immense energy, of no educa-
tion but of great acuteness in obtaining the knowledge that
would be of use to him. When he endeavoured to include the
Sikh states south of the Sutlej within his jurisdiction, the heads
of these states chiefs of Sirhind and Malwa, as they were called
sought and obtained in 1808 the protection of the British,
whose territories had now extended to their neighbourhood.
The British were at this time desirous of alliance with Lahore
as well as with Kabul, for protection against supposed French
designs on India. A British envoy, Charles Metcalfe, was
received by Ranjit at Kasur in 1809 and the alliance was formed.
Ranjit steadily strengthened himself and extended his dominions.
In 1809 he got possession of Kangra, which the Nepalese were
besieging. In 1813 he acquired the fort of Attock on the other
side of the Punjab; and in the same year he obtained from Shah
Shuja, now a refugee in Lahore, what he coveted as much as
territory, the celebrated Koh-i-nor diamond, which had been
carried off by Nadir Shah from Delhi. In 1818, after some
failures in previous years, he captured Multan. Kashmir,
which had successfully opposed him several times, was annexed
the following year, and likewise the southern part of the country
between the Indus and the hills. The Peshawar valley he
succeeded in adding four years later, but he found it best to leave
an Afghan governor in charge of that troublesome district.
These trans-Indus and other outlying tracts were left very much
to themselves, and only received a military visit when revenue
was wanted. Peshawar was never really ruled till Avitabile
was sent there in later years. When he was gradually raising
his large and powerful army Ranjit received into his service
certain French and other officers, who drilled his troops and
greatly improved his artillery. Whilst he relied on these
foreigners for military and sometimes also for administrative
services, he drew around him a body of native ministers of great
ability, of whom the brothers Gulab Singh and Dhian Singh of
Jammu were the most influential.
Ranjit always maintained friendly relations with the British
government, and just before his death gave tacit approval to
the scheme for placing Shah Shuja on the throne of Kabul.
His death in 1839 was followed by six years of internal anarchy,
princes and ministers being murdered in quick succession, while
all real power passed to the army of 90,000 trained troops. At
last this army, unpaid and unmanageable, demanded to be led
into British territory, and had their way. They crossed the
Sutlej in December 1845. The battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshah
and Aliwal were followed by the rout of the Sikh army at
Sobraon on the loth of February 1846, when they were driven
back into the Sutlej with heavy loss, and the British army
advanced to Lahore. Of the Sikh guns 256 fell into the hands
of the British in these actions on the Sutlej. A treaty was made
at Lahore on the gth of March with the chiefs and ministry who
were to hold the government on behalf of the young maharaja,
Duleep Singh. By this treaty the Jullundur Doab and the hill
district of Kangra were ceded to the British, also the possessions
of the maharaja on the left bank of the Sutlej. In addition the
British demanded a money payment of 1,500,000. The services
of Gulab Singh, raja of Jammu, to the Lahore state, in procuring
the restoration of friendly relations with the British, were
specially recognized. His independent sovereignty in such
lands as might be made over to him was granted. The Sikh
government, unable to pay the whole of the money demand,
further ceded, as equivalent for 1,000,000, the hill country
between the Beas and the Indus, including Kashmir and Hazara.
Gulab Singh was prepared to give the amount in place of which
Kashmir was to have become British, and by a separate treaty
with him, on the i6th of March 1846, this was arranged. At the
urgent request of the durbar a British force was left at Lahore
for the protection of the maharaja and the preservation of peace.
To restore order and introduce a settled administration a British
resident was appointed, who was to guide and control the council
of regency, and assistants to the resident were stationed in
different parts of the country.
Peace was not long preserved. The governor of Multan,
Diwan Mulraj, 'desired to resign. Two British officers sent by
the resident to take over charge of the fort were murdered, on
the i gth of April 1848, and their escort went over to the diwan.
Another of the assistants to the resident, Lieutenant Herbert
Edwardes, then in the Derajat, west of the Indus, on hearing of
their fate, collected a force with which to attack the Multan army
while the insurrection was yet local. This he did with signal
success. But Multan could not fall before such means as he
possessed. The movement spread, the operations widened,
and the Sikh and British forces were in the field again. Multan
was taken. The severe battle of Chillianwalla on the i3th of
January 1849 left the Sikhs as persistent as after the two terrible
PUNKAH PURBECKIAN
days oi Ferozeshah in the previous campaign. And it needed
the crushing defeat of Gujrat.on the 2ist of February 1849, to
bring the war to a conclusion, and this time to give the Punjab
ugland. It was annexed on the 2nd of April 1849.
For the government of the new province, including the
Jullundur Doab, previously annexed, and the cis-Sutlej states,
a board of administration was appointed consisting of three
members. In place of this board a chief commissioner was
appointed in 1853, aided by a judicial commissioner and a
financial commissioner. British troops, European and native,
of the regular army were stationed at the chief cities and other
places east of the Indus and at Peshawar. For the rest of the
trans-Indus territory a special body of native troops, called the
Punjab frontier force, was raised and placed under the orders of
the chief commissioner. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Punjab,
under Sir John Lawrence as chief commissioner, was able to send
important aid to the force engaged in the siege of Delhi, while
suppressing the disturbances which arose, and meeting the
dangers which threatened, within the Punjab itself. In 1858
the Delhi territory, as it was called, west of the Jumna, was
transferred from the North- Western Provinces to the Punjab.
The enlarged province was raised in rank, and on the ist of
January 1859 the chief commissioner became lieutenant-
governor. In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were
severed from the Punjab and made into a separate province
called the North- West Frontier province.
See J. D. Cunningham, History of the Sikhs (1849); S. S. Thor-
burn, The Punjab in Peace and War (1904); Sir Lepel Griffin, Ranjit
Singh ("Rulers of India" series, 1892); P. Gough and A. Innes,
The Sikhs and our Sikh Wars (1897); Professor Rait, Life of Lord
Gough (1903); Mahomet Latif, History of the Punjab (Calcutta,
1891); and Punjab Gazetteer (2 vols., Calcutta, 1908).
PUNKAH (Hindostani pankhd), strictly a fan. In its original
sense the punkah is a portable fan, made from the leaf of the
palmyra; but the word has come to be used in a special sense
by Anglo-Indians for a large swinging fan, fixed to the ceiling,
and pulled by a coolie during the hot weather. The date of
this invention is not known, but it was familiar to the Arabs as
early as the 8th century, though it does not seem to have come
into common use in India before the end of the i8th century.
Of recent years it has largely been supplanted by the electric
fan in barracks and other large buildings.
PUNSHON, WILLIAM MORLEY (1824-1881), English Non-
conformist divine, was born at Doncaster, Yorkshire, on the
agth of May 1824. He was educated in his native town, and,
after spending a few years in business, at the Wesleyan College,
Richmond. In 1845 he received his first appointment, at
Marden, Kent, and soon became famous as a preacher. After
serving the usual period of probation he was ordained at Man-
chester in 1849 an d f r the next nineteen years travelled in
several circuits, including some of the London ones (1858-1864).
In 1868 he went to Chicago as the representative of the Wesleyan
Methodist conference, and settling in Canada did much to
advance the cause of his denomination. His preaching and
lecturing drew great crowds both in the Dominion and in the
United States, and he was five times president of the Canadian
conference. He returned to England in 1873, was elected
president of conference 1874, and in 1873 one of the missionary
secretaries. He published several volumes of sermons, and a
book of verse entitled Sabbath Chimes (1867, new edition 1880).
PUNT (from Lat. ponto, pontoon; connected with pans,
bridge), a flat-bottomed boat, used for shallow waters, and
propelled by a pole, by paddles, or occasionally by sails.
Formerly the word was applied to many such flat boats used for
ferries, barges, lighters, &c., but it is now generally confined to a
light flat boat very long in proportion to its width, with square
ends, both at stem and bow, slightly narrowing from the centre,
and propelled by pushing against the bottom of the river or
other water by a long pole. Such boats are much used for
sport or pleasure on rivers with shallow and hard gravelly beds;
a small punt with a mounted duck gun and propelled by paddles
or short oars is used for wild-fowling. A professional punting
championship of England was instituted in 1876, and an amateur
championship in 1886. Etymologically considered, " pun "
certainly was adapted from ponto, a word used by Caesar (Bell,
civ. p. iii. 22) of a light vessel for transport in Gaul. Later (as
by Gallius and Ausonius) it was also applied to a floating-raft
used as a bridge, a pontoon, and so connected with pans, bridge.
There are two other words which must be distinguished from the
above. One means, in Rugby football, to catch the ball in the
hands, drop ami kick it before it reaches the ground, as distinguished
from a " drop-kick," where the kick is given half- volley, as it reaches
the ground. This word is probably cognate with " bunt," a dialect
word meaning to push, and both represent nasalized forms of the
onomatopoeic " put " or " but." The second, in the substantive
" punter," used in the general sense of a gambler or better, originally
referred to one who at card games such as basset, baccarat, &c.,
stakes against the bank. Both " punt " and " punter " are to be
referred to Fr. ponter, and ponte, which is usually taken as an adapta-
tion of Span, punto, a point.
PUNTARENAS, or PUNTA ARENAS, a seaport and capital of
the district (comarca) of Puntarenas, Costa Rica; on the Gulf
of Nicoya, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and at the western
terminus of the interoceanic railway from Limon. Pop. (1004),
3569. Puntarenas is the principal harbour of Costa Rica on the
Pacific, and a port of call for the United States liners which ply
between San Francisco and Panama. It has an iron pier and
ample warehouse accommodation for its large and growing
export trade in coffee and bananas. The district of Puntarenas
comprises the entire littoral from Burica Point to the Rio de las
Lajas, an affluent of the Gulf of Nicoya.
PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy,
allied to puer, from root pu- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat.
for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the
larval and imaginal stages in certain insects), properly a word
taken from Roman law for one below the age of puberty (im-
pubes), and not under patria potestas, who was under the protec-
tion of a tutor, a ward or minor (see INFANT; and ROMAN LAW).
The term was thus taken by the Civil Law and Scots Law for a
person of either sex under the age of puberty in the care of a
guardian. Apart from these technical meanings the word is
generally used of one who is undergoing instruction or education
by a teacher. In education the term " pupil- teacher " is
applied to one who, while still receiving education, is engaged
in teaching in elementary schools. The system was introduced
into England from Holland about 1840. At first the education
which the pupil-teachers received was given at the schools to
which they were attached. During the last quarter of the igth
century was developed a system of " pupil-teacher centres "
where training and education was given. In 1907 was intro-
duced " bursaries," as an alternative; these enable those
intending to become teachers to continue their education at
training colleges or selected schools as " student teachers." (See
EDUCATION.)
A special use of the Lat. feminine diminutive pupilla has
been adopted in English and other languages for the central
orifice in the iris of the eye, the pupil. The origin of the sense
may be found in the parallel use in early English of " baby,"
referring to small images seen reflected in that part of the eye
(see EYE and VISION).
PURBECKIAN, in geology, the highest and youngest member
of the Jurassic system of rocks. The name is derived from the
district known as the Isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire where the
strata are splendidly exposed in the cliffs west of Swanage.
The rocks include clays, shales and mark with marly, tufaceous
and shelly limestones and occasional oolitic and sandy strata.
Nodules of chert are present in some of the limestones. The
Purbeck beds follow the line of the Jurassic outcrop from
Dorsetshire, through the Vale of Wardour, Swindon, Garsington,
Brill and Aylesbury; they have been proved by borings to lie
beneath younger rocks in Sussex; in Lincolnshire they are
represented in part by the Spilsby Sands, and in Yorkshire by
portions of the Speeton Clay. The thickness of the series in
Wiltshire is 80 to 90 ft., but in Dorsetshire it reaches nearly
400 ft. In most places the Purbeckian rests conformably upon
658
PURCELL
the Portland beds and it is conformably overlaid by the Wealden
formations; but there are in some districts distinct indications
that the Portland rocks were uplifted and worn to some extent
prior to the deposition of the Purbeck beds. The Purbeckian
in England is divisible into three subdivisions, viz. Upper,
Middle and Lower. The Upper Purbeck comprises 50-60 ft. of
fresh-water clays and shales with limestones, the " Purbeck
marble " and Unio-bed, in the lower part. The Middle
division (50-150 ft.), mainly thin limestones with shaly partings,
contains the principal building stones of the Swanage district;
near the base of this subdivision there is a 5-in. bed from which
an interesting suite of mammalian remains has been obtained;
in this portion of the Purbeck series there are some marine bands.
The Lower Purbeck (95-160 ft.) consists of fresh-water and
terrestrial deposits, marls, and limestones with several fossil
soils known as " dirt beds." This division is very extensively
exposed on the Isle of Portland, where many of the individual
beds are known by distinctive names. The chief building stones
of Upway belong to this part of the Purbeckian.
No zonal fossil has been recognized for the British Purbeckian
strata, but the horizon is approximately equivalent to that of Peri-
sphinctes transitorius of the European continent. The Purbeckian
equivalents of Spilsby and Speeton are in the zone of Belemnites
lateralis. Other marine fossils are Hemicidaris purbeckensis and
Ostrea distorta, the latter being abundant in the Cinder bed " of
the Middle Purbeck. The fresh-water mollusca include Viviparus
(Paludina), Planorbis, Melanopsis, Unio, Cyrena. A large number
of insect genera has been found in the Middle and Lower Purbeck
beds. Dinosaurs (Iguanodon, Echinodon), crocodiles (Goniopholis,
Petrosuchus), Cimoliosaurus, the plesiosaurs and the chelonians
(Chelone, Pleurosternum), are representative reptiles. The mammals,
mostly determined from lower jaws, found in the beds mentioned
above include Plagiaulax, Amblotherium, Stylodon, Triconodon,
Spalacotherium and several others. The isopod crustacean Archeon-
iscus Brodei is very common in the Purbeck of the Vale of Wardour.
The silicified stumps and trunks of cycads and coniferous trees,
often surrounded by great masses of calcareous concretions (Burrs),
are very noticeable in the dirt beds of Portland and near Lulworth.
Chara is found in the fresh-water cherts of the Middle Purbeck.
Many geologists have ranged the Purbeck beds with the overlying
Wealden formation on account of the similarity of their fresh-water
faunas; but the marine fossils, including the fishes, ally the Purbeck
more closely with the Upper Jurassic rocks of other parts, and it may
be regarded as the equivalent of the Upper Volgian of Russia.
The Purbeckian is present in the neighbourhood of Boulogne; in
Charente it is represented by thin limestones with Cyrena and by
gypsiferous marls; in north-west Germany three subdivisions are
recognized, in descending order Purbeck Kalk, Serpulit and Miinder
Mergel.
The building stones of the Purbeck beds have already been men-
tioned ; the Purbeck or Paludina marble, a grey or greenish limestone
full of shells, was formerly extensively employed in cathedrals and
churches. Stone tiles or " slatts " were once used locally for roofing
from the Lower Purbeck of Portland, Swanage and Swindon.
Gypsum was formerly worked from the Lower Purbeck at Swanage.
See JURASSIC; also The Jurassic Rocks of Great Britain (1895),
vol. v. and " The Geology of the Isle of Purbeck and Weymouth,"
Memoirs of the Geol. Survey (1898).
PURCELL, HENRY (1658-1695), English musical composer,
was born in 1658 in St Ann's Lane, Old Pye Street, Westminster.
His father, Henry Purcell (or Pursell), was a gentleman of the
chapel-royal, and in that capacity sang at the coronation of
Charles II.; he had three sons, Edward, Henry and Daniel
the last of whom (d. 1717) was also a prolific composer. After
his father's death in 1664 young Henry Purcell was placed under
the guardianship of his uncle, Thomas Purcell (d. 1682), a man
of extraordinary probity and kindness. Through the interest
of this affectionate guardian, who was himself a gentleman of
His Majesty's chapel, Henry was admitted to the chapel-royal
as a chorister, and studied first under Captain Henry Cooke
(d. 1672), " master of the children," and afterwards under
Pelham Humfrey (1647-1674), his successor, a pupil of Lully.
He is said to have composed well at nine years old; but the
earliest work that can be certainly identified as his is an ode for
the king's birthday, written in 1670. (The dates for his compo-
sitions are often uncertain, though recent research has done much
to fix them more authoritatively.) After Humfrey's death he
continued his studies under Dr John Blow. In 1676 he was
appointed copyist at Westminster Abbey not organist, as has
sometimes been erroneously stated and in the same year he
composed the music to Dryden's Aurenge-Zebe, and Shadwell's
Epsom Wells and The Libertine. 1 These were followed in 1677
by the music to Mrs Behn's tragedy, Abdelazor, and in 1678 by
an overture and masque for Shadwell's new version of Shake-
speare's Timon of Athens. The excellence of these compositions
is proved by the fact that they contain songs and choruses which
never fail to please, even at the present day. The masque in
Timon of Athens is a masterpiece, and the chorus " In these
delightful pleasant groves" in The Libertine is constantly sung
with applause by English choral societies. In 1679 he wrote
some songs for Playford's Choice Ayres, Songs and Dialogues,
and also an anthem, the name of which is not known, for the
chapel-royal. From a letter written by Thomas Purcell, and
still extant, we learn that this anthem was composed for the
exceptionally fine voice of the Rev. John Gostling, then at
Canterbury, but afterwards a gentleman of His Majesty's chapel.
Purcell wrote several anthems at different times for this extra-
ordinary voice, a basso profundo, the compass of which is known
to have comprised at least two full octaves, from D below the
stave to D above it. The dates of very few of these sacred
compositions are known; but one, " They that go down to the
sea in ships," though certainly not written until some time after
this period, will be best mentioned here. In thankfulness for
a providential escape of the king from shipwreck Gostling, who
had been of the royal party, put together some verses from the
Psalms in the form of an anthem, and requested Purcell to set
them to music. The work is a very fine one but very difficult,
and contains a passage which traverses the full extent of
Gostling's voice, beginning on the upper D and descending two
octaves to the lower.
In 1680 Dr Blow, who had been appointed organist of West-
minster Abbey in 1669, resigned his office in favour of his pupil;
and Purcell, at the age of twenty-two, was placed in one of the
most honourable positions an English artist could occupy. He
now devoted himself almost entirely to the composition of sacred
music, and for six years entirely severed his connexion with the
theatre. But during the early part of the year, and in all
probability before entering upon the duties of his new office, he
had produced two important works for the stage, the music for
Lee's Theodosius and D'Urfey's Virtuous Wife. The composition
of his opera Dido and Aeneas, which forms a very important
landmark in the history of English dramatic music (see OPERA),
has been attributed to this period, though its earliest production
has been shown by Mr W. Barclay Squire to have been between
1688 and 1690. It was written to a libretto furnished by Nahum
Tate, at the request of Josiah Priest, a professor of dancing, who
also kept a boarding-school for young gentlewomen, first in
Leicester Fields and afterwards at Chelsea. It is a musical drama
in the strictest sense of the term, a genuine opera, in which the
action is entirely carried on in recitative, without a word of
spoken dialogue from beginning to end; and the music is of the
most genial character a veritable inspiration, overflowing with
spontaneous melody, and in every respect immensely in advance
of its age. It never found its way to the theatre, though it
appears to have been very popular among private circles. It is
believed to have been extensively copied, but one song only was
printed by Purcell's widow in Orpheus Britannicus, and the
complete work remained in manuscript until 1840, when it was
printed by the Musical Antiquarian Society, under the editorship
of Sir George Macfarren.
In 1682 Purcell was appointed organist of the chapel-royal,
vice Edmund Lowe deceased, an office which he was able to hold
conjointly with his appointment at Westminster Abbey. He
had recently married, his eldest son being born in this year.
His first printed composition, Twelve Sonatas, was published in
1683. For some years after this his pen was busily employed
in the production of sacred music, odes addressed to the king
and royal family, and other similar works. In 1685 he wrote two
1 The Libertine was suggested by Tirso de Molina's tale, El Bur-
lador de Sevilla, afterwards dramatically treated by Moltere and
chosen by Da Ponte as the foundation of Mozart's Don Giovanni.
PURCHAS PURGATORY
659
of his finest anthems, " I was glad " and " My heart is inditing,"
for the coronation of James II. In 1687 he resumed his con-
nexion with the theatre by furnishing the music for Dryden's
tragedy, Tyrannic Love. In this year also Purcell composed a
march and quick-step, which became so popular that Lord
Wharton adapted the latter to the fatal verses of Lillibulero;
and in or before January 1688 he composed his anthem " Blessed
arc they that fear the Lord," by express command of the king.
A few months later he wrote the music for D'Urfey's play, The
Fool's Preferment. In 1690 he wrote the songs for Dryden's
version of Shakespeare's Tempest, including " Full fathom five "
and " Come unto these Yellow Sands," and the music for
Betterton's adaptation of Fletcher and Massinger's Prophetess
(afterwards called Dioclesian) and Dryden's Amphitryon; and
in 1691 he produced his dramatic masterpiece, King Arthur,
also written by Dryden, and first published by the Musical
Antiquarian Society in 1843. In 1692 he composed songs and
music for The Fairy Queen (an adaptation of Shakespeare's
Midsummer Night's Dream), the score of which (discovered
in 1901) was edited in 1903 for the Purcell Society by
J. S. Shedlock.
But Purcell's greatest work is undoubtedly his Te Deum and
Jubilate, written for St Cecilia's Day, 1694, the first English
Te Deum ever composed with orchestral accompaniments. In
this he pressed forward so far in advance of the age that the work
was annually performed at St Paul's Cathedral till 1712, after
which it was performed alternately with Handel's Utrecht Te
Deum and Jubliate until 1743, when it finally gave place to
Handel's Dettingen Te Deum. Purcell did not long survive the
production of this great work. He composed an anthem for
Queen Mary's funeral, and two elegies. He died at his house in
Dean's Yard, Westminster, on the 2ist of November 1695, and
was buried under the organ in Westminster Abbey. He left a
widow and three children, three having predeceased him. His
widow died in 1706. She published a number of his works,
including the now famous collection called Orpheus Britannicus
(two books, 1698, 1702).
Besides the operas already mentioned, Purcell wrote Don Quixote,
Bonduca, The Indian Queen and others, a vast quantity of sacred
music, and numerous odes, cantatas and other miscellaneous pieces.
(See the list in Grove's Dictionary of Music.)
A Purcell Club was founded in London in 1836 for promoting
the performance of his music, but was dissolved in 1863. In 1876
a Purcell Society was founded, which has done excellent work in
publishing new editions of his works.
PURCHAS, SAMUEL (i S 7s?-i626), English compiler of works
on travel and discovery, was born at Thaxted, Essex, and
graduated at St John's College, Cambridge, in 1600; later he
became B.D., with which degree he was admitted at Oxford in
1615. In 1604 he was presented by James I. to the vicarage of
Eastwood, Essex, and in 1614 became chaplain to Archbishop
Abbot and rector of St Martin's, Ludgate, London. He had
previously spent much time in London on his geographical work.
In 1613 he published Purchas, his Pilgrimage; or, Relations of
the World and the Religions observed in all Ages (4th ed. much
enlarged, 1626); in 1619 Purchas, his Pilgrim. Microcosmus,
or the histories of Man. Relating the wonders of his Generation,
vanities in his Degeneration, Necessity of his Regeneration; and in
1625 Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas his Pilgrimes, contayning
a History of the World in Sea Voyages and Lande Travells, by
Englishmen and others (4 vols.). This continuation of Hakluyt's
Principal Navigations was partly based onMSS. left by Hakluyt.
The fourth edition of the Pilgrimage is usually catalogued as
vol. v. of the Pilgrimes, but the two works are essentially
distinct. Purchas died in September or October 1626, according
to some in a debtors' prison. None of his works was reprinted
till the Glasgow reissue of the Pilgrimes in 1905-1907. As an
editor and compiler Purchas was often injudicious, careless and
even unfaithful; but his collections contain much of value, and
are frequently the only sources of information upon important
questions affecting the history of exploration.
PURCHASE, in its common sense, that which is acquired
by the payment of money or its equivalent. The original
meaning of the word (O. Fr. pourchacier, pourchasser, &c., popular,
Lat. pro-captiare) was to pursue eagerly, hence to acquire.
Thus " purchase " was early used by the lawyers (e.g. Britton,
in 1 292) for the acquirement of property by other means than
inheritance or mere act of law, including acquirement by
escheat, prescription, occupancy, alienation and forfeiture;
more generally, purchase in law means acquisition of land by
bargain or sale, according to the law of " vendor and purchaser "
(see CONVEYANCING). A later development of meaning is found
in the use of the word for a mechanical contrivance by which
power can be excited or applied, a hold or fulcrum. This first
appears (i6th century) in the nautical use of the verb, to haul
up a rope or cable by some mechanical device, the root idea being
apparently to " gain " advantage over the rope bit by bit.
PURDAH (Pers. parda), the curtain which screens women
from the sight of men in Eastern countries; a purdah-nashin is
a woman who sits behind the curtain. The term has passed
into common Anglo-Indian usage, and to " lift the purdah "
means to reveal a secret.
PURGATORY (Late Lat. purgatorium, from purgare, to purge),
according to Roman Catholic faith, a state of suffering after
death in which the souls of those who die in venial sin, and of
those who still owe some debt of temporal punishment for
mortal sin, are rendered fit to enter heaven. It is believed that
such souls continue to be members of the Church of Christ; that
they are helped by the suffrages of the living that is, by prayers,
alms and other good works, and more especially by the sacrifice
of the Mass; and that, although delayed until " the last
farthing is paid," their salvation is assured. Catholics support
this doctrine chiefly by reference to the Jewish belief in the
efficacy of prayer for the dead (2 Mace. xii. 42 seq.), the tradition
of the early Christians, and the authority of the Church.
Irenaeus regards as heretical the opinion that the souls of the
departed pass immediately into glory; Tertullian, Cyprian, the Acts
of St Perpetua, Clement of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Basil,
Gregory of Nyassa, Ambrose, Chrysostom and Jerome, all speak of
prayer for the dead and seem to imply belief in a purgatory, but
their view seems to have been affected by the pre-Christian doctrine
of Hades or Sheol. Some of the Greeks, notably Origen, teach that
even the perfect must go through fire in the next world. Augustine
writes (De VIII. Dulntii quaestionibus) that " it is not incredible "
that imperfect souls will be " saved by some purgatorial fire," to
which they will be subjected for varying lengths of time according
to their needs ; but in other passages he expresses conflicting opin-
ions (De civitate, xx. 25, xxi. 13, 26; Enchiridion, 69). Gregory the
Great was the first to formulate the doctrine in express terms, " de
quibusdam leyibus culpis esse antejudicium purgatorius ignis credendus
est " (Dial. iv. 39). Thenceforth it became part of the theology of
the Western Church, and was definitely affirmed at the councils of
Lyons (1274), Florence (1439) and Trent. Concerning the word
purgatory, Innocent IV. writes: " Forasmuch as (the Greeks) say
that this place of purification is not indicated by their doctors by
an appropriate and accurate word, we will, in accordance with the
tradition and authority of the holy fathers, that henceforth it be
called purgatorium, for in this temporary fire are cleansed not deadly
capital sins, which must be remitted by penance, but those lesser
venial sins which, if not removed in life, afflict men after death."
Many points about purgatory, on which the Church has no
definition, have been subjects of much speculation among
Catholics. Purgatory, for example, is usually thought of as
having some position in space, and as being distinct from heaven
and hell; but any theory as to its exact latitude and longitude,
such as underlies Dante's description, must be regarded as
imaginative. Most theologians since Thomas Aquinas and
Bonaventura have taught that the souls in purgatory are
tormented by material fire, but the Greeks have never accepted
this opinion. It must be inferred from the whole practice of
indulgences as at present authorized that the pains of purgatory
are measurable by years and days; but here also everything is
indefinite. The Council of Trent, while it commands all bishops
to teach " the sound doctrine of purgatory handed down by the
venerable fathers and sacred councils," bids them exclude from
popular addresses all the " more difficult and subtle questions
relating to the subject which do not tend to edification. "
The Eastern Church affirms belief in an intermediate state
after death, but the belief is otherwise as vague as the expressions
66o
PURI PURIFICATION
of the pre-Nicene fathers on the subject. An authoritative
statement of the present Eastern doctrine is to be found in the
Longer Catechism of the Orthodox Church (Q. 376) :
" Such souls as have departed with faith but without having had
time to bring forth fruits meet for repentance may be aided towards
the attainment of a blessed resurrection by prayers offered in their
behalf, especially such as are offered in union with the oblation of
the bloodless sacrifice of the Body and Blood of Christ, and by works
of mercy done in faith for their memory."
The efficacy of prayers for the dead, and indirectly the
doctrine of purgatory, were denied by early Gnostic sects, by
Aerius in the 4th century, and by the Waldenses, Cathari,
Albigenses and Lollards in the middle ages. Protestants, with
the exception of a small minority in the Anglican communion,
unanimously reject the doctrine of purgatory, and affirm that
" the souls of believers are at their death made perfect in holiness
and do immediately pass into glory." Rejection of an inter-
mediate state after death follows the Protestant idea of justifica-
tion by faith as logically as the doctrine of purgatory results
from the Catholic idea of justification by works.
An analogy to purgatory can be traced in most religions.
Thus the fundamental ideas of a middle state after death and of
a purification preparatory to perfect blessedness are met with
in Zoroaster, who takes souls through twelve stages before they
are sufficiently purified to enter heaven; and the Stoics conceived
of a middle place of enlightenment which they called e/inoipaxris.
The principal authoritative statements of the Catholic Church on
the doctrine of purgatory were made at the Council of Florence
(Decret. unionis), and at that of Trent (Sess. vi. can. 30; Sess. xxii.,
c. 2, can. 3; Sess. xxv.). See H. J. D. Denziger's Enchiridion;
J. Bautz, Das Fegfeuer (Mainz, 1883); and L. Redner, Das Fegfeuer
(Regensburg, 1856). A very elaborate treatise from the Catholic
standpoint is that of Cardinal Bellarmine, De purgatorio. The
subject is discussed, moreover, in all major works on dogmatic
theology. There is a representative Catholic statement by Hense
in the Kirchenlexikon under the title " Fegfeuer," 2nd ed., vol. 4, col.
1284-1296; and a corresponding Protestant presentation by Rud.
Hoffmann in Hauck's Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed. vol. v. pp. 788-
792. (C. H. HA.)
PURI, or JAGANNATH, a town and district of British India, in
the Orissa division of Bengal. The town is on the sea-coast,
and has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 49,334, including an
exceptional number of pilgrims. As containing the world-
famous shrine of Jagannath (see JUGGERNAUT), Puri is perhaps
the most frequented of all Hindu places of pilgrimage. Sanita-
tion is effected by the Puri Lodging- House Act, which provides
for the appointment of a special health officer, and for the
licensing of lodging-houses both in the town and along the
pilgrims' route.
The DISTRICT OF PURI has an area of 2499 sq. m. The popula-
tion in 1901 was 1,017,284, showing an increase of 7-6% in the
decade. For the most part the country is flat, the only mountains
being a low range which, rising in the west, runs south-east in an
irregular line towards the Chilka lake and forms a water-parting
between the district and the valley of the Mahanadi. The middle
and eastern divisions of the district, forming the south-western part
of the Mahanadi delta, consist entirely of alluvial plains, watered by
a network of channels through which the most southerly branch of
that river, the Koyakhai, finds its way into the sea. The other
rivers are the Bhargavi, the Daya and the Nun, all of which flow into
the Chilka lake and are navigable by large boats during the rainy
season, when the waters come down in tremendous floods, bursting
the banks and carrying everything before them. The Chilka lake
is one of the largest in India; its length is 44 m., and its breadth in
some parts 20 m. It is separated from the sea only by a narrow
strip of sand. The lake is saline and everywhere very shallow, its
mean depth ranging from 3 to 5 ft. Puri district is rich in historical
remains, from the primitive rock-hewn caves of Buddhism the
earliest relics of Indian architecture to the medieval sun temple
at Kanarak and the shrine of Jagannath. The annual rainfall
averages 58 in.
Puri first came under British administration in 1803. The
only political events in its history since that date have been the
rebellion of the maharaja of Khurda in 1804 and the rising of the
paiks or peasant militia in 1817-18. In the Orissa famine of
1866 more than one-third of the population of Puri is said to
have perished. The district suffered from drought in 1897.
It is served by the East Coast railway, which was opened
throughout from Calcutta to Madras in 1891, with a branch
to Puri town.
See Puri District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908).
PURIFICATION, in the study of comparative religion, may
be defined as the expulsion or elimination by ritual actions and
ceremonies from an individual or a community, a place or a
dwelling, of the contagion of a taboo (q.v.) or ritual pollution,
which is often conceived of as due to the presence of or haunting
by an unclean spirit, and having for its effect disease, pain and
death. In the higher religions the idea of purification has
slowly developed into that of ethical liberation from sin and
guilt. This development involves a distinction between the
outward act and the inner act or motive, which we do not find
even in the relatively advanced codes of the ancient Jews or of
the Athenians of the 5th century B.C., for in both of these the
taboo or guilt of homicide was the same whether accidentally
or wilfully committed. It is part of this development that
contrition, remorse and repentance come to be recognized,
together with merely ritual acts, such as baptism and sacra-
mental meals, as a condition of regaining the lost purity or status.
The ethical ideal of atonement and purity of heart is at last
attained when, as in the Society of Friends, all ritual acts are
abandoned as indifferent to moral progress. The dross of the
primitive taboo still encumbers the conscience in churches which
insist on outward ritual performances as an element in holiness
or moral perfection and purity. The tendency of civilization is
more and more to antiquate them as obstacles rather than aids
to the formation of character.
In most primitive societies the chief sources of ritual pollution
are birth, death, bloodshed, blood, especially menstruous blood.
Numberless other things are or have been taboo among different
peoples, such as trees, colours, foods and drinks, persons, places,
seasons. Persons and things brought even involuntarily into con-
tact or association with these are tabooed, and only recover their
normal condition by some rite of purification or catharsis. Such
rites operate by the transference elsewhere of the stain or impurity
contracted. Very generally the impurity is due to the haunting
by an unclean spirit or ghost, who must be driven off by exorcists
invoking the name of a more powerful and clean spirit, which usually
enters the thing or person possessed in place of the unclean. On
this side rites of purification may become rites of consecration. In
lower civilizations disease and madness are held to be caused by evil
spirits which are similarly expelled; and on this side purificatory
rites develop into the medical art. It must be borne in mind that a
drug was originally not a substance succeeding by dint of its chemical
properties and physical reactions on pur bodies, but a talisman or
charm taken internally and succeeding by reason of its magical
properties.
Among the methods of purification used widely among different
races and in various religions, the following may be enumerated,
though the list might be indefinitely extended.
1. Piacular sacrifices, often recurring annually, intended to renew
the life of the god in the worshippers. " Without shedding of blood
there is no remission of sins " (Heb. ix. 22).
2. Vicarious sacrifice, whereby the guilt of an individual or of a
clan is transferred into an animal, like the Jewish scapegoat, which is
forthwith destroyed or sent over the frontier.
3. Washing or sprinkling with water, as a rule previously blessed
or exorcised ; or with the water of separation (i.e. water mixed with
ashes of a red heifer).
4. Washing with gomez, or urine of the sacred cow.
5. Anointing with holy oil.
6. Smearing with the blood, e.g. of the passover lamb or of a pig ;
or by actual baptism with the blood of an ox as in the Taurobolium
(see MITHRAS).
7. Fumigation with smoke of incense used at sacrifices, the incense
itself being the gum of a holy tree and gathered with magical precau-
tions.
8. Rubbing with sulphur or other lyes. Use of hellebore, hyssop,
&c.
9. Burning with fire objects in which the impurity has been
confined.
10. Sprinkling with water in which the cross has been washed
(used for flocks and fields in Armenia).
11. Evil spirits are expelled by invocation of the name of a being
more powerful than they, and by the introduction of a clean spirit.
12. By fasting.
13. In the old Parsee religion the drugs or demons which infect a
corpse can be driven off by the look of certain kinds of dogs.
14. An impure contagion may be removable together with hair,
nails or bits of clothing. Hence the use of the tonsure and the
custom of shaving the head in vows.
PURTM
661
15. Houses may be purged of evil spirits by sweeping them out
with a broom, or by many of the cathartic media above enumerated
for purification of the person.
16. By use of salt.
17. By celibacy, virginity and abstention from sexual intercourse.
18. By confession or expulsion of the evil in speech.
iq. By spitting and blowing the nose in order to evacuate devils
harbouring in the head and throat.
20. By spittle, as in the baptismal rite of the Latins.
21. By passing between fires or jumping through fire.
22. By sitting or standing on or wearing the fleece of a holy
animal.
23. By beating and stinging with ants, by branding, tattooing,
knocking out of teeth.
24. By circumcision and other more serious mutilations.
In many of these rites the old man contaminated in some way is
put off and the mystic is reborn. This idea of rebirth is especially
prominent in the blood-bath of the Taurobolium (No. 6) and in
Christian baptism (?..); also in the initiatory rites of various
es who even make a pretence of -killing their boys and
bringing them back to life again. (F. C. C.)
PURIM, a Jewish festival held on the I4th and isth of Adar,
the last month of the Jewish calendar. According to Jewish
irailition it is held in celebration of the deliverance of the Jews
from the massacre plotted against them by their enemy Haman
in the time of Artaxerxes, who fixed upon the former date by
casting "lots" ( = Hebrew loan-word Purim). It is preceded
by a fast on the i3th day of Adar, known as the Fast of Esther,
based upon Esther iv. 16.
Purim is the carnival of the Jewish year. Friends exchange
gifts, and thus occasion is taken to relieve the necessities of the
poor in the most considerate manner under the guise of gifts.
The children masquerade, and their parents are enjoined to
driak wine until they cannot distinguish between blessing
Mordecai and cursing Haman. The Megillah or Roll of Esther
is read both at home and in the synagogue, and wherever, during
the reading, the name of Haman is mentioned, it is accompanied
with tramping the feet. In former times Haman was burnt in
effigy, holding on to a ring and swinging from one side of the fire
to the other (see L. Ginzberg, Geonica, 1009, pp. i, 419; Davidson,
Parody, pp. 21-22). This custom, which is still observed among
the Jews of Caucasia (Tchorni, Sepher ha-Masaoth, pp. 191-192),
is very ancient, as it is mentioned in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 64).
From the lyth century onward Purim plays were performed
mostly by the children, who improvised a dramatic version of
the story of Esther. This grew to be the characteristic folk-
drama of the ghetto, and has not died out in eastern Europe to
the present day.
Much ingenuity has been spent upon the name and origin of the
fr.i>t. As regards the name, we may dismiss at once the suggestions
of J. Fuerst (Kanon des Alien Testaments) that it is derived from
the Persian bahar, " spring," and of Hitzig (Geschichte Israels),
who derives it from the modern Arabic Phur, " the New Year."
These conjectures were made in the pre-scientific era of philology.
Scarcely more is to be said in favour of the suggestion made by von
Hammer; but better known in connexion with the name of Lagarde,
who connects the name Purim with the old Zoroastrian festival
uf the dead, entitled Farwardigan. Lagarde, who is followed by
Renan, connects this form with the LXX. variant of the Hebrew
(<t>povpai) ; but there is absolutely nothing about Purim which
suggests any relation with a festival of the dead. Graetz's sugges-
tion (Monats. Jud. xxxv. 10 seq.) that it is derived from the Hebrew
purah, meaning wine-press (Is. Ixiii. 3), obviously fails to connect
a spring festival of joyousness with the autumn vine harvest.
Zimmern (ZATW xl. 157 seq.) connects Purim with the puchru or
nbly of the gods, which forms part of the Babylonian New
Year festival Zagmuku, but the inserted guttural is against the
identification.
The most plausible etymology connects the name vftth the
rian puru, either in the sense of " turn " of office at the begin-
ning of the New Year or in that of " pebble " used for votes or lots,
as with the Greek ^ij^os. It is a curious coincidence, to say the least,
that Diculafoy found among the ruins of the Memnonium at Susa
(the ancient Shushan, given as the scene of the events narrated in
the Book of Esther) a quadrangular prism bearing different numbers
on its four faces. This etymological connexion, suggested by Jensen
(Kosmologie, 84), brings the festival of Purim into close relation
with the Babylonian New Year festival known as Zagmuku, in which
one of the most prominent ceremonials was the celebration of the
assembly of the gods under the presidency of Marduk (Merodach)
for the purpose of determining the fates of the New Year. Meissner
(ZDSfG, i. 296 seq.) and others have suggested that the drunkenness
and masquerading current at the period of Purim are directly derived
from the general period of licence allowed at the Sacaea festival of
the Babylonian New Year. Even the fact that this latter was
celebrated on the first of Nisan, or a fortnight after the Jewish date
for Purim, is. confirmed by the Book of Esther itself, which states
that " In the first month, which is the month Nisan, they cast Pur,
that is, the lot, before Haman " (Esther iii. 7~ix. 26). The change of
date may have been made in order not to conflict with the Passover
on the isth of Nisan. The connexion that has been suggested
between the names of Mordecai and Esther and those of the Assyrian
deities Marduk and Ishtar would be a further strong confirmation
of the proposed etymology and derivation of the feast (see ESTHER).
Going stirl further, J. G. Frazer connects Purim with the whole
series of spring festivals current in western Asia, in which the old god
of vegetation was put to death and a new human representative of
him elected and allowed to have royal and divine rights, so as to pro-
mote the coming harvest (Golden Bough, and. ed., vol. iii. p. 154 seq.).
The death of the god, he suggests,' is represented by the Fast of
Esther on the I3th of Adar, the day before Purim, while the rejoicing
on Purim itself, and the licence accompanying it, recall the union of
the {pd and goddess of vegetation, of which he sees traces in the
relations of Mordecai and Esther. There may possibly be " sur-
vivals " of the influence of some such celebrations both on the Book
of Esther and on the ceremonies of Purim, but there is absolutely
no evidence that the Jews took over the interpretation of these
festivals with their celebration. Nor is there any record of royal
privileges attaching to any person at the period of Purim such as
occurs in the festivals with which it is supposed to be connected by
Frazer. His further suggestion, therefore, that the ironical crowning
of Jesus with the crown of thorns and the inscription over the Cross,
together with the selection of Barabbas, had anything to do with the
feast of Purim, must be rejected. The connexion of the Passion
with the Passover rather than Purim would alone be sufficient to
nullify the suggestion. However, it is practically certain, both
from the etymology of the word Purim and from the resemblance
of the festivals, that the feast, as represented in the Book of Esther,
was borrowed from the Persians, who themselves appeared to have
adapted it from the Babylonians. This is confirmed by the fact
that the Book of Esther contains several Persian words and shows
throughout a familiarity with Persian conditions. This renders it
impossible to accept Haupt's suggestion that Purim is connected
with the celebration of Nicanor's Day, to celebrate the triumph of
J udas Maccabaeus over the Syrian general Nicanor at Adasa (161 B.C.)
on the 13th of Adar, since this is the date of the Fast of Esther,
and, besides, the Second Book of Maccabees, which refers to Nicanor's
Day, speaks of it as the day before Mordecai's Day (2 Mace. xvi. 36).
If, as seems probable, the earlier Greek version of the Book of Esther
was made about 179 B.C. (Swete, Introduction of the Old Testament in
Greek, p. 25), this suggestion of the connexion of Purim with the
Maccabean period made by Haupt and, before him, by Willrich, falls
to the ground.
At the same time it is difficult to understand why Jews in Palestine
and Egypt should have accepted a purely Persian or Babylonian
festival long after they 'had ceased to be connected with the Persian
Empire. One can understand its adoption during, or soon after,
the reign of Cyrus, whose policy was so favourable to the lews, and
it might easily have become as popular among them as Christmas
tends to become among modern Jews. When the exiles returned
from Babylon they probably brought back with them the practice
of keeping the festival.
The date at which the feast of Purim was first adopted by the
Jews from their Persian neighbours would be definitely deter-
mined if we knew the date of the Book of Esther. The festival
is first mentioned in 2 Mace. xv. 36, and from that time onwards
has formed one of the most popular festivals of the Jewish
calendar. It became customary to burn an effigy of Haman at
the conclusion of the feast, and this was regarded as in some ways
an attack on Christianity and was therefore forbidden by the
Theodosian code, XVI. viii. 18. This prohibition may have
been due to the fact mentioned by Socrates (Hist, eccles. vii.)
that, in 416 A.D., the Jews of Inmester, a town in Syria, ill-
treated a Christian child during some Purim pranks and caused
his death. It has even been suggested that this gave rise to the
myth of the blood accusation in which Jews are alleged to sacri-
fice a Christian child at Passover; but this is unlikely, since
it has never been suggested that this crime was committed in
connexion with Purim. But Jewish sources of the loth century
state that the custom of burning an effigy of Haman was still
kept up at that time (L. Ginzberg, Geonica, ii.), and this is
confirmed by Albiruni (Chronology, tr. Sachau, 273) and Makrizi,
and indeed the custom was carried on down to the present
century by Jewish children, who treated Haman as a sort of
Guy Fawkes. Frazer suggests (loc. cit. 172) that this is a survival
662
PURIN
of the burning of the man-god, like Hercules or Sandan, who
again represented the old spirit of vegetation which was dying
away in spring to revive with the new vegetation. The earliest
mention, however, of this burning of Haman in effigy cannot be
traced back earlier than the Talmud in the sth century.
In connexion with Purim many quaint customs were intro-
duced by the Jews of later times. All means are adapted to
increase the hilarity of the two days, which are filled with
feasting, dancing, singing and making merry generally. In
Germany it was even customary for men to dress up as women,
and women as men, against the command of Deut. xxii. 5. In
Frankfort the women were allowed to open their lattice windows
in the synagogue in honour of the deliverance brought about by
Esther. Execration of Haman, as the typical persecutor of
the Jews, took various forms. In Germany wooden mallets were
used in the synagogue to beat the benches when Haman's name
was read out from the scroll of Esther, and during the festivities
these mallets were sometimes used on the heads of the by-
standers. Cakes were made of a certain shape to be eaten by
the children, which were called, in Germany, Hamantaschen
(Haman-pockets) and Hamanohren (Haman-ears), and in Italy,
Orecchie d'Aman. In Italy a puppet representing Haman was
set up on high amidst shouts of vengeance and blowing of
trumpets. In Caucasus the women made a wooden block to
represent Haman, which, on being discovered by the men on
their return to the synagogue, was thrown into the fire. Besides
gifts to friends, parents made Purim gifts to their children,
especially in the form of Purim cakes. To preside over these
festivities it was customary to have a master of the ceremonies,
who was called king in Provence, somewhat after the manner
of the Feast of Fools. In later days the same function was
performed by the Purim Rabbi, who often indulged in parodies
of the ritual.
With Purim is connected the only trace of a true folk-drama
among Jews. The first Spanish drama written by Jews was
entitled " Esther," by Solomon Usque and Lazaro Gratiano,
published in 1567; and there is another entitled " Comedia
famosa de Aman y Mordechay," produced anonymously in
Leiden in 1699. Among the German Jews Purim-Spiele were
frequent and can be traced back to the i6th century, where there
is reference to their being regularly performed at Tannhausen.
The earliest one of these printed was entitled " Ahaswerosh-
Spiel," appeared at Frankfort in 1708, and was reprinted by
Schudt in Juedische Merck-Wuerdigkeiten, ii. 314 seq. These
were followed by a large number of similar reproductions, none
of any great merit, but often showing ingenuity in parodying
more serious portions of the Jewish ritual (Davidson, Parody,
pp. 27, 50, 190-203).
Besides the general festival of Purim, various communities
of Jews have instituted special local Purims to commemorate
occasions when they have been saved from disaster. Thus the
Jews of Cairo celebrated Purim on the z8th of Adar in memory
of their being miraculously saved from the persecution of Ahmed
Pasha in 1524. The Jews of Frankfort celebrate their special
Purim on the 2oth of Adar because of their deliverance from
persecution by Fettmilch in 1616. The Jews of Algiers similarly
celebrated the repulse of the emperor Charles V. in 1541, by
which they escaped coming once more into the yoke of the
Spaniards. Similar occasions for rejoicing were introduced by
individuals into their families to celebrate their escape from
danger. Thus Abraham Danzig celebrated in this manner his
escape from the results of an explosion of a powder magazine
at Wilna in 1804. Rabbi Enoch Altschul of Prague recorded
his own escape on the 22nd of Tebet 1623 in a special roll or
megillah, which was to be read by his family on that date with
rejoicing similar to the general Purim. David Brandeis of
Jung-Bunzlau in Bohemia was saved from an accusation of
poisoning on the loth of Adar 1731, and instituted a similar
family Purim celebration in consequence.
See Biblical Dictionaries of Hastings and Cheyne, s.v. ; Jew.
Ency., s.v. "Purim"; "Purim Plays," "Purims, Special";
W. Erbt, Die Purimsage (Berlin, 1900); Abrahams, Jewish Life in
the Middle Ages; Lagarde, Purim, ein Beitrag zur Geschichle der
Religion (Gottingen, 1885); Steinschneider, Purim und Parodie
(Berlin, 1902); P. Haupt, Purim (Leipzig, 1906); Davidson, Parody
in Jewish Literature, pp. 21, 27, 30, 135-9 (New York, 1908).
0- JA.)
PURIN, C 6 H 4 N4, in chemistry, the name given by Emil
Fischer to the parent substance of a large group of compounds,
the more important of which are sarcine, xanthine, uric acid[
adenine, paraxanthine, guanine, theophyUine, theobromine and
caffeine. Its formula is shown in the , \N_pjj/ 6 ',
inset, the positions taken by sub- (2)HC(5)C-NH(7)
stituent atoms or groups being num-
bered as shown. E. Fischer (Ber., 31, (3)N C N/ c
p. 2564) obtained it in 1898 by reduc- & /9)
ing 2-6-di-iodo purin, obtained from
2 6-8 trichlor purin (see below sub Uricacid), hydriodic acid and
phosphonium iodide at o, with zinc dust and water, the zinc
double salt so obtained being decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen, the precipitated zinc sulphide filtered off and the
solution concentrated. It has also been synthesized by 0. Isay
(Ber., 1906, 39, p. 250) from s-nitro-uracil. This substance with
phosphorus oxychloride gives 2-4-dichlor-5-nitro pyrimidine,
which with ammonia gives 4-amino-2-chlor-5-nitro pyrimidine;
by reducing this compound with hydriodic acid and phos-
phonium iodide, 4- s-diamino-pyriinidine is obtained, which with
formic acid furnishes purin; thus:
NH-CH N:CH NiCH N:CH N:CH
COC-NOz-^ClCC-NOj-^ClCC-NOs-^HCCNHz-^HCCNH
inlet) MCI N-C-NH, N-C-NH,
Purin crystallizes in microscopic needles, which melt at 216 C.
It possesses the properties of both an acid and a base. It is
characterized by its ready solubility in water and by its stability
towards oxidizing agents.
Oxypurins. Sarcine or hypoxanthine, CjI^N/), is 6-oxypurin.
It is found in many animal liquids and organs and in the seeds of
many plants, and was discovered by J. Scherer in milk (Ann. 1850,
73. P- 3 2 8) and by A. Strecker in muscle. It crystallizes in needles
which decompose at 150 C. It was synthesized by E. Fischer
(Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2228) by heating 2-6-8-trichlorpurin with aqueous
caustic potash, and reducing the dichlorhypoxanthine so obtained by
hydriodic acid. Its aqueous solution shows acid properties, decompos-
ing carbonates. It also forms a hydrochloride, C^-UNiO-HCl-HzO.
When oxidized by hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate it
yields alloxan and urea, whilst with potassium permanganate it
gives oxalic acid.
3-Methyihypoxanthine was synthesized by W. Traube and F. Winter
(Arch. Pharm., 1906, 244, p. n), whilst 8-oxypurin was obtained by
E. Fischer and L. Ach in 1897 (Ber., 30, p. 2213), and by O. Isay
(Ber., 1906, 39, p. 251).
Xanthine, CsHiNiO?, or 2-6-dioxypurin, was discovered in 1817
by Marcet in a urinary calculus; it also occurs in various animal
organs (the liver, pancreas and muscular tissue), in urine, and in
beetroot juice. It may be prepared by boiling nuclein with water
(A. Kossel, Zeit. physiol. Ghent., 1880, 4, p. 290); by the decomposi-
tion of guanine with nitrous acid (A. Strecker, Ann., 1858, 108,
p. 141 ) ; and by heating the formyl derivative of 4'5-diamino-2 -6-dioxy-
pyrimidine to 120 C. (W. Traube, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3035). This
pyrimidine is prepared from cyanacetyl urea, which on treatment
with a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide is converted into
4-amino-2-6-dioxypyrimidine. The isonitroso derivative of this
compound is then reduced by ammonium sulphide to 4-S-diamino-
2 -6-dioxy pyrimidine, the formyl derivative of which, on heating
passes into xanthine.
CO-CH 2 CO-CH 2 CO-C:NOH CO-C-NHj CO-C-NH X
NH CN^NHC :NH->NHC -.NH-^NHC-NHj-^NH C N^
CO-NHj CO-NH CO-NH CO-ftH CO NH
It decomposes when heated, giving ammonia, carbon dioxide and
hydrocyanic acid. It possesses both acid and basic properties.
When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 220 C, it
decomposes into carbon dioxide, ammonia, glycine and formic
acid. Potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid oxidize it to alloxan
and urea. Methylation of its lead salt gives theobromine.
The isomeric 6-8-dioxypurin was prepared by E. Fischer and
L. Ach (loc. cif).
i-Methylxanthine was found in urine by M. Kriiger and G. Salomon
(Zeit. physiol. Ghent., 1897, 24, p. 364) ; 3-methylxanthine was obtained
by E. Fischer and F. Ach (Ber., 1898, 30, 1980) from 3-methyl uric
PURIN
663
acid; and j-methylxanthint or heteroxanthine, which is found in
human urine, may be obtained from theobromine (E. Fischer, Ber.,
1897, 30, p. 2400; see also ibid., 1898, 31, p. 117).
Theophylline, C,(CH,),H,O.N., or i-3-dimethyl-2-6-dioxypurin,
was isolated by A. Kossel from tea-leaves (Ber., 1888, 21, p. 2164).
It was synthesized by E. Fischer and L. Ach (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 3135)
from l-3-dimethyl uric acid, which on treatment with phosphorus
pentachloride yields chlortheophylline, from which theopnylline
.lined by reduction with hydriodic acid. W. Traube (Ber., 1900,
33, p. 3035) formed the nitroso derivative of iminodimethyl barbi-
turic acid (obtained by the action of phosphorus oxychloride
on cyanacetic acid and dimethyl urea), and reduced it by ammo-
nium sulphide to i-3-dimethyl-4-5-diamino-2-6-dioxypyrimidine, the
formyl derivative of which, when heated to 250 C., loses the elements
of water and yields theophylline (cf. Xanthine). It behaves as a
weak base. When oxidized by potassium chlorate and hydro-
chloric acid it yields dimethylalloxan. Its silver salt on methylation
1 ^ caffeine.
The isomeric Paraxanthine, or l'7-dimethyl-2-6-dioxypurin,
occurs in urine. It has been obtained from theobromine (E. Fischer,
Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2400); from I -7-dimethyl uric acid (E. Fischer
and H. Clemm, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2622); and from 8-chlorcaffeine
(E. Fischer, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 423). On methylation it yields
caffeine.
A third isomer Theobromine, or 3'7-dimethyl-2-6-dioxypurin, is
found in the cocoa-bean (from Theobroma cacao) and in the kola-nut.
It is obtained by methylating xanthine, or from 3-7-dimethyl uric
acid (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1839). This acid, by the action
of phosphorus oxychloride and pentachloride, is converted into
3-7-dimethyl-6-chlor-2-8-dioxypurin, which with ammonia gives
the corresponding amino compound. This substance with phos-
phorus oxychloride yields v7-dimethyl-6-amino-2-oxy-8-chlorpurin,
which on reduction with hydriodic acid leads to 3-7-dimethyl-6-
amino-2-oxypurin, from which theobromine is obtained by the
action of nitrous acid. It is also obtained by W. Traube's method
(Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3047) from cyanacetyl methyl urea, which gives
3-methyl-4'5-diamino-2'6-dioxypyrimidine, whose formyl deriva-
tive yields 3-methylxanthine, from which theobromine is obtained
by methylation. It crystallizes in anhydrous needles which sublime
at 290-295 C. It behaves as a weak base. Potassium chlorate
and hydrochloric acid oxidize it to methyl alloxan and methyl urea,
chromic acid mixture oxidizes it to carbon dioxide, methylamine and
rnethylparabanic acid. When boiled with baryta it yields carbon
dioxide, ammonia, methylamine, formic acid and sarcosine. Methy-
lation of its silver salt yields caffeine.
Caffeine, CsH(CHj)aN4Os, is i-3'7-trimethyl-2-6-dioxypurin. For
its general properties and method of extraction see CAFFEINE.
It may be synthesized by methylating chlortheophylline and re-
ducing the resulting product (E. Fischer and L. Ach, Ber., 1895, 28,
P- 3135); by the action of phosphorus oxychloride on tetramethyl
uric acid, the resulting chlorcaffeine being reduced (Ber., 1897, 30,
3042). The three latter methods may be outlined as follows. Di-
methylalloxan (I.) condenses with methylamine in the presence of
sulphurous acid to form an addition product (II.), which on hydrolysis
yields i*3*7-trimethyl uramil; this substance gives with potassium
cyanate, i -3-7-trimethyl pseudo-uric acid (III.), which on dehydration
yields l-3-7-trimethyl uric acid (hydroxycaffeine) ; this substance
with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlcrcaffeine, which yields
caffeine (IV.) on reduction:
H.C-N-CO
C C-N<
H.C-N-CO H.C-N-CO H.C-N-CO
OC CO- OC CH-NHCH,-*OC CH-N/ ' -O(
\CO-NH, >CH
H.C-N-CO H.C-N-CO H.C-N-CO H.C-N-C-N^
(I.) (II.) (III.) (IV.)
3-Methyl uric acid (I.) (H. Hill, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 370) by the action
of phosphorus oxychloride is converted into 3-methyl-2-6-dioxy-8-
chlorpurin (3-methyl-chlorxanthine) (II.), which, on treatment with
methyl iodide in alkaline solution, gives chlortheobromine (III.),
from which chlorcaffeine (IV.) can be obtained by further methy-
lation:
HN-CO
<!>
HN-CO
(II.)
HN-CO
CH^J-CO
(III.)
(IV).
Dimethyl-diamino-dioxypyrimidine (see Theophyllin above) yields
a formyl derivative which on treatment with sodium ethylate
furnishes a sodium salt. This salt heated for some hours with
methyl iodide yields caffeine.
.
The constitution of caffeine was settled by E. Fischer (Ann.,
882, 215, p. 253). Earlier investigations had shown that oxidation
M c nit . nc aci " Sa ve dimethylparabanic acid or cholesterophane
U- stennouse, Ann., 1843, 45, p. 366) ; that chlorine water oxidized
882
it to amalic acid or tetramethyl alloxan tin (Fr. Rochleder, Ann.
1849, 71, p. i), and that hydrolysis with baryta gave caffeidine
(A. Strecker, Ann., 1862, 123, p. 360), which could be further hydro-
lysed to sarcosine, methylamine, formic acid and carbon dioxide
(O. Schultzen, Zeit. f. Chemie, 1867, p. 614). Fischer confirmed
these results and showed further that oxidation with chlorine water
gave monomethyl urea and dimethyl alloxan, pointing to the pres-
ence of three methyl groups in the molecule. Further, on bromi-
nation, a brom-derivative is obtained which on treatment with
alcoholic potash yields ethoxy-caffeine, which readily hydrolyses to
hydroxy-caffeine. This substance behaves as an unsatu rated com-
pound and combines with a molecule of bromine to form a derivative
which on treatment with alcoholic potash yields diethoxy-hydroxy-
caffeine. Diethoxy-hydroxycaffeine on hydrolysis with concen-
trated hydrochloric acid yields apocaffeine, C7H;NiO, and hypo-
caffeine, C e H 7 N,O,:
C,H,(OC,H,),(OH)N40,-
C,H,N,O,+CH,NH,+2C,H 4 OH
C,H,N,0,+CO,+CH,NH,+2C 2 H,OH.
Apocaffeine when boiled with water loses carbon dioxide and yields
caff uric acid, C 6 HN>O, which on hydrolysis with basic lead acetate is
converted into mesoxalic acid, methylamine and monomethyl urea.
Reduction of caffuric acid yields hydrocaffuric acid, CiHfN'iOi,
which readily hydrolyses to methyl hydantoin. Consequently
hydrocaffuric and caffuric acids, apocaffeine and caffeine must
contain the grouping (I.). Hypocaffeine on hydrolysis loses carbon
dioxide and gives caffolin, CjHjNjC^, which on oxidation with
alkaline potassium ferricyanide yields monomethyl urea and methyl
pxamic acid, whilst if oxidized by alkaline potassium permanganate
it yields dimethyl oxamide. Hence caffolin contains the grouping
(II.), and in consequence of its close relationship to hydrocaffuric
acid is to be written as (III.). It follows that the caffeine molecule
must be written as (IV.), a result confirmed by the later synthesis
of caffeine itself from dimethyl alloxan (see above).
CH,
xN-C
<1>C<~-V^
\
N-CH,,
(I.)
CH,
N-C
N-C-NCH
(II.)
?o
CH,
CHOH
NH-CH,,
(III.)
H.C CO-N-CH,
/N-C CO
CH<( jl I
^N-C-N-(
(IV.)
CH,
The above decomposition products of caffeine probably possess
the following constitutions:
CH3-N-C(CO 2 H)-O-CO
OC I
N:C - N-C
ApocaSeine.
CH 3 N-CH-OCO
06 ] I
3 N:C- - fc-C
Hypocaffonc.
H3C-N-C(OH)(CO 2 H) HaC-N-CHOH
Co] C0|
j N.C-NHCH 3 N:C-NHCH,
Caffuric acid. Caflolin.
Uric acid, CiHiNiO,, or 2-6-8-trioxypurin, was discovered in
1776 in urinary calculi by Scheele. It is found in the juice of the
muscles, in blood, in urine, in the excrement of serpents and birds,
and in guano. The determination of the constitution and of the
relation of uric acid to the other members of the group has been a
process of gradual growth. G. Brugnatelli ((Zornaie di fisica,
chemica, &c., di Brugnatelli, 1818, u, pp. 38, 117) obtained alloxan,
and W. Prout (Phtt. Trans., 1818, p. 420) obtained ammonium
purpurate from uric acid, but the first elaborate investigation on
the acid was by J. v. Liebig and F. Wohler (Ann., 1838, 26, p. 241),
who obtained from it allantoin, alloxantin, dialuric acid, parabanic
acid, oxaluric acid, mesoxalic acid, &c. Further examination of
the group was undertaken by A. Schlieper (Ann., 1845, 55, p. 256;
56, p. i), who obtained hydurilic acid and dilituric acid, and by A. v.
Baeyer (Ann., 1863, 127, pp. i, 199; 1864, 130, p. 129; 131, p. 291),
who showed that uric acid and many of its derivatives may be looked
on as derivatives of barbituric acid. In 1875 L. Medicus (Ann.,
1875, 175, p. 230) proposed the formula (I.) for the acid, whilst
R. Fittig in 1877 (Traite de Mm. org., p. 324 [1878]) suggested the
formula (II.); subsequent investigations of R. Behrend and
HN-CO HN-C - NH
(I.) OC C ' NH \^ () OC ^COCO
HN-C-NH/ HN-C - NH
of E. Fischer showed the first formula to be correct. The first
synthases of uric acid are due to J. Horbaczewski (Monals., 1882,
p. 796; 1885, p. 356), who obtained very poor yields. These were
followed by the more satisfactory methods of R. Behrend and O.
Roosen (Ann., 1888. 251, p. 235) of E. Fischer and L. Ach (Ber.,
1895, 28. p. 2473) and of W. Traube (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3035). Hor-
baczewski obtained the acid by heating urea with ammo-acetic
acid (glycine) to 200-230 C, and by fusing urea with trichlorlac-
tamide. In Behrend's method acetoacetic ester and urea (I.) are
condensed and the resulting /J-uramidocrotonic ester (II.) on hydro-
lysis gives methyl uracil (III.), which on treatment with concentrated
nitric acid yields nitro-uracil carboxylic acid (IV.). This acid
when boiled with water loses carbon dioxide, forming nitro-uracil
(V.), which on reduction gives amido-uracil (VI.) and oxy-uracil
(VII). Oxidation of oxy-uracil with bromine water leads to dioxy-
uracil (VIII.), which when heated with urea and concentrated
sulphuric acid yields uric acid (IX.):
66 A.
PURIN
HuC-C-OH H 2 N-CO H,C-C-NH-CONH 2 H S C-C-NH CO
CH-C0 2 C 2 H 5 + H 2 N~ CH-C0 2 C 2 H S ~> CH-CO-NH
(i.) (ii.) 4, (in.)
HC-NH-CO HC-NH-CO HO 2 C-C-NH-CO
H 2 N-C-CO-NH^~O 2 N-C-CO-NH^- O 2 N-C-CO-NH
4, (vi.) (v.) (iv.)
HC-NH-CO HO-C-NH-CO .NH-C-NH-CO
HO
-C-CO-NH HO-C-CO-NH SiH-C-CO-NH
(VII.)
(VIII.)
(IX.)
CO
E. Fischer dehydrated pseudo-uric acid (formed from potassium
cyanate and uramil) by heating it with anhydrous oxalic acid to
185 C, or with a large excess of 20% hydrochloric acid (Ber., 1897,
30, p. 560), and so obtained uric acid. This method is quite general.
W. Traube condenses the sulphate of 4 5-diamino-2 6-dioxy-
pyrimidine (I.) (see Xanthine, above) with chlorcarbonic ester. The
resulting urethane (II.) when heated to 180-190 C loses a molecule
of alcohol, giving uric acid (III.).
HN-CO-C-NH 2 HN-CO-C-NHCO 2 C 2 H 6 HN-CO-C-NH.
I II -> I II -> 1 H /
OC-NH-C-NH 2 OC-NH-C-NH 2 OC-NH-C-NH/
(I.) (II.) (III.)
Uric acid is a white, microcrystalline powder. It is odourless
and tasteless, and is insoluble in most reagents. Its solubility in
water is increased by the presence of various inorganic salts, such as
sodium phosphate, sodium acetate, borax, and particularly by
lithium carbonate. It dissolves completely in concentrated sul-
phuric acid, but is reprecipitated on the addition of water. It
behaves as a weak dibasic acid. It is decomposed by heat into
ammonia, urea, cyanuric acid and carbon dioxide. On fusion with
caustic alkalis it yields alkaline cyanide, cyanate, oxalate and car-
bonate. It may be recognized by means of the " murexide "
reaction, which consists in evaporating the acid to dryness with
nitric acid, when a yellowish residue is obtained which becomes
purple-red if moistened with ammonia. On the quantitative
estimation of uric acid see F. W. Tunnicliffe (Chem. Centralb., 1897,
II, p. 987; E. H. Hartley, ibid., p. 644 and F. G. Hopkins, Chem.
News, 1892, 66, p. 106).
Methyl Uric Acids. i-Methyl uric acid was prepared by E.
Fischer and H. Clemm (Ber., 1897, 30, p. 3091) from monomethyl
alloxan and ammonium sulphite, which condense together to form
l-methyluramil. This, with potassium cyanate, gives i-methyl-
4^-uric acid, which on dehydration gives i-methyl uric acid.
3- or a-Methyl uric acid was prepared by Hill (Ber., 1876,
9. P- 37) by heating_ acid lead urate with methyl iodide. It is
best obtained by heating 3-methyl chlorxanthine with hydrochloric
acid to 125 C. (E. Fischer, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1984). 7- or 7-Methyl
uric acid is prepared by heating 7-methyl-2 6 8-trichlorpurin
(which results from phosphorus pentachloride and theobromine)
with hydrochloric acid to 130 C., or by the condensation of alloxan
with methylamine in the presence of sulphur dioxide (E. Fischer,
Ber., 1897, 30, p. 563; cf. i-methyl uric acid). It is the most soluble
in water of the methyl uric acids. 9- or /3-Methyl uric acid was
obtained by E. Fischer (Ber., 1884, 17, pp. 332, 1777) by heating
normal lead urate with methyl iodide to 100 C. The product so
obtained was converted by the action of phosphorus oxychloride and
pentachloride into 9-methyl-8-oxy-2 6-dichlorpurin, and this when
heated with hydrochloric acid to 140 C. gave the required methyl
uric acid. It is distinguished from 3-methyl uric acid by its much
smaller solubility in water and by the greater stability of its ammo-
nium salt. A fifth isomer, S-methyl uric acid, has been described
by W. v. Loeben (Ann., 1897, 298, p. 181) who obtained it by con-
densing acetoacetic ester and monomethyl urea according to Beh-
rend's method. The constitution of this acid is not definitely
known.
1-3 or 7- Dimethyl uric acid is obtained by converting dimethyl
alloxan into dimethyluramil, which with potassium cyanate gives
dimethyl-^-uric acid; this acid is then dehydrated (E. Fischer, Ber.,
1895, 28, p. 2475; 1897, 30, p. 560). l-7-Dimethyl uric acid is
similarly obtained by starting with monomethyl alloxan and methyl-
amine (E. Fischer and H. Clemm, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 3095).
l-9-Dimethyl uric acid is obtained from 9-methyl-8-oxy-2 6-
dichlorpurin (see Q-Melhyl uric acid above). By successive treat-
ment with ammonia and nitrous acid this is converted into 9-methyI-
6 8-dioxy-2-chlprpurin, which on condensation with formaldehyde
in alkaline solution yields 9-methyl-7-oxymethyl-6 8-dioxy-2-chlor-
purin. Methylation of this latter compound introduces a methyl
group into position I, and the dimethyl compound so formed on
dilution with water and the simultaneous action of superheated
steam yields l-9-dimethyl-6 8-dioxy-2-chlorpurin, from which
l-9-dimethyl uric acid is obtained by hydrolysis with concentrated
hydrochloric acid at too" C. (E. Fischer, and F. Ach Ber., 1899, 32,
P- 2 57). 3'7 or 8-Dimethyl uric acid is prepared by methylating
7-methyl uric acid (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 564) or by heating
bromtheobrpmine with alkalis (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2482). 3-9-Dime-
thyl uric acid is prepared by heating neutral lead urate with methyl
iodide(H. B. HillandC. F. Mabery.^mer. Chem. Journ., 1880-1881,2,
p. 308) and by methylating 3-methyl uric acid (E. Fischer, Ber.,
1899, 32, p. 269). 7-9 or /J-Dimethyl uric acid is prepared by heat-
ing 7.9-dimethyl-8-oxy-2-6-dichlorpurin with hydrochloric acid to
130 C.
1'3'7-Tnmethyl uric acid or hydrpxycaffeine, may be prepared
from caffeine, or by direct methylatipn of uric acid at o C. (E.
Fischer). 1-3-9-Trimethyl uric acid is prepared by methylating
l'3-dimethyl uric acid (E. Fischer and L. Ach, Ber., 1895, 28,
p. 2478). 1-7-9-Trimethyl uric acid is prepared by methylating
9-methyl-6-8-dioxy-2-chlorpurin (see l-y-dimethyl uric acid, above)
and heating the resulting trimethyl dioxychlorpurin with concen-
trated hydrochloric acid to 110-115 C. (E. Fischer and F. Ach,
Ber., 1899, 32, p. 256).
Tetramethyl uYic acid was first prepared (Ber., 1884, 17, p. 1784)
by methylating 3-7-9-trimethyl uric acid. It may also be obtained
by methylating uric acid and the other methyl uric acids. It has a
neutral reaction.
Aminopurins. Adenine is 6-aminopurin. It has been found
in ox pancreas and also in tea. It is prepared by heating 2-6-8-
trichlorpurin with ammonia, and reducing the resulting 6-amino-
2-8-dichlorpurin with hydriodic acid; or by heating 8-oxy-2-6-
dichlorpurin (from uric acid and phosphorus oxychloride) with
alcoholic ammonia to obtain 8-oxy-2-ch]or-6-aminopurin, which
with phosphorus oxychloride at 140 C., gives 6-amino-2-8-dichlor-
purin. Reduction of this compound with hydriodic acid yields
adenine (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2238; 1898, 31, p. 104). It
crystallizes from water in leaflets which contain three molecules of
water of crystallization. The anhydrous base melts at 360-365 C.
Nitrous acid converts it into hypoxanthine; whilst hydrochloric
acid at 180-200 C. decomposes it completely into ammonia, carbon
dioxide, formic acid and glycocoll (A. Kossel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 225;
1893, 26, p. 1914).
Isoadenine or 2-ammopunn, is obtained from 2-4-dichlor-5-mtro-
pyrimidine (see Purin, above) by heating it with ammonia, when
2-4-diamino-5-nitropyrimidine is formed. Reduction of this
compound by means of stannous chloride and hydrochloric acid
gives 2-4'5-triaminopyrimidine which readily condenses with
formic acid to isoadenine (O. Isay, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 250). It has
also been obtained by J. Tafel and B. Ach (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 1177)
by the electrolytic reduction of guanine to desoxyguanine, the
acetate of which is warmed with bromine and subsequently oxidized.
9-Methyl adenine was first obtained by I. Kriiger (Zeit.f. physiol.
Chem., 1894, 18, p. 434) by methylating adenine, and has been
synthesized by E. Fischer (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 104) from 9-methyl-2-6-
dichlor-8-oxypurin. For 7-methyl adenine see E. Fischer, Ber.,
1898, 31, p. 104.
Guanine, or 2-amino-6-oxypurin, is found in the pancreas of various
animals and also very abundantly in guano, from which it was first
extracted by B. linger (Ann., 1844, 51, p. 395; 1846, 58, p. 18). It
has been obtained synthetically from 6-oxy-2-8-dichlorpurin
(E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2252) by heating it with alcoholic
ammonia to 150 C. and reducing the resulting 6-oxy-2-amino-8-
chlorpurin with hydriodic acid. W. Traube (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 1371)
condensed cyanacetic ester with guanidine and the resulting com-
pound (I.) with caustic soda gives 2-4-diamino-6-oxypyrimidine
(II.). This substance yields an isonitroso-derivative which on reduc-
tion with ammonium sulphide gives 2-4-5-triamino-6-oxypyrimidine
(III.), from which guanine (IV.) is obtained by heating with concen-
trated formic acid :
HN-CO N:C-OH N:C-OH HN-CO
HN:C CH 2 ->H 2 N-C CH -}H 2 N-C C-NH 2 -=>H 2 N.C C-NH.
H.NCN MNH, MNH, N-c-N> CH
(I.) (H.) (HI.) (IV.)
It may also be obtained as follows [E. Merck, German Patents
158591 (1903); 162336 (1904)]. Dicyandiamide (I.) condenses with
cyanacetic ester to form 2-cyanamino-4-aminp-6-oxypyrimidine
(II.). This yields an isonitroso-derivative which on reduction
gives 2-cyanamino-4.5-diamino-6-oxypyrimidine (III.). This
compound when boiled with a 90% solution of formic acid gives
guanine formate:
NH N-C-NH, N-C-NH 2
CN-NH-C -> CN-NH-C CH -> CN-NH-C C-NH 2
NH 2 - N:C-OH N:C-OH
(I.) (H.) (HI.)
It is an amorphous powder, insoluble in water, alcohol and ether, and
has both acid and basic properties. Nitrous acid converts it into
xanthine. When oxidized by hydrochloric acid and potassium
chlorate it yields guanidine, parabanic acid and carbon dioxide.
6-Amino-2-oxypurin, an isomer of guanine, is prepared by heat-
ing dichloradenine or 6-amino-2-6-8-trichlorpunn, obtained from
2-6-8 trichlorpurin and ammonia (Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2239)
with sodium ethylate to 130 C. and reducing the resulting 6-amino-2-
ethoxy-8-chlorpurin with hydriodic acid (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30,
p. 2245). 6-Amino-8-oxypurin, another isomer of guanine, is
prepared by heating 8-oxy-2-6-dichlorpurin with alcoholic ammonia
and reducing the resulting amino-oxy-chlor compound with hydri-
odic acid (E. Fischer, loc. cit.).
PURITANISM PURPURA
665
7-Methyl guaninc is obtained from 7-mcthyl-6-oxy-2-chlorpurin
(see above) by the action of aqueous ammonia at 150" C. It also
results instead of the expected 7-methyl-2-oxy-6-aminopurin,
when 7-methyl-6-amino-2-chlorpurin is treated with dilute alkalis
(E. Fischer, Ber., 1808, 31, p. 542), owing to ring splitting in the
l-6-position, followed; by eliminating of halogen acid.
Thiopurins. W. Traube (Ann., 1904, 331, pp. 66 seq.) has
obtained many compounds of the purin group by using
thiourea, which is condensed with cyanacetic ester, &c., to form
thiopyrimidines. These in turn yield thiopurins, which on
oxidation with dilute nitric acid are converted into purin
compounds, thus:
H 2 N COjR HN-CO HX-CO HN-CO
SC+CH, _, SC CH, ,SC C-NH, .SC C-NH.
>CH.
H.X CN HN-C:NH HN-C-NH, HN-C-N *
Various thiopurins have been obtained by E. Fischer (Ber.,
1898, 31, p. 431), principally by acting with potassium
sulphydrate on chlorinated purin compounds.
2-6-8-Trithiopurin is obtained from the corresponding trichlor-
purin and potassium sulphydrate. It forms a light yellow mass
which carbonizes on heating. It is almost insoluble in water and
alcohol; but readily dissolves in dilute solutions of the caustic
alkalis and of ammonia.
Much work has been done by J. Tafel (Ber., 1900, seq.) on the
electrolytic reduction of the members of the purin group. The
substance to be reduced is dissolved in a 50-^75% solution of sul-
phuric acid and placed in a porous cell containing a lead cathode,
the whole being then placed in a 20-60% solution of sulphuric
acid in the anode cell. It is found that xanthine and its homologues
take up four atoms of hydrogen per molecule and give rise to the
llrd desoxy-compounds, which are stronger bases than the
original substances. Uric acid takes up six hydrogen atoms per
molecule and gives purone, CsHsNiOs, and it is apparently the
<i\\xen atom attached to the carbon atom number 6 which is
replaced by hydrogen, since when purone is heated with baryta,
two molecules of carbon dioxide are liberated for one of purone.
Consequently purone must contain two urea residues, which necessi-
tates the presence of the > CO groups in positions 2 and 8. (F. G. P.*)
PURITANISM (Lat. purilas, purity), the name given
originally perhaps in a hostile sense on the analogy of Catharism
(see CATHARS) to the movement for greater strictness of life and
simplicity in worship which grew up in the Church of England in
the 1 6th century among those who thought that there had not
bi-en a sufficient divergence from the Roman Church, and which
ultimately led to the rise of a number of separatist denomina-
tions. Thomas Fuller (Church History) traces the earliest use of
the term "Puritan" to 1564. The terms " Precisian," " Puritan,"
" Presbyterian," were all used by Archbishop Parker in his
letters about this time as nicknames for the same party, and ten
years later the name was in common use.
See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; CONGREGATIONALISM; PRESBY-
TERIANISM, &c.; also D. Neal, History of the Puritans (ed.Toulmin,
5 vols., 1822); E. Dowden, Puritan and Anglican (1901); J. Heron,
A Short History of Puritanism (1908).
PURLIEU, a word used of the outlying parts of a place or
district, sometimes in a derogatory sense. It was a term of the
old English forest law (q.v.), and meant, as defined by Manwood
(Treatise of the Forest Laws), "a certain territory of ground
adjoining unto the forest,. . .which. . .was once forest-land and
afterwards disafforested by the perambulations made for the
severing of the new forests from the old." The owner of free-
lands in the purlieu to the yearly value of forty shillings was
known as a " purlieu-man " or " purley-man." There seems
no doubt that "purlieu" or "purley" represents the Anglo-
French purale, puralee (O. Fr. pouraler, puraler, to go through,
Lat. perambulare) , a legal term meaning properly a perambula-
tion to determine the boundaries of a manor, parish, &c.
PURLIN, a term in architecture for the longitudinal timbers
of a roof, which are carried by the principal rafters and the end
walls and support the common rafters.
PURNEA or PURNTAH, a town and district of British India,
in the Bhagalpur division of Bengal. The town is on the left
bank of the little river Saura, with a railway station. Pop.
(1901), 14,007. It has a bad reputation for fever.
The DISTRICT OF PURNEA has an area of 4994 sq. m. and a
population (1901) of 1,874,794, showing a decrease of 3-6%
in the decade. The district extends from the Ganges north-
wards to the frontier of Nepal. It is a level, depressed tract of
country, consisting for the most part of a rich, loamy soil of
alluvial formation. It is traversed by several rivers flowing
from the Himalayas, which afford great advantages of irrigation
and water-carriage; in the west the soil is thickly covered with
sand deposited by changes in the course of the Kusi. Among
other rivers are the Mahananda and the Panar. Under Mahom-
medan rule Purnea was an outlying province, yielding little
revenue and often in a state of anarchy. Its local governor
raised a rebellion against Suraj-ud-daula in 1757, after the capture
of Calcutta. The principal crops are rice, pulses and oilseeds.
The cultivation of indigo is declining, but that of jute is
extending. The district is traversed by branches of the
Eastern Bengal railway, which join the Bengal and North-
Western railway at Katihar.
PURPLE, a colour-name, now given to a shade varying
between crimson and violet. Formerly it was used, as the origin
of the name shows, of the deep crimson colour called in Latin
purpura, purpureus and in Greek Trop<j>iipa, fop^vptm (from
irop<t>vpti.v, to grow dark, especially used of the sea). This was
properly the name of the shellfish (Purpura, Murex) which
yielded the famous Tyrian dye, the particular mark of the
dress of emperors, kings, chief magistrates and other dignitaries,
whence " the purple " still signifies the rank of emperors or
kings.
The title of porphyrogenitus (Gr. vofxjivpoyiivriTot) was borne
particularly by Constantine VII., Byzantine emperor, but was also
used generally of those born of the Byzantine imperial family. This
title, generally translated " born in the purple," either refers to the
purple robes in which the imperial children were wrapped at birth,
or to a chamber or part of the imperial palace, called the Porphyra
(ir6p<f>vpa), where the births took place. Whether this Porphyra
signified a chamber with purple hangings or lined with porphyry is
not known (see Selden, Titles of Honour, ed. 1672, p. 60 seq.).
PURPURA, in pathology, a general term for the symptom
of purple-coloured spots upon the surface of the body, due to
extravasations of blood in the skin, accompanied occasionally
with haemorrhages from mucous membranes. The varieties
of purpura may be conveniently divided as follows: (a) toxic,
following the administration of certain drugs, notably copaiba,
quinine, ergot, belladonna and the iodides; also following snake-
bite; (b) cachectic, seen in persons suffering from such diseases
as tuberculosis, heart disease, cancer, Bright's disease, jaundice,
as well as from certain of the infectious fevers, extravasations
of the kind above mentioned being not infrequently present;
(c) neurotic; (d) arthritic, which includes the form known as
" Purpura simplex," in which there may or may not be articular
pain, and the complaint is usually ushered in by lassitude and
feverishness, followed by the appearance on the surface of the
body of the characteristic spots in the form of small red points
scattered over the skin of the limbs and trunk. The spots are
not raised above the surface, and they do not disappear on
pressure. Their colour soon becomes deep purple or nearly
black; but after a few days they undergo the changes which
are observed in the case of an ordinary bruise, passing to a green
and yellow hue and finally disappearing. When of minute size
they are termed "petechiae" or "stigmata," when somewhat
larger " vibices," and when in patches of considerable size
" ecchymoses." They may come out in fresh crops over a
lengthened period.
Purpura rheumatica (Schonlein's disease) is a remarkable variety
characterized by sore throat, fever and articular pains accompanied
by purpuric spots and associated with urticaria and occasionally
with definite nodular infiltrations. This is by many writers con-
sidered to be a separate disease, but it is usually regarded as of
rheumatic origin.
Purpura haemorrhagica (acute haemorrhagic purpura) is a more
serious form, in which, in addition to the phenomena already men-
tioned as affecting the skin, there is a tendency to the occurrence
of haemorrhage from mucous surfaces, especially from the nose,
but also from the mouth, lungs, stomach, bowels, kidneys, &c.,
sometimes in large and dangerous amount. Great physical prostra-
tion is apt to attend this form of the disease, and a fatal result some-
times follows the successive haemorrhages, or is suddenly precipitated
by the occurrence of an extravasation of blood into the brain.
666
PURRAH PURVEYANCE
The treatment will bear reference to any causes which may
be discovered as associated with the onset of the disease, such
as unfavourable hygienic conditions, and nutritive defects
should be rectified by suitable diet. The various preparations
of iron seem to be the best medicinal remedies in this ailment,
while more direct astringents, such as gallic acid, ergot of rye,
turpentine or acetate of lead, will in addition be called for in
severe cases and especially when haemorrhage occurs. Sir A.
Wright considers that in all cases of purpura the coagulation-
time of the blood should be estimated. In such cases the time
taken for clotting may be increased to three times as long as
that taken by normal blood. He therefore advises calcium
chloride in order to increase coagulability. In severe haemor-
rhages, adrenalin is often useful.
PURRAH, PURROH, or PORO, a secret society of Sierra Leone,
West Africa. Only males are admitted to its ranks, but two
other affiliated and secret associations exist, the Yassi and the
Bundu, the first of which is nominally reserved for females,
but members of the Purrah are admitted to certain ceremonies.
All the female members of the Yassi must be also members of
the Bundu, which is strictly reserved to women. Of the three,
the Purrah is by far the most important. The entire native
population is governed by its code of laws. It primarily
represents a type of freemasonry, a "friendly " society to which
even infants are temporarily admitted, the ceremony in their
case consisting merely of carrying them into the Purrah " bush"
and out again. But this side of the Purrah is merged in its
larger objects as represented by its two great aspects, the
religious and the civil. Under the former, boys join it at
puberty, while under the latter it is practically the native
governing body, making laws, deciding on war and peace, &c.
The Purrah has its special ritual and language, tattooing and
symbols, but details are unknown, as the oath of secrecy is always
kept. It meets usually in the dry season, between the months of
October and May. The rendezvous is in " the bush," an enclosure,
separated into apartments by mats and roofed only by the over-
hanging trees, serving as a club-house. There are three grades, the
first for chiefs and " big men," the second for fetish-priests and the
third for the crowd. The ceremonies of the Purrah are presided
over by the Purrah " devil," a man in fetish dress, who addresses
the meeting through a long tube of wood.
The Purrah can place its taboo on anything or anybody;
and as no native would venture to defy its order, much trouble
has been caused where the taboo has been laid upon crops.
In 1897 the British or local government was compelled to pass a
special ordinance absolutely forbidding the imposition of the
taboo on all indigenous products. Of the affiliated societies
the Yassi appears to some extent to be an association for provid-
ing men and women, who believe themselves ill through
"fetish," with medical treatment, on payment of certain fees.
The women's Bundu is in many ways a replica of the men's
Purrah, though without political power.
See T. J. Alldridge, The Sherbro and its Hinterland (1901).
PURSE (Late Lat. bursa, adapted from Gr. /3upera, hide, skin;
possibly O. Eng. pusa, bag, has influenced the change from b to p),
a small bag for holding money, originally a leather pouch tied
at the mouth, but now of various shapes. The great seal of
England is borne by the purse-bearer in a purse, usually styled
" burse," decorated with the arms of the kingdom, the " burse"
being thus one of the insignia of office of the lord chancellor of
England. The " privy purse" is the amount of public money
set apart in the civil list for the private and personal use of the
sovereign (see PRIVY PURSE).
PURSER, the old name for the paymaster of the British and
American navies still used in merchant vessels of to-day. In
the British navy he was appointed by a warrant from the
admiralty and was paid partly by salary and partly by a
percentage (10%) on the value of unexpended stores.
PURSLANE, the common name for a small fleshy annual
with prostrate stems, entire leaves and small yellow flowers,
known botanically as Portulaca oleracea. It is a native of India,
which was introduced into Europe as a salad plant, and in some
countries has spread so as to become a noxious weed. In certain
parts of the United States the evil qualities of " pussly" have
become proverbial. Its juice is refreshing and is used in tropical
countries as a refrigerant in fever. Some of the species of the
same genus, such as P. grandiflora and its varieties, are grown
in gardens on rock-work owing to the great beauty and deep
colouring of their flowers, the short duration of individual
blossoms being compensated for by the abundance with which
they are produced.
PURSUIVANT (O. Fr. porsivanl, poursivant, mod. poursuivant,
strictly an attendant, from poursuivre, to follow), the name of a
member of the third and lowest rank of heraldic officers, formerly
an attendant on the heralds. There are four pursuivants in
the English Heralds' College, Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge
Dragon and Portcullis; three in the Court of Lyon King of Arms
(Scotland), Carrick, Unicorn and March; and four in the court
of Ulster King of Arms (Ireland), Athlone and three St Patrick
pursuivants. (See HERALD and HERALDRY.)
PURULIA, a town of British India, headquarters of Manbhum
district in Bengal, on the Sini-Asansol branch of the Bengal-
Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901), 17,291. It is a growing centre
of trade.
PURVEYANCE (Lat. providere, to provide), in England in
former times the right of the sovereign when travelling through
the country to receive food and drink and maintenance generally
from his subjects for himself and his retinue. The custom dates
from Anglo-Saxon times and is analogous to the right oifodrum,
or annona militaris, exercised by the Prankish kings. Although
in early times purveyance was reasonable and necessary, enabling
the king to make journeys for the purpose of administering
justice and discharging the other duties of government, it was
liable to grave abuses, and under the later Plantagenet kings
it became very oppressive. Provision for the royal needs was
interpreted in the widest possible sense, and the right was
exercised, not only on behalf of the king, but on behalf of his
relatives. Besides victuals it included -the compulsory use of
horses and carts and even the enforcement of personal labour.
Not infrequently no payment was made; when it was it often
took the form of tallies, which gave the recipient the right to
deduct the amount from any taxes he might have to pay in
the future. Purveyors were appointed to requisition goods,
and they also fixed the price. The abuses of purveyance, which
appear to have reached their climax during the reign of Edward I.,
frequently provoked legislation. Chapter xxviii. of Magna
Carta is directed against them, while further attempts to curb
them were made in the Statute of Westminster of 1275 and in the
Articuli super cartas of 1300. Purveyance was entirely forbidden
by the ordinance of 1311, but in spite of all prohibitions its evils
grew and flourished. During the reign of Edward HI. ten
statutes were directed against it, and by a law of 1362 it was
restricted to the personal wants of the king and queen; at the
same time the hated name of purveyor was changed to that of
buyer, and ready money was ordered to be paid for the articles
taken. From this time little was heard about the evils of
purveyance until 1604, when the House of Commons petitioned
James I., giving some striking illustrations of its hardships.
It was asserted that when the royal officials required 200 carts
they ordered 800 or 900 to be brought, in order that they might
obtain bribes from the owners. Bacon called purveyance " the
most common and general abuse of all others in the kingdom."
Twice James entered into negotiations with his parliament
for commuting his crown rights, of which purveyance
was one, for an annual payment, but no arrangement was
reached. In 1660, however, the right of purveyance, which had
fallen into disuse with the execution of Charles I., was surren-
dered by Charles II. in return for the grant of an excise on beer
and liquors. The custom was exercised by almost all European
sovereigns, and in France at least was as oppressive as in
England. The word purveyor now means merely a vendor,
generally a vendor of food and drink.
See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (1896), vol. ii. ;
H. Hallam, Constitutional History of England (1863) ; and S. R.
Gardiner, History of England (1905), vol. i.
PUSA PUSEY
667
PUSA, a village of British India, in Darbhanga district, Bengal,
near the right bank of the Burhi Gandak River; pop. (1901),
4570. It was acquired as a government estate in 1796, and was
long used as a stud dep6t and afterwards as a tobacco farm. In
1904 it was selected as the site of a college and laboratory for
agricultural research.
PUSEY, EDWARD BOUVERIE (1800-1882), English divine,
was born at Pusey near Oxford on the 22nd of August 1800.
His father was Philip Bouverie (d. 1828), a younger son of Jacob
Bouverie, ist Viscount Folkestone, and took the name of Pusey
on succeeding to the manorial estates at that place. After
having been at Eton, he became a commoner of Christ Church,
Oxford, and was elected in 1824 to a fellowship at Oriel. He
thus became a member of a society which already contained some
of the ablest of his contemporaries among them J. H. Newman
and John Keble. Between 1825 and 1827 he studied Oriental
languages and German theology at Gottingen. His first work,
published in 1828, as an answer to Hugh James Rose's Cambridge
lectures on rationalist tendencies in German theology, showed
a good deal of sympathy with the German " pietists," who had
striven to deliver Protestantism from its decadence; this
sympathy was misunderstood, and Pusey was himself accused
of holding rationalist views.
In the same year (1828) the duke of Wellington appointed
him to the regius professorship of Hebrew with the attached
canonry of Christ Church. The misunderstanding of his
position led to the publication in 1830 of a second part of Pusey's
Historical Enquiry, in which he denied the charge of rationalism.
But in the years which immediately followed the current of his
thoughts began to set in another direction. The revolt against
individualism had begun, and he was attracted to its standard.
By the end of 1833 he showed a disposition to make common
cause with those who had already begun to issue the Tracts for
the Times. " He was not, however, fully associated in the move-
ment till 1835 and 1836, when he published his tract on baptism
and started the Library of the Fathers" (Newman's Apologia,
p. 136). He became a close student of the fathers and of that
school of Anglican divines who had continued, or revived, in the
1 7th century the main traditions of pre-Reformation teaching.
A sermon which he preached before the university in 1843,
The Holy Eucharist a Comfort to the Penitent, so startled the
authorities by the re-statement of doctrines which, though well
known to ecclesiastical antiquaries, had faded from the common
view, that by the exercise of an authority which, however
legitimate, was almost obsolete, he was suspended for two years
from the function of preaching. The immediate effect of his
suspension was the sale of 18,000 copies of the condemned
sermon; its permanent effect was to make Pusey for the next
quarter of a century the most influential person in the Anglican
Church, for it was one of the causes which led Newman to sever
himself from that communion. The movement, in the actual
origination of which he had had no share, came to bear his name:
it was popularly known as Puseyism (sometimes as Newmania)
and its adherents as Puseyites. His activity, both public and
private, as leader of the movement was enormous. He was not
only on the stage but also behind the scenes of every important
controversy, whether theological or academical. In the Gorham
controversy of 1850, in the question of Oxford reform in 1854,
in the prosecution of some of the writers of Essays and Reviews,
especially of Benjamin Jowett, in 1863, in the question as to the
reform of the marriage laws from 1849 to the end of his life, in
the Farrar controversy as to the meaning of everlasting punish-
ment in 1877, he was always busy with articles, letters, treatises
and sermons. The occasions on which, in his turn, he preached
before his university were all memorable; and some of the
sermons were manifestoes which mark distinct stages in the
history of the High Church party of which he was the leader.
The practice of confession in the Church of England practically
dates from his two sermons on The Entire Absolution of the
Penitent, in 1846, in which the revival of high sacramental
doctrine is complemented by the advocacy of a revival of the
penitential system which medieval theologians had appended to
it. The sermon on The Presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist,
in 1853, first formulated the doctrine round which almost all
the subsequent theology of his followers revolved, and which
revolutionized the practices of Anglican worship. Of his larger
works the most important are his two books on the Eucharist
The Doctrine of the Real Presence (1855) and The Real Presence
. . .the Doctrine of the English Church (1857); Daniel the Prophet
in which he endeavours to maintain the traditional date of that
book; The Minor Prophets, with Commentary, his chief contribu-
tion to the study of which he was the professor; and the
Eirenicon, in which he endeavoured to find a basis of union
between the Church of England and the Church of Rome.
In private life Pusey's habits were simple almost to austerity.
He had few personal friends, and rarely mingled in general
society; though bitter to opponents, he was gentle to those who
knew him, and his munificent charities gave him a warm place
in the hearts of many to whom he was personally unknown. In
his domestic life he had some severe trials; his wife died, after
eleven years of married life, in 1839; his only son, who was a
scholar like-minded with himself, who had shared many of his
literary labours, and who had edited an excellent edition of
St Cyril's commentary on the minor prophets, died in 1880,
after many years of suffering. From that time Pusey was seen by
only a few persons. His strength gradually declined, and he
died on the i6th of September 1882, after a short illness. He
was buried at Oxford in the cathedral of which he had been for
fifty-four years a canon. In his memory his friends purchased
his library, and bought for it a house in Oxford, known as the
Pusey House, which they endowed with sufficient funds to
maintain three librarians, who were charged with the duty of
endeavouring to perpetuate in the university the memory
of the principles which he taught.
Pusey is chiefly remembered as the eponymous representative
of the earlier phase of a movement which carried with it no small
part of the religious life of England in the latter half of the I9th
century. His own chief characteristic was an almost unbounded
capacity for taking pains. His chief influence was that of a
preacher and a spiritual adviser. As a preacher he lacked all
the graces of oratory, but compelled attention by his searching
and practical earnestness. His correspondence as a spiritual
adviser was enormous; his deserved reputation for piety and for
solidity of character made him the chosen confessor to whom
large numbers of men and women unburdened their doubts and
their sins. But if he be estimated apart from his position as
the head of a great party, it must be considered that he was more
a theological antiquary than a theologian. Pusey in fact was
left behind by his followers even in his lifetime. His revival of
the doctrine of the Real Presence, coinciding as it did with the
revival of a taste for medieval art, naturally led to a revival of
the pre-Reformation ceremonial of worship. With this revival
of ceremonial Pusey had little sympathy: he at first protested
against it (in a university sermon in 1859); and, though he came
to defend those who were accused of breaking the law in their
practice of it, he did so on the express ground that their practice
was alien to his own. But this revival of ceremonial in its
various degrees became the chief external characteristic of the
new movement; and " Ritualist " thrust "Puseyite" aside as
the designation of those who hold the doctrines for which he
mainly contended. On the other hand, the pivot of his teaching
was the appeal to primitive antiquity; and in this respect he
helped to start inquiry which has since gone far beyond the
materials which were open to one of his generation.
See J. Rigg, Character and Life-Work of Dr Pusey (1883); B. W.
Savile, Dr Pusey, an Historic Sketch, with Some Account of the
Oxford Movement (1883), and especially the Life by Canon Liddon,
completed by J. C. Johnston and R. J. Wilson (5 vols., 1893-1899),
Newman's Apologia, and other literature of the Oxford Movement.
Pusey's elder brother, PHILIP PUSEY (1799-1855), was a
member of parliament and a friend and follower of Sir
Robert Peel. He was one of the founders of the Royal
Agricultural Society, and was chairman of the implement
department of the great exhibition of 1851. He was a fellow
668
PUSHBALL PUSHKIN
of the Royal Society, a writer on varied topics to the reviews
and the author of the hymn " Lord of our Life and God of our
Salvation."
PUSHBALL, a game played by two sides on a field usually
140 yds. long and 50 yds. wide, with a ball 6 ft. in diameter and
50 Ib in weight. The sides usually number eleven each, there
being five forwards, two left-wings, two right-wings and two
goal-keepers. The goals consist of two upright posts 18 ft. high
and 20 ft. apart with a crossbar 7 ft. from the ground. The
game lasts for two periods with an intermission. Pushing the
ball under the bar counts 5 points; lifting or throwing it over the
bar counts 8. A touchdown behind goal for safety counts 2 to
the attacking side. The game was invented by M. G. Crane,
of Newton, Massachusetts, in 1894, and was taken up at Harvard
University the next year, but has never attained any considerable
vogue. In Great Britain the first regular game was played at
the Crystal Palace in 1902 by teams of eight. The English rules
are somewhat different from those obtaining in the United States.
Pushball on horseback was introduced in 1902 at Durland's
Riding Academy in New York, and has been played in England
at the Military Tournament.
PUSHKAR, a town of British India, in Ajmere district,
Rajputana, 7 m. N. of Ajmere town. Pop. (1901), 3831. It
derives its name from 'a small lake among the hills, 2389 ft. above
the sea, in which Brahma is once said to have bathed as a pen-
ance. It contains one- of the very few temples, in all India,
dedicated to Brahma. At the annual celebration (Oct.-Nov.)
about 100,000 pilgrims come to bathe in the lake.
PUSHKIN, ALEXANDER (1799-1837), Russian poet, was
born at Moscow, on the 7th of June 1799. He belonged to an
ancient family of boyars; his maternal great-grandfather, a
favourite negro ennobled by Peter the Great, bequeathed to him
curly hair and a somewhat darker complexion than falls to the
lot of the ordinary Russian. In 1811 the future poet entered
the newly founded lyceum of Tsarskoe Selo, situated near St
Petersburg. On quitting the lyceum in 1817 he was attached
to the ministry of foreign affairs, and in this year he began the
composition of his Ruslan and Ly'udmila, a poem which was
completed in 1820. Meanwhile Pushkin mixed in all the gayest
society of the capital, and it seemed as if he would turn out a
mere man of fashion instead of a poet. But a very daring Ode
to Liberty written by him had been circulated in manuscript in
St Petersburg. This production having been brought to the
notice of the governor, the young author only escaped a journey
to Siberia by accepting an official position at Kishinev in Bess-
arabia, in southern Russia. If we follow the chronological order
of his poems, we can trace the enthusiasm with which he greeted
the ever-changing prospects of the sea and the regions of the
Danube and the Crimea.
At this time Pushkin was, or affected to be, overpowered
by the Byronic " Weltschmerz." Having visited the baths of
the Caucasus for the re-establishment of his health in 1822, he
felt the inspiration of its magnificent scenery, and composed
The Prisoner of the Caucasus, narrating the story of the love of a
Circassian girl for a youthful Russian officer. This was followed
by the Fountain of Bakhchisarai, which tells of the detention of
a young Polish captive, a Countess Potocka, in the palace of the
khans of the Crimea. About the same time he composed some
interesting lines on Ovid, whose place of banishment, Tomi, was
not far distant. To this period belongs also the Ode to Napoleon,
which is inferior to the fine poems of Byron and Manzoni, or
indeed of Lermontov, on the same subject. In the Lay concern-
ing the Wise Oleg we see how the influence of Karamzin's
History had led the Russians to take a greater interest in the
early records of their country. The next long poem was the
Gipsies (Tzuigani), an Oriental tale of love and vengeance, in
which Pushkin has admirably delineated these nomads, whose
strange mode of life fascinated him. During his stay in southern
Russia he allowed himself to get mixed up with the secret
societies then rife throughout the country. He also became
embroiled with his chief, Count Vorontzov, who sent him to
report upon the damages which had been committed by locusts
in the southern part of Bessarabia. Pushkin took this as a
premeditated insult, and sent in his resignation; and Count
Vorontzov in his official report requested the government to
remove the poet, " as he was surrounded by a society of political
and literary fanatics, whose praises might turn his head and make
him believe that he was a great writer, whereas he was only a
feeble imitator of Lord Byron, an original not much to be com-
mended." The poet quitted Odessa in 1824, and on leaving
wrote a fine Ode to the Sea. Before the close of the year he had
returned to his father's seat at Mikhailovskoe, near Pskov,
where he soon involved himself in trouble on all sides. In his
retirement he devoted a great deal of time to the study of the
old Russian popular poetry, the builinas, of which he became a
great admirer. Recollections of Byron and Andre Chenier
gave the inspiration to some fine lines consecrated to the latter,
in which Pushkin appeared more conservative than was his wont,
and wrote in a spirit antagonistic to the French Revolution.
In 1825 he published his tragedy Boris Godunov, a bold effort
to imitate the style of Shakespeare. Up to this time the tradi-
tions of the Russian stage, such as it was, had been French.
In 1825 the conspiracy of the Dekabrists broke out. Many of
the conspirators were personal friends of Pushkin, especially
Kiichelbecker and Pustchin. The poet himself was to a certain
extent compromised, but he succeeded in getting to his house
at Mikhailovskoe and burning all the papers which might have
been prejudicial to him. Through influential friends he suc-
ceeded in making his peace with the emperor, to whom he was
presented at Moscow soon after his coronation. The story goes
that Nicholas said to Count Bludov on the same evening, " I
have just been conversing with the most witty man in Russia.' 7
In 1828 appeared Poltava, a spirited narrative poem, in which
the expedition of Charles XII. against Peter and the treachery
of the hetman Mazeppa were described. In 1829 Pushkin
again visited the Caucasus, on this occasion accompanying the
expedition of Prince Paskevich. He wrote a pleasing account
of the tour; many of the short lyrical pieces suggested by the
scenery and associations of his visit are delightful, especially
the lines on the Don and the Caucasus. In 183 1 Pushkin married
Natalia Goncharov, and in the following year was again attached
to the ministry of foreign affairs, with a salary of 5000 roubles.
He now busied himself with an historical account of the revolt
of the Cossack Pugachev, who almost overthrew the empire of
Catherine and was executed at Moscow in the latter part of the
1 8th century. While engaged upon this he wrote The Captain's
Daughter, one of the best of his prose works. In 1832 was
completed the poem Eugene Onyegin, in which the author
modelled his style upon the lighter sketches of Byron in the
Italian manner. Yet no one can accuse Pushkin of want of
nationalism in this poem : it is Russian in every fibre.
In 1837 the poet, who had been long growing in literary
reputation, fell mortally wounded in a duel with Baron George
Heckeren d'Anthes, the adopted son of the Dutch minister then
resident at the court of St Petersburg. D'Anthes, a vain and
frivolous young man, had married a sister of the poet's wife.
Notwithstanding this he aroused Pushkin's jealousy by some
attentions which he paid Natalia; but the grounds for the poet's
anger, it must be confessed, do not appear very great. Pushkin
died, after two days' suffering, on the afternoon of Friday the
loth of February. D'Anthes was tried by court-martial and
expelled the country. In 1880 a statue of the poet was erected
at the Tver Barrier at Moscow, and fetes were held in his honour,
on which occasion many interesting memorials of him were
exhibited to his admiring countrymen and a few foreigners who
had congregated for the festivities. Pushkin left four children;
his widow was afterwards married to an officer in the army,
named Lanskoi; she died in 1863.
Pushkin's poetical tales are spirited and full of dramatic
power. The influence of Byron is undoubtedly seen in them,
but they are not imitations, still less is anything in them plagi-
arized. Boris Godunov is a fine tragedy; on the whole Eugene
Onyegin must be considered Pushkin's masterpiece. Here we
have a great variety of styles satire, pathos and humour mixed
PUSHTU PUTEOLI
669
together. The character-painting is good, and the descriptions
of scenery introduced faithful to nature. The poem in many
places reminds us of Byron, who himself in his mixture of the
pathetic and the humorous was a disciple of the Italian school.
Pushkin also wrote a great many lyrical pieces. Interspersed
among the poet's minor works will be found many epigrams,
but some of the best composed by him were not so fortunate as
to pass the censorship, and must be read in a supplementary
volume published at Berlin. As a prose writer Pushkin has
considerable merits. Besides his History of the Revolt of Puga-
chev, which is perhaps too much of a compilation, he published a
small volume of tales under the nom de plume of Ivan Byelkin.
These all show considerable dramatic power: the best are The
Captain's Daughter, a tale of the times of Catherine II.; The
Undertaker, a very ghostly story, which will remind the English
reader of some of the tales of Edgar Poe; The Pistol Shot; and
The Queen of Spades.
The academy of St Petersburg has recently issued a complete
edition of the works of Pushkin, including his letters. See the
bibliography in the editions of Gennadi (7 vols.,St Petersburg, 1861)
and Annenkov (6 vols., St Petersburg, 1855). (W. R. M.)
PUSHTU, the language of the Pathan races of Afghanistan
and the North-West Frontier province of India. It belongs
to the Iranian group of the Indo-European languages, but pos-
sesses many Panjabi words. In Afghanistan it is the dominant
language, but is not spoken west of the Helmund. In India it
has two main dialects, the northern, hard or Pukhtu, and the
southern, soft or Pushtu. The dividing line of the two dialects
runs eastwards from Thai through the Kohat district almost to
the Indus, but it then turns northwards, as the speech of the
Akhora Khattaks belongs to the Pushtu or southern dialect.
Thus Pukhtu is spoken in Bajour, Swat and Buner, and by the
Yusufzais, Bangash, Orakzais, Afridis and Mohmands; while
Pushtu is spoken by the Waziris, Khattaks, Marwats and various
minor tribes in the south. The language division corresponds
roughly with the tribal system of the Pathans, who are aristo-
cratic in the north and democratic in the south. The classical
dialect of Pukhtu is that of the Yusufzais, in which the earliest
works in the language were composed. The Orakzai dialect
differs from that of the Afridis, in that it is broader but less
guttural and spoken more rapidly. The standard dialect is
that of Peshawar. The literature is richest in poetry, Abdur
Rahman, of the lyth century, being the best-known poet. Pushtu
was spoken in the North- West Frontier province in 1901 by
1,142,011 persons, or 54% of the population.
See Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India; Roos-Keppel, Manual
of Pushtu (1901) ; Lorimer, Grammar of Waziri Pushtu (1902).
PUTEAUX, a north-western suburb of Paris, on the left
bank of the Seine, 4$ m. from the centre of the city. Pop.
(1906), 28,718. Puteaux has a church of the i6th century with
good stained glass windows. There is a fort on the Seine.
PUTEOLI (mod. Pozzuoli, q.v.), an ancient town of Campania,
Italy, on the northern shore of the Bay of Puteoli, a portion of
the Bay of Naples, from which it is 6 m. W. The statement
made by Stephanus of Byzantium and Jerome, that the
city was founded under the name of Dicaearchia by a
colony of Samians about 520 B.C., is probably correct, for,
though in the territory of Curnae, it does not appear to have
been occupied previous to 520, Misenum having been the
original port of Cumae. On the other hand, Cumae probably
extended her supremacy over it not long after. Its history in
the Samnite period is unknown; but the coins of Fistelia (or
Fistlus in Oscan) probably belong to Puteoli, as Mommsen
thought. Nor do we know anything of its history between
334 (when it probably became a civilas sine su/ragio under
Roman domination, shortly afterwards receiving, in 318, a
praefectus iurc dicundo) and 215, when the Romans introduced
a garrison of 6000 men to protect the town from Hannibal, who
besieged it in vain for three days in 214. In 194 a Roman
colony of 300 men was established. The lex parieti faciundo,
an interesting inscription of 105 B.C. relating to some building
works in front of the temple of Serapis. shows that Puteoli had
considerable administrative independence, including the right
to date such a public document by the names of its own magis-
trates. Sulla retired to Puteoli after his resignation of the
dictatorship in 79, and ten days before his death reconciled the
disputes of the citizens by giving them a constitution. Cicero
had a house in Puteoli itself, and a villa on the edge of the
Lucrine lake (which, though nearer to Puteoli, was in the terri-
tory of Cumae), and many prominent men of the republic
possessed country houses in the neighbourhood of Puteoli
(see BAIAE; AVERNUS LACUS; LUCRINUS LACUS; MISENUM).
In the Civil War it sided with Pompey, and later on with Brutus
and Cassius. Nero admitted the old inhabitants to the privileges
of the colony, thus uniting in one the two previously distinct
communities. In 61 St Paul landed here, and spent seven days
before leaving for Rome (Acts xxviii. 13). Vespasian, as a
reward for its having taken his part, gave the town part of the
territory of Capua, and installed more colonists there whence
it took the title Colonia Flavia, which it retained till the end of
the empire.
The remains of Hadrian, who died at the neighbouring town
of Baiae, were buried at Puteoli, and Antoninus Pius, besides
erecting a temple to his memory on the site of Cicero's villa,
instituted sacred games to be held in the city every five years.
Commodus held the title of duumvir quinquennalis. It was
mainly, however, as a great commercial port that Puteoli was
famous in ancient times. It joined with Naples to erect one of
the finest porticoes of Constantinople at the time of its construc-
tion. A letter of Symmachus gives us interesting details as to
public corn distributions of the 4th century, throwing some light
on the population. Like Ostia, Puteoli was considered a special
port of Rome, and, on account of the safety and convenience of
its harbour, it was preferred to Ostia for the landing of the more
costly and delicate wares. As at Ostia, the various gilds were
of considerable importance, but we find no centonarii or fabri,
perhaps owing to its relations with the East, where these popular
gilds were prohibited. Puteoli was preferred to Naples, (a) as
being in Roman territory, (6) because the customs duty was
only leviable once, not twice as it would have been at Naples
once by the local authorities, and once by the Roman authorities
on entrance into Roman territory. 1 It exported iron from Elba,
mosaics, pottery, manufactured locally with earth from Ischia
(which was in considerable demand until 1883), sulphur (which
indeed was extracted in the neighbourhood until the i8th cen-
tury), probably alum (which is still worked), perfumes, pozzolana
earth (taking its name from the place), cretaceous earth for
mixing with grain (alica) from the Leucogaean hills, glass cups
engraved with views of Puteoli, mineral dyes (the blue invented
by one Vestorius is mentioned by Vitruvius and the purple of
Puteoli by Pliny, as being of special excellence), &c., but not
agricultural products, except certain brands of Campanian
wine; but its imports were considerably greater. During the
Punic Wars it was still a naval port, but in the latter part of the
and century B.C. it became the greatest commercial harbour
of Italy and we find Lucilius about 125 B.C. placing it next in
importance to Delos, then the greatest harbour of the ancient
world. We note a little later the existence of merchants of
Puteoli in the East. Under the empire we find Eastern cults
taking root here sooner than in Rome. The construction of
the harbour of Claudius at the mouth of the Tiber adversely
affected Puteoli. Nero's scheme for the construction of a
canal from Lake Avernus to Ostia would have restored the
balance in its favour (though it certainly could not have been
continuous all the way to Rome with the means of engineering
then available).
The corn supply of Rome came partly through Puteoli,
partly through Ostia. Seneca (Epist. 77) describes the joy of
the inhabitants in the spring when the fleet of corn vessels from
Alexandria was seen approaching, and Statius tells us that the
crew of the ship which arrived first made libations to Minerva
1 A mass of pottery debris found in 1875 gave important infor-
mation as to the local manufacture. Some fragments came from
Arretium, others, not quite so good, were of local work, but of the
same style.
670
PUTLITZ PUTNAM, I.
when passing the promontory which bore her name (the Punta
Campanella at Sorrento). It is uncertain what official had the
charge of the corn supply at Puteoli under the Republic, but in
the time of Antoninus Pius we find an Aug(usti) dis(pensator)
a frumento Pttteolis et Ostis dependent no doubt on a procurator
annonae of the two ports.
Claudius established here, as at Ostia, a cohort of irigiles as a
fire-brigade. Brundusium was similarly protected. There was
also a station of the imperial post, sailors of the imperial fleet at
Misenum being apparently employed as couriers. The artificial
mole was probably of earlier date than the reign of Augustus
(possibly 2nd century B.C.) ; and by that time at any rate there
were docks large enough to contain the vessels employed in
bringing the obelisks from Egypt. Remains of the piles of the
mole still exist, and are popularly known as Caligula's Bridge,
from the mistaken idea that they belong to the temporary
structure which that emperor flung across the bay from the
mole at Puteoli to the shore at Baiae. Inscriptions record
repairs to the breakwater by Antoninus Pius in 139 in fulfilment
of a promise made by Hadrian before his death. Alaric (410),
Genseric (455) and Totila (545) successively laid Puteoli in ruins.
The restoration effected by the Byzantines was partial and short-
lived.
The original town of Puteoli was situated on the narrow hill of the
Castello. Scanty traces of fortifications of the Roman period seem
to have come to light in recent tunnelling operations. The streets
of the old town probably, as at Naples, preserve the ancient align-
ment. There are also traces of the division of the lands in the
immediate vicinity of the town into squares by parallel paths
(decumani and cardines) at regular intervals of nil} Roman feet,
postulating as the basis of the division a square with a side of 10,000
Roman feet, divided into 8 1 smaller squares an arrangement which
could not have existed at Puteoli, and must have arisen elsewhere.
It is remarkable as being contrary to Roman surveyors' practice,
according to which the basis of division is the intersection at right
angles of the cardo and decumanus, which would give an even (not
an odd) number of smaller squares. The size of the ancient town at
its largest can be roughly fixed by its tombs. Inscriptions show
that it was divided into regiones. The market hall (macellum)
(compare the similar buildings at Pompeii and elsewhere), generally
known as the temple of Serapis, from a statue of that deity found
there, was excavated in 1750. It consisted of a rectangular court
surrounded by chambers on the outside and with a colonnade of
thirty-six columns of cipollino (Carystian) marble and grey granite.
The three columns still standing, some 39 ft. high, belong to a
facade of four still higher columns erected in front of the absidal
cello, or sanctuary, with three niches for statues no doubt of the
protecting deities. The borings of marine shellfish visible in these
columns between n and 19 ft. from the ground, and the various
levels of pavement in the macellum help to indicate, according to
Giinther's researches (Archaeologia, Ivii. 499; Earth Movements in
the Bay of Naples, 1903), that the level of the shore fell very slightly
during the Roman period, when it was some 20 ft. higher than at
present ; that it fell more rapidly during the middle ages, was then
raised again early in the l6th century (before the upheaval of the
Monte Nuovo in 1538) and has since been sinking gradually. In the
centre was a round colonnade with sixteen columns of Numidian mar-
ble (giallo antico) now in the theatre of the palace at Caserta. Dubois
(op. cit., 286 sqq.) reproduces important drawings and a description
made by the architect Caristie in 1820. The well-preserved amphi-
theatre, the subterranean parts of which below the arena are intact,
with a main passage down the centre, a curved passage all round
with holes for trap doors in its roof, and numerous small chambers,
also with trap doors in their vaulted roofs for admitting the wild
beasts, whose cages were on the other side of the curved passage, to
the arena, are especially interesting. There were also arrangements
for flooding the arena, but these can only have been in use before the
construction of the greater part of the subterranean portion with its
cages, &c. The whole amphitheatre measures 489 by 381 ft., and the
arena 245 by 138 ft. Of the upper portion the interior is well
preserved, but very little of the external arcades remains. It was not
constructed before the reien of Vespasian, for inscriptions record
that it was built by the Colonia Flavia. There was, however, an
amphitheatre in the reign of Nero, who himself fought in games
given there, and the glass cup of Odemira shows two. A ruin still
exists which may be doubtfully attributed to the latter (Dubois, p.
192). Remains of thermae also exist in various places, the mineral
springs having been much used in Roman times. The cathedral of
S. Proculus (containing the tomb of the musician Pergolesi, d. 1736)
is built into a temple of Augustus, erected by L. Calpurnius, 6
columns of which, with their Corinthian capitals, still exist. Other
ruins^ of a circus, of tombs, &c., exist, and there are also considerable
remains of villas in the neighbourhood.
Puteoli was supplied with water by two aqueducts, both subter-
ranean, one of which, bringing water from springs in the immediate
neighbourhood, is still in use, while the other is a branch of the
Senno aqueduct, which was probably taken to Misenum by Agrippa.
Several remains of reservoirs exist ; one very large one is now called
Piscina di Cardito.
Among the inscriptions one of the most interesting is the letter
of the Tyrian merchants resident at Puteoli to the senate of Tyre,
written in 174, asking the latter to undertake the payment of the rent
of their factory, and the reply of the senate promising to do so.
(This is the interpretation adopted by Dubois, pp. 86,92, following
Dittenberger.) We find other Eastern merchants resident here
merchants from Heliopolis, Berytus (Beirut), Nabataea, Palestine,
and from Asia Minor, Greece, &c. We find far less trace of commer-
cial relations with the West, though there was considerable importa-
tion of commodities from southern Spain wine, oil, metals, salt
fish, &c., while a good deal of pottery was exported to Spain and
southern Gaul. We find, indeed, two cases of men who held muni-
cipal honours at Puteoli and in the Rhone valley. Puteoli was
reached direct by a road from Capua traversing the hills to the
north by a cutting (the Montagna Spaccata), which went on to
Neapolis, and by the Via Domitiana from Rome and Cumae. There
was also a short cut from Puteoli to Neapolis by the tunnel of
Pausilipon, made under Augustus. It is not possible to trace the
episcopal see of Puteoli with any certainty further back than the
beginning of the 4th century. In 305, S. Januarius (S. Gennaro, the
patron saint of Naples), bishop of Beneventum, S. Proculus, patron
of Puteoli, and others, suffered martyrdom at Puteoli.
See the careful study by C. Dubois, Pouzzoles antique (Paris, 1907)
(Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome, fasc. 98).
(T. As.)
PUTLITZ, GUSTAV HEINRICH GANS, EDLER zu (1821-
1890), German author, was born at Retzien near Perleberg in
West Prignitz, on the 2oth of March 1821. He studied law at
Berlin and Heidelberg, and was attached to the provincial
government at Magdeburg from 1846-1848. In 1853 he married
Grafin Elisabeth von Konigsmark, and lived on his estate until
1863, when he became director of the Court theatre at Schwerin.
This post he left in 1867, was for a short time chamberlain to the
crown prince of Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick,
and from 1873 to 1889 successfully directed the Court theatre at
Karlsruhe. He died at Retzien on the sth of September 1890.
Putlitz made his debut as a writer with a volume of romantic
stories, Was sich der Wold erzahlt (1850), which attained great
popularity (fifty editions) and found many imitators; but he
was most successful in his comedies, notably Badekuren (1859);
Das Herz vergcssen (1853); and Spielt nicht mil dem Fever t
(1887), while of his narratives Die Alpenbraut (1870) and Wal-
purgis (1870) are distinguished by refined terseness of style and
delicacy of portraiture.
A selection of his works, Ausgewahlte Werke, was published in
6 vols. in Berlin (1872-1877), and a supplementary volume in 1888;
his comedies, Ltistspiele, appeared in two series of 4 vols. each
(1851-1860 and 1869-1872). See E. zu Putlitz, Gustav zu Pullitz.
Ein Lebensbild aus Briefen (3 vols., 1894-1895).
PUTNAM, ISRAEL (1718-1790), American soldier, was born
in Salem Village (now Danvers), Massachussetts, on the 7th of
January 1718. His first American ancestor (of the same family
as George Puttenham), came from Aston Abbotts, Bucks, and
was one of the first settlers of Salem Village. In 1740 he removed
to a farm in the present townships of Pomfret and Brooklyn,
Connecticut. Here in the winter of 1742-1743 he went down
into a .wolf den (still shown in Pomfret) and at close quarters
killed a huge wolf. Putnam took an active part in the French
and Indian War, enlisting as a private in 1755 and rising to the
rank of major in March 1758. He was conspicuous for personal
courage and for skill in Indian warfare, and was the hero of
numerous exploits. In 1764, during Pontiac's conspiracy, he
commanded the Connecticut troops (five companies) in the ex-
pedition under Colonel John Bradstreet for the relief of Detroit.
He was a prominent member of the Sons of Liberty and a leader
in the opposition to the Stamp Act; was elected to the general
assembly of Connecticut in 1766 and 1767; and increased his
political influence by opening a tavern, " The General Wolfe,"
in Brooklyn, Conn. In August 1774, as chairman of the
committee of correspondence for Brooklyn parish, he went
with the committee's message and contributions to the Boston
Patriots; and in October became lieutenant-colonel of the nth
regiment of Connecticut militia. News of the fighting at
PUTNAM, R. PUTTENHAM
671
Lexington and Concord reached him while he was ploughing on
his farm ; he instantly left the plough in the furrow and hastened
to Cambridge; and he was later made second brigadier of the
Connecticut forced. He was with the force, commanded by
Colonel William I'rescott, which on the night of the i6th of June
fortified Breed's Hill, and on the next day he took a conspicuous
part in resisting the British attack 1 (see BUNKER HILL). Soon
afterward, on his own authority, he occupied Prospect Hill, an
important point for the siege of Boston, in which he commanded
the centre (two brigades) of the American army at Cambridge.
After the evacuation of Boston he was in command of New
York City till Washington's arrival (April 13, 1776), and then
was put in general charge of the city's fortifications. Immedi-
ately before the battle of Long Island he succeeded General
John Sullivan in command of the troops on Brooklyn Heights,
and in the battle of Long Island (of Aug. 27) he was in immediate
command of the American side. In the retreat from New York
City he commanded one of the three grand divisions, and took
part in the battle of Harlem Heights (September 16). His
attempt to close the Hudson by sinking vessels in the channel was
unsuccessful. In December he was ordered to Philadelphia to
superintend the fortification of the city, was stationed at Prince-
ton, New Jersey, from January to May 1777, and in May took
command of the Hudson Highlands at Peekskill, which with
Forts Montgomery and Clinton he abandoned in October, being
out-manoeuvred by the British, and having been weakened by
Washington's repeated demands for reinforcements. In the spring
of 1778 he was superseded by General Alexander McDougall,
but in April a court of inquiry acquitted him of " any fault,
misconduct or negligence " in connexion with the loss of Forts
Montgomery and Clinton. After a few months' recruiting service
in Connecticut he returned to the main army at White Plains.
In the winter of 1778-1779 he commanded the troops quartered
near Redding, Conn., where Putnam Memorial Park now
is. 1 In May he took command of the right wing on the west
side of the Hudson. An attack of paralysis in December 1779
terminated his active service in the war. He spent his last
years on his farm in Brooklyn, Conn., where he died on the 2gth
of May 1790. A bronze equestrian statue by Karl Gerhardt,
over a sarcophagus, was erected at Brooklyn, Conn., by the
state in 1888, and there is another statue (1874) in Bushnell
Park, Hartford, by J. Q. A. Ward.
Putnam was a brave, intrepid and very industrious soldier
rather than a great general, but his fame in the Indian wars, his
personal courage, his bluff heartiness and his good-fellowship
made him an idol of the rank and file; and he is one of the popular
heroes in American history. He seems to have taken no part
in the political manceuvrings and cabals which busied many of
.the officers of the American army.
See W. F. Livingston, Israel Putnam, Pioneer, Ranger and Major-
Central (New York, 1901) in the " American Men of Energy " series;
I. N. Tarbox, Life of Israel Putnam (Boston, 1876) ; and Essay on the
Life of the Honorable Major-General Israel Putnam (Hartford, 1788;
enlarged ed., Boston, 1818), by David Humphreys, for a time
Putnam's aide-de-camp.
PUTNAM, RUFUS (1738-1824), American soldier and pioneer,
was born in Sutton, Massachusetts, on the 9th of April 1738
(O.S.). His grandfather was a half brother to Israel Putnam's
father. He served in the French and Indian War in 1757-60;
was a millwright in New Braintree in 1761-1768, during which
time he studied surveying; and from 1769 until the War of
Independence was a farmer and surveyor. In 1773, with Israel
1 So loose was the army's organization that it is impossible to
settle the question whether Putnam or Prescott was in command at
Bunker Hill. Apparently their authority did not clash and was
practically independent. See Justin Winsor in his Narrative and
Critical History, vi. 190-191 (reprinted in Livingston's Israel Putnam,
as app. it.).
'On the 26th of February 1779, with a small outpost, he was
surprised near Greenwich by a superior force under General William
Tryon. He ordered a retreat, started to Stamford for reinforce-
ments and, being closely pursued by several dragoons, is said to have
ridden down a steep hill (marked in 1900 with a granite monument),
and thus escaped. From Stamford he hastened back with rein-
forcements and took thirty-eight prisoners from Tryon.
Putnam and two others, he visited West Florida to examine
lands which, it was expected, were to be granted to the provincial
troops for their services against the French and Indians, and
which he charted (see MISSISSIPPI). He became lieutenant-
colonel in one of the first regiments raised after the battle of
Lexington, and served before Boston; in March 1776 he was made
chief engineer of the works at New York; in August he was
appointed engineer with the rank of colonel; and when Congress
did not act on his plan (submitted in Oct. 1776) for the
establishment of a distinct engineer corps he resigned (Dec. 1776),
and in 1777 served in the northern army under Major-General
Horatio Gates, commanding two regiments in the secpnd battle
of Saratoga. In 1778 he laid out fortifications, including Fort
Putnam, at West Point, and in 1779 he served under Major-
General Anthony Wayne after the capture of Stony Point. For
the remainder of the war he saw little active service. In
January 1783 he was commissioned brigadier-general. After the
war he returned to Rutland, Mass., where he had bought a
confiscated farm in 1780. In March 1786 he founded, with other
officers of the War of Independence, the Ohio Company of
Associates for the purchase and settlement of Western lands.
In November 1787, after Congress had made its grant to the
Ohio Company, he was appointed by the company superintendent
of its proposed settlement on the Ohio, and in 1788 he led the
small party which founded Marietta, Ohio. He was a judge of
the court of the North- West Territory in 1790-1796; was a briga-
dier-general in the army and a commissioner to treat with the
Indians in 1792-1793; was surveyor-general of the United States
in 1796-1803; and in 1802 was a member of the Ohio state consti-
tutional convention. He died, in Marietta, on the 4th of May
1824. He has been called " The Father of Ohio," and he contri-
buted greatly toward the material building up of the North- West
Territory.
See John W. Campbell, Biographical Sketches (Columbus, Ohio,
1838); Sidney Crawford, " Rufus Putnam, and his Pioneer Life in
the North-west," vol. xii., new series, pp. 431-454, Proceedings of
the American Antiquarian Society (Worcester, 1899), and Rowena
Buell (ed.), The Memoirs of Rufus Putnam (Boston, 1903), in which
his autobiography, his journal and other papers, now in the library
of Marietta College, are reprinted. His Journal, 1757-1760, dealing
with his experiences in the French and Indian War, was edited with
notes by E. C. Dawes (Albany, New York, 1886).
PUTNAM, a city and the county-seat of Windham county,
Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Putnam, on the Quine-
baug river, at the mouth of the Mill river, in the N.E. part of
the state, about 6 m. from the Rhode Island boundary and about
75 m. from that of Massachusetts. Pop. (1900), of the town-
ship (including the city), 7348; of the city, 6667 (2012 being
foreign born) ; (1910) 6637. Putnam is at the intersection of two
branches of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway,
and is connected by electric line with Worcester, Norwich and
Providence. The city is the seat of two Roman Catholic insti-
tutions, St Mary's Convent and Notre Dame Academy, and has
a public library and an endowed hospital. The Quinebaug and
Mill rivers provide excellent water-power. The township
(named in honour of General Israel Putnam) was incorporated
in 1855, and the city was chartered in 1895.
PUTTEE, or PUTTIE, the name, adapted from the Hindi
patti, bandage (Skr. patta, strip of cloth), for a covering for the
lower part of the leg from the ankle to the knee, consisting of a
long narrow piece of cloth wound tightly and spirally round the
leg, and serving both as a support and protection, worn especially
by riders, and taking the place of the leather or cloth gaiter.
It has been adopted as part of the uniform of the mounted soldier
in the British army.
PUTTENHAM, GEORGE (d. 1590), the reputed author of
The Arte of English Poesie (1589). The book was entered at
Stationers' Hall in 1588, and published in the following year
with a dedicatory letter to Lord Burghley written by the printer
Richard Field, who professed ignorance of the writer's name and
position. There is no contemporary evidence for the authorship,
and the name of Puttenham is first definitely associated with it
in the Hypercritica of Edmund Bolton, published in 1722, but
672
PUTTING THE SHOT PUTTKAMMER
written in the beginning of the lyth century, perhaps as early
as 1605. The writer of the Arte of English Poesie supplies certain
biographical details. He was educated at Oxford, and at the
age of eighteen he addressed an eclogue entitled Elpine to Edward
VI. In his youth he had visited Spain, France and Italy, and
was better acquainted with foreign courts than with his own.
In 1579 he presented to Queen Elizabeth his Partheniades
(printed in a collection of MSS. Ballads by F. J. Furnivall), and
he wrote the treatise in question especially for the delectation
of the queen and her ladies. He mentions nine other works of
his, none of which are extant. There is no direct evidence beyond
Bolton's ascription to identify the author with George or Richard
Puttenham, the sons of Robert Puttenham and his wife Margaret,
the sister of Sir Thomas Elyot, who dedicated his treatise on the
Education or Bringing up of Children to her for the benefit of her
sons. Both made unhappy marriages, were constantly engaged
in litigation, and were frequently in disgrace. Richard was in
prison when the book was licensed to be printed, and when he
made his will in 1597 he was in the Queen's Bench Prison. He
was buried, according to John Payne Collier, at St Clement
Danes, London, on the 2nd of July 1601. George Puttenham
is said to have been implicated in a plot against Lord Burghley
in 1570, and in December 1578 was imprisoned. In 1585 he
received reparation from the privy council for alleged wrongs
suffered at the hands of his relations. His will is dated the ist of
September 1590. Richard Puttenham is known to have spent
much of his time abroad, whereas there is no evidence that
George ever left England. This agrees better with the writer's
account of himself; but if the statement that he addressed
Elpine to Edward VI. when he was eighteen years of age be
taken to imply that the production of this work fell within
that king's reign, the date of the author's birth cannot be placed
anterior to 1529. At the date (1546) of his inheritance of his
grandfather, Sir Thomas Elyot's estates, Richard Puttenham
was proved in an inquisition held at Newmarket to have been
twenty-six years old.
Whoever the author may have been, there is no doubt about
the importance of the work, which is the most systematic and
comprehensive treatise of the time on its subject. It is " con-
trived into three bookes: the first of poets and poesies, the second
of proportion, the third of ornament." The first section contains
a general history of the art of poetry, and a discussion of the
various forms of poetry; the second treats of prosody, dealing in
turn with the measures in use in English verse, the caesura,
punctuation, rhyme, accent, cadence, " proportion in figure,"
which the author illustrates by geometrical diagrams, and the
proposed innovations of English quantitative verse; the section
on ornament deals with style, the distinctions between written
and spoken language, the figures of speech; and the author
closes with lengthy observations on good manners. It is interest-
ing to note that in his remarks on language he deprecates the
use of archaisms, and although he allows that the purer Saxon
speech is spoken beyond the Trent, he advises the English writer
to take as his model the usual speech of the court, of London and
the home counties.
Many later " poetics " are indebted to this book. The original
edition is very rare. Professor Edward Arber's reprint (1869)
contains a clear summary of the various documents with regard to
the authorship of this treatise. The history of the Puttenhams is
discussed in H. H. S. Croft's edition of Elyot's Bake catted the Gover-
nour. A careful investigation brought him to the conclusion that
the evidence was in favour of Richard. There are other modern
editions of the book, notably one in J. Haslewood's Ancient Critical
Essays (1811-1815).
PUTTING THE SHOT (or WEIGHT), a form of athletic sports
(q.v.) . It is the only weight event now remaining in the champion-
ship programme which requires a " put " as distinct from a throw,
a put being a fair and square push straight from the shoulder,
quite distinct from throwing or bowling, which are not allowed
in putting the shot. The exercise originated in Great Britain,
where, before the formation of the Amateur Athletic Association,
the shot (a round weight of 16 Ib) was put from a joist about
6 ft. long with a run of 7 ft., the distance being measured
from the impression made by the falling missile to the poi
on the joist, or a line continuing it, opposite the impression.
Hence the putter failed to get the full benefit of any put save a
perfectly straight one. The present British rule is that the put
shall be made from a 7-ft. square, and the distance taken from
the first pitch of the shot to the front line of the square or that
line produced, as by the old method. In America the put is
made from a 7-ft. circle, and the distance measured from the pitch
to the nearest point of the circle, which has a raised edge in front
to prevent overstepping and consequent fouls. Individual putters
have slight variations of method, but the following description
is substantially good for all. The putter stands hi the back part
of the square or circle with his weight entirely upon his right leg,
which is bent. The body is inclined slightly backward, the left
arm stretched out in front as a balance, and the right hand, the
shot resting in the palm, is^held against, or an inch or two from,
the neck below and behind the right ear. From this position
a hop forward is made with the right leg, the foot landing in
the middle of the square and the balance being preserved, -so
that the right shoulder is kept well back. Then, letting the right
leg bend well down, the athlete springs up with a rapid twist of
the body, so that the right shoulder is brought forward, and the
right arm is thrust forward with all possible force, the secret
being to throw all the weight and power of the body and arm into
the put at the very moment of delivery. Mere brute strength
and weight have less to do with successful shot-putting than in
hammer-throwing or throwing the s6-lb weight, and on this
account some comparatively light men have repeatedly beaten
larger and taller putters. Thus G. R. Gray, a Canadian by birth,
who for many years held the world's record of 47 ft. for the
i6-lb shot, was a smaller and less powerful man than several
whom he defeated; and another champion of light weight was
W. F. Robertson of Scotland, who weighed only 1 30 Ib. Among
the best putters of earlier times were E. J. Bor, London Athletic
Club, who made a put of 42 ft. 5 in. in 1872; W. Y. Winthrop
and G. Ross. The talent of Irish athletes both in Great Britain
and America for weight putting and throwing is remarkable,
among the most famous of Irish putters being W. J. M. Barry
and Denis Hogan, the latter of whom won the amateur champion-
ship in seven consecutive years from 1893, and again in 1904 and
1905. The record in 1910 for the i6.-lb shot was 51 ft., made at
San Francisco in 1909 by R. Rose.
PUTTKAMMER, ROBERT VON (1828-1900), Prussian states-
man, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder on the sth of May 1828.
His father, Eugen von Puttkammer, Oberprdsident of Posen,
belonged to a widely extended noble family, of which Bismarck's
wife and Robert von Puttkammer's own wife were also members.
Robert von Puttkammer, after a short course of law, began his
official career in 1850 as Auskullator in the courts at Danzig,-
but in 1852 entered the civil service, receiving after his promotion
to the rank of Assessor in 1854 a post in the railway department
of the ministry for trade and industry. In 1859 he became a
member of the presidial council (Oberprasidialrat) at Coblenz,
capital of the Prussian Rhine province, and from 1860 to 1866
was Landrat at Demmin in Pomerania. During the war with
Austria he acted as civil commissary in Moravia. From 1867
to 1871 he was a councillor in the chancery of the North German
Confederation. In 1871 he was appointed president of the
governmental district of Gumbinnen in East Prussia, in 1875
district president (Bezirksprdsident) in Lorraine, and in 1877
Oberprdsident in Silesia. From 1874 onward he was frequently
elected to the Reichstag and the Prussian Chamber of Deputies,
in which he attached himself to the German Conservative party.
Puttkammer was the chosen instrument of the Clerical Conserva-
tive policy initiated by Bismarck when the Socialist peril made
it expedient to conciliate the Catholic Centre. As Oberprdsident
of Silesia he had already done much to mitigate the rigour of the
application of the " May Laws," and as minister of public worship
and of the interior he continued this policy. He is also remem-
bered as the author of the ordinance of the 2ist of January 1880
on the simplification of German orthography. This was at first
vigorously opposed, not least by Bismarck himself; but its
PUTTY PUVIS DE CHAVANNES
673
convenience soon became evident, it was increasingly put into
practice, and was so well based that later reformers have only
needed to follow the lines kid down by Puttkammer. As
minister of the interior Puttkammer's activities were less com-
mendable. His reactionary conservative temper was in complete
harmony with the views of Bismarck and the emperor William,
and with their powerful support he attempted, in defiance of
modern democratic principles and even of the spirit of the
: itution, to re-establish the old Prussian system of rigid
discipline from above. He was above all concerned to nip in
the bud any tendencies in the bureaucracy to revolt, and it was
on his initiative that, on the 4th of January 1882, a royal
ordinance laid it down as the duty of all officials to give the govern-
ment their unconditional support at political elections. Similarly
though he carried out many useful administrative reforms, in a
effort to combat Social Democracy he seriously interfered
with the liberty of public meeting and attempted the forcible
su[>pression of strike movements. This " Puttkammer regime "
was intensely unpopular; it was attacked in the Reichstag not
only by Radicals like Richter and Rickert, but by National
Liberals like Bennigsen, and when the emperor Frederick III.,
whose Liberal tendencies were notorious, succeeded to the throne,
it was clear that it could not last. In spite of Bismarck's support
Puttkammer was forced to resign on the 8th of June 1888.
r William II., however, whose principles were those of his
grandfather, 1'uttkammer was largely rehabilitated. On the ist
of January 1889 he received the Order of the Black Eagle. He was
inted a secular canon (Domherr) of Merseburg, and in 1891
became Oberprasident of Prussian Pomerania. In this office,
which he held till 1899, he did very useful work in collaboration
with the provincial estates. He died on his property at Karzin in
Pomerania on the I5th of March 190x3. (J. HN.)
PUTTY, originally tin oxide in a state of fine division used
for polishing glass, granite, &c., now known as " putty powder "
or " polisher's putty " (from O. Fr. potfe, a potful, hence brass,
tin, pewter, &c., calcined in a pot). More commonly the term
is applied to a kind of cement composed of fine powdered chalk
intimately mixed with linseed oil, either boiled or raw, to the
consistency of a tough dough. It is principally used by glaziers
for bedding and fixing sheets of glass in windows and other
frames, and by joiners and painters for filling up nail-holes
and other inequalities in the surface of woodwork. The oxida-
tion of the oil gradually hardens the putty into a very dense
adherent mass, but when it is required to dry quickly, boiled
oil and sometimes litharge and other driers are used. The word
is also used of a fine lime cement employed by masons.
PUVIS DE CHAVANNES, PIERRE CECILE (1824-1898),
French painter, was born at Lyons on the i4th of December 1824.
His father was a mining engineer, the descendant of an old family
of Burgundy. Pierre Puvis was educated at the Lyons College
and at the Lycee Henri IV. in Paris, and was intended to follow
his father's profession when a serious illness interrupted his
studies. A journey to Italy opened his mind to fresh ideas, and
on his return to France he announced his intention of becoming
a painter, and went to study first under Henri Scheffer, and then
under Couture. On leaving this master in 1852 he established
himself in a studio in the Place Pigalle (which he did not give
up till 1 897), and there organized a sort of academy for a group
of fellow students who wished to work from the living model.
I'uvis first exhibited in the Salon of 1850 a " Pieta," and in the
same year he painted " Mademoiselle de Sombreuil Drinking a
Glass of Blood to Save her Father," and " Jean Cavalier by his
Mother's Deathbed," besides an " Ecce Homo," now in the church
of Champagnat (Sa6ne-et-Loire). In 1852 and in the two follow-
ing years Puvis's pictures were rejected by the Salon, and were
sent to a private exhibition in the Galeries Bonne Nouvelle.
The public laughed at his work as loudly as at that of Courbet,
but the young painter was none the less warmly defended by
Theophile Gautier and Theodore de Banville. For nine years
Puvis was excluded from the Salons. In 1857 he had painted
a " Martyrdom of St Sebastian," " Meditation," " Village
Firemen," "Julie," " Herodias," and "Saint Camilla"
XXII.
compositions showing a great variety of impulse, still undecided
in style and reflecting the influence of the Italian masters as
well as of Delacroix and Couture. In 1859 Puvis reappeared
in the Salon with the " Return from Hunting " (now in the
Marseilles Gallery). But not till he produced " Peace " and
" War " did he really impress his critics, inaugurating a vast
series of decorative paintings. For these two works a second-
class medal was awarded to him, and the state offered to purchase
the " Peace." Puvis, not choosing to part the pair, made a
gift of " War " to the state. He then set to work again, and in
1864 exhibited " Autumn " and " Sleep," but found no pur-
chasers. One of these pictures is now in the Lyons Museum,
and the other at Lille. " Peace " and " War " were placed in
the great gallery of the museum at Amiens, where Puvis
completed their effect by painting four panels a " Standard-
Bearer, " " Woman Weeping over the Ruins of her Home," a
" Reaper," and a " Woman Spinning." These works were so
much admired that further decorations were ordered for the
same building, and the artist presented to the city of Amiens
" Labour " and " Repose," for which the municipality could
not afford to pay. At their request Puvis undertook another
work, intended for the upper landing of the staircase, and in
1865 a composition entitled " Ave Picardia Nutrix," allegorical
of the fertility of the province, was added to the collection. In
1879 the city wished to complete the decoration of the building,
and the painter, again at his own expense, executed the cartoon
of " Ludus pro patria," exhibited in the Salon of 1881 and
purchased by the state, which at the same time gave him a
commission for the finished work. While toiling at these large
works, Puvis de Chavannes rested himself by painting easel
pictures. To the salon of 1870 he had sent a picture called
" Harvest;" the " Beheading of John the Baptist " figured in the
Great Exhibition of 1889; then followed " Hope " (1872), the
" Family of Fisher-Folk " (1875), and " Women on the Sea-
shore " (1879). But these canvases, however interesting, are
not to be named by the side of his grand decorative works.
Two paintings in the Palais Longchamp at Marseilles, ordered in
1867, represent " Marseilles as a Greek Colony " and " Marseilles,
the Emporium of the East." After these, Puvis executed for
the town-hall of Poitiers two decorative paintings of historical
subjects: " Radegund," and " Charles Martel." The Pantheon
in Paris also possesses a decorative work of great interest by
this painter: " The Life of Saint Genevieve," treated in three
panels. In 1876 the Department of Fine Arts in Paris gave the
artist a commission to paint " Saint Genevieve giving Food to
Paris " and " Saint Genevieve watching over Sleeping Paris,"
in which he gave to the saint the features of Princess Cantacuzene,
his wife, who died not long before he did. At the time of his
death on the 24th of October 1898 the work was almost
finished. After completing the first paintings in the Panth6on,
which occupied him for three years and eight months, Puvis de
Chavannes undertook to paint the staircase leading to the gallery
of fine arts in the Lyons Museum, and took for his subjects the
" Vision of the Antique," a procession of youths on horseback,
which a female figure standing on a knoll points out to Pheidias;
the " Sacred Grove " ; and two allegorical figures of " The
Rh&ne " and " The Sa6ne." It was in the same mood of
inspiration by the antique that he painted the hemicycle at the
Sorbonne, an allegory of " Science, Art, and Letters," a work of
great extent, for which he was paid 35,000 francs ({1400). At
the H6tel de Ville in Paris, again, Puvis decorated the grand
staircase and the first reception-room. These works employed
him from 1889 till 1893. In the reception-room he painted two
panels, " Winter " and " Summer "; the mural paintings on the
staircase, which had previously been placed in the hands of
Baudry and of Delaunay, are devoted to the glory of the attri-
butes of the city of Paris. On the ceiling we see Victor Hugo
offering his lyre to the city of Paris. The pictures in the Rouen
Museum (1890-1892) show a different vein, and the artist's
power of conceiving and setting forth a plastic scheme enabling
him to decorate a public building with beautiful human figures
and the finest lines of landscape. We see here toilers raising a
674
PUY PUY-DE-DOME
colossal monolith, part of some ancient monument, to add it to
other architectural pieces; then the busy scene of a pottery; and
finally artists painting in the open air. Puvis, as a rule, adhered
to the presentment of the nude or of the lightest drapery; here,
however, in response to some critical remarks, he has clad his
figures exclusively in modern dress. After prolonged negotia-
tions, begun so early as in 1891, with the trustees of the Boston
Library, U.S.A., Puvis de Chavannes accepted a commission to
paint nine large panels for that building, to be inserted in separate
compartments, three facing the door, three to the right and three
to the left. These pictures, begun in 1895, were finished in
1898. In these works of his latest period Puvis de Chavannes
soars boldly above realistic vision. In the figures which people
the walls with poetic images he endeavours to achieve originality
of the embodying forms, and at the same time a plastic expression
of ideas born of a mind whose conceptions grew ever loftier, while
yet the artist would not abandon the severe study of nature.
Such works as the great paintings at Amiens, Rouen, Marseilles,
the Pantheon, the Sorbonne, and the Hotel de Ville are among
the most important productions of French art in the igth century.
Puvis de Chavannes was president of the National Society of
Fine Arts (the New Salon). His principal pupils and followers
are Ary Renan (d. 1900), Baudouin, J. F. Auburtin and Cottet.
See A. Michel, " Exposition de M. Puvis de Chavannes," Gazette
des beaux-arts (1888); Marius Vachon, Puvis de Chavannes (1900);
J. Buisson, " Puvis de Chavannes, Souvenirs Intimes," Gazette des
beaux-arts (1899). (H. FR.)
PUY, a geological term used locally in Auvergne for a volcanic
hill. Most of the puys of central France are small cinder-cones,
with or without associated lava, whilst others are domes of
trachytic rock, like the domite of the Puy-de-D6me. The
puys may be scattered as isolated hills, or, as is more usual,
clustered together, sometimes in lines. The chain of puys in
central France probably became extinct in late prehistoric
time. Other volcanic hills more or less like those of Auvergne
are also known to geologists as puys; examples may be found
in the Eifel and in the small cones on the Bay of Naples, whilst
the relics of denuded puys are numerous in the Swabian Alps of
Wiirttemberg, as pointed out by W. Branco. Sir A. Geikie has
shown that the puy type of eruption was common in the British
area in Carboniferous and Permian times, as abundantly attested
in central Scotland by remains of the old volcanoes, now generally
reduced by denudation to the mere neck, or volcanic vent, filled
with tuff and agglomerate, or plugged with lava.
See Sir A. Geikie, Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain (1897).
PUY-DE-DdME, a department of central France, four-fifths
of which belonged to Basse-Auvergne, one sixth to Bourbonnais,
and the remainder to Forez (Lyonnais). Area, 3094 sq. m.
Pop. (1906), 535,419. It is bounded N. by Allier, E. by Loire,
S. by Haute-Loire and Cantal, and W. by Correze and Creuse.
The highest point of the department, the Puy de Sancy (6188 ft.),
is also the most elevated peak of central France; it commands
the group of the volcanic Monts Dore, so remarkable for their
rocky conies, their erosion valleys, their trap dykes and argues
of basalt, their lakes sleeping in the depths of ancient craters
or confined in the valleys by streams of lava, and their wide
plains of pasture-land. The Puy de Sancy, forming part of
the watershed, gives rise on its northern slope to the Dordogne,
and on the east to the Couze, a sub-tributary of the Loire, through
the Allier. The Monts Dore are joined to the mountains of
Cantal by the non-volcanic group of the Cezallier, of which the
highest peak, the Luguet (5102 ft.), rises on the confines of Puy-
de-D6me and Cantal. On the north the Monts Dore are con-
tinued by a plateau of a mean height of from 3000 to 3500 ft.,
upon which are seen sixty cones raised by volcanic outbursts
in former times. These are the Monts D6me, which extend from
south to north as far as Riom, the most remarkable being the
Puy-de-D6me (4800 ft.), from which the department takes its
name, and the Puy-de-Pariou, the latter having a crater more than
300 ft. in depth. A meteorological observatory occupies the sum-
mit of the Puy-de-D&me, which was once crowned by a Roman
temple, the ruins of which still exist. To the east of the depart-
ment, along the confines of Loire, are the Monts du Forez, rising
to 5380 ft. and continued north by the Bois Noirs. Between
these mountains and the D6me extends the fertile plain of
Limagne. The drainage of Puy-de-D6me is divided between
the Loire, by its affluents the Allier and the Cher, and the
Gironde, by the Dordogne. The Allier traverses the department
from south to north, receiving on its right the Dore, which falls
into the Allier at the northern boundary and lowest level of the
department (879 ft.) ; on its left are the Alagnon from the Cantal,
the two Couzes from the Luguet and the Monts Dore, and the
Sioule, the most important of all, which drains the north-west
slopes of the Monts Dore and D6me, and joins the Allier beyond
the limits of the department. The Cher forms for a short space
the boundary between the departments of Puy-de-D&me and
Creuse, close to that of Allier. The Dordogne, while still scarcely
formed, flows past Mont-Dore-les-Bains and La Bourboule and
is lost in a deep valley which divides this department from that
of Correze. None of these streams is navigable, but boats can
be used on the Allier during floods. The climate of Puy-de-
D6me is usually very severe, owing to its high level and its
distance from the sea; the mildest air is found in the northern
valleys, where the elevation is least. During summer the hills
about Clermont-Ferrand, exposed to the sun, become all the
hotter because their black volcanic soil absorbs its rays. On the
average 25 or 26 in. of rain fall in the year; in the Limagne around
which the mountains arrest the clouds rainfall is less. Never-
theless the soil of this plain, consisting of alluvial deposits of
volcanic origin, and watered by torrents and streams from the
mountains, makes it one of the richest regions of France. In the
highest altitudes the rainfall attains 64 in.
About two-thirds of the inhabitants of Puy-de-D&me are engaged
in agriculture. The Limagne yields a variety of products and the
vine flourishes on its hill-sides. The high mountains provide pasture
for large flocks of cows and sheep, and cheese-making is an industry
of much importance. The intermediate region is cultivated chiefly
for cereals, the chief of which are rye, wheat, oats and barley. Pota-
toes are largely grown, and, to a less extent, peas, beans, beetroot and
colza. The Limagne produces fruits of all kinds apricots, cherries,
pears, walnuts and apples, from which considerable quantities of
cider are made. The department possesses considerable mineral
wealth. There are important coal-mines at Brassac on the Allier,
on the borders of Haute-Loire, at St Eloy near the department of
Allier, and at Bpurg-Lastic on the bordersof Correze. Peat, asphalt,
bituminous schists, antimony, mispickel and argentiferous lead are
also worked. Of the last named there are mines and fcundries at
Pontgibaud on the Sioule. Amethysts and other rare minerals are
found and there are numerous stone-quarries. The watering-places
of Mont Dore, Royat and La Bourboule receive separate notice.
The springs of St Nectaire, containing sodium and iron chlorides
and bicarbonates, are efficacious in liver complaints, rheumatism and
gravel. The waters of Chateauneuf (on the Sioule), also known to
the Romans, contain iron bicarbonates and are resorted to for skin
diseases. Those of Chatelguyon, like the waters of Carlsbad and
Marienbad, are used for disorders of the digestive organs, congestions
of the liver, rheumatism, &c. There are many other mineral springs
of varied character. Manufactures are for the most part grouped
around Thiers, which produces a large amount of cheap cutlery,
paper and leather, and Clermont-Ferrand, the capital. The depart-
ment contains factories for lace and braid (in the mountains), for
buntings and camlets and wool, cotton and hemp mills. There
are wool-carding works and factories for linens, cloths and counter-
panes, also silk-mills, tanneries, manufactories for chamois and other
leathers, for caoutchouc (Clermont-Ferrand), sugar-works, manu-
factures of edible pastes with a reputation as high as those of Italy,
and manufactures of fruit-preserves. The department exports
grain, fruits, cattle, wines, cheese, wood, mineral waters, cutlery, &c.
It is served by the Orleans and Paris-Lyon railway companies. Many
thousands of the inhabitants, belonging chiefly to the district of
Ambert, leave it during winter and find work elsewhere as navvies,
chimney-sweeps, pit-sawyers, &c. The department comprises 5
arrondissements Clermont-Ferrand, Ambert, Issoire, Riom, Thiers
50 cantons and 471 communes. It is included in the bishopric
and academie (educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand and the
region of the XIII. army corps, of which the headquarters are in the
same town ; the appeal court is at Riom.
The more noteworthy places in the department are Clermont-
Ferrand, Issoire, Thiers, Riom, Ambert, Mont-Dore-les-Bains,
La Bourboule and Royat (all separately noticed). Near Cler-
mont-Ferrand is Mont Gergovie (see GERGOVIA) the scene of the
victory of Vercingetorix over Julius Caesar. Other places of
PUYLAURENS PYAT
6 75
interest are Billom, Chamalieres, Courpiere, Orcival, St Nectaire
and St Saturnin, which possess churches in the Romanesque style
of Auvergne. There are ruined feudal strongholds of great
interest at Murols and Tournoel (near Volvic). Vic-le-Comte
has a sainte-chapelle which is a beautiful example of the tran-
sition from Gothic to Renaissance architecture, and Aigueperse
has a Gothic church of the i3th to the isth century. Near
Pontgibaud are the ruins (ijth century) of the Carthusian abbey
of Port St Marie.
PUYLAURENS, ANTOINE DE LAAGE, Due DE (d. 1635),
French courtier, was born of an old Languedoc family. Attached
to the household of Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis
XIII., he gained a complete ascendancy over the weak prince
by pandering to his pleasures, and became his adviser in the
intrigues against Cardinal Richelieu. It was Puylaurens who
arranged the escape of Gaston to Brussels in 1632 after the
capture of Henri, due de Montmorency, and then negotiated his
return with Richelieu, on condition that he should be reconciled
to the king. As a reward Richelieu gave him Aiguillon, erected
into a duchy. But he plunged into new intrigues, and was
imprisoned first in the Louvre in 1635, then in Vincennes, where
he died the same year.
PUZZLE, a perplexing question, particularly a mechanical
toy or other device involving some constructional problem, to
be solved by the exercise of patience or ingenuity. Some of
the oldest mechanical puzzles are those of the Chinese, one of the
most familiar being that known as the tangram (chi ch'iao t'ue),
which consists of a square of wood or other material cut into
five triangles, of different sizes, a small square and a lozenge,
which can be so placed as to form over 300 different figures.
This puzzle is sometimes made of ivory carved with the delicate
workmanship for which the Chinese craftsmen are renowned,
and is enclosed in a carved box. Another well-known puzzle
is known as the " Chinese rings," consisting of a series of rings
running linked together on a bar, the problem being to take
them off the bar and replace them. The commonest of all
puzzles are coloured maps, pictures (" jig-saw ") or designs,
dissected into numerous variously shaped pieces, to be fitted
together to form the complete design. A great number of puzzles
are based on mathematical principles, such as the " fifteen
puzzle," the " railway shunting puzzle," and the like.
See W. W. Rouse Ball, Mathematical Recreations and Amusements
(1892).
The etymology of the word " puzzle " is disputed. It has
been usual to consider that the verb, which appears first at the
end of the i6th century, is derived from the substantive, and that
this is an aphetic form of " apposal " or " opposal " i.e. opposi-
tion, hence a question for solution, cf. Lydgate, Fall of Princes,
quoted by Skeat (Etym. Diet. 1898) . The New English Dictionary,
however, takes it as clear from the chronological evidence and
sense-development that the substantive is derived from the verb,
which, in its earliest examples, means to put in embarrassing
material circumstances, to bewilder, to perplex. This seems
against making " to puzzle " a derivative of " to pose," i.e.
" oppose," to examine by putting questions. Some connexion
may be found with a much earlier word " poselet," confused,
bewildered, which does not occur later than the end of the I4th
century.
PWLLHELI ("salt pit," or "pool"), a municipal and con-
tributory parliamentary borough (Carnarvon district), seaport
and market-town of Carnarvonshire, North Wales, 20 m. S. of
Carnarvon and 270 m. from London by rail. Pop. (1901), 3675.
It is on the north side of Cardigan Bay, on the shore of Tre-
madoc Bay, with a sandy beach 4 m. in length and good bathing.
t is the terminus of the Cambrian railway (the London &
North-Western railway being 4 m. distant at Afonwen junction).
Pwllheli commands a good view of Merionethshire and of the
Snowdon range, with the entire sweep of Cardigan Bay, Carreg
yr ymbill (gimlet stone) at the mouth of the harbour, Abersoch
and St Tudwal's Islands. Many hundred acres of land have
been reclaimed from the sea here and along the coast of the bay;
there are costly embankments and good harbourage. The coast
is locally noted for fisheries (especially of lobsters and oysters)
and some ship-building is carried on. Pwllheli was incorporated
by Edward the Black Prince. At Nevin (Nefyn), 6 m. distant,
Edward I. held a tournament or revel, in 1 284, on a magnificent
scale, to commemorate his conquest of Wales.
PYANEPSIA, or PYANOPSIA (from Gr. TWUW = KUO.IUK,
bean, and tytu>, to boil), an ancient festival in honour of
Apollo, held at Athens on the 7th of the month Pyanepsion
(October). A hodge-podge of pulse was prepared and offered
to Apollo (in his capacity as sun god and ripener of fruits) and
the Horae, as the first-fruits of the autumn harvest. Another
offering on this occasion was the eiresidne. This was a branch
of olive or laurel, bound with purple or white wool, round which
were hung various fruits of the season, pastries, and small jars
of honey, oil and wine. It was intended as a thank-offering for
blessings received, and at the same time as a prayer for similar
blessings and protection against evil in future; hence, it was
called a " suppliant " branch (i/ctnjpta). The name is generally
derived from elpos (wool) in reference to the woollen bands,
but some connect it with elptu> (to speak), the eiresidne
being regarded as the " spokesman " of the suppliants. It was
carried in procession by a boy whose parents were both alive
to the temple of Apollo, where it was suspended on the gate.
The doors of private houses were similarly adorned. The branch
was allowed to hang for a year, when it was replaced by a new
one, since by that time it was supposed to have lost its virtue.
During the procession a chant (also called eiresidne) was sung, the
text of which has been preserved in Plutarch (Theseus, 22):
" Eiresione carries figs and rich cakes;
Honey and oil in a jar to anoint the limbs;
And pure wine, that she may be drunken and go to sleep."
The semi-personification of eiresidne will be noticed; and, accord-
ing to Mannhardt, the branch " embodies the tree-spirit conceived
as the spirit of vegetation in general, whose vivifying and fructify-
ing influence is thus brought to bear upon the corn in particular."
Aetiologists connected both offerings with the Cretan expedi-
tion of Theseus, who, when driven ashore at Delos, vowed a
thank-offering to Apollo if he slew the Minotaur, which after-
wards took the form of the eiresidne and Pyanopsia. To explain
ihe origin of the hodge-podge, it was said that his comrades on
landing in Attica gathered up the scraps of their provisions that
remained and prepared a meal from them.
See W. Mannhardt, Wold- und Feldkulte (1905), ii. 214, for an
exhaustive account of the eiresidne and its analogies; J. G. Frazer,
The Golden Bough (1900), i. 190; I. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to
Greek Religion (1908), ch. 3; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States
(1907), iv. 286.
PYAPON, a town and district of Lower Burma. The town
is situated on a river of the same name, one of the numerous
mouths of the Irrawaddy, about 12 m. from the sea. Pop.
(1901), 5883. The district, which was only formed in 1903, lies
within the delta of the Irrawaddy. It is a vast plain, inter-
sected by tidal creeks and subject to inundation at high spring
tides. The swampy jungle is being rapidly reclaimed for rice
cultivation, which is the sole crop. Area, 2137 sq. m.; pop.
(1001), 226,443, showing an increase of 63% in the decade.
PYAT, FELIX (1810-1889), French Socialist, was born at
Vierzon (Cher) on the 4th of October 1810, the son of a Legitimist
lawyer. Called to the bar in Paris in 1831, he threw his whole
energies into journalism. The violent personalities of a pam-
phlet entitled Marie Joseph Chenier el le prince des critiques
(1844), in reply to Jules Janin, brought him a six months'
sojourn in La Pelagic, in the cell just quitted by Lamennais.
He worked with other dramatists in a long series of plays, with
an interval of six years on the National, until the revolution of
1848. George Sand, whom he had introduced in 1830 to the
staff of the Figaro, now asked Ledru-Rollin to make him commis-
sary-general of the Cher. After three months' tenure of this
office he was returned by the department to the Constituent
Assembly, where he voted with the Mountain, and brought
forward the celebrated motion for the abolition of the presidential
office. About this time he fought a duel with Proudhon, who
676
PYATIGORSK PYCNOGONIDA
had called him the " aristocrat of the democracy." He joined
Ledru-Rollin in the attempt of the i^th of June 1849, after
which he sought refuge in Switzerland, Belgium, and finally
in England. For a glorification of regicide on the occasion of
the Orsini attempt against Napoleon III. he was brought before
an English court, but acquitted, and the general amnesty of
1869 permitted his return to France, but further outbursts
against the authorities, followed by prosecution, compelled him
to return to England. The revolution of the 4th of September
brought him back to Paris, and it was he who in his paper Le
Combat displayed a black-edged announcement of the pourparlers
for the surrender of Metz. After the insurrection of the 3ist of
October he was imprisoned for a short time. In January 1871,
Le Combat was suppressed, only to be followed by an equally
virulent Vengeur. Elected to the National Assembly, he retired
from Bordeaux with Henri Rochefort and others until such time
as the " parricidal " vote for peace should be annulled. He
returned to Paris to join the committee of public safety, and, in
Hanotaux's words, was the dme ulceree of the Commune, but was
blamed for the loss of the fort of Issy. He was superseded there
by Delescluze, but he continued to direct the violent acts of the
Commune, the overthrow of the Vendome column, the destruc-
tion of Thiers's residence and of the expiatory chapel built to
the memory of Louis XVI. He escaped the vengeance of the
Versailles government, crossed the frontier in safety, and, though
he had been condemned to death in his absence in 1873, the
general amnesty of July 1880 permitted his return to Paris.
He was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for the department
of Bouches-du-Rhone in March 1888 and took his seat on the
extreme Left, but died at Saint-Gratien on the 3rd of August
1889.
PYATIGORSK, a town and watering-place of Russian Caucasia,
in the province of Terek, 141 m. by rail N.W. of Vladikavkaz.
Pop. (1882), 13,670; (1897), 18,638. It owes its origin to its
mineral waters, which have long been known to the inhabitants
of Caucasia. The sulphur springs, about fifteen in number,
come from a great depth, and vary in temperature from 75 to
96 F.; they are used both for drinking and for bathing. The
first buildings were erected in 1812, and in 1830 the name of
Pyatigorsk (" town of the five mountains ") was given to the
new settlement. Its subsequent rapid increase was greatly
stimulated by the completion of the railway connexion with
Rostov-on-the-Don. The town is charmingly situated on a
small plateau, 1680 ft. above sea-level, at the foot of the Beshtau,
Mashuk and three other outliers of the Caucasus range, which
protect it on the north. The snow-covered summits of the
Elbruz are visible to the south. The most noteworthy features
are a cathedral, a monument to the poet M. Y. Lermontov
(1814-1841), and a hydropathic.
PYCNOGONIDA, or PANTOPODA, marine Arachnida (q.v.)
remarkable for the reduction of the opisthosoma or abdomen
to an insignificant tubercular or rod-like process (whence their
trivial name of " nobody crabs "), and for the development of
the oral region into a relatively immense suctorial proboscis.
They form a compact group, differing from all the other orders
of Arachnida in certain structural characters of such morpho-
logical importance that it is impossible to affiliate them closely
with any group of that class. For instance, in all typical exist-
ing Arachnida the ganglionic centres which innervate the ambu-
latory appendages are coalesced to form a single nervous mass,
whereas in the Pycnogonida the ganglia supplying these limbs
retain their original distinctness. More important still is the
circumstance that in the Pycnogonida there may be as many as
seven pairs of leg-like limbs behind the mouth; but in the
typical Arachnida there are never more than five such pairs.
Curiously enough, too, although the number of these appendages,
in all the orders of typical Arachnida is, with the exception of
some degenerate Acari, a quite constant character, the number
in the Pycnogonida is very variable. In most cases there are
four pairs of ambulatory limbs, but in two antarctic genera,
namely Pentanymphon, belonging to the family Nymphonidae
and Decalopoda, probably belonging to the Colossendeidoe, they
are increased to five pairs. In front of these four or five pairs
of ambulatory limbs there may be two pairs of longish post-oral
limbs, called respectively the ovigerous legs and the palpi; but
these may be totally absent. Finally, the single pair of pre-oral
appendages may be well developed, three-jointed and chelate,
or reduced in size and complexity, or altogether suppressed.
FIG. I. Male of Pycnogonum littorale, Muller.
o, Parts of mouth forming a c, c, Thoracic segments.
beak. d, Rudimentary abdomen.
b, Cephalic area. e, Eyes.
o a
FIG. 2. The same; under size.
a, a, Ovigerous legs.
As examples of this class exhibiting extremes of variation in the
development and reduction of the appendages may be cited
Decalopoda, which has the full complement of eight pairs of
appendages, and the female of Pycnogonum littorale, in which
all the appendages are aborted save four pairs of ambulatory
limbs.
All {he principal organs of the body are concentrated in that
part which bears the appendages. The generative glands are lodged
on each side, sending prolongations into the appendages, and their
ducts open upon the second segments of more or fewer of them.
The alimentary canal, beginning with the mouth at the extremity of
the proboscis and terminating with the anus at the extremity of the
tail-like opisthosoma, also sends long saccular prolongations into the
limbs. Food is imbibed by means of the suctorial pharynx lodged
in the proboscis, the sucking action being effected by means of
muscles radiating from the wall of the pharynx to that of the inner
surface of the exoskeleton of the proboscis. The circulatory system,
where it has been observed, consists of a heart formed of about three
chambers communicating with each other. In each chamber there
is a pair of orifices for the entry of the blood ; and the fluid is expelled
through an orifice at the anterior extremity of the first chamber.
No organs of respiration are known, the integument being the
medium for the oxygenation of the blood.
The sexes are distinct, but commonly there is little external
difference between the males and the females. Sometimes the female
is considerably the larger of the two; and frequently the ovigerous
legs are less well developed than in the male. Sometimes indeed
these limbs are entirely wanting in the female, whereas this is never
the case in the male. Finally, in the females the generative orifices
are much more conspicuous than in the males, and the fourth joint
of the legs is often swollen. The invariable presence of the ovigerous
appendages in the males is correlated with the habit practised by
this sex of carrying the fecundated eggs. The eggs are usually
aggregated in two spherical masses round the middle of each of the
ovigerous legs; sometimes, however, there are two such masses on
PYCNOSTYLE PYGMY
677
each leg, or as many as four or five, whereas occasionally there is
but one on the right or left side. More rarely, as in some species cf
Patlene, there are few very large eggs attached separately to the legs,
or the eggs may be carried in a single mass attached to the underside
>f the body, as in some species of Pycnogonum. Cases have been
recorded ofthe females carrying their own eggs, as has been observed
in ;i specimen of Nymphon brevicaudatum, but this seems to be a rare
P The newly-hatched young frequently differs greatly from the
adult. The body, which is oval, subquadrate and unsegmented,
has the proboscis well developed, but bears only three pairs of appen-
dages; those of the first pair are large, three jointed and chelate, the
basal 'segment containing a large so-called byssus gland, the duct
of which opens at the tip of a spiniform or setiform process; these
appendages are the mandibles of the adult. The appendages of the
next two pairs are simple and small, and are generally held to be
the palpi and ovigerous legs. This first larval stage, sometimes
I the protonymphon, may be free living or may be retained
within the egg-shell. In the second stage, which may also be con-
tained in the egg, two or three of the remaining pairs of appendages
have appeared, those representing the first pair of ambulatory
limbs of the adult being as a rule better developed than the next.
In the third stage the fourth pair of ambulatory limbs and the
abdomen of the adult have begun to develop and gradually in-
-i- in size until the adult form is attained. But even _within
the limits of a single genus, e.g. Nymfhon, the stage at which the
young emerges from the egg is subject to considerable specific
variation.
Pycnogonida vary greatly in size, the span of legs when ex-
tended ranging from about 2 in. in Pycnogonum littorale to
'2 ft. in Colossendeis gigas. They are wholly marine and occur
at depths varying from only a few fathoms to over 2500 fathoms.
One of the best known British species is Pycnogonum littorale, a
stoutly built form with only four pairs of appendages in the
female. It occurs between tide marks on British coasts, but
recedes to considerable depths, and on the Atlantic coast of
America has been dredged at a depth of 430 fathoms. It is also
wide-ranging, and has been recorded even from the coast of
Chile. As a rule, but by no means an invariable rule, deep-water
species have smoother bodies and much longer and thinner legs
than shallow-water forms. The latter also commonly have four
distinct eyes, whereas the former met with at a depth of over
400 fathoms not uncommonly have the eyes obsolete. There
are many exceptions, however, to these rules. The habits of all
Pycnogonida appear to be very similar. They are not swimmers,
but crawl slowly over the bottom of the sea or amongst the fronds
of seaweed, and they have been met with in polar, temperate and
tropical seas. (R- 1- P.)
PYCNOSTYLE (Gr. TTVKVOS, close, compact, and orCXos,
column), the architectural term given by Vitruvius to the inter-
columniation of ..the columns of a temple, when this was equal to
ij diameters.
PYE, HENRY JAMES (1745-1813), English poet laureate,
was born in London on the 2oth of February 1745, and educated
at Magdalen College, Oxford. His father, a Berkshire land-
owner, died in 1766, leaving him a legacy of debt amounting to
50,000, and the burning of his home at Great Faringdon further
increased his difficulties. In 1784 he was elected M.P. for
Berkshire. He was obliged to sell the paternal estate, and,
retiring from Parliament in 1790, became a police magistrate
for Westminster. Although he had no command of language
and was destitute of poetic feeling, his ambition was to obtain
recognition as a poet, and he published many volumes of verse.
II he wrote his prose Summary of the Duties of a Justice of the
out of Sessions (1808) is most worthy of record. He was
made poet laureate in 1 790, perhaps as a reward for his faithful
support of Pitt in the House of Commons. The appointment
was looked on as ridiculous, and his birthday odes were a con-
tinual source of contempt. His most elaborate poem was an epic,
Alfred (1801). He was the first poet laureate to receive a fixed
salary of 27 instead of the historic tierce of Canary wine. He
died at Pinner, Middlesex, on the nth of August 1813.
PYGMALION, in Greek mythology, son of Cilix, and grandson
of Agenor, king of Cyprus. He fell in love with an ivory statue
he had made; Aphrodite granted life to the image, and Pygmalion
married the miraculously-born virgin (Ovid, Metam. x. 243).
There is n^ ancient authority for the introduction of the name
Galatea into the story. Pygmalion is also the name given in
Virgil (Aeneid, i, 347) to a king of Tyre, who murdered Sychaeus,
;he husband of his sister Dido.
PYGMY, or PIGMY (Gr. iru-ypwuos, from nvy/ii?, a Greek
measure of length corresponding to " the distance between the
elbow and knuckles " of a man of average size), a term for a
diminutive human being. We owe the word to Homer, who in
the Iliad (iii. 6) uses it to describe a race of tiny folk dwelling in a
far southern land, whither the cranes fly when inclement winters
and piercing frosts visit the northern shores. Fierce battles were
often mentioned by later writers as occurring between the
pygmies and cranes, and were even represented on their vases.
On these the pygmies were depicted as dwarfs with large heads,
negro features, close, curly hair, and sometimes armed with
lances. Aristotle firmly believed in the existence of these
pygmies, whom he characterized as a race of men of small
stature inhabiting the marshes of upper Egypt towards the
sources of the Nile. That their existence was a matter of
common knowledge and speculation is indicated by the fact
that Philostratus describes the sleeping Hercules beset by swarms
of pygmies. Herodotus (ii. 32), relying apparently on authentic
information, describes graphically how a party of five Nasamon-
ians, while journeying through the African desert, came at last
to a plain where fruit-trees grew. While gathering the fruit they
were seized by some dwarfish men of strange speech, who led
them across forest marshes to a town, where dwelt people of a
similar appearance, and near which a great river flowed from
west to east containing crocodiles. This river was probably
the Niger, and the people referred to were no doubt the ancestors
of the existing pygmies of equatorial Africa. Representations
of these pygmies have been found sculptured on the tombs at
Sakkarah, which are referred to the Vth Dynasty of Egypt,
3366 B.C. The pygmies depicted in bas-relief on these tombs
faithfully reproduce the racial characteristics of the present race
of pygmies inhabiting the Ituri and Semliki forests. They no
doubt served in the households of the Egyptian kings, and
figured both in Egyptian and Roman triumphs.
Various writers have localized pygmies in different portions
of the earth's surface. Pliny makes mention of dwarfed races
in both Asia and Africa. Reference is made to the Catizi
dwarfs in Thrace, and to a similar race dwelling in Caria. Ctesias,
a century after Herodotus, wrote of a race of pygmies in the heart
of India, describing them as black and ugly, and only two pygmai
in height. The Chinese author, Chao Fu-Kua, in the beginning
of the i3th century, described a tribe of black pygmies dwelling
in the Philippine Islands; in the depth of the valleys there lived,
he said, a tribe of men called Hai-tan, small in size, with round,
yellow eyes, curly hair, and with the teeth showing through their
lips. These were no doubt the ancestors of the present Aetas.
Relics of a pygmy race are supposed to exist now in Sicily and
Sardinia, i.e. along the high road between Pleistocene Africa
and Europe. Near Schaffhausen, Dr Kollman found skeletal
remains of small human beings, which have been regarded by
some authorities as belonging to the European pygmies of the
Neolithic period. Some anthropologists of authority, indeed
in spite of the absence of definite data in support of such a view
believe that a dwarf negroid race at one time existed in northern
Europe, and may have given rise to the traditional tales of elves,
goblins, gnomes and fairies.
At the present time the existing pygmy races may be sub-
divided into two main groups or sub-races: (a) the African
pygmies (Negrilloes), (b) the Asiatic pygmies (Negritoes).
a. The African pygmies are dispersed over a large zone extending
right across equatorial Africa, from Uganda to the Gaboon, the
width of this zone being about six degrees, i.e. three degrees north
and south of the equator. In Uganda they are now principally
confined to a belt of forest lying to the east and west of the Semliki
River, though many centuries ago these forest dwarfs must have
been the principal inhabitants of the whole of the Uganda Pro-
tectorate. They are much more abundant in the forests of the
Belgian Congo, being found as far south as the range of the Angola,
and to the north and north-west as far as the Bahr-el-Ghazal and
the German Cameroons. Thev are also found in the interior of
the French Congo and in the Gaboon. They comprise the Akkas
678
PYGMY
(Tiky-Tiky) of the upper Nile, and of the Niam-Niam country ;
the Wambutti (Mbuti, Mambute, Bambute) of the great Ituri forest,
and the Batua (Watwa) living to the south of the great curve of
the Congo river. In the vast forest tract lying between the region
of the great lakes and the Atlantic Ocean there are other scattered
tribes of pygmies differing in no essential particulars from these,
and severally known as Afiffi (of the Momfu country); Obongo,
Wochua, Akua, Achango (of the French Congo), Ba-Bengaye
(of Sanga), Boyaeli and Bayago (of the Cameroons). Negrilloes
have also been noted outside these limits, e.g. in the basin of the
upper Kasai, as far east as Lake Tanganyika, and even to the north
of Lakes Stefanie and Rudolf in British East Africa. There has
been considerable mixture of the Negrilloes with the neighbouring
Bantu peoples, e.g. Adumas, &c.
b. The distribution of the Asiatic pygmies is mainly Oceanic.
The following are the three principal tribes, (i) The Aetas (Philip-
pine Islands). The name " Aetas " is derived from the Malay
word hitam, meaning black. These little folk dwell in small groups
in the interior of Luzon Island, and are to be met with also in the
islands of Mindoro, Panay and Negros, and in the north-east of
Mindanoa. The total number of Philippine Negritoes is about
20,000. (2) The Andamanese (Andaman Islands). These live in
isolated groups of fifty to eighty persons. They appear to be dying
out, and in 1891 numbered less than 4000. The term Mincopis
has sometimes been applied to these Negritoes. (3) The Sakai
(interior of the Malay Peninsula). Some of these Malay Negritoes
are also known as Semangs, Menik, Sen-oi and Jembe. They live
for the most part in small groups of from two to three families.
In the Ulu-Papung district alone the pure Negritoes in 1890 num-
bered over 5000. There is much mixture, however, with the sur-
rounding Malay population. Thus the Mintra and Jakhuns are
Sakai-Malay cross-breeds. In Malacca the Pangyans of Kelantan
and Petani and the neighbouring Tumiors are pure Negritoes,
while the Belendas are probably cross-breeds. Some anthro-
pologists believe that the Sakas of the islands on the north-east
coast of Sumatra are also derived from Negritoes.
A group of Negritoes the Karons has also been discovered
in a small area in the north-west coast of New Guinea. 1 Here
also there are Negrito-Papuan cross-breeds. There is much diver-
sity of opinion as to whether the recently extinct Kalangs of Java
in some respects the most ape-like of all human beings did or
did not belong to the true Negrito race.
There seems little doubt that at one time the Negrito element
was fairly widespread throughout Malaysia, though there is no
positive evidence in support of de Quatrefages's contention that
the Negrito race once inhabited a vast domain in Indo-oceanic
Asia, extending from New Guinea up to the Persian Gulf, and from
the Malay Archipelago to Japan. The Malay Peninsula, and possibly
some parts of India, are the only portions of the Asiatic mainland
where traces of a distinct negroid substratum have been discovered.
A passing reference may here be made to the Bushmen of South
Africa, whose average height (4 ft. 8 in.) approximates to that of
the true pygmies. Some authorities believe that there is a distinct
ethnical relationship between the Negrilloes and the Bushmen,
though in many respects the forest pygmies seem more closely
allied to the West African Bantu negroes than to the Bushmen-
Hottentot group. Professor Elliot-Smith is, indeed, of opinion
the pygmies of Central Africa are essentially dwarfed negroes.
Schweinfurth, who rediscovered the Akka pygmies of equatorial
Africa, believed that they and the Bushmen of South Africa were
the remnants of the aboriginal population of the continent, now
becoming extinct. The Bushmen have totally different character-
istics from the true pygmies. The steatopygia, the dolichocephalic
cranium, the lozenge-shaped face with its deep wrinkles, the high
protruding cheek-bones, the narrow oblique eyes, the peculiar speech
with its marvellous " clicks," the fawn-yellow skin, the absence of
downy hair on the body, and other characteristics of the Bushmen,
sharply differentiate them from the true forest pygmies.
Consideration of the distribution and general characteristics
of the existing pygmy races Negrilloes and Negritoes has
induced many anthropologists to conclude that we are dealing
with the but little modified descendants of an extremely ancient
race the ancestors possibly of all the negro tribes. Sir W. H.
Flower himself, as far back as 1880, stated that he was inclined
to regard the Negritoes as representing an infantile, undeveloped,
or primitive form of the type from which the African negroes
on the one hand, and the Asiatic Melanesians on the other, with
all their various modifications, may have sprung. If this view
be correct, it seems probable that the members of the pygmy
races are the existing human beings which most closely resemble
primitive man. On the other hand, there are those who regard
1 In The Times of June 3, 1910, was reported a discovery, made
The average height of these pygmies is about 4 ft. 3 in.
the pygmies as a retrograde and degenerative type of the negro
race and therefore of comparatively recent growth. Though
the balance of evidence seems in favour of the former hypothesis,
the question must still be regarded as sub judice. The first
hypothesis would certainly go far to explain the present distri-
bution of the pygmy races. If we regard, as many authorities
do, the Indo-African continent, submerged in comparatively
recent geological times by the waters of the Indian Ocean, as
being the original home of primitive man, then it is easy to under-
stand how he migrated from the subsiding Indo-African continent
westward into the heart of Africa, and eastward to the Malay
Peninsula by way of the Eastern Archipelago, at that time
forming part of the mainland. Those members of the primitive
race who migrated westward are supposed to have spread over
the larger portion of the continent of Africa. They appear to
have divided off into two main branches, the Negrillo pygmies of
central Africa and the Bushmen of the southern portion of the
continent. These two sub-races appear to have been the abori-
ginal inhabitants of the country, though their direct descendants
have now been driven into the great forest fastnesses by the more
powerful Bantu races which sprang from the parent stem at a
later date. A. H. Keane, who considers the recently extinct
Kalang pygmies as the aborigines of Java, thinks it probable that
this island was the first region reached by primitive man and
his Miocene precursor during the eastward migration from,
the subsiding Indo-African continent.
General Characters of the Pygmy Races. As regards stature, the
smallest are the African Negrilloes, their average height being
1-38 m. (4! ft.). One of the six Mambute Negrilloes brought to
England by Colonel Harrison in 1906 measured just over 3^ ft.
Individuals not exceeding 3 ft. are met with, though the midgets
of one or two pygmai in height, whose existence is indicated in the
early Greek writings, must be relegated to the realm of mythology.
The Philippine Aetas measure 1-47 m., while the average height
of the Sakai and Andamanese is I -49 m.
The present writer estimated the weight of six adult Mambute
pygmies (four males and two females) from the Ituri forest, and
found the average weight to be seventy-seven pounds. Two of
these, one man and one woman, each weighed only fifty-three
pounds. All the pure pygmy tribes whether Negrilloes or Negritoes
in addition to their small size have certain well-marked characters
in common. The most notable of these are crisp, closely-curled
hair, flattened nose, broad at the base, deeply depressed at the
root and with exaggerated development of the aloe nasi, long upper
lip with the mucous membrane moderately everted, large ape-like
mouth, receding chin, pronounced prognathism, abundant fine
woolly hair on the body, brachycephalic cranium, proportionately
long arms and short legs, and a general simian appearance.
The colour of the skin shows considerable variation. The pure-
blooded African Akkas are of a peculiar dirty reddish-yellow colour,
the Mambute pygmies of the Ituri forest have a skin of a deep
chocolate-brown hue, while that of the Oceanic Negritoes is of a
dark brown or blackish colour, differing but little from that of the
surrounding Papuans and Melanesians. The eyes of the pygmies are
often large and staring, giving a characteristic " wild appearance."
The abdomen is protuberant in the case of the African pygmies,
but not so in the case of the Oceanic Negritoes. The mid-point
of the body is above the umbilicus, instead of being below as in
the case of Europeans and Asiatics. There is no definite steato-
pygia, though in a few individual cases among the black Negrillo
women the buttocks attain considerable dimensions.
The feet are large and turned slightly inwards, while the toes are
relatively longer than those of Europeans. In some there is a
tendency for the four smaller toes to diverge from the great toe.
Being wonderfully adroit climbers, they sometimes make use of
their feet by grasping branches between the great toe and the rest
of the toes.
Their clothing is chiefly conspicuous by its absence. The African
pygmies go about, for the most part, quite naked, except for the
occasional presence of a small covering over the pudenda, the men
wearing a small piece of deer-skin, and the women one or two
bunches of green leaves, which they renew daily. The resemblance
to the traditional fig-leaf covering is obvious. The Andamanese
wear practically no clothing. The Karons of New Guinea wear
a few strips of bark dangling from a string round the loins. The
Negrilloes seldom, if ever, tattoo their body. They are fond of
beads and_ other articles of adornment; the upper lips are often
pierced with holes, through which quills are thrust. They cut
their short curly hair into fell sorts of fantastic patterns, and often
twist some of it into peaks into which they plait feathers.
Pygmy dwellings are extremely primitive structures. In Africa
they are simply arbours constructed of bent interlaced branches
and plantain leaves, about 7 ft. in diameter and 4 ft. high, with ;
PYLE PYLOS
679
small hole near the bottom, through which the pygmy crawls on
all fours. Ten or twelve of these arbours constitute a village.
These arbours are only temporary habitations, as the pygmies
Iways moving on to different portions of the forest in pursuit
of game. The Philippine Ae'tas show the same nomadic tend-
encies. The dwellings of the Malay Semangs are mere lean-to's,
constructed of matted palm-leaves, while the Karons of New
(iiiinca live in wretched hovels of foliage and branches, and in
some districts have no habitations whatever.
The pygmies are seldom if ever tillers of the soil. The African
forest dwarfs live mainly on the flesh of birds, deer and other animals,
which they shoot with bows and arrows. They eat white ants,
bee grubs and the larvae of beetles, also honey, wild beans and
mushrooms. They are fond of fruits, particularly bananas, which
they obtain from their bigger neighbours by barter or by plunder.
They eat the vegetables raw, while the meat is broiled in the ashes
of the fire until quite dry. Their utensils consist solely of a few
clay cooking-pots and gourds for water. There is no record of
cannibalism among the pygmy races. The six Mambute pygmies
brought to England in 1906 soon became acclimatized. They took
im>*t kindly to European diet and clothing. At the expiry of
eighteen months they went back to the Ituri forest much improved
in health, having each gained on an average 9 J lb in weight.
They are most daring hunters, and marvellously skilful archers.
Though of small size they are well made and agile, and are able
to dart in and out with the greatest of ease amongst the tall tangled
vegetation of the tropical woodlands. The Batwa, from the south
of the Congo, successfully attack elephants, shooting them with
their tiny poisoned arrows. The poison is obtained from the juice
of certain plants, and also from decaying animal matter derived
from the putrefaction of ants. The Andaman pygmies live ex-
clusively by hunting and fishing.
The African pygmies marry at a very early age, often when only
nine or ten years old. Marriage is simply a question of the pur-
chase of the girl from her father; the purchase-price being from
ten to fifteen arrows, occasionally supplemented, in the case of a
desirable wife, by one or two spears or some tobacco. A man may
have as many wives as he can afford to buy. A mother gives birth
to her offspring in the forest, severing the navel-cord with her teeth,
and burying the placenta in the ground. The families are usually
small, rarely exceeding three in number. There is great rejoicing
when a boy is born, while the unlucky girl baby is beaten by her
father with plantain leaves. The boys are often circumcised.
There is great affection between the husband and the wife and be-
tween the parents and the children. The duration of life is short
in the equatorial forests, death usually taking place before the age
of forty. The dead are buried in graves, the chief's wives being
sometimes killed and buried along with him.
The African pygmies have little if any belief in life after death.
They say death is the end of everything. They have a vague
belief in " Oudah," a sort of pygmy devil, who is responsible for
sudden death and such-like calamities. There is no trace of spirit
or ancestor worship. The Andaman Islanders have a vague belief
in a sort of god " Pilluga " an invisible being who lives in a
large stone house in the sky, and who made all things. They also
believe in an evil one, to whom they attribute sickness and death.
There is no hereditary chief. In many cases a group of pygmies
simply cluster round a skilful hunter. In the case of the Mambute
pygmies, a chief is succeeded, not by his son, but by his best friend.
There are no governmental laws. Murder in the Ituri forest is
punished by the next-of-kin lying in wait for the culprit and killing
him.
The Negrilloes are fond of music and have numerous folk-songs.
They also twang on stringed bows, and beat drums made of hollowed-
out tree trunks covered in at the ends with antelope skin. They
.ire also great dancers, keeping perfect time to the beating of the
drums' their bodies going through the most extraordinary contor-
tions. They all dance together in a long line, which twists about
like a snake.
The forest dwarfs have some idea of drawing, each arrow shaft
having its distinctive carving. The Andamanese display a consider-
able degree of intelligence. The Karons of New Guinea, on the other
hand, seem to be of a low type of intelligence.
The Negrilloes have acquired a great reputation among the neigh-
bouring tribes for their knowledge of poisons and their antidotes.
Their treatment of all pains and inflammations consists in linear
scarification of the skin of the affected part. They invariably use
sharpened arrow-heads for this purpose.
Close observation has convinced the present writer that the
African pygmies are endowed with a high degree of intelligence.
Sir Harry Johnston believes them to be the intellectual superiors
the big negroes. They exhibit vivacity and adroitness, quick-
ness in picking up information and languages, and surprising
readiness in grasping the salient points of a subject. They are
.voiulerful mimics, and have a marked sense of humour, making
witty remarks which set the others off into peals of laughter. They
is a rule bright and cheerful in disposition, will sometimes fly
nto sudden fits of ill temper and as quickly recover their good
humour. They are cleanly in their habits, have a natural sense of
modesty and refinement, and punctiliously observe the ordinary
decencies of life.
The pygmies of the Malay Peninsula have a perfectly distinct
language of their own. A glossary and grammar with phonetic
rules of the Sen-oi dialect has been published, showing no con-
nexion with any other known language.
The African pygmies, for the most part, speak a more or less
corrupt form of the language of the adjacent negro tribes, e.g.
Keswahili, Bantu, Momfu. They have some words, however, peculiar
to themselves, which may be the fragments of their own original
language. (R. M. L.)
PYLE, HOWARD (1853- ), American artist and writer,
was born at Wilmington, Delaware, on the 5th of March 1853.
He was a pupil of the Art Students' League, New York, and
first attracted attention by his line drawings after the manner
of Albrecht Durer. His brilliant work as an illustrator made
him one of the foremost of American artists, his drawings to
illustrate American colonial life, particularly in New England
and New Amsterdam, being especially noteworthy; and he
published a number of books of fiction, written and illustrated
by himself. He also became prominent in decorative painting,
his works including " The Battle of Nashville " for the capitol
at St Paul, Minnesota, and " The Landing of Carteret " for the
Essex county court house, Newark, New Jersey. At his home in
Wilmington, Delaware, he established a school of art, instruction
being gratuitous, and many successful American illustrators
were educated there. In 1907 Howard Pyle was elected a
member of the National Academy of Design.
PYLOME, in Zoology, the name given to the principal opening
(or openings) of the shell (theca, test) of such Protozoa as possess
one. (See FORAMINIFERA, RADIOLARIA.)
PYLOS (mod. Navarino), in ancient geography a town and
bay on the west coast of Messenia, noted chiefly for the part
it played in the Peloponnesian War. The bay, roughly semi-
circular in shape, is protected by the island of Sphacteria (mod.
Sphagia), over 2% m. long from N. to S., and is entered by two
channels, that on the S., some 1,400 yds. wide, and that on the
N., 220 yds. wide and now almost silted up. To the north lies
an extensive shallow basin, called the lagoon of Osman Aga,
originally part of the great harbour but now cut off from it by
a narrow sandbank. North of Sphagia is the rocky headland of
Pylos or Coryphasium, called in modern times Palaeo-Navarino
or Palaeokastro, from the Venetian ruins on its summit.
Originally an island, this headland was in classical times, as now,
connected by a narrow bar with the lower promontory of Hagios
Nikolaos on the north; it is now united to the mainland also by
the sandbar already mentioned. Most scholars, ancient and
modern, have identified this with the Homeric Pylos, the home of
Neleus and Nestor,and a cave on the north slope of Coryphasium is
pointed out as that in which Hermes hid the stolen cattle of Apollo.
But this view presents considerable difficulties, and Strabo
(viii. 348 sqq.) argued that the Pylos of Nestor must be the place
of that name in Triphylia. After the Dorian migration Pylos
declined, and it is referred to by Thucydides (iv. 3) as a
deserted headland in 425 B.C. In May of that year, the seventh
of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians sent an expedition to
Sicily under command of Eurymedon and Sophocles. With
them was the general, Demosthenes, who landed at Coryphasium
with a body of Athenian troops and hastily fortified it. The
Spartans, who were then invading Attica, withdrew their forces
and attacked them vigorously by sea and land, but were re-
pulsed, and the Athenians were enabled by the arrival and victory
of their fleet to blockade on the island of Sphacteria a body
of 420 Spartiates with their attendant helots. A truce was
concluded, but peace negotiations were defeated by Cleon (q.v.),
who was himself appointed to conduct operations with Demos-
thenes. A large body of light troops was landed and drove the
Spartans from their encampment by a well in the middle of the
island to its northern extremity. Their heroic resistance was
overcome by a rear attack directed by a Messenian, who led a
body of men by a difficult path along the cliffs on the east, and the
292 Spartan survivors laid down their arms 72 days after the
beginning of the blockade. Their surrender made a deep im-
pression on the whole Greek world, which had learned to regard
68o
PYM
a Spartan surrender as inconceivable, and to Sparta their loss
was so serious that the Athenians might have concluded the war
on very favourable terms had they so wished. Though Pylos
should have been ceded to Sparta under the terms of the peace
of Nicias (421 B.C.) it was retained by the Athenians until the
Spartans recaptured it early in 409 B.C. (Diodorus xiii. 64).
In the middle ages the name Pylos was replaced by that of
Avarino ('Aftapivos) or Navarino, derived from a body of
Avars who settled there; the current derivation from the Navar-
rese Company, who entered Greece in 1381 and built a castle at
this spot, cannot now be maintained (Eng. Hist. Review, xx. 307,
xxi. io6;Hermathena, xxxi. 430 sqq.). From 1498 to 1821 Navar-
ino was in the hands of the Turks, save at two periods when
it was held by the Venetians, who named it Zonklon. In
1821 the Greeks captured the town, situated near the southern
extremity of the bay, but in 1825 they had to retire before
Ibrahim Pasha. On the 2oth of October 1827, however, his
fleet of 82 vessels was annihilated in the Bay of Navarino by
26 British, French and Russian ships under Admiral Codrington
(see NAVARINO, THE BATTLE OF).
See W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea, i. 398 sqq. (London, 1830),
and Peloponnesiaca, 190 sqq. (London, 1846); E. Curtius, Pelopon-
nesos, ii. 173 sqq. (Gotha, 1852) ; C. Bursian, Geographic von Griechen-
land, ii. 175 sqq. (Leipzig, 1868); Pausanias iy. 36, and the com-
mentary in J. G. Frazer, Pausanias's Description of Greece, iii. 456
sqq., v. 608 sqq. (London, 1898) ; W. G. Clark, Peloponnesus, 214 sqq.
(London, 1858) ; W. Vischer, Erinnerungen und Eindrucke aus
Griechenland, 431 sqq. (Basel, 1857); G. Grote, .History of Greece,
pt. ii. ch. 52; G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, iii. 1086 sqq.; F. M.
Cornford, Thucydides mythistoricus' 82 sqq. (London, 1907). The
operations at Pylos, described by Thucydides iv. 2-41, have been
discussed on the basis of personal observation by Dr G. B. Grundy
(Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. I sqq. ; Classical Review, x. 371 sqq.,
xi. 155 sqq., 448; J.H.S., xviii. 232 sqq.) and Professor R. M.
Burrows (J.H.S., xvi. 55 sqq.; C.R. xi. I sqq.; J.H.S., xviii.
147 sqq., 345 sqq.; C.R. xix. 129 sqq.). Though differing on many
points, they agree in thinking (l) that the island of Sphagia is the
ancient Sphacteria, Palaeokastro the ancient Coryphasium or
Pylos; (2) that in 425 B.C. the lagoon of Osman Aga was navigable
and communicated by a navigable channel with the Bay of Navar-
ino; (3) that Thucydides, if the MS. reading is correct, under-
estimates the length of the island, which he gives as 15 stades instead
of 24 (nearly 3 m.), and also the breadth of the southern channel
between it and the mainland. Cf. J.H.S., xx. 14 sqq., xxvii.
274 sqq., and Frazer's summary (op. cit. v. 608 sqq.). (M. N. T.)
PYM, JOHN (1584-1643), English statesman, was the son and
heir of Alexander Pym, of Brymore, Somersetshire, a member
of an ancient family which had held this seat in direct male
descent from the time of Henry III. He matriculated as a com-
moner at Broadgates Hall (now Pembroke College), Oxford, in
1599, and entered the Middle Temple in 1602. He acquired
a sound knowledge of the law, and became receiver-general of
the king's revenue for Wilts., thus gaining a valuable insight
into business and finance. He was returned to parliament as
member for Calne in 1614 and again in 1621. He at once became
conspicuous in the struggle between Crown and parliament.
To the committee appointed to consider the state of religion he
made his first great speech on the 28th of November 1621.
He held fast to the Elizabethan principle that the Roman
Catholics should be subjected to disabilities, not because of
their religion, but because of their politics. He, therefore, moved
that a special commission for the suppression of recusancy should
be appointed, and that an association, after the model of those
formed under Elizabeth, should be entered into for defence of
the king's person and for the execution of the laws concerning
religion. Pym supported Sir Edward Coke in the remonstrance
on the prevailing discontents, and was a chief promoter of the
petition which incurred James's violent displeasure, and of the
Commons' answer defending their privileges, which was after-
wards torn from the records by the king's own hand. On the
dissolution of parliament which immediately followed, Pym,
with other "ill-tempered spirits," was arrested in January
1622, and was confined first to his house in London, and then
to Brymore. He associated himself with the party of Francis,
4th earl of Bedford, was returned for Tavistock in 1624, and
represented this borough in all the ensuing parliaments. He
supported Eliot in urging war against Spain for the defence of
Protestantism and the Palatinate, and showed throughout his
career, as far as his attention was ever directed to foreign policy,
a steady inclination in favour of France.
In the parliament of 1625 he continued his campaign against
the Roman Catholics, and drew up with Sir Edwin Sandys the
articles against them, and the petition to the king for the direct
execution of the penal laws. In the parliament of 1626 he was
the chief mover, in April, in the prosecution of Richard
Montagu, who had advocated Romish doctrines. On the 8th
of May he was manager of Buckingham's impeachment, when it
was his special duty to press articles ix., x., xi., relating to the
improper distribution of rewards and honours. In the third
parliament of Charles I., in 1628, Pym overruled Eliot in de-
ciding that Buckingham's impeachment should now be sub-
ordinated to the struggle on general grievances. He zealously
pushed on the Petition of Right, resisting on the 2oth of May
the clause added by the Lords to safeguard the king's " sove-
reign power," declaring that " he knew not what it was." On
the gth of June he carried up to the Lords the impeachment of
Roger Manwaring, and delivered a famous speech in which he
expounded the fundamental principles which guided his policy.
" Histories," he said, " are full of the calamities of whole
states and nations .... [when] one part seeks to uphold the old
form of government and the other part to introduce a new . . .
But it is equally true that time must needs bring about some
alterations. . . . Those things only are eternal which are con-
stant and uniform. Therefore it is observed by the best writers
on this subject, that those commonwealths have been most durable
and perpetual which have often reformed and recompensed them-
selves according to their first institution and ordinance."
On the nth of June he joined in the attack upon Buckingham,
whom he regarded as the " cause of all these grievances." On
the 27th of January 1629 he was reporter of the committee on
religion, and declared that convocation was dependent upon
parliament. He again, in February 1629, differed from Eliot,
who treated the dispute about tonnage and poundage as a point
of privilege, declaring that " the liberties of this house are in-
ferior to the liberties of the kingdom," and desiring to deal with
it on higher ground as a breach of law and the constitution. He
took no part in the subsequent disturbance in the house, and
his name is not mentioned as actively resisting Charles's arbi-
trary government during the eleven years which followed the
dissolution. At this period the state of public affairs may well
have appalled the most hopeful and the most patriotic, but there
seems no sufficient authority for the belief that Pym, with
Hampden and Cromwell, actually embarked for New England
and were prevented from sailing by orders from the govern-
ment. An allusion, however, to a similar plan formed " by
some very considerable personages," " diverted by a miraculous
providence^" is made in a sermon by Thomas Cave in 1642.
Pym himself was directly interested in the colonies, being
patentee of Connecticut and Providence, and of the latter
company also treasurer, and there can be little doubt that
like other leaders of the opposition during this period, he
regarded America as a possible refuge.
On the assembly of the Short Parliament on the I3th of April
1640, Pym was the acknowledged leader. " Whilst men gazed
upon each other," says Clarendon (Hist. ii. 68), " looking who
should begin (much the greater part having never before sat in
parliament), Mr Pym, a man of good reputation . . . who had
been as long in these assemblies as any man there living, broke
the ice." On the i7th of April he made a great speech of nearly
two hours, in which he enumerated the national grievances,
deplored almost in the words of Bacon " the interruption of
that sweete communion which ought to be betwixt the king and
his people in matters of grant and supply," pointed out the
practical injury inflicted on commerce and every sort of enter-
prise including colonial expansion by illegal and arbitrary tax-
ation, and concluded by asking the Lords to join in finding
out causes and remedies. His words made a deep impression.
On the 27th of April he resisted the grant of supply, and when
the Lords passed a resolution that supply should precede the
PYM
681
discussion of grievances, Pym, as manager of the Commons,
on the ist of May, read them a severe lecture on the breach of
privilege they had committed. Finally, on the 4th, it was
resolved that Pym should next day petition the king to make
terms with the Scots, to avoid which Charles summarily
dissolved the parliament.
All the energies of Pym were now concentrated on obliging
Charles to summon another parliament. He was the author of
the petition of the twelve peers to the king for redress of grievances
and for calling a new parliament, by the wide distribution
Di which an appeal was made to the nation, and he was the pro-
moter of the petition signed by 10,000 citizens of London. In
i .any with Hampden he rode through the provinces, rousing
organizing public opinion. Meanwhile Charles's attempt
to implicate Pym in treasonable communications with the
Scots, though there is little doubt that they existed, met with
complete failure. Thus, when the king was forced to call the Long
Parliament on the 3rd of November, Pym was its acknowledged
or and leader. His great work was now, as he conceived
it, to save the national liberties and the national religion.
Clarendon (Hist. iii. 2) records some " sharp discourse " of Pym
with himself at this time, " that they had now an opportunity
to make their country happy by removing all grievances
and pulling up the causes by the roots, if all men would
do their duties." He had seen Vane's notes of Strafford's
speeches at the council when he had advised the subduing of
" this kingdom " by the Irish army, and on the 7th of November,
after declaring to the house the dangerous designs then on foot,
Pym moved for a sub-committee to examine into Strafford's
conduct in Ireland. The latter's sudden arrival at London on
the 9th with the intention of instantly impeaching the popular
leaders of treason was met by Pym with corresponding quickness
arid resolution. On the nth, after a debate of four hours in the
Commons, by his directions with locked doors, he carried up
Strafford's impeachment to the Lords, and by this great stroke
rendered him at once powerless.
On the i6th of December he moved the impeachment of
Laud, whom he joined with Strafford as conspiring to subvert
the government of the kingdom, and carried up the articles to the
Lords on the 26th of February 1641. He was the chief pro-
moter of the case against Strafford, while the attempts of the
queen to gain him over were without result, and on the 28th of
January 1641 he brought up to the Lords the list of charges.
On the 23rd of March he opened the case, when he argued that
to attempt to subvert the laws of the kingdom was high treason,
and delivered a violent denunciation against the fallen minister,
attributing to him systematic cruelty, avarice and corruption.
He soon afterwards heard of the army plot, and the necessity
of destroying Strafford became more apparent. He now dis-
closed Vane's notes. To the attainder, which was at this stage
resolved upon, he was opposed (since he dung to the more judi-
rial procedure by impeachment), but when overruled he sup-
ported it, at the same time procuring that the legal arguments
should not be interrupted. He delivered his final speech on
the i3th of April, a great oratorical performance, when he
again appealed to the Elizabethan political faith and to that
of Bacon, who had so severely censured any action which divided
the king from the nation. The man who violated this union
was guilty of the blackest treason. " Shall it be treason," he
asked, " to embase the King's coin though but a piece ... of
sixpence . . . and not to embase the spirits of his subjects; to set
a stamp and character of servitude upon them ? " Towards
the end of his tremendous indictment of Strafford, Pym broke
down, fumbled among his papers, and lost the thread of his
argument. But his temporary failure did not diminish the
force and effect of his words, all the more impressive because
actually spoken in the presence of the sovereign. " I believe,"
wrote Baillie (Letters, i. 348) " the king never heard a lecture of
so free language against that his idolized prerogative."
Attempts were now once more made to gain over Pym to
the administration. He had two interviews with the king,
but without result, and Charles again determined to resort to
force. On the 2nd of May he endeavoured to get possession
of the Tower. ' On the 3rd the Protestation, on Pym's motion,
was taken by the Commons within closed doors, and afterwards
circulated in the country, and on the 5th Pym disclosed the
army plot. These incidents decided the struggle and Strafford's
fate. The Lords immediately passed the attainder, together
with the bill for making parliaments indissoluble without
their own consent. Soon afterwards were swept away those
institutions of Tudor growth which had become the chief in-
struments of oppression, the council of the North, the court of
high commission, and the star chamber, .while the Crown aban-
doned the claim to levy customs without consent of parliament.
Meanwhile Pym had also taken the lead in the religious con-
troversy. During the dispute between the two houses on this
question on the 8th and gth of February r64i, while supporting
the London petition for the abolition of the bishops, he had
declared his opinion that " it was not the intention of the House
to abolish episcopacy or the Book of Common Prayer, but to
reform both wherein offence was given to the people." This,
no doubt, expressed his real intentions and policy. When,
however, it became clear that the bishops were merely the
nominees of the king to carry out " innovations in religion "
and preach arbitrary government, Pym was easily persuaded to
support their abolition, and voted in opposition to the moderate
party for the Root and Branch Bill of May 1641, and again for
taking away their votes in October. But in his " Vindication,"
published in March 1643, he especially states that his action
with regard to the bishops in " no way concluded me guilty
of revolt from the orthodox doctrine of the Church of
England." .
The first act in the great political struggle had ended in the
complete triumph of Pym. His chief care now was to defend
the parliament from violence, since this was the only method
of retaliation left at the king's disposal. Through the medium
of the countess of Carlisle, Charles's plans were regularly dis-
closed to Pym. In June he heard of the second army plot,
and on the 22nd he carried up the ten propositions to the Lords,
requesting their concurrence in effecting the disbandment of
the armies and the removal of evil counsellors. After Charles's
departure for Scotland, Pym served on the committee for defence,
appointed on the I4th of August, and was chairman of the
committee which sat during the recess from the 9th of September
to the 20th of October to watch the progress of affairs and com-
municate with Scotland. On the latter day letters arrived
from Hampden, who had accompanied Charles, with news of
the " incident," and immediate measures were taken to guard
the parliament, by bringing up the train-bands. On the 3Oth
Pym revealed his knowledge of the second army plot. On the
ist of November came news of the Ulster insurrection, which
created a serious difficulty for the parliament, when it was finally
declared, at Pym's instance, that if the king did not change his
advisers parliament would provide for the needs of Ireland in-
dependently. On the 22nd of November Pym made a great
speech on the Grand Remonstrance, of which he was the chief
promoter, when he referred to plots "very near the king, all
driven home to the court and popish party."
Charles returned on the 25th. He immediately substituted a
force commanded by Dorset for the guard already placed at
Westminster, but was compelled to withdraw it, and on Pym's
motion the house appointed its own watch. Everything
now pointed to the advent of a frightful catastrophe. Charles
appointed Lunsford to the Tower, rejected the Grand Remon-
strance and the Impressment Bill, and began to assemble an
armed force. In consequence Pym urged, but unsuccessfully,
on the 30th of December the summoning of the train -bands to
guard the parliament, and moved the impeachment of the
bishops, who had declared the proceedings of the parliament
to be sinful and illegal. At the critical moment, however, Charles
wavered. He renewed his offer to Pym of the exchequer on
the ist of January 1642, and this meeting with a refusal, or again
drawing back himself, he determined on the impeachment of
the five members on the 3rd of January. The latter had been
682
PYM
forewarned of the king's plans, and when on the 5th he entered
the House of Commons with an armed band to seize them,
they had removed themselves in safety (see LENTHAL, WILLIAM) .
Charles's first look on entering was for his great opponent, and
he was greatly disconcerted at not finding him in his usual
place. To his question " Is Mr Pym here ? " there was no
answer, and nothing remained but to retreat with his mission
completely unachieved.
The second act in the great national drama had thus, as the
first, ended in a victory for Pym. On the nth, with the other
members, he was escorted in triumph back to Westminster,
and while the other four stood uncovered, Pym returned
thanks from his place to the citizens. On the 25th of January
he delivered a great speech to the Lords on the perils attending
the kingdom, and referring to their hesitation on the subject
of the militia, declared that he should be sorry that history
should have to relate that the House of Peers had had no
part in the preservation of the state in the present extremity
of danger. The Commons ordered his speech to be printed,
and it provided the chief material for the paper war between
Charles and the parliament which now followed. Still en-
deavouring to avoid a complete breach of constitutional forms,
Pym caused to be added to the resolution of the Commons on
the 20th of May 1642, which declared that " the king intends
to make war against the parliament," the words " seduced by
wicked counsel."
When war broke out, Pym remained at headquarters in
control of the parliament and executive, and on the 4th of July
was appointed to the committee of safety which directed the
movements of the parliamentary forces. His attitude was firm
but moderate. He opposed the attempt to prevent Colepepper
giving the king's message to the house on the 27th of August.
On the 20th of October, upon Charles refusing to accept the
petition of the parliament and advancing towards London, Pym
proposed the parliamentary covenant, and that those who refused
it should be " cast out of the House." He succeeded in over-
coming the opposition in the city to the heavy taxation now im-
posed. On the roth of November, after Edgehill, he spoke in
support of the negotiations for peace, at the same time warning
the citizens that " to have printed liberties and not to have liberty
in truth and realities is but to mock the kingdom." In Feb-
ruary 1643 he still showed an inclination for peace, and during
the negotiation of the treaty at Oxford supported the disband-
ment of the armies. When it was evident that peace would not
be secured, he proposed in order to carry on the war an excise,
hitherto unknown in England, which met with the same violent
hostility afterwards aroused by Walpole's scheme. In March
he published a " Declaration and Vindication " of his public
conduct, in which he threw the whole blame of the appeal to
arms on the opposite party, and expressed his fidelity to the
Church and constitution. In May he entered, together with the
other leaders, into resultless negotiations with the queen, and on
the 23rd he took up her impeachment to the Lords. In June
he reported on Waller's plot, which exposed the insincerity of
Charles's negotiations, and on the 26th of June wrote a " sharp
letter " to Essex on his inaction. In July, after the defeat
at Adwalton Moor, he prevented the house from again initiating
negotiations for peace, which he declared " full of hazard and
full of danger," and on the 3rd of August, after having visited
Essex at Kingston, persuaded him to separate himself from
the peace propositions of the Lords and to march to relieve
Gloucester. He thus incurred the hatred of the peace party,
and on the gth of August a mob of women surrounded the house
calling for Pym's destruction, and were not dispersed without
some bloodshed.
Pym had already, on the 3rd of January, proposed to the
house an alliance with the Scots, and the Royalist victories
now induced parliament to consent to what had before been re-
jected. The establishment of Presbyterianism was accepted
by Pym as a disagreeable necessity, and he was one of the first
to take the covenant on the 2$th of September. This alliance,
which was afterwards destined to have so decisive an influence
on the military campaign, and was the first occasion on which
the two nations had united in public action, closes Pym's great
career. He was made master of the ordnance on the 8th of
November, but died on the 8th of December at Derby House,
where he resided. On the isth of December he received a public
funeral in Westminster Abbey, whence his body was ejected
at the Restoration. A sum of 10,000 was voted by the par-
liament to pay Pym's debts and provide for his family. About
1614 Pym married Anne Hooke, or Hooker (d. 1620), by whom
he had five children, including two sons, Alexander, who died
unmarried, and Charles, who was created a baronet; this title,
together with Pym's male line, became extinct in the person
of Pym's grandson Charles in 1688, Brymore then passing to
his sister Mary, wife of Sir Thomas Hales, Bart.
Pym had little of the Puritan in his character or demeanour.
His good humour, humanity and cheerfulness in all circum-
stances, "his pleasant countenance and sweet behaviour,"
were marked characteristics; the aspersions, however, on his
morals, as well as the accusations of bribery, are completely
unsubstantiated and discredited. His death came as an irre-
parable loss to the parliamentary cause. " Since Pym died,"
writes Baillie (Letters, ii. 216), " not a state head among them;
many very good and able spirits, but not any of so great and
comprehensive a braine as to manage the multitude of weightie
affaires as lyes on them." He was one of the greatest leaders
that the House of Commons has produced, a most capable man of
business, and indefatigable in assiduous attention to its details.
He possessed great tact in influencing the conduct of the house
and in removing personal jealousies on critical occasions, and
he excelled as a party leader in choosing and directing the course
of policy, and in keeping his followers united and organized in
its prosecution, as well as in stimulating and guiding popular
opinion outside in its support. The frequent appeals to the
nation by protestations, oaths of association and popular peti-
tions, were a very striking feature in Pym's policy, one of the
chief sources of his strength, and new in English history. We
may indeed perhaps see in these and in the canvassing of con-
stituencies conducted by Pym and Hampden the beginnings
of party government. His eloquence lay rather in the clear-
ness of his expression and in the depth and solidity of his ideas
than in the more showy arts of oratory. Much of his success
as a leader was the result of the confidence inspired by his
high character, his well-tried courage and resolution at critical
moments, his skill and vigilance in unmasking and frustrating
the designs of the opposite faction. But Pym was not only great
as a party leader; he had the real instinct of construction, the
true test of the statesman. This construction, he believed, in the
spirit of genuine conservatism, must always be progress along
the lines of natural development, and not by the methods of
revolutionary or extraneous innovation. It was Pym's chief
charge against Charles, Strafford and Laud that they had
arrested this progress, and were thus leading the nation to rum
and dissolution. Such was the theory and conviction, inherited
from Bacon and passed on to Halifax and Burke, which underlay
and inspired Pym's policy.
The article on Pym by S. R. Gardiner, in the Diet. Nat. Biog.
with its references to authorities, must be supplemented by
the same author's Hist, of England and of the Civil War. Pym's
life has also been written at length by J. Forster in Lardner's
Cabinet Cyclopaedia, Eminent British Statesmen, vol. iii., and by
Wood in Ath. oxon. iii. 72, who adds a list of Pym's printed speeches.
His character, drawn by Clarendon, Hist. iii. 30 and vii. 409, is
inaccurate and obviously prejudiced. See also J. Forster's Grand Re-
monstrance, Arrest of the Five Members, Life of Sir J. Eliot; Verney's
Notes of the Long Parliament; Whitelocke's Memorials, (needing
corroboration of other authorities); R. Baillie's Letters; Eng. Hist.
Rev. xvii. 736; Rushworth's Collections; Thomason Tracts, 153
(10), 63 (8), 172 (14), 164 (3), 200 (13) (26) (37) (49) (65), 199 (24) (49),
78 (13); Somers Tracts iv. 217, 355, 461, 466; Affaniae and Deaths
Sermon, by C. Fitzgeffrey; Add. MSS. Brit. Mus. 14,827; 11,692;
Lords and Commons Journals. There are a large number of refer-
ences to Pym in Calendars of State Papers Dom. 1619-1643, and
Colonial Series 1574-1660, and in the Hist. MSS : Comm. Series;
but the supposed notebook of Pym mentioned in Rep. x. app.
vi. 82, has been shown by Gardiner to be that of another person
(Eng. Hist. Rev., Jan. 1895, p. 105). (P. C. Y.)
rson
PYRAMID
683
PYRAMID, the name for a class of buildings, first taken from
a part of the structure, 1 and mistakenly applied to the whole of
it by the Greeks, which has now so far acquired a more definite
meaning in its geometrical sense that it is desirable to employ
it in that sense alone. A pyramid therefore should be under-
stood as meaning a building bounded by a polygonal base and
plane triangular sides which meet in an apex. 1 Such a form of
architecture is only known in Middle Egypt, and there only
during the period from the IVth to the Xllth Dynasty (before
3000 B.C.) having square bases and angles of about 50. In
other countries various modifications of the tumulus, barrow or
burial-heap have arisen which have come near to this type; but
these when formed of earth are usually circular, or if square
have a flat top, and when built of stone are always in steps or
terraces. The imitations of the true Egyptian pyramid at
Thebes, Meroe and elsewhere are puny hybrids, being merely
chambers with a pyramidal outside and porticos attached;
and the structures found at Cenchreae, or the monument of
Caius Sestius at Rome, are isolated and barren trials of a type
which never could be revived: it had run its course in a country
and a civilization to which alone it was suitable.
The origin of the pyramid type has been entirely explained
by the discovery of the various stages of development of the
tomb. In prehistoric times a square chamber was sunk in the
ground, the dead placed in it, and a roof of poles and brushwood
overlaid with sand covered the top. The 1st Dynasty kings
developed a wooden lining to the chamber; then a wooden
chamber free-standing in the pit, with a beam roof, then a
stairway at the side to descend; then a pile of earth held in by
a dwarf wall over it. By the Illrd Dynasty this dwarf wall
hail expanded into a solid mass of brickwork, about 280 by 1 50 ft.
and 33 ft. high. This was the maslaba type of tomb, with a
long sloping passage descending to the chamber far below it.
This pile of brickwork was then copied in stonework early in the
Illrd Dynasty (Saqqara). It was then enlarged by repeated
heightening and successive coats of masonry. And lastly a
smooth casing was put over the whole, and the first pyramid
appeared (Medum).
It is certain that the pyramids were each begun with a
di finite design for their size and arrangement; at least this is
pl.iinly seen in the two largest, where continuous accretion
(such as Lepsius and his followers propound) would be most
likely to be met with. On looking at any section of these build-
ings it will be seen how impossible it would have been for the
passages to have belonged to a smaller structure (Petrie, 165).
The supposition that the designs were enlarged so long as the
builder's life permitted was drawn from the compound mas-
tabas of Saqqara and Medum; these are, however, quite dis-
tinct architecturally from true pyramids, and appear to have
been enlarged at long intervals, being elaborately finished with
fine casing at the close of each addition.
Around many of the pyramids peribolus walls may be seen,
and it is probable that some enclosure originally existed around
each of them. At the pyramids of Gizeh the temples attached
to these mausolea may be still seen. As in the private tomb,
the false door which represented the exit of the deceased person
from this world, and towards which the offerings were made,
was always on the west wall in the chamber, so the pyramid
was placed on the west of the temple in which the deceased
king was worshipped. The temple being entered from the
east (as in the Jewish temples), the worshippers faced the west,
looking towards the pyramid in which the king was buried.
Priests of the various pyramids are continually mentioned during
the old kingdom, and the religious endowments of many of the
priesthoods of the early kings were revived under the Egyptian
renaissance of the XXVIth Dynasty and continued during
Ptolemaic times. A list of the hieroglyphic names of nineteen
1 The vertical height was named by the Egyptians pir-em-us
(see E. Revillout, Rev. Eg., 2nd year, 305-309), hence the Greek
form pyramis, pi. pyramid*! (Herod.), used unaltered in the English
of Sandys (1615), from which the singular pyramid was formed.
1 For figures of geometrical pyramids see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,
and for their mensuration see MENSURATION.
of the pyramids which have been found mentioned on monu-
ments (mostly in tombs of the priests) is given in Lieblein's
Chronology, p. 32. The pyramid was never a family monu-
ment, but belonged like all other Egyptian tombs to one
person, members of the royal family having sometimes lesser
pyramids adjoining the king's (as at Khufu's); the essential
idea of the sole use of a tomb was so strong that the hill of
Gizeh is riddled with deep tomb-shafts for separate burials,
often running side by side 60 or 80 ft. deep, with only a thin
wall of rock between; and in one place a previous shaft has
been partially blocked with masonry, so that a later shaft could
be cut partly into it, macled with it like a twin-crystal.
The usual construction of pyramids is a mass of masonry
composed of horizontal layers of rough-hewn blocks, with a small
amount of mortar; and this mass in the later forms became more
and more rubbly, until in the Vlth Dynasty it was merely a
cellular system of retaining walls of rough stones and mud,
filled up with loose chips, and in the Xllth Dynasty the bulk
was of mud bricks. Whatever was the hidden material, how-
ever, there was alway* on the outside a casing of fine stone,
elaborately finished, and very well jointed; and the inner cham-
bers were of similarly good work. Indeed the construction was
in all cases so far sound that, had it not been for the spite of
enemies and the greed of later builders, it is probable that every
pyramid would have been standing in good order at this day.
The casings were not a mere " veneer " or " film," as they
have been called, but were of massive blocks, usually greater
in thickness than in height, and in some cases (as at South
Dahshur) reminding the observer of horizontal leaves with
sloping edges.
Inside of each pyramid, always low down, and usually be-
low the ground level, was built a sepulchral chamber; this was
reached in all cases by a passage from the north, sometimes
beginning in the pyramid face, sometimes descending into the
rock on which the pyramid was built in front of the north side.
This chamber, if not cut in the rock altogether (as in Menkaura's),
or a pit in the rock roofed with stone (as in Khafra's), was built
between two immense walls which served for the east and west
sides, and between which the north and south sides and roofing
stood merely in contact, but unbonded. The gable roofing
of the chambers was formed by great sloping cantilevers of
stone, projecting from the north and south walls, on which they
rested without pressing on each other along the central ridge;
thus there was no thrust, nor were there any forces to disturb
the building; and it was only after the most brutal treatment,
by which these great masses of stone were cracked asunder, that
the principle of thrust came into play, though it had been pro-
vided for in the sloping form of the roof, so as to delay so long
as possible the collapse of the chamber. This is best seen in
the pyramid of Pepi (Petrie), opened from the top right through
the roof. See also the Abusir pyramids (Howard Vyse) and the
king's and queen's chambers of the great pyramid (Howard
Vyse, Piazzi Smyth, Petrie). The roofing is sometimes, per-
haps usually, of more than one layer; in Pepi's pyramid it is
of three layers of stone beams, each deeper than their breadth,
resting one on another, the thirty stones weighing more than
30 tons each. In the king's chamber (Gizeh) successive hori-
zontal roofs were interposed between the chamber and the final
gable roof, and such may have been the case at Abu Roash
(Howard Vyse).
The passages which led into the central chambers have usually
some lesser chamber in their course, and are blocked once or
oftener with massive stone portcullises. In all cases some part,
and generally the greater part, of the passages slopes down-
wards, usually at an angle of about 26, or r in 2. These pas-
sages appear to have been closed externally with stone doors
turning on a horizontal pivot, as may be seen at South Dahshur,
and as is described by Strabo and others (Petrie). This suggests
that the interiors of the pyramids were accessible to the priests,
probably for making offerings; the fact of many of them having
been forcibly entered otherwise does not show that no practic-
able entrance existed, but merely that it was unknown, as,
PYRAMID
for instance, in the pyramids of Khufu and Khafra, both of
which were regularly entered in classical times, but were forced
by the ignorant Arabs.
The pyramids of nearly all the kings of the IVth, Vth and Vlth
Dynasties are mentioned in inscriptions, and also a few of later
times. The first which can be definitely attributed is that of
Khufu (or Cheops), called " the glorious," the great pyramid of
A A ORIGINAL MASTABA. "~11 ^f SCALE I wen TO 100 TEET.
FIG. I. Pyramid of Medum (Meidoun).
Gizeh. Dad-ef-ra, who appears next to Khufu in the lists, had his
pyramid at Abu Roash. Khafra rested in the pyramid now known
as the second pyramid of Gizeh. Menkaura's pyramid was called
Of the architectural peculiarities of some particular pyramids
some notice must now be given. The pyramid of Medum (figs. I, 2)
was the first true pyramid. It was begun as a mastaba, AA, like
other such tombs, such as that of King Neter-khet at Beyt Khalaf.
This mastaba was then enlarged by heightening it and adding a
coating, and this process, repeated seven times, resulted in a high
stepped mass of masonry. Such had been made before, at the step
pyramid of Saqqara ; but for the first time it was now covered with
one uniform slope of masonry from base to top, and a pyramid
was the result. The chamber is peculiar for being entered by a
vertical shaft in the floor. The great pyramid (fig. 3) of Gizeh
(Khufu's) is very different in its internal arrangements from any
other known. The pyramid covers upwards of 13 acres, and is
about 150 ft. higher than St Paul's Cathedral. As compared with
St Peter's, Rome, it covers an area vyhich is as 29 to II, or nearly
three times as much, and it is SO'fti higher. The greater number
of passages and chambers, the high finJsh of parts of the work, and
the accuracy of construction all distinguish it. The chamber which
is most normal in its situation is the subterranean chamber; but
this is quite unfinished, hardly more than begun. The upper
chambers, called the " king's " and " queen's," were completely
hidden, the ascending passage to them having been closed by plug-
ging blocks, which concealed the point where it branched upwards
out of the roof of the long descending passage. Another passage,
which in its turn branches from the ascending passage to the queen's
chamber, was also completely blocked up. The object of having
two highly-finished chambers in the mass may have been to receive
the king and his co-regent (of whom there is some historical evidence)
and there is very credible testimony to a sarcophagus having existed
in the queen's chamber, as well as in the king's chamber. On the
details of construction in the great pyramid it is needless to enter
here; but it may be stated that the accuracy of work is such that
the four sides of the base have only a mean error of six-tenths of an
inch in length and 12 seconds in angle from a perfect square. 1
FIG. 2. Pyramid of Medum.
" the upper," being at the highest level on the hill of Gizeh. The
lesser pyramids of Gizeh, near the great and third pyramids, belong
respectively to the families of Khufu and Khafra (Howard Vyse).
The pyramid of Aseskaf, called " the cool," is unknown, so also is
that of Userkaf of the Vth Dynasty, called the " holiest of buildings."
Sahura's pyramid, the north one of Abusir, was named " the rising
soul," much as Neferarkara's at Abusir was named " of the soul."
Raenuser's pyramid, " the firmest of buildings," is the middle
pyramid of Abusir. The pyramid of Menkauhor, called " the
most divine building," is somewhere at Saqqara. Assa's pyramid
is unidentified; it was " the beautiful." Unas not only built the
mastaba Farun, long supposed to be his pyramid, but had a pyra-
mid called " the most beautiful of buildings " at Saqqara, which
was opened in 1881 (see Recueil des travaux, by M. Maspero, iii.,
for those opened at Saqqara). In the Vlth Dynasty the " pyramid
of souls," built by Ati (Rauserka), is unknown. That of Teta, " the
most stable of buildings," was opened at Saqqara in 1881, as well
as that of Pepi (Rameri), " the firm and beautiful." The pyramids
of Rameren, " the beautiful rising," and of Neferarkara, " the firm
life, " are unknown. Haremsaf's pyramid was opened at Saqqara
in 1881. Of the last two kings of the Vlth Dynasty we know of
no pyramids. In the Vllth or VHIth Dynasty most probably the
brick pyramids of Dahshur were erected. In the Xlth Dynasty
the pyramid, " the most glorious building," of Mentuhotep II. is
at Deir el Bahri, and the mud pyramid of one of the Antef kings is
known at Thebes. In the Xllth Dynasty the pyramids, the " lofty
and beautiful " of Amenemhat I. and " the bright " of Usertesen II.,
are known in inscriptions, while the pyramid of Senusert I. is at Lisht,
that of Senusert II. is at Illahun, that of Senusert III. at Dahshur
(N. brick), and the brick pyramid at Howara is of Amenemhat III.,
who built the adjoining temple.
The second pyramid of Gizeh, that of Khafra, has two separate
entrances (one in the side, the other in the pavement) and two
From Vyse's Pyramids of Ghizeh.
FIG. 3. Section of Great Pyramid.
1 With respect to the construction of this and other pyramids, see
Howard Vyse; on measurements of the inside of the great pyramid
and descriptions, see Piazzi Smyth ; and on measurements in general
mechanical means, and theories, see Petrie.
PYRAMIDION PYRARGYRITE
685
chambers (one roofed with slabs, the other all rock-hewn), these
chambers, however, do not run into the masonry, the whole bulk
of which is solid so far as is known. This pyramid has a part of
the original casing on the top; and it is also interesting as having
the workmen's barracks still remaining at a short distance on the
west MC Ir, long chambers capable of housing about 4000 men. The
great bulk of the rubbish from the work is laid on the south side,
forming a flat terrace level with the base, and covering a steep rock
escarpment which existed there. The waste heaps from the great
pyramid were similarly tipped out over thecliff on its northern side.
Thus the rubbish added to the broad platform which set off the
i ranee of the pyramids; and it has remained undisturbed in
s, as there was nothing to be got out of it. The third pyramid,
that ol Menkaura, was cased around the base with red granite
for the sixteen lowest courses. The design of it has been enlarged
at one bound from a small pyramid (such as those of the family
of Khiifu) to one eight times the size, as it is at present, the passages
1 therefore to be altered. But there is no sign of gradual
t enlargement: the change was sudden, from a comparatively
n to a large one. The basalt sarcophagus of this pyramid
jrnamented with the panel decoration found on early tombs,
unlike the granite sarcophagi of the two previous pyramids, which
are plain. Unhappily it was lost at sea in 1838.
An additional interest belongs to the third pyramid (of Menkaura)
owing to its chamber being ceiled with a pointed arch (fig. 4).
But it is not a true arch, the
stones being merely cantilevers
opposite to each other, with the
underside cut to the above form
(see fig. 5).
Farther south are the pyra-
mids of Abusir, described in the
work of Colonel Howard Vyse,
and since excavated by the Ger-
mans. Next come those of
Saqqara. The construction of
the step-pyramid or cumulat-
ive mastaba has been noticed
above; its passages are very
peculiar and intricate, winding
around the principal chamber,
which is in the centre, cut in the
rock, very high, and with a tomb-
chamber built in the bottom of
it, which is closed with a great
plug of red granite, a circular
stopper fitting into a neck in
the chamber roof. A doorway
faced with glazed tiles bearing
the name of King Neter-khet of
the Illrd Dynasty existed here;
From Vyse.
FIG. 4. Sepulchral Chamber,
Third Pyramid.
the tiles were taken to Berlin by Lepsius. The other pyramids of
Saqqara are those of Unas, Pepi, Haremsaf, &c. They are distin-
guished by the introduction of very long religious texts, covering
the whole inside of the chambers and passages ;
these are carefully carved in small hiero-
glyphics, painted bright green, in the white
limestone. Beyond these come the pyramids
of Dahshur, which are in a simple and
massive style, much like those of Gizeh. The
north pyramid of Dahshur has chambers
roofed like the gallery in the great pyramid
by successive overlappings of stone, the roof
_ i to unit rising to a great height, with no less than
eleven projections on each side. The south
From Vyse. pyramid of Dahshur has still the greater part
FIG. 5. Section of its casing remaining, and is remarkable for
of Sepulchral Cham- being built at two different angles, the lower
ber, Third Pyramid, part being at the usual pyramid angle, while
the upper part is but 43 . This pyramid is
also remarkable for having a western passage to the chambers, which
w.is carefully closed up. Beyond the Memphitic group are the
scattered pyramids of Lisht (Senusert I.), lllahun (Senusert II.), and
Howara (Amenemhat III.), and the earliest pyramid of Medum
(Sneferu). lllahun is built with a framework of stone filled up with
mud bricks, and Howara is built entirely of mud bricks, though
cased with fine stone like the other pyramids.
The dimensions of the pyramids that are accurately known are
in inches:
Place.
King.
Date B.C.
Base.
Error.
Angle.
Height.
Azimuth.
Medum .
Sneferu
4750
5682-0
6-2
51 52'
3619
2 4 '25'W.
Gizeh
Khufu
4700
9068-8
65
51 52'
5776
3' 43* W.
,,
Khafra
4600
8474-9
1-5
53 10'
5664
5' 26' W.
,,
Mrnkaura
4550
4I53-6
51 10'
2581
14' 3'E.
Dahshur S. .
?
7459-0
3-7
K 5; (
4134
9'12'W.
Dahshur Small .
?
?
2064-6
l-i
?55 i 5
44 34
2034
lo'ia'W.
The first two closely agree to the proportion of 7 high on 11 base,
approximately the ratio of a radius to its circle. And on dividing
the base at Medum by n the modulus is 515-64, and the base of
Khufu-5-ii is 824-44. These moduli are 25 cubits of 20-625 a "d
40 cubits of 20-611 ; so it appears that the form was of the same
type, but with moduli of 25 and 40 cubits respectively.
Beyond these already described there are no true pyramids,
but we will briefly notice those later forms derived from the pyramid.
At Thebes some small pyramids belong to the kings of the Xlth
Dynasty ; the tomb-chamber is in the rock below. The size is under
50 ft. square. These are not oriented, and have a horizontal
entrance, quite unlike the narrow pipe-like passages sloping down
into the regular pyramids (see Manette, in Bib. arch, trans, iv.
193). In Ethiopia, at Gebel Barkal, are other so-called pyramids
of a very late date. They nearly all have. porches; their simplicity
is lost amid very dubious decorations; and they are not oriented.
They are all very acute, and have flat tops as if to support some
ornament. The sizes are but small, varying from 23 to 88 ft.
square at Gebel Barkal and 17 to 63 ft. square at Meroe. The
interior is solid throughout, the windows which appear on the sides
being useless architectural members (see Hoskin s Ethiopia, 148,
&c.). The structures sometimes called pyramids at Biahmu in the
Fayum have no possible claim to such a name; they were two great
enclosed courts with sloping sides, in the centres of which were two
seated statues raised on pedestals high enough to be seen over the
walls of the courts. This form would appear like a pyramid with
a statue on the top; and a rather similar case in early construction is
shown on the sculptures of the old kingdom. Obelisks then were
single monuments (not in pairs) and stood in the midst of a great
courtyard with sides sloping like a mastaba; such open courtyards
on a small scale are found in the mastabas at Gizeh, and are
probably copied from the domestic architecture of the time.
On the vexed question of inscriptions on the pyramids it will
suffice to say that not one fragment of early inscription is known
on the casing of any pyramid, either in situ or broken in pieces.
Large quantities of travellers' " graffiti " doubtless existed, and some
have been found on the casing of the great pyramid ; these probably
gave rise to the accounts of inscriptions, which are expressly said
to have been in many different languages.
The mechanical means employed by the pyramid-builders have
been partly ascertained. The hard stones, granite, diorite and
basalt were in all fine work sawn into shape by bronze saws set
with jewels (either corundum or diamond), hollows were made (as
in sarcophagi) by tubular drilling with tools like our modern diamond
rock-drills (which are but reinvented from ancient sources, see
Engineering, xxxvii. 282). The details of the questions of transport
ana management of the large stones remain still to be explained.
See Colonel Howard Vyse, Operations at the Pyramids (1840);
Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, Life and Work at the Great Pyramid
(1867) ; W. M. Flinders Petrie, Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh, (1883).
(W. M. F. P.)
PYRAMIDION (diminutive of " pyramid "), an architectural
term for the copper-gilt casing covering the apex of an obelisk,
and generally extended to its upper termination of pyramidical
form.
PYRAMUS AND THISBE, the hero and heroine of a Baby-
lonian love-story told by Ovid (Metam. iv. 55-465). Their
parents refused to consent to their union, and the lovers used
to converse through a chink in the wall separating their houses.
At last they resolved to flee together, and agreed to meet under
a mulberry tree near the tomb of Ninus. Thisbe was the first
to arrive, but, terrified by the roar of a lion, took to flight. In
her haste she dropped her veil, which the lion tore to pieces with
jaws stained with the blood of an ox. Pyramus, believing
that she had been devoured by the lion, stabbed himself. Thisbe
returned to the rendezvous, and finding her lover mortally
wounded, put an end to her own life. From that time the fruit
of the mulberry, previously white, was always black.
See G. Hart, Die Ursprung und Verbreitung der Pyramus- und-
Thisbesage (1889-1892).
PYRARGYRITE, a mineral consisting of silver sulphantimonite,
known also as dark red silver ore, an important
It is closely allied to, and isomorphous
with, the corresponding sulpharsenite
known as proustite (q.v.) or light red
silver ore. " Ruby silver " or red silver
ore (German Rotgiiltigen) was men-
tioned by G. Agricola in 1546, but the
two species so closely resemble one
another that they were not completely
distinguished until chemical analyses of
both were made by J. L. Proust in 1804.
source of the metal.
686
PYRAZINES PYRAZOLES
Both crystallize in the ditrigonal pyramidal (hemimorphic-hemi-
hedral) class of the rhombohedral system, possessing the same degree
of symmetry as tourmaline. Crystals are perfectly developed and are
Usually prismatic in habit; they are frequently attached at one end,
the hemimorphic character being then evident by the fact that the
oblique striations on the prism faces are directed towards one end
only of the crystal. Twinning according to several laws is not
uncommon. The angles are nearly the same in the two species;
the rhombohedral angle rr' being 71 22' in pyrargyrite and 72 12'
in proustite. The hexagonal prisms of pyrargyrite are usually
terminated by a low hexagonal pyramid (310) or by a drusy basal
plane. The colour of pyrargyrite is usually greyish-black and the
lustre metallic-adamantine ; large crystals are opaque, but small ones
and thin splinters are deep ruby-red by transmitted light, hence the
name, from Gr. jrOp (fire) and &pyvpm (silver), given by E. F. Glocker
in 1831. The streak is purplish-red, thus differing markedly
from the scarlet streak of proustite and affording a ready means of
distinguishing the two minerals. The hardness is 2^, and the
specific gravity 5-85: the refractive indices and birefringence are
very high, u = 3-p84, = 2-88l. There is no very distinct cleavage
and the fracture is conchoidal. The mineral occurs in metalliferous
veins with calcite, argentiferous galena, native silver, native arsenic,
&c. The best crystallized specimens are from St Andreasberg in
the Harz, Freiberg in Saxony, and Guanajuato in Mexico. It is
not uncommon in many silver mines in the United States, but
rarely as distinct crystals; and it has been found in some Cornish
mines.
Although the " red silver ores " afford a good example of iso-
morphism, they rarely form mixtures; pyrargyrite rarely contains
as much as 3 % of arsenic replacing antimony, and the same is true
of antimony in proustite. Dimorphous with pyrargyrite and
proustite respectively are the rare monoclinic species pyrostilpnite
or fireblende (Ag 3 SbS 3 ) and xanthoconite (AgsAsSs): these four
minerals thus form an isodimorphous group. (L. J. S.)
PYRAZINES, PIAZINES, or PARADIAZINES, in organic chem-
istry, a group of compounds containing a ring system composed
of 4 carbon atoms and 2 nitrogen atoms, the nitrogen atoms
being in the para position. The di- and tri-methyl derivatives
are found in the fusel oil obtained by fermentation of beet-
root sugar (E. C. Morin, Comptes rendus, 1888, 106, p. 360).
They were first prepared synthetically by reducing the iso-
nitrosoketones. They may also be prepared by the inner con-
densation of a-aminoaldehydes or a-aminoketones in the
presence of a mild oxidizing agent, such as mercuric chloride
or copper sulphate in boiling alkaline solution (L. Wolff, Ber.,
1893, 26, p. 1830; S. Gabriel, ibid. p. 2207); and by the action
of ammonia on a-halogen ketonic compounds (W. Staedel and
L. Rugheimer, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 563; V. Meyer and E. Braun, Ber.,
1888, 21, p. 19). They are also formed when grape sugar is
heated with ammonia or when glycerin is heated with
ammonium chloride and ammonium phosphate (C. Stoehr, Journ.
prakt. Chen., 1895 (2), 51, p. 450; 1896 (2), 54, p. 481). They
are feeble basic compounds which distil unchanged. They are
mostly soluble in water and somewhat hygroscopic in char-
acter. Their salts are easily dissociated. They form char-
acteristic compounds with mercuric and auric chlorides. Their
alkyl derivatives readily oxidize to pyrazine carboxylic acids.
Pyrazine, Cir^Nj, crystallizes from water in prisms, which have
a heliotrope odour. It melts at 55 C. and boils at 115 C. It may
also be obtained by elimination of carbon dioxide from the pyrazine
dicarboxylic acid formed when quinoxaline is oxidized with alkaline
potassium permanganate (S. Gabriel). 2-$-Dimethylpyrazine, or
ketine, C4H 2 (CH 3 ) 2 N 2 , is obtained by reducing isonitrosoacetone, or
by heating glycerin with ammonium chloride and ammonium
phosphate. It boils at 153 C.
Two classes of dihydropyrazines are known, namely the I -A
and 2-3- dihydro-compounds, corresponding to the formulae II. and
III., pyrazine being I.:
HC-N-CH HC-NH-CH HC-N-CH 2 H,C-NH-CH,
HC-N-CH HC-NH-CH HC-N-CH S H 2 C-NH-CH,
I (Pyrazine) II (1-4 dihydro) III (2-3 dihydro) IV (Piperazine).
Those of the former type are obtained by condensing a-bromketones
with primary amines (A. T. Mason, Journ. Ghem. Soc., 1893, 63, p.
1355) ; the latter type result on condensing alkylene diamines with
a-diketones. The 2-3 derivatives are somewhat unstable compounds,
since on heating they readily give up two hydrogen atoms. Tetra-
hydropyrazines of the 1-2-3-4 type have also been obtained (L.
Garzini, Ber., 1891, 24, 956 R). Hexahydropyrazine or piperazine
(formula IV. above), also known as diethylene diamine, may be
prepared by reducing pyrazine, or, better, by combining aniline and
ethylene bromide to form diphenyl diethylene diamine, the dinitroso
compound of which hydrolyses to para-dinitrosophenol and pipera-
zine. It is a strong base, melting at 104 and boiling at I45-I46.
It is used in medicine on account of the high solubility of its salt
with uric acid.
PYRAZOLES, in organic chemistry, a series of heterocyclic
compounds containing a five-membered ring consisting of three
carbon atoms united to two nitrogen atoms,
CH.CH^^ thus: the derivatives are orientated from the
CH = N/ imino group, the second position being at the
other nitrogen atom. Pyrazole, C 3 rL,N 2 , was
obtained by E. Buchner (Ber., 1889, 22, p. 2165) by heating
pyrazole 3.4.5.-tricarboxylic acid; and by L. Balbiano (Ber.,
1890, 23, p. 1103), who condensed epichlorhydrin with hydrazine
hydrate in the presence of zinc chloride:
It may also be prepared by the union of diazomethane with
acetylene (H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1897, 31, p. 2950), and
by warming the acetal of propargyl aldehyde with an aqueous
solution of hydrazine sulphate (Ber., 1903, 36, p. 3662). It
crystallizes in colourless needles, is very stable and behaves
as a weak base. It does not combine with the alkyl iodides.
Ammoniacal silver nitrate gives a precipitate of pyrazole silver.
The homologues of pyrazole may be obtained by digesting /3-
diketones or /3-keto-aldehydes with pheny Ihydrazine ; by heating
the phenylhydrazones of some monoketones with acetic anhydride ;
by elimination of hydrogen from pyrazolines, and by distilling
pyrazolones and pyrazplidones over zinc dust. They are all weak
bases, which combine directly with the alkyl iodides and form doubU
salts with mercuric and platinic chlorides. On oxidation wit!
potassium permanganate the C-alkyl-derivatives give carboxylic
acids, whilst the jV-phenyl derivatives frequently split off the
phenyl group (especially if it be amidated) and have it replaced
by hydrogen. On reduction, the pyrazoles with a free :NH group
are scarcely affected, whilst the JV-phenyl derivatives give pyrazo-
lines, or by the use of very strong reducing agents the ring is ruptured
and trimethylenediamine derivatives are formed. They yield
substitution derivatives with the halogens, bromine being the most
effective. The chloro-derivatives are most readily prepared from
the pyrazolones by the action of phosphorus oxychloride.
The pyrazole carboxylic acids may also be obtained by con-
densing 0-diketone or oxymethylene ketone carboxylic esters with
hydrazines, or the diazo fatty esters with acetylene dicarboxylic
esters: N 2 CH-CO 2 R+C 2 (CO 2 R) 2 = C 3 HN 2 (CO 2 R) 3 [3-4-5]; by heating
/3-diketones and diazo-acetic ester with sodium hydroxide (A.
Klages, Ber., 1903, 36, p. 1128), and from the diazo-anhydrides of
0-diketones or /3-ketonic acids. These acids all split CO 2 readily
when heated, most easily from the carboxyl group in position 3,
and with most difficulty from the group in position 4.
The dihydropyrazoles or pyrazolines are less stable than the pyra-
zoles and are more like unsaturated compounds. They may be
obtained by the reduction of pyrazoles (especially JV-phenyl deriva-
tives) with sodium in alcoholic solution ; by condensing diazo-acetic
ester or diazomethane with ethylenic compounds (fumaric ester,
&c.) (E. Buchner, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 703; Ann., 1895, 284, p. 212;
H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1891), and by rearrangement of
the hydrazones of o-olefine aldehydes or ketones on warming or on
distillation. They are weak bases which are only soluble in con-
centrated acids. On reduction they yield pyrazolidines, or the ring
is broken; and when oxidized they form blue or red colouring
matters. The carboxylic acids show a remarkable behaviour on
heating, the nitrogen is entirely eliminated, and trimethylene car-
boxylic acids are obtained (see POLYMETHYLENES). Pyrazoline is
a colourless liquid which boils at 144 C. It may be prepared
by the action of diazomethane on ethylene (E. Azzarello, Gazz.,
1906, 36, (L), p. 628).
The pyrazolones (ketodihydropyrazples), first prepared by L.
Knorr in 1883, result from the elimination of the elements of alcohol
from the hydrazones of /J-ketonic acids; or on the oxidation of the
pyrazolidones with ferric chloride. Three types are possible with
the formulae :
H 2 C-CO.
HC-CO X
HC-NH/
Antipyrine type
HC:CR
I \NH
OC-NH/
Pyrazolone-3
HC:N f
Pyrazolone-5
They form salts with both acids and bases, and yield benzylidine and
isomtroso derivatives. Pyrazplone is obtained by the condensation
of hydrazine with formylacetic ester. It is a colourless crystalline
solid which melts at 164" C. l-Phenyl-^-methylpyrazolone-s is
antipyrine (5.0.). The isomeric i-phenyl-$-methylpyrazolone-3 is
formed by condensing aceto-acetic ester with acetophenylhydrazine
in the presence of phosphorus oxychloride, or by the action of
ferric chloride on the corresponding pyrazolidone, which is produced
by condensing phenylhydrazine with a /3-halogen butyric acid.
When methylated it yields isoantipyrine, an isomer of antipyrine,
which is more poisonous.
PYRENE PYRENEES
687
The pyrazolidines are tetrahydrppyrazoles. The JV-phenyl
derivative, from sodium phenylhydrazine and trimethylene bromide,
is an oil which readily oxidizes to phenylpyrazoline on exposure.
The corresponding keto-derivatives, or pyrazolidones, are produced
by the action of hydrazines on the /3-haloid acids or ey3-olefine
dicarboxylic acids. Isomeric compounds may arise here when
phenylhydrazine is used, the keto-group taking either the 3 or 5
position; thus with 0-iodopropionic acid i-phenylpyrazolidone-5
is formed, whilst potassium /3-iodopropionate gives the 3-compound.
Isomcrs of this type may be distinguished by the fact that the
pyrazolidone-5 compounds are basic, whilst the 3-compounds are
acidic. The simplest member of the series, pyrazolidone-5, is a
liquid which is formed by the actjon of hydrazine on acrylic acid.
The 3-5-pyrazolidones are the cyclic hydrazides of the malonic acid
Thiopyrazoles have been obtained by A. Michaelis (Ann., 1904,
331, p. 197; Ber., 1904, 37, p. 2774) by the action of an aqueous or
alcoholic solution of the methyl chloride or iodide of phenylmethyl-
chlorpyrazole on a solution of an alkaline hydrosulphide into which
carbon bisulphide has been passed; or by the action of sodium thio-
sulphate on antipyrine hydrochloride or a similar compound.
The simplest member of the group is probably to be represented
H,C CS
I
JS\
>N
N/
C,H,.
HC:C(SH)\
>N-C,H 6 or
CH,-C = N/ CH.-C
PYRENE, C 16 Hio, a hydrocarbon found together with
chrysene in the last portion of the coal tar distillate, and also
in " Stupp " fat.
The crude solid product from the tar distillate is digested with
carbon bisulphide to dissolve the pyrene, the solution filtered and
the solvent evaporated. The residue is dissolved in alcohol and to
the cold saturated solution a cold alcoholic solution of picric acid
is added. The picrate so formed is then decomposed by ammonia.
On its separation from " Stupp " fat see E. Bamberger and M. Philip,
Ann., 1887, 240, p. 161. It crystallizes in monoclinic tables which
melt at 148-149 C. Chromic acid oxidizes it to pyrene quinone,
CuHgOz, and pyrenic acid, CuHi 8 O. The picrate, which is easily
soluble in benzene, crystallizes in long red needles melting at 222 .
VVhen heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 200 C. it
yields a hexahydride. It has been obtained synthetically by M.
Freund and H. Michaels (Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1383) by distilling
thebenol over zinc dust in a stream of hydrogen, or by the action
of hydriodic acid and phosphorus at 220 C. on thebenol.
PYRENEES [Span. Pirinlos, Fr. Pyrenees], a range of moun-
tains in south-west Europe, separating the Iberian Peninsula
from France, and extending for about 240 m., from the Bay of
Biscay to Cape Creus, or, if only the main crest of the range be
considered, to Cape Cerbere, on the Mediterranean Sea. For
the most part the main crest constitutes the Franco-Spanish
frontier; the principal exception to this rule is formed by the
valley of Aran, which belongs orographically to France but
politically to Spain. The Pyrenees are conventionally divided into
J Muuium
I l?/i'oc,ie A Mioctnt
~J Oligoctat A octn
I . I Cull
IPtrmian JiCarttOrliftrOUS
J Devonian
Silurian to Cambrian
Crystallint Recks
Igneous ffocAs
three sections, the central, the Atlantic or western, and the
eastern. The central Pyrenees extend eastward from the Port
de Canfranc to the valley of Aran, and include the highest
summits of the whole chain, Aneto or Pic de Nethou (11,168 ft.),
in the Maladetta ridge, Posets (11,047 ft-), and Mont Perdu or
Monte Perdido (10,997 ft-)- In the Atlantic Pyrenees the
average altitude gradually diminishes westward; while in the
eastern Pyrenees, with the exception of one break at the eastern
extremity of the Pyr6n6es Ariegeoises, the mean elevation is
maintained with remarkable uniformity, till at last a rather
sudden decline occurs in the portion of the chain known as the
Alberes. This threefold division is only valid so far as the
elevation of the Pyrenean chain is concerned, and does not
accurately represent its geological structure or general con-
figuration. The careful examination of the chain by members
of the English and French Alpine Clubs has since 1880 consider-
ably modified the views held with respect to its general char-
acter; the southern versant, formerly regarded as inferior in
area, has been proved to be the more important of the two.
It has been recognized, as shown in the maps of MM. Schrader,
de St Sand and Wallon, that, taken as a whole, the range must
be regarded, not as formed on the analogy of a fern-frond or
fish-bone, with the lateral ridges running down to the two op-
posite plains, but rather as a swelling of the earth's crust, the
culminating portion of which is composed of a series of primi-
tive chains, which do not coincide with the watershed, but cross
it obliquely, as if the ground had experienced a sidewise thrust
at the time when the earth's crust was ridged up into the
long chain under the influence of contraction. Both the orderly
arrangement of these diagonal chains and the agreement which
exists between the tectonic and geological phenomena are
well shown in the geological and hypsometrical maps published
in the Annuaire du Club Alpin Jranfais for 1891 and 1892 by
MM. Schrader and de Margerie. The primitive formations of
the range, of which little beyond the French portions had
previously been studied, are shown to be almost all continued
diagonally on the Spanish side, and the central ridge thus pre-
sents the appearance of a series of wrinkles with an inclination
(from north-west to south-east) greater than that of the chain
as a whole. Other less pronounced wrinkles run from south-
west to north-east and intersect the former series at certain
points, so that it is by alternate digressions from one to the other
series that the irregular crest of .the Pyrenees acquires its general
direction. Far from having impressed its own direction on
the orientation of the chain at large, this crest is merely the
resultant of secondary agencies by which the primitive mass
has been eroded and lessened in bulk, and though its import-
ance from a hydrographic point of view is still considerable,
its geological significance is practically nil.
Geology. The Pyrenees are divided by E. de Margerie and F.
Schrader into a number of longitudinal zones. The central zone
consists of Primary rocks, together with great masses of granite.
It forms most of the higher summits, but west of the Pic d'Anie
it disappears beneath an unconformable covering of Cretaceous
deposits. On the French side the central zone is followed by (l)
the zone of Ariege, consisting of Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic beds,
together with granitic masses; (2) the zone of the Petites Pyrenees,
Upper Cretaceous and Eocene; and (3) the zone of the Corbieres,
consisting of Eocene and Primary rocks. On the Spanish side, from
north to south, are (i) the zone of Mont Perdu, Upper Cretaceous
and Eocene; (2) the zone of Aragon, Eocene; and (3) the zone of
the Sierras, Trias, Cretaceous and Eocene. In France the zones
are clearly defined only in the eastern part of the chain, while towards
the west they merge into one another. In Spain, on the other hand,
it is in the central part of the chain that the zones are most distinct.
Although the number of zones recognized is the same on the two
flanks, they do not correspond. The zone of the Corbieres has no
equivalent in Spain, while in France there is no definite zone of Eocene
like that of Aragon. The zone of the Petites Pyrenees, however, is
clearly homologous with that of the Sierras. On the northern side
granitic masses occur in the zone of Ariege amongst the Jurassic
and Lower Cretaceous beds. On the southern side they are not
found except in the axial zone, and the Jurassic and Lower Cre-
taceous deposits are reduced to a narrow band. In spite of these
differences between the two flanks, the structure is to some extent
symmetrical. On the north the greater number of the overfolds
lean towards the north, while on the south they lean towards the
south. Thus the chain shows the typical fan-structure which has
long been recognized in the western Alps.
Since the publication of the maps by de Margerie and Schrader
it has been shown that the phenomena of " recouvrement " play
almost as large a part in the Pyrenees as in the Alps themselves.
Large masses of rock have been brought upon nearly horizontal
faults (thrust-planes) over the edges of either beds with which they
originally had no connexio_n. In the region of Salies-du-Salat,
for example, patches of Trias lie discordantly upon the edges of
the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds. Several other similar cases
688
PYRENEES-ORIENT ALES
have been described ; but denudation has been carried further than
in the western Alps, and accordingly the masses overlying the
thrust-planes have been more completely removed (g.t>.).
The earth movements which raised the Pyrenees appear to have
begun in the Eocene period, but it was in Oligocene times that the
principal folding took place. The Pyrenees are therefore contem-
poraneous with the Alps; but they appear to have escaped the
Miocene disturbances which affected the latter.
The arrangement of the Pyrenees in chains gently inclined near
the centre but longitudinal everywhere else, is illustrated by the
courses of the streams which flow down towards Spain. On the
French side most of the longitudinal valleys have disappeared;
and this is why the range has so long been described as sending out
transverse spurs, the more important slope remaining unknown.
It is, however, still possible to distinguish some traces of this forma-
tion towards the east, where atmospheric denudation has been
less active. On the south the principal streams, after cutting their
way through the highest zone at right angles to the general direction
of the range, become involved half-way to the plains in great longi-
tudinal folds, from which they make their escape only after traversing
long distances without finding an outlet.
The importance shown to attach to the Spanish versant has
greatly modified the values formerly assigned to the area and mean
elevation of the Pyrenees. Instead of the 13,440 sq. m. formerly
put down for the total, M. Schrader found the area to be 21,044
sq. m. Of this total 6390 sq. m. fall to the northern slope and 14,654
sq. m., i.e. more than double, to the southern, the difference being
mainly due to the zone of plateaux and sierras. The mean elevation,
estimated by filie de Beaumont at 1500 metres (4900 ft.), has been
sensibly diminished by the addition of that zone to the system, and
it must now be placed at only 1200 metres (3930 ft.) for the range
as a whole; so important a part is played by the above-mentioned
plateaux of small elevation in a chain whose highest summit reaches
11,168 ft., while the passes show a greater altitude than those of
the Alps.
Four conspicuous features of Pyrenean scenery are the ab-
sence of great lakes, such as fill the lateral valleys of the Alps;
the rarity and great elevation of passes; the large number of the
mountain torrents locally called gaves, which often form lofty
waterfalls, surpassed in Europe only by those of Scandinavia;
and the frequency with which the upper end of a valley assumes
the form of a semicircle of precipitous cliffs, locally called a
cirque. The highest waterfall is that of Gavarnie (1515 ft.),
at the head of the Gave de Pau; the Cirque de Gavarnie, in the
same valley, is perhaps the most famous example of the cirque
formation. Not only is there a total lack of those passes, so
common in the Alps, which lead across the great mountain chains
at a far lower level than that of the neighbouring peaks, but
between the two extremities of the range, where the principal
highroads and the only railways run between France and Spain,
there are only two passes practicable for carriages the Col
de la Perche, between the valley of the Tet and the valley of the
Segre, and the Col de Somport or Pot de Canfranc, on the old
Roman road from Saragossa to Oloron.
Projects for further railway construction, including the build-
ing of tunnels on a vast scale, have been approved by the French
and Spanish governments (see SPAIN: Communications).
The metallic ores of the Pyrenees are not in general of much
importance, though there are considerable iron mines at Vic
de Sos hi Ariege and at the foot of Canigou in Pyrenees-Orien-
tales. Coal deposits capable of being profitably worked are
situated chiefly on the Spanish slopes but the French side has
numerous beds of lignite. Mineral springs are abundant and
very remarkable, and specially noteworthy are the hot springs,
in which the Alps, on the contrary, are very deficient. The
hot springs, among which those of Bagneres de Luchon and
Eaux-Chaudes may be mentioned, are sulphurous and mostly
situated high, near the contact of the granite with the stratified
rocks. The lower springs, such as those of Bagneres de Bigorre
(Hautes-Pyr6nees), Rennes (Aude) and Campagne (Aude), are
mostly selenitic and not very warm.
The amount of the precipitation, including rain and snow, is
much greater in the western than in the eastern Pyrenees,
which leads to a marked contrast between these sections of the
chain in more than one respect. In the first place, the eastern
Pyrenees are without glaciers, the quantity of snow falling there
being insufficient to lead to their development. The glaciers are
confined to the northern slopes of the central Pyrenees, and do
not descend, like those of the Alps, far down in the valleys,
but have their greatest length in the direction of the mountain-
chain. They form, in fact, a narrow zone near the crest of the
highest mountains. Here, as in the other great mountain ranges
of central Europe, there are evidences of a much wider extension
of the glaciers during the Ice age. The case of the glacier
in the valley of Argeles in the department of Hautes-Pyrenees
is the best-known instance. The snow-line varies in different
parts of the Pyrenees from 8800 to 9200 ft. above sea-level.
A still more marked effect of the preponderance of rainfall
in the western half of the chain is seen in the aspect of the
vegetation. The lower mountains in the extreme west are very
well wooded, but the extent of forest declines eastwards, and
the eastern Pyrenees are peculiarly wild and naked, all the more
since it is in this part of the chain that granitic masses prevail.
There is a change, moreover, in the composition of the flora
in passing from west to east. In the west the flora, at least in
the north, resembles that of central Europe, while in the east
it is distinctly Mediterranean in character, though the differ-
ence of latitude is only about i, on both sides of the chain
from the centre whence the Cobieres stretch north-eastwards
towards the central plateau of France. The Pyrenees are rela-
tively as rich in endemic species as the Alps, and among the
most remarkable instances of that endemism is the occurrence
of the sole European species of Dioscorea (yam), the D. pyrc-
naica, on a single high station in the central Pyrenees, and that
of the monotypic genus Xatardia, only on a high alpine pass
between the Val d'Eynes and Catalonia. The genus most
abundantly represented in the range is that of the saxifrages,
several species of which are here endemic.
In their fauna also the Pyrenees present some striking in-
stances of endemism. There is a distinct species of ibex (Capra
pyrenaica) confined to the range, while the Pyrenean desman
or water-mole (Mygale pyrenaica) is found only in some of the
streams of the northern slopes of these mountains, the only
other member of this genus being confined to the rivers of south-
ern Russia. Among the other peculiarities of the Pyrenean
fauna are blind insects in the caverns of Ariege, the principal
genera of which are Anophthalmus and Adelops.
The ethnology, folk-lore, institutions and history of the
Pyrenean region form an interesting study: see ANDORRA;
ARAGON; BASQUES; BEARN; CATALONIA; NAVARRE.
See H. Beraldi, Cent ans aux Pyrenees (1901), Les Sierras, cent
ans apres Ramond (1902), Apres cent ans. Les Pics d'Europe (1903),
and Les Pyrenees orientates et t' Ariege (1904); P. Joanne, Pyrenees
('905); H. Belloc, The Pyrenees (1909); for geology, in addition to
the papers cited above, A. Bresson, Etudes sur les formations des
Hautes et Basses Pyrenees (Paris, Ministere des Travaux Publics,
1903) ; L. Carez, La Geologie des Pyrenees franchises (Paris, Min. des
Tr. P., 1903, &c.); J. Roussel, Tableau stratigraphique des Pyrenees
(Paris, Mm. des Tr. P., 1904); and for climate and flora T. Cook,
Handbook to the Health Resorts on the Pyrenees, &c. (1905), and J.
Bentham, Catalogue des plantes indigenes des Pyrenees et de Bas-
Languedoc (1826).
PYRENfJES-ORIENTALES, a department of south-western
France, bordering on the Mediterranean and the Spanish
frontier, formed in 1790 of the old province of Roussillon and
of small portions of Languedoc. The population, which in-
cludes many Spaniards, numbered 213,171 in 1906. Area,
1599 sq. m.
The department is bounded N. by Ariege and Aude, E. by the
Mediterranean, S. by Catalonia and W. by the republic of Andorra.
Its borders are marked by mountain peaks, on the north by the
Corbieres, on the north-west and south-west by the eastern Pyrenees,
on the extreme south-east by the Alberes, which end in the sea at
Cape Cerbera. Spurs of these ranges project into the department,
covering its whole surface, with the exception of the alluvial plain
of Roussillon, which extends inland from the sea-coast. Deep and
sheltered bays in the vicinity of Cape Cerbera are succeeded farther
north by flat sandy beaches, along which lie lagoons separated
from the sea by belts of sand. The lagoon of St Nazaire is 2780
acres in extent, and that of Leucate on the borders of Aude is
19,300 acres. Mont Canigou (9137 ft.), though surpassed in height
by the Carlitte Peak (9583 ft.), is the most remarkable mountain
in the eastern Pyrenees, since it stands out to almost its full height
above the plain, and exhibits with great distinctness the succession
of zones of vegetation. From the base to a height of 1400 ft.
are found the orange, the aloe, the oleander, the pomegranate
PYRETHRUM PYRGI
689
and the olive; the vine grows to the height of 1800 ft.; next come
the chestnut (2625 ft.), the rhododendron (from 4330 to 8330 ft.),
pine (6400), and birch (6560) ; while stunted junipers grow to the
The drainage of the department is shared by the Tet and the
Tech, which rise in the Pyrenees, and the Agly, which rises in the
Corbieres. All three flow eastwards into the Mediterranean. The
Aude, the Ariege (an affluent of the Garonne) and the Segre (an
affluent of the Ebro) also take their rise within the department
and include a small part of it in their respective basins. The Tet
at the foot of the Carlittc Peak and descends rapidly
,i very narrow valley before it debouches at I He (between
1'r.nh's and Perpignan) upon the plain of Roussillon, where it flows
over a wide pebbly bed and supplies numerous canals for irrigation.
It is nowhere navigable, and its supply of water varies much with
the seasons, all the more that it is not fed by any glacier. The
Agly, which soon after its rise traverses the magnificent gorge of
St Antoine de Calamus and, nearing its mouth, passes Riyesaltes
(famous for its wines), serves almost exclusively for irrigation.
The Tech, which after the Tet is the most important river of the
department, flows through Vallespir (vallis aspera,) which, notwith-
standing its name, is a green valley, clothed with wood and alive
with industry; in its course the river passes Prats de Mollo and
Arli-s-sur-Tech, before reaching Amelie-les-Bains and C6ret. In the
lowlands the climate is that of the Mediterranean, characterized
by mild winters, dry summers and short and sudden rain-storms.
Am<51ie-les-Bains is much frequented on account of its mild climate
and sheltered position. The thermometer ranges from 85 to 95 F.
in summer, and in winter only occasionally falls as low as 26 or 27.
The mean amount of the rainfall is 27 in. on the coast, but increases
towards the hills. The most common wind is the tramontane from
N.N.W., as violent as the mistral of Provence and extremely
parching. The marinada blows from the S.S.E.
The cultivated land in Pyrenees-Orientales is devoted to
wine-growing, market-gardening and fruit culture, the pro-
duction of cereals being comparatively unimportant. The
main source of wealth to the department is its wine, of which
some kinds are strongly alcoholic and others are in request as
liqueur wines (Rivesaltes, Banyuls). The cultivation of early
vegetables (artichokes, asparagus, tomatoes, green peas),
which is specially flourishing in the irrigated lowlands, and
fruit-growing (peaches, apricots, plums, pears, quinces, pome-
granates, almonds, apples, cherries, walnuts, chestnuts), which
is chiefly carried on in the river valleys, yield abundant returns.
The woods produce timber for the cabinet-maker, cork, and
bark for tanning. Large flocks of sheep feed in the pastures
of the Pyrenees and Corbieres; the keeping of silkworms and
bees is also profitable. In iron Pyr6nees-Orientales is one of
the richest departments in France, the greater part of the ore
being transported to the interior. Lignite and various kinds
of stone are worked. The mineral waters are much resorted
to. Amelie-les-Bains has hot springs, chalybeate or sulphurous.
In the arrondissement of Ceret there are also the establishments
of La-Preste-les-Bains, near Prats de Mollo, with hot sulphurous
springs, and of Le Boulou, the Vichy of the Pyrenees. Near
Prades are the hot sulphurous springs of Molitg, and a little
north of Mont Canigou are the hot springs of Vernet, containing
sodium and sulphur. In the valley of the Tet the sulphurous
and alkaline springs of Thues reach a temperature of 172 F.
The baths of Les Escaldas, near Montlouis, are hot, sulphurous
and alkaline. There are oil-works and sawmills, and the
manufactures of the department include the making of whip-
handles, corks, cigarette paper, barrels, bricks, woollen and
other cloths, and espadrilles (a kind of shoe made of coarse
cloth with esparto soles). Of the ports of the department
Port Vendres alone has any importance. Imports include
timber, Spanish and Algerian wine, cereals, coal; among the
exports are wine, timber, vegetables, fruit, honey, oil and manu-
factured articles. The department is served by the Southern
railway. The chief route across the Pyrenees is from Perpignan
by way of Montlouis, a fortified place, to Puigcerda, in the
Spanish province of Gerona, through the pass of La Perche,
skirting in the French department an enclave of Spanish terri-
tory. Three other roads run from Perpignan to Figueras
through the passes of Perthus (defended by the fort of Belle-
garde), Banyuls and Balistres, the last-named being traversed
by a railway. The chief towns of the three arrondissements
are Perpignan, Ceret and Prades; there are 17 cantons and
232 communes. The department constitutes the diocese of
Perpignan, and is attached to the appeal court and the
academy of Montpellier and to the region of the XVI. army
corps, of which Perpignan is the headquarters.
Perpignan, the capital town and a fortress of the first class,
Amelie-les-Bains and Elne are the more noteworthy places,
and are treated separately. Rivesaltes (5448) is the most
populous town after Perpignan. Other places may be men-
tioned. Planes has a curious church, triangular in shape, and
of uncertain date. Popular tradition ascribes to it a Moslem
origin. The church and cloister at Arles-sur-Tech are also of
the 1 2th century. Boule-d'Amont has a Romanesque church
which once belonged to the Augustine abbey of Serrabona.
It is peculiar in that its aisles open out into lateral porches,
instead of communicating with the nave. The church of
Casteil, which is of the i ith century, is a relic of the ancient
abbey of St Martin de Canigou. At St Michel-de-Guxa, near
Prades, are fine ruins of a Benedictine abbey. The hamlet of
Fontromeu, near Odeillo, has a chapel with a statue of the
Virgin, which is visited by numerous pilgrims.
PYRETHRUM. The pyrethrum or " feverfew " (nat. ord.
Compositae), now regarded as a section of the genus Chrysan-
themum, flowers in the early summer months, and is remark-
able for its neat habit and the great variety of character and
colour which it presents. The type form is the Caucasian
species P. roseum of botanists, hardy perennial, with finely
cut leaves and large flower heads, having a ray of deep rose-
coloured ligulate florets surrounding the yellow centre or disk.
They bloom during the months of May and June, as well as later,
and are always most welcome ornaments for the flower borders,
and useful for cutting for decorative purposes. There are now
many excellent varieties, both single and double-flowered, in
cultivation.
The pyrethrum grows best in soil of a loamy texture ; this should
be well manured and deeply trenched up before planting, and
should be mulched in the spring by a surface dressing of half -decayed
manure. The plants- may be increased by division, the side shoots
being taken off early in spring rather than in autumn, with a portion
of roots attached. Plants disturbed in autumn frequently die
during the winter. They may be placed either in separate beds or
in the mixed flower border as may be required. In beds they can
be supplemented as the season passes on by the intermixture of
later blooming subjects, such as gladioli. Slugs are often destruc-
tive to the young shoots, but may be checked by a few sprinklings
of soot or lime. Seeds should be sown in spring in a cold frame, and
the young plants should be put out into beds when large enough,
and should flower the following May. New varieties are being
constantly introduced; the reader is referred to the catalogues of
nurserymen for named kinds. The powdered root of P. roseum
and other species is used in the manufacture of insect powders.
P. parthenifolium var. aurem is the " golden-feather " of gardens,
so much employed as an edging to flower-beds. P. parthenium,
pellitory or " feverfew," was formerly used in medicine. Its
double-flowered form is well worth growing. P. uliginosum is
the " great ox-eye daisy " that flowers in September and October.
PYRGI (mod. S. SEVERA), an ancient town of Etruria, Italy,
on the south-west coast, 9 m. W.N.W. of Caere. The name is
Greek (irt/yyoi, towers), and the place of considerable antiquity.
Remains of its defensive walls exist in polygonal blocks of
limestone and sandstone, neatly jointed. They enclosed a
rectangular area some 200 yds. in width and at least 220 yds.
in length. The south-west extremity has probably been
destroyed by the sea. It contained a rich temple of Leucothea,
the foundation of which was ascribed to the Pelasgi. It was
plundered by Dionysius in 384 B.C. Later it became dependent
on Caere, though it is not probable that it was originally merely
the harbour of Caere; Alsium (q.v.) is a good deal nearer (5 m.
south). The Romans planted a colony here, which is first
mentioned in 191 B.C. Later still it supplied fish to the capital,
and became a favourite summer resort, as did also Punicum
(S. Marinella) 5 m. to the north-west, where are many
remains of villas. Both were stations on the coast road (Via
Aurelia).
See H. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 289. (London,
1883). (T. As.)
690
PYRGOS PYRIDINE
PYRGOS, a town of Greece, in the province of Elis and
Achaea, 43 m. S.S.W. of Patras. It is the third town in
importance in the Peloponnesus, and is connected with its
harbour, Katakolon, 7^ m. distant, and also with Patras and
Olympia, by rail. It has frequently been injured by earth-
quakes. Pop. (1907), 13,690.
PYRIDINE, C 6 H 6 N, an organic base, discovered by T. Ander-
son (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1851, 20, p. 251) in bone oil. It
is also found among the distillation products of bituminous
coal, lignite, and various shales, and has been detected in fusel
oil and crude petroleum. It is a decomposition product of
various alkaloids (nicotine, sparteine, cinchonine, &c.), being
formed when they are strongly heated either alone or with
zinc dust. It may be synthetically prepared by distilling
allyl ethylamine over heated lead oxide (W. Konigs, Ber., 1879,
12, p. 2341) by passing a mixture of acetylene and hydrocyanic
acid through a red-hot tube (W. Ramsay, Ber., 1877, 10, p. 736);
by heating pyrrol with sodium methylate and methylene iodide
to 200 C. (M. Dennstedt and J. Zimmermann, Ber., 1885, 18,
p. 3316); by heating isoamyl nitrate with phosphorus pentoxide
(E. T. Chapman and M. H. Smith, Ann., 1868, Suppl. 6, p. 329);
and by heating piperidine in acetic acid solution with silver
acetate (J. Tafel, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 1619). The amount of
pyridine produced in most of these processes is very small,
and the best source for its preparation is the " light-oil " fraction
of the coal-tar distillate. The basic constituents are removed
by dilute sulphuric acid, the acid layer removed, and the
bases liberated by alkali, separated, dried, and fractionally
distilled.
Pyridine is a colourless liquid of a distinctly unpleasant,
penetrating odour. It boils at 114-5 C., and is miscible with
water in all proportions. It is a tertiary base, and combines
readily with the alkyl halides to form pyridinium salts. Nascent
hydrogen reduces it to piperidine, CsHuN (see below), whilst
hydriodic acid above 300 C. reduces it to -pentane (A. W.
Hofmann, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 590). It is a very stable compound,
chromic and nitric acids being without action upon it, whilst
the halogens only yield substitution derivatives with difficulty.
It reacts with sulphuric acid only at high temperatures, yielding
a sulphonic acid. It forms addition compounds with mercuric
and auric chlorides. On the constitution of the pyridine
nucleus, see Korner, Gior. dett' acad. di Palermo, 1869, and
C. Riedel, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 1609. As regards the isomerism of
the pyridine substitution products, three mono-derivatives are
known, the different positions being indicated by the Greek
letters a, ft and y, as shown in the inset formula. This
formula also allows of the existence of six di-deriva-
tives, six tri-derivatives, three tetra- and one penta-
derivative, when the substituent groups are identi-
cal; all of which are in agreement with known
facts.
The three monochlorpyridines are known, the a and y compounds
resulting from the action of phosphorus pentachloride on the corre-
sponding oxypyridines, and the /3 compound from the action of
chloroform on potassium pyrrol. a-Aminopyridine, CsHjN-NHz,
is formed by heating 5-aminopyridine-2-carboxylic acid. It is a
crystalline solid which melts at 56 C. and boils at 204 C. It can
only be diazotized in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid,
and even then the free diazonium sulphate is not stable, readily
passing in the presence of water to a-oxypyridine. f)-Aminopyridine
is obtained by heating /3-pyridyl urethane with fuming hydrochloric
acid until no more carbon dioxide is liberated (T. Curtius and E.
Mohr, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2493), or by the action of bromine and
caustic soda on the amide of nicotinic acid (F. Pollak, Monats.,
1895, 16, p. 54). It melts at 64 C. and boils at 250-252 C. The
aminopyndines are readily soluble in water, and resemble the
aliphatic amines in their general chemical properties.
The oxypyridines may be prepared by distilling the corresponding
oxypyridme carboxylic acids with lime, or by fusing the pyridine
carboxylic acids with caustic potash. The mono-oxypyridines are
easily soluble in water and possess only feeble basic properties. The
(8 compound is hydroxylic in character, whilst the a and y deriva-
tives behave frequently as if they possess the tautomeric keto-
structure, yielding according to the conditions of the experiment
either N- or 0-ethers (H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1624),
thus corresponding to the formulae
CH
CH
C-OH
CO
(1 1
HC/\CH
II :l
HC/\CH
U J
H YY H
HC\/C-OH
HCV/CO
NH
HC\/CH
HCX/CH
NH
a-oxypyridine
a-pyridone
T-oxypyridine
7-pyridone
The homologues of pyridine may be synthesized in various ways.
One of the most important is the so-called " collidine " synthesis
of A. Hantzsch (Ann., 1882, 215, p. i; Ber., 1882, 15, p. 2914)
which consists in the condensation of two molecules of aceto-acetic
ester with one of an aldehyde and one of ammonia :
RO 2 C-CH, , R'-CHO ,CH 2 -CO,R
CH,-CO + NH, '* CO-CH, '
RO 2 C-C-CHR'- C-CO,R
' CHj-C-NH-C-CH,
The resulting dihydro-compound is then oxidized with nitrous
acid, the ester hydrolysed and the resulting acid heated with lime;
carbon dioxide is eliminated and a trisubstituted pyridine of the type
rw.rvpfi \ is obtained. The reaction is apparently a
a.r<7 \M general one for all aldehydes. On the course
\r-u.rvru \/ f the reaction see also C. Beyer, Ber., 1801
24, p. 1662, and E. Knoevenagel, Ber., 1898!
31, p. 738. In this reaction the proportions of aldehyde and aceto-
acetic ester may be interchanged and ay disubstituted pyridines
are then obtained. Of the other methods for preparing pyridine
homologues mention may be made of the discovery by A. Ladenburg
that the pyridinium alkyl iodides rearrange themselves when strongly
heated and yield o and y alkyl pyridines (Ber., 1883, 16, p. 1410 seq.;
Ann., 1888, 247, p. i). S. Ruhemann prepared ^-substituted dioxy-
pyridines by condensing alkyl-dicarboxy-glutaconic esters with
ammonia.
(R'O2C).C:CR-CH(CO:RV
RUC C-.CR CH C0 2 R' H C:CR C H
OC-NH-CO HOC:NCOH
M. Scholtz (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1726) prepared oa- methylphenyl-
pyridine by distilling cinnamenylidene acetoxime,
CH 4 CH :CH-CH :CH-C( :N-OH)-CH, = cj
The 1-5 diketones of the type inset, when heated with ammonia, also
yield pyridine derivatives. Alkyl pyridines
COx /CO are also obtained by heating aldehyde
yC :CH-CH^ ammonias alone or with aldehydes and
CO' XX) ketones (A. v. Baeyer, Ann., 1870, 155,
pp. 281, 294; J. Plochl, Ber,, 1887, 20,
p. 722).
The subjoined table shows the chief homologues of pyridine:
Position
Name.
Formula.
of Sub-
Remarks.
stituent.
Picolines
C 6 H 4 (CH 3 )N
a
Liquid, b.p. 129. Oxi-
dizes to picolinic acid.
Condenses readily
with aldehydes.
Liquid, b.p. 143. Oxi-
dizes to nicotinic acid.
Does not condense
with aldehydes.
y
Liquid, b.p. 144-145.
Lutidinez
C,H(C,H.)N
a, 0, y,
Three isomers. All
liquids. The /3 com-
pound is a decompo-
sition product of
cinchonine, quinine,
strychnine and bru-
cine.
C S H 3 (CH.),N
aa', 07, a/3'
Five isomers. All
W, /ST.
liquids.
Collidines
C 5 H4(C a H 7 )N
a,/3.
Liquids. The a com-
pound is a decomposi-
tionproduct of conine.
Both contain the nor-
mal propyl group.
a,7.
Containing the isopro-
pyl group.
C 6 H 3 (CH,)(C,H 6 )N
a'a, 7/3,
T * * J
Liquids.
07, a/3'
C 6 H 2 (CH 3 ),N
070'
Liquid, b.p. 171-172.
Prepared by the
Hantzsch synthesis.
a70'
Found in coal-tar.
Pyridine carboxylic acids are usually prepared by oxidizing the
homologues of the base; they also result as decomposition products
of various alkaloids. The more important are shown in the table.
PYRIMIDINES
691
Name.
Formula.
Position
of Sub-
stituent.
Remarks.
Picolinic
C,H 4 (CO,H)N
a
M-P- I37- Easily solu-
acid.
ble in water. Yellow
coloration with
FeSO 4 . Position of
carboxyl group deter-
mined by synthesis
from o-naphthyl-
amine (Z. Slcraup and
A. Cobenzl, Monats.,
Nii-otinic:
C,H(COjH)N
1883, 4, p. 436).
M.p. 228-229. An oxi-
arid.
dation product of
nicotine, hydrastine
and berberine. Con-
stitution determined
by synthesis from
0-naphthylamine
(Skraup).
Quinolinic
C,H,(C0 2 H) 2 N
<tf
M.p. 192-195 with de-
acid.
composition into nico-
tinic acid. Formed
by oxidation of
quinoline.
Cinchc-
C 4 H S (C0 2 H) 2 N
07
M.p. 258-259. Formed
meronic
by oxidation of quin-
acid.
ine, cinchonine, and
of isoquinoline.
o-Carbo-
cincho-
C,H,(CO,H),N
007
M.p. 249-250. Crystal-
lizes with iJHjO. An
meronic
oxidation product of
acid.
cinchonine, quinine
and papaverine.
Hrrbrro-
C S H,(CO,H),N
070'
M.p. 243. An oxida-
n ic
tion product of ber-
berine. Gives a red
coloration with
FeSOt. Boiling with
glacial acetic acid
gives cinchomeronic
acid.
Trigonelline, C 7 H 7 NO 2 , the methyl betaine of nicotinic acid, was
rrt-d in 1885 by E. Jahns (Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2518), and is
found in the seeds of Trigonella and Strophanthus hispidus. It is
very soluble in water. With baryta it yields methylamine, and when
heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 260 C. it yields
methyl chloride and nicotinic acid. It was synthesized by A.
Huntzsch (Ber., 1886, 19, p. 31) by condensing methyl iodide and
potassium nicotinate at 150 C. the resulting iodide being then
decomposed by moist silver oxide. A. Pictet (Ber., 1897, 30, p.
2117) obtained it by oxidizing nicotine methyl hydroxide with
potassium permanganate. Apophyllenic acid, C8H 7 NO 4 -H 2 O, the
methyl betaine of cinchomeronic acid, was synthesized by W. Roser
Inn., 1886, 234, p. 118).
Piperidine or nexa-hydropyridine, C 6 HnN, was first obtained in
1848 by distilling piperme with lime. It is formed in the hydrolysis
of piperine by alcoholic potash, by the reduction of trimethylene
cyanide (A. Ladenburg) and by the action of alkalis on t-chloramyl-
amine, C1(CH 2 ) 6 -NH 2 (S. Gabriel, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 421). It is also
produced in the electrolytic oxidation of N-mtroso piperidine in
sulphuric acid solution (F. B. Ahrens, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2275). It
is a liquid which boils at 105-106 C., and possesses an ammoniacal
It is readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether, and is a
very powerful base. It is oxidized to pyridine by heating .with con-
centrated sulphuric acid to 300 C., or with nitrobenzene to 250 C.,
or with silver acetate to 180 C. Being an imide it readily yields a
nitroso derivative, and JV-alkyl and acidyl derivatives. The piperi-
dine ring is easily split. When heated with fuming hydriodic acid
to 300 C. it yields normal pentane and ammonia, and hydrogen
peroxide oxidizes it to glutanmide and to a piperidinium oxide or
I. Wolffenstein, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 3228). A. W. Hofmann
(Ber., 1881, 14, p. 660), by a process of exhaustive methylation and
distillation, obtained the unsaturated hydrocarbon piperylene,
-H 2 :CH-CH 2 -CH : CH, from piperidine (see also A. Ladenburg, Ann.,
1894, 279. P- 344)-
C.H,,N(+ CH.I) -> C 6 H 10 N(CH,),I (+AgOH) - C,Hi,N(CH,),-OH
(distil) 1
C,H,N(CH ) ),-OH<M-MgOH)C 6 H,N(CH,) 3 I<-(- r CH,I)C,H,N(CH I ),
(distil) I
C,H,+N(CH,),+H,0
J. v. Braun (Ber., 1901, 37, p. 2915) showed that benzoyl piperi-
ame, when heated with phosphorus pentachloride to 200 C. in
iled tubes, yields benzonitrile, and pentamethylene dichloride,
thus leading to a simple method of preparing pentamethylene
compounds. At 125-130 C. the compound C 6 HC-C1:N(CH,),-C1
is obtained; this with water yields benzoylamidochloramylamine,
CHCONH(CHi) 6 Cl, which when heated with hydrochloric acid to
170-180 C. furnishes t-chloramylamine, NH 2 (CH 2 )iCl. u-Propyl-
piperidine is the alkaloid conine (q.v.).
PYRIMIDINES, METADIAZINES or MIAZINES, in organic
chemistry, a series of heterocyclic compounds containing a ring
complex, composed of four carbon atoms and two nitrogen atoms,
the nitrogen atoms being in the meta-position. The oxyderiva-
tives of the tetrahydro- and hexahydro-pyrimidines are the
uracils and the ureides of malonic acid (see PURIN). The purins
themselves may be considered as a combination of the pyri-
midine and glyoxaline ring systems. For formulae see below;
the numbers about the first ring explain the orientation of
pyrimidine derivatives.
The pyrimidines may be obtained by condensing i-3-di-
ketones with the amidines (A. Pinner, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2125).
CH.-CO , NHrC-CeH, _,CH,-C:N=C.C.H..
CH 2 -CO(CH.) HN CH:C(CH,)-N
The /3-ketonic esters under like treatment yield oxypyrimidines,
whilst if cyanacetic ester be employed then amino-oxypyrimi-
dines are obtained. By using urea, guanidine, thiourea and
related compounds instead of amidines, one obtains the
uracils. The cyanalkines (aminopyrimidines) were first ob-
tained, although their constitution was not definitely known,
by E. Frankland and H. Kolbe (Ann. 1848, 65, p. 269) by heating
the nitriles of acids with metallic sodium or with sodium ethy-
late between 130 C. and 180 C.
3CH 3 CN = C 4 HN 2 (CH,) 2 -NH 2 [2-4-6].
Pyrimidine, C 4 H 4 N 2 , itself is a water-soluble base which melts
at 21 C. and possesses a narcotic smell. Its methyl derivatives
yield the corresponding carboxylic acids when oxidized by potassium
permanganate. The amino derivatives are stable bases which
readily yield substitution derivatives when acted upon by the
halogen elements. Cyanmethine, C 6 H,N a (dimethyl-aminopyrimi-
dine 2-4-6), melts at l8o-l8lC. The simple oxypyrimidines
are obtained by the action of nitrous acid on the amino derivatives,
or by heating these latter with concentrated hydrochloric acid to
180 C. They show both basic and phenolic properties and are
indifferent to the action of reducing agents. Acid oxidizing agents,
however, completely destroy them. By the action of phosphorus
pentachloride, the hydroxyl group is replaced by chlorine.
Hydropyrimidines. The dihydro derivatives are most probably
those compounds which are formed in the condensation of acidyl
derivatives of acetone, with urea, guanidine, &c. Tetrahydropyrimi-
dines are obtained by the action of amidines on trimethylene bro-
mide:
Br(CH 2 ),Br+C,H s C(:NH)-NH 2 =2HBr+C 4 H 7 N 2 (C,H,)[2].
The 2-6-diketo-tetrahydropyrimidines or uracils may be considered
as the ureides of 0-aldehydo, and 0-ketonic acids. Uracil and its
homologues may be obtained in many cases from the hydrouracils
by the action of bromine, and subsequent elimination of the elements
of hydrobromic acid; or by the condensation of aceto-acetic ester
and related substances with urea, thiourea, guanidine, &c. Uracil,
C 4 H4OjN 2> crystallizes in colourless needles, is soluble in hot water
and melts with decomposition at 335 C. Hydrouracil, C 4 HeO 2 Nj,
is obtained by the action of bromine and caustic alkalis on succin-
amide (H. Weidel and E. Rpithner, Monats., 1896, 17, p. 172); by the
fusion of 0-aminoprppionic acid with urea; by the electrolytic
reduction of barbituric acid (J. Tafel, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3385), and
by the condensation of acrylic acid with urea at 210-220 C. (E.
Fischer, Ber.,- 1901, 34, p. 3759). It crystallizes in needles and is
soluble in water. It melts at 275 C. 4-Methyluracil, CHO 2 N 2 ,
has long been known, having first been synthesized by R. Behrend
(see PURIN). It crystallizes in needles which melt at 320 C. and is
soluble in caustic alkalis. On oxidation with potassium permangan-
ate it is converted into acetyl urea, together with other products.
5-Methyluracil (Thymin) is obtained from the corresponding methyl
bromhydrouracil (E. Fischer) ; or from 2-4-6-trichlor-5-methylpyrimi-
dine by the action of sodium methylate. This yields a 2-4-<lime-
thoxy-5-methyl-6-chlorpyrimidine, which on reduction and
subsequent treatment with hydrochloric acid is converted into
thymin (O. Gerngross, Ber., 1905, 38, p. 3394). For methods of
preparation and properties of numerous other pyrimidine com-
pounds see T. B. Johnson, Journ. Biol. Chem., 1906, &c. ; Amer. Chem.
Journ., 1906, &c.; W. Traube, Ber., 1900, &c. ; O. Isay, ibid., 1906,
39. P- 251-
CH:CH-CH
Pyrimidine
N:C(CHO-N
NHi-C:CH-C-CH t
Cyanmethine
NH-CO-NH
CH:CH-CO
Uracil
692
PYRITES
PYRITES, a term applied to iron disulphide when crystallized
in the cubic system, but used also in a general sense to designate
a group of metallic sulphides of which this mineral is the most
characteristic example. When employed as a group-name
the constituent species are distinguished by prefixes: thus
the type is called iron pyrites, whilst other species are known
as copper pyrites, arsenical pyrites, &c. The original word
pyrites (from Gr. irvp, fire) had reference to the fact that sparks
might be elicited on striking the mineral violently, as with
flint, so that irupinjs Xt0os meant a stone which struck fire.
Hence the name seems to have been applied also to flint, and
perhaps to emery and other hard stones. Nodules of pyrites
have been found in prehistoric barrows and elsewhere under
conditions suggesting their use as a primitive means of pro-
ducing fire. Even in late historic time it was employed in
some of the old wheel-lock guns. Iron-pyrites was formerly
called marcasite, a word variously written marcasin, marchasite,
marchesite, marquesite, &c. The two names are now ap-
plied to distinct mineral species. The compound FeS 2 is
dimorphous, and the modern practice is to distinguish the
cubic forms as pyrites and the orthorhombic as marcasite
(q.v.). Sometimes, however, the term pyrites is loosely applied
to both species, and the cubic pyrites is then differentiated by
the name " pyrite " a form which brings the last syllable into
harmony with the spelling of the names of most minerals.
Iron pyrites, or pyrite, belongs crystallographically to the parallel-
faced hemihedral class of the cubic system. Its common forms are
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
the cube, the octahedron, and the pentagonal dodecahedron. Fig. I
shows P the cube { 100), d the octahedron ( 1 1 1 ), and e the pentagonal
dodecahedron w J2io|. In fig. 2 ir |2io[ and finj are associated with
/the dyakis-dodecahedron T {321); whilst
fig. 3 shows a combination of ir (210) and ir
{42 1 j. The faces of the cube are sometimes
striated parallel to the edges between P
and e (fig. i), the striae on each face being
therefore at right angles to those of the
adjoining faces, and indicating an oscilla-
tory combination of the cube and penta-
gonal dodecahedron. Fig. 4 illustrates a
characteristic twin, formed by two inter-
penetrating pentagonal dodecahedra. Such
p. supplementary twins, known in Germany
as " twins of the Iron Cross," are commonly
brown by superficial conversion into limonite.
Pyrites presents a conchoidal fracture, and a very indistinct cubic
cleavage. Its hardness is about 6, and its specific gravity 4-9 to
5-2, being rather more than that of marcasite. Moreover, the colour
of pyrites is pale brass-yellow, whilst that of marcasite when untar-
nished may be almost tin-white. From copper-pyrites (chalco-
pyrite) iron-pyrites is distinguished by its superior hardness and by
its paler colour. On exposure to meteoric influences pyrites com-
monly becomes brown, by formation of ferric hydrate or limonite,
whence the change is called " limonitization." Such a change is very
common on the outcrop of mineral veins, forming what miners call
" gozzan." Another kind of alteration which pyrites may suffer
has been termed " vitriolization," since the products are ferrous
sulphate, with free sulphuric acid and sometimes a basic ferric
sulphate. It is often said that this saline change is more character-
istic of marcasite than of pyrite, but according to H. N. Stokes this
statement is incorrect. Contrary, too, to popular belief, he has found
a fibrous structure more common in pyrite than in marcasite. In
some cases the two forms of iron disulphide occur in intimate associa-
tion and are difficult to distinguish.
According to the formula FeSj, pyrites contains theoretically
46-67% of iron and 53-33 of sulphur. Practically, however, it
frequently contains other metals, such as copper, cobalt and nickel.
Gold is often present, and in many gold-mining districts the precious
metal is obtained mainly from auriferous pyrites. As pyrites, from
its brass-yellow colour, is sometimes mistaken for gold, it has been
vulgarly called " fool's gold." Traces of thallium, which are
present in some pyrites, may be detected in the flues of the furnaces
where the metal is roasted. Arsenic is an impurity which may be of
serious consequence in some of the purposes to which pyrites is
applied. The presence of copper, nickel and arsenic is possibly
due in many cases to traces of kindred minerals, like chalcopyrite,
pentlandite and mispickel.
Pyrites is a mineral of very wide distribution, occurring
under varied conditions and probably originating in various
ways. It is common in mineral-veins, usually associated with
quartz, and is often known to miners as " mundic." It occurs
crystallized, commonly in cubes, in schistose and slaty rocks,
and less abundantly in the younger sedimentary deposits.
In coal it not infrequently forms bands and nodules known as
" brasses," and may also be finely disseminated through the
coal as "black pyrites"; but much of the so-called pyrites
of coal is really marcasite. Films of pyrites sometimes coat
the joint-planes of coal. It is believed that the bluish colour
of many clays and limestones is referable to the presence of
finely divided pyrites, and it is known that certain deposits
of blue mud now forming around continental shores owe
their colour, in part, to disseminated iron sulphide. Pyritous
shales have been largely used in the manufacture of alum,
and are therefore known as " alum-shales." Many fossils are
mineralized with pyrites, which has evidently been reduced
by the action of decomposing organic matter on a solution
of ferrous sulphate, or perhaps less directly on ferrous carbonate
dissolved in water containing carbonic acid, in the presence of
certain sulphates. A similar action probably explains the
origin of pyrites and marcasite in coal and lignite, in clay and
shales, and in limestone like chalk.
Pyrites is largely worked for sake of the sulphur which it
contains, and in many cases it has displaced brimstone in the
manufacture of sulphuric acid. For this purpose its value
depends on the proportion of sulphur present. Pyrites low in
sulphur is incapable of sustaining its own combustion without
the aid of an external source of heat, and 45 % of sulphur
is, for economic reasons, usually regarded as the lowest admis-
sible for sulphuric acid manufacture. It is also important for
this purpose that the ore should be as free as possible from
arsenic (see SULPHURIC ACID).
An extremely important variety of pyrites is that which is
more or less cupriferous, and is commonly known commercially
as " copper-pyrites " (q.v.), though distinct mineralogically
from that mineral. It consists, indeed, mainly of iron-pyrites,
with a notable but variable proportion of copper, sometimes
with silver and gold, and not infrequently associated with lead
and zinc sulphides. The copper probably exists as dissemi-
nated chalcopyrite. Deposits of such cupriferous pyrites are
widely distributed and are often of great magnitude. They
are generally of lenticular form, and usually occur in or near
the contact of eruptive rocks with schists or slates; the presence
of the igneous rock being probably connected genetically with
their origin. Among the best-known deposits of this character
are those in the Huelva district, in the south-west of Spain,
including the mines of Rio Tinto, Tharsis, Calanas, &c.; with
those of San Domingos in Portugal. At Rio Tinto the ore is
divided into three classes:
(i) The poorest, containing an average of about lj% of copper,
which is treated locally by leaching with water and liquor containing
ferric sulphate, whereby the copper is dissolved out and afterwards
precipitated by pig-iron, whilst the residue is exported as ordinary
iron-pyrites. (2) Export ore, with from 2 to 5 % of copper, in which
the sulphur, copper and precious metals are utilized, and the residual
iron oxide then sold as " purple ore " for use in iron manufacture.
(3) Smelting ore, which averages about 6 % of copper, and is treated
metallurgically as described under COPPER.
The world's annual production of iron-pyrites is about
1,700,000 tons. The largest producer is Spain, with upwards
of 350,000 tons, including the cupriferous pyrites. France
yields about 300,000 tons, largely from the Sain Bel mines,
department of the Rh6ne. Then follows Portugal, with its
important output of cupreous pyrites. In the United States
the production of pyrites now reaches more than 200,000 tons
per annum. The state of Virginia is the chief producer, followed
successively by Georgia, North Carolina, Colorado, Massachu-
setts, California, Missouri, New York, &c. From Indiana and
PYRITZ PYROMORPHITE
693
Ohio a quantity of pyrites is obtained as a by-product in coal-
mining. Newfoundland yields cupreous pyrites," worked at
I'ilk-y's Island, whilst the nickeliferous pyrites of Sudbury in
Ontario is partly magnetic (see PYRRHOTITE). Magnetic
pyrites of commercial importance occurs also in Virginia and
Tennessee. The United Kingdom yields but little pyrites,
the annual output being not more than about 10,000 tons.
Large quantities of " sulphur ore " were, however, formerly
worked in the Vale of Avoca, Co. Wicklow, Ireland. Finely
crystallized specimens of pyrite are obtained from many other
localities, especially from Cornwall, Elba and Traversella, near
Ivrea. in Piedmont.
See, for the early history of pyrites, J. F. Henckel's Pyritologia, oder
Kieshistorie (Leipzig, 1725) ; of which an English translation appeared
in 175^, entitled Pyritologia; or a History of the Pyrites, the Principal
Body in the Mineral Kingdom. For a modern description of the
deposit of pyrites of economic importance reference may be made to
A Treatise on Ore Deposits, by J. A. Phillips (2nd ed. by H. Louis,
1896). For chemical means of distinguishing pyrite from marcasite
consult H. N. Stokes, " On Pyrite and Marcasite," Bull. U. S. Geol.
.Mo. 186 (1901). (F. W. R.*)
PYRITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, 16 m. S.W. of Stargard by the railway to Ciistrin.
Pop. (1905), 8600. It is still surrounded by walls with towers,
and has two Evangelical churches. There are small manu-
factures of machinery, bricks and sugar. Excellent wheat
is grown in the vicinity, while another industry is the breeding
of cattle. Near the town is a fountain, erected to mark the
spring in which Otto, bishop of Bamberg, baptized the first
Pomeranian converts to Christianity in 1 1 24. Pyritz became a
town in 1150.
PYROCATECHIN, or PYROCATECHOL, ortho-dioxybenzene,
CrL,(OH)2, first prepared in 1839 by H. Reinsch on distilling
catechin (the juice of Mimosa catechu) ; occurs free in kino and
in beechwood tar; its sulphonic acid is present in the urine of
the horse and man. It results in the alkaline fusion of many
resins, and may be prepared by fusing ortho-phenolsulphonic
acid, o-chlorphenol, o-bromphenol, and 0-phenoldisulphonic acid
with potash, or, better, by heating its methyl ether, guaiacol,
C e Hi(OH)(OCH 3 ), a constituent of beechwood tar, with hydriodic
acid.
1'yrocatechin crystallizes jn white rhombic prisms, which melt
at 104 and boil at 245; it is readily soluble in water, alcohol and
ether. Ferric chloride g^ives a green coloration with the aqueous
solution, whilst the alkaline solution rapidly changes to a green and
finally to a black colour on exposure to the air. It reduces silver
solutions in the cold and alkaline copper on heating.
.Guaiacol may be obtained directly from beechwood tar, from
pyrocatechin by methylation with potash and potassium methyl
sulphate at 180, or from anisol by nitration, reduction of the
ortho-nitroanisol to amino-anisol, which is then diazptized and
boiled with water. It melts at 28 and boils at 250. It isemployed
in medicine as an expectorant. The dimethyl ether or veratrol
is also used in medicine. Many other pyrocatechin derivatives have
been suggested for therapeutic application. Guaiacol carbonate
is known as duotal, the phosphate as phosphatol, the phosphite as
guaiaco-phosphal ; phosphotal is a mixture of the phosphites of
creosote phenols. The valerianic ester of guaiacol is known as
geosote, the benzoic as benzosol, the salicylic as guaiacolsalol,
while the glycerin ether appears as guaiamar.
Pyrocatechin readily condenses to form heterocyclic compounds;
cyclic esters are formed by phosphorus trichloride and oxychloride,
carbpnyl chloride, sulphury! chloride, &c.; whilst ortho-phenylene-
diamine, o-aminophenol, and o-aminothiophenol give phenazine,
pbenoxazine and thiodiphenylamine.
PYROGALLOL, or PYROGALLIC Aero, a trioxybenzene,
CH 3 (OH)j (1 : 2 : 3), prepared by Scheele in 1786 by heating
gallic acid, CjH 2 (OH)3CO 2 H. It is also obtained by heating
para-chlorphenoldisulphonic acid with potassium hydroxide.
It forms white plates, melting at 132, readily soluble in water,
and subliming without decomposition. It is an energetic reducing
agent, a property utilized in its application in gas analysis to absorb
oxygen, and in photography (q.v.) as a developer. The aqueous
solution is turned bluish black by ferrous sulphate containing a
ferric salt. It does not combine with hydroxylamine, as does the
isomeric phloroglucin which yields a trioxime(see POLYMETH YLENES).
Pyrogallol dimethyl ether is found in beechwood tar. Pyrogallol
has antiseptic properties and is employed medicinally in the treat-
ment of psoriasis. Eugallol, or monacetyl pyrogallol and leoinallol.
or triacetyl pyrogallol, are afso used.
PYROLUSITE, a mineral consisting essentially of manganese
dioxide (MnOj), of importance as an ore of manganese. It is
a soft, black, amorphous mineral, often with a granular, fibrous
or columnar structure, and sometimes forming renifonn crusts.
It has a metallic lustre, and a black or bluish-black streak, and
readily soils the fingers. The specific gravity is about 4-8.
Supposed crystals of pyrolusite have been proved to be pseudo-
morphs after manganite; in fact the mineral often results by the
dehydration and oxidation of manganite (MnO.HtO), and for
this reason it frequently contains a little water. True crystals of
manganese dioxide are referred to the rare species poliamte: they
are tetragonal and isomorphous with cassiterite. Pyrolusite is
an alteration product of other manganese minerals manganite,
rhodochrosite, rhodonite, &c. It occurs as irregular masses and
nodules in the residual clayey materials resulting from the decom-
position of various rocks, for example, limestone. That it is readily
deposited from solution is shown by the frequent occurrence of
black dendritic markings in the crevices of rocks, excellent examples
of which are seen in mocha stone (q.v.) and in the lithographic stone
of Solenhofen in Bavaria. It is deposited from the waters of some
springs, and manganiferous nodules are dredged from the floor of
the deep sea.
As an ore it is extensively mined at Ilmenau and several other
places in Thuringia, at Vorderehrensdorf near Prossnitz in Moravia,
Platten in Bohemia, in North Wales, at several places in the
United States (Vermont, Virginia, Arkansas, &c.), Nova Scotia and'
Brazil. Pyrolusite, together with the rather less important ore,
psilomelane, has various economic applications. It is extensively
used for the manufacture of spiegeleisen and ferromanganese, and
of various alloys, such as manganese-bronze. As an oxidizing
agent it is used in the preparation of chlorine and disinfectants
(permanganates), and for decolorizing glass: when mixed with
molten glass it oxidizes the ferrous iron to ferric iron, and so dis-
charges the green and brown tints, hence the name pyrolusite,
from Gr. irvp (fire) and X6e< (to wash). As a colouring material,
it is used in calico printing and dyeing; for imparting violet,
amber and black colours to glass, pottery and bricks; and in the
manufacture of green and violet paints. (L. J. S.)
PYROMETER (Gr. irvp, fire, iJtrpov, a measure), an instru-
ment for measuring high temperatures. The term was first
used by Musschenbroek to denote an instrument wherein the
expansion of a metal rod measured the temperature. Dis-
continuous thermoscopes, depending on the fusion of a metal
or salt, are also employed. Prinsep prepared a series of alloys
of silver and gold, and of gold and platinum, whose melting
points, as determined by accurate instruments, covered a range
of temperature from 954 to 1775, at intervals of from 25 to
30. By placing ingots in a furnace and observing which one
melted a fair idea of the temperature was obtained. Carnelley
and Williams employed certain salts of known melting point;
whilst the Seger's cones, employed in porcelain manufacture,
depend on the fusion of small cones made of clay. (See THER-
MOMETRY for scientific forms.)
PYROMORPHITE, a mineral species composed of lead chloro-
phosphate (PbCl)Pb(PO 4 )3, sometimes occurring in sufficient
abundance to be mined as an ore of lead.
Crystals are common, and have the form of a hexagonal prism
terminated by the basal planes, sometimes combined with narrow
faces of a hexagonal pyramid. Crystals with a barrel-like curvature
are not uncommon. Globular and reniform masses are also found.
As proved by the etched figures on the faces, crystals possess the
same parallel-faced hemihedrism as apatite, with which mineral
pyromprphite and also mimetite are isomorphous. Between pyro-
morphite and the corresponding chlorc^arsenate (mimetite, (q.v.)
the resemblance in external characters is so close that, as a rule,
it is only possible to distinguish between them by chemical tests:
and they were formerly confused under the names " green lead
ore " and " brown lead ore " (German, Grunbleierz and Braunbleier:).
The phosphate was first distinguished chemically by M. H. Klaproth,
in 1784, and it was named pyromorphite by J. F. L. Hausmann in
1813, being so named from the Gr. rvp (fire) and pop&i (form),
because when a fragment of the mineral is fused the globule assumes
a faceted form on solidifying. The colour of the mineral is usually
some bright shade of green, yellow or brown, and the lustre is
resinous. The hardness is 3! and the specific gravity 6-5-7-I.
Owing to isomorphous replacement of the phosphorus by arsenic
there may be a gradual passage from pyromorphite to mimetite.
Varieties containing calcium isomorphously replacing lead a/e
lower in density (specific gravitv 5'9-6-5) and usually lighter in
colour: they bear the names '' polysphaerite " (because of the
globular form), " miesite " from Mies in Bohemia, " nussierite "
from Nussi^re near Beaujeu, Rhfine, France, and "cherokine"
I from Cherokee county in Georgia.
6 9 4
PYRONES
(5) (6)
-Py
Pyromorphite has resulted from the alteration of galena in the
oxidized portions of metalliferous veins, and is frequently met with
in the upper levels of lead mines. Finely crystallized specimens
have been found at Braubach and Ems in Nassau, Wheal Alfred
in Cornwall, Roughten Gill in Cumberland, Leadhills in Scotland,
Phoenixville in Pennsylvania, Huelgoat in Finistere, Brittany,
&c. At the last-named locality, as well as at Wheal Hope, near
Truro in Cornwall, there were formerly found curious pseudomorphs
of galena after pyromorphite, known as " blue lead ore."
(L.. J . o. )
PYRONES, in chemistry, a group of heterocyclic compounds,
containing a six-membered ring composed of five carbon atoms
and one oxygen atom. Two types are known, namely, the
a-pyrones, which may be regarded as the lactones of 8-oxydio-
lefine carboxylic acids, and the -y-pyrones, which may be
regarded as anhydrides of diolefine dioxyketones:
(0') (0 (3) (2
.CH:CR ,CH:
(y)HC< >0 (4)OC/
X CH-CO/
(0 (a)
a-Pyrone. -y-Pyrone.
As a class, the pyrones are rather unstable compounds, the ring
being readily broken. When digested with ammonia, the oxygen
atom is replaced by the imino (:NH) group, and pyridones or
oxypyridines are formed.
a-Pyrones. The coumalic compounds belong to this series,
and were first obtained by A. Hantzsch in 1884 (Ann. 222, p. i)
and H. v. Pechmann (Ber., 1884, 17, p. 936).
a-Pyrone or coumalin, C 6 H 4 O 2 , is obtained by distilling the mercury
salt of coumalic acid (from malic acid and sulphuric acid) in a current
of hydrogen. It is an oily liquid which boils at 206-209 C., and
with alkalis it gives formyl crotonic acid, HO 2 C-CH:CH-CH 2 -CHO.
a'y-Dimethyl-a-pyrone or mesitene lactone, CrHgOj, is obtained from
iso-dehydracetic acid (from aceto-acetic ester and sulphuric acid).
Phenylcoumalin or a'-phenyl-a-pyrone, C 6 H3(C 6 H 5 )O 2l is found in
coto-bark. When heated with alkalis it yields benzoic acid and
acetophenone; reduction by hydriodic acid gives 5-phenyl valeric
acid, and when heated with ammonium acetate and ammonia
it yields phenylpyridone. It forms an addition product with
phenol and with aniline; the latter gives diphenylpyridone when
boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Paracotoin, Ci 8 H g O4,
which also occurs in coto-rind, appears to be a bisoxymethylene
phenylpyrone, C 6 H 3 O 2 -C,Hs(CH 2 O 2 ).
Various pyronones (keto-dihydropyrones) derived from the
compound having formula I. (below) are known, the most important
of which is dehydracetic acid, C 8 H 8 O4, first obtained by Geuther
(Jena'sche Zeit, 1866, p. 8). It may be prepared by distilling aceto-
acetic ester alone, by heating it with acetic anhydride to 200 C.
or by heating acetyl chloride with pyridine to 200-220 C. J. N.
Collie regards it as having formula II., whilst Feist (Ann. 1890, 257,
p. 253) favours formula III.
OC-CH:CH OC-CH:C-CH Z -CO-CH 3 OC-CH:C-CH 8
HjC-CO-6 H 2 C-CO-6 CH.-CO-HC-CO-6
(I.) (II.) (HI.)
It crystallizes in tables which melt at 108-109 C., and is a weak
acid. Alcoholic potash converts it into aceto-acetic ester, and with
concentrated aqueous caustic potash it is completely decomposed
into acetone, acetic acid and carbon monoxide.
y-Pyrones. Many of these compounds are found as natur-
ally occurring substances: thus chelidonic acid is found in
Chelidonium majus and meconic acid in opium, and the more
complex flavone and flavonol derivatives are also found in
various plants. The 7-pyrones may be synthesized by elimi-
nating water from the 1-3-5 triketones:
,CH 2 -CO-CO 2 R ,CH:Cr-CO 2 R
OC< -> OC< >O
X;Hj-CO-CO 2 R X CH:O_CO 2 R
Acetone dioxalic ester. > Chelidonic ester.
y-Pyrone or pyrocomane, C 6 H4O 2 , melting at 32 C. and boiling
at 210-215 C., is obtained by eliminating carbon dioxide from
chelidonic acid (obtained as above), or from comanic acid, obtained
by heating chelidonic acid, aa! -Dimethyl g-pyrone, C5H 2 (CHj) B O 2 , is
obtained by the action of hydriodic acid on the ester of the corre-
sponding acid (Feist, Ann., 1890, 257, p. 272); by the action of
carbonyl chloride on the copper derivative of acetoacetic ester,
and by the action of concentrated hydrochloric acid on dehydracetic
acid. It forms a barium salt which with an acid yields diacetyl
acetone. The most striking property of this compound is that it
forms salts with mineral acids (J. N. Collie and Tickle, Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1899, p. 710). For example, hydrochloric acid adds on at the
oxygen atom, since the salts so formed are relatively unstable and
undergo complete hydrolysis in dilute aqueous solution. The oxygen
atom is probably tetravalent, and the salts are to be regarded _.
oxonium salts (see OXYGEN). Collie (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85,
p. 971) is of the opinion that both oxygen atoms are to be regarded
as tetravalent in these salts and gives the second formula below
for the molecule :
HC-CO-CH HC C=CH
HaC-c-o-c-CH, llci-o-H I
c o=c-(
H,C-
CH,
Meconic acid, or oxypyrone tricarboxylic acid (3-2-6)
C6HO 2 (OH)(CO 2 H) 2 , found in opium, crystallizes in prisms and gives
a characteristic deep red colour with ferric chloride. On heating
to 200 it gives comenic acid, C 5 H 2 O 2 (OH)(CO 2 H), and on distillation
pyromeconic acid or 0-oxypyrone. On comenic acid see A. Peratoner,
Gazz., 1906, 36 (i.), p. I.
The tetrahydro-7-pyrones may be obtained by the condensation
of aldehydes with acetone-dicarboxylic ester in the presence of
hydrochloric acid.
Benzopyrones.
Compounds of this type are known in both the a and y
series, the former including the coumarins (q.v.) and isocou-
marins, and the latter a number of naturally occurring dyestuffs
which may be considered as derivatives of flavone (see under).
The isocoumarins (annexed formula) may be prepared by the action
of acid chlorides or anhydrides on orthocyanbenzyl cyanide (Ber.,
1892, 25, p. 3563); by the molecular rearrange-
ment of the benzal or alkylidene phthalides (S. xCH x
Gabriel, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2443; 1887, 20, p. 2363), / \/ >
and by the action of manganese dioxide and
hydrochloric acid on /J-naphthoquinone.
The parent substance of the 7-group, namely I 1
benzo-y-pyrone (chromone), was obtained in 1900 N/^CO'
by S. Ruhemann (Journ. Chem. Soc., 77, p. 1179) Isocoumarin.
by heating its carboxylic acid (formed by the
action of concentrated sulphuric acid on phenoxyfumaric acid)
in vacua. It crystallizes in colourless needles, and its solution in
concentrated sulphuric acid is yellow with a blue fluorescence.
The naturally occurring compounds, chrysin, galanzin, quercetin,
apigenine, &c., are considered to be derivatives of flavone (or
flavonol), which is a phenyl-2-benzo-7-pyrone (S. Kostanecki, Ber.,
1898-1906). Flavone and flavonol possess the following con-
stitutions, the positions of the substituents being indicated by
the numbers:
-\l_>'
CH 6> V
\/\ co /a
Flavone, Flavonol.
Flavone, Ci 6 Hi O 2 , is obtained by the action of potassium hydroxide
on the acetyl derivative of benzylidene-ortho-oxyacetophenone. It
forms colourless needles, which dissolve in concentrated sulphuric
acid with a yellow colour and show a faint blue fluorescence. On
fusion with caustic alkalis it yields salicylic acid, acetophenone,
ortho-oxyacetophenone and benzoic acid, the latter two products
being also formed by its hydrolysis with sodium ethylate. Chrysin
or i-3-dioxyflavone, Ci 6 HioO 4 , is a yellow dye, which may be obtained
from the buds of different varieties of the poplar. On hydrolysis
it yields phloroglucin and benzoic and acetic acids. It has
been synthesized by heating trimethoxy benzoyl acetophenone
(from ethyl benzoate and phloracetophenone trimethyl ether)
with hydriodic acid, and also by the action of hydriodic acid
on 2'4-dibrom-i-3-dimethoxyflavonone. Galanzin or o-i'3-trioxy-
flavone or i-3-dioxyflavonol, Ci 6 Hi O 6 , crystallizes in yellow needles.
It has been synthesized from hydroxydimethoxy-chalkone,
C 6 H 6 -CH:CH-CO[i]-C,H 2 (OH)(OCH s ) 2 [2-4-6-], the resulting rp-di-
methoxy-flavanone compound yielding a nitroso-compound from
which galanzin is obtained by the action of concentrated hydriodic
acid. Apigenine or i - 3-4'-trioxyflavone, CuHioO 6) found in woad
and in parsley, crystallizes in pale yellow needles. On fusion at
moderate temperatures with caustic alkalis it gives phloroglucin
and para-oxyacetophenone, whilst at higher temperatures it yields
protocatechuic and para-oxybenzoic acids and phloroglucin. It is
obtained synthetically by brominating l-3-4'-trimethoxyflavonone,
the resulting tribromo-comppund by the consecutive reactions of
alcoholic potash and hydriodic acid yielding apigenine. Kaempferol
or i'3-4'-trioxyflavonol, CuHioOj, is found in the blossoms of Del-
phinium consolida and D. zazil. It is obtained by the action of
hydriodic acid on kaempherid, and crystallizes in yellowish needles,
which on fusion with caustic alkalis give para-oxybenzoic acid and
phloroglucin. It is obtained synthetically from hydroxy-trimethoxy-
chalkone,CH 8 O[4]-C 6 H4[i]-CH:CH-CO-[i]C 8 H 2 (OH)(OCH3)8[2-4-6]by
a method similar to that used for galanzin. Kaempferid occurs
together with galanzin and alpinin in galganta root. It crystallizes
in pale yellow needles, which dissolve in the caustic alkalis with an
intense yellow colour, and in concentrated sulphuric acid with a
PYROPE PYROPHYLLITE
695
yellow colour and blue fluorescence. Fisetin or 3-3'-4'-trioxyflavpnol,
CiHioO, occurs in the wood of Quebracho Colorado, and can be obtained
by heating fustic with dilute acids. It crystallizes in pale yellow
needles. In dilute alcoholic alkalis it shows a dark green fluores-
cence. On fusion with caustic alkalis it yields phloroglucin, resorcin
and protocatechuic acid, whilst if air be passed through its alcoholic
solution it yields protocatechuic acid and resorcin. It is obtained
synthetically from 2-oxy-3'4-dimethoxy-4-ethoxy-chalkone. The
various steps in this synthesis are shown below, since the method
employed is applicable to other members of the group.
CjHjCK
>CH3'COCH 3 +OHC C 6 H 3 (OCH3)j
HO/
CjHsCX
-Cr> CH :CH-CH3(OCH,) 3
HsCX
>C^H,-
H0/
C,H 4
CH-C,H 3 (OCH S ) 2
/to
o/
\
N
/COH
c<x
This structure of the fisetin molecule was confirmed by Herzig
(Monats., 1891, 12, p. 177), who showed that the tetraethyl ether
of fisetin on hydrolysis with alcoholic potash gave diethylproto-
catechuic acid and diethylfisetol, the latter on oxidation yielding
ethyl-0-resorcylic acid, which had been previously obtained by
oxidizing resacetophenone ethyl ether. Luleolin or l'3'3'-4'-tetroxy-
flavone, CuHioOe, is found in the weld obtained from Reseda luteola.
It crystallizes in small yellow needles, which dissolve in solutions
of the caustic alkalis with a bright yellow colour. On fusion with
caustic alkalis it yields phloroglucin and protocatechuic acid. It
is obtained synthetically from l-3-3'-4'-tetramethoxy-flavanone
by bromination, the tribromo-compound being decomposed by the
successive use of alcoholic potash and concentrated hydriodic acid.
Quercetin or l-3-3'-4'-tetroxyflavonol, CuHioOr, is a decomposition
product of quercitrin rind, and is found in many plants. It is
obtained by the hydrolysis of quercitrin with dilute sulphuric acid.
It is a pale yellow crystalline powder. Alcohol hydrolyses it to
protocatechuic acid and phloroglucin. It is prepared synthetic-
ally from 2-hydroxy-3-4'4''6'-tetramethoxy-chalkone. Rhamnelin,
CuH 9 O-pCHj, the monomethyl ether, is a pale yellow powder.
Rhamnazin, CijHsO 6 (OCH3)j, the dimethyl ether, crystallizes in
yellow needles. Morin or i'3'2'-4'-tetroxyflavonol, CuHioOr, occurs
in the wood of Autscorpis integrifolia, and crystallizes in long yellow
needles, which on fusion with caustic alkali decompose into phloro-
glucin, resorcin and oxalic acid. On reduction with sodium
amalgam in alkaline solution it yields phloroglucin and /3-resorcylic
acid. It yields a tetramethyl ether and a penta-acetate. It has
been synthesized from i-3-2'-4'-tetramethoxy flavanone by con-
verting this into its isomtrpso compound, which yields morin
trimethyl ether on hydrolysis by sulphuric acid. Myricetin or
l'3'3'-4 -S'-penta-oxy navonol, CuHioOg, found in the rind of Myrica
nagi and also in Sicilian sumach, crystallizes in yellow needles
which dissolve with a green colour in dilute alkalis. On fusion
with caustic alkalis it yields gallic acid and phloroglucin.
The parent substance of the group, namely chroman (annexed
formula), was obtained by J. v. Braun and A.
-CHs Steindorff in 1905 (Ber., 38, p. 850) by diazotizing
| . ortho-amino-7-chlorpropylbenzene and heating
O CHj the resulting chlorpropylphenol with a caustic
alkali. It is a colourless oil which boils at 214-
215 C. and possesses a characteristic peppermint odour.
For the dibenzo-pyrones see XANTHONE.
PYROPE (pronounced plrop), a deep red variety of garnet,
named from the Gr. m>/xoir6s (fiery) in allusion to its colour.
It is used, like almandine (q.v.), as a gem-stone, but may be dis-
tinguished by the absence of any tinge of violet in its colour
and by its lower specific gravity (3-7 or 3-8, while that of alman-
dine is 4-1 to 4-3). The typical colour of pyrope is blood-red,
though sometimes a trace of orange gives rise to a hyacinthine
hue: occasionally the mineral becomes nearly black, as seen
in the pyrope of Arendal in Norway. Crystals are rare, but
cubic forms have been observed. Pyrope may be regarded as
a magnesium-aluminium garnet (see GARNET), but it usually
contains more or less calcium, iron, manganese and chromium;
and the rich colour of the mineral seems due to the presence of
some of the last three metals, though their exact condition in
the mineral has not been determined.
Pyrope generally occurs in grains embedded in peridotites (olivine
rocks) or in serpentine resulting from their alteration, or it is found
as loose grains in detritus due to the disintegration of the matrix.
The grains may be surrounded by a chloride rind, or by a crust ol
a fibrous mineral called by A. Schrauf kelyphite (from the Gr.
Xixfx, a nut-shell), which seems in some cases to be an amphibole.
In the serpentine of Zoblitz and of Greifendorf near Leipzig, in
Saxony, pyrope is characteristically developed; and the Saxon
garnets, found loose in gravels, were referred to by G. Agricola
as far back as 1546. Several localities in Bohemia are famous for
yielding pyrope, and from its characteristic occurrence here it is
often known, even when found elsewhere, as Bohemian garnet.
The garnet-bearing district is a tract of about 70 square kilometres
in the north of Bohemia, the chief locality being Meronitz near
Bilin. It is notable that the pyrope is found at Meronitz in a clayey
calcareous tufa or conglomerate, with opal and serpentine, products
of the decomposition of a peridptite. It occurs also in sands and
gravels near Chrastian, Lobpsitz, Triblitz, Podseditz, Chodolitz,
and at several other localities in the Mittel Gebirge, between Teplitz
and Leitmeritz. It is believed that the original pyrope-bearing
rocks resulted from the eruptive activity which gave rise to Lin-
horka Hill, near Starrey. The garnets in the detritus are accom-
panied by zircon, spinel, corundum, cyanite, tourmaline, olivine, &c.
Though generally very small, they are abundant, and are used
not only as ornamental stones, but as a counterpoise in delicate
weighing and as an abrasive agent. To obtain the stones the
detritus is washed, and the garnets picked out by hand and then
sized through sieves. The pyrope is generally rose-cut or step-cut,
and often mounted with a foil. Beads are faceted all over. Some
pyrope is cut en cabochon, forming, like almandine, carbuncle, and
if very dark the stone is hollowed at the back so as to form a " garnet-
shell. ' The industry of cutting Bohemian garnets is centred in
Turnau on the Iser, near Reichenberg; but there are also works at
other localities. Large stones are very rare, but a Bohemian pyrope
as large as a hen's egg is preserved in the Imperial treasury at
Vienna; and another the size of a pigeon's egg in the Grilne Gewolbe
of Dresden.
Pyrope occurs in many localities in the western part of the United
States, especially in Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico, where it
is often called ' ruby." It is found loose in sand accompanied by
olivine, and has resulted from the alteration of a peridotite. The
Navajo Indians of New Mexico collect the garnet from the sands
of the ant-hills and scorpion-holes. Very fine pyrope occurs in
the diamond-fields of South Africa, having been derived from
olivine-bearing rocks. It occurs in the blue-ground and in the
detritus of the river-diggings. The Cape garnets have usually a
rich colour, but some stones incline to an orange hue. The finest
pyrope is often cut as a brilliant, and passes under the misleading
name of " Cape ruby." A pyrope-beanng rock, rather like that of
South Africa, occurs in Elliott county, Kentucky, U.S.A. ; it is notable,
too, that pyrope is found near Elie in Fife, in Scotland, where it
occurs in volcanic agglomerates and in basaltic dikes. Sir A.
Geikie has pointed out the suggestive resemblance of the occurrence
there to that in South Africa.
See " Bohemian Garnets," by G. F. Kunz, Trans. Amer. Inst.
Mining Eng. (1893), xxi. 241; and " Die bohmischen Granatlager-
statten," by Dr Hans Oehmichen, Zeit. /. prakt. Geol. (1900), vih. I.
Both papers contain bibliographical lists. (F. W. R.*)
PYROPHORUS (Gr. irOp, fire, tftpew, to bear), a substance
which spontaneously inflames on contact with the air. One of
the earliest known is that of Homberg, prepared by heating
a mixture of alum and finely divided carbon to redness in a
closed tube. On opening the tube and emptying out the black
residue (consisting of potassium sulphide, aluminium sulphate
and carbon) it promptly catches fire. Many readily oxidizable
substances, especially when very finely divided, have the same
property. Metallic iron and cobalt, when prepared under
certain conditions, are pyrophoric, as is also ferrous oxide.
Spontaneously inflammable liquids are also known, e.g. certain
alkyl metallic compounds, phosphorus dihydride, &c.
PYROPHYLLITE, a mineral species belonging to the clay
family, and composed of hydrous aluminium silicate HA1 (SiOj)j.
It occurs in two more or less distinct varieties, namely, as
crystalline folia and as compact masses; distinct crystals are
not known.
The folia have a pronounced pearly lustre, owing to the presence
of a perfect cleavage parallel to their surfaces: they are flexible
but not elastic, and are usually arranged radially in fan-like or
spherical groups. This variety, when heated before the blowpipe,
exfoliates and swells up to many times its original volume, hence
the name pyrophyllite, from the Greek TUP (fire) and 4iXXor (a leaf),
given by R. Hermann in 1829. The colour of both varieties is
white, pale green, greyish or yellowish; they are very soft (H. = 1-2)
and are greasy to the touch. The specific gravity is 2-S-2-9. The
two varieties are thus very similar respectively to talc (q.v.) and its
compact variety steatite, which is, however, a hydrous magnesium
6 9 6
PYROXENE PYRRHOTITE
silicate. The compact variety of pyrophyllite is used for slate
pencils and tailors' chalk (" French chalk "), and is carved by the
Chinese into small images and ornaments of various kinds. Other
soft compact minerals (steatite and pinite) used for these Chinese
carvings are included with pyrophyllite under the terms agalmato-
lite and pagodite.
Pyrophyllite occurs in schistose rocks, often associated with
cyanite, of which it is an alteration product. Pale green foliated
masses, very like talc in appearance, are found at Beresovsk near
Ekaterinburg in the Urals, and at Zermatt in Switzerland. The
most extensive deposits are in the Deep river region of North
Carolina, where the compact variety is mined, and in South Carolina
and Georgia.
PYROXENE, an important group of rock-forming minerals,
very similar in chemical composition and general characters
to the amphiboles (q.v.). Although crystallizing in three differ-
ent systems, they all possess distinct prismatic cleavages, the
angles between which are about 87 (the cleavage angle in the
amphiboles being 56). They are metasilicates, but, as shown
in the following table, the composition varies widely in the
different species, with corresponding differences in the various
physical characters. The name pyroxene was originally given
by R. J. Haiiy in 1796 to the black crystals of augite found in
the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna: he derived the name from the
Greek irvp (fire) and ijevos (a stranger), because he thought
that the crystals had been accidentally caught up by the lavas
which contained them. As a matter of fact, the pyroxenes
are, next to the felspars, the commonest constituents of igneous
rocks of almost all kinds, being especially characteristic of
those of basic composition. An igneous rock composed almost
wholly of pyroxene is known as a pyroxenite. Besides being
minerals of primary origin in*igneous rocks, the pyroxenes are also
of frequent occurrence in metamorphic rocks, for example,
in crystalline limestones, being then of secondary origin.
At the present day the name pyroxene is used as a group name
for all the minerals enumerated below, though sometimes it is also
applied as a specific name to include the monoclinic members
diopside, hedenbergite, schefferite and augite.
Orthorhombic Series.
Enstatite MgSiO 3 .
Bronzite (!Vfg,Fe)SiO 3 .
Hypersthene (Fe,Mg)SiO 3 .
Monoclinic Series.
Diopside CaMg(SiO 3 ) 2 .
Hedenbergite CaFe(SiO s ) 2 .
Schefferite (Ca,Mg)(Fe,Mn)(SiO 3 ) 2 .
Augite
Acmite
Spodumene LiAl(SiO 3 ) 2 .
Jadeite NaAl(SiO s ) 2 . '
Wollastonite CaSiO 3 .
Pectolite HNaCa 2 (SiO 3 ) 3 .
Rosenbuschite Na2Ca 3 [(Si,Zr,Ti)O 3 ]4.
Anorthic Series.
Rhodonite MnSiO 3 .
Babingtonite (Ca,Fe,Mn)SiO 3 -Fe 2 '"(SiO 3 ) 3 .
Hiortdahlite (Ca,Na) 2 F[(Si,Zr)O 2 ].
For details respecting the special characters and modes of occur-
rence of most of these species reference may be made to the respec-
tive headings : others not so treated are briefly mentioned below.
Hedenbergite, or calcium iron pyroxene, is a black mineral closely
allied to diopside (j.ti.) and, owing to the ispmorphous replacement
of iron by magnesium, there is no sharp line of division between
them. Schefferite, or manganese pyroxene, is a brown mineral
found in the manganese mines of Sweden. Pectolite is a secondary
mineral occurring as white masses with a radially fibrous structure
in the veins and cavities of basic igneous rocks. Babingtonite
is found as small black crystals on felspar in the granite of Baveno
in Italy, and in the Haytor iron mine in Devonshire. Rosenbuschite,
hiortdahlite, and some other rare members containing zirconium
and fluorine, occur as accessory constituents in the nepheline-
syenite of southern Norway.
PYROXENITE, a rock consisting essentially of minerals of
the pyroxene group, such as augite and diallage, hypersthene,
bronzite or enstatite. Names have been given to members of
this group according to their component minerals, e.g. pyroxenite
(augite), diallagite (diallage), hypersthenite (hypersthene),
bronzitites (bronzite), websterite (diallage and hypersthene).
Closely allied to this group are the hornblendites, consisting
Ca(Mg,Fe)(SiO 3 ) 2 with
(Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe) 2 SiO,.
aFe 7 "(SiO 3 )8.
essentially of hornblende. The term perknite (Gr.
dark) has also been used to designate the whole series.
They are essentially of igneous origin, though some pyroxenites
are included in the metamorphic complex of the Lewisian of
Scotland; those pyroxene rocks which result from the contact
alteration of impure limestones are described as pyroxene horn-
felses (calc-silicate hornfelses). The pyroxenites are closely allied
to the gabbros and norites, from which they differ by the absence of
felspar, and to the peridotites, which are distinguished from them
by containing olivine. This connexion is indicated also by their
mode of occurrence, for they usually accompany masses of gabbro
and peridotite and seldom are found by themselves. They are
strictly plutonic and often very coarse-grained, containing indi-
vidual crystals which may be several inches in length. The principal
accessory minerals, in addition to olivine and felspar, are chromite
and spinels, garnet, iron oxides, rutile, scapolite. They frequently
occur in the form of dikes or segregations in gabbro and peridotite :
e.g. in Shetland, Cortlandt on the Hudson river, North Carolina
(websterite), Baltimore, New Zealand, and in Saxony. The com-
ponent minerals often have a close resemblance to those -of the
surrounding rock. By decomposition the rocks consisting of
pyroxene pass into serpentines, which sometimes preserve the
original structures of the primary minerals, such as the lamination
of hypersthene and the rectangular cleavage of augite. Under
pressure-metamorphism hornblende is developed and various
types of amphibolite and hornblende-schist are produced. Occa-
sionally rocks rich in pyroxene are found as basic facies of nepheline
syenite; a good example is provided by the melanite pyroxenites
associated with borolanite (q.v.) at Ledbeg in Sutherlandshire.
(J. S. F.)
PYRRHO OF ELIS (c. 360-270 B.C.), a Greek sceptic philo-
sopher and founder of the school known as Pyrrhonism.
Diogenes Laertius (ix. 61), quoting from Apollodorus, says that
he was at first a painter, and that pictures by him were in exist-
ence in the gymnasium at Elis. Later he was diverted to
philosophy by the works of Democritus, and became acquainted
with the Megarian dialectic through Bryson, pupil of Stilpo.
With Anaxarchus, he went to the East in the train of Alexander,
and studied in India under the Gymnosophists (q.v.) and under
the Magi in Persia. From the Oriental philosophy he seems
to have adopted a life of solitude. Returning to Elis, he lived
in poor circumstances, but highly honoured by the Elians and
also by the Athenians, who gave him the rights of citizenship.
His doctrines are known mainly through the satiric writings
(SiXXot) of his pupil Timon of Phlius (the Sillographer). The
main principle of his thought is expressed in the word acatalepsia,
which implies the impossibility of knowing things in their
own nature. Against every statement the contradictory
may be advanced with equal reason (laoadevela T&V \6yuv ).
Secondly, it is necessary in view of this fact to preserve an
attitude of intellectual suspense (iiroxrj), or, as Timon expressed
it, obdlv fiS.\\ov (i.e. no assertion more valid than another).
The same idea is expressed also by the terms appej/ia (equili-
brium) and afacria (refusal to speak, non-committal silence).
Thirdly, these results are applied to life in general. Pyrrho
concludes that, since nothing can be known, the only proper
attitude is imperturbability (ataraxia). The impossibility of
knowledge, even in regard to our own ignorance or doubt,
should induce the wise man to withdraw into himself, avoiding
the stress and emotion which belong to the contest of vain
imaginings. This drastic scepticism is the first and the most
thorough exposition of agnosticism in the history of thought.
Its ethical results may be compared with the ideal tranquillity
of the Stoics and the Epicureans. (For its relation to the New
Academy and to scepticism in general see SCEPTICISM and
MEGARIAN SCHOOL or PHILOSOPHY.)
See histories of philosophy by Zeller, Erdmann, Ueberweg;
Ritter and Preller, 364; Waddington, Pyrrhon et le pyrrhonisme
(1877); Zimmermann, Darstellung a. pyrrh. Phil. (1841) and Ueber
Ur sprung und Bedeutung d. pyrrh. Phil. (1843) ; Wachsmuth, De
Timone Phliasio (1859).
PYRRHOTITE, a mineral species consisting of iron sulphide
and crystallizing in the hexagonal system. The formula is
nSn+i where n may vary from 5 to 16; usually it is Fe? Ss or
Fen Su, the latter being also the composition of the artificially
prepared compound. Small amounts of nickel and cobalt
are often present.
PYRRHUS PYRROL
697
Crystals have the form of hexagonal plates bounded at their edges
by faces cf a hexagonal prism and pyramids, which are deeply
striated horizontally. More frequently, however, the mineral is
massive, with a laminar or granular structure. The colour is bronze-
yellow and the lustre metallic; the streak is greyish-black. The
hardness is 4 and the specific gravity 4-58-4-64. The mineral is
magnetic, sometimes with polarity, and it is therefore often called
" magnetic pyrites."
Pyrrhotite occurs in metalliferous veins, and as grains and plates
disseminated through various rocks. In the gabbros and norites
of Norway and Sweden it has been concentrated by magmatic
differentiation at the margins of the igneous masses. Large bodies of
massive pyrrhotite occur at Bodenmais in Bavaria and in Wheal
Jane near Truro in Cornwall. Crystallized specimens are from the
metalliferous veins at Morro Velho in Brazil, Kongsberg in Norway,
and Andreasberg in the Harz. Crystals of pyrrhotite have also
been observed in meteoric stones; but iron sulphide appears more
commonly in meteorites, especially in meteoric irons, as troilite
(FeS), which, if really distinct from pyrrhotite, has not been met with
in terrestrial rocks. (L. J. S.)
PYRRHUS (c. 318-272 B.C.), king of Epirus, son of Aeacides,
and a member of the royal family of the Molossians. He
claimed descent from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, and was also
connected with the royal family of Macedonia through Olympias,
the mother of Alexander the Great. When a mere lad he
became king of the wild mountain tribes of Epirus, and learned
the art of war in the school of Demetrius Poliorcetes and his
father Antigonus. He fought by their side at the battle of
Ipsus (301) in Phrygia, in which they were decisively defeated
by the combined armies of Seleucus Nicator and Lysimachus.
Soon afterwards he was sent to the court of Ptolemy of Egypt
at Alexandria as a pledge for the faithful carrying out of a treaty
of alliance between his brother-in-law Demetrius and Ptolemy.
Through Ptolemy, whose step-daughter Antigone he married,
Pyrrhus was enabled to establish himself firmly on the throne
of Epirus, and became a formidable opponent to Demetrius,
who was now king of Macedonia and the leading man in the
Greek world. He defeated one of Demetrius's generals in
Aetolia, invaded Macedonia, and forced Demetrius to conclude
a truce with him. For about seven months Pyrrhus was in
possession of a large part of Macedonia, Demetrius finding it
convenient to make this surrender on condition that Pyrrhus
did not meddle with the affairs of Peloponnesus. But in 286
he was defeated by Lysimachus at Edessa, driven out of Mace-
donia, and compelled to fall back on his little kingdom of Epirus.
In 281 came the great opportunity of his life. An embassy
was sent to him from the Greek city Tarentum in southern
Italy with a request for aid against Rome, whose hostility the
Tarentines had recklessly provoked. After some hesitation on
the part of the Tarentines, Pyrrhus's conditions were accepted,
and a treaty was concluded. His general Milo crossed with a
body of troops and occupied the citadel. Pyrrhus soon followed
with a miscellaneous force of about 25,000 men (partly furnished
by Ptolemy Ceraunus of Macedonia) and some elephants. The
Tarentines and Italian Greeks shrank, however, from anything
like serious effort, and resented his calling upon them for men
and money. Rome meantime levied a special war contribution,
called on her subjects and allies for their full contingent of troops,
and posted strong garrisons in all towns of doubtful fidelity.
She was now the dominant power in Italy, but her position was
critical, as in the north she had had trouble with the Etruscans
and the Gauls, while in the south the Lucanians and the Bruttians
were making common cause with Tarentum and the Greek
cities. For the first time in history Greeks and Romans met
in battle at Heraclea near the shores of the Gulf of Tarentum,
and the cavalry and elephants of Pyrrhus secured for him a
complete victory over the consul M. Valerius Laevinus, though
at so heavy a cost as to convince him of the great uncertainty
of final success (hence is derived the phrase of a Pyrrhic victory).
Although he now had the Samnites as well as the Lucanians
and the Bruttians and all the Greek cities of southern Italy with
him. he found every city closed against him as he advanced
on Rome through Latium. The peace negotiations, carried on
by the skilful diplomatist Cineas, the minister of Pyrrhus, led
to no result; the senate seemed inclined to come to terms, but
the fiery and patriotic eloquence of the aged and blind Appius
Claudius (the censor) carried the day. Cineas was ordered to
leave the city at once and to tell his master that Rome could
not negotiate so long as foreign troops remained on the soil of
Italy. In the second year of the war (279), Pyrrhus again
defeated a Roman army at Asculum (mod. AscoL') in Apulia,
but Rome still had armies in the field and her Italian confedera-
tion was not broken up. For a while he quitted Italy for Sicily,
at the invitation of the Syracusans, with the idea of making
himself the head of the Sicilian Greeks and driving the Cartha-
ginians out of the island. In his military operations he was on
the whole successful; and Rome and Carthage, in face of the
common danger, concluded an offensive and defensive alliance
against him. He passed three years in Sicily, but offended the
Greek cities, which he governed in the fashion of a despot.
Finding that he could no longer hold Sicily in face of the ill
feeling thus aroused, and reproached by the Samnites for having
deserted them, he decided to return to Italy. On the voyage
he was attacked by the Carthaginians and lost several vessels.
When he reached Italy, the Tarentines and the other Greek
cities, having lost confidence in him, refused to supply him with
men or money. Thoroughly disheartened, he made one more
effort and engaged a Roman army at Beneventum (275) in the
Samnite country, but his arrangements miscarried, and he was
defeated with the loss of his camp and the greater part of his
army. Nothing remained but to go back to Greece. He left
a garrison in Tarentum and returned the following year to his
home in Epirus after a six years' absence. The brief remainder
of his life was passed in camps and battles, without any glorious
result. He gained a victory on Macedonian soil over Antigonus
Gonatas, king of Macedonia, whose troops hailed him as king.
In 273 he was invited into Peloponnesus by Cleonymus to settle
by force of arms a dispute about the royal succession at Sparta.
He besieged the city, but was repulsed with great loss. Next,
at the invitation of a political faction, he went to Argos, where,
during a fight by night in the streets, he was struck on the head
by a huge tile. He fell from his horse, and was put to death
by one of the soldiers of Antigonus.
Pyrrhus was a brilliant and dashing soldier, but he was aptly
compared to a gambler who made many good throws with the
dice, but could not make proper use of them in the game. He
obtained no lasting results, and was never more than a captain
of mercenaries, yet there was something chivalrous about him
which seems to have made him a general favourite. After his
death Macedonia had, for a time at least, nothing to fear, and
the liberty of Greece was quite at the mercy of that power
Pyrrhus wrote a history of the art of war, which is praised by
Cicero, and quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch.
The chief ancient authority for the life of Pyrrhus is Plutarch;
see also Polybius xviii. n, and elsewhere; Dion. Malic, xviii. I,
xix. 6-9; Pausanias i. 13; Justin xviii. I, 2, xxiii. 3, xxv. 4, 5.
Modern monographs by G. F. Hertzberg, " Rom und Konig Pyrrhus "
(popular: in O. Jager s Darstellungen aus der romischen Geschichte,
1870) ; R. von Scala, Der Pyrrhische Krieg (1884), with map of Roman
garrison system in 281; R. Schubert, Geschichte des Pyrrhus (1894),
with full list of authorities; also ROME: History, " The Republic."
PYRROL, C 4 H 5 N or C^-NH, an organic base found in coal-
tar and Dippel's oil. It may be synthetically prepared by the
dry distillation of ammonium mucate, or, better, by heating
it with glycerin to 180-200 C. (H. Schwanert, Ann., 1860, 116,
p. 257); by passing the vapour of diethylamine through a red-
hot tube; by distilling succinimide with zinc dust (C. A. Bell,
Ber., 1880, 13, p. 877); by distilling calcium pyroglutaminate:
HOjC-CH(NH 2 )-CH 2 -CHi-COjH = C 4 H 4 NH+CO s +2Hrf) (L.
Haitinger, Monats., 1882, 3, p. 228); and by boiling succinic
dialdehyde with ammonia and glacial acetic acid (C. Harries,
Ber., 1901, 34, p. 1407). It is a feebly basic, colourless liquid
which boils at 130 C., and possesses a smell resembling that
of chloroform. It is slightly soluble in water, and turns brown
on exposure to air. It has to some extent the character of a
secondary amine; the hydrogen of the imino group can be
replaced by potassium. It is resinified by the action of con-
centrated mineral acids. On warming solutions of pyrrol in
6 9 8
PYRUVIC ACID PYTHAGORAS
dilute acid, ammonia is evolved, and an amorphous powder
of variable composition, known as pyrrol-red, separates out.
The pyrrol ring is easily broken, e.g. hydroxylamine gives the
dioxime of succinic aldehyde. Pyrrol is readily converted into
pyridine derivatives by acting with bromoform, chloroform,
or methylene iodide on its potassium salt, 0-brom-and /3-chlor-
pyridine being obtained with the first two compounds, and
pyridine itself with the last. Iodine in alkaline solution converts
pyrrol into iodol (tetra-iodopyrrol), crystallizing in yellowish-
brown needles, which decompose on heating. It may also be
prepared by heating tetra-brom- or tetra-chlorpyrrol with potas-
sium iodide in alcoholic solution (German patent, 38423, 1886).
It is used as an antiseptic.
Zinc dust and hydrochloric acid reduce pyrrol to pyrrolin (dihydro-
pyrrol), C 4 H 6 -NH, a liquid which boils at 90 C. (748 mm.); it is
soluble in water and has strongly basic properties and an alkaline
reaction. Hydriodic acid at high temperature reduces pyrrol to
pyrrolidine (tetra-hydropyrrol), CiHgNH. Pyrrolidine has also been
prepared by A. Thiele (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 4154) from 0-chlor-
propionic aldehyde diethyl acetal. The chlorine atom in this
compound is replaced by the cyano-group, which is then re-
duced to the CH 2 NH 2 . group and coupled up with benzene sulpho-
chloride to form the compound C $ H 6 SO 2 NH(CH 2 ) V CH(OC 2 H,,) 2 .
This substance easily splits out alcohol, and the ring compound
then formed yields pyrrolidine on reduction by sodium in amyl
alcohol solution. An o-pyrrolidine carboxylic acid and its hydroxy
derivatives have been detected by E. Fischer among the products
of hydrolysis of proteids. R. Willstatter (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 1164)
obtained this acid by the action of a methyl alcoholic solution of
ammonia on dibrompropylmalonic ester at 140 C., the diamide
formed being then hydrolysed either by hydrochloric acid or baryta
water :
CH 2 -CBr(C0 2 H), CH 2 -(CONH 2 K CH 2 -CH(CO 2 H) X
: -CH 2 Br
> I >NH- I
CH 2 CH 2 / CH 2 -
>NH.
CH,/
Numerous substitution derivatives of pyrrol are known. The
JV-derivatives are prepared by the action of alkyl halides and
acid chlorides on potassium pyrrol. The C-derivatives have
been prepared in various ways. L. Knorr, by the action of
ammonia on aceto-acetic ester, obtained /8-imidobutyric esler,
which with nitrous acid yields a-isonitroso-0-imidobutyric ester,
CHs-C(:NH)-C(:N-OH)-CO 2 C 2 H 6 . Reduction of this ester leads to
the formation of ammonia, hydroxylamine, and dimethyl pyrrol
dicarboxylic ester,
xC(CHa) : C-CO 2 R
HN< I
\C(CO 2 R) :C-CH,.
He also found that diaceto succinic ester reacts with compounds
of the type NH 2 R(R = H, CH 3 , OH, NHC,H 6> &c.) to form pyrrol
derivatives :
CH,-CO-CH-CO 2 R /C(CH S ):C-CO 2 R
NH 2 R+ - RN<
CH 5 -CO-CH-CO 2 R \C(CH 3 ) :C-CO 2 R
By using compounds of the type NH 2 R and acetophenone aceto-
acetic ester C 6 H 6 CO-CH 2 -CH (COCH,)-CO 2 R,C. Paal obtained similar
results. For the benzo-pyrrols see INDOLE.
PYRUVIC ACID, or PYRORACEMIC Aero, CH 3 CO-C0 2 H, an
organic acid first obtained by J. Berzelius by the dry distillation
of tartaric or racemic acids (Pogg. Ann., 1835, 36, p. i). It may
be prepared by boiling a-dichlorpropionic acid with silver oxide;
by the hydrolysis of acetyl cyanide with hydrochloric acid (J.
Claisen and J. Shadwell, Ber., 1878. n, pp. 620, 1563); and by
warming oxalacetic ester with a 10% solution of sulphuric acid.
It is usually made by distilling tartaric acid with potassium
bisulphate at about 200-250 C., the crude product being after-
wards fractionated. It is a liquid which boils at about 165 C.
(with partial decomposition) ; it may be solidified, and when pure
melts at 13-6 C. (L. Simon Bull. Soc. Chim., 1895 [3], 13, p. 335).
It is readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. It reduces
ammoniacal silver solutions. When heated with hydrochloric
acid to 100 C. it yields carbon dioxide and pyrotartaric acid
CsHsOi, and when warmed with dilute sulphuric acid to 150 C
it gives carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde. Sodium amalgam
or zinc and hydrochloric acid reduce it to lactic acid, whilst
hydriodic acid gives propionic acid. It readily condenses with
aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of sulphuric acid. It is
somewhat readily oxidized; nitric acid gives carbonic and oxalic
acids, and chromic acid, carbonic and acetic acids. It forms a
well-crystallized hydrazone with phenylhydrazine; and a-nitroso
propionic acid with hydroxylamine. It is monobasic and yields
salts which only crystallize with great difficulty; when liberated
Tom these salts by a mineral acid it forms a syrupy non-
volatile mass. In aqueous solution it gives a red colour with
ferric chloride. It shows characteristic ketone reactions,
yielding a bisulphite compound and combining with hydro-
cyanic acid to form the nitrile of a-oxyisosuccinic acid. When
warmed with baryta water it gives uvitic acid.
Pyruvic nitrite,^ or acetyl cyanide, CHsCO-CN, may be prepared
:>y the action of silver cyanide on acetyl chloride ; or of acetyl chloride
on nitrosoacetone (L. Claisen and O. Manasse, Ber., 1887, 20,
p. 2196). It is a liquid which boils at 93 C. and with caustic
alkalis polymerizes to diacetyldicyanide.
PYTHAGORAS (6th century B.C.), Greek philosopher, was, in
all probability, a native of Samos or one of the neighbouring
islands (others say a Tyrrhenian, a Syrian or a Tyrian), and the
first part of his life may therefore be said to belong to that Ionian
seaboard which had already witnessed the first development
of philosophic thought in Greece (see IONIAN SCHOOL). The
exact year of his birth has been variously placed between 586
and 569 B.C., but 582 may be taken as the most probable date.
He was a pupil of Pherecydes (q.v.), and later of Hermodamas
(Diog. Laert. viii. 2). He left in Ionia the reputation of a
learned and universally informed man. " Of all men Pythagoras,
the son of Mnesarchus, was the most assiduous inquirer," says
Heracleitus, and then proceeds in his contemptuous fashion to
brand his predecessor's wisdom as only eclectically compiled
information or polymathy (iroKvuadia.) . This accumulated
wisdom, as well as most of the tenets of the Pythagorean school,
was attributed in antiquity to the extensive travels of Py-
thagoras, which brought him in contact (so it was said) not only
with the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Chaldaeans, the Jews
and the Arabians, but also with the Druids of Gaul, the Persian
Magi and the Brahmans. But these tales represent only the
tendency of a later age to connect the beginnings of Greek
speculation with the hoary religions and priesthoods of the East.
There is no intrinsic improbability, however, in the statement
of Isocrates (Laud. Busir. 28, p. 227 Steph.) that Pythagoras
visited Egypt and other countries of the Mediterranean, for
travel was one of the few ways of gathering knowledge. Some
of the accounts (e.g. Callimachus) represent Pythagoras as
deriving much of his mathematical knowledge from Egyptian
sources, but, however it may have been with the practical
beginnings of geometrical knowledge, the scientific development
of mathematical principles can be shown to be an independent
product of Greek genius. Some of the rules of the Pythago-
rean ritual have their Egyptian parallels, as Herodotus points
out, but it does not necessarily follow that they were borrowed
from that quarter, and he is certainly wrong in tracing the
doctrine of metempsychosis (q.v.) to Egypt.
The historically important part of his career begins with his
migration to Crotona, one of the Dorian colonies in the south
of Italy, about the year 529. According to tradition, he was
driven from Samos by the tyranny of Polycrates. At Crotona
Pythagoras speedily became the centre of a widespread and
influential organization, which seems to have resembled a
religious brotherhood or an association for the moral reforma-
tion of society much more than a philosophic school. Py-
thagoras appears, indeed, in all the accounts more as a moral
reformer than as a speculative thinker or scientific teacher;
and the doctrine of the school which is most clearly traceable to
Pythagoras himself in the ethico-mystical doctrine of transmigra-
tion. The Pythagorean brotherhood had its rise in the wave of
religious revival which swept over Hellas in the 6th century
B.C., and it had much in common with the Orphic communities
which sought by rites and abstinences to purify the believer's
soul and enable it to escape from " the wheel of birth." Its aims
were undoubtedly those of a religious order rather than a political
league. But a private religious organization of this description
had no place in the traditions of Greek life, and could only main-
tain itself by establishing " the rule of the saints " on a political
basis. The Pythagoreans appear to have established their
supremacy for a time over a considerable part of Magna Graecia,
PYTHAGORAS
699
but this entanglement with politics led in the end to the dis-
memberment and suppression of the society. The authorities
differ hopelessly in chronology, but according to the balance of
evidence the first reaction against the Pythagoreans took place
in the lifetime of Pythagoras after the victory gained by Crotona
over Sybaris in 510. Dissensions seem to have arisen about the
allotment of the conquered territory, and an adverse party was
formed in Crotona under the leadership of Cylon. This was
probably the cause of Pythagoras's withdrawal to Metapontum,
which an almost unanimous tradition assigns as the place of
his death in the end of the 6th or the beginning of the 5th
century. The order appears to have continued powerful in
Magna Graecia till the middle of the 5th century, when it was
violently trampled out. The meeting-houses of the Pythago-
reans were everywhere sacked and burned; mention is made
in particular of "the house of Milo" in Crotona, where fifty or
sixty leading Pythagoreans were surprised and slain.
The persecution to which the brotherhood was subjected
throughout Magna Graecia was the immediate cause of the
spread of the Pythagorean philosophy in Greece proper. Philo-
laus, who resided at Thebes in the end of the 5th century (cf.
Plato, Phaedo, 61 D), was the author of the first written exposi-
tion of the system. Lysis, the instructor of Epaminondas, was
another of these refugees. This Theban Pythagoreanism had
an important influence upon Plato's thought, and Philolaus
had also disciples in the stricter sense. But as a philosophic
school Pythagoreanism became extinct in Greece about the
middle of the 4th century. In Italy where, after a temporary
suppression, it attained a new importance in the person of
Archytas of Tarentum the school finally disappeared about the
same time.
Aristotle in his accounts of Pythagorean doctrines never refers to
Pythagoras but always with a studied vagueness to " the Pytha-
goreans " (oJ na.\obiu>voi UvOa.y6ptu>t). Nevertheless, certain doctrines
may be traced to the founder's teaching. Foremost among these
is the theory of the immortality and transmigration of the soul
(see METEMPSYCHOSIS). Pythagoras's teaching on this point is
connected by one of the most trustworthy authorities with the doc-
trine of the kinship of all living beings; and in the light of anthro-
pological research it is easy to recognize the close relationship
of the two beliefs. The Pythagorean rule of abstinence from flesh
is thus, in its origin, a taboo resting upon the blood-brotherhood of
men and beasts; and the same line cf thought shows a number of
the Pythagorean rules of life which we find embedded in the different
traditions to be genuine taboos belonging to a similar level of
primitive thought. The moral and religious application which
Pythagoras gave to the doctrine of transmigration continued to
be the teaching of the school. The view of the body (o&pa) as the
tomb (OTJIM) of the soul, and the account of philosophy in the Phaedo
as a meditation of death, are expressly connected by Plato with
the teaching of Philolaus; and the strain of asceticism and other
worldliness which meets us here and elsewhere in Plato is usually
traced to Pythagorean influence. Plato's mythical descriptions
of a future life of retribution and purificatory wandering can also
be shown to reproduce Pythagorean teaching, though the sub-
stance of them may have been drawn from a common source in
the Mysteries.
The scientific doctrines of the Pythagorean school have no
apparent connexion with the religious mysticism of the society or
their rules of living. They have their origin in the same dis-
interested desire of Knowledge which gave rise to the other philo-
sophical schools of Greece, and the idea of " philosophy " or the
" theoretic life " as a method of emancipation from the evils of
man's present state of existence, though a genuine Pythagorean
conception, is clearly an afterthought. The discourses and specu-
lations of the Pythagoreans all connect themselves with the idea
of number, and the school holds an important place in the history
of mathematical and astronomical science. An unimpeached
tradition carries back the Pythagorean theory of numbers to the
teaching of the founder himself. Working on hints contained in
the oldest traditions, recent investigators have shown that the _dis-
cpveries attributed to Pythagoras connect themselves with a primi-
tive numerical symbolism, according to which numbers were repre-
sented by dots arranged in symmetrical patterns, such as are still
to be seen in the marking of dice or dominoes. Each pattern of
units becomes on this plan a fresh unit. The " holy tetractys,"
by which the later Pythagoreans used to swear, was a figure of
this kind
representing the number 10 as the triangle of 4,
and showing at a glance that 1+2+3+4 = 10. The sums
of the series of any successive numbers may be graphically
represented in a similar way, and are hence spoken of as " triangular
numbers," while the sums of the series of successive odd numbers are
called " square numbers," and those of successive even numbers
"oblong numbers"; thus 3 and 5 added to the unit give a figure
of this description
-I- 1
while 4 and 6, added to 2, are thus
represented -I ! Such a method of representing number
in areas leads naturally to problems of a geometrical nature, and as
the practical use of the right-angled triangle was already familiar in
the arts and crafts, there is no reason to dispute the well-established
tradition which assigns to Pythagoras the discovery of the pro-
position that in such a triangle the square on the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. And it
is probably also correct to attribute to him the discovery of the
harmonic intervals which underlie the production of musical
sounds. Impressed by this reduction of musical sounds to numbers
and by the presence of numerical relations in every department
of phenomena, Pythagoras and his early followers enunciated the
doctrine that " all things are numbers." Numbers seemed to them,
as Aristotle put it, to be the first things in the whole of nature,
and they supposed the elements of numbers to be the elements of
all things, and the whole heaven to be a musical scale and a number
(Mela. A. 9863). Numbers, in other words, were conceived at that
early stage of thought not as relations or qualities predicable of
things, but as themselves constituting the substance or essence
of the phenomena the rational reality to which the appearances of
sense are reducible.
But the development of these ideas into a comprehensive meta-
physical system was no doubt the work of Philolaus in the latter
part of the 5th century. His formulation of the theory implies
a knowledge of the teaching of Parmenides and Empedocles, and
had itself in turn a great influence upon Plato. The " elements of
numbers," of which Aristotle speaks in the passage quoted above,
were, according to the Pythagoreans, the Odd and the Even,
which they identified with the Limit and the Unlimited; and
Aristotle distinctly says that they did not treat these as " priorities
of certain other substances" such as fire, water or anything else of
that sort, but that the unlimited itself and the one were the reality
of the things of which they were predicated, and that is why they
said that number was " the reality of everything " (Meta. A. 587).
Numbers, therefore, are spatially conceived, " one " being identified
with the point in the sense of a unit having position and magnitude.
From combinations of such units the higher numbers and geometrical
figures arise " two " being identified with the line, " three "
with the surface, and " four with the solid and the Pythagoreans
proceeded to explain the elements of Empedocles as built up out
of geometrical figures in the manner followed by Plato in the
Timaeus. The identification of the numerical opposites, the Odd
and the Even, with. the Limit and the Unlimited otherwise diffi-
cult to explain may perhaps be understood, as Burnet suggests,
by reference to the arrangement of the units or "terms" (6pm.)
in patterns. " When the odd is divided into_ two equal parts,"
he quotes from Stobaeus, "a unit is left over in the middle; but
when the even is so divided, an empty field is left over, without
a master and without a number, showing that it is defective and
incomplete." The idea of opposites, derived, perhaps, originally
from Heracleitus, was developed by the Pythagoreans in a list of
ten fundamental oppositions, bearing a certain resemblance to the
tables of categories framed by later philosophers, but in its arbitrary
mingling of mathematical, physical and ethical contrasts character-
istic of the uncritical beginnings of speculative thought: (i) limited
and unlimited, (2) odd and even, (3)one and many,(4)right and left,
(5) male and female, (6) rest and motion, (7) straight and curved,
(8) light and darkness, (9) good and evil, (lo) square and oblong.
To the Pythagoreans, as to Heracleitus, the universe was in a sense
the realized union of these opposites, but interpretations of Py-
thagoreanism which represent the whole system as founded on
the opposition of unity and duality, and proceed to identify
this with the opposition of form and matter, of _ divine activity
and passive material, betray on the surface their post-Platonic
origin. Still more is this the case when in Neoplatonic fashion
they go on to derive this original opposition from the supreme
unity or God. The further speculations of the Pythagoreans on
the subject of number rest mainly on analogies, which often become
capricious and tend to lose themselves at last in a barren symbolism.
"Seven" is called Topftvot and 'A0i>n), because within the decade
it has neither factors nor product. " Five," on the other hand,
signifies marriage, because it is the union of the first masculine
with the first feminine number (3+2, unity being considered as
a number apart). The thought already becomes more fanciful
when " one is identified with reason, ^because it is unchange-
able ; " two " with opinion, because it is unlimited and indeterminate ;
" four " with justice, because it is the first square number, the
product of equals.
The astronomy of the Pythagoreans was their most notable
contribution to scientific thought, and its importance- lies in the
fact that they were the first to conceive the earth as a globe,
700
PYTHAGORAS
self-supported in empty space, revolving with the other planets round
a central luminary. They thus anticipated the heliocentric theory,
and Copernicus has left it on record that the Pythagorean doctrine
of the planetary movement of the earth gave him the first hint of
its true hypothesis. The Pythagoreans did not, however, put the
sun in the centre of the system. That place was filled by the central
fire to which they gave the names of Hestia, the hearth of the
universe, the watch-tower of Zeus, and other mythological expres-
sions. It had then been recently discovered that the moon shone
by reflected light, and the Pythagoreans (adapting a theory of
Empedocles), explained the light of the sun also as due to reflection
from the central fire. Round this fire revolve ten bodies, first the
Antichthon or counter-earth, then the earth, followed in order
by the moon, the sun, the five then known planets and the heaven
of the fixed stars. The central fire and the counter-earth are
invisible to us because the side of the earth on which we live is
always turned away from them, and our light and heat come to us,
as already stated, by reflection from the sun. When the earth is
on the same side of the central fire as the sun, the side of the earth
on which we live is turned towards the sun and we have day;
when the earth and the sun are on opposite sides of the central fire
we are turned away from the sun and it is night. The distance of
the revolving orbs from the central fire was determined according
to simple numerical relations, and the Pythagoreans combined their
astronomical and their musical discoveries in the famous doctrine
of " the harmony of the spheres." The velocities of the bodies
depend upon their distances from the centre, the slower and nearer
bodies giving out a deep note and the swifter a high note, the
concert of the whole yielding the cosmic octave. The reason why
we do not hear this music is that we are like men in a smith's forge,
who cease to be aware of a sound which they constantly hear and
are never in a position to contrast with silence.
AUTHORITIES. Zeller's account of Pythagoreanism in his Philo-
sophic der Griechen gives a full account of the sources, with critical
references in the notes to the numerous monographs on the subject,
but the labour and ingenuity of more recent scholars has succeeded
in clearing up a number of points since he wrote. Diels, Doxo-
graphi graeci (1879), and Die Fragmente der Vorsokraliker, vol. i.
(2nd ed., 1906). Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, vol. i., and especially
Burnet's Early Greek Philosophy (2nd ed., 1908), give the results
of the latest investigations. Tannery's Science hellbne; Milhaud's
La Science grecque and Philosophes geontetres; Cantor's History of
Mathematics; and Gow's Short History of Greek Mathematics, refer
to the mathematical and physical doctrines of the school.
(A. S. P.-P.)
PYTHAGOREAN GEOMETRY
As the introduction of geometry into Greece is by common
consent attributed to Thales, so all are agreed that to Pythago-
ras is due the honour of having raised mathematics to the
rank of a science. We know that the early Pythagoreans
published nothing, and that, moreover, they referred all their
discoveries back to their master (see PHILOLAUS). Hence it is
not possible to separate his work from that of his early
disciples, and we must therefore treat the geometry of the
early Pythagorean school as a whole. We know that Pythago-
ras made numbers the basis of his philosophical system, as
well physical as metaphysical, and that he united the study of
geometry with that of arithmetic.
The following statements have been handed down to us. (a)
Aristotle (Mela. i. 5, 985) says " the Pythagoreans first applied
themselves to mathematics, a science which they improved; and,
penetrated with it, they fancied that the principles of mathematics
were the principles of all things." (b) Eudemus informs us that
" Pythagoras changed geometry into the form of a liberal science,
regarding its principles in a purely abstract manner, and investi-
gated its theorems from the immaterial and intellectual point of
view (duX&rc nal voepas)." 1 (c) Diogenes Laertius (viii. 1 1) relates
that " it was Pythagoras who carried geometry to perfection,
after Moeris 2 had first found out the principles of the elements
of that science, as Anticlides tells us in the second book of his
History of Alexander; and the part of the science to which Py-
thagoras applied himself above all others was arithmetic." (a)
According to Aristpxenus, the musician, Pythagoras seems to have
esteemed arithmetic above everything, and to have advanced it
by diverting it from the service of commerce and by likening all
things to numbers.* (e) Diogenes Laertius (viii. '13) reports on
the same authority that Pythagoras was the first person who
introduced measures and weights among the Greeks. (/) He
discovered the numerical relations of the musical scale (Diog.
1 Proclus Diadochus, In primum Euclidis elemenlorum librum
commentarii, ed. Friedlein, p. 65.
4 Moeris was a king of Egypt who, Herodotus tells us, lived
900 years before his visit to that country.
3 Aristox. Fragm. ap. Stob. Eclog. Phys. i. 2, 6.
Laert. viii. n). (g) Proclus 4 says that " the word 'mathematics'
originated with the Pythagoreans." (h) We learn also from the
same authority 6 that the Pythagoreans made a fourfold division
of mathematical science, attributing one of its parts to the " how
many " (TO vitaov) and the other to the " how much " (r6 Tn\\ixov);
and they assigned to each of these parts a twofold division. They
said that discrete quantity or the how many " is either absolute
or relative, and that continued quantity or the " how much " is,
either stable or in motion. Hence they laid down that arithmetic
contemplates that discrete quantity which subsists by itself, but
music that which is related to another; and that geometry considers
continued quantity so far as it is immovable, but that astronomy
(17 a<j><upuiri) contemplates continued quantity so far as it is of a
self-motive nature, (i) Diogenes Laertius (viii. 25) states, on
the authority of Favorinus, that Pythagoras " employed defini-
tions in the mathematical subjects to which he applied himself."
The following notices of the geometrical work of Pythagoras and
the early Pythagoreans are also preserved, (i) The Pythagoreans
define a point as " unity having position " (Procl. op. cit. p. 95).
(2) They considered a point as analogous to the monad, a line to
the dyad, a superficies to the triad, and a body to the tetrad (ibid.
P- 97)- (3) They showed that the plane around a point is com-
pletely filled by six equilateral triangles, four squares, or three
regular hexagons (ibid. p. 305). (4) Eudemus ascribes to them the
discovery of the theorem that the interior angles of a triangle are
equal to two right angles, and gives their proof, which was sub-
stantially the same as that in Euclid I. 32 6 (ibid. p. 379). (5) Proclus
informs us in his commentary on Euclid I. 44 that Eudemus says that
the problems concerning the application of areas where the term
"application" is not to be taken in its restricted sense (jrapo/JoXij) ,
in which it is used in this proposition, but also in its wider signifi-
cation, embracing vwtpffoXii and 8XX^is, in which it is used in
Book VI. Props. 28, 29 are old, and inventions of the Pythago-
reans 7 (ibid. p. 419). (6) This is confirmed by Plutarch, 8 who says,
after Apollodorus, that Pythagoras sacrificed an ox on finding the
geometrical diagram, either the one relating to the hypotenuse,
viz. that the square on it is equal to the sum of the squares on the
sides, or that relating to the problem concerning the application
of an area. 9 (7) Plutarch 10 also ascribes to Pythagoras the solution
of the problem, To construct a figure equal to one and similar to
another given figure. (8) Eudemus states that Pythagoras dis-
covered the construction of the regular solids (Procl. op. cit.
P- 65). (9) Hippasus, the Pythagorean, is said to have perished
in the sea on account of his impiety, inasmuch as he boasted that
he first divulged the knowledge of the sphere with the twelve
pentagons (the inscribed ordinate dodecahedron): Hippasus as-
sumed the glory of the discovery to himself, whereas everything
belonged to Him " for thus they designate Pythagoras, and do
not call him by name." 11 (10) The triple interwoven triangle or
pentagram star-shaped regular pentagon was used as a symbol
or sign of recognition by the Pythagoreans and was called by them
" health " (frywio). 12 (n) The discovery of the law of the three
4 Procl. op. cit. p. 45.
5 Op. cit. p. 35.
' We learn from a fragment of Geminus, which has been handed
down by Eutocius in his commentary on the Conies of Apollonius
(Apoll. Conica, ed. Halleius, p. 9), that the ancient geometers
observed two right angles in each species of triangle, in the equi-
lateral first, then in the isosceles, and lastly in the scalene, whereas
later writers proved the theorem generally thus " The three
internal angles of every triangle are equal to two right angles."
7 The words of Proclus are interesting. " According to Eudemus
the inventions respecting the application, excess and defect of areas
are ancient, and are due to the Pythagoreans. Moderns, borrowing
these names, transferred them to the so-called conic lines, the para-
bola, the hyperbola, the ellipse, as the older school, in their nomen-
clature concerning the description of areas in piano on a finite right
line, regarded the terms thus: An area is said to be applied (jrapa-
/}a\\cii>) to a given right line when an area equal in content to some
given one is described thereon; but when the base of the area is
greater than the given line, then the area is said to be in excess
(i>xep/3<iXXe') ; but when the base is less, so that some part of the given
line lies without the described area, then the area is said to be in
defect (XXjrc). Euclid uses in this way in his sixth book the
terms excess and defect. . . . The term application (iropa/SdXXtu'),
which we owe to the Pythagoreans, has this signification."
8 Non posse suaviter vivi sec. Epicurum, c. xi.
Eire irp6fl\ripa. irtpl TOV x^pk js irapa/SoX^s. Some authors,
rendering the last five words " concerning the area of the parabola,"
have ascribed to Pythagoras the quadrature of the parabola, which
was one of the great discoveries of Archimedes.
10 Symp. viii., Quaest. 2, c. 4.
11 lamblichus, De vit. Pyth. c. 1 8, 88.
12 Lucian, Pro lapsu in salut. 5 ; also schol. on Aristoph. Nub.
6ll. That the Pythagoreans used such symbols we learn from
lamblichus (De vit. Pyth. c. 33, 237 and 238). This figure is
referred to Pythagoras himself, and in the middle ages was called
Pythagorae figura; even so late as Paracelsus it was regarded by
PYTHAGORAS
or
squares (Euclid I. 47), commonly called the " theorem of Pythago-
ras," is attributed to him by many authorities, of whom the oldest
is Vitruvius. 1 (12) One of the methods of finding right-angled
triangles whose sides can be expressed in numbers (Pythagorean
triangles) that setting out from the odd numbers is referred
to Pythagoras by Heron of Alexandria and Proclus. 1 (13) The
discovery of irrational quantities is ascribed to Pythagoras by
Eudemus (Procl. op. cit. p. 65). (14) The three proportions arith-
metical, geometrical and harmonical were known to Pythagoras.*
(15) lamblichus says, " Formerly, in the time of Pythagoras
and the mathematicians under him, there were three means
only the arithmetical, the geometrical and the third in order,
which was known by the name sub-contrary (vrtvafria), but which
Archytas and Hippasus designated the harmonical, since it appeared
to include the ratios concerning harmony and melody." (16) The
so-called most perfect or musical proportion, e.g. 6 : 8 : : 9 : 12,
which comprehends in it all the former ratios, according to
lamblichus,' is said to be an invention of the Babylonians and
to have been first brought into Greece by Pythagoras. (17) Arith-
metical progressions were treated by the Pythagoreans, and it
appears from a passage in Lucian that Pythagoras himself had
considered the special case of triangular numbers: Pythagoras
asks some one, "How do you count?" He replies, "One, two,
three, four." Pythagoras, interrupting, says, " Do you see?
what you take to be four, that is ten and a perfect triangle and our
oath."' (18) The odd numbers were called by the Pythagoreans
"gnomons," 7 and were regarded as generating, inasmuch as by
the addition of successive gnomons Consisting each of an odd
number of unit squares to the original square unit or monad
the square form was preserved. (19) In like manner, if the simplest
oblong (iTpo^i7j), consisting of two unit squares or monads in
juxtaposition, be taken and four unit squares be placed about it
after the manner of a gnomon, and then in like manner six, eight
. . . unit squares be placed in succession, the oblong form will be
preserved. (20) Another of his doctrines was, that of all solid
figures the sphere was the most beautiful, and of all plane figures
the circle. 8 (21) According to lamblichus the Pythagoreans are
said to have found the quadrature of the circle.'
him as a symbol of health. It is said to have obtained its special
name from the letters v, y i, 8 ( = ), o having been written at its
prominent vertices.
1 De arch. ix. ; Praef. 5, 6, 7. Amongst other authorities are
Diogenes Laertius (viii. n), Proclus (op. cit., p. 426), and Plutarch
(ut supra, 6). Plutarch, however, attributes to the Egyptians the
knowledge of this theorem in the particular case where the sides
are 3, 4, and 5 (De Is. et Osir. c. 56).
* Heron Alex. Geom. et stereom. rel., ed. F. Hultsch, pp. 56,
146; Procl. op. cit. p. 428. The method of Pythagoras is as
follows: he took an odd number as the lesser side; then, having
squared this number and diminished the square by unity, he took
half the remainder as the greater side, and by adding unity to this
number he obtained the hypotenuse, e.g. 3, 4, 5; 5, 12, 13.
1 Nicom. Ger. Intrpd. Ar. c. xxii.
* In Nicomachi arithmeticam, ed. S. Tennulius, p. 141.
1 Op. cit. p. 168. As an example of this proportion Nicomachus
and, after him, lamblichus give the numbers 6, 8, 9, 12, the har-
monical and arithmetical means between two numbers forming a geo-
metric proportion with the numbers themselves (a:-^pr :^:b\ .
lamblichus further relates (loc. cit.) that many Pythagoreans made
use of this proportion, as Aristaeus of Crotona, Timaeus of Locri,
Philolaus and Archytas of Tarentum and many others, and after
them Plato in his Timaeus (see Nicom. Inst. arithm., ed. Ast,
p. 153, and Animadversiones, pp. 327-329; and Iambi, op. cit.
p. 172 seq.).
1 Biwv n-pSaa, 4, i. 317, ed. C. Jacobitz.
' ryciyiuy means that by which anything is known or " criterion ";
its oldest concrete signification seems to be the carpenter's square
(norma) by which a right angle is known. Hence it came to denote
a perpendicular, of which, indeed, it was the archaic name (Proclus,
op. cit. p. 283). Gnomon is also an instrument for measuring
altitudes, by means of which the meridian can be found; it denotes,
further, the index or style of a sundial, the shadow of which points
out the hours. In geometry it means the square or rectangle
about the diagonal ofa square or rectangle, together with the two
complements, on account of the resemblance of the figure to a car-
penter's square; and then, more generally, the similar figure with
regard to any parallelogram, as defined by Euclid II. def. 2. Again,
in a still more general signification, it means the figure which,
being added to any figure, preserves the original form. See Heron,
Definitiones (59). When gnomons are added successively in this
manner to a square monad, the first gnomon may be regarded as
that consisting of three square monads, and is indeed the con-
stituent of a simple Greek fret; the second of five square monads,
&c.; hence we have the gnomonic numbers.
1 Diag. Laert. De vit. Pyth. viii. 19.
* Simplicius, In Aristotelis physicorum libros quattuor priores
commentaria, ed. H. Diels, p. 60.
On examining the purely geometrical work of Pythagoras and
his early disciples, as given in the preceding extracts, we observe
that it is much concerned with the geometry of areas, and we
are indeed struck with its Egyptian character. This appears in the
theorem (3) concerning the filling up a plane with regular figures
for floors or walls covered with tiles of various colours were common
in Egypt; in the construction of the regular solids (8), for some
of them are found in Egyptian architecture; in the problems con-
cerning the application of areas (5) ; and lastly, in the theorem of
Pythagoras (i i), coupled with his rule for the construction of right-
angled triangles in numbers (12). We learn from Plutarch that
the Egyptians were acquainted with the geometrical fact that a
triangle whose sides contain three, four and five parts is right-
angled, and that the square of the greatest side is equal to the
squares of the sides containing the right angle. It is probable too
that this theorem was known to them in the simple case where the
right-angled triangle is isosceles, inasmuch as it would be at once
suggested by the contemplation of a floor covered with square tiles
the square on the diagonal and the sum of the squares on the
sides contain each four of the right-angled triangles into which
one of the squares is divided by its diagonal. It is easy now to
see how the problem to construct a square which shall be equal to
the sum of two squares could, in some cases, be solved numerically.
From the observation of a chequered board it would be perceived
that the element in the successive formation of squares is the
gnomon or carpenter's square. Each gnomon consists of an odd
number of squares, and the successive gnomons correspond to the
successive odd numbers, and include, therefore, all odd squares.
Suppose, now, two squares are given, one consisting of sixteen and
the other of nine unit squares, and that it is proposed to fomi from
them another square. It is evident that the square consisting of
nine unit squares can take the form of the fourth gnomon, which,
being placed round the former square, will generate a new square
containing twenty-five unit squares. Similarly it may have been
observed that the twelfth gnomon, consisting of twenty-five unit
squares, could be transformed into a square each of whose sides
contains five units, and thus it may have been seen conversely that
the latter square, by taking the gnomonic or generating form with
respect to the square on twelve units as base, would produce the
square of thirteen units, and so on. This method required only to
be generalized in order to enable Pythagoras to arrive at his rule
for finding right-angled triangles whose sides can be expressed
in numbers, which, we are told, sets out from the odd numbers.
The nth square together with the nth gnomon forms the (n + i)th
square; if the nth gnomon contains nf unit squares, m being an
odd number, we have 2n+l = m*,. .n = J(m 1 i), which gives
the rule of Pythagoras.
The general proof of Euclid I. 47 is attributed to Pythagoras,
but we have the express statement of Proclus (op. cit. p. 426) that
this theorem was not proved in the first instance as it is in the
Elements. The following simple and natural way of arriving at
the theorem is suggested by Bretschneider after Camerer. 10 A
square can be dissected into the sum of two squares and two equal
rectangles, as in Euclid II. 4; these two rectangles can, by draw-
ing their diagonals, be decomposed into four equal right-angled
triangles, the sum of the sides of each being equal to the side of
the square; again, these four right-angled triangles can be placed
so that a vertex of each shall be in one of the corners of the square
in such a way that a greater and less side are in continuation.
The original square is thus dissected into the four triangles as
before and the figure within, which is the square on the hypotenuse.
This square, therefore, must be equal to the sum of the squares on
the sides of the right-angled triangle.
It is well known that the Pythagoreans were much occupied
with the construction of regular polygons and solids, which in
their cosmology played an essential part as the fundamental forms
of the elements of the universe. We can trace the origin of these
mathematical speculations in the theorem (3) that " the pMane
around a point is completely filled by six equilateral triangles,
four squares, or three regular hexagons." Plato also makes the
Pythagorean Timaeus explain " Each straight-lined figure con-
sists of triangles, but all triangles can be dissected into rectangular
ones which are either isosceles or scalene. Among the latter the
most beautiful is that out of the doubling of which an equilateral
arises, or in which the square of the greater perpendicular is three
times that of the smaller, or in which the smaller perpendicular
is half the hypotenuse. But two or four right-angled isosceles
triangles, properly put together, form the square; two or six of
the most beautiful scalene right-angled triangles form the equi-
lateral triangle; and out of these two figures arise the solids which
correspond with the four elements of the real world, the tetra-
hedron, octahedron, icosahedron and the cube " " (Timaeus, 53,
54- 55)- The construction of the regular solids is distinctly
ascribed to Pythagoras himself by Eudemus (8). Of these five
10 See Bretsch. Die Geom. vor Euklides, p. 82; Camerer, Euclidis
elem. i. 444, and the references given there.
11 The dodecahedron was assigned to the fifth element, quinta pars,
aether, or, as some think, to the universe. (See PHILOLAUS.)
702
PYTHAGORAS
solids three the tetrahedron, the cube and the octahedron were
known to the Egyptians and are to be found in their architecture.
Let us now examine what is required for the construction of the
other two solids the icosahedron and the dodecahedron. In the
formation of the tetrahedron three, and in that of the octahedron
four, equal equilateral triangles had been placed with a common
vertex and adjacent sides coincident; and it was known that if
six such triangles were placed round a common vertex with their
adjacent sides coincident, they would lie in a plane, and that,
therefore, no solid could be formed in that manner from them. It
remained, then, to try whether five such equilateral triangles could
be placed at a common vertex in like manner; on trial it would
be found that they could be so placed, and that their bases would
form a regular pentagon. The existence of a regular pentagon
would thus become known. It was also known from the formation
of the cube that three squares could be placed in a similar way
with a common vertex; and that, further, if three equal and
regular* hexagons were placed round a point as common vertex
with adjacent sides coincident, they would form a plane. It re-
mained in this case, too, only to try whether three equal regular
pentagons could be placed with a common vertex and in a similar
way; this on trial would be found possible and would lead to the
construction of the regular dodecahedron, which was the regular
solid last arrived at.
We see that the construction of the regular pentagon is required
for the formation of each of these two regular solids, and that,
therefore, it must have been a discovery of Pythagoras. If we
examine now what knowledge of geometry was required for the
solution of this problem, we shall see that it depends on Euclid IV.
10, whith is reduced to Euclid II. n, which problem is reduced to
the following: To produce a given straight line so that the rect-
angle under the whole line thus produced and the produced part
shall be equal to the square on the given line, or, in the language
of the ancients, To apply to a given straight line a rectangle which
shall be equal to a given area in this case the square on the given
line and which shall be excessive by a square. Now it is to be
observed that the problem is solved in this manner by Euclid (VI.
30, ist method), and that we know on the authority of Eudemus
that the problems concerning the application of areas and their
excess and defect are old, and inventions of the Pythagoreans (5).
Hence the statements of lamblichus concerning Hippasus (9)
that he divulged the sphere with the twelve pentagons and of
Lucian and the scholiast on Aristophanes (10) that the pentagram
was used as a symbol of recognition amongst the Pythagoreans
become of greater importance.
Further, the discovery of irrational magnitudes is ascribed to
Pythagoras by Eudemus (13), and this discovery has been ever
regarded as 1 , one of the greatest of antiquity. It is commonly
assumed that Pythagoras was led to this theory from the considera-
tion of the isosceles right-angled triangle. It seems to the present
writer, however, more probable that the discovery of incommensu-
rable magnitudes was rather owing to the problem: To cut a
line in extreme and mean ratio. From the solution of this problem
it follows at once that, if on the greater segment of a line so cut
a part be taken equal to the less, the greater segment, regarded
as a new line, will be cut in a similar manner; and this process
can be continued without end. On the other hand, if a similar
method be adopted in the case of any two lines which can be re-
presented numerically, the process would end. Hence would arise
the distinction between commensurable and incommensurable
quantities. A reference to Euclid X. 2 will show that the method
above is the one used to prove that two magnitudes are incommensu-
rable; and in Euclid X. 3 it will be seen that the greatest common
measure of two commensurable magnitudes is found by this process
of continued subtraction. It seems probable that Pythagoras, to
whom is attributed one of the rules for representing the sides of
right-angled triangles in numbers, tried to find the sides of an
isosceles right-angled triangle numerically, and that, failing in the
attempt, he suspected that the hypotenuse and a side had no
common measure. He may have demonstrated the incommensu-
rability of the side of a square and its diagonal. The nature
of the old proof which consisted of a reductio ad absurdum, show-
ing that, if the diagonal be commensurable with the side, it would
follow that the same number would be odd and even 1 makes
it more probable, however, that this was accomplished by his
successors. The existence of the irrational as well as that of the
regular dodecahedron appears to have been regarded by the school
as one of their chief discoveries, and to have been preserved as a
secret; it is remarkable, too, that a story similar to that told by
lamblichus of Hippasus is narrated of the person who first published
the idea of the irrational, viz. that he suffered shipwreck, &c. 2
Eudemus ascribes the problems concerning the application of
figures to the Pythagoreans. The simplest cases of the problems,
1 For this proof, see Euclid X. 117; see also Aristot. Analyt. Pr. i.
c. 23 and c. 44.
* Knoche, Untersuchungen uber die neuaufgefundenen Scholien
des Proklus Diadochus zu Euclids Elementen, pp. 20 and 23 fHerford,
1865).
Euclid VI. 28, 29 those, viz. in which the given parallelogram
is a square correspond to the problem: To cut a given straight
line internally or externally so that the rectangle under the seg-
ments shall be equal to a given rectilineal figure. The solution
of this problem in which the solution of a quadratic equation is
implicitly contained depends on the problem, Euclid II. 14, and
the theorems, Euclid II. 5 and 6, together with the theorem of
Pythagoras. It is probable that the finding of a mean proportional
between two given lines, or the construction of a square which
shall be equal to a given rectangle, is due to Pythagoras himself.
The solution of the more general problem, Euclid VI. 25, is also
attributed to him by Plutarch (7). The solution of this problem
depends on that of the particular case and on the application of
areas; it requires, moreover, a knowledge of the theorems: Similar
rectilineal figures are to each other as the squares on their homo-
logous sides (Euclid VI. 20) ; and, If three lines are in geometrical
proportion, the first is to the third as the square on the first is
to the square on the second. Now Hippocrates of Chios, about
440 B.C., who was instructed in geometry by the Pythagoreans,
possessed this knowledge. We are justified, therefore, in ascrib-
ing the solution of the general problem, if not (with Plutarch) to
Pythagoras, at least to his early successors.
The theorem that similar polygons are to each other in the
duplicate ratio of their homologous sides involves a first sketch, at
least, of the doctrine of proportion and the similarity of figures. 3
That we owe the foundation and development of the doctrine of
proportion to Pythagoras and his school is confirmed by the testi-
mony of Nicomachus (14) and lamblichus (15 and 16). From these
passages it appears that the early Pythagoreans were acquainted
not only with the arithmetical and geometrical means between
two magnitudes, but also with their harmonical mean, which was
then called " subcontrary." The Pythagoreans were much occupied
with the representation of numbers by geometrical figures. These
speculations originated with Pythagoras, who was acquainted with
the summation of the natural numbers, the odd numbers and the
even numbers, all of which are capable of geometrical representa-
tion. See the passage in Lucian (17) and the rule for finding
Pythagorean triangles (12) and the observations thereon supra.
On the other hand, there is no evidence to support the statement
of Montucla that Pythagoras laid the foundation of the doctrine
of isoperimetry, by proving that of all figures having the same
perimeter the circle is the greatest, and that of all solids having the
same surface the sphere is the greatest. We must also deny to
Pythagoras and his school a knowledge of the conic sections, and
in particular of the quadrature of the parabola, attributed to him
by some authors; and we have noticed the misconception which
gave rise to this erroneous inference.
Certain conclusions may be drawn from the foregoing examina-
tion of the mathematical work of Pythagoras and his school,
which enable us to form an estimate of the state of geometry
about 480 B.C. First, as to matter. It forms the bulk of the
first two books of Euclid, and includes a sketch of the doctrine
of proportion which was probably limited to commensurable
magnitudes together with some of the contents of the sixth
book. It contains, too, the discovery of the irrational (a\oyov)
and the construction of the regular solids, the latter requiring
the description of certain regular polygons the foundation,
in fact, of the fourth book of Euclid. Secondly, as to form.
The Pythagoreans first severed geometry from the needs of
practical life, and treated it as a liberal science, giving definitions
and introducing the manner of proof which has ever since been
in use. Further, they distinguished between discrete and con-
tinuous quantities, and regarded geometry as a branch of mathe-
matics, of which they made the fourfold division that lasted to
the middle ages the quadrivium (fourfold way to knowledge) of
Boetius and the scholastic philosophy. And it may be observed
that the name of " mathematics," as well as that of " philo-
sophy," is ascribed to them. Thirdly, as to method. One chief
characteristic of the mathematical work of Pythagoras was the
* It is agreed on all hands that these two theories were treated
at length by Pythagoras and his school. It is almost certain,
however, that the theorems arrived at were proved for commensu-
rable magnitudes only, and were assumed to hold good for all.
The Pythagoreans themselves seem to have been aware that their
proofs were not rigorous, and were open to serious objection ; in
this we may have the explanation of the secrecy which was attached
by them to the idea of the incommensurable and to the pentagram
which involved, and indeed represented, that idea. Now it is remark-
able that the doctrine of proportion is twice treated in the Elements
of Euclid first, in a general manner, so as to include incommensu-
rables, in book v., which tradition ascribes to Eudoxus, and then
arithmetically in book vii., which, as Hankel has supposed, con-
tains the treatment of the subject by the older Pythagoreans.
PYTHAGORAS (OF RHEGIUM) PYTHEAS (OF MARSEILLES) 703
combination of arithmetic with geometry. The notions of an
equation and a proportion which are common to both, and
contain the first germ of algebra were introduced among the
Greeks by Thales. These notions, especially the latter, were
elaborated by Pythagoras and his school, so that they reached
the rank of a true scientific method in their theory of proportion.
To Pythagoras, then, is due the honour of having supplied a
method which is common to all branches of mathematics, and
in this respect he is fully comparable to Descartes, to whom we
owe the decisive combination of algebra with geometry.
See G. J. Allman, Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid (Cambridge,
1889); M. Cantor, Vorlesungen liber Geschichte der Mathematik
(Leipzig, 1894); James Gow, Short History of Greek Mathematics
(Cambridge, 1884). (G. J. A.)
PYTHAGORAS, of Rhegium, a noted Greek sculptor of the
5th century B.C., a contemporary of Myron and Polyclitus, and
their rival in making statues of athletes. He was born at
Samos and migrated in his youth to Rhegium in Italy. He
made a statue of Philoctetes notable for the physical expression
of pain, an Apollo shooting the Python at Delphi, and a man
singing to the lyre. He is said to have introduced improve-
ments in the rendering of muscles, veins and hair.
PYTHEAS, of Marseilles (Massilia), a celebrated Greek navi-
gator and geographer, from whom the Greeks apparently derived
their earliest definite information concerning western Europe,
and especially the British Islands. He was probably contem-
porary with Alexander the Great; he certainly wrote before
Dicaearchus, a pupil of Aristotle who died about 285 B.C. His
work is lost, and we are left almost wholly in the dark as to its
form and character, but the various titles under which it is
quoted (e.g. Fijj irepto6oj, or Ta irepi rov 'fiwaroD) point to a
geographical treatise, in which Pytheas had embodied the
results of his observations, rather than to a continuous narrative
of his voyage.
Some modern writers have supposed Pytheas to have been
sent out, at public expense, in command of an expedition organ-
ized by the republic of Massilia; but there is no ancient authority
for this, and Polybius, who had unquestionably seen the original
work, expressly states that he had undertaken the voyage in a
private capacity and with limited means. All that we know
concerning the voyage of Pytheas (apart from detached notices)
is contained in a brief passage of Polybius, cited by Strabo, in
which he tells us that Pytheas, according to his own statement,
had not only visited Britain, but had personally explored a large
part of it (" travelled all over it on foot," according to one read-
ing of the text in Strabo, bk. iv. ch. i.), and estimated its
circumference at more than 40,000 stadia (4000 geographical
miles). To this he added the account of Thule (which he placed
six days' voyage north of Britain) and the adjoining regions, in
which there was no longer any distinction between air, earth
and sea, but a kind of mixture of all three, resembling the gela-
tinous mollusc known as pulmo marinus, which rendered all
navigation and progress in any other mode alike impossible.
This substance Pytheas had himself seen, according to Strabo
(bk. iv. ch. i.), but the other phenomena he described only from
hearsay. After this he visited " the whole of the coasts of Europe "
(i.e. those bordering on the ocean) as far as the Tanais (Strabo,
bk. ii. ch. iv. i). This last sentence has led some modern
writers to suppose that he made two different voyages; but this
is improbable; the expressions of Polybius imply that his ex-
plorations in both directions, first towards the north and after-
wards towards the east, formed part of the same voyage.
The countries visited, and to a certain extent explored, by Pytheas,
were previously unknown to the Greeks except, perhaps, by vague
accounts received through the Phoenicians and were not visited
by any subsequent authority during more than two centuries.
Hence some of the later Greek geographers altogether disregarded
his statements, and treated his voyage as a fiction. Eratosthenes,
indeed (276-196 B.C.), attached great value to his authority as to
Britain and Spain, though doubting some of his statements; but
Polybius (c. 204-122 B.C.) considered the whole work of Pytheas
a tissue of fables, like that of Euhemerus concerning Panchaea;
and even Strabo, in whose time the western regions of Europe were
comparatively well known, adopted to a great extent the view of
Polybius.
In modern times a critical examination has arrived at a more
favourable judgment, and though Gossellin in his Recherches sur
la geographte des ancient (iv. 168-180) and Sir G. C. Lewis in his
History of Ancient Astronomy (pp. 466-481) revived the sceptical
view, the tendency of modern critics has been rather to exaggerate
than to depreciate the value of what was really added by Pytheas
to knowledge. Our information concerning him is so imperfect,
and the scanty notices preserved to us from nis work are so meagre
and discordant, that it is difficult to arrive at anything like a sound
conclusion. It may, however, be considered as fairly established
that Pytheas made a voyage round the western coasts of Europe,
proceeding from Gades, the great Phoenician emporium, and prob-
ably the farthest point familiar to the Greeks, round Spain and Gaul
to the British Islands, and that he followed the eastern coast of
Britain for a considerable distance to the north, obtaining in-
formation as to its farther extension in that direction which led
him greatly to exaggerate its size. At the same time he heard vaguely
of the existence of a large island to the north of it probably
derived from the fact of the Orkneys and Shetlands being really
found in that position to which he gave the name of Thule.
The most important statement made by Pytheas in regard to
Thule was that connected with the astronomical phenomena affect-
ing the duration of day and night therein. Unfortunately the re-
ports transmitted to us differ so widely that it is almost impossible
to determine what Pytheas himself stated. It is, however, probable
that the version given in one passage by Pliny (H.N. iv. 16, 104)
correctly represents his authority. According to this, the days
at the summer solstice were twenty-four hours in length, and con-
versely at the winter solstice the nights were of equal duration.
Of course this would be true had Thule been situated under the
Arctic Circle, which Pytheas evidently considered it to be, and his
skill as an astronomer would lead him to accept as a fact what he
knew must be true at some point as a voyager proceeded onwards
towards the north.
Still more difficult is it to determine the extent and character
of Pytheas's explorations towards the east. The statement that
he proceeded along the coasts of Europe " from Gades to the Tanais "
is evidently based upon the supposition that this would be a simple
and direct course along the northern shores of Germany and Scythia
Polybius himself, in common with the other Greek geographers
till a much later period, being ignorant of the projection of the
Danish or Cimbric peninsula, and the circumnavigation that it
involved of all which no trace is found in the extant notices of
Pytheas. Notwithstanding this, some modern writers have sup-
posed him to have entered the Baltic and penetrated as far as the
Vistula (his Tanaii). The only foundation for this is to be found
in the fact that in a passage cited by Pliny (H. N. xxxvii. 2, 35)
Pytheas is represented as stating that amber was brought from an
island called Abalus, distant a day's voyage from the land of the
Guttones, a German nation who dwelt on an estuary of the ocean
called Mentonomus, 6000 stadia in extent. It was a production
thrown up by the waves of the sea, and was used by the inhabitants
to burn instead of wood. It has been conjectured that the " estuary "
here mentioned refers to the Baltic, the existence of which as a
separate sea was unknown to all ancient geographers; but the
obscure manner in which it is indicated, as well as the inaccuracy
of the statements concerning the place from whence the amber
was actually derived, both point to the sort of hearsay accounts
which Pytheas might readily have picked up on the shores of the
German Ocean, without proceeding farther than the mouth of
the Ems, Weser or Elbe, which last is supposed by Ukert to have
been the limit of his voyage in this direction. It must be observed
also that amber is found in Friesland and on the west coast of
Schleswig, as well as in the Baltic, though not in equal abundance.
As to the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, the exploration of which
would naturally be one of the chief objects of Pytheas, he seems
to have furnished Timaeus, who wrote less than a century after him,
with details upon the same, especially in regard to the commercial
centre of Iktis (St Michael's Mount in Cornwall ?), which are pre-
served by Diodorus. The trade with these regions was probably
at this period in Phoenician hands, but we know that at a later time
a considerable portion of the supply was carried overland through
Gaul to Massilia.
Pytheas certainly had one merit which distinguished him
from almost all his contemporaries he was a good astronomer,
and was one of the first who made observations for the deter-
mination of latitudes, among others that of his native place Massilia,
which he fixed with remarkable accuracy; his result, which was
within a few miles of the truth, was adopted by Ptolemy, and
became the basis of the Ptolemaic map of the western Mediter-
ranean. His calculations of the length of the longest day at four
different points in the neighbourhood of Britain are probably based
on native reports. If these figures (16, 17, 18 and 19 hours) are
to be pressed, they would refer to, say, Ushant (48 N.), Flam-
borough Head (54 ), Tarbet Ness in Ross (58) and the northern-
most Shetlands (61 ). Pytheas was also the first among the Greeks
who arrived at any correct notion of the tides, and not only indicated
their connexion with the moon, but pointed out their periodical
fluctuations in accordance with the phases of that luminary. Other
observations concerning the manners and customs of the inhabitants
704
of remote northern regions prove that he had himself really visited
them. Among these are the gradual disappearance of various
kinds of grain as one advanced towards the north; the use of
fermented liquors made from corn and honey; and the habit of
threshing out their corn in large covered barns, instead of on open
threshing-floors as in Greece and Italy, on account of the want
of sun and abundance of rain. Pytheas's notice of the depth of the
Bay of Biscay, of the length of the projection of Brittany, of
Ushant under the name of Uxisama, and of three promontories
of Britain, two of which seem to correspond to Land's End
(Belerion), and North Foreland (Kantian), must not be forgotten.
The fragments of Pytheas have been collected by Arvedson
(Upsala, 1824), and by Fuhr (De Pythea massiliensi, Darmstadt,
1835). Of the numerous treatises and dissertations on the subject,
see Ukert, " Bemerkungen uber Pytheas," in vol. i. of his Geog.
d. Griechen u. Romer, pp. 298309, which contains an excellent
summary of all that is known concerning Pytheas; Sir George C.
Lewis, Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients, pp. 466-
480 (London, 1862); Sir Edward H. Bunbury, History of Ancient
Geography, vol. i. ch. xv. 2 (London, 1883); C. I. Elton, Origins
of English History, cf. especially app. i. pp. 400, &c. (London,
1882); Hugo Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde
der Griechen, pt. 3 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903). A very elaborate
investigation of the whole subject will be found in Miillenhoff,
Deutsche Alterthumskunde, i. 211-497 (Berlin, 1870). See also
Sir Clements Markham's paper, " Pytheas, the Discoverer of
Britain," in the Geographical Journal (June 1893); and H. F.
Tozer, History of Ancient Geography, pp. 152-164 (Cambridge,
1897). (E. H. B. ; C. R. B.)
PYTHIS, or PYTHIUS, one of the most noted Greek architects
of the later age. He cultivated the Ionic style, in which he
constructed the temple of Athena at Priene. The dedicatory
inscription, which is in the British Museum, records that the
founder was Alexander the Great. Pythis also made a great
marble quadriga which surmounted the Mausoleum.
PYTHON, in Greek mythology, son of Gaea, an enormous
serpent, said to have been produced from the mud after the
flood of Deucalion. Its haunt was a cavern near Mt Par-
nassus. Four days after its birth it was slain by Apollo (Apol-
lodoriis i. 4), who was hence surnamed Pythius. According to
Ephorus (in Strabo ix. 646), Python, surnamed Dracon
(serpent), was a brigand near Delphi. The python in reality
represents the pestilential vapours rising from stagnant lakes
and pools, which are dispersed by Apollo and his arrows that
is, the shafts of the sun. The old derivation (Homeric Hymn to
Apollo, 371), according to which Delphi was originally called
Pytho, because the slain serpent was left there to " rot "
(irv6e<r6ai) , points to this explanation.
See C. Pascal, Sludii di antichita e mitologia (1896).
PYTHON, a genus of very large snakes of the family Boidae
(see SNAKES) inhabiting the tropical parts of Africa, Asia and
Australia. They differ from
the true boas (q.v.), with
which they are often con-
founded by carrying a few
teeth in the premaxilla, by
the double row of subcaudal
shields and by the posses-
sion of a pair of supraorbital
FIG. i. -Head of Boa canina. bones Most of them have
pits in some of the upper and lower labial shields.
Python reticulatus is the commonest species in Indo-China and
the Malay Islands; four upper labial shields on either side are
pitted. It is, next to the Anaconda, one ol the largest of all snakes,
some specimens being known which measured about 30 ft. in length.
P. molurus, scarcely smaller, is the python or rock-snake of India
and Ceylon. The African species are much smaller, up to 15 ft.
in length, e.g. P. sebae of tropical and southern Africa and the
beautiful P. regius of West Africa. P. spilotes is the " carpet-
snake " of Australia and New Guinea. A small relative of pythons is
Loxocemus bicolor of South Mexico, the only New World example.
The gian.t pythons could no doubt overpower and kill by
constriction almost any large mammal, since such snakes weigh
PYTHIS PYX
many hundredweights and possess terrific strength, but the
width of their mouth although marvellously distensible has, of
course, a limit, and this is probably drawn at the size of a goat.
Before a python swallows such large prey, its bones are crushed
and the body is mangled
into the shape of a sausage.
The snake begins with the
head, and a great quantity
of saliva is discharged over
the body of the victim as
it is hooked into the throat
by the alternately right and FlG - 2. Head of Python reticulatus.
left forward motions of the distended well-toothed jaws. If for
any reason a snake should disgorge its prey, this will be found
smothered with slime. Hence the fable that they cover it with
saliva before deglutition.
Most pythons are rather ill-tempered, differing in this respect
from the boas. They are chiefly arboreal, and prefer localities
FIG. 3. Python reticulatus (India).
in the vicinity of water to which mammals and birds, their
usual prey, resort. They move, climb and swim with equal
facility. The female collects her eggs, sometimes as many as
one hundred, into a heap, round which she coils herself, covering
them so that her head rests in the centre on the top. In this
position the snake remains without food throughout the whole
period of incubation, or rather keeping guard, for about two
months. (H. F. G.)
PYX (Gr. 7ruis, a box or chest), a term for various forms of
receptacle. In ecclesiastical usage it is the sacred vase or taber-
nacle in which the Host is reserved. In the English Mint the
pyx is the chest in which are placed one coin from every 15 Ib
of newly coined gold and one from every 60 Ib of newly coined
silver to await the " trial of the pyx " (seeMiNT). This chest was
formerly kept in the Chapel of the Pyx in Westminster Abbey.
Q QARAITES
705
the letter which immediately succeeds P in the
alphabet of Latin and the modern languages ol
western Europe. It represents the Koppa of the
earliest Greek alphabets surviving in that form
of the Ionic alphabet, which ultimately superseded
all others, merely as the numerical symbol for oo. In the
Phoenician alphabet a sibilant Zade (Tzaddi) stands between
(/ and p. Hence Q is the nineteenth letter in the Phoenician
alphabet, the eighteenth in the Greek numerical alphabet,
which alone 'contains it, the sixteenth (owing to the omission oi
6 and ) in the Latin, and (from the addition of J) the seventeenth
in the English alphabet. Its earliest form is a rough ellipse
transfixed by an upright line, 9. In various Semitic alphabets
this has been altered out of recognition, apparently from the
writing of the symbol in cursive handwriting without lifting the
pen. As a result forms like ^ f> ; [> ^ are developed. In Greece
the head of the symbol is generally circular, and only in a few
early inscriptions is the upright carried through the circle, 9.
The common form is 9 with the upright stem short. This is
also the earliest form in the Latin alphabet, but forms with the
upright turned to the right as in a modern Q are found in the
Republican period, while this tail becomes longer and curved in
the early Empire. The pronunciation of the Semitic Koph
(Qof) was that of a velar guttural produced agabst the back
part of the soft palate with great energy (hence called an
" emphatic " sound). In Greek there is no evidence that ?
was pronounced differently from K; hence no doubt its early
disappearance in most dialects. It survived longest when
followed by o or v, as at the beginning of the name of the town
of Corinth. In Latin it is regularly used in combination with u.
In classical Latin its use is confined to the cases where, as in
English quill, &c., the u is pronounced as w before a following
vowel, but .in old Latin it is found also in other combinations.
Many languages find the combination qu, when both sounds are
consonantal (qw), difficult; q being the deepest guttural while
(English w) is a lip sound, the points of production are nearly
as far separate as they can be. There is thus a tendency to
assimilation, and instead of a guttural followed by a labial
semi-vowel, a new labial consonant p is produced. In Greek
this is common when the combination is followed by the vowel
o, as in irco, TOI, &c., from the same stem as the Latin quo,
qui, &c. This, however, is not found in all dialects alike (see
GREEK LANGUAGE) . In other languages, like Oscan and Umbrian
which are closely akin to Latin, or the Welsh branch of the
Celtic languages, p occurs regularly without regard to the nature
of the vowel following. Thus, corresponding to the Latin
quattuor, we find the Oscan petora, the Gaulish pelor-ritum,
" four-wheeler," the Welsh pedwar, " four," &c., while the Irish
cethir, " four," corresponds more closely to the Latin. (P. Gi.)
QARAITES, or KARAITES, a Jewish sect of the middle ages,
claiming to be distinguished by adherence to Scripture as con-
trasted with oral tradition, whence the name (from nip qara,
to read, as if " readers," scriplurarii; sometimes also KTJJQ <
'' children of the Text " as read). They have frequently been
identified with the Sadducees or with the Samaritans, with
neither of whom have they any historical connexion or much
spiritual affinity. The schism arose at Bagdad about the
middle of the 8th century, when the hereditary claims of Anan,
a learned Talmudist, to the office of Resh Galutha were set aside
by the Gaonim (heads of rabbinical schools) at Sura and
Pumbeditha, because he was believed to undervalue the author-
ity of the Talmud. Anan, nevertheless, allowed himself to be
proclaimed Exilarch by his followers, a step construed into
treason by the Mahommedan government. He was sentenced
to death, but his life was saved by his fellow prisoner, Abu
Hanifa, the founder of the great school of Moslem theology and
jurisprudence. Ultimately he and his followers were permitted
to migrate to Palestine. They erected a synagogue in Jerusalem
XXH. 23
which continued to be maintained until the time of the Crusades.
From this centre the sect diffused itself thinly over Syria, spread
into Egypt, and ultimately reached S.E. Europe.
Anan, who is said to have died in A.D. 765, was the author of a
commentary on the Pentateuch and other works in Talmudic
Hebrew and Arabic. Most of these are lost, and we are thus
left chiefly dependent on the hostile indications of opponents.
His code was recovered in Egypt by the Qaraite Moses b.
Elijah Bashyazi (1544-1572). Fragments were published by
Harkavy (Voskhod 1807-1898). It is clear that Anan, although
theoretically antagonistic to rabbinic methods, was in the end
compelled to incline towards them. Considerable influence, too,
was exercised on his theology by Abu Hanifa. In general we
know that he showed great bitterness against the Talmud and
its upholders (the " Rabbanites ") for their modification of the
written law by arbitrary additions and subtractions, but there
is nothing to indicate that he himself had the insight or the
fervour by which he could have become the pioneer of a really
great reformation. The questions appear to have turned entirely
on points of minute detail. Several of them related to the
regulation of the calendar, the new moon, for example, being
fixed by the Qaraites by direct observation, not by astronomical
calculation, and the intercalary year also being determined
empirically; others related to paschal and pentecostal ritual,
such as the precise hour for killing the lamb or for burning its
remains. The differences which affected social We most deeply
were those relating to Sabbath observance and the forbidden
degrees of marriage, the Qaraites not recognizing any distinction
between relationships of consanguinity and those of affinity,
while in their zeal to avoid all risk of infringement of the sacred-
ness of the day of rest they prohibited the burning of any light at
all in their houses from sunset to sunset.
Of late years much Qaraite literature has been published.
The most valuable contribution to learning made by it is in the
direction of Hebrew philology and the natural exegesis of the
scriptural text. Little information as to the Qaraites can be
derived from their liturgies; they differ fundamentally from
those used by Rabbanites in being composed almost entirely of
scriptural versicles and in containing practically no Piyyutim
(liturgical poems). The controversies as to the rule of faith
which so deeply divided the Christian Church in the i6th century
gave to this obscure sect an illusory and passing importance,
the Catholics frequently hurling the epithet Karaei, in token
of contempt, at the Protestants, who in their turn willingly
accepted it as sufficiently descriptive of their attitude towards
Scripture. The Qaraites never have been numerous; in 1004
their total number was estimated at 12,000, 10,000 being
found in Russia: the present community in Jerusalem numbers
only a few families. They occur in Constantinople and else-
where in Turkey, and in Egypt, but are chiefly met with in
southern Russia, and especially in the Crimean districts of
Eupatoria, Theodosia and Sevastopol. Here their historical
capital and chief synagogue was formerly the " Jews' Castle "
( Tshufut-Kale) , near Bakh-chisarai. The place is now deserted ;
its cemetery was the seat of Firkowitsch's notorious forgeries
(inscriptions of ist century), by which he sought to establish
a fabulous antiquity for his sect. According to Strack (A.
Firkauritsch u. seine Enideckungen, 1876) the oldest tombstones
do not go back beyond the I4th century. The modern Qaraites
are generally well spoken of for their honesty, perseverance and
simple habits of life; they are gradually approximating to the
Rabbanites, with whom, in some places, they are on terms of
social intimacy. The Russian government exempts the Qaraites
From the restrictions to which the rest of the Jews are subject ;
:his circumstance is probably due to the insignificance of the
Qaraites numerically.
Among the older authorities may be mentioned Morinus, Exercit
Bibl. lib. ii. ex. 7 (1669) ; and Triglandius, Diatribe de Sccta Karaeorum
yo6
QARO QUADRILATERAL
(1703). See Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, especially in vol. v. (1806),
with the additions and corrections of Harkavy in the Hebrew
translation; and Ftirst, Gesch. des Karderthums (1865); S. Pinsker,
Ligqufe Qadmoniyyot: articles by A. Harkavy and by S. Poznanski
in the Jewish Quarterly Review (e.g. x. 238-276, and vols. xviii.-xx.).
See also Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. " Anan," " Karaites," &c.
(I. A.)
QARO (or CARO), JOSEPH BEN EPHRAIM (1488-1575),
codifier of Jewish law, whose code is still authoritative with the
mass of Jews, was born in 1488. As a child he shared in the
expulsion from Spain (1492), and like most prominent Jews of
the period was forced to migrate from place to place. In 1535
he settled in Safed, Palestine, where he spent the rest of his life.
Safed was then the headquarters of Jewish mysticism. Qaro
was himself a mystic, for the tribulations of the time turned
many men's minds towards Messianic hopes; nor was he by any
means the only great Jewish legalist who was also a mystic.
Mysticism in such minds did not take the form of a revolt against
authority, but was rather the spiritual flower of pietism than an
expression of antinomianism. It is, however, as a legalist that
Qaro is best known. In learning and critical power he was
second only to Maimonides in the realm of Jewish law. He
was the author of two great works, the second of which, though
inferior as an intellectual feat, has surpassed the first in popu-
larity. This was inevitable, for the earlier and greater book was
designed exclusively for specialists. It was in the form of a
commentary (entitled Beth Yoseph) on the Turim (see 'ASHER
BEN YEHIEL). In this commentary Qaro shows an astounding
mastery over the Talmud and the legalistic literature of the
middle ages. He felt called upon to systematize the laws and
customs of Judaism in face of the disintegration caused by the
expulsion. But the Beth Yoseph is by no means
's real aim was effected by his second work, the Shulhan
'Arukh (" Table Prepared "). Finished in 1555, this code was
published in four parts in 1565. The work was not accepted
without protest and criticism, but after the lapse of a century,
and in consequence of certain revisions and amplifications, it
became the almost unquestioned authority of the whole Jewish
world. Its influence was to some extent evil. It "put Judaism
into a strait-jacket." Independence of judgment was inhibited,
and the code stood in the way of progressive adaptation of
Jewish life to the life of Europe. It included trivialities by the
side of great principles, and retained elements from the past
which deserved to fall into oblivion. But its good effects far
outweighed the bad. It was a bond of union, a bar to latitudin-
arianism, an accessible guide to ritual, ethics and law. Above
all, it gave a new lease of life to the great theory which identified
life with religion. It sanctified the home, it dignified common
pursuits. When, however, the era of . reform dawned in the
i pth century, the new Judaism found itself impelled to assume
an attitude of hostility to Qaro's code.
See Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, vol. ix. (English trans, vol. iv.);
Ginzberg, in Jewish Encyclopedia, arts. " Caro " and " Codification " ;
Schechter, Studies in Judaism, second series, pp. 202 seq. (I. A.)
QUACK, one who pretends to knowledge of which he is
ignorant, a charlatan, particularly a medical impostor. The
word is a shortened form of " quacksalver " (Du. kwaksafaer) , in
which form it is common in the I7th century, "salver" meaning
" healer," while " quack " (Du. kwakken) is merely an applica-
tion of the onomatopoeic word applied to the sounds made by a
duck, i.e. gabble or gibberish. In English law, to call a medical
practitioner a " quack " is actionable per se without proof of
special damage (Allen v. Eaton (1630), i Roll. Abs. 54). The
often-quoted legal definition of a " quack " is " a boastful
pretender to medical skill," but a " quack " may have great
skill, and it is the claim to cure by remedies which he knows
have no efficacy which makes him a " quack " (see Dakhyl v.
Labotichere, The Times, 29th of July 1904, and 5th and 9th of
November 1907).
QUADRATRIX (from Lat. quadrator, squarer), in mathe-
matics, a curve having ordinates which are a measure of the area
(or quadrature) of another curve. The two most famous curves
FIG. i.
i\
M
of this class are those of Dinostratus and E. W. Tschirnhausen,
which are both related to the circle.
The quadratnx of Dinostratus was well known to the ancient
Greek geometers, and is mentioned by Proclus, who ascribes the
invention of the curve to a contemporary of Socrates, probably
Hippias of Elis. Dinostratus, a Greek geometer and disciple of
Plato, discussed the curve, and showed how it effected a mechanical
solution of squaring the circle. Pappus, in his Collections, treats
of its history, and gives two methods by which it can be generated,
(i) Let a spiral line be drawn on a right circular cylinder; a screw
surface is then obtained by drawing lines from every point of this
spiral perpendicular to its axis. The orthogonal projection of a
section of this surface by a plane containing one of the perpendiculars
and inclined to the axis is the quadratrix. (2) A right cylinder
having for its base an Archimedean spiral is intersected by a right
circular cone which has the generating line of the cylinder passing
through the initial point of the spiral for its axis. From every
point of the curve of intersection, perpendiculars are drawn to the
axis. Any plane section of the screw (plectoidal of Pappus) surface
so obtained is the quadratrix. Another construction is shown in
fig. i. ABC is a quadrant in which the line AB and the arc AC are
divided into the same number of equal parts. r
Radii are drawn from the centre of the quadrant
to the points of division of the arc, and these
radii are intersected by the lines drawn parallel to
BC and through the corresponding points on the
radius AB. The locus of these intersections is the
quadratrix. A mechanical construction is as
follows: Let AMP be a semicircle with centre O
(fig. 2). Let PQ be the ordinate of the point P
on the circle, and let M be another point on the
circle so related to P that the ordinate PQ moves from A to O in
the same time as the vector OM describes a quadrant. Then the
locus of the intersection of
PQ and OM is the quad- J
ratrix of Dinostratus. /;
The cartesian equation to
the curve is y= a; cot . which
shows that the curve is sym-
metrical about the axis of y,
and that it consists of a central
portion flanked by infinite FIG. 2.
branches (fig. 2). The asym-
ptotes are x = = fc 2rea, n being an integer. The intercept on the axis
of y is 2a/7r; therefore, if it were possible to accuratety construct
the curve, the quadrature of the circle would be effected. The
curve also permits the solution of the problems of duplicating a
cube (q.v.) and trisecting an angle.
The quadratrix of Tschirnhausen is constructed by dividing the
arc and radius of a quadrant in the same number
of equal parts as before. The mutual intersections
of the lines drawn from the points of division of the
arc parallel to AB, and the lines drawn parallel to
BC through the points of division of AB, are points
on the quadratrix (fig. 3). The cartesian equation is
y = a cos irx/2a. The curve is periodic, and cuts the
axis of x at the points * = (2n i)a, n being an
integer; the maximum values of y are 0. Its
properties are similar to those of the quadratrix
of Dinostratus.
QUADRATURE (from Lat. quadratura, a making square),
in astronomy, that aspect of a heavenly body in which it makes
a right angle with the direction of the sun; applied especially
to the apparent position of a planet, or of the moon at first and
last quarters. In mathematics, quadrature is the determination
of a square equal to the area of a curve or other figure.
QUADRIGA, the ancient four-horsed chariot (Lat. quadrigae,
contracted from quadrijugae), which was regarded as one of
the seven sacred features in Rome. It was chiefly used as the
triumphal car of generals or emperors. The earliest example
mentioned is that which was modelled in terra-cotta and raised
on the pediment of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. In later
time it formed the chief decorative feature which crowned the
triumphal arches, and there are numerous representations of it
on coins.
QUADRILATERAL, in geometry, a figure enclosed by four
straight lines. It is also a military term applied to a combina-
tion of four fortresses mutually supporting one another. The
fortresses of Namur, Liege, Maastricht, and Louvain, and also
those of Silistria, Rustchuk, Shumla, and Varna, were so called.
But the most famous quadrilateral was that of the four fortified
towns of north Italy Mantua, Peschiera, Verona, and Legnago,
FIG. 3.
QUADRILLE QUAESTOR
707
the two former of which are situated on the Mincio and the two
latter on the Adige. The real value of the quadrilateral, which
gave Austria such a firm hold on Lombardy, lay in the great
natural strength of Mantua and in the readiness with which
troops and supplies could be poured into Verona from the north.
QUADRILLE, the name of a game of cards and of a dance.
The game, played by four persons with a pack of forty cards,
was a variation of the Spanish game of ombre (q.v.) and super-
seded it in popularity about 1725, to give way in turn to whist.
The dance is of French origin and is usually danced by four
couples in square. In the i8th century the contredanse was
introduced into the ballet, and groups of four, eight or twelve
dancers dressed alike performed different figures; these were
first called quadrilles des contredanses, later shortened to quadrilles.
The dance became popular outside the ballet, and its figures, five
in number, with a finale, bore the names of the different contre-
danses, Le Pantalon, rj,t, La Pottle, La Trtnitz, La Pastourelle.
The dance was introduced into England in 1815. The word in
both its applications comes through Ital. quadriglio or Span.
cuadrilla from Lat. quadra, a square, four-sided figure (quattuor,
four).
QUADROON (a corruption of quarteroon, Span, cuarleron,
from cuarto, Lat. quartus, fourth), strictly a person having one-
fourth negro blood, the offspring of a mulatto and a white. The
children of a mulatto and a negro are called in America zambos
or sambos (possibly from Span, zambro, Lat. scambus, bow-
legged), and the use of Sambo as a proper name for a black
servant may have thus originated.
QUAESTOR (from Lat. quaero, investigate), a Roman
magistrate whose functions, at least in the later times of the
republic, were mainly financial,, though he was originally con-
cerned chiefly with criminal jurisdiction. The origin of the
quaestorship is obscure, but it was probably instituted simul-
taneously with the consulship in 509 B.C. l The number of the
quaestors was originally two, but this was successively increased
to four (in 421 B.C.), eight (in 267 or 241 B.C.), and by Sulla (in
8 1 B.C.) to twenty. Julius Caesar raised the number to forty
(in 45 B.C.), but Augustus reduced it again to twenty, which
remained the regular number under the empire. The original
quaestors were afterwards distinguished by the title of urban
quaestors (quaeslores urbani). When the number was raised
from two to four in 421 B.C. the office was thrown open to the
plebeians. It was the lowest of the great offices of state and
hence it was regularly the first sought by aspirants to a political
career (cursits honorum). Towards the close of the republic, if
not earlier, the successful candidate was bound to have com-
pleted his thirtieth year before he entered on office, but Augustus
lowered the age to twenty-five. Originally the quaestors seem
to have been nominated by the consuls, but later, perhaps from
the fall of the decemvirs (449 B.C.), they were elected by the
people assembled in tribes (comitia tributa) under the presidency
of a consul or another of the higher magistrates. The quaestors
held office for one year, but, like the consuls and praetors, they
were often continued in office with the title of proquaestor.
Indeed it was a rule that the quaestor attached to a higher
magistrate should hold office as long as his superior; hence,
when a consul regularly presided over the city for one year, and
afterwards as proconsul governed a province for another year,
his quaestor also regularly held office for two years. Before
the election of the quaestors the senate decided the duties to
be undertaken by them, and after election these duties were
distributed amongst the new quaestors either by lot or by the
choice of the higher magistrates to whom quaestors were assigned.
A peculiar burden laid on the quaestors, not as an official duty,
but rather as a sort of fee exacted from all who entered on the
political career, was the paving of the high roads, for which
Claudius substituted the exhibition of gladiatorial games.
1 Plutarch (Popl. 12) states that the office was instituted by the
first consul. Tacitus, on the other hand (Ann. xi. 22), says that
it dated from the time of the kings, but his ground is merely that
they were mentioned in the Lex Curtate of the consul Brutus, which
Tacitus assumes to have been identical with that of the kings.
Various classes of quaestors may be distinguished according to
the duties they had respectively to discharge.
1. The Urban Quaestors. Originally the duties of the quaestors,
like those of the consuls, were undefined; the consuls were the
superior magistrates of the republic, the quaestors their assistants.
From a very early time, however, the quaestors possessed criminal
jurisdiction. In the code of the Twelve Tables they are designated
quaestores parricidii, "inquisitors of parricide or murder"; 1 and
perhaps originally this was their full title, which was afterwards
abbreviated into quaestors when their functions as criminal judges
fell into the background. In addition to parricide or murder we
can hardly doubt that all other crimes fell within the jurisdiction
of the quaestors; political crimes only seem to have been excepted.
The criminal jurisdiction of the quaestors appears only to have
terminated when towards the close of the republic trial by permanent
courts (quaestiones perpetual) was extended to criminal cases.*
The quaestors had also charge of the public treasury (aerarium)
in the temple of Saturn, and this was in the later times of the
republic their most important function. They kept the keys of the
treasury and had charge of its contents, including not only coin
and bullion but also the military standards and a large number of
public documents, which in later times comprised ah the laws as
well as the decrees of the senate. Their functions as keepers of the
treasury were withdrawn from the urban quaestors by Augustus
and transferred to other magistrates, but the office itself continued
to exist into the 3rd century, though as to the nature of the duties
attached to it we have little or no information.
2. The Military Quaestors. These were instituted in 421 B.C.,
when two new quaestors were added to the original two. They
never had a distinctive appellation like that of the urban quaestors,
from whom however, they were clearly distinguished by the fact
that, wnije the urban quaestors did not stand in a special relation
of subordination to any particular magistrate, a non-urban quaestor
was regularly assigned as an indispensable assistant or adjutant to
every general in command, whose name or title the quaestor usually
added to his own. 4 Originally they were the adjutants of the
consuls only, afterwards of the provincial praetors, and still
of the proconsuls and propraetors. The dictator alone (AHA
military commanders had no quaestor, because a quaestor^
have been a limitation to his powers. The governor of Sicily had
two quaestors; all other governors and commanders had but one.
Between the quaestor and his superior a close personal relation,
analogous to that between a son and his father, existed, and was
not severed when their official connexion ceased. Not till the close
of the republic do cases occur of a quaestor being sent to a province
invested with praetorial and even consular powers; in one case at
least the quaestor so sent had a second quaestor placed under him.
The duties of the military quaestor, like those of the treasury
quaestor, were primarily financial. Moneys due to a provincial
governor from the state treasury were often, perhaps regularly,
received and disbursed by the quaestor; the magazines seem to
have been under his charge; he coined money, on which not un-
frequently his name appears alone. The booty taken in wa? was
not necessarily under the control of the quaestor, but was dealt
with, especially in later times, by inferior officers called fraefecti
fabrum. But, though his duties were primarily financial, the
quaestor was after all the chief assistant or adjutant of his superior
in command, and as such he was invested with a certain degree of
military power; under the republic his military rank was superior
to that of the legates, though under the empire this relation was
reversed. When the general left his province before the arrival of
his successor he usually committed it to the care of his quaestor,
and, if he died or was incapacitated from naming his successor, the
quaestor acted as his representative. Unlike the urban quaestor,
the military quaestor possessed not a criminal but a civil jurisdic-
tion corresponding to that of the aediles at Rome.
3. The Italian Quaestors. The subjugation of Italy occasioned
the institution (in 267 B.C.) of four new quaestors, who appear to
have been called quaestores classici because they were originally
intended to superintend the building of the fleet (classis); their
functions, however, are very imperfectly known. Though no doubt
intended to assist the consuls, they were not subordinated (like the
military quaestors) to a special consul. They were stationed at
Ostia, at Cales in Campania, and in Gaul about the Padus (Po).
The station of the fourth is not mentioned; perhaps it was Lily-
baeum in Sicily.
* The etymology and original meaning of parricidium are doubtful.
In the latter part of the word we have, of course, the same root as in
caedere, " to kill," but whether or not the former part is from pater,
" a father," or from the same root that we have in per-peram,
per-jurium, is a moot point. Mommsen takes the latter view.
It is often supposed that the quaestores parricidii were an old
magistracy quite distinct from the ordinary quaestors. For the
identification of the two, see Mommsen, Romisckes Staatsrecht, ii.
pt. I, p. 506.
4 Thus Cicero speaks of the provincia consularis of the quaestor,
and we find quaestor Cn. Pompei, &c.
yo8
QUAGGA QUAIL
LITERATURE. For a fuller treatment of all these points see Momm-
sen, Staatsrecht, ii. p. 523 foil. ; for the existence of the quaestor-
ship under the monarchy, and a different view of the second station
of the Italian quaestors, see A. H. J. Greenidge, Roman Public Life,
pp. 63, 215.
QUAGGA, or COUAGGA, an animal of the genus Equus (see
HORSE), nearly allied to Burchell's zebra, formerly met with in
vast herds on the great plains of South Africa between the Cape
Colony and the Vaal river, but now completely extinct. Gener-
ally speaking, the colour of the head, neck, and upper-parts
of the body was reddish-brown, irregularly banded and marked
with dark brown stripes, stronger on the head and neck and
gradually becoming fainter until lost behind the shoulder. There
is a broad dark median dorsal stripe. The under surface of the
body, the legs, and tail are nearly white, without stripes. The
crest is very high, surmounted by a standing mane, banded
The Quagga (Equus quagga).
alternately brown and white. It is, however, not improbable
that there were two or more local races, for which separate
names have been proposed. Though never really domesticated,
quaggas have occasionally been trained to harness. The
accompanying illustration is reduced from a painting made from
one of two which were driven in Hyde Park by Mr. Sheriff
Parkins in the early part of the igth century. The name is an
imitation of the shrill barking neigh of the animal, " oug-ga,
oug-ga," the last syllable very much prolonged; it is also
commonly applied to the bonnte-quagga, or Burchell's zebra
(see HORSE and ZEBRA).
QUAGMIRE, a bog or marsh, a piece of ground so saturated
with water that it cannot support any weight. The word is
composed of " quag " or " quake " (O.E. cwacian; cf. " quaver,"
" quiver ") and " mire, "mud (Icel. myri, Swed. myr).
Skeat suggests that quag may be connected with the root seen
in " quick," and quotes (Etym. Diet. 1898) Piers Plowman, c. xxi.
64, of an earthquake, the earth " quook as it quyke were," i.e.
shook as if it were alive.
QUAICH, or QUAIGH, a form of Scottish drinking vessel.
The word is an adaptation of the Gaelic cuach, cup, bowl; cf.
Welsh cawg, and is usually referred to the Gr. KO.VKOS, KaOxa,
through Lat. caucus. In the i8th century it is sometimes
spelled " quaff," and a connexion has been suggested with
" quaff," to drink with a large or at a single draught; the
New English Dictionary, however, considers this doubtful. The
" quaich " was doubtless inspired by the low silver bowls with
two flat handles, frequently used as bleeding vessels in England
and Holland in the tyth century. The earliest quaichs were
made of a solid block of wood, or of small staves of wood, often
of different colours, supported by hoops, like barrels. They
are generally fitted with two, and, more rarely, three short pro-
jecting handles. In addition to wood, they are made of stone,
brass, pewter, horn, and of silver. The latter were often engraved
with lines and bands in imitation of the staves and hoops of the
wooden quaichs. The origin of these vessels in Scotland is
traced to the Highlands; it was not until the end of the
century that they became popular in such large centres as
Edinburgh and Glasgow. The silversmiths of such local gilds
as Inverness and Perth frequently mounted them in silver, as
may be seen from the hall-marks on the existing examples.
They are found, of silver and pewter, in use as communion cups
in various parts of Scotland; four, with the Edinburgh hall-
mark for 1722, belong to Ayr parish church; and a large one
with the same hall-mark for 1663-1684 is used as an alms-dish
at Alvah, Banffshire. The loving cup at Donaldson's hospital,
Edinburgh, is a large silver quaich, with the Edinburgh stamp
for 1724, which belonged to the founder of that hospital. The
finest collection of these vessels is in the possession of the
marquess of Breadalbane. (E. A. J.)
QUAIL (O. Fr.Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat.
Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwarlel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel},
a well-known bird throughout almost all countries of Europe,
Asia and Africa in modern ornithology the Coturnix communis
or C. dactylisonans. This last epithet was given from the peculiar
three-syllabled call-note of the cock, which has been grotesquely
rendered in several European languages, and in some parts of
Great Britain the species is popularly known by the nickname
of " wet-my-lips " or " wet-my-feet." The quail varies some-
what in colour, and the variation is rather individual than
attributable to local causes; but generally the plumage may be
described as reddish-brown above, almost each feather being
transversely patched with dark brown interrupted by a longi-
tudinal stripe of light buff; the head is dark brown above,
with three longitudinal streaks of ochreous- white; the sides
of the breast and flanks are reddish-brown, distinctly striped
with ochreous- white; the rest of the lower parts are pale buff,
clouded with a darker shade, and passing into white on the
belly. The cock, besides being generally brighter in tint, not
unfrequently has the chin and a double-throat band of reddish
or blackish-brown, which marks are wanting in the hen, whose
breast is usually spotted. Quails breed on the ground, and lay
from nine to fifteen eggs of a yellowish-white, blotched and
spotted with dark brown. Though essentially migratory by
nature, not a few quails pass the winter in the northern hemi-
sphere and even in Britain, and many more in southern Europe.
In March and April they cross the Mediterranean from the south
on the way to their breeding homes in large bands, but these
are said to be as nothing compared with the enormous flights
that emigrate from Europe towards the end of September.
During both migrations immense numbers are netted for the
market, since they are almost universally esteemed as delicate
meat. The flesh of quails caught in spring commonly proves
dry and indifferent, but that of those taken in autumn, especially
when they have been kept long enough to grow fat, as they
quickly do, is excellent. In no part of the British islands at
present do quails exist in sufficient numbers to be the especial
object of sport. In old days they were taken in England in
a net, attracted thereto by means of a quail-call a simple
instrument, 1 the use of which is now wholly neglected on
which their notes are easily imitated. In South Africa and
India allied species, C. delegorguii and C. coromanddica, the
latter known as the Rain-Quail, respectively occur, as well as the
commoner one, which in Australia and Tasmania is wholly
replaced by C. pectoralis, the Stubble-Quail of the colonists.
In New Zealand another species, C. novae-zelandiae, was formerly
very abundant in some districts. Some fifteen or perhaps more
species of quails, inhabiting the Indian and Australian regions,
have been separated, perhaps unnecessarily, to form the genera
Synoecus, Perdicula, Excalphatoria, and so forth.
America has some fifty or sixty species of birds which are
commonly deemed quails, though by some authors placed in
a distinct family or sub-family Odontophorinae. 2 The best
1 One is figured in Rowley's Ornithological Miscellany (ii. p. 363).
2 They form the subject of a monograph in folio by J. Gould,
published between 1844 and 1850. See also S. D. Judd, Bulletin
21 of U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (1905); D. G. Elliot, Came Birds
of North America (1897).
QUAIN, SIR R. QUARANTINE
known is the Virginian Quail, or Colin, as it is sometimes called
that being, according to Hernandez, its old Mexican name. It
is the Ortyx (or Colinus) virginianus of modern ornithology, and
has a wide distribution in North America, being called "part-
ridge" in the Southern states, and elsewhere being known by
the nickname of " Bob-White," aptly bestowed upon it from a
call-note of the cock. Many unsuccessful attempts have been
made to introduce this bird to England (as indeed similar trials
have been made in the United States with quails from Europe).
The beautiful tufted Quail of California, Lophorlyx californica,
has also been tried at large in Europe without success; but it
is well established as an aviary bird. A few of the American
Quails or Colins rpost in trees.
Interesting from many points of view as is the group of birds
last mentioned, there is another which, containing a score of
species (or perhaps more) often termed Quails or Button-Quails,
is of still greater importance in the eyes of the systematise
This is that comprehended by the genus Turnix, or Hemipodius
of some authors, the anatomical structure of which removes it
far from the genera Colurnix, Ortyx, and their allies, and even
from any of the normal Gallinae. T. H. Huxley regarded it as
the representative of a generalized stock from which the
Charadriomorphae and Alectoromorphae, to say nothing of other
groups, have sprung. The button-quails are now placed as a
separate sub-order, Turnices, of the order Galliformes (see
BIRD). One species, T. syhalica, inhabits Barbary and
southern Spain, and under the name of Andalucian Hemipode
has been included (though on evidence not wholly satisfactory)
among British birds as a reputed straggler. The rest are natives
of various parts of the Ethiopian, Indian and Australian
regions. It is characteristic of the genus Turnix to want the
hind toe; but the African Ortyxelus and the Australian Pedio-
nomus, which have been referred to its neighbourhood, have four
toes on each foot. (A. N.)
QUAIN, SIR RICHARD, BART. (1816-1898), Irish physician,
was born at Mallow-on-the-Blackwater, Co. Cork, on the 3Oth of
October 1816. He received his early education at Cloyne, and
was then apprenticed to a surgeon-apothecary in Limerick. In
1837 he entered University College, London, where he graduated
with high honours as M.B. in 1840, and as M.D. (gold medal) in
1842. Six years later he was chosen an assistant-physician to
the Brompton Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, and with that
institution he retained his connexion until his death, first as full
(1855) and subsequently as consulting physician (1875). He
became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1851, and
filled almost every post of honour it could offer except the
presidency, in the contest for which he was beaten by Sir Andrew
Clark in 1888. He became physician-extraordinary to Queen
Victoria in 1890, and was created a baronet in the following
year. He died in London on the i3th of March 1898. Quain,
who was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1871, was the
author of several memoirs, dealing for the most part with
disorders of the heart, but his name will be best remembered by
the Dictionary of Medicine, the preparation of which occupied
him from 1875 to 1882 (2nd edition, 1894; 3rd, 1902). He sat
on the Royal Commission on Rinderpest (cattle plague) in 1865.
He was a cousin of Jones Quain (1796-1865), the author of
Quain's Elements of Anatomy, and of Richard Quain (1800-1887),
who was president of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1868, and
kft 75,00 to University College; London, with which the
Quain professorships of botany, English language and literature,
law. and physics were endowed. A half-brother of the last two,
Sir John Richard Quain (1816-1876), was appointed a judge of
the Queen's Bench in 1871.
QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably
influenced by association with Lat. comptus, neat), an adjective
meaning unusual or fanciful, often applied to things with a
sense of old-fashioned charm or prettiness. " Queer," which
has much the same meaning, is of doubtful etymology, but is
generally taken as adapted from Ger. quer, crooked.
QUAKERS, originally a cant name applied in derision to
the members of the Society of Friends, but now used without any
709
contemptuous significance. It was said to have originated in
the saying of Justice Bennet at Derby in 1650, " Tremble (or
quake) at the word of the Lord," but it is now certain that it
was used as early as 1647, and arose from the physical mani-
festations of religious emotion characteristic of many of the early
Friends. (See FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF.)
QUANTUM MERUIT (Lat. for "as much as he has de-
served "), in the law of contract, originally a form of action on
the case, grounded on a promise to pay the plaintiff for work
done as much as it was worth. It has been abolished as a special
form of action, but the term is still in use where, in cases of
special contract, there has been a breach amounting to a dis-
charge by one party before the other party has done all that he
was bound to do. In such a case the plaintiff sues for a quantum
meruit or the value of so much as he has done.
QUARANTINE (Fr. quarantaine, a period of forty days '),
a term originally applied to the old sanitary preventive system
of detention of ships and men, unlading of cargo in lazarets,
fumigation of susceptible articles, &c., which was practised
at seaports on account of the plague, in connexion with the
Levantine trade. It is now a thing of the past in the United
Kingdom and in the majority of other states. But, in common
usage, the same word is applied to the sanitary rules and regula-
tions which are the modern substitutes for quarantine.
The plague was the only disease for which quarantine was
practised (not to mention the earlier isolation of lepers, and the
attempts to check the invasion of syphilis in northern Europe
about 1490) down to the advent of yellow fever in Spain at the
beginning of the igth century, and the arrival of Asiatic cholera
in 1831. Venice took the lead in measures to check the spread
of plague, having appointed three guardians of the public health
in the first years of the Black Death (1348). The next record
of preventive measures comes from Reggio in Modena in 1374.
The first lazaret was founded by Venice in 1403, on a small
island adjoining the city; in 1467 Genoa followed the example
of Venice; and in 1476 the old leper hospital of Marseilles was
converted into a plague hospital the great lazaret of that city,
perhaps the most complete of its kind, having been founded
in 1526 on the island of Pomegue. The practice at all the
Mediterranean lazarets was not different from the English
procedure in the Levantine and North-African trade. On the
approach of cholera in 1831 some new lazarets were set up at
western ports, notably a very extensive establishment near
Bordeaux, afterwards turned to another use.
The plague had disappeared from England, never to return,
for more than thirty years before the practice of quarantine
against it was definitely established by an act of Parliament of
Queen Anne's reign (1710). The first act was called for, owing
to an alarm lest plague should be imported from Poland and the
Baltic; the second act of 1721 was due to the disastrous pre-
valence of plague at Marseilles and other places in Provence; it
was renewed in 1733 owing to a fresh outbreak of the malady on
the continent of Europe, and again in 1 743 owing to the disast rous
epidemic at Messina. In 1752 a rigorous quarantine clause was
introduced into an act regulating the Levantine trade; and
various arbitrary orders were issued during the next twenty
years to meet the supposed danger of infection from the Baltic.
Although no plague cases ever came to England all those years,
the restrictions on traffic became more amd more stringent
(following the movements of medical dogma), and in 1788 a very
oppressive Quarantine Act was passed, with provisions affecting
cargoes in particular. The first year of the igth century marked
the turning-point in quarantine legislation; a parliamentary
committee sat on the practice, and a more reasonable act arose
on their report. In 1805 there was another new act, and in
1823-24 again an elaborate inquiry followed by an act making
the quarantine only at discretion of the privy council, and at
the same time recognizing yellow fever " or other highly
infectious disorder " as calling for quarantine measures along
* The strict sense of the term is also preserved in the " widows'
quarantine," the right of a widow to remain in the principal house
belonging to her husband for forty days after his death.
710
QUARANTINE
with plague. The steady approach of cholera in 1831 was the
last occasion in England of a thoroughgoing resort to quarantine
restrictions. The pestilence invaded every country of Europe
despite all efforts to keep it out. In England the experiment
of hermetically sealing the ports was not seriously tried when
cholera returned in 1849, 1853 and 1865-66. In 1847 the privy
council ordered all arrivals with clean bills from the Black Sea
and the Levant to be admitted to free pratique, provided there
had been no case of plague during the voyage; and therewith
the last remnant of the once formidable quarantine practice
against plague may be said to have disappeared.
For a number of years after the passing of the first Quarantine
Act (1710) the protective practices in England were of the most
haphazard and arbitrary kind. In 1721 two vessels laden with
cotton goods, &c., from Cyprus, then a seat of plague, were
ordered to be burned with their cargoes, the owners receiving
2 3>935 as indemnity. By the clause in the Levant Trade Act
of 1752 vessels for the United Kingdom with a foul bill (i.e.
coming from a country where plague existed) had to repair to
the lazarets of Malta, Venice, Messina, Leghorn, Genoa or
Marseilles, to perform their quarantine or to have their cargoes
" sufficiently opened and aired." Since 1741 Stangate Creek
(on the Medway) had been made the quarantine station at
home; but it would appear from the above clause that it was
available only for vessels with clean bills. In 1755 lazarets in
the form of floating hulks were established in England for the
first time, the cleansing of cargo (particularly by exposure to
dews) having been done previously on the ship's deck. There
was no medical inspection employed, but the whole routine left
to the officers of customs and quarantine. In 1780, when plague
was in Poland, even vessels with grain from the Baltic had to lie
forty days in quarantine, and unpack and air the sacks; but
owing to remonstrances, which came chiefly from Edinburgh
and Leith, grain was from that date declared to be a " non-
susceptible article." About 1788 an order of council required
every ship liable to quarantine, in case of meeting any vessel
at sea, or within four leagues of the coast of Great Britain or
Ireland, to hoist a yellow flag in the daytime and show a light
at the maintopmast head at night, under a penalty of 200.
After 1800, ships from plague-countries (or with foul bills) were
enabled to perform their quarantine on arrival in the Medway
instead of taking a Mediterranean port on the way for that
purpose; and about the same time an extensive lazaret was
built on Chetney Hill near Chatham at an expense of 170,000,
which was almost at once condemned owing to its marshy
foundations, and the materials sold for 15,000. The use of
floating hulks as lazarets continued as before. In 1800 two
ships with hides from Mogador (Morocco) were ordered to be
sunk with their cargoes at the Nore, the owners receiving i 5,000.
About this period it was merchandise that was chiefly suspected :
there was a long schedule of " susceptible articles," and these
were first exposed on the ship's deck for twenty-one days or
less (six days for each instalment of the cargo), and then trans-
ported to the lazaret, where they were opened and aired forty
days more. The whole detention of the vessel was from sixty to
sixty-five days, including the time for reshipment of her cargo.
Pilots had to pass fifteen days on board a " convalescent ship."
The expenses may be estimated from one or two examples. . In
1820 the " Asia," 763 tons, arrived in the Medway with a foul bill
from Alexandria, laden with linseed; her freight was 1475
and her quarantine dues 610. The same year the " Pilato,"
495 tons, making the same voyage, paid 200 quarantine dues
on a freight of 1060. In 1823 the expenses of the quarantine
service (at various ports) were 26,090, and the dues paid by
shipping (nearly all with clean bills) 22,000. A return for the
United Kingdom and colonies in 1849 showed, among other
details, that the expenses of the lazaret at Malta for ten years
from 1839 to 1848 had been 53,553. From 1846 onwards the
establishments in the United Kingdom were gradually reduced,
while the last vestige of the British quarantine law was removed
by the Public Health Act 1896, which repealed the Quarantine
Act 1825 (with dependent clauses of other acts), and transferred
from the privy council to the Local Government Board the
powers to deal with ships arriving infected with yellow fever or
plague, the powers to deal with cholera ships having been
already transferred by the Public Health Act of 1875.
The existing British regulations are those of 9th November 1896;
they apply to yellow fever, plague and cholera. Officers of the
Customs, as well as of Coast Guard and Board of Trade (for signalling) ,
are empowered to take the initial steps. They certify in writing
the master of a supposed infected ship, and detain the vessel pro-
visionally for not more than twelve hours, giving notice meanwhile
to the port sanitary authority. The medical officer of the port
boards the ship and examines every person in it. Every person
found infected is certified of the fact, removed to a hospital pro-
vided (if his condition allow), and kept under the orders of the
medical officer. If the sick cannot be removed,, the vessel remains
under his orders. Every person suspected (owing to his or her
immediate attendance on the sick) may be detained on board
forty-eight hours, or removed to the hospital for a like period.
All others are free to land on giving the addresses of their destina-
tions to be sent to the respective local authorities, so that the
dispersed passengers and crew may be kept individually under
observation for a few days. The ship is disinfected, dead bodies
buried at sea, infected clothing, bedding, &c., destroyed or disinfected,
and bilge-water and water-ballast (subject to exceptions) pumped
out at a suitable distance before the ship enters a dock or basin.
Mails are subject to no detention. A stricken ship within 3 miles
of the shore must fly at the main a yellow and black flag borne
quarterly from sunrise to sunset.
International Conventions. Since 1852 several conferences
have been held between delegates of the Powers, with a view to
uniform action in keeping out infection from the East and pre-
venting its spread within Europe; all but that of 1897 were
occupied with cholera. No result came of those at Paris 1852,
Constantinople 1866, Vienna 1874, and Rome 1885, but each of
the subsequent ones has been followed by an international
convention on the part of nearly one-half of the Powers repre-
sented. The general effect has been an abandonment of the
high quarantine doctrine of " constructive infection " of a ship
as coming from a scheduled port, and an approximation to the
principles advocated by Great Britain for many years. The
principal States which retain the old system are Spain, Portugal,
Turkey, Greece and Russia (the British possessions Gibraltar,
Malta and Cyprus being under the same influence). The aim
of each international sanitary convention has been to bind the
Powers to a uniform minimum of preventive action, with further
restrictions permissible to individual States. The minimum is
now very nearly the same as the British practice, which has been
in turn adapted to continental opinion in the matter of the
importation of rags.
The Venice convention of 1892 was on cholera by the Suez Canal
route; that of Dresden, 1893, on cholera within European countries;
that of Paris, 1894, on cholera by the pilgrim traffic; and that of
Venice, in 1897, was in connexion with the outbreak of plague in
the East, and the conference met to settle on an international basis
the steps to be taken to prevent, if possible, its spread into Europe.
One of the first points to be dealt with in 1897 was to settle the
incubation period for this disease, and the period to be adopted
for administrative purposes. It was admitted that the incubation
period was, as a rule, a comparatively short one, namely, of some
three or four days. After much discussion ten days was accepted
by a very large majority. The principle of notification was
unanimously adopted. Each Government is to notify to other
Governments the existence of plague within their several jurisdic-
tions, and at the same time state the measures of prevention which
are being carried out to prevent its diffusion. The area deemed to
be infected is limited to the actual district or village where the
disease prevails, and no locality is deemed to be infected merely
because of the importation into it of a few cases of plague while
there has been no diffusion of the malady. As regards the precau-
tions to be taken on land frontiers, it was decided that during the
prevalence of plague every country had the inherent right to close
its land frontiers against traffic. As regards the Red Sea, it was
decided after discussion that a healthy vessel may pass through
the Suez Canal, and continue its voyage in the Mediterranean during
the period of incubation of the disease the prevention of which is
in question. It was also agreed that vessels passing through the
Canal in quarantine might, subject to the use of the electric light,
coal in quarantine at Port Said by night as well as by day, and that
passengers might embark in quarantine at that_ port. Infected
vessels, if these carry a doctor and are provided with a disinfecting
stove, have a right to navigate the Canal in quarantine, subject
only to the landing of those who are suffering from plague, and of
QUARE IMPEDIT QUARLES
711
such persons as have been in actual contact with the sick or with
infected articles, together with the disinfection of the infected
compartment of the vessel. Passing on to the conclusions di'aling
with regulations to be imposed " in Europe," the following are the
chief points to be noted: As regards measures to be adopted at
ports of arrival, the conclusions of the Dresden convention were
as far as practicable adhered to. In the case of healthy vessels,
i.e. those on board of which there is no illness, though they have
sailed from an infected port, it was decided that they should at
once have free pratique, but at the option of the local authority
certain measures of disinfection of soiled articles may be required.
For suspected vessels, viz. those on board of which there has been
plague, but no fresh case within twelve days, some limited processes
of disinfection, &c., as denned, having been complied with, it is
recommended that the crew and passengers should be subject to
surveillance for a period of ten days from the date of the arrival of
the vessel. In the case of infected' vessels, viz. those on which
pl.iicue is actually present, or on which that disease has occurred
ten days before arrival, the sick are to be landed and isolated, and
the remainder of those on board are to be subjected, at the discretion
of the local authority, to " observation " or " surveillance " for a
period not exceeding ten days from the date of the occurrence of
the hist case of plague. In this convention the terms " observation "
and "surveillance" are for the first time clearly denned; the
definition as to the latter stating that under that system passengers
are not to be isolated, but are to be allowed at once to proceed to
their homes, where they can remain under medical supervision so
long as may be deemed necessary by the local authority. The
results of this conference indicated a great advance on the part of
the nationalities represented towards a liberal and truly scientific
conception of the means to be adopted by their respective Govern-
nifius for the prevention and control of infective diseases.
LITERATURE. A quarantine committee of the Social Science
Association collected, in 1860-61, valuable consular returns on the
Eractice of quarantine in all parts of the world; these were edited
y Milroy and ordered to be printed (with the report and summary)
as three parliamentary papers communicated to the board of trade.
The third paper (6th August 1861, No. 544) contains, in an appendix,
an Historical Sketch of Quarantine Legislation and Practice in Great
Britain, by Dr Milroy. Russell's Treatise of the Plague (410, London,
1791) contains " remarks on quarantines, lazarettoes, &c.," and an
account of the mode of " shutting up " practised by households in
Aleppo on the outbreak of plague in the town. The inexpediency
of quarantine in the United Kingdom is discussed by John Simon
in the eighth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council for
1865, p. 35, and also in Report (Medical) of Local Government Board,
xxiv. 1892-93.
QUARE IMPEDIT, in English law, a form of action by which
the right of presentation to a benefice is tried. It is so called
from the words of the writ formerly in use, which directed the
sheriff to command the person disturbing the possession to
permit the plaintiff to present a fit person, or to show cause
" why he hinders " the plaintiff in his right. The action was
one of the few real actions preserved by the Real Property
Limitation Act 1833, and survived up to 1860. The effect of
the Common Law Procedure Act 1860, 26, was to assimilate
proceedings in quart impedit as far as possible to those in an
ordinary action. It is now usually brought against a bishop to
try the legality of his refusal to institute a particular clerk.
The bishop must fully state upon the pleadings the grounds on
which he refuses. Quare impedit is peculiarly the remedy of
the patron; the remedy of the clerk is the proceeding called
duplex querela in the ecclesiastical court. The action is not
barred till the expiration of sixty years, or of three successive
incumbencies adverse to the plaintiff's right, whichever period
be the longer (Real Property Limitation Act, 1833, 29).
Where the patron of a benefice is a Roman Catholic, one of the
universities presents in his place (1689, i Will. & Mary, sess. i,
c. 29). By 13 Anne c. 13 (1714), during the pendency of a quare
impedit to which either of the universities is a party in right of
the patron being a Roman Catholic, the court has power to
administer an oath for the discovery of any secret trust, and to
order the cestui que trust to repeat and subscribe a declaration
against transubstantiation. In Scotland the effect of a quare
impedit is attained by action of declarator. In the United
States, owing to the difference of ecclesiastical organization, the
action is unknown.
QUARITCH, BERNARD (1819-1899), English bookseller
and collector, was born at Worbis, Germany, on the 23rd of
April 1819. After being apprenticed to a bookseller, he went to
London in 1842, and was employed by Bohn the publisher. In
1847 he started a bookseller's business off Leicester Square,
becoming naturalized as a British subject. In 1848 he started
to issue a monthly Catalogue of Foreign and English Books.
About 1858 he began to purchase rare books, one of the earliest
of such purchases being a copy of the Mazarine Bible, and within
a period of forty years he possessed six separate copies of this
rare and valuable edition. In 1860 he removed to Piccadilly.
In 1873 he published the Bibliolheca Xylographica, Typographica
et Palaeographica, a remarkable catalogue of early productions
of the printing press of all countries. He became a regular
buyer at all the principal book-sales of Europe and America,
and from time to time published a variety of other catalogues
of old books. Amongst these may be mentioned the Supple-
mental Catalogue (1877), and in 1880 an immense catalogue of
considerably over 2000 pages. The last complete catalogue of
his stock was published in 1887-88 under the title General
Catalogue of Old Books and Manuscripts, in seven volumes,
increased with subsequent supplements to twelve. All these
catalogues are of considerable bibliographical value. By this
time Quaritch had developed the largest trade in old books in
the world. Among the books that he published was Fitz-
Gerald's Omar Khayyam, and he was the agent for the pub-
lications of the British Museum and the Society of Antiquaries.
He died at Hampstead on the I7th of December 1809, leaving his
business to his son.
QUARLES, FRANCIS (1592-1644), English poet, was born
at Romford, Essex, and baptized there on the 8th of May 1592.
His father, James Quarles, held several places under Elizabeth,
and traced his ancestry to a family settled in England before the
Conquest. He was entered at Christ's College, Cambridge, in
1608, and subsequently at Lincoln's Inn. He was made cup-
bearer to the Princess Elizabeth, Electress Palatine, in 1613,
remaining abroad for some years; and before 1629 he was
appointed secretary to Ussher, the primate of Ireland. About
1633 he returned to England, and spent the next two years in
the preparation of his Emblems. In 1639 he was made city
chronologer, a post in which Ben Jonson and Thomas Middleton
had preceded him. At the outbreak of the Civil War he took the
Royalist side, drawing up three pamphlets in 1644 in support of
the king's cause. It is said that his house was searched and his
papers destroyed by the Parliamentarians in consequence of
these publications. He died on the 8th of September in that
year.
Quarles married in 1618 Ursula Woodgate, by whom he had
eighteen children. His son, John Quarles (1624-1665), was
exiled to Flanders for his Royalist sympathies and was the
author of Fans Lachrymarum (1648) and other poems.
The work by which Quarles is best known, the Emblems,
was originally published in 1635, with grotesque illustrations
engraved by William Marshall and others. The forty-five
prints in the last three books are borrowed from the Pia
Desideria (Antwerp, 1624) of Herman Hugo. Each " emblem "
consists of a paraphrase from a passage of Scripture, expressed
in ornate and metaphorical language, followed by passages from
the Christian Fathers, and concluding with an epigram of four
lines. The Emblems was immensely popular with the vulgar,
but the critics of the I7th and i8th centuries had no mercy on
Quarles. Sir John Suckling in his Sessions of the Poets dis-
respectfully alluded to him as he " that makes God speak so
big in's poetry." Pope in the Dunciad spoke of the Emblems,
" Where the pictures for the page atone
And Quarles is saved by beauties not his own."
The works of Quarles include: A Feast for Wormes. Set forth in a
Poeme of the History of Jonah (1620), which contains other scriptural
paraphrases, besides the one that furnishes the title; Iladassa;
or the History of Oueene Ester (1621); Job Militant, with Meditations
Divine and Moratt (1624) ; Sions Elegies, wept by Jeremie the Prophet
(1624) ; Swns Sonets sung by Solomon the King (1624), a paraphrase
of the Canticles; The Historie of Samson (1631); Alphabet of Elegies
upon . . . Dr Aylmer (1625); Argalus and Parthenia (1629), the
subject of which is borrowed from Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia;
four books of Divine Fancies digested into Epigrams, Meditations
and Observations (1632); a reissue of his scriptural paraphrases
and the Alphabet of Elegies as Divine Poems (1633); Hieroglyphikes
7 I2
QUARREL QUARRYING
of the Life of Man (1638); Enchyridion, containing Institutions
Divine and Moral (1640-41), a collection of four "centuries" of
miscellaneous aphorisms; Observations concerning Princes and States
upon Peace and Warre (1642), and Boanerges and Barnabas Wine
and Oylefor . . . afflicted Soules (1644-46), both of which are collec-
tions of miscellaneous reflections; three violent Royalist tracts
(1644), The Loyall Convert, The Whipper Whipt, and The New
Distemper, reissued in one volume in 1645 with the title of The
Profest Royalist; his quarrett with the Times, and some elegies.
Solomon's Recantation . . . (1645) contains a memoir by his widow.
Other posthumous works are The Shepheards' Oracles (1646), a
second part of Boanerges and Barnabas (1646), a broadside entitled
A Direfull Anathema against Peace-haters (1647), and an interlude,
The Virgin Widow (1649).
An edition of the Emblems (Edinburgh, 1857) was embellished
with new illustrations by C. H. Bennett and W. A. Rogers These
are reproduced in the complete edition (1874) of Quarles included
in the " Chertsey Worthies Library " by Dr A. B, Grpsart, who
provides an introductory memoir and an appreciation which greatly
overestimates Quarles's value as a poet.
QUARREL, (i) (Through Fr. querelle from Lat. querela,
complaint), originally a complaint against a person, particularly
a legal accusation or charge, hence a ground or cause for com-
plaint or anger, or, more generally, an outbreak of anger or
violent dispute. (2) (Through O. Fr. quarrel or quarel, from med.
Lat. quadrellus, diminutive of quadrus, square), a heavy short
bolt or arrow with a square head, used in a cross-bow or arbalest.
In architecture this term (and also the doublet " quarry ") is
applied to any square-shaped opening, in the Beauchamp Roll
to the quatrefoils in Perpendicular windows, sometimes to
squares of paving, but most commonly to the lozenge-shaped
pieces of glass in lead casements (see GLASS, STAINED).
QUARRY, (i) (Through Fr. from med. Lat. quareia for
quadraria; quadrare, to square or hew stone), a place from which
stones are dug, the term being usually confined to a place where
such operation is carried on in the open air, as opposed to a
" mine " (see QUARRYING). (2) (Through O. Fr. cuiree, cuir,
skin, leather, Lat. corium; cf. mod. Fr. curee, spoils) , properly
certain parts of a deer or other beast of chase given as a reward to
the hounds and placed upon the hide of the animal, also parts
of a bird given similarly to a hawk or falcon. The word is thus
applied to the animal hunted or the bird killed by the hawk,
and generally to any object of the chase.
QUARRYING, the art of winning or obtaining from the
earth's crust the various kinds of stone used in construction,
the operation being, in most cases, conducted in open workings.
According to their composition, building stones are broadly
classed as granites, sandstones, limestones and slates. Under
the first of these heads is included a number of crystalline rock
species, such as granite, syenite, gneiss, &c., which to the
geologist are quite distinct, but which in commerce are all spoken
Kinds of of as granite. They are chiefly composed of one or
stone more minerals of the felspar group mingled with
quarried. one or more o f the micas or with hornblende, and
usually contain quartz. Sandstones are chiefly composed
of fragments of quartz cemented into solid rock by silica and
oxide of iron. Of these there are many varieties, including
flagstone used for foot-pavements. Limestones consist princi-
pally of carbonate of lime. Their chief variations are the
crystalline form known as marble and the deposit from mineral
springs known as Mexican onyx. Slates are mudstones or
shales hardened by heat and pressure, and rendered fissile by
the latter agent. Chemically they consist chiefly of hydrous
silicate of alumina. Theoretically, granites are massive, and
have no bedding or stratification like sandstones and limestones;
but all rock masses are usually found to be moi;e or less shattered
by movements of the earth's crust which occur as a result of its
constant readjustment to the cooling and shrinking interior,
so that the rocks are divided by cracks or fissures, which are
commonly known as joints. In the massive granites these
joints, which usually occur in two or more planes at right angles
to one another, are of the greatest importance to the quarryman,
as they enable him to separate masses of stone with approxi-
mately parallel faces. IP gneisses the parallel arrangement of the
minerals usually coincides with a direction of easy cleavage,
known to quarrymen as the "rift"; at right angles to this
direction is usually one less easy parting, known as the " grain."
Sandstones and limestones are stratified rocks which have been
formed as sediments in bodies of water; and whether their beds
are found in the normal position of horizontality, or whether
they have been tilted and folded by earth movements, the
direction of easiest separation is coincident with the original
planes of sedimentation and parallel to them. This is therefore
called the " rift, " while the " grain " is at right angles to it.
In gneisses, sandstones and limestones joints also occur; and
while frequently convenient for the division of the beds into
masses of useful size, they may be a detriment, as when they
occur so close together as to fall within the limits of a block
available for commercial purposes. In commerce the various
kinds of building stone are usually designated by the name of
the locality or region in which the quarry is situated. In the case
of the more important varieties this geographic name usually
conveys to the architect or builder full information concerning
the colour, texture and other properties of the material. For
example, the names Hallowell or Quincy granite, Medina or
Berea sandstone, and Vermont or Tennessee marble, convey in
the United States full information to those interested.
The methods of quarrying vary with the composition and
hardness of the rocks, their structure, cleavage, and other
physical properties; also with the position and charac-
ter of the deposits or rock-masses. The general pur- ^ h Q ds ed
pose of the work is to separate the material from its bed
in masses of form and size adapted to the intended use. Cutting
the stone to accurate dimensions, dressing, rubbing and polishing
are subsequent operations not involved in quarrying.
The practice of quarrying consists in uncovering a sufficient
surface of the rock by removing superficial soil, sand or clay,
or by sinking a shaft or slope, and then with proper tools and,
when necessary, with explosives, detaching blocks of form and
size adapted to the purpose in view. Frequently the outer
portion of the rock has been affected by the action of the weather
and other atmospheric agencies, so that it has become dis-
coloured or softened by decay. This weathered material must
be removed before stone can be obtained for use.
A quarry should, if possible, be opened on a hillside, for in
this case it is usually much easier to dispose of the water which
necessarily collects in any deep excavation, and which, if
drainage by gravity is not afforded, must be removed by pump-
ing, at considerable expense. As it is generally most convenient
to operate on a vertical face of rock, the preliminary work of
opening a quarry is usually directed toward the production of
this result; but its accomplishment involves the waste of a
certain amount of stone, which must be broken into irregular
and useless pieces. The separation of blocks of building stone is
effected ordinarily by drilling holes along the outlines of the
block to be removed, and then, by exploding blasting-powder in
the holes, or by driving wedges into them, exerting sufficient
force to overcome the cohesion of the rock and rend it asunder.
In many quarries it is found most convenient to separate a large
mass and afterwards divide it into blocks of the required size.
When the rock is stratified, or has an easily determined " rift,"
the holes are drilled at right angles to the plane of separation.
When there is no stratification or " rift," or these natural planes
of separation are too far apart, or when the position of the
joints is not advantageous, a row of horizontal holes must be
drilled into the face or " breast " of the quarry, along which
separation is effected by the use of wedges. Of late at certain
American quarries, in a granite which has no rift or direction of
ready cleavage, compressed air has been brought into service
to effect the separation of extensive layers. A hole is drilled as
deep as the desired thickness of the layer to be separated, and a
small charge of dynamite is exploded at the bottom of it. This
develops a cavity in which a small charge of powder is next
exploded, producing a crack or crevice parallel to the surface of
the rock. A pipe for conveying compressed air is now sealed
into the opening, and gradually increasing pressure is introduced.
This results in the gradual extension of the crevice developed by
QUARTER QUARTER SESSIONS
the explosion of the powder. In the absence of compressed air,
water under pressure may be used and also small powder charges
exploded at intervals of a few days. In thinly bedded sandstones,
where vertical joints are frequent, it is often possible to separate
the desired slabs and flagstones with crowbars and wedges,
without drilling or the use of explosives. When blasting is
necessary, some form of gunpowder is generally used, rather
than a violent explosive like dynamite, in order to avoid shatter-
ing the rock. This, however) applies only to dimension stone.
When the production of broken stone for road-making, concrete,
or similar purposes is the sole end in view, violent explosives are
preferred. In limestones and marbles and in the softer sand-
stones, channelling machines, driven by steam, are employed,
by which vertical or oblique grooves or channels can be cut
with great rapidity to a depth of several feet. A level bed of
rock is cleared, and on this are laid rails, along which the machine
moves. After the channels are cut, a row of holes is bored
perpendicular to the former at the desired distance below the
surface of the bed, and by driving wedges into these the required
blocks are separated.
When the beds of stone to be quarried are thin, and when to
remove the whole of the overlying mass of earth or rock would
be too expensive, it is found convenient to treat the
quarry as if it were a mine, and to rely upon methods
similar to those practised in mining. A horizontal
bed of rock is usually opened at its outcrop on some hillside, or
if this is impracticable, as shaft or slope is excavated to reach it.
If dimension stone is required, a deep horizontal groove is cut
near the top or the bottom of the bed. The quarry face is then
divided into blocks by saw-cuts, channels, or rows of drill-holes,
and the blocks are separated by wedging or blasting. As the
excavation or sloping progresses, portions of the rock are left
in place as pillars to support the roof. At many localities in
Europe where roofing slate is quarried, it is found in beds dipping
more or less from the horizontal. These deposits are worked by
slopes which follow the inclinalion of the bed, from which, at
convenient intervals, levels are driven across, to take advantage
of the cleavage of the slate. As in other subterranean quarries,
pillars of rock are left to support the roof, since artificial supports
would be more expensive. At some of the marble quarries in
Vermont, U.S.A., where the strata are very nearly vertical, the
beds are worked to a great depth with a comparatively small
surface opening.
See G. P. Merrill, Stones for Building and Decoration (New York,
1898); C. Le N. Foster, A Text-Book of Ore and Stone Mining
(London and Philadelphia, 1894); O. Herrman, Steinbruchindustrie
und Steinbruchgeologie (Berlin, 1899). (F. J. H. M.)
QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part),
a word with many applications of its original meaning, namely,
one of the four divisions of anything; thus as a measure of
weight a quarter equals 28 Ib, one-fourth of the hundredweight
of 112 Ib; as a measure of capacity for grain it equals 8 bushels;
similarly in liquid measure the shorter form "quart "is a quarter
of a gallon = 2 pints, so " quartern " is a quarter of a pint (a gill),
or, as a measure for bread, 4 Ib. " Quarter " is also used of
the fourth part of the moon's monthly revolution, and of a
fourth part of the legal year, marked off by the " quarter-days "
(see below). For the division of the heraldic shield into four
" quarters " and the use of the term " quartering," the marshal-
ling of several coats on one shield, see HERALDRY. From the
four principal points of the compass and the corresponding
division of the horizon, &c., the word is used generally of
direction or situation, and hence of a district in a town, &c.,
especially when assigned to or occupied by a particular class.
It has thus become the usual term applied to stations, buildings,
lodgings, &c., in the regular occupation of military troops (see
BARRACKS, CAMP, and CANTONMENTS).
There are many technical uses of the word, in which the
original meaning has been lost or obscured; thus in carpentry
and architecture it is applied to the main upright posts in
framing, sometimes called "studs"; the filling in quarters
were formerly named "prick posts"; in farriery, to one side
of the " coffin " of a horse's foot; in bootmaking, to the side
piece of leather reaching from the vamp to the heel. The
" quarter " of a ship is the after part of her side from the main-
chains to the stern (see QUARTERDECK).
There has been much discussion as to the origin of the use of the
word " quarter " in the sense of mercy, clemency, the sparing of
the life of a beaten enemy and the acceptance of his surrender.
The same use is found in Fr. quartier. Cotgrave explains this word
as " faire war, wherein souldiers are taken prisoners and ransomed
at a certainc rate." The real origin cannot be, as has often been
repeated, following De Brieux (Origines de plusieurs fafons de porter,
1672), that it was due to a supposed agreement between the Dutch
and Spaniards for ransoming officers and men at one quarter of
their pay. The true source is either the assignment of " quarters,"
i.e. lodgings, to captured prisoners whose lives were spared, or the
use of the word, now obsolete, for relations with or conduct towards
another, often in the sense of fair treatment ; thus in Bacon's Essay
on Cunning, " two, that were competitors, . . . kept good quarter
between themselves."
Quarter days are the days that begin each quarter of the year.
In England they are the 25th of March (Lady Day), the 24th of
June (Midsummer Day), the 2_o,th of September (Michaelmas Day)
and the 2$th of December (Christmas Day). They are the days
on which it is usually contracted that rents should be paid and
houses or lands entered upon or quitted. In Scotland there are
two legal terms, the isth of May (Whitsunday) and the nth of
November (Martinmas); these, together with the two conventional
terms, 2nd of February (Candlemas) and the 1st of August (Lammas),
make up the Scottish quarter days. In the Scottish burghs, however,
the removal terms are the 28th of May and the 28th of November.
In the United States the quarter days are, in law, the 1st of January,
April, July and October.
QUARTERDECK, the after part of the upper deck of a ship.
In former times the upper deck of a line-of-battle ship or frigate
ended at the mainmast, and was connected with the forecastle
by two narrow passages, or gangways running along the sides.
The quarterdeck is the residence and symbol of authority in
a warship. The starboard, or right side looking forward, is
reserved to the senior officer. A sailor who had a complaint to
make was said to come to the mainmast, because he placed
himself at the forward end of the quarterdeck near the mast.
According to the ancient custom of the sea, the quarterdeck is
to be saluted by all who come upon it, and the salute is returned
by all officers present.
QUARTER SESSIONS, COURT OF, in English law, the name
for the justices of the peace of any county, riding, parts, division
or liberty of a county, or of any county of a city or county of a
town, in general or quarter sessions assembled; it includes the
court of the recorder of a municipal borough having a separate
court of quarter sessions. The word " general " in this context
is contrasted with " special " or " petty." The court is a local
court of record having a limited criminal jurisdiction, and also
to some extent civil jurisdiction. As a court of record it has,
in addition to its other jurisdiction, power to punish summarily
without the assistance of a jury contempts committed in its
presence, such as insults to the justices or disturbance of its
proceedings. At the present time the whole of England and
Wales is within the local jurisdiction of some court of quarter
sessions. But the history of the court in counties is quite
distinct from its history in boroughs.
Counties. As regards counties the court originated in
statutes of 1326, 1344 and 1360, which provided for justices
in counties, and the commission of the peace. The court
derived its name from the direction in a statute of 1388 that the
" justices shall keep their sessions in every quarter of the year
at the least." By a statute of 1414 they were directed to make
their sessions four times in the year: that is to say, in the first
week after the feasts of St Michael, the Epiphany, the clause of
Easter and the translation of St Thomas the Martyr, and more
often if need be. 1 These dates have only been slightly varied,
first in 1814 in consequence of the adoption of the Gregorian
calendar, later in 1830 by specifying the first week after the
nth of October, z8th of December, 3ist of March and 24th of
June respectively, instead of the church feasts; and in 1804 by
*An earlier statute not repealed (36 Edw. III. c. 12) fixes the
third and fourth sessions different jy, viz. second week of mid-Lent,
and between Whit Sunday and Midsummer Day
QUARTER SESSIONS
giving the justices a limited power of fixing their sessions so as
not to clash with the assizes. It will be seen that the statutes
do not limit the justices to four sessions a year: and they are
free to sit oftener by adjournment of the quarterly sessions to
another time, and even to another place, in their county, or to
hold additional sessions. All the sessions thus held are " general,"
though not all may be " quarter " sessions. The Assizes and
Quarter Sessions Act 1908 gave the useful power of dispensing
with the holding of quarter sessions if there is no business to
transact.
Constitution of (he Court. Such a court sits for every judicial
county in England, and is composed of two or more of the justices
in the commission of the peace for the county, including ex officio
justices. The quorum of the court is fixed by the commission of
the peace at two. At one time certain specified justices described
as 01 the quorum must be present, but under the present commission
there are no such persons. In certain counties more than one
commission of the peace is issued, e.g. for the three ridings of
Yorkshire (N. E. and W.) and the liberty of Ripon, the three parts
of Lincolnshire (Lindsey, Kesteven and Holland), the isle of Ely
and the rest of Cambridgeshire, the soke of Peterborough, and the
rest of Northamptonshire. 1 In all counties, &c., except that of
London, the justices in the commission elect a chairman and vice-
chairman, neither of them necessarily a lawyer, to preside at the
sittings of the court. In the county of London there are a paid
chairman and deputy chairman, who must be barristers of at least
ten years' standing, and are appointed by the crown. There is
special legislation as to quarter sessions in the county palatine of
Lancaster; and in the Salford Hundred of that county there is a
paid chairman. There is also special legislation as to Kent, and
arrangements have been made by which in Sussex and Suffolk the
quarter sessions for the east and west divisions are virtually distinct
courts. Under the Quarter Sessions Act 1858 the court may sit
in two divisions of at least two justices at the same time and place,
but not simultaneously in separate parts of the same county except
under statutory authority as in London.
The court may sit while the assizes for the county are being held,
but usually refrains from doing so because of the inconvenience which
would be occasioned, and adjusts its sittings so as to avoid clashing
with the assizes. The chief officer of the court is the clerk of the peace,
who acts as clerk to the court, records its proceedings, calls and
swears the juries, draws many of the indictments, receives the
bills returned by, the grand jury, arraigns the prisoners and taxes
the costs. In a county he is appointed by a standing joint-com-
mittee of the quarter sessions and the county council, and has charge
of, and responsibility for, the records and documents of the county
subject to the directions of the custos rotulorum or the quarter
sessions or the county council (Local Govt. Act 1888, s. 83).
Boroughs. The jurisdiction of the court of quarter sessions
of a borough does not depend upon the commission of the peace,
but upon the Municipal Corporations Act 1882. Many boroughs
have a separate commission of the peace (which does not contain
the words of the county commission giving jurisdiction to try
indictments), but have not received the grant of a separate
court of quarter sessions: and such boroughs are within the
jurisdiction of the court of quarter sessions for the county within
which the borough lies. Before the Municipal Corporations
Act 1835, many boroughs had criminal jurisdiction under their
charters. Under that act and the act of 1882 a grant of quarter
sessions to a city or borough is made by the crown in council
on petition of the town council. The recorder, a barrister of
not less than five years' standing appointed by the crown, is
sole judge of the court, though the mayor can adjourn it in the
absence of the recorder; he has a discretion to fix his own dates
for the holding of the court, so long as he holds it once in every
quarter of a year; and it may be held more frequently if he
think fit, or a secretary of state so directs; he has no power to
allow, apportion, make or levy a borough rate or to grant a
licence for the sale of excisable liquors by retail; a deputy may
be appointed by the recorder, or in the event of his being unable
to make the appointment by a secretary of state. Subject to
these qualifications the court has the same jurisdiction as county
quarter sessions.
The city of London is not subject to the Municipal Corpora-
tions Act 1882, and its court of quarter sessions is created by the
city charters, and is held before the mayor and aldermen with
1 In the soke of Peterborough commissions of oyer and terminer,
and gaol delivery, as well as a commission of the peace, are
issued.
the recorder. It does not now sit to try indictments, which all
go to the Central Criminal Court.
There is special legislation as to quarter sessions in the Cinque
Ports. In a borough the clerk of the peace is appointed by the
town council and holds office during good behaviour (Municipal
Corporations Act 1882, s. 164).
Criminal Jurisdiction, Original. Courts of quarter sessions in
counties and boroughs have both original and appellate jurisdic-
tion depending on the commission of the peace and on legislation
beginning in 1344. This jurisdiction is derived in counties from the
commission of the peace, which directs the justices " to inquire the
truth more fully by the oath of good and lawful men of the county,
by whom the truth of the matter shall be better known of all manner
of crimes, trespasses, and all and singular other offences of which
the justices of our peace may or ought lawfully to inquire," " and
to hear and determine all and singular the crimes, trespasses and
offences aforesaid " " according to the laws and statutes of our
realm." "Provided always that if a case of difficulty upon the
determination of any of the premises before you shall happen to
arise then let judgment in no wise be given " " unless in the presence
of one of the justices of assize for the county." This proviso has
been read as requiring the justices to reserve the graver felonies
for trial at the assizes, or to transmit to assizes indictments found
at quarter sessions which raised difficult questions. Quarter sessions
never dealt with forgery or perjury, but at one time assumed juris-
diction over almost every other form of crime. By the Quarter
Sessions Act 1842 and subsequent legislation, they are forbidden
to try the following offences: treason or misprision of treason;
murder, capital felony or any felony (except burglary) which is
punishable on a first conviction by penal servitude for life; offences
against the king's title, prerogative, person or government, or
against either House of parliament; offences against the Official
Secrets Act 1889; offences subject to the penalties of praemunire ;
blasphemy and offences against religion, and composing or publish-
ing blasphemous, seditious or defamatory libels; administer-
ing and taking unlawful oaths; perjury and subordination and
making or suborning another to make a false oath, declarations or
affirmations punishable as perjury or as a misdemeanour; abduction
of women and girls and offences under the Criminal Law Amendment
Act 1885; bigamy and offences against the laws of marriage;
concealment of birth; bribery and corruption at elections or of
agents or public officials (but they can try offences against the
Public Bodies Corrupt Practices Act 1889); setting fire to crops,
woods and heaths ; stealing or destroying certain classes of documents ;
offences against the factor sections (ss. 75-85) of the Larceny Act
as amended by the Larceny Act 1901 ; and conspiracies to commit
offences which the court could not try if committed by one person.
Trials before the court with a jury are governed by the same pro-
cedure as trials on indictment in a court of assize. Under the
Vagrancy Act 1823 and amending acts, they have special powers
of sentencing incorrigible rogues sent to them by courts of summary
jurisdiction, and under the act of 1360 and the commission of the
peace they can, but now rarely do, exercise an original and sum-
mary jurisdiction as to articles of the peace (see RECOGNIZANCE).
They have power to estreat recognizances entered into before
themselves or before courts of summary jurisdiction and returned
to them for record or forfeiture, but by the Summary Jurisdiction
Act 1879 the exercise of the latter power has been rendered
unnecessary.
Appellate. An appeal lies to quarter sessions from convictions
by a court of summary jurisdiction only where such an appeal is
expressly given by statute. The number of statutes giving such
right of appeal is very great. The appellate jurisdiction has been
considerably increased by the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879,
which allows (s. 19) an appeal (with certain exceptions) from every
conviction or order of a court of summary jurisdiction inflicting
imprisonment without the option of a fine. The appeal may be
brought in accordance with the act giving the appeal or the Summary
Jurisdiction Acts. Most of the special procedure in statutes giving
the right to appeal has been swept away by the Summary Jurisdiction
Act 1884.
Civil Jurisdiction, Original. Originally the county justices were
confined to the exercise in or out of sessions of the powers given by
the commission of the peace and of certain statutory duties as to
rioters, &c. Under the Tudors and Stuarts the justices acting
under the supervision of the Privy Council and the court of king's
bench gradually became the rulers of the county in administrative
and social as well as judicial matters (F. W. Maitland, Justice and
Police, 1885, p. 80). The process by which this result was attained
is traced in Webb's English Local Government (1907, vol. i.). The
effect of the change was the supersession by nominees of the crown
of the common law authorities and officers of county, hundred and
township. But the change extended only to a small extent to
municipal boroughs. By legislation in and since 1888 most of the
administrative powers and duties of justices in general and quarter
sessions have been transferred to the incorporated and elective
councils of counties, boroughs and urban and rural districts.
But the justices still possess certain original, civil or quasi-civil
QUARTER-STAFFQUARTZ
jurisdiction with respect to the extinction of licences to sell intoxi-
cants, and jointly with the county councils over the county police,
and as to closing highways, and also powers as to fixing the petty
sessional divisions of their county.
Appellate. Theoretically quarter sessions have original jurisdiction
in any matter as to which two justices have jurisdiction, unless the
statute giving the jurisdiction gives an appeal to quarter sessions
as a result of this rule. Most of the civil jurisdiction of quarter
sessions is now appellate, i.e. with reference to orders made by
justices out of quarter sessions as to the settlement and removal
of paupers, or under the Highway, Licensing and Bastardy Acts,
or as to appeals against assessments or rating. The procedure
as to each form of appeal depends partly on the statute by which
it is given and partly on the general provisions of the Summary
Jurisdiction_Acts 1879 and 1884. In substance their only original
jurisdiction in civil or quasi-civil matters is now in cases of apprentice-
ship (5 Eliz. c. 4) and articles of the peace (i Edw. III. st. 2, c. 1 6).
Appeal from Quarter Sessions. There is no appeal properly so
called from quarter sessions to the High Court either on facts or
law. But decisions on law may be reviewed by the High Court
(king's bench division) by means of certiorari, mandamus or pro-
hibition; convictions on indictment before courts of quarter sessions
are within the provisions of the Criminal Appeal Act 1907 (see
APPEAL), except convictions on indictments for obstruction or
non-repair of a public bridge, highway or river, from which an appeal
lies to the court of appeal in the same way as in the case of civil
actions tried at assizes. Quarter sessions have also power to reserve
a special case for the High Court on conviction or indictment (Crown
Cases Act 1848), and also in other cases to consult the High Court
by special case stated under the commission or under the Quarter
Sessions Act 1849. Questions of law alone can be referred by
special case, and there is no means of compelling the court to state
a case. The procedure as to cases not within the acts of 1848,
1849 and 1907 is regulated by the Crown Office Rules of 1906, and
s. 2 of the Judicature Act 1894, which gives the High Court certain
powers of drawing inferences of fact from the evidence taken in the
court below.
Scotland. Justices of the peace were established in Scotland by
act of 1587, c. 82, and quarter sessions by act of 1661, c. 338 (l2mo
edition, c. 38), which directs that the justices of peace in each
respective shire shall meet and convene together four times in the
year, on the first Tuesday of March, May and August, and the last
Tuesday of October, to administer justice to the people on things
that are within their jurisdiction, and punish the guilty for faults
and crimes done and committed in the preceding quarter. The
obsolete details in this act were repealed in 1906, but the power
of requiring law burrows, i.e. sureties to keep the peace, is preserved.
By the Union with Scotland Amendment Act 1707 provision was
made for appointing justices of the peace in shires, stewartries and
burghs in Scotland: and the justices to be appointed are given
authority to exercise whatever doth appertain to the office and
court of a justice of peace by virtue of the laws and acts of parlia-
ment made in England before the Union in relation to and for the
preservation of the public peace. " Provided that in the sessions
of the peace the methods of trial and judgments shall be according
to the law of Scotland." The quarter sessions do not sit for the
trial of indictments, but have powers of reviewing the decisions of
justices in petty sessions (see SUMMARY JURISDICTION). This
power extends, inter alia, to revenue cases and cases under the
Pawnbrokers Acts. Their jurisdiction as to the grant and refusal
of liquor licences was taken away by the Licensing Scotland Act
1903, but they still have appellate jurisdiction as to offences under
the Licensing Acts, ss. 101-103. An appeal lies to the Circuit
Court of Justiciary unless the statute under which they act otherwise
provides. In criminal matters their functions are not considerable,
most of the work done by justices in England being in Scotland
dealt with by the sheriff or his substitutes, or by stipendiaries in
the great cities. Their decisions in criminal cases are reviewable
by the Court of Justiciary and in revenue cases by the court of
exchequer. Their original jurisdiction is very limited and almost
wholly civil. Thus they have power to divide a county and to make
rules for the purposes of the Justices of the Peace Small Debts
Acts 1825 and 1849.
Ireland. In Irish'municipal boroughs a court of quarter sessions
may be granted and a recorder appointed under an act of 1840.
In the case of Dublin, Cork, Belfast, Londonderry and Galway,
the office of recorder may be united with that of chairman of quarter
sessions for the adjoining county. The general criminal jurisdiction
of the quarter sessions has the same origin and is on the same lines
as in England; but the limitations imposed as to offences which
may be tried are not so narrow as in England. The sessions, &c.,
are regulated in the main by an act of 1851. The appellate juris-
diction rests on different statutes from those applicable to England,
but is on the same lines (see 14 & 15 Viet. c. 93; 40 & 41 Viet. c. 56).
In Ireland quarter sessions courts are held before a salaried officer
once styled the assistant barrister and now chairman, who is usually
also judge of a civil bill court (the Irish county court), or recorder
of a neighbouring city or borough. The appointment and tenure
of office of the chairman is regulated by statutes dating from 1851
to 1889. The jurisdiction of the court is not limited by the Quarter
Sessions Act 1842.
India. In India courts of record were established in Madras
and Bombay, originally styled mayors' courts and subsequently
made recorders' courts, with a jurisdiction corresponding as to
criminal matters to that of a borough court of quarter sessions in
England. Throughout India there are under the Criminal Procedure
Code of 1898 courts of sessions in each province for the purpose of
criminal jurisdiction, which take the place of assizes and quarter
sessions in England. They are under the supervision of the High
Courts; but can try and sentence for any crime, subject as to
sentences of death to confirmation by the High Court.
Canada. In Canada courts of general quarter sessions exist in
some provinces, e.g. Quebec. In New Brunswick they are replaced
by the county court. Their jurisdiction to try indictable offences
is defined by Part 42 of the Criminal Code 1892.
Australia. In Queensland the place of quarter sessions is taken
by the district courts, which have a criminal jurisdiction substantially
the same as that of the English court of quarter sessions (31 Viet.
No. 30, s. 117). In New South Wales quarter sessions continue. In
Victoria a court of general sessions has been created by statute
with powers closely resembling those of the English court of quarter
sessions (re Dunn, 1906, Victoria State Rep. 493).
United States. Courts of quarter sessions exist in many of the
states; their jurisdiction is determined by state legislation, and
extends as a rule only to the less grave crimes. They are in most,
if not all, states held before professional judges. (W. F. C.)
QUARTER-STAFF, a staff of wood from 6 to 9 ft. in length,
used as a means of attack and defence; originally no doubt it
was the cudgel or sapling with which many heroes are described
by early writers as being armed. The quarter-staff attained
great popularity in England in the middle ages. It was usually
made of oak, the ends often shod with iron, and it was held with
both hands, the right hand grasping it one quarter of the distance
from the lower end (.whence the name) and the left at about the
middle.
Egerton Castle (Schools and Masters of Fence) says that the
staff was the " foil," or practice-substitute for the long sword, or
two-hander. In earlier times it may also have been used as a
practice weapon for the spear and bill. In the prints illustrative
of the life of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (1382-1439),
reproduced in Joseph Strutt's Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits,
&c. of the Inhabitants of England, may be seen a combat between
two knights after they have splintered their lances and dis-
mounted, in which both are fighting with pointed staves about
as long as a quarter-staff and held in the same manner. In the
1 7th century the staff was still popular in England.
At the present time the quarter-staff is used to a limited extent
in military circles as a school for bayonet play. It is somewhat
lighter than the old weapon, being usually made of bamboo
and about 8 ft. long. Sabre-masks, gloves, padded jackets
and shin-guards are worn. Another kind of staff, called by
Captain A. Hutton (Cold Steel) the Great Stick, about 5 ft. long
and made of stout rattan, is used in the French and Italian armies
in general gymnastic exercises and as a school for bayonet play.
The Italian method rather resembles that of the old two-handed
sword, while the French approaches more closely to English
quarter-staff play.
See Quarter-Staff, by T. A. McCarthy (London, 1883) ; Broadsword
and Singlestick, by R. G. Allanson-Winn and C. Phillips-Wollcy
(London, 1898).
QUARTO, a shortened form of Lat. in quarto, " in a fourth,"
i.e. of a sheet of paper, applied to a size of paper, and to a size
of a printed volume. Paper is in quarto when a whole single sheet
is folded twice so as to form four leaves; a book is technically
termed of " quarto " size when made up of sheets folded twice.
QUARTZ, a widely distributed mineral species, consisting
of silicon dioxide, or silica (SiOj). It is the commonest of
minerals, and is met with in a great variety of forms and with
very diverse modes of occurrence. The various forms of
silica have attracted attention from the earliest times, and
the water-clear crystallized variety was known to the Greeks
as (cpiwraXXos (clear ice), being supposed by them to have
been formed from water by the intense cold of the Alps; hence
the name " crystal," or more commonly rock-crystal, applied
to this variety. The name quartz is an old German word of
uncertain origin: it was used by G. Agricola in 1529.
QUARTZ
Quartz is a mineral which is put to many uses. Several
of the varieties are cut into gems and ornaments, balance
weights, pivot supports for delicate instruments, agate mortars,
&c.; or used for engraving, for instance, cameos and the
elaborately carved crystal vases of ancient and medieval times.
Clear transparent rock-crystal is used for optical purposes
and spectacle lenses. Fused quartz has recently been used
for the construction of lenses and laboratory vessels, or it may
be drawn out into the finest elastic fibres and used for suspending
mirrors, &c., in physical apparatus. For striking fire, flint
is used even to the present day. Buhrstone, a cellular variety
of chalcedonic quartz from the Tertiary strata of the Paris
basin, is largely used for millstones. Quartz is a valuable
grinding and polishing material, and is used for making sand-
paper and scouring-soap. It is also largely used in the
manufacture of glass and porcelain, " silver sand " being a
pure quartz sand.
Quartz crystallizes in the trapezohedral-hemihedral class of the
rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system. Crystals of this
class possess neither planes nor centre of symmetry, but only axes
of symmetry: perpendicular to the principal triad axis there are
three uniterminal dyad axes of symmetry. Usually, however, this
lower degree of symmetry is not indicated by the faces developed
on the crystals. The majority of crystals of_quartz are bounded
only by the faces of a hexagonal prism m\2il\ and a hexagonal
bipyramid (fig. l), though sometimes the prism is absent (fig. 2).
Frequently the faces are of different sizes (fig. 3) : mis-shapen crystals
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
are common and sometimes very puzzling, but they can always be
orientated by the aid of the very characteristic striations on the
prism faces, which serve also to distinguish quartz from other
minerals of similar appearance. These striations (fig. 3) are
horizontal in direction, being parallel to the edges of intersection
between the prism and pyramid faces, and are due to the frequent
oscillatory combination of these faces. The apparent hexagonal
bipyramid is really a combination of two rhombohedra, the direct
rhombohedron rjioo) and the inverse rhombohedron 2(22!). The
faces of these two rhombohedra exhibit differences in surface
characters, those of r being usually brighter in lustre than those
of z; further, the former often predominate in size (figs. 4 and 5),
and the latter may sometimes be completely absent. When both
the prism and the rhombohedron z are absent, the crystals resemble
cubes in appearance, since the angles between the faces of the
rhombohedron are 85 46'. The additional faces i and x (figs. 4
and 5), which indicate the true degree of symmetry of quartz, are
of comparatively rare occurrence except on crystals from certain
localities. The six small faces 5(412) situated on alternate corners
at each end of the crystal, are called the " rhomb " faces, because
of their shape; if extended they would give a trigonal bipyramid.
The " trapezohedral," or " plagihedral,' faces *{4i2| belong to a
trigonal trapezohedron. The two crystals shown in figs. 4 and 5 are
FIG. 4. FIG. 5.
enantiomorphous, i.e. they are non-superposable, one being the
mirror reflection of the other : they are left-handed and right-handed
crystals respectively. The faces i are striated parallel to their edge
of intersection with r ; this serves to distinguish r and z, and thus,
in the absence of x faces, to distinguish left- or right-handed crystals.
Numerous other faces have been observed on crystals of quartz,
but they are of rare occurrence. The basal plane, so common on
calcite and many other rhombohedral minerals, is of the greatest
rarity in quartz, and when present only appears as a small rough
face formed by the corrosion of the crystal. Faces of prisms other
than m are also small and of exceptional occurrence.
Twinned crystals of quartz are extremely common, but are complex
in character and can only be deciphered when the faces s and x are
present, which is not often the case. Usually they are interpenetra-
tion twins with the principal axis as twin-axis; the prism planes
of the two individuals coincide, and the faces r and z also fall into
the same plane. Such twins may therefore be mistaken for simple
crystals unless they are attentively studied; but the twinning is
often made evident by the presence of irregularly bounded areas
of the duller z faces coinciding with the brighter r faces. In a rarer
type of twinning, in which the twin-plane is (527) (a plane truncating
the edge between r and z), the two individuals are united in juxta-
position with their principal axis nearly at right angles (84 33'). A
few magnificent specimens of rock-crystal twinned according to
this law have been found at La Gardette in Isere, and in Japan they
are somewhat abundant.
The pyro-electric characters of quartz are closely connected with
its peculiar type of symmetry and especially with the threeuniterminal
dyad axes. A crystal becomes positively and negatively electrified
in alternate prism edges when its temperature changes. A similar
distribution of electric charges is produced when a crystal is subjected
to pressure; quartz being thus also piezo-electric. Etched figures,
both natural and artificial (in the latter case produced by the action
of hydrofluoric acid), on the faces of the crystals are in accordance
with the symmetry, and may serve to distinguish left- and right-
handed crystals.
In its optical characters, quartz is also of interest, since it is one
of the two minerals (cinnabar being the other) which are circularly
polarizing. This phenomenon is connected with the symmetry of
the crystals, and is also shown by the crystals of certain other
substances in which there are neither planes nor centre of symmetry.
A ray of plane-polarized light traversing a right-handed crystal of
quartz in the direction of the triad axis has its plane of polarization
rotated to the right, while a left-handed crystal rotates it to the
left. A section I mm. thick, cut perpendicular to the principal
axis of a quartz crystal, rotates the plane of yellow (D) light through
22, and of blue (G) light through 43 . Such a section when examined
in the polariscope shows an interference figure with a coloured centre,
there being no black cross inside the innermost ring (this is not
shown in very thin sections). Superimposed sections of right- and
left-handed quartz, as may sometimes be present in sections of
twinned crystals, exhibit Airy's spirals in the polariscope. The
indices of refraction of quartz for yellow (D) light are u = I -5442
and t = 1-5533; the optic sign is therefore positive.
Quartz has a hardness of 7 (being chosen as No. 7 on Mohs' scale),
and it cannot be scratched with a knife; its specific gravity is 2-65.
There is no distinct cleavage; though an imperfect cleavage may
sometimes be developed parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron r
by plunging a heated crystal into cold water. The glassy conchoidal
fracture is a characteristic feature of the crystallized mineral. A
peculiar rippled or " thumb-marked " fracture is sometimes to be
seen, especially in amethyst (g.f.), and is due to repeated inter-
growths of right- and left-handed material. The mineral is a
non-conductor of electricity; it is unattacked by acids with the
exception of hydrofluoric acid, and is only slightly dissolved by
solutions of caustic alkalis. It is infusible before the gas blowpipe,
but in the oxyhydrogen flame fuses to a clear colourless glass, which
has a hardness of 5 and specific gravity 2-2.
Many peculiarities of the growth of crystals are well illustrated
by the mineral quartz. Thus in " ghost quartz," in which one
crystal is seen inside another, the stages of growth are marked out
by thin layers of enclosed materiaj. In " capped quartz " these
layers are thicker, and the successive shells of the crystal may be
easily separated. " Sceptre quartz," in which a short thick crystal
is mounted on the end of a long slender prism, indicates a change
in the conditions of growth. Crystals with a helical twist are not
uncommon. Enclosures of other minerals (rutile, chlorite, haematite,
gothite, actinolite, asbestos and many others) are extremely
frequent in crystals of quartz. Cavities, either rounded or with
the same shape (" negative crystals ") as the surrounding crystal,
are also common; they are often of minute size and present in
vast numbers. Usually these cavities contain a liquid (water, a
saline solution, carbon dioxide or petroleum) and a movable bubble
of gas. The presence of these enclosed impurities impairs the
transparency of crystals. Crystals of quartz are usually attached
at one end to their rocky matrix, but sometimes, especially when
embedded in a soft matrix of clay, gypsum or salt, they may be
bounded on all sides by crystal faces (fig. i). In size they vary
between wide limits, from minute sparkling points encrusting rock
surfaces and often so thickly clustered together as to produce a
drusy effect, to large single crystals measuring a yard in length and
diameter and weighing half a ton.
QUARTZITE QUARTZ-PORPHYRY
717
The characters as given above apply more particularly to crystals
of quartz, but in the various massive and compact varieties the
material may be quite different in general appearance. Thus in
the microcrystalline chalcedony (q.v.) the lustre is waxy, the fracture
fibrous to even, and the external form botryoidal or stalactitic:
flint and chert are compact and have a splintery fracture : jasper
(q.v.) is a compact variety intermixed with much iron oxide and
clay and has a dull and even fracture. Further, these varieties
may be of almost any colour, whereas transparent crystals have only
a limited range of colour, being either colourless (rock-crystal),
violet (amethyst), brown (smoky quartz) or yellow (citrine)._
Quartz occurs as a primary and essential constituent of igneous
rocks of acidic composition such as granite, quartz- porphyry and
rhyolite, being embedded in these either as irregularly shaped masses
or as porphyritic crystals. In pegmatite (graphic granite) and
granophyre it often forms a regular intergrowth with felspar. It
is also a common constituent, as irregular grains,. in many gneisses
and crystalline schists, a quartz-schist being composed largely of
quartz. By the weathering of silicates, silica passes into solution
and quartz is deposited as a secondary product in the cavities of
basic igneous rocks, and in fact in the crevices and along the joints
of rocks of almost all kinds. Extensive veins of quartz are especially
frequent in schistose rocks. Vein-quartz, often of economic import-
ance as a matrix of gold, may, however, in some cases have been
of igneous origin. In mineral veins and lodes crystallized quartz is
usually the most abundant gangue mineral ; the crystals are often
arranged perpendicular to the walls of the lode, giving rise to a
" comby structure. In limestones of various kinds it occurs as
nodules and bands of chert and flint, being in this case of organic
origin. Quartz being a mineral very resistant to weathering agencies,
it forms the bulk of sands and sandstones; and when the sand
grains are cemented together by a later deposit of secondary quartz
a rock known as quartzite results. Pseudomorphous quartz, i.e.
quartz replacing other minerals, is of frequent occurrence, and as
a petrifying material replacing organic remains it is often met with.
As a deposit from hot springs, quartz is much less common than
opal. Crystals of quartz may be readily prepared artificially by a
number of methods; for example, by heating glass or gelatinous
silica with water under pressure.
For particulars respecting the special characters, modes of occur-
rence and localities of the more important varieties of quartz,
reference may be made to the following articles: AGATE, AMETHYST,
AVENTURINE, BLOODSTONE, CAIRNGORM, CARNELJAN, CAT'S-EYE,
CHALCEDONY, CHRYSOPRASE, FLINT, HELIOTROPE.JASPER, MOCHA-
STONE, ONYX, ROCK-CRYSTAL, SARD, SARDONYX. For other forms
of silica see OPAL and TRIDYMITE. (L. J. S.)
QUARTZITE, in petrology, a sandstone which by the
deposit of crystalline quartz between its grains has been com-
pacted into a solid quartz rock. As distinguished from sand-
stones, quartzites are free from pores and have a smooth
fracture, since when struck with the hammer they break through
the sand grains, while in sandstones the fracture passes through
the cementing material and the rounded faces of the grains are
exposed, giving the broken surface a rough or granular appear-
ance. The conversion of sandstone into quartzite is sometimes
the work of percolating water under ordinary conditions. In
the Reading beds of England, which are for the most part loose
sands, there are often many large blocks of quartzite which
weather out and are exposed at the surface, being known as
grey-wethers. The silicification of these rocks must have
taken place at no great depth and under ordinary pressures.
Most quartzites, however, are found among ancient rocks,
such as the Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian. Instances are the
Lickey quartzite of Shropshire, the Holyhead quartzite of
Anglesey, the Durness quartzite of Sutherlandshire, the Banff-
shire and Perthshire quartzites and the Cherbourg quartzite.
As these rocks lie in regions where there has been a considerable
amount of metamorphism we may infer that (in addition to
time and pressure) folding and rise of temperature favour
the production of rocks of this type.
A normal quartzite has in microscopic section its clastic structure
well preserved; the rounded sand grains are seen with patches of
new quartz in the interspaces, and the latter is often deposited in
crystalline continuity, so that the optical properties of the grains
are similar to those of the material which surrounds them : a line
of iron oxides or other impurities often indicates the boundary of
the original sand grain. As might be expected, however, many of
the oldest quartzites have been crushed by folding movements
and the quartz consists in large part of a mosaic of small crystalline
fragments of irregular shape with interlocking margins; these
are called " sheared quartzites," and when they contain white
mica in parallel crystalline flakes they become more fissile and pass
into quartz-schists. Where sandstones are baked by intrusive
granite or diabase they are often converted into pure quartzite,
the heat evidently occasioning the deposit of interstitial quartz.
The commonest minerals in quartzite, in addition to quartz, are
felspar (microcline, orthoclase, oligoclase), white mica, chlorite,
iron oxides, rutile, zircon and tourmaline. Except felspar they are
usually present only in small quantity ; the less frequent accessories
include hornblende, sillimanite, garnet, biotite, graphite, magnetite
and epidote. In colour quartzites are often snowy white; they
frequently have a fine angular jointing and break up into rubble
under the action of frost. Quartzites are too hard and splintery to
be used as building stones to any large extent : they furnish a thin
and very barren soil, and because they weather slowly tend to
project as hills or mountain masses. They are rarely fossiliferous
(e.g. Gorran in Cornwall), though many of them contain worm casts
which may be dragged out into long sinuous markings when the
rock is much folded (Durness quartzite). Although much used as
road stones, being very hard, they are readily crushed to powder
unless well embedded in the road surface; the Cherbourg and
Emborpugh (near Bristol) stones are employed for this purpose.
Quartzite blocks may be used in tube mills for crushing and grinding
ores, cements, &c. ; rarely they have been adopted as a substitute
for flint by Palaeolithic man for the fabrication of weapons and
tools. (J. S. F.)
QUARTZ-PORPHYRY, in petrology, the name given to a
group of hemi-crystalline acid rocks containing porphyritic
crystals of quartz in a more fine-grained matrix which is usually
of micro-crystalline or felsitic structure. In the hand specimens
the quartz appears as small rounded, clear, greyish, vitreous
blebs, which are crystals (double hexagonal pyramids) with
their edges and corners rounded by resorption or corrosion.
Under the microscope they are often seen to contain rounded
enclosures of the ground-mass or fluid cavities, which are
frequently negative crystals with regular outlines resembling
those of perfect quartz crystals. Many of the latter contain
liquid carbonic acid and a bubble of gas which may exhibit
vibratile motion under high magnifying powers. In addition
to quartz there are usually phenocrysts of felspar, mostly
orthoclase, though a varying amount of plagioclase is often
present. The felspars are usually full and cloudy from the
formation of secondary kaolin and muscovite throughout
their substance. Their crystals are larger than those of quartz
and sometimes attain a length of two inches. Not uncommonly
scales of biotite are visible in the specimens, being hexagonal
plates, which may be weathered into a mixture of chlorite and
epidote. Other porphyritic minerals are few, but hornblende,
augite and bronzite are sometimes found, and garnet, cordierite
and muscovite may also occur. The garnets are small, of
rounded shape and red or brownish colour; in some cases they
appear to have been corroded or absorbed. Cordierite forms
six-sided prisms with flat ends; these divide, between crossed
nicols, into six triangular areas radiating from a centre, as the
crystals, which belong to the rhombic system, are not simple
but consist of three twins interpenetrating and crossing. In
the vast majority of cases the cordierite has weathered to an
aggregate of scaly chlorite and muscovite; this is known as
pinite and is of dark green colour and very soft. The quartz-
porphyries or elvans which occur as dikes in Cornwall and
Devon frequently contain this mineral. The augite and horn-
blende of these rocks are in most cases green, and are frequently
decomposed into chlorite, but even then can usually be identified
by their shape. A colourless rhombic pyroxene (enstatite or
bronzite) occurs in a limited number of the rocks of this group
and readily weathers to bastite. Apatite, magnetite, and
zircon, all in small but frequently perfect crystals, are almost
universal minerals of the quartz-porphyries.
The ground-mass is finely crystalline and to the unaided eye has
usually a dull aspect resembling common earthenware; it is grey,
green, reddish or white. Often it is streaked or banded by fluxion
during cooling, but as a rule these rocks are not vesicular. Two
main types may be recognized by means of the microscope-^the
felsitic and the microcrystalline. In the former the ingredients
are so fine-grained that in the thinnest slices they cannot be deter-
mined by means of the microscope. Some of these rocks show
perlitic or spherulitic structure, and such rocks were probably
originally glassy (obsidians or pitchstones), but by lapse of time and
processes of alteration have slowly passed into very finely crystal-
line state. This change is called devitrification; it is common
in glasses, as these are essentially unstable. A large number of
the finer quartz-porphyries are also in some degree silicified or
718
QUASSIA QUATERNIONS
impregnated by quartz, chalcedony and opal, derived from the silica
set free by decomposition (kaolinization) of the original felspar.
This re-deposited silica forms veins and patches of indefinite shape
or may bodily replace a considerable area of the rock by metasomatic
substitution. The opal is amorphous, the chalcedony finely
crystalline and often arranged in spherulitic growths which yield
an excellent black cross in polarized light. The microcrystalline
ground-masses are those which can be resolved into their component
minerals in thin slices by use of the microscope. They prove to
consist essentially of quartz and felspars, which are often in grains
of quite irregular shape (microgranitic). In other cases these two
minerals are in graphic intergrowth, often forming radiate growths
of spherulites consisting of fibres of extreme tenuity; this type is
known as granophyric. There is another group in which the
matrix contains small rounded or shapeless patches of quartz
in which many rectangular felspars are embedded; this structure
is called micropoikilitic, and though often primary is sometimes
developed by secondary changes which involve the deposit of new
quartz in the ground-mass. As a whole those quartz-porphyries
which have microcrystalline ground-masses are rocks of intrusive
origin. Elvan is a name given locally to the quartz-porphyries
which occur as dikes in Cornwall; in many of them the matrix
contains scales of colourless muscovite or minute needles of blue
tourmaline. Fluorite and kaolin appear also in these rocks, and
the whole of these minerals are due to pneumatolytic action by
vapours permeating the porphyry after it had consolidated but
probably before it had entirely cooled.
Many ancient rhyolitic quartz-porphyries show on their weathered
surfaces numerous globular projections. They may be several
inches in diameter, and vary from this size down to a minute
fraction of an inch. When struck with a hammer they may detach
readily from the matrix as if their margins were defined by a fissure.
If they are broken across their inner portions are often seen to be
filled with secondary quartz, chalcedony or agate: some of them
have a central cavity, often with deposits of quartz crystals; they
also frequently exhibit a succession of rounded cracks or dark
lines occupied by secondary products. Rocks having these struc-
tures are common in N. Wales and Cumberland; they occur also
in Jersey, the Vosges and Hungary. It has been proposed to
call them pyromerides. Much discussion has taken place regarding
the origin of these spheroids, but it is generally admitted that most
of them were originally spherulites, and that they have suffered
extensive changes through decomposition and silicification.
Many of tjie older quartz-porphyries which occur in Palaeozoic
and Pre-Cambrian rocks have been affected by earth movements
and have experienced crushing and shearing. In this way they
become schistose, and from their felspar minute plates of sericitic
white mica are developed, giving the rock in some cases very much
of the appearance of mica-schists. If there have been no pheno-
crysts in the original rock, very perfect mica-schists may be produced,
which can hardly be distinguished from sedimentary schists, though
chemically somewhat different on account of the larger amounts
of alkalis which igneous rocks contain. When phenocrysts were
present they often remain, though rounded and dragged apart
while the matrix flows around them. The glassy or felsitic en-
closures in the quartz are then very suggestive of an igneous origin
for the rock. Such porphyry-schists have been called porphyroids
or porphyroid-schists, and in America the name aporhyolite has
been used for them. They are well known in some parts of the
Alps, Westphalia, Charnwood (England), and Pennsylvania. The
h&lleflintas of Sweden are also in part acid igneous rocks with a
well-banded schistose or granulitic texture.
The quartz-porphyries are distinguished from the rhyolites by
being either intrusive rocks or Palaeozoic lavas. All Tertiary
acid lavas are included under rhyolites. The intrusive quartz-
porphyries are equally well described as granite-porphyries. The
palaeozoic effusive quartz-porphyries (or acid lavas) would be called
rhyolites by many English petrologists, who regard geological age
as of no importance in petrological classifications. But the name
quartz-porphyry, though somewhat ambiguous, is so expressive
and so firmly established by long-continued use that it cannot be
discarded, especially as a descriptive name for the use of field
geologists. (J. S. F.)
QUASSIA, the generic name given by Linnaeus to a small
tree of Surinam in honour of the negro Quassi or Coissi, who em-
ployed the intensely bitter bark of the tree (Quassia amara) as a
remedy for fever. The original quassia was officially recognized
in the London Pharmacopoeia of 1788. In 1809 it was replaced
by the bitter wood or bitter ash of Jamaica, Picraena excelsa
which was found to possess similar properties and could be
obtained in pieces of much larger size. Since that date this
wood has continued in use in Britain under the name of quassia
to the exclusion of the Surinam quassia, which, however
is still employed in France and Germany. Picraena excelsa is
a tree 50 to 60 ft. in height, and resembles the common ash in
appearance. It has large compound leaves composed of four
or five pairs, with a terminal odd one, of short-stalked, oblong,
ulunt, leathery leaflets, and inconspicuous green flowers. The
ruit consists of black shining drupes about the size of a pea.
.t is found also in other West Indian islands, as Antigua and
St Vincent. Quassia amara is a shrub or small tree belonging
o the same natural order as Picraena, viz. Simarubaceae, but
s readily distinguished by its large handsome red flowers
arranged in terminal clusters. It is a native of Panama,
Venezuela, Guiana and northern Brazil. Jamaica quassia is
mported into England in logs several feet in length and often
nearly one foot in thickness, consisting of pieces of the trunk
and larger branches. The thin greyish bark is usually removed.
The wood is nearly white, or of a yellowish tint, but sometimes
exhibits blackish markings due to the mycelium of a fungus.
The wood has a pure bitter taste, and is without odour or
aroma. It is usually to be met with in the form of turnings
or raspings, the former being obtained in the maufacture of the
' bitter cups " which are made of this wood. The chief
constituent is a bitter neutral principle known as quassin.
[t exists in the wood to the extent of about iV%- It forms
crystalline needles soluble in alkalis, chloroform and 200 parts
of water. There is also present a volatile oil. The wood con-
tains no tannin, and for this reason quassia, like chiretta and
calumba, may be preserved with iron. The infusion is useful as
a bitter tonic a group of substances of which calumba is
the type and is also a very efficient anthelmintic for the
threadworm (Oxyuris vermicularis) . It is used by brewers as
a substitute for hops.
QUATERNARY, in geology, the time - division which
embraces the Pleistocence and Holocene epochs, i.e. the later
portion of the Cainozoic era, equivalent to the " Post-Pliocene "
or " Post-Tertiary " of certain writers. The term was proposed
by J. Desnoyers in 1829 to cover those formations which were
formed just anterior to the present. There are other ways of
regarding the Quaternary time. Sir A. Geikie (Text Book of
Geology, 4th ed., 1903) divides it into an upper, post-glacial
or Human period, and a lower, Pleistocene or Glacial period;
but he subdivides the former into an Historic and a Prehistoric
epoch, a scheme presenting difficulties, for the Palaeolithic
or lower stage of prehistoric time cannot really be separated
from the Pleistocene (q.v.). E. Kayser (Formations kunde,
3rd. ed., 1906), who is in agreement with the definition accepted
above, employs a nomenclature which is rarely adopted by
British geologists; he divides the Quartarformation (Quartar)
into a younger, modern epoch, the Alluvium, and an older
epoch, the Pleistocene or Diluvium ( = Glacial) . A. de Lapparent,
on the other hand (Traite de geologie, 5th ed., 1906), treats the
Era moderne or Quaternaire as a great time division equivalent
in value to the Tertiary, Secondary, &c., which is so far
represented only by a first epoch, the Pleistocene.
QUATERNIONS, in mathematics. The word " quaternion "
properly means " a set of four." In employing such a word to
denote a new mathematical method, Sir W. R. Hamilton was
probably influenced by the recollection of its Greek equivalent,
the Pythagorean Tetractys (TerpaKriis, the number four), the
mystic source of all things. Quaternions (as a mathematical
method) is an extension, or improvement, of Cartesian geometry,
in which the artifices of co-ordinate axes, &c., are got rid of, all
directions in space being treated on precisely the same terms.
It is therefore, except in some of its degraded forms, possessed
of the perfect isotropy of Euclidian space. From the purely
geometrical point of view, a quaternion may be regarded as the
quotient of two directed lines in space or, what comes to the
same thing, as the factor, or operator, which changes one directed
line into another. Its analytical definition will appear later.
History. The evolution of quaternions belongs in part to
each of two weighty branches of mathematical history the
interpretation of the imaginary (or impossible) quantity of
common algebra, and the Cartesian application of algebra to
geometry. Sir W. R. Hamilton was led to his great invention
by keeping geometrical applications constantly before him
while he endeavoured to give a real significance to V-L We will
QUATERNIONS
719
therefore confine ourselves, so far as his predecessors are con-
cerned, to attempts at interpretation which had geometrical
applications in view.
One geometrical interpretation of the negative sign of algebra
was early seen to be mere reversal of direction along a line.
Thus, when an image is formed by a plane mirror, the distance
of any point in it from the mirror is simply the negative of that
of the corresponding point of the object. Or if motion in one
direction along a line be treated as positive, motion in the
opposite direction along the same line is negative. In the case
ot time, measured from the Christian era, this distinction is at
once given.by the letters A.D. or B.C., prefixed to the date. And
to find the position, in time, of one event relatively to another,
we have only to subtract the date of the second (taking account
of its sign) from that of the first. Thus 1 to find the interval
between the battles of Marathon (4QO B.C.) and Waterloo
(A.D. 1815) we have
+ l8l5-(-49o)=2305 years.
And it is obvious that the same process applies in all cases
in which we deal with quantities which may be regarded as of
one directed dimension only, such as distances along a line,
rotations about an axis, &c. But it is essential to notice that
this is by no means necessarily true of operators. To turn a line
through a certain angle in a given plane, a certain operator is
required; but when we wish to turn it through an equal negative
angle we must not, in general, employ the negative of the former
operator. For the negative of the operator which turns a line
through a given angle in a given plane will in all cases produce
the negative of the original result, which is not the result of the
reverse operator, unless the angle involved be an odd multiple
of a right angle. This is, of course, on the usual assumption
that the sign of a product is changed when that of any one of its
factors is changed, which merely means that-i is commutative
with all other quantities.
John Wallis seems to have been the first to push this idea
further. In his Treatise of Algebra (1685) he distinctly proposes
to construct the imaginary roots of a quadratic equation by
going out of the line on which the roots, if real, would have been
constructed.
In 1804 the Abbe Buee (Phil. Trans., 1806), apparently
without any knowledge of Wallis's work, developed this idea so
far as to make it useful in geometrical applications. He gave, in
fact, the theory of what in Hamilton's system is called Com-
position of Vectors in one plane i.e. the combination, by + and
, of complanar directed lines. His constructions are based on
the idea' that the imaginaries =t V i represent a unit line, and
its reverse, perpendicular to the line on which the real units
=*= i are measured. In this sense the imaginary expression
a + b V i is constructed by measuring a length a along the
fundamental line (for real quantities), and from its extremity a
line of length b in some direction perpendicular to the funda-
mental line. But he did not attack the question of the repre-
sentation of products or quotients of directed lines. The step he
took is really nothing more than the kinematical principle of
the composition of linear velocities, but expressed in terms of the
algebraic imaginary.
In 1806 (the year of publication of BueVs paper) Jean Robert
Argand published a pamphlet 2 in which precisely the same
ideas are developed, but to a considerably greater extent. For
an interpretation is assigned to the product of two directed lines
in one plane, when each is expressed as the sum of a real and an
imaginary part. This product is interpreted as another directed
line, forming the fourth term of a proportion, of which the first
1 Strictly speaking, this illustration of Tait's is in error by unity
because In our calendar there is no year denominated zero. Thus
the interval between June the first of i B.C. and June the first of
i A.D. is one year, and not two years as the text implies. (A.McA.)
1 Essai sur une maniere He rcprisenter let Quantites Imaginaires
dans les Constructions Geometriquts. A second edition was published
by J. Houel (Paris, 1874). There is added an important Appendix,
consisting of the papers from Gergonne's Annales which are referred
to in the text above. Almost nothing can, it seems, be learned of
Argand's private life, except that in all probability he was born at
Geneva in 1768.
term is the real (positive) unit-line, and the other two are the
factor-lines. Argand's work remained unnoticed until the
question was again raised in Gergonne's Annales, 1813, by
J. F. Franjais. This writer stated that he had found the germ
of his remarks among the papers of his deceased brother, and
that they had come from Legendre, who had himself received
them from some one unnamed. This led to a letter from
Argand, in which he stated his communications with Legendre,
and gave a resume of the contents of his pamphlet. In a further
communication to the Annales, Argand pushed on the applica-
tions of his theory. He has given by means of it a simple proof
of the existence of roots, and no more, in every rational
algebraic equation of the th order with real coefficients. About
1828 John Warren (1796-1852) in England, and C. V. Mourey in
France, independently of one another and of Argand, reinvented
these modes of interpretation; and still later, in the writings of
Cauchy, Gauss and others, the properties of the expression
a + b V i were developed into the immense and most important
subject now called the theory of complex numbers (see NUMBER).
From the more purely symbolical view it was developed by
Peacock, De Morgan, &c., as double algebra.
Argand's method may be put, for reference, in the following
form. The directed line whose length is a, and which makes an
anglefl with the real (positive) unit line, is expressed by a(cps0+ sin 6),
where i is regarded as + V i - The sum of two such lines (formed
by adding together the real and the imaginary parts of two such
expressions) can, of course, be expressed as a third directed line)
the diagonal of the parallelogram of which they are conterminous
sides. The product, P, of two such lines is, as we have seen, given
by i:a(cose + sin0) : : a'(cos0' + t sin 6'): P,
or P = aa'|cos(0+ ') + ' sin (+')}.
Its length is, therefore, the product of the lengths of the factors,
and its inclination to the real unit is the sum of those of the factors.
If we write the expressions for the two lines in the form A+B*,
A'+B'i, the product is AA'-BB'+t(AB'+BA'); and the fact
that the length of the product line is the product of those of the
factors is seen in the form
(A'+B)(A' 2 +B' 2 ) = (AA'-BB') 2 +(AB'+BA')*.
In the modern theory of complex numbers this is expressed by
saying that the Norm of a product is equal to the product of the
norms of the factors.
Argand's attempts to extend his method to space generally
were fruitless. The reasons will be obvious later; but we
mention them just now because they called forth from F. J.
Servois (Gergonne's Annales, 1813) a very remarkable comment,
in which was contained the only yet discovered trace of an
anticipation of the method of Hamilton. Argand had been
led to deny that such an expression as i* could be expressed
in the form A+Bj, although, as is well known, Euler showed
that one of its values is a real quantity, the exponential function
of ir/2. Servois says, with reference to the general representa-
tion of a directed line in space:
" L'analogie semblerait exiger que le trinome fQt de la forme
p cos a+q cos ft+r cos 7: o, 0, y 6tant les angles d'une droite avec
trois axes rectangulaires; et qu'on edt
(p cos a. + q cos (3 + r cos y)(p' cos a + q' cos ft + r' cos 7)
= cos*a-f-cos 2 /3+cos 2 7 = i. Les valeurs de p, q, r, p', q,' r', qui
satisferaient a cette condition seraient absurdes; mais seraient-elies
imaginaires, reductibles a la forme ge'ndrale A+BV I? Voila
une question d'analyse fort singuliere que je soumets a vos lumieres.
La simple proposition que je vous en fais suffit pour vous faire voir
que je ne crois point que toute fonction analytique non reelle soit
vraiment reductible a la forme A+B V I."
As will be seen later, the fundamental *', j, k of quarternions,
with their reciprocals, furnish a set of six quantities which
satisfy the conditions imposed by Servois. And it is quite
certain that they cannot be represented by ordinary imaginaries.
Something far more closely analogous to quaternions than
anything in Argand's work ought to have been suggested by
De Moivre's theorem (1730). Instead of regarding, as Bu6e
and Argand had done, the expression o(cos 9 + i sin 6) as a
directed line, let us suppose it to represent the operator which,
when applied to any line in the plane in which 6 is measured,
turns it in that plane through the angle 6, and at the same
time increases its length in the ratio a : i. From the new
point of view we see at once, as it were, why it is true that
(cos 0+ ' sin )" =cos m8+ i sin W0.
720
QUATERNIONS
For this equation merely states that m turnings of a line
through successive equal angles, in one plane, give the same
result as a single turning through m times the common angle.
To make this process applicable to any plane in space, it is
clear that we must have a special value of i for each such plane.
In other words, a unit line, drawn in any direction whatever,
must have i for its square. In such a system there will be
no line in space specially distinguished as the real unit line:
all will be alike imaginary, or rather alike real. We may
state, in passing, that every quaternion can be represented as
a (cos 0+7T sin 6), where a is a real number, 6 a real angle,
and ir a directed unit line whose square is i. Hamilton
took this grand step, but, as we have already said, without
any help from the previous work of De Moivre. The course
of his investigations is minutely described in the preface to
his first great work (Lectures on Quaternions, 1853) on the
subject. Hamilton, like most of the many inquirers who
endeavoured to give a real interpretation to the imaginary of
common algebra, found that at least two kinds, orders or
ranks of quantities were necessary for the purpose. But,
instead of dealing with points on a line, and then wandering
out at right angles to it, as Buee and Argand had done, he
chose to look on algebra as the science of " pure time," 1 and
to investigate the properties of " sets " of time-steps. In its
essential nature a set is a linear function of any number of
" distinct " units of the same species. Hence the simplest
form of a set is a " couple "; and it was to the possible laws
of combination of couples that Hamilton first directed his
attention. It is obvious that the way in which the two
separate time-steps are involved in the couple will determine
these laws of combination. But Hamilton's special object
required that these laws should be such as to lead to certain
assumed results; and he therefore commenced by assuming
these, and from the assumption determined how the separate
time-steps must be involved in the couple. It we use Roman
letters for mere numbers, capitals for instants of time, Greek
letters for time-steps, and a parenthesis to denote a couple,
the laws assumed by Hamilton as the basis of a system were as
follows:
(B,, B 2 )-(A,, A 2 ) = (B,-A 1 , B 2 -A 2 ) = (o, 0);
(a, b) (a,/3) = (aa-b/J, ba+a/3).'
To show how we give, by such assumptions, a real interpreta-
tion to the ordinary algebraic imaginary, take the simple
case a=o, b= i, and the second of the above formulae gives
(o, i)(a,/J) = (-/3, a).
Multiply once more by the number-couple (o, i), and we have
Thus the number-couple (o, i), when twice applied to a
step-couple, simply changes its sign. That we have here
a perfectly real and intelligible interpretation of the ordinary
algebraic imaginary is easily seen by an illustration, even if
it be a somewhat extravagant one. Some Eastern potentate,
possessed of absolute power, covets the vast possessions of his
vizier and of his barber. He determines to rob them both
(an operation which may be very satisfactorily expressed by
i); but, being a wag, he chooses his own way of doing it.
He degrades his vizier to the office of barber, taking all his
goods in the process; and makes the barber his vizier. Next
day he repeats the operation. Each of the victims has been
restored to his former rank, but the operator i has been
applied to both.
Hamilton, still keeping prominently before him as his great
object the invention of a method applicable to space of three
dimensions, proceeded to study the properties of triplets of
the form x+iy-\-jz, by which he proposed to represent the
directed line in space whose projections on the co-ordinate axes
are x, y, z. The composition of two such lines by the algebraic
1 Theory of Conjugate Functions, or Algebraic Couples, with a Pre-
liminary and Elementary Essay on Algebra as the Science of Pure
Time, read in 1833 and 1835, and published in Trans. R. I. A.
xvii. ii. (1835).
1 Compare these with the long-subsequent ideas of Grassmann.
addition of their several projections agreed with the assumption
of Buee and Argand for the case of coplanar lines. But,
assuming the distributive principle, the product of two lines
appeared to give the expression
xx'-yy'-zz'+i(yx'+xy")+j(xz'+zx')+ij(yz'+z y '-).
For the square of j, like that of i, was assumed to be negative
unity. But the interpretation of ij presented a difficulty
in fact the main difficulty of the whole investigation and it
is specially interesting to see how Hamilton attacked it. He
saw that he could get a hint from the simpler case, already
thoroughly discussed, provided the two factor lines were in
one plane through the real unit line. This requires merely
that
y : z :: y' : z' ; or yz'zy'=o;
but then the product should be of the same form as the separate
factors. Thus, in this special case, the term in ij ought to
vanish. But the numerical factor appears to be yz'+zy', while
it is the quantity yz'zy' which really vanishes. Hence Hamil-
ton was at first inclined to think that ij must be treated as nil.
But he soon saw that " a less harsh supposition " would suit
the simple case. For his speculations on sets had already
familiarized him with the idea that multiplication might in
certain cases not be commutative; so that, as the last term
in the above product is made up of the two separate terms
ijyz' a.ndjizy', the term would vanish of itself when the factor-
lines are coplanar provided ij= ji, for it would then assume
the form ij(yz' zy'). He had now the following expression
for the product of any two directed lines:
xx' -yy'-zz'+i(yx'+ xy") +j(xz'+zx") +ij (yz r -zy').
But his result had to be submitted to another test, the Law of
the Norms. As soon as he found, by trial, that this law was
satisfied, he took the final step. " This led me," he says, " to
conceive that perhaps, instead of seeking to confine ourselves to
triplets, ... we ought to regard these as only imperfect forms
of Quaternions, . . . and that thus my old conception of sets
might receive a new and useful application." In a very short
time he settled his fundamental assumptions. He had now
three distinct space-units, i, j, k; and the following conditions
regulated their combination by multiplication:
&=]* = & i, ij= ji = k,jk = kj=i, ki= ik=j.'
And now the product of two quaternions could be at once
expressed as a third quaternion, thus
(o +ib +jc +kd) (a'+ib'+jc'+kd") = A -HB +JC +kD,
where
A = aa'-bb'-cc'-dd',
B=ab'+ba'+cd'dc',
C=ac'+ca'+db'-bd',
D=ad'+da'+bc'-cb'.
Hamilton at once found that the Law of the Norms holds,
not being aware that Euler had long before decomposed the
product of two sums of four squares into this very set of four
squares. And now a directed line in space came to be repre-
sented as ix+jy+kz, while the product of two lines is the
quaternion
-(xx'+yy'+zz r )+i(yz'-zy r )+j(zx'-xz r )+k(xy'- y x").
To any one acquainted, even to a slight extent, with the ele-
ments of Cartesian geometry of three dimensions, a glance at
the extremely suggestive constituents of this expression shows
how justly Hamilton was entitled to say: " When the con-
ception . . . had been so far unfolded and fixed in my mind,
I felt that the new instrument for applying calculation to geo-
metry, for which I had so long sought, was now, at least in part,
attained." The date of this memorable discovery is October 16,
1843.
Suppose, for simplicity, the factor-lines to be each of unit length.
Then x, y, z, x 1 , y', z' express their direction-cosines. Also, if be
the angle between them, and x", y", z* the direction-cosines of a
line perpendicular to each of them, we have xx'+yy'+zz' = cos 9,
yz'zy* = x* sin 8, &c., so that the product of two unit lines is now
expressed as cos9+(ix"-\-jy"+kz") sin 0. Thus, when the factors
' It will be easy to see that, instead of the last three of these, we
may write the single one ijk = i.
QUATERNIONS
721
are parallel, or 8 = 0, the product, which is now the square of any
(unit) line is I. And when the two factor lines are at right angles
to one another, or = ir/2, the product is simply ix* + iy'+kz', the
perpendicular to both. Hence, and in this lies the main
element of the symmetry and simplicity of the quaternion calculus,
all systems of three mutually rectangular unit lines in space have
the same properties as the fundamental system i, j, k. In other
words, if the system (considered as rigid) be made to turn about
till the first factor coincides with * and the second with j, the pro-
duct will coincide with k. This fundamental system, therefore,
becomes unnecessary; and the quaternion method, in every case,
takes its reference lines solely from the problem to which it is
applied. It has therefore, as it were, a unique internal character
of its own.
Hamilton, having gone thus far, proceeded to evolve these results
from a characteristic train of a priori or metaphysical reasoning.
Let it be supposed that the product of two directed lines is some-
thing which has quantity; i.e. it may be halved, or doubled, for
instance. Also let us assume (a) space to have the same properties
in all directions, and make the convention (6) that to change the
sign of any one factor changes the sign of a product. Then the
product of two lines which have the same direction cannot be, even
in part, a directed quantity. For, if the directed part have the same
direction as the factors, (ft) -shows that it will be reversed by re-
versing either, and therefore will recover its original direction when
both are reversed. But this would obviously be inconsistent
with (a). If it be perpendicular to the factor lines, (a) shows that
it must have simultaneously every such direction. Hence it must
be a mere number.
Again, the product of two lines at right angles to one another
cannot, even in part, be a number. For the reversal of either factor
must, by (6), change its sign. But, if we look at the two factors
in their new position by the light of (a), we see that the sign must
not change. But there is nothing to prevent its being represented
by a directed line if, as further applications of (a) and (6) show we
must do, we take it perpendicular to each of the factor lines. Hamilton
seems never to have been quite satisfied with the apparent hetero-
geneity of a quaternion, depending as it does on a numerical and
a directed part. He indulged in a great deal of speculation as to
the existence of an extra-spatial unit, which was to furnish the
ration d'itre of the numerical part, and render the quaternion
homogeneous as well as linear. But for this we must refer to his
own works.
Hamilton was not the only worker at the theory of sets. The
year after the first publication of the quaternion method, there
appeared a work of great originality, by Grassmann, 1 in which
results closely analogous to some of those of Hamilton were
given. In particular, two species of multiplication (" inner "
and " outer ") of directed lines in one plane were given. The
results of these two kinds of multiplication correspond respec-
tively to the numerical and the directed parts of Hamilton's
quaternion product. But Grassmann distinctly states in his
preface that he had not had leisure to extend his method to
angles in space. Hamilton and Grassmann, while their earlier
work had much in common, had very different objects in view.
Hamilton had geometrical application as his main object; when
he realized the quaternion system, he felt that his object was
gained, and thenceforth confined himself to the development
of his methqd. Grassmann's object seems to have been, all
along, of a much more ambitious character, viz. to discover, if
possible, a system or systems in which every conceivable mode
of dealing with sets should be included. That he made very
great advances towards the attainment of this object all will
allow; that his method, even as completed in 1862, fully
attains it is not so certain. But his claims, however great they
may be, can in no way conflict with those of Hamilton, whose
mode of multiplying couples (in which the " inner " and " outer "
multiplication are essentially involved) was produced in 1833,
and whose quaternion system was completed and published
before Grassmann had elaborated for press even the rudimentary
portions of his own system, in which the veritable difficulty of
the whole subject, the application to angles in space, had not
even been attacked. Grassmann made in 1854 a somewhat
savage onslaught on Cauchy and De St Venant, the former of
whom had invented, while the latter had exemplified in applica-
tion, the system of " clefs algfbriques," which is almost precisely
1 Die Ausdehnungslehre, Leipsic, 1844; 2nd ed., vollstandig und
in stronger Form bearbeitet, Berlin, 1862. See also the collected
works of Mobius, and those of Clifford, for a general explanation of
Grassmann's method.
that of Grassmann. But it is to be observed that Grassmann,
though he virtually accused Cauchy of plagiarism, does not
appear to have preferred any such charge against Hamilton.
He does not allude to Hamilton in the second edition of his
work. But in 1877, in the Matttematische Annalen, xii., he
gave a paper "On the Place of Quaternions in the Ausdeh-
nungslehre," in which he condemns, as far as he can, the nomen-
clature and methods of Hamilton.
There are many other systems, based on various principles, which
have been given for application to geometry of directed lines, but
those which deal with products of lines are all of such complexity
as to be practically useless in application. Others, such as the
Barycentrische Calciil of Mobius, and the Methodc des equipollences
of Bellavitis, give elegant modes of treating space problems, so
long as we confine ourselves to prpjective geometry and matters of
that order; but they are limited in their field, and therefore need
not be discussed here. More general systems, having close analogies
to quaternions, have been given since Hamilton's discovery was
published. As instances we may take Goodwin's and O'Brien's
papers in the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions for 1849. (See
also ALGEBRA: special kinds.)
Relations to other Branches of Science. The above narrative
shows how close is the connexion between quaternions and the
ordinary Cartesian space-geometry. Were this all, the gain by
their introduction would consist mainly in a clearer insight into
the mechanism of co-ordinate systems, rectangular or not a
very important addition to theory, but little advance so far as
practical application is concerned. But, as yet, we have not
taken advantage of the perfect symmetry of the method.
When that is done, the full value of Hamilton's grand step
becomes evident, and the gain is quite as extensive from the
practical as from the theoretical point of view. Hamilton, in
fact, remarks, 2 " I regard it as an inelegance and imperfection
in this calculus, or rather in the state to which it has hitherto
been unfolded, whenever it becomes, or seems to become,
necessary to have recourse ... to the resources of ordinary
algebra, for the solution of equations in quaternions." This
refers to the use of the x, y, z co-ordinates, associated, of course,
with i,j, k. But when, instead of the highly artificial expression
ix-\-jy-\-kz, to denote a finite directed line, we employ a single
letter, a (Hamilton uses the Greek alphabet for this purpose),
and find that we are permitted to deal with it exactly as we
should have dealt with the more complex expression, the
immense gain is at least in part obvious. Any quaternion may
now be expressed in numerous simple forms. Thus we may
regard it as the sum of a number and a line, a+a, or as the
product, j3-y, or the quotient, 5-', of two directed lines, &c.,
while, in many cases, we may represent it, so far as it is required,
by a single letter such as q, r, &c.
Perhaps to the student there is no part of elementary mathe-
matics so repulsive as is spherical trigonometry. Also, every-
thing relating to change of systems of axes, as for instance in
the kinematics of a rigid system, where we have constantly to
consider one set of rotations with regard to axes fixed in space,
and another set with regard to axes fixed in the system, is a
matter of troublesome complexity by the usual methods. But
every quaternion formula is a proposition in spherical (sometimes
degrading to plane) trigonometry, and has the full advantage of
the symmetry of the method. And one of Hamilton's earliest
advances in the study of his system (an advance independently
made, only a few months later, by Arthur Cayley) was the
interpretation of the singular operator q( )q- 1 , where q is a
quaternion. Applied to any directed line, this operator at once
turns it, conically, through a definite angle, about a definite
axis. Thus rotation is now expressed in symbols at least as
simply as it can be exhibited by means of a model. Had
quaternions effected nothing more than this, they would still
have inaugurated one of the most necessary, and apparently
impracticable, of reforms.
The physical properties of a heterogeneous body (provided
they vary continuously from point to point) are known to depend,
in the neighbourhood of any one point of the body, on a quadric
function of the co-ordinates with reference to that point. The
1 Lectures on Quaternions, 513.
722
QUATERNIONS
same is true of physical quantities such as potential, temperature,
&c., throughout small regions in which their variations are
continuous; and also, without restriction of dimensions, of
moments of inertia, &c. Hence, in addition to its geometrical
applications to surfaces of the second order, the theory of quadric
functions of position is of fundamental importance in physics.
Here the symmetry points at once to the selection of the three
principal axes as the directions for *, /, k; and it would appear
at first sight as if quaternions could not simplify, though they
might improve in elegance, the solution of questions of this
kind. But it is not so. Even in Hamilton's earlier work it
was shown that all such questions were reducible to the solution
of linear equations in quaternions; and he proved that this, in
turn, depended on the determination of a certain operator,
which could be represented for purposes of calculation by a
single symbol. The method is essentially the same as that
developed, under the name of " matrices," by Cayley in 1858;
but it has the peculiar advantage of the simplicity which is
the natural consequence of entire freedom from conventional
reference lines.
Sufficient has already been said to show the close connexion
between quaternions and the theory of numbers. But one
most important connexion with modern physics must be pointed
out. In the theory of surfaces, in hydrokinetics, heat-con-
duction, potentials, &c., we constantly meet with what is called
d? d? d?
" Laplace's operator," viz. ^" r "^" r "T2- We know that this
is an invariant; i.e. it is independent of the particular directions
chosen for the rectangular co-ordinate axes. Here, then, is a
case specially adapted to the isotropy of the quaternion system;
and Hamilton easily saw that the 'expression *j~+Jj~ + *J"
could be, like ix+jy+kz, effectively expressed by a single
letter. He chose for this purpose V. And we now see that the
square of V is the negative of Laplace's operator; while V itself,
when applied to any numerical quantity conceived as having a
definite value at each point of space, gives the direction and the
rate of most rapid change of that quantity. Thus, applied to
a potential, it gives the direction and magnitude of the force;
to a distribution of temperature in a conducting solid, it gives
(when multiplied by the conductivity) the flux of heat, &c.
No better testimony to the value of the quaternion method could
be desired than the constant use made of its notation by mathe-
maticians like Clifford (in his Kinematic) and by physicists like Clerk-
Maxwell (in his Electricity and Magnetism). Neither of these men
professed to employ the calculus itself, but they recognized fully
the extraordinary clearness of insight which is gained even by
merely translating the unwieldy Cartesian expressions met with
in hydrokinetics and in electrodynamics into the pregnant language
of quaternions. (P. G. T.)
Supplementary Considerations. There are three fairly well-
marked stages of development in quaternions as a geometrical
method, (i) Generation of the concept through imaginaries
and development into a method applicable to Euclidean
geometry. This was the work of Hamilton himself, and the
above account (contributed to the gth ed. of the Ency. Brit, by
Professor P. G. Tait, who was Hamilton's pupil and after him
the leading exponent of the subject) is a brief resume of this
first, and by far the most important and most difficult, of the
three stages. (2) Physical applications. Tait himself may be
regarded as the chief contributor to this stage. (3) Geometrical
applications, different in kind from, though more or less allied
to, those in connexion with which the method was originated.
These last include (a) C. J. Joly's projective geometrical applica-
tions starting from the interpretation of the quaternion as a
point-symbol; 1 these applications may be said to require no
addition to the quaternion algebra; (b) W. K. Clifford's bi-
quaternions and G. Combebiac's tri-quaternions, which require
the addition of quasi-scalars, independent of one another and of
true scalars, and analogous to true scalars. As an algebraic
1 It appears from J[oly's and Macfarlane's references that J. B.
Shaw, in America, independently of Joly, has interpreted the
quaternion as a point-symbol.
method quaternions have from the beginning received much
attention from mathematicians. An attempt has recently been
made under the name of multenions to systematize this algebra.
We select for description stage (3) above, as the most char-
acteristic development of quaternions in recent years. For
(3) (a) we are constrained to refer the reader to Joly's own
Manual of Quaternions (1905).
The impulse of W. K. Clifford in his paper of 1873 (" Pre-
liminary Sketch of Bi-Quaternions," Mathematical Papers,
p. 181) seems to have come from Sir R. S. Ball's paper on the
Theory of Screws, published in 1872. Clifford makes use of a
quasi-scalar co, commutative with quaternions, and such that if
p,q,8tc., are quaternions, when p+uq = p' -\-aiq', then necessarily
P = P'> <? = ?' He considers two cases, viz. co 2 =i suitable
for non-Euclidean space, and co 2 =o suitable for Euclidean
space; we confine ourselves to the second, and will call the
indicated bi-quaternion p+uq an octonion. In octonions the
analogue of Hamilton's vector is localized to the extent of being
confined to an indefinitely long axis parallel to itself, and is
called a rotor; if p is a rotor then cop is parallel and equal to p,
and, like Hamilton's vector, cop is not localized; cop is therefore
called a vector, though it differs from Hamilton's vector in that
the product of any two such vectors cop and cocr is zero because
co 2 = o . p+coo- where p, er are rotors (i.e. p is a rotor and coer a
vector), is called a motor, and has the geometrical significance of
Ball's wrench upon, or twist about, a screw. Clifford considers
an octonion p+wq as the quotient of two motors p+coo- , p'+coa'.
This is the basis of a method parallel throughout to the
quaternion method; in the specification of rotors and motors
it is independent of the origin which for these purposes the
quaternion method, pure and simple, requires.
Combebiac is not content with getting rid of the origin in
these limited circumstances. The fundamental geometrical
conceptions are the point, line and plane. Lines and com-
plexes thereof are sufficiently treated as rotors and motors,
but points and planes cannot be so treated. He glances at
Grassmann's methods, but is repelled because he is seeking
a unifying principle, and he finds that Grassmann offers him
not one but many principles. He arrives at the tri-quaternion
as the suitable fundamental concept.
We believe that this tri-quaternion solution of the very
interesting problem proposed by Combebiac is the best one.
But the first thing that strikes one is that it seems unduly
complicated. A point and a plane fix a line or axis, viz.
that of the perpendicular from point to plane, and therefore
a calculus of points and planes is ipso facto a calculus of lines
also. To fix a weighted point and a weighted plane in
Euclidean space we require 8 scalars, and not the 12 scalars
of a tri-quaternion. We should expect some species of bi-
quaternion to suffice. And this is the case. Let i\, co be two
quasi-scalars such that if=ii, cor/=co, j)co=co 2 =o. Then the bi-
quaternion ijq+ur suffices. The plane is of vector magni-
tude JVcj, its equation is %Spq=Sr, and its expression is the
bi-quaternion ^Vtr+coSr; the point is of scalar magnitude
Scj, and its position vector is 0, where %Vflq=Vr (or what is
the same, fl = [Vr+q.Vr. g^l/Sj^anditS expression is ijSq+uVr.
(Note that the here occurring is only required to ensure
harmony with tri-quaternions of which our present bi-
quaternions, as also octonions, are particular cases.) The
point whose position vector is Vrq' 1 is on the axis and may
be called the centre of the bi-quaternion; it is the centre of a
sphere of radius Srq~ l with reference to which the point and
plane are in the proper quaternion sense polar reciprocals,
that is, the position vector of the point relative to the centre
is Srq~ l . Vq/Sq, and that of the foot of perpendicular from
centre on plane is Srcf 1 . Sq/Vq, the product being the (radius) 2 ,
that is (Srq~ 1 ) 2 . The axis of the member zQ+a/Q' of the
second-order complex Q, Q' (where Q=t}q+a>r, Q^ij^+co/
and x, y! are scalars) is parallel to a fixed plane and intersects
a fixed transversal, viz. the line parallel to q'q- 1 which
intersects the axes of Q and Q'; the plane of the member
contains a fixed line; the centre is on a fixed ellipse which
QUATORZAIN QUATREFAGES DE BREAU
723
intersects the transversal; the axis is on a fixed ruled surface
to which the plane of the ellipse is a tangent plane, the ellipse
being the section of the ruled surface by the plane; the ruled
surface is a cylindroid deformed by a simple shear parallel
to the transversal. In the third-order complex the centre
locus becomes a finite closed quartic surface, with three (one
always real) intersecting nodal axes, every plane section of
which is a trinodal quartic. The chief defect of the geometrica
properties of these bi-quaternions is that the ordinary algebraic
scalar finds no place among them, and in consequence Q" 1 is
meaningless.
Putting in= we get Combebiac's tri-quaternion under
the form Q= p+ijq+wr. This has a reciprocal Q~>= />-i=
-<ap- l rq~ l , and a conjugate KQ (such that K[QQ']
KQ'KQ, K[KQ] = Q) given by KQ= tKq+r,Kp+uKr; the
product QQ' of Q and Q' is pp'+wq'+u(pr'+rq'); the
quasi-vector j(i K)Q is Combebiac's linear element and may
be regarded as a point on a line; the quasi-scalar (in a different
sense from the rest of this article) i(i-f-K)Q is Combebiac
scalar (Sp+Sq) + Combebiac's plane. Combebiac does not use
K; and in place of {, t\ he uses V.=T\ , so that fj?= i,w/j=
=, w 2 = o. Combebiac's tri-quaternion may be regarded from
many simplifying points of view. Thus, in place of his general
tri-quaternion we might deal with products of an odd number
of point-plane-scalars (of form pq+ur) which are themselves
point-plane-scalars; and products of an even number which
are octonions; the quotient of two point-plane-scalars would
be an octonion, of two octonions an octonion, of an octonion
by a point-plane-scalar or the inverse a point-plane-scalar.
Again a unit point n may be regarded as by multiplication
changing (a) from octonion to point-plane-scalar, (6) from
point-plane-scalar to octonion, (c) from plane-scalar to linear
element, (d) from linear element to plane-scalar.
If Q=/>+77<?+wr and we put Q=(i+|to<) (/>+??) X
(i+fat)- 1 we find that the quaternion / must be 2/(r) //(?/>),
where f(r)=rq-Kpr. The point p=V/ may be called the
centre of Q and the length St may be called the radius. If
Q and Q' are commutative, that is, if QQ' = Q'Q, then Q and
Q' have the same centre and the same radius. Thus Q" 1 ,
Q Q 2 . Q 3 - have a common centre and common radius.
Q and KQ have a common centre and equal and opposite
radii; that is, the t of KQ is the negative conjugate of that
of Q. When S = o, (i+fau) ( ) (i+Jww)" 1 is an operator
which shifts (without further change) the tri-quaternion
operand an amount given by u in direction and distance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. In 1904 Alexander Macfarlane published a
Bibliography of Quaternions and allied systems of Mathematics for
the I nternational Association for promoting the study of Quaternions
and allied systems of Mathematics (Dublin University Press);
the pamphlet contains 86 pages. In 1899 and 1901 Sir W. R.
Hamilton's classical Elements of Quaternions of 1866 was republished
under C. J. Joly's editorship, in two volumes (London). Joly adds
valuable notes and thirteen important apjpendices. In 1890 the
3rd edition of P. G. Tail's Elementary Treatise on Quaternions
appeared (Cambridge). In 1905 C. J. Joly published his Manual
of Quaternions (London) ; the valuable contents of this are doubled
by copious so-called examples; every earnest student should take
these as part of the main treatise. The above three treatises may
be regarded as the great storehouses; the handling of the subject
s very different in the three. The following should also be
mentioned: A. McAulay, Octonions, a development of Clifford's
Bi-quaternions (Cambridge, 1898); G. Combebiac, Cakul des
trtquaternions (Paris, 1002); Don Francisco Perez de Munoz,
Introduccion al e studio del cdlculo de Cuaterniones y otras Algebras
especiales (Madrid, 1905) ; A. McAulay, Algebra after Hamilton, or
Multentons (Edinburgh, 1908). (A. McA.)
QUATORZAIN (from Fr. quatorze, fourteen), the term used
in English literature, as opposed to " sonnet," for a poem in
fourteen rhymed iambic lines closing (as a sonnet strictly
never does) with a couplet. The distinction was long neglected,
because the English poets of the i6th century had failed to
apprehend the true form of the sonnet, arid called Petrarch's
and other Italian poets' sonnets quatorzains, and their own
incorrect quatorzains sonnets. Almost all the so-called sonnets
of the Elizabethan cycles, including those of Shakespeare,
Sidney, Spenser and Daniel, are really quatorzains. They
consist of three quatrains of alternate rhyme, not repeated in
the successive quatrains, and the whole closes with a couplet.
A more perfect example of the form could hardly be found
than the following, published by Michael Drayton in 1602:
Dear, why should you commend me to my rest,
When now the night doth summon all to sleep?
Methinks this time becometh lovers best;
Night was ordained together friends to keep.
How happy are all other living things
Which though the day conjoin by several flight,
The quiet evening yet together brings.
And each returns unto his love at night,
O thou that art so courteous unto all.
Why should'st thou, Night, abuse me only thus.
That every creature to his kind dost call,
And yet 'tis thou dost only sever us?
Well could I wish it would be ever day,
If, when night comes, you bid me go away.
Donne, and afterwards Milton, fought against the facility
and incorrectness of this form of metre and adopted the Italian
form of sonnet. During the igth century, most poets of
distinction prided themselves on following the strict Petrarchan
model of the sonnet, and particularly in avoiding the final
couplet. In his most mature period, however, Keats returned
to the quatorzain, perhaps in emulation with Shakespeare;
and some of his examples, such as " When I have fears,"
" Standing aloof in giant ignorance," and " Bright Star," are
the most beautiful in modern literature. The " Fancy in
Nubibus," written by S. T. Coleridge in 1819, also deserves
notice as a quatorzain of peculiar beauty.
QUATRAIN, sometimes spelt Quartain (from Fr. quatre,
four), a piece of verse complete in four rhymed lines. The
length or measure of the verse is immaterial, but they must be
bound together by a rhyme-arrangement. This form has
always been popular for use in the composition of epigrams,
on account of its brevity and neatness, and may be considered
as a modification of the Greek or Latin epigram at its concisest.
QUATREFAGES DE BREAU, JEAN LOUIS ARMAND DE
(1810-1892), French naturalist, was born at Berthezene, near
Vallerangue (Card), on the loth of February 1810, the son of a
Protestant farmer. He studied medicine at Strassburg, where
he took the double degree of M.D. and D.Sc., one of his theses
being a Theorie d'un coup de canon (November 1829); next
year he published a book, Sur les airolilhes, and in 1832 a
treatise on L' Extroversion de la vessie. Removing to Toulouse,
he practised medicine for a short time, and contributed various
memoirs to the local Journal de mtdecine and to the Ann ales
des sciences naturelles (1834-36). But being unable to con-
tinue his researches in the provinces, he resigned the chair of
zoology to which he had been appointed, and in 1839 settled
in Paris, where he found in H. Milne-Edwards a patron and
a friend. Elected professor of natural history at the Lyc6e
Napoleon in 1850, he became a member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1852, and in 1855 was called to the chair of anthro-
pology and ethnography at the Musee d'histoire naturelle.
Other distinctions followed rapidly, and continued to the end
of his otherwise uneventful career, the more important being
honorary member of the Royal Society of London (June 1879),
member of the Institute and of the Acadfimie de m6decine, and
commander of the Legion of Honour (1881). He died in
Paris on the i2th of January 1892. He was an accurate
observer and unwearied collector of zoological materials, gifted
with remarkable descriptive power, and possessed of a clear,
vigorous style, but somewhat deficient in deep philosophic
nsight. Hence his serious .studies on the anatomical characters
of the lower and higher organisms, man included, will retain their
value, while many of his theories and generalizations, especially
in the department of ethnology, are already forgotten.
The work of de Quatrefages ranged over the whole field of zoology
rom the annelids and other low organisms to the anthropoids and
nan. Of his numerous essays in scientific periodicals, the more
mportant were: Considerations sur Us caracteres toologiques des
ongfurs (1840) ; " De 1'organisation des animaux sans vertebres
des Cotes de la Manche " (Ann. Sc. Nat., 1844); " Recherches sur
724
QUATREFOIL QUEBEC
le systeme nerveux, 1'embryogenie, les organs des sens, et la
circulation des annelides " (Ibid., 1844-50); " Sur les affinity's et
les analogies des lombrics et des sangsues " (Ibid.); "Sur
1'histoire naturelle des tarets " (Ibid., 1848-49). Then there is
the vast series issued under the general title of " Etudes sur les
types inferieurs de I'embranchement des anneles," and the results
of several scientific expeditions to the Atlantic and Mediterranean
coastlahds, Italy and Sicily, forming a series of articles in the
Revue des deux mondes, or embodied in the Souvenirs d'un natural-
iste (2 vols., 1854). These were followed in quick succession by
the Physiologie comparee, metamorphoses de I'homme et des animaux
(1862); Les Polynesians et leurs migrations (1866); Histoire
naturelle des anneUs marins et de Veau douce (2 vols., 1866); La
Rochelle et ses environs (1866); Rapport sur les progres de I'anthro-
pologie (1867); Ch. Darwin et ses precurseurs fran$ais (1870), a
study of evolution in which the writer takes somewhat the same
attitude as A. R. Wallace, combating the Darwinian doctrine in
its application to man; La Race prussienne (1871); Crania Ethnica,
jointly with Dr Hamy (2 vols., with 100 plates, 1875-82), a classical
work based on French and foreign anthropological data, analogous
to the Crania Britannica of Thurnam and Davis, and to S. G. Mor-
ton's Crania Americana and Crania Aegyptiaca; L'Espece humaine
(1877); Nouvelles Etudes sur la distribution geographique des
negntos (1882); Hommes fossiles et hommes sauvages (1884);
and Histoire generale des races humaines (2 vols., 1886-89), the first
volume being introductory, while the second attempts a complete
classification of mankind.
QUATREFOIL, in Gothic architecture, the piercing of tracery
in a window or balustrade with small semicircular openings
known as " foils "; the intersection of these foils is termed the
cusp.
QUATREMERE, 6TIENNE MARC (1782-1857), French
Orientalist, the son of a Parisian merchant, was born in Paris
on the i2th of July 1782. Employed in 1807 in the manuscript
department of the imperial library, he passed to the chair of
Greek in Rouen in 1809, entered the Academy of Inscriptions in
1815, taught Hebrew and Aramaic in the College de France
from 1819, and finally in 1827 became professor of Persian in
the School of Living Oriental Languages.
Quatremere's first work was Recherches . . . sur la langue et la
litterature de I'Egypte (1808), showing that the language of ancient
Egypt must be sought in Coptic. His translation of Makrizi's
Arabic history of the Mameluke sultans (2 vols., 183741) shows his
erudition at the best. He published among other works Memoires
sur les Nabateens (1835); a translation of Rashid al-DIn's Hist,
des Mongols de la Perse (1836); Mem. geog. et hist, sur I'Egypte
(1810); the text of Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomena; and a vast
number of useful memoirs in the Journal asiatique. His numerous
reviews in the Journal des savants should also be mentioned.
Quatremere made great lexicographic collections in Oriental
languages, fragments of which appear in the notes to his various
works. His MS. material for Syriac has been utilized in Payne
Smith's Thesaurus; of the slips he collected for a projected Arabic,
Persian and Turkish lexicon some account is given in the preface
to Dozy, Supp. aux dictt. arabes. They are now in the Munich
library.
A biographical notice by M. Barthelemy Sainte-Hilaire is prefixed
to Quatremere's Melanges d'histoire et de philologie orientale (1861).
QUAY, MATTHEW STANLEY (1833-1904), American poli-
tical " boss," was born in Dillsburg, York county, Pennsyl-
vania, on the 30th of September 1833. He graduated at
Jefferson College (now Washington and Jefferson College) in
1850 and was admitted to the bar in 1854. He served in
various capacities in the Civil War, and in 1865-1867 was a
member of the state House of Representatives, becoming
secretary of the commonwealth in 1873-1878 and again in
1879-1882, recorder of Philadelphia in 1878-1879, and state
treasurer in 1886-1887. He was chairman of the Republican
national executive campaign committee in 1888, and was a
member of the United States Senate in 1887-1899 and again
in 1901-1904. For nearly twenty years he dominated the
government of Pennsylvania, and also played a very prominent
part in national affairs. In 1899 he was brought to trial on a
charge of misappropriating state funds, and, although he was
acquitted, the feeling among the reform element in his own
party was so bitter against him that the legislature was dead-
locked and his re-election was postponed for two years. He
died on the a8th of May 1904.
QUAY, a wharf or landing-place for the loading and unloading
of water-borne cargo. The word, now pronounced like " key,"
takes the form of Fr. quai, older cay or caye, cf. Spanish cayo,
a bar, barrier or reef. The earlier form in English is " kay,"
and it was so pronounced. " Key " was also earlier pro-
nounced " kay," and the change in pronunciation in the one
was followed also in the other. In spelling also the word was
assimilated to " key," in the sense of a reef, or, especially, of
the low range of reefs or islets on the coasts of Spanish America,
e.g. on the coast of Florida, the chain of islets known as Florida
Keys.
QUEBEC, a province of the Dominion of Canada, bounded S.
by New Brunswick and the United States, W. by Ontario, N. by
the district of Ungava, and E. by the gulf of St Lawrence and
the strip of eastern Labrador which belongs to Newfoundland.
If Ungava be considered as ad4ed to the province of Quebec,
Hudson Strait is the northern boundary. The province includes
the island of Anticosti, the Bird Islands and the Magdalen
Islands, in 'the gulf of St Lawrence. The western boundary,
separating Quebec from Ontario, extends through Point au
Baudet on the river St Lawrence to Point Fortune on the
Ottawa river, from which place the boundary follows the
Ottawa to Lake Temiscaming. From the north end of this
latter lake it runs due north to Hudson Bay. The province of
Quebec thus extends from Blanc Sablon, a fishing harbour at the
western end of the Strait of Belle Isle (which separates Canada
from Newfoundland) in 59 7' W. to Lake Temiscaming in
79 40' W., a distance of about 1350 miles. The area of the
province is 351,873 sq. m. The general direction of the province
is ^north-east and south-west, following the course of its chief
physical feature, the river St Lawrence. Speaking generally,
it may be said that the province of Quebec comprises the hydro-
graphical basin of the river St Lawrence as far west as the
intersection of the parallel of 45 N. with the latter. The St
Lawrence flows near the southern edge of its basin, only some
50,000 sq. m. of the area of the province lying south of the river.
The province of Quebec falls into three main physiographical
divisions, viz.: (i) the Laurentian Highlands, (2) the Valley
of the St Lawrence, and (3) the Notre Dame Mountains and
the rolling country lying to the south-east of this range.
(i) The Laurentian Highlands are sometimes referred to as the
" Laurentian Mountains," as they appear to constitute a mountain
range when viewed from the gulf or the river St Lawrence. This
portion of the province, however, is really a plateau having an
elevation of 1000 to 2000 ft. above sea level, but this plateau
north of latitude 55 falls away to lower levels toward Hudson Bay
and Hudson Strait. Along the extreme eastern border of these
Laurentian Highlands on the coast of Labrador, however, the
country rises to much greater altitudes, forming an extremely
rugged district which attains in places an elevation of 6000 ft.
above sea-level. This plateau forms what is known as the Laurentian
peneplain and is hummocky in character, the surface, however,
being but slightly accentuated and the sky line seen from the
higher points in the area being nearly level. It is densely wooded
and everywhere abounds in lakes, great and small, lying either in
basins etched in the rock surface by glacial action or else bounded
by the irregularly distributed drift which more or less completely
covers the surface of the underlying rocks. From these lakes
issue very numerous streams tributary to the larger rivers. These
lakes and rivers form so continuous a series of waterways that
a traveller who knows their courses, and the portages connecting
them, can traverse this immense tract of country in any direction
by canoe. These streams also, cascading down from the elevated
surface of the plateau to sea-level, afford immense water power,
which is used to an increasing extent as the methods of long-distance
electrical transmission of power become more and more perfect.
These waters are, moreover, clear and pure, and the country is one
in which malaria and similar diseases are unknown. Some of the
rivers draining the Laurentian country run in very deep, high-
walled vallevs or fjords cut in the solid rock; a number of which,
comparable in character although perhaps not in depth to those
of Norway and Greenland, pass outward from the central portion
of the peneplain north, east and south. As an example of such
fjords in the province of Quebec, those occupied by the waters of
the Hamilton, Mingan and Saguenay rivers may be cited as well
as that, now partially silted up, which is occupied by Lake Temis-
caming and the Mattawa river. The walls of solid gneiss between
which the Saguenay flows are in places from 1500 to 1800 ft. in
height, while the waters of the river in places reach a depth of
1400 ft.
This Laurentian country in the province of Quebec and its
continuation into the adjacent province contain the chief timber
QUEBEC
725
supplies of the Dominion, supplies which with a little husbanding
<>ii the part of the government could be made to afford a bountiful
supply of timber for all future generations. The country also
contains valuable mineral deposits, and is the great home of the
fur-bearine animals of the Dominion. While, however, along the
southern border it supports a considerable agricultural popula-
tion, the Laurentian country cannot be considered as one which in
respect to its agricultural capabilities can ever take rank with the
southern portions of eastern Canada or with the great plains and
British Columbia which lie to the west.
(2) That portion of the lowlands of the St Lawrence valley
which belongs to the province of Quebec forms a wedge-sha|>ed
area extending along the river from a short distance below the city
of Quebec to the western border of the province. It is throughout
a practically level plain of very fertile land, on which are situated
the chief towns and cities of the province, and on it also are settled
the majority of the rural population. These lowlands are bounded
on the north by the Laurentian plateau, and on the south by the
Notre Dame Mountains, which physical features gradually converge,
the latter mountains reaching the shore of the river St Lawrence a
short distance to the east of the city of Quebec. The plain in this
way gradually narrows on going to the north-east, and is finally
closed off in that direction. It was a portion of this plain that was
first occupied by the early French settlers. Much of its surface,
as has been said, is absolutely level, and it nowhere exceeds an
elevation of a few hundred feet. Its uniform expanse, however,
is broken by a line of eight isolated hills composed of rocks of
igneous origin, being a series of eroded remnants of ancient volcanoes
which now rise abruptly from the plain and constitute the most
striking features of the landscape. They are known as the Monte-
regian Hills and rise to elevations of 560 ft. to 1600 ft. above sea-
level. From the summit of Mount Royal, at the foot of which lies
the city of Montreal, all the other Monteregian Hills are plainly
visible, and the margin of the Laurentian Highlands may be seen
bounding the horizon some 30 m. to the north, while south-
ward the Green Mountains, and the Adirondacks in the state of
New York, are distinctly visible on a clear day.
(3) The Notre Dame Mountains and the Eastern Townships.
The Appalachian Mountain range, passing out of the state of
Vermont, where it is known as the Green Mountains, crosses
into the province of Quebec between Lake Champlain and Lake
Memphremagog, and Becoming lower and less rugged continues
in a north-easterly direction to a point about 30 m. south
of the city of Quebec. Thence it pursues its course, following the
general trend of the river St Lawrence at a varying distance from
its southern margin, and reaches the latter river near Metis. From
the border to this point the range is known as the Notre Dame
Mountains. The highest peak in the Notre Dame Mountains is
Sutton Mountain 3100 ft. Continuing on to the north-east it
develops into the high land of the Gaspd Peninsula, of which the
most elevated portion constitutes the Shickshock Mountains, the
higher summits of which rise to elevations of 3000 to 4000 ft.
above sea-level. The whole central area of the Gasp6 Peninsula
is a forest-clad wilderness.
To the south-east of the Notre Dame Mountains is an undulating
country known as the " Eastern Townships." These hills, as
mentioned above, are lower and less rugged than the Green Moun-
tains, the general elevation of the country being from 500 to 1000 ft.
above sea-level. There are a number of large and fine lakes in
this district, among which may be mentioned lakes Metapedia,
Temiscouata, Memphremagog, Aylmer, St Francis and Megantic.
In the belt of the Notre Dame Mountains the country is not
in the strict sense of the term a mountainous one, but rather a
rolling country containing much good farming and pasture land,
while the Eastern Townships is a fine agricultural country, em-
bracing some of the best farming and grazing land in the Dominion.
This latter district was originally settled by Loyalists from the
United States at the time of the revolt of the colonies, but is now
being gradually occupied by French Canadians from the more
northern portions of the province, the younger generation of English-
speaking Canadians preferring to take up land and settle in Ontario
or the western provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and
British Columbia.
The whole country is exceptionally well watered and abounds
in numerous large rivers, bays and lakes. The principal river is
the St Lawrence, which flows through the entire length of the
province. A short distance above Montreal it receives from
the north-west the Ottawa, a large and beautiful river over
600 m. in length with many tributaries, among which the most
important are the Gatineau, the Lievre, the North, the Rouge
and the Kinojevis. The St Lawrence is navigable for large
ocean steamships as far as Montreal, beyond which place
navigation is interrupted by rapids. The St Maurice rises in
Lake Oskelaneo, flowing into the St Lawrence at Three Rivers,
and is over 400 m 1 . long. It has many tributaries, and drains
an area of 21,000 sq. m. Twenty-four miles above Three
Rivers on the St Maurice are the falls of Shawinigan, 150 ft.
high, from which a large amount of electrical power is obtained,
a portion of which is used in the production of aluminium,
while several thousand horse-power are transmitted to the city
of Montreal. The Baliscan river enters the St Lawrence at
Batiscan. The Jacques Carder, the Ste Anne and the Mont-
morency are northern tributaries of the St Lawrence. The
Montmorency is famous for its falls, situated about 8 m. from
Quebec city, and 250 ft. high. These beautiful falls, however,
have in recent years been greatly reduced in volume, the water
being largely employed for the development of electricity, and
also for the supply of power to a large cotton-mill in the vicinity.
Near these falls is Haldimand House, once the residence of the
duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria. The Saguenay rises
in Lake St John and discharges into the St Lawrence at
Tadousac after a course of 100 m. On the south side of the
St Lawrence is the Richelieu river, which rises in Lake
Champlain and enters the St Lawrence at Sorel on Lake St
Peter. Champlain sailed up this river in 1609. Other important
streams are the St Francis, rising in Lake Memphremagog; the
Chaudiere, rising in Lake Megantic, with its beautiful falls
125 ft. high about 10 m. above Quebec; the Chateauguay,
Yamaska, Etchemin, du Loup, Assomption and Becancour.
Among the largest lakes in the province are Lake St John,
which has an area of 360 sq. m.; Lake Temiscaming, having
an area of 126 sq. m.; Lake Matapedia, Lake Megantic and
Lake Memphremagog.
The largest islands in the province of Quebec are: Anticosti,
now used as a game preserve; Bonaventure, an important
fishing station to the east of Gaspe; and the Magdalen Islands,
situated in the gulf of St Lawrence about 50 m. north of
Prince Edward Island.
Geology and Minerals. Beginning with the oldest rocks, the
more northern part of the province of Quebec is underlain by the
Laurentian system of Sir William Logan. This includes a great
series of very highly altered sediments, largely limestones, known
as tHe Grenville series, which is penetrated by great intrusions
of anorthosite, &c., and is invaded by and rests upon enormous
bathyliths of granite, which are sometimes referred to as the
" Fundamental Gneiss." The Grenville series is best developed
along the southern margin of the Laurentian Highlands between
Three Rivers and the Georgian Bay. Two of the great anorthosite
intrusions occur on the margin of the Laurentian country to the
north of Montreal and about Lake St John. The Laurentian
system is succeeded to the south by the Potsdam sandstone, probably
equivalent to the Upper Cambrian of Britain. On this rests a
dolomitic limestone the Calciferous formation and on this the
great and highly fossiliferous limestones known as the Chazy and
Trenton formations. These limestones afford the best building
stone of the province, while the Potsdam sandstone is also frequently
employed for building purposes. Above the Trenton is the Utica
shale, rich in graptohtes and trilobites. This is succeeded by the
Hudson River group composed largely of sandstones and calcareous
beds. These constitute the complete Ordovician succession. Upper
Silurian and Devonian beds, the latter holding fossil plants and
fishes, occur in the south-east portion of the province, while on
the shore of Chaleur Bay these are succeeded by the lowest beds
of the Carboniferous. No coal occurs in the province of Quebec.
In the region of the Notre Dame Mountains and the Eastern Town-
ships there are great intercalations of ancient volcanic rocks and
many important mineral deposits. Among these may be men-
tioned gold, copper, asbestos and chromic iron ore; also serpentine,
marble and roofing slates. The asbestos deposits are the most
extensive and most productive in the world, the chief centre of
asbestos mining being at Thetford Mines, A large part of the
country, more especially on the lower levels, is covered with
Pleistocene deposits of the so-called Glacial age. Till or boulder
clay is usually at the base of these deposits. On this rests a finer
stratified blue clay, in some places rich in fossil shells and known
as the Leda clay. It affords a good material for the manufacture
of bricks and tiles. Above the Leda clay are sands and gravels
known as the Saxicava sand. This is also stratified and frequently
contains an abundance of fossils. These stratified clays and sands
are due to a re-sorting of the boulder clay by the action of water,
and imply a submergence at the close of the Glacial period with a
subsequent elevation. In certain alluvial deposits in the vicinitv
of the St Maurice river there occur deposits of bog iron ore which
have been worked for many years.-
Climate. The climate of Quebec is variable. In the winter
the cold is generally steady and the atmosphere clear and bracing.
About Montreal snow lies on the ground from the end of November
726
QUEBEC
until the following April, affording good sleighing for four months
in the year. The inhabitants enjoy with zest and spirit all the out-
door sports common in the country, such as skating, curling, tobog-
ganing, snowshoeing, ski-ing and sliding. The snowfall is heavy, and
though the winds are often sharp they are not often raw or damp,
nor is there any fog. The summer is warm and pleasant. The
extreme heat is indicated at 90 F. The finest season of the year
is the autumn, which lasts about six or eight weeks. The following
is a table of temperatures as recorded by the meteorological stations
at certain points in the province :
Table showing Normal Temperature, Precipitation &c. , at various
Stations in the Province of Quebec.
Average
Lati-
Longi-
Alti-
Mean Temperature.
Precipi-
tude.
tude.
tude.
tation.
Sum-
Winter.
Year.
Feet.
Inches.
Anticosti, W. Pt.
49 52'
64 32'
15
55 8'
14 3'
35 4'
35'8g
Bird Islands
47 Si'
61 8'
"5
55 4'
10 7'
38 2'
28-76
Chicoutimi
48 25'
7i 5'
15
61 7'
6 i'
35 3'
S9'3
Quebec .
Brome
46 48'
45 1
7i 13'
72 36'
296
678
63 6'
63 ff
12 J'
14 8'
38 4'
40 2'
41-98
35'35
Montreal .
Cape Magdalen
45 30'
49 1 6'
73 35'
65 20'
187
93
66 o'
57 8'
15 6'
13 9'
42 <y
37 I'
39' 24
3I'SS
The normal percentage of bright sunshine at Montreal is 41 and
at Quebec 39, a higher average than northern Europe. (F. D. A.)
Area and Population. The boundaries of Quebec have been
more than once enlarged since 1867. By the extension given
to them in 1898, the province has an area of 351,873 sq. m., of
which 341,756 sq. m. are land and 10,117 sq. m. are water.
This estimate includes the islands of Orleans, Anticosti, and the
Magdalen group, but not the gulf of St Lawrence or the
territorial seas. In 1901 the population was 1,648,898, 992,667
being classed as rural and 656,231 as urban. Since 1891 the
rural population has increased but little, but there has been a
growth of about 1 1 % in the population of the towns and cities. No
province has taken so small a share in the development of the
West. True to his ancestral instincts, the French-Canadian
remains close to the place of his birth. If he emigrates, it is to
the neighbouring cities of New England or to the eastern districts
of the province of Ontario. On the other hand, in the rural
parts of the province, the French are driving out the English-
speaking settlers, especially in the south-western counties,
settled by Loyalists at the close of the War of American Indepen-
dence, and known as the Eastern Townships. Nearly 98% of
the population are Canadian-born. Of these over 80% are of
French descent; of the remainder about 7% are English,
7% Irish and 4% Scots. Save to the city of Montreal there
is little immigration; but so prolific are the French that the
population of the province increases as fast as that of the rest
of the Dominion, in which to the natural increase is added a
large immigration. The census gives the number of the average
family as 5-36, but families with twelve and eighteen children
are not uncommon. The English-speaking population is
almost wholly confined to the towns, especially Montreal, in
which city it controls the chief shipping and commercial interests.
Of the original inhabitants about 8000 Indians remain, chiefly
on reserves in the neighbourhood of Montreal and Quebec.
Though quite peaceful, they are on the whole less civilized than
those of eastern and southern Ontario. The capital is Quebec,
with a population of about 70,000, which increases but slowly.
The largest city is Montreal, the commercial and shipping centre
of the Dominion, at the head of ocean steamship navigation,
with a population of about 350,000. Other cities are Hull
(practically a suburb of Ottawa; pop. in 1901, 13,993); Sher-
brooke (11,765); Three Rivers (9981); Levis (7783).
The French, Irish and Indians are almost entirely of the
Roman Catholic faith; a majority of the English are Anglican,
with some Methodists; the Scots are Presbyterian. The
Roman Catholic Church enjoys extensive rights and privileges,
and nowhere in the world is devotion to that faith more wide-
spread or more unquestioning.
1 Administration. As in all the provinces, the executive power
is nominally vested in a lieutenant-governor, appointed for five
years by the federal government, and assisted by an executive
council (or cabinet) who have seats in, and are responsible to,
the local legislature. In reality the lieutenant-governor is a
figure-head, and power is in the hands of the legislature, which
consists of two houses, a Legislative Council, appointed nomin-
ally by the lieutenant-governor, really by the premier, and an
Assembly, chosen by what is practically manhood suffrage.
Either French or English may be used in addressing either house.
The municipalities have large powers of local government,
which are used with more or less efficiency, the predatory
tendencies of the ward-politician being sometimes apparent,
though of late years an improvement has been effected. The
finances of the province are drawn from the same sources as
those of Ontario (q.v.). Their administration has not been so
economical as in the sister province, and there is a net provincial
debt of over 4,000,000.
Education. In primary education Quebec is still behind the
other provinces, but great progress has been made since Federa-
tion; illiteracy is decreasing, and 80% of the population over five
years of age can read and write. The Council of Public Instruction
is divided into two committees of equal number, a Catholic and a
Protestant, and all ratepayers are allowed to state whether they
prefer their taxes to go to the Protestant or to the Catholic school.
Both religious bodies have combined to carry out this system with
very little friction or proselytizing. The Catholic schools are
controlled by the clergy, the episcopate forming, ex officio, one-half
of the Catholic section of the council. In the cities of Quebec and
Montreal the schools are efficient and the teachers well paid; but
in the rural districts the schools, especially those of the Catholics,
are often inadequate, the buildings being poor, and the teachers
receiving a mere pittance, in some cases less than 20 per annum.
Over 95 % of the teachers in the primary schools are women. The
great majority of the schools are controlled by the council, but there
are also a number of independent schools, primary and secondary,
usually under religious control; of these the so-called " Colleges
Classiques," supported by the Catholic Church, are the most im-
portant. The chief universities are McGill (undenominational),
at Montreal (founded 1820), and Laval (Roman Catholic) (founded
1852), with its headquarters at Quebec, and with a large branch
at Montreal. (See MONTREAL and QUEBEC CITY). There is also
a small Anglican university, that of Bishop's College, Lennoxville
(founded 1853), in connexion with which is Bishop's College school,
on the model of the public schools of England. To McGill is affiliated
a well-equipped Agricultural College established at Ste Anne de
Bellevue by Sir William Macdonald (b. 1832), at a cost of over
2,000,000; and to Laval an Agricultural School at Oka, founded
in 1893 by the Trappist Fathers. There are numerous normal and
model schools, the most important being that of Ste Anne de Bellevue
in connexion with Macdonald College.
Agriculture. The French Canadian is a thrifty though somewhat
unprogressive farmer, and loves the land with an even greater
attachment than do the peasants of old France. Till recently his
agriculture was of a very domestic character. He grew enough
wheat to grind into flour, and enough oats to feed his horses; raised
sheep whose wool his wife spun into rough cloth in the winter even-
ings; and even grew his own tobacco. Now his horizon is widening,
and his imports and exports are increasing. The general climatic
conditions are much the same as in Ontario, and the crops are
similar. All the chief cereals are successfully cultivated, oats being
the chief crop. The wise care of both federal and provincial
governments has fostered the dairy farming of the province. In
1906 over 4,200,000 of cheese was produced, and over 5, 200,000 of
butter. Most of the butter is made in well-equipped creameries,
in the number of which Quebec exceeds any other province; in
exports of cheese she equals Ontario. In the production of fruit
she ranks second to Ontario, Nova Scotia coming third. Perhaps
the most typical Canadian industry, the making of syrup and sugar
from the sap of the maple tree as it rises in the spring, centres in
this province. Over two-thirds of the tobacco grown in the Dominion
is raised in Quebec, about 10,000 acres being under cultivation.
At first of a coarse character, it is improving in quality. The total
annual value of the agricultural produce of the province is about
18,000,000, about half that of Ontario. Several agricultural and
dairy schools are supported or assisted by the provincial govern-
ment, and much good is being done by the Agricultural College at
Ste Anne de Bellevue.
The province still possesses large areas of crown land, which is sojd
at a nominal price to bonafide settlers. In the northern part of the
province new and fertile areas have been opened up by the Grand
Trunk Pacific railway.
Forests. Next to agriculture in importance are the various
industries which depend on the products of the forest. Over
150,000 sq. m. of forest land are still uncleared, chiefly in the northern
part of the province, though the best timber is said to grow south
of the watershed. In the north, pine, spruce, and fir predominate,
and, farther south, the maple; spruce, lime (linden, bass-wood,
QUEBEC
727
Tilia Americana) and poplar, are used extensively in the making
of paper pulp. The annual value of the wood cut in the province
K >ut 4,000,000, rather less than that of Ontario, and not quite
two-fifths that of the whole Dominion. An export duty is levied
on .ill pulp wood exported.
Fur and Fish. The value of the annual catch of fish is estimated
at 450,000, most of which consists of the product of the cod and
herring fisheries in the gulf of St Lawrence. From Isle Verte
v.ird almost all the settlers along the coast depend largely on
the produce of this industry. It is carried on mainly in small
licKits, which put out in the morning and return at nightfall, few
l.uxi \ox-lsbeingemployed. Throughout the province are numerous
trout -streams, and many of the northern lakes are well supplied
with trout, bass and pike. In Lake St John is caught the celebrated
winninish, a land-locked salmon growing to the size of six or eight
pounds, and well known to anglers. Moose, deer, bear and other
animals provide excellent shooting in the Laurentian mountains,
and in the wooded districts of the north.
Manufactures. In manufactures Quebec ranks second among
the provinces, Ontario coming first. The largest Canadian manu-
facturing town is Montreal, where most of the industries are controlled
by the Lnglish-speaking minority. No other part of the Dominion
is so rich in water power, which is provided to a limitless extent by
the falls of the rivers Montmorenci, St Maurice (Shawinigan Falls),
Ste Anne, the rapids on the St Lawrence and the Richelieu, and
many others. Tanning, and the making of paper pulp and of
furniture, prosper on account of the great forests of the province.
The French-Canadian workman is hardy and intelligent, and
Quebec may yet become the manufacturing centre of the Dominion,
though as yet higher wages are paid in the American cities across
the border, and thousands of French-speaking workmen are employed
in the factories of Lowell and other American border towns.
Communications. The rivers were long the chief roads, by water
in summer, over the ice in winter; but though the St Lawrence is
still the main artery of the province, the bulk of travel and of
transport is now done by rail. The first railway in Canada was
built in 1830 to carry stone from the wharves to aid in the con-
struction of the citadel of Quebec. The first passenger railway
was built in 1836, between Laprairie on the St Lawrence river and
St John's on the Richelieu. There is now good railway communica-
tion between all the chief points, and branch lines are opening up
new areas to settlement. While a few main roads are kept in good
condition, those in the country parts are very indifferent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The various departments of the provincial
government publish annual reports on a great variety of subjects.
The annual Canada Year Book, published by the Federal Govern-
ment, gives much information in a tabular form. Interesting
articles are contained in J. Castell Hopkins. Canada; an Encyclopaedia
(Toronto, 1898-1900). The legal enactments in which the municipal
system is embodied are found in the Revised Statutes of the pro-
vince (Acts 4178-4640). On education and religion A. Siegfried,
Le Canada; les deux races (1905; translated into English under
the title of The Race Question in Canada., 1906), is well-informed
and impartial. (W. L. G.)
QUEBEC, the capital of the Canadian province of the same
name, situated on the north bank of the river St Lawrence,
at its junction with the St Charles, about 300 m. from the
gulf of St Lawrence and 180 m. by river N.E. of Montreal,
in 71 12' 19*- 5 W. and 46 48' 17"- 3 N. The origin of the
name Quebec has been much disputed, but it is apparently
the Algonkian word for a strait, or sudden narrowing, the
river at its junction with the St Charles being about 2500 yds.
wide, but narrowing opposite Cape Diamond to 1314.
Quebec is built on the northern extremity of an elevated
tableland which forms the left bank of the St Lawrence for
a distance of 8 m. The highest part of the headland is
Cape Diamond, 333 ft. above the level of the water, and
crowned by the citadel; towards the St Lawrence it presents
a bold and precipitous front, while on the landward side and
towards the St Charles the declivity is more sloping and
gradual. The harbour of Quebec is spacious and deep enough
to hold the largest ships, and, with the Louise basin and Lome
graving-dock, the latter on the opposite shore at Levis, forms
one of the best harbours in America. It is usually open from
the end of April to the middle of December, being closed by
ice during the winter. The Louise basin consists of twin wet-
docks and tidal harbours, with areas of 40 and 20 acres
respectively, and a minimum depth of 26 ft. The harbour
is protected towards the north-east by the island of Orleans,
on either side of which there is an approach, though that to
the north of the island is used only by small vessels. The
spring tides rise and fall about 18 ft. Quebec is divided into
upper and lower town, access to the former being obtained
by steep and winding streets, by several flights of narrow steps,
or by an elevator. Much of the lower town still recalls the
older portions of such French provincial towns as Rouen or
St Malo. The streets, with one or two exceptions, are narrow
and irregular; but it remains the principal business quarter
of the city. In the upper town, where the streets are wider
and well paved, are the better class of dwelling-houses and
public buildings, most of the churches, the public walks and
gardens, and many of the retail shops. To the west are the
suburbs of St John and St Roch. The latter occupies the
lower plain, and is of some commercial importance; the
former is on the same level as the upper town. South-west
of St John stretch the historic Plains of Abraham. On this
battleground stands a simple column 40 ft. high, marking the
spot where General Wolfe fell. It was erected in 1849 by
the British army in Canada, to replace a monument erected
in 1832 by the governor-general, Lord Aylmer, which had
been broken and defaced by ruffians. Till 1908 the Plains
were also disfigured by a gaol and a rifle factory, but these
have been removed, and the battleground converted into a
public park. In the governor's garden, which overlooks the
St Lawrence, is a monument 65 ft. in height, erected in 1828
under the administration of Lord Dalhousie, dedicated to the
memory of Wolfe and Montcalm. An iron pillar surmounted
by a bronze statue, the gift of Prince Jerome Napoleon, stands
on the Ste Foy road, and was erected in 1855-60 to commemorate
the achievements of the British and French troops in the
brilliant but fruitless French victory of April 28, 1760. The
chief point of interest in the upper town is Dufferin Terrace,
a magnificent promenade overlooking the St Lawrence,
1400 ft. long and 200 ft. above the level of the river. Part
of this terrace occupies the site of the old Chateau St Louis,
which was destroyed by fire in 1834. At the eastern end of
the terrace stands a fine statue of Champlain, erected in 1898.
Near by, and conspicuous from the river, is the Hotel Frontenac,
erected by the Canadian Pacific railway on the model of an old
French chateau. Nothing remains of the fortifications erected
under the French regime. The present walls and the citadel,
which covers an area of about 40 acres, were built in 1823-32
at a cost of over 7,000,00x3. Since then, several of the gates
have been destroyed, and others rebuilt, but in other respects
the walls are practically intact, and, though obsolete as
fortifications, add greatly to the picturesque beauty of the
city. Between 1865 and 1871 three forts were built on the
Levis side of the river, but were neither manned nor armed.
Quebec's natural position still makes it one of great military
strength, though depending on naval control of the sea and of
the gulf of St Lawrence.
Besides numerous Protestant churches, including a small
Anglican cathedral, there is a Jewish synagogue; but the
bulk of the population is Roman Catholic. The cathedral,
founded in 1647, and enlarged at intervals, is a large but not
very striking building in the upper town. It contains some
good oil paintings and some much-prized relics, but is rather
garish in its ornamentation. Of the numerous other churches,
the most interesting is Notre Dame des Victoires, in the lower
town, erected in 1688, and named in honour of the defeat of
Phips in 1600 and the shipwreck of Sir Hovenden Walker in
1711. Laval University, which derives its name from Francois
de Montmorency Laval, the first bishop of Quebec, who founded
in 1663 a seminary for the training of priests, is under strict
Roman Catholic control. It was instituted in 1852 by a royal
charter from Queen Victoria and in 1876 received a charter
from Pope Pius IX. The building is large and spacious, and
the university includes faculties of theology, law, medicine
and arts, a library of 125,000 volumes, a museum and a picture
gallery. A large branch of the university has been established
at Montreal, and has often, but vainly, sought permission to
become an independent Catholic university. In connexion
with Laval are the grand seminary founded in 1663, where
theology is taught, and the minor seminary for literature and
728
QUEBEC
philosophy. Other Roman Catholic institutions are Laval
Normal and Model School, the Ursuline Convent, the Convent
of the Good Shepherd and several nunneries. The convent
and church of the Ursulines, founded in 1641, contains nearly
100 nuns and lay sisters, and nearly 600 pupils. It possesses
some excellent paintings and a number of relics, among which
is the skull of the French general, Montcalm. Morrin College,
founded in 1859 by Dr Morrin, was for some years an efficient
college in arts and theology, under Presbyterian control, but
is now defunct. High schools for boys and girls and numerous
academies are supported by the Protestants, under the dual
system of education in the province. The Literary and
Historical Society the oldest chartered institution of the kind
in Canada, founded by Lord Dalhousie in 1824 the Canadian
Institute, the Geographical Society, the Young Men's Christian
Association, the Advocates' Library and the Parliamentary
Library, have valuable collections of books, the latter contain-
ing 70,000 volumes, and numerous MSS. chiefly relating to
the early history of the province. The principal benevolent in-
stitutions are the marine hospital, the Hotel Dieu, founded
in 1639 by the duchess of Aiguillon, the general hospital (1693),
the Jeffrey Hale Hospital, and the lunatic asylum at Beauport
controlled by the Grey Nuns (sisters of charity). The pro-
vincial parliament buildings, erected in 1878-92, are situated
in extensive grounds on Grande A116e. The main building is
quadrangular in form, and is ornamented with numerous
statues. The seat of the lieutenant-governor is at Spencerwood,
a pleasant country estate outside the city. Other prominent
buildings are the palace of the Roman Catholic Archbishop,
which adjoins Laval University, the court house, post office,
custom house, city hall (1890-95) and masonic hall. Quebec
is well lighted with gas and electric light, and has a system
of electric tramcars, a plentiful supply of power being obtained
from the Montmorency Falls (268 ft. in height), 6 m. N.E.
The climate is severe, but bracing, the mean temperature in
winter being 10, in summer 68, and the mean of the year 39.
The main lines of the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Inter-
colonial railways are on the south bank of the St Lawrence,
but branch lines connect the city with Montreal, and it is the
headquarters of the Quebec and Lake St John, and various
smaller railways. Steam ferries connect the city with L6vis
on the opposite bank, but the project of a bridge, though of
great importance to the city, has been in various ways delayed.
In August 1907 the portion completed fell into the St Lawrence.
The city returns three members to the Canadian House of
Commons, and three to the Provincial House of Assembly.
It is governed by a mayor and council of aldermen, who hold
office for two years, and are usually re-elected, one mayor
having held office for eleven successive years. Quebec is the
seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop and of an Anglican bishop.
Economically, Quebec was long the chief port of Canada. A
series of strikes almost ruined its export trade, and numerous
severe fires, of which that of 1845 was the chief, also lessened
its importance. For many years the export trade passed
almost entirely to Montreal, but the increasing size of sea-
going vessels makes navigation above Quebec more and more
difficult, especially for fast passenger steamships, and for such
vessels Quebec is again becoming the terminus. Quebec's
staple export is timber, the greater portion of which comes
from the Ottawa and St Maurice districts. Formerly the
rafts floating down the river were collected in the coves which
extend along both sides of the river, above the city, and were
fastened by booms along the banks. Now much of the timber
is sent by rail. On the right bank of the stream, not far from
Quebec, are extensive sawmills. Deals and square timber form
the bulk of the export, but some furniture is also sent, and an
increasing quantity of wheat is shipped. The building of
wooden ships was formerly one of the chief industries of Quebec.
The principal manufactures are iron castings, machinery,
cutlery, nails, leather; rifles, gunpowder, musical instruments,
boots and shoes, paper, india-rubber goods, ropes, tobacco,
steel. The population increases but slowly, having risen from
59,699 in 1871 to 68,840 in 1901; of these over 60,000 are
French and Roman Catholic.
The first known white man to visit Quebec was Jacques
Cartier, the French navigator, in 1535, who found on the site
a large Indian village, called Stadacona. In July 1608 the
present city was founded, and named by Champlain. Its
growth was slow, and in 1629 it had but two permanently
settled families, with a shifting population of monks, officials
and fur traders. In that year it was captured by the English
under Sir David Kirke (1597-1656; see H. Kirke, The First
English Conquest of Canada, London, 1871, reprinted 1908),
but in 1632 it was restored to the French by the treaty of St
Germain-en-Laye. In 1663 the colony of New France was
created a royal province, and Quebec became the capital. In
1690 Sir William Phips, governor of Massachusetts, attempted
to reconquer it with a fleet and army fitted out by New England,
but was defeated by the French governor, Frontenac. In
1711 a great British expedition sent against it under Sir Hoven-
den Walker was shipwrecked in the gulf of St Lawrence, and
the French held possession till 1759 (see below), when it was
captured by the British troops on the i8th of September, five
days after the battle of the Plains of Abraham; it was finally
ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris in 1763. In 1775
the American generals Montgomery and Benedict Arnold
attacked the city, but Montgomery was killed (December 31,
1775) and Arnold was compelled to retreat in the following
spring.
In 1763-1841, in 1851-55, and in 1859-65 Quebec was
the capital of Canada, and it is still its most historic and
picturesque city.
See Quebec under Two Flags, by A. G. Doughty and N. E. Dionne
(Quebec, 1903). Canada, an Encyclopaedia, by J. C. Hopkins
(Toronto, 1898-1900), has a good account (vol. v. pp. 241-248).
(W. L. G.)
Wolfe's Quebec Expedition, 1759. Both in itself and also as
the central incident of the British conquest of Canada, the
taking of Quebec is one of the epics of modern military history.
The American campaigns of the Seven Years' War, hitherto
somewhat spasmodic, were, after Amherst's capture of Louis-
burg in 1758, co-ordinated and directed to a common end by
that general, under whom James Wolfe, a young major-general
of thirty-three years of age, was to command an expedition
against Quebec from the lower St Lawrence, while Amherst
himself led a force from New England by Lake Champlain on
Montreal. Wolfe's column consisted of about 7000 troops,
and was convoyed by a powerful fleet under Admiral
Saunders. The expedition sailed 300 m. up the St Lawrence,
disembarked on the Isle of Orleans and encamped facing the
city. The defenders were commanded by Montcalm, a soldier
whose character and abilities, like Wolfe's, need no comment
here. The French were superior in numbers, though a con-
siderable part of their force was irregular; but they had the
defender's difficult task of being strong everywhere. Wolfe
began the attack by seizing Point Levis, and thence bombarding
Quebec. This, however, affected the main defences of the
upper city but little, and they were moreover protected from
closer attack by the St Lawrence and the St Charles. The
third side of the triangle was the "plains of Abraham," to
which it was thought there was no approach from the river.
After wasting some weeks, therefore, Wolfe decided to cross
the St Lawrence 7 m. below Quebec and to fight his way to
the city by the St Charles side. But Montcalm's fortified
posts spread out from Quebec through Beauport as far as the
Montmorency, and this formidable obstacle checked the English
advance at the outset. No artifice could lure the defenders
away, and at last Wolfe attacked the line of the Montmorency
and was repulsed with heavy loss (July 31). Wolfe's fragile
health gave way under the disappointment, and despondency
set in in the English camp. But as soon as the young leader
had recovered a little, he summoned his brigadiers and worked
out a plan for attacking by the upper waters and the heights
of Abraham. Access to the heights could be obtained, it was
QUEBEC ACT QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY
729
found, by a tiny cove (Wolfe's cove), from which a steep footpath
led to the summit. It was no place for artillery, and even for
infantry the climb was long and exhausting, but the attempt
was made. Considered as a way of taking Quebec, it was
in the last degree a forlorn hope, but Wolfe, as a true soldier,
felt the imperative necessity of preventing his opponent from
sending reinforcements to the force opposing Amherst, and
staked everything upon achieving this at least. " Happy if
our efforts here," as he wrote, " can contribute to the success
of His Majesty's arms in any other part of America." What
with losses in action and by sickness, and detachments to
guard the camps and batteries, only 3600 men could be spared
for the attempt. These embarked on the warships on the
evening of September 12, and sailed up stream. The watchful
Montcalm sent a detachment to observe their movements, but
the ships proceeded to a point well above the cove, luring the
detachment out of the way. Then at i a.m. Wolfe, with half
his force, dropped down stream in the boats of the squadron
and landed. The path was guarded by a redoubt, but the
light infantry which led the advance scarcely attempted to
follow it, scrambling up the hillside wherever they could find a
foothold. The garrison of the redoubt, startled by the unfore-
seen attack, abandoned the work, and by daylight Wolfe had
assembled his 3600 men on the plains above the city. Mont-
calm meanwhile had been held in check by a demonstration
of part of the fleet under Admiral Saunders on Beauport, but
at last, realizing that the real attack was coming from the other
Hank, he hurried all the troops he could collect over the St
Charles and drew them up on the plain, with their backs to
the walls of the upper town. He took the offensive at once.
He had plenty of militiamen and irregulars, and these rapidly
drove the British light infantry on to their main body, which
was threatened on both flanks. On so small a battlefield, the
troops in Wolfe's line of battle quickly became aware that the
enemy was attacking in superior force. But their leader
steadied them by his personal example, and when the French
came within close range one " perfect volley " from the whole
line decided the battle. Then as the French stopped, with
great gaps in their lines, Wolfe led on his men to complete the
victory. He received two painful wounds and then a shot
through the breast. His last order, one rare indeed in the
annals of 18th-century fighting, was to send a force to the St
Charles bridge to cut off the retreat of the French. Montcalm
too was mortally wounded, and died next day. On the i8th
of September Quebec surrendered.
QUEBEC ACT, the title usually given to a bill introduced
into the House of Lords on May 2, 1774, entitled " An Act
for making more Effectual Provision for the Government of
the Province of Quebec, in North America." It passed the
House of Lords on May 17, was discussed in the Commons
from May 26 to June 13, and finally passed with some amend-
ments. These were accepted by the Lords, in spite of the
opposition of Lord Chatham, and the bill received the royal
assent on June 22. The debates in the House of Commons
arc not found in the Parliamentary History, but were published
separately by J. Wright in 1839. The speech of Lord Chatham
is given in the Chatham Correspondence (iv. 351-353).
By this act the boundaries of the Canadian province of
Quebec were extended so as to include much of the country
between the Ohio and the Mississippi. The French inhabitants
of the province were granted the liberty to profess " the
religion of the Church of Rome"; the French civil law was
established, though in criminal law the English code was
introduced. Government was vested in a governor and
council, a representative assembly not being granted till the
Constitutional Act of 1791.
The granting of part of the Western territory to Quebec,
and the recognition of the Roman Catholic religion, greatly
angered the American colonies. On the other hand, it did
much to keep the French Canadians from joining the Americans
in the coming struggle. The act is still looked back to by the
French in Canada as their great charter of liberty.
QUEDLINBURG, a town of Germany in the Prussian province
of Saxony, situated on the Bode, near the N.W. base of
the Harz Mountains, 12 miles S.E. by rail from Halberstadt
on the line Magdeburg-Thale. Pop. (1005) 24,798, almost
all Protestants. It consists of the old town, which is still
partly surrounded by a turreted wall, the new town and four
suburbs. On the west it is commanded by the castle, formerly
the residence of the abbesses of Quedlinburg, connected with
which is the interesting Schlosskirche, which was dedicated
in 1129 and completely restored in 1862-82. The German
king, Henry the Fowler, his wife Matilda, and Aurora,
countess of Konigsmark, the mistress of Augustus the Strong,
are buried in the Schlosskirche. T^iere are many interesting
articles in the treasury. The Gothic town hall, a 14th-century
building, restored and enlarged in 1900, contains a collection
of antiquities, and near it stands a stone figure of Roland.
The town also possesses a gymnasium founded in 1540 and
now containing the abbey library and a municipal museum.
It has a fine memorial of the war of 1870-71. Quedlinburg is
famous for its nurseries and market gardens, and exports
vegetable and flower seeds to all parts of Europe and America.
Its chief manufactures are iron goods, machinery and cloth,
and it has a trade in grain and cattle. Near the town is the
church of St Wipertus, which dates from the I2th century,
and has a crypt of the loth century.
Quedlinburg was founded as a fortress by Henry the Fowler
about 922, its early name being Quitlingen. Soon it became
a favourite residence of the Saxon emperors and was the scene
of several diets. It afterwards joined the Hanseatic League.
The abbey of Quedlinburg was planned by Henry the Fowler,
although its actual foundation is due to his son Otto the Great.
It was a house for the daughters of noble Saxon families and
was richly endowed, owning at one time a territory about
40 sq. m. in area. The abbesses, who were frequently members
of the imperial house, the second of them being Otto's daughter
Matilda, ranked among the princes of the empire, and had no
ecclesiastical superior except the pope. The town at first
strove vigorously to maintain its independence of them, and
to this end invoked the aid of the bishop of Halberstadt. In
1477, however, the abbess Hedwig, aided by her brothers,
Ernest and Albert of Saxony, compelled the bishop to with-
draw, and for the next 200 years both town and abbey were
under the protection of the elector of Saxony. In 1539 the
townsmen accepted the reformed doctrines and the abbey
was converted into a Protestant sisterhood. In 1697 the
elector of Saxony sold his rights over Quedlinburg to the
elector of Brandenburg for 240,000 thalers. The abbesses,
however, retained certain rights of jurisdiction, and disputes
between them and the Prussian government were frequent
until the secularization of the abbey in 1803. The last abbess
was Sophia Albertina (d. 1829), sister of King Charles XIII.
of Sweden. After forming for a few years part of the kingdom
of Westphalia, the abbey lands were incorporated with Prussia
in 1815.
See the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Quedlinburg, edited by Janickc
(Halle, 1873-82) ; Ranke and Kugler, Beschreibung und Geschichte
der Schlosskirche zu Quedlinburg (Berlin, 1838); Lorenz, Alt-Qued-
linburg, 1485-1698 (Halle, 1900); and Huchs, Fuhrer durch Quedlin-
burg. For the history of the abbey see Fritsch, Geschichte des
Reichsstifts und der Stadt Quedlinburg (Quedlinburg, 1828).
QUEEN (O.E. oven, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene,
a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvfi: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus,
" kin," &c.), the title of the consort or wife of a king (" queen
consort" ), or of a woman who is herself the sovereign ruler
of a state ("queen regnant"); the widow of a former
reigning sovereign is a " queen dowager," and, when the mother
of the reigning sovereign, a " queen mother."
For the position of the queen in English constitutional law see
CONSORT, and for her household see HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL.
QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, the name applied to a perpetual
fund of first-fruits and tenths granted by a charter of Queen
Anne, and confirmed by statute in 1703 (2 & 3 Anne, c. n),
for the augmentation of the livings of the poorer Anglican
730
QUEENBOROUGH QUEENSBERRY
clergy. First-fruits (annates) and tenths (decimae) formed
originally part of the revenue paid by the clergy to the papal
exchequer. The former consist of the first whole year's profit
of all spiritual preferments, the latter of one-tenth of their
annual profits after the first year. In accordance with the
provisions of two acts (5 & 6 Anne, c. 24, and 6 Anne, c. 27)
about 3900 poor livings under the annual value of 50 were
discharged from first-fruits and tenths. The income derived
from first-fruits and tenths was annexed to the revenue of
the crown in 1535 (26 Hen. VIII. c. 3), and so continued until
1703. Since that date there has been a large mass of legisla-
tion dealing with Queen Anne's Bounty, the effect of which
will be found set forth in a Report of a Joint Select Committee
on the Queen Anne's Bounty Board, 1900. The governors
consist of the archbishops and bishops, some of the principal
officers of the government, and the chief legal and judicial
authorities. The augmentation proceeds on the principle
of assisting the smallest benefices first. All the cures not
exceeding 10 per annum must have received 200 before
the governors can proceed to assist those not exceeding 20
per annum. In order to encourage benefactions, the governors
may give 200 to cures not exceeding 45 a year, where any
person will give the same or a greater sum. The average
income from first-fruits and tenths is a little more than
16,000 a year. In 1906 the trust funds in the hands of
the governors amounted to 7,023,000. The grants in 1906
amounted to 28,607, the benefactions to 29,888. The
accounts are laid annually before the king in council and the
houses of parliament. The duties of the governors are not
confined to the augmentation of benefices. They may in
addition lend money for the repair and rebuilding of residences
and for the execution of works required by the Ecclesiastical
Dilapidations Acts, and may receive and apply compensation
money in respect of the enfranchisement of copyholds on any
benefice. The governors are unpaid; the treasurer and
secretary receives a salary of 1000 a year. He is appointed
by patent urtder the great seal, and holds office during the
pleasure of the crown.
QUEENBOROUGH, a municipal borough in the Faversham
parliamentary division of Kent, England, in the Isle of Sheppey,
close to the junction of the Swale and Medway, 2 m. S. of
Sheerness on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop.
(1901) 1544. The prosperity of the town has been revived in
modern times by the establishment by the railway company
of a branch line from Sittingbourne in connexion with a service
of mail and passenger steamers to Flushing (Holland), which
run twice daily. The first copperas factory in England was
established at Queenborough in 1579, by Matthias Falconer, of
Brabant. In 1890 Portland cement works were built, and
there is a large trade in timber. The town is governed by a
mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area, 302 acres.
A fortress, called Sheppey Castle, is said to have existed from
an early period for guarding the passage of the Swale river.
Queenborough Castle was built about 1361 by Edward III., who
named the town after Queen Philippa and made it a free borough,
with a governing body of a mayor and two bailiffs. Charters
were granted by subsequent sovereigns down to Charles I., who
reincorporated the town under the title of the mayor, jurats,
bailiffs and burgesses of Queenborough. The castle never had
any military history, and having been seized by parliament
together with the other royal possessions, and being considered
of insufficient importance for repair, was demolished during
the Commonwealth. The borough subsequently decreased in
importance. The chief part of the population were employed in
the oyster fishery. The town was first represented in parliament
by two members in 1572; it lost its franchise by the Reform
Act of 1832.
QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS, a compact group lying off
the northern part of the coast of British Columbia, and forming
part of that province of Canada. Geologically the group is
composed mainly of Triassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary strata,
penetrated by intrusive rocks. It occupies a position similar
to that held by Vancouver Island farther to the south, in regard
to the mainland coast and its immediately adjacent islands, but
is separated by a somewhat wider sea from the coast. It was
named by Captain Dixon, who visited the islands in the " Queen
Charlotte" in 1787. Although the islands promise to become
important, because of their excellent harbours, the discovery of
good seams of bituminous coal (beside the anthracite already
known), their abundant timber of certain kinds and their
prolific fisheries, but little settlement has taken place. The
wonderfully productive halibut fisheries of Hecate Strait, which
separates these islands from the mainland and its adjacent
islands, have attracted the attention of fishing companies, and
great quantities of this fish are taken regularly and shipped
across the continent in cold storage. The natives, the Haida
people, constitute with little doubt the finest race, and that
most advanced in the arts, of the entire west coast of North
America. They had developed in its highest degree the peculiar
conventional art of the north-west coast Indians, which is found
in decreasing importance among the Tsimshians on the west,
the Tlingit on the north and the Kwakiutl and other tribes
farther south on the Pacific coast. The carved totem posts of
the Haida, standing in front of the heavily framed houses, or at
a little distance from them, represent the coats of arms of the
respective families of the tribes and generally exhibit designs
treated in a bold and original manner, highly conventionalized
but always recognizable in their purport by any one familiar
with the distinctive marks of the animal forms portrayed.
These primitive monuments are, however, rapidly falling to
decay, and the people who erected them are becoming reduced
in number and spirit. The native population of the islands is
less than 700. (F. D. A.)
QUEENSBERRY, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES
OF. The Queensberry title, one of the many with which the
Scottish house of Douglas is associated, originated in the creation
of Sir William Douglas (d. 1640) as earl of Queensberry in 1633.
He was the eldest son of Sir James Douglas of Drumlanrig
(d. 1616). His grandson William, the 3rd earl (1637-1695),
was created marquess of Queensberry in 1682 and duke of
Queensberry in 1684; he was lord justice general and an
extraordinary lord of session. He was also lord high treasurer
of Scotland, and served James II. as lord high commissioner to
the parliament of 1685, but in 1686 he was deprived of his
offices. He had assented to the accession of William and Mary
and had again enjoyed the royal favour before he died on the
28th of March 1695. His son James Douglas, the 2nd duke
(1662-1711), was born at Sanquhar Castle on the i8th of
September 1662, and was educated at the university of Glasgow,
afterwards spending some time in foreign travel. At the
Revolution of 1688 he sided with William of Orange and was
made a privy councillor; after he had become duke of Queens-
berry in 1695 he was appointed an extraordinary lord of session
and keeper of the privy seal. He was the royal commissioner
to the famous Scottish parliament which met in 1700, and just
after the accession of Anne in 1702 he was made one of the
secretaries of state for Scotland. In the latter part of 1703 he
came under a temporary cloud through his connexion with the
Jacobite intriguer, Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, who had utilized
Queensberry's jealousy of the duke of Atholl to obtain a com-
mission from him to get evidence in France which would impli-
cate Atholl. The plot was betrayed by Robert Ferguson, and
Queensberry was deprived of his offices. However, in 1705 he
was restored and in 1706 he was again commissioner to the
Scottish parliament; in this capacity he showed great ability
in carrying through the treaty for the union of the two crowns,
which, chiefly owing to his influence and skill, was completed in
1707. For this he was very unpopular in Scotland, but he
received a pension of 3000 a year. In 1708 he was created
duke of Dover and marquess of Beverley, and he obtained a
special remainder by which his titles were to pass to his second
surviving son Charles, and not to his eldest son James, who was
an idiot. In February 1709 he was appointed third secretary of
state, and he died on the 6th of July 1711.
QUEENSCLIFF QUEENSFERRY
Charles Douglas, the 3rd duke (1698-1778), who had been
created earl of Solway in 1706, was lord justice general from
1763 until his death in October 1778. In 1720 he married
Catherine, daughter of Henry Hyde, 4th earl of Clarendon;
this lady, a famous beauty, although very eccentric, was the
friend of many of the wits and writers of her day, notably of
(Jay, Swift and Walpole. She died on the I7th of July 1777.
Their two sons predeceased the duke, and when he died his
British titles, including the dukedom of Dover, became extinct,
but the Scottish titles passed to his cousin, William, 3rd earl
of March (1724-1810).
This William Douglas, who now became the 4th duke of
Queensberry, is best known by his soubriquet of " Old Q." On
the turf he was one of the most prominent figures of his time,
and his escapades and extravagances were notorious. From
1766 to 1776 he was vice-admiral of Scotland, and in 1760 he
was made a lord of the bedchamber by George III.; but later
he was an associate of the prince of Wales, being removed
from his office in the royal household in 1789. A generous patron
of the stage and of art, he was to the end of his life a " noble
sportsman" of the dissolute type, and his degeneracy was the
theme both of Wordsworth and of Burns. He died unmarried,
but not without children, in London on the 23rd of December
1810. The dukedom of Queensberry and some of his other
titles, together with his fine seat Drumlanrig Castle, now passed
to Henry Scott, 3rd duke of Buccleuch, in whose family they
still remain; but the marquessate of Queensberry descended
to Sir Charles Douglas (1777-1837), the representative of
another branch of the Douglas family, who became the sth
marquess.
John Sholto Douglas, Sth marquess of Queensberry
(1844-1900), son of Archibald William, the 7th marquess
(1818-1858), became a well-known patron of sport and particu-
larly of pugilism. He helped to found the Amateur Athletic
Club in 1860, and the new rules for prize-fighting, drawn up in
1867, were called after him the " Queensberry Rules." He
married the daughter of Alfred Montgomery, and was succeeded
by his son, Percy Sholto, 9th marquess (b. 1868).
QUEENSCLIFF, a town of Grant county, Victoria, Australia,
68 m. by land and 32 by sea S.W. by S. of Melbourne. Pop.
(1901) 2025. It lies on Shortlands Bluff, a small peninsula
connected with the mainland by the Narrows, a contracted
strip of land some 400 yds. broad. Queenscliff is a favourite
watering-place, having a fine pier and excellent and safe sea-
bathing. It is also a pilot station; and the quarantine station
for vessels entering Port Phillip is near the town.
QUEENS'S COUNTY, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leinster, bounded N.W. and N. by King's County, E. by
Kildare, S. by Carlow and Kilkenny, and W. by Tipperary;
area, 424,723 acres, or about 664 sq. m. The surface is for the
most part level or gently undulating, but in the north-west
rises into the elevations of the Slieve Bloom Mountains, the
highest summit being Arderin, 1733 ft. In the central part
of the county there is a large extent of bog. The south-east
portion is included in the Leinster coalfield. Nearly the whole
of the county is drained either by the Barrow, which has its
source in the Slieve Bloom Mountains, and forms at various
points the boundary with King's County, Kildare and Carlow,
or by the Nore, which enters the county from Tipperary near
Borris-in-Ossory, and flows east and then south till it reaches
Kilkenny. The lakes are few and small, the largest being
Lough Anaghmore on the north-western boundary. The
Grand Canal enters the county at Portarlington, and runs
southwards to the Barrow in Kildare, a branch passing west-
wards 12 miles to Mountmellick.
The limestone plain prevails in this county, but the high
coalfield, shared with Kilkenny and Carlow, rises from it in
the south; while the Slieve Bloom Mountains, a round-backed
Old Red Sandstone mass with Silurian inliers, dominate the
lowland west of Maryborough. The limestone itself produces
a range of hills near Stradbally, on which the fortress of Duna-
mase stands conspicuously. Esker-gravels provide sandy soils
in many places. Clay-ironstone was formerly raised in con-
nexion with the anthracite from the coalfield.
The climate is dry and healthy. Originally a great extent
of the surface was occupied with bog, but by draining much of
it has been converted into good land. For the most part it
is very fertile except in the hilly districts towards the north,
and there is some remarkably rich land in the south-east. The
acreage under pasture is not quite twice that of tillage. Dairy-
farming is extensively practised. Agriculture forms the chief
occupation, but the manufacture of woollen and cotton goods
is carried on to a small extent. The main line of the Great
Southern & Western railway traverses the county from N.E.
to S.W. by way of Portarlington and Maryborough; from
the latter town branches run N. to Mountmellick and S. to
Waterford, and from Ballybrophy a line runs W. to Birr
(Parsonstown) and to Limerick.
The population (63,855 in 1891; 57,417 in 1901) decreases
in excess of the average of the Irish counties, and emigration
is considerable. Of the total about 88% are Roman
Catholic, and almost the whole is rural. Maryborough (the
county town, pop. 2957), Mountmellick (2407) and Mountrath
(1304), with Portarlington (1943, partly in King's County),
are the principal towns. The county is divided into eleven
baronies. Ecclesiastically it is in the Protestant dioceses of
Dublin, Killaloe and Ossory, and in the Roman Catholic dio-
ceses of Kildare and Leighlin, Ossory and Killaloe. Assizes
are held at Maryborough, and quarter sessions at Abbeyleix,
Borris-in-Ossory, Graigue (a suburb of Carlow), Maryborough,
Mountmellick and Stradbally. The county is divided into the
Leix and Ossory parliamentary divisions. To the Irish parlia-
ment two members were returned for the county and two each
for the boroughs of Ballinakill, Maryborough and Portarlington.
The territory now included in Queen's County covered the
districts of Leix, Slewmargy, Irry and part of Glenmaliry, until
in 1556 it was made shire ground under the name of Queen's
County, in honour of Queen Mary, the place chosen for the
county town being named Maryborough. Three miles south of
Stradbally is Dun of Clopook, an ancient dun or fort occupying
the whole extent of the hill. Aghaboe, where there are the
ruins of the abbey, was formerly the seat of the bishopric of
Ossory. There are no remains of the abbey of Timahoe founded
by St Mochua in the 6th century, but in the neighbourhood
there is a fine round tower, 96 ft. high. Abbeyleix, a small
market town south of Maryborough, had a famous Cistercian
foundation of the I2th century. The church of Killeshin, in
the S.E. of the county, exhibits fine carving of the Norman
period. Among the principal old castles are the ruined fortress
of the O'Mores occupying the precipitous rock of Dunamase,
3 m.-E. of Maryborough, Borris-in-Ossory on the Nore, and
Lea Castle on the Barrow, near Portarlington, erected by the
Fitzgeralds about 1260, burnt by Edward Bruce in 1315, again
rebuilt, and in 1650 laid in ruins by the soldiers of Cromwell.
QUEENSFERRY, a royal and police burgh of Linlithgow-
shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1850. It is situated on the
S. side of the Firth of Forth, 9 m. by road N.W. of Edin-
burgh and about i m. from Dalmeny station on the North
British railway, and is sometimes called South Queensferry,
to distinguish it from the Queensferry on the opposite shore.
Of old it was the ferry giving access to Dunfermline and other
places on the north side of the firth, its use in this respect by
Margaret, the queen of Malcolm Canmore, originating its name;
just as Port Edgar, J m. W., was named after her brother,
Edgar Atheling. The Hawes Inn, which figures in Scott's
Antiquary, was the terminus of the run from Edinburgh in the
coaching days. Queensferry became a burgh of royalty in
1363, a royal burgh in 1639 and a police burgh in 1882, and
belongs to the Stirling district group of parliamentary burghs
(with Stirling, Culross, Dunfermline and Inverkeithing). The
principal structures include, besides the small parish church of
Dalmeny (the best example of pure Norman in Scotland), the
Countess of Rosebery Memorial Hall (erected in 1893 by the
earl of Rosebery), a library and reading-room, and a public
732
QUEENSLAND
hall which also does duty as a town hall. A Carmelite friary
was converted into an Episcopal chapel in 1890. There is a
large oil-works in the parish. Dalmeny House, the seat of the
earl of Rosebery, lies in beautifully wooded grounds about
2 m. E. of the ferry. In the park, on the seashore facing Drum
Sands, stands Barnbougle Castle, a building of unknown age
which became the seat of the Mowbrays in the I2th century.
After passing into the hands of the earls of Haddington, it was
purchased in 1662 by Sir Archibald Primrose, an ancestor of
the earl of Rosebery. The castle was thoroughly restored in
1880. Dundas Castle, 15 m. S. of Queensferry, was a seat of
the Dundases from 1124 to 1875, was besieged in 1449, received
a visit from Cromwell in 1651 and was partly rebuilt about
1850. Hopetoun House, nearly 3 m. W. of the ferry, was
begun about 1696 from the plans of Sir William Bruce of Kinross
and completed by Robert Adam. It is the seat of the marquess
of Linlithgow. Abercorn, a little to the west, gave the title
of duke to a branch of the Hamiltons. It was the site of an
ancient monastery, and from 68 1 to 685 the see of the earliest
bishopric in Scotland.
QUEENSLAND, a state of the Australian commonwealth,
occupying the whole of the north-eastern portion of the
Australian continent, and comprising also the islands in Torres
Strait. (For map, see AUSTRALIA.) It lies between 10 and
29 S., and is bounded on the N. by Torres Strait and the Gulf
of Carpentaria, on the W. by South Australia and the Northern
Territory, on the S. by New South Wales and on the E. by
the Pacific Ocean. It has an area of 668,497 sq. m., a coast-
line of 3000, is 1250 m. long and 950 m. wide at its widest part.
With so extensive a seaboard Queensland is well favoured
with ports on the Pacific side. Moreton Bay receives the
Brisbane river, on whose banks Brisbane, the capital, stands.
Maryborough port is on the Mary, which flows into Wide Bay;
Bundaberg, on the Burnett; Gladstone, on Port Curtis; Rock-
hampton, up the Fitzroy (Keppel Bay); Mackay, on the
Pioneer; Bowen, on Port Denison; Townsville, on Cleveland
Bay. Cairns and Port Douglas are near Trinity Bay; Card-
well is on Rockingham Bay; Cooktown, on the Endeavour;
Thursday Island port, near Cape York; and Normanton
and Burketown near the Gulf of Carpentaria. The quiet Inner
Passage, between the shore of the Great Barrier Reef, 1200 m.
long, favours the north-eastern Queensland ports. Brisbane
was founded in 1826, but colonization was restricted until
1842, when the Moreton Bay district of New South Wales was
thrown open to settlers. It was named " Queensland " on
its separation from the mother colony in 1859. A broad
plateau, from 2000 to 5000 ft. in height, extends from
north to south, at from 20 to 100 m. from 'the coast, forming
the Main Range. The Coast Range is less elevated. A plateau
goes westward from the Great Dividing Range, throwing most
of its waters northward to the gulf. The Main Range sends
numerous but short streams to the Pacific, and a few long
ones south-westward, lost in earth or shallow lakes, unless
feeding the river Darling. Going northward, the leading
rivers, in order, are the Logan, Brisbane, Mary, Burnett,
Fitzroy, Burdekin, Herbert, Johnstone and Endeavour. The
Fitzroy receives the Mackenzie and Dawson; the Burdekin
is supplied by the Cape, Belyando and Sutler. The chief
gulf streams are the Mitchell, Flinders, Leichhardt and Albert.
The great dry western plains have the Barcoo, Diamantina,
Georgina, Warrego, Maranoa and Condamine. (T. A. C.)
Geology. Queensland consists geologically of three areas. The
eastern division of the state, including all the Cape York Peninsula
and the mountainous areas behind the coast, is occupied by the
Queensland Highlands, which are built up of a foundation of
Archean and contorted Lower Palaeozoic rocks, upon which rest
some sheets of comparatively horizontal Upper Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic rocks. The rocks of the Highlands sink to the west below
the Western Plains, which consist in the main of a sheet of
Cretaceous clays, capped by isolated ridges and peaks of Desert
Sandstone. In the far west the plains end against the foot of an
Archean tableland, which is the north-eastern projection of the
Western Plateau of Australia.
The oldest rocks in Queensland are gneisses and schists, which
appear to underlie the whole of the state. They were originally
regarded as metamorphosed Silurian rocks, which had been converted
into gneiss, mica-schists and hornblende-schists. Their Silurian
age was affirmed owing to their lithological resemblance to rocks
in Victoria, which were then regarded as Silurian, but have since
been shown to be Archean. The gneisses and schists occupy the
Barklay Tableland, the Cloncurry Goldfield and the rocks of the
Mackinlay district in the west of the state. The second chief
Archean area is around Charters Towers and the Cape Goldfieid;
it includes quartzites, conglomerates and slates, striking from
north-west to south-east. The third Archean area occupies the
Gilbert, Woolgar and Etheridge Goldfields, and is composed of
schists trending from west to east, and with dikes of diorite and
quartz-porphyry. Smaller Archean outcrops occur south of Bowen
in the Clarke Range and on the Peak Downs. To the Archean
series doubtless belong some of the many granitic massifs, including
those of Charters Towers, Ravenswood and Croydon; but some
of the granitic rocks are of Lower Carboniferous age, and some
are apparently Mesozoic.
The Lower Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks are widely distributed,
but owing to the rarity of fossils they are not well known. In the
south-west of Queensland there are some Ordovician rocks, the
eastern continuation of those in the Macdonnell Ranges. Silurian
limestones occur in the mining field of Chillagoe and at Mount
Wyatt. The Upper Palaeozoic systems are well developed, even
when many of the schists, which have been included in the Devonian,
are eliminated. The Middle Devonian is represented by the
Burdekin limestones, which contain a rich fossil fauna corresponding
to the Bucban and Bindi limestones of Victoria. The Middle
Devonian limestones occur on the Marble and Hunter Islands in
the Northumberland Archipelago. The Devonian rocks in the
Pentland and Gilbert district are estimated by Jack to be over
20,000 ft. in thickness; but they probably include some Lower
Palaeozoic beds.
The Queensland Carboniferous system is divided into five series
the Gympie, Star and the three divisions of the Bowen beds. The
lowest series is the Gympie, which occurs between Brisbane and
Maryborough. It consists of shales and sandstones, and is
traversed by dikes of diorite, which often contain pyrites and gold.
The age of these gold-bearing rocks is proved by the presence of
such fossils as Productus cora and Protoretepora ampla. The Gympie
series is well developed in the districts of Burnett, Broad Sound
Bay and Wide Bay, along the coast from Port Curtis to the south of
Cape Palmerston. The Gympie beds are greatly contorted; and
those of the Star series are regarded as younger, because they are
less disturbed. They are best known in the basins of the Great
and Little Star rivers, tributaries of the Upper Burdekin. They
are best developed on the Belyando river and in the Drummond
Range, where the shales and sandstones yield abundant fossil
fish; on the Star river the shales contain Lepidodendron. The
Bowen beds are divided into three series which represent the upper
part of the Carboniferous. The Lower Bowen series consists of
agglomerates and altered rocks exposed in the Toussaint Range;
farther south, the Lower Bowen beds consist of grits, sandstones
and shales, which have been altered by some granitic intrusions.
The Middle Bowen series contains beds with Productus cora and
Glossopteris. The Upper Bowen beds contain coal seams, abundant
remains of Glossopteris and one marine band. They form the centre
of the basin of the Bowen coalfield; while the Middle Bowen beds
outcrop in a band around it. The Upper Bowen beds occur also
at Townsville and Cooktown in Northern Queensland.
The rocks of the Mesozoic group may be divided into two divisions,
of which the lower includes terrestrial deposits containing coal
seams; the upper is mainly a marine formation, but it terminates
with a further development of terrestrial deposits. The Lower
Mesozoic division includes the Burrum and Ipswich series. The
Burrum series occurs along the eastern coast from Laguna Bay,
through Wide Bay and Maryborough, to Blackwater Creek; and
it extends inland for about 30 m., where it is faulted against
the Gympie beds. The western edge of the Burrum beds are de-
scribed as highly altered in places, by contact with granites. The
Ipswich series occupies 12,000 sq. m. in the south-eastern corner
of Queensland, and is the northern continuation of the Upper
Clarence series of New South Wales. It contains coal seams which
have been worked, though the coal is of inferior value to that of
the Carboniferous of New South Wales. One seam, on Stewarts
Creek, near Rockhampton, is 26 ft. thick. Interbedded basalts
occur in the Ipswich beds, forming the scarp of the Toowoomba
Range. The Burrum and Ipswich beds have been included in the
Trias and the Jurassic, or in both systems as the Trias-Jura, but
according to A. C. Seward their characteristic fossil, Taeniopteris
daintreei, is of Lower Oolitic age.
The Cretaceous system is represented by a lower group of marine
clays forming the Rolling Downs formation. They are said to rest
conformably upon the Ipswich beds, and some of the fossils found
in these beds were first described as Upper Oolitic. The affinities
of the fauna are in part with Lower Cretaceous and in part with the
Cenomanian; so both these series may be represented. The Roll-
ing Downs formation consists in the main of clays, forming the
QUEENSLAND
733
impermeable cover over the subterranean stores of water, which
maintain the flowing wells of central Australia. The Rolling Downs
formation underlies the whole of the Western Plains of Queensland,
from the foot of the Queensland Highlands, westward to the Barklay
Tableland ; and it extends from the Gulf of Carpentaria on the north,
across the state into South Australia and New South Wales. The
Desert Sandstone overlies the Rolling Downs formation. Its
it shown to be Upper Cretaceous by some marine fossils from
.Maryborough and Croydon, which are said to be from rocks inter-
bedded in it. In the interior, the Desert Sandstone is entirely of
i rial and lacustrine origin, and the only fossils are obscure
plant remains and the silicined trunks of trees. Glossopteris has
been collected on Belts Creek from a rock identified as Desert Sand-
stone, which is said to overlie the Rolling Downs formation; but
there is probably some mistake in the stratigraphy, as Glossopteris
is only found in Coal Measures which are clearly of Palaeozoic age.
If it had survived into the Cretaceous, some specimens of it would
doubtless have been obtained from the coal seams of the Lower
Mesozoic. The Desert Sandstone once covered nearly three-
quarters of Queensland, having a wider range than the Rolling
Downs formation. It was formed partly on land, partly in fresh-
water lakes and partly in arms of the sea, as at Croydon and Mary-
borough. There is no trace of volcanic rocks in this period, and the
vitreous surface of the Desert Sandstone is due to the deposition
of efflorescent chert. The Desert Sandstone formation has now
been weathered into isolated plateaus and tent-shaped hills.
The Cainozoic group includes many volcanic rocks, mainly sheets
of basalt, as at Townsville and Hughenden. Near Herberton,
between the head of the Burdekin and the Einasleigh River, the
basalts occupy 2000 sq. m. of country. Their age appears to be
Oligocene, as they probably correspond with the oldest Cainozoic
basalts of Victoria. Volcanic rocks of a later period occur north of
Cooktown, and in the Einasjeigh River, where the eruptive centres
are recognizable; and a series of hot springs, some of which are
described as geysers, represent the last stage of volcanic activity.
The most important Cainozoic sedimentary rocks are the bone
breccias, made up of bones of extinct marsupials, such as Diprotodon,
Thylacoleo and giant Kangaroos. They appear to have been
bogged in the mud by drying water holes, during droughts. The
bones also occur in beds of gravel and sand, and they have been
found in places covered by 188 ft. of overlying deposits. Caves
occur in the limestones, and on their floors there are beds
yielding bones of marsupials and extinct birds; but no well
authenticated case of the ancient remains of man has yet been
established.
The chief mineral product of Queensland is gold, found in veins
in Archean, Palaeozoic and Lower Mesozoic rocks. The most
famous gold mines are Mount Morgan, now changing into a copper
mine, Charters Towers and Gympie. Tin is found in the fields of
Herberton, Cooktown and Stannary Hills. Copper occurs near
Herberton, Chillagoe and Mungana, coal in southern Queensland
in the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Mesozoic deposits.
A full account of the geology of Queensland up to 1892 is given
in Jack and Etheridge s Geology of Queensland. The tectonic
geology of the coast-line has been described by E. C. Andrews, and
the general geology is described in the numerous valuable publica-
tions of the Geological Survey of Queensland. A summary of the
mineral resources was issued by the Queensland government in
1901. Information regarding the artesian water supply is given
in the Annual Reports of the Queensland Hydraulic Engineer.
(J. W. G.)
Flora. The Queensland flora comprehends most of the forms
peculiar to Australia, with the addition of about five hundred
species belonging to the Indian and Malayan regions. There are
no mountain ranges of sufficient altitude to make any appreciable
change in the plant-life. Bellenden Ker, the highest mountain in
tropical Australia, has a height of only 5200 ft., and the plants
growing upon its summit, as well as on the highest parts of the
neighbouring mountains, are for the most part similar to those
on the low lands in the southern parts of the state, and the plants
which may be considered as peculiar to these heights are few
in number of species. They consist of a Leptospermum and a
(?) Myrtus, which attain a height of about 30 or 40 ft., and have
widespreading, densely leaved heads. The most attractive of the
tall shrubs are Dracophyllum Sayeri, of which there are two forms,
Rhododendron Lochae and Orites fraerans. A few orchids of small
growth are met with, but the only large species known to inhabit
these localities is the normal form of Dendrobium speciosum. These
high spots have a few ferns peculiar to them, and of others it is the
only known Australian habitat; for instance, the pretty white-
fronded Java Bristle-fern (Trichomanes pallidum) has only so far
in Australia been met on the south pealc of Bellenden Ker; here
also Todea Fraseri may be seen with trunks 2 to 3 ft. high. The
sides of these mountains are clothed by a dense forest scrub growth,
some of the trees being very tall, but diminishing in height towards
the summits. Palms and fern-trees are plentiful, but the greatest
variety are met with at about 4000 ft. altitude. So far this is
the only known habitat of that beautiful fern-tree Alsophila Rebeccae
var. tommutata, peculiar for the wig-like growth at the summit of
its stem, which is formed by the metamorphosed lower pinnae and
pinnules.
The Myrtaceous genus Eucalyptus, of which sixty species are
found, furnishes the greater part of what is designated " Hard-
woods," the kinds being variously termed " Box," Gum," " Iron-
bark," " Bloodwood, " Tallow-wood," " Stringy-bark," &c.
These are mostly trees of large size. Other large trees of the order
which supply hard, durable timber are the broad-leaved tea-
tree (Melaleuca leucadendron and others), " Swamp Mahogany "
(Tristania suaveolens) , " Brisbane Box " (T. conferta), " Turpentine "
(Syncarpia laurifolia), " Peebeen " (5. Htilii), " Penda " (Xantho-
stemon oppositifolius). These are most generally cut at sawmills.
Other orders, however, furnish equally serviceable, large-sized
timber, particularly the following: ' Sour Plum " (Owenia venosa,
Meliaceae), " Red Cedar " (Cedreta Toona), " Crow's Ash" (Flindersia
australis, Meliaceae), " Burdekin Plum " (Pleiogynium Solandri,
Anacardiaceae) ; " Bean-tree " (Castanospermum australe, Legumin-
osae), " Johnstone River Teak" (Afzelia australis, Leguminosae),
" Ringy Rosewood " (Acacia glaucescens, Leguminosae), " Black
Walnut " (Cryptocarya Palmerstoni, Laurineae), " Hill's Teak "
(Dissiliaria bafoghiotdes). Many trees yield wood particularly
adapted for carving and engraving, such as the " Native Pome-
granate " (Cappans nobilis), the " Native Orange " (Citrus
australis), " Sour Plum " (Owenia acidula), " Ivorywoou " (Siphono-
don australe). Coachbuilders and wheelwrights use the wood of
many myrtaceous trees and several others, with Flindersias
(Meliaceae), whilst tool-handles are also formed from these and other
trees. There is also a large variety of woods suited for cabinet-
making and building. A large number furnish tannin barks, gums,
&c. The tannin barks are mostly derived from various kinds of
acacia. Three spice barks, locally known as sassafras, are employed
for flavouring in the northern parts, Daphnandra aromatica, a
Monimiaceous tree, and Cinnamomum Tantala; and in the southern
parts Cinnamomum Oliveri. Many indigenous plants are used in
domestic medicines, and several are recognized in the Pharma-
copaeia, such as Eucalypts, Cinnamomums, Sideroxylons, Alstonias,
Duboisias and Pipers.
With .regard to fodder-plants, no country is better furnished;
there are many herbs and a large number of salt bushes and other
shrubs, which form excellent auxiliaries to the food supply for
stock. It is, however, to the grasses that the excellence of the
pastures is mainly due. On the extensive plains where the best
species abound may be seen a large number of the genus Panicum,
of which the following are looked upon with the greatest favour:
" Vandyke grass," a form of P. flavidum, " Cockatoo grass " (P.
semialatum), on the roots of which a species of cockatoo, in some parts
of North Queensland, feeds; " Barley grass" (P. decompositum and
P. distachyum) ', " Blue grass" (Andropogon sericeus, A. pertusus,
A. refractus, and A. erianthoides) ; " Russell River grass " (Paspalum
galmarra, nearly allied to the South American species P. paniculatum,
P. minutiflorum, and P. brevifolium, Agropyrum scabrum)', "Tall
Oat grass " (Anthistiria avenacea) ; " Landsborough grass " (Anthis-
tiria membranacea) ; Danthonia racemosa, D. pilosa, D. pallida, and
D. semiannularis ; Sporobolus Benthami, an excellent species found
near the Diamantina and Georgina rivers, and 5. aclinocladus;
Stifa aristiglumis, Leptochloa chinensis, Microlaena stipoides;
" Early spring grass " (EriocUoa punctata), with the following
"Love grasses": Eragrpstis Brownii, E. chaetophylla, E. pilosa
and E. tenella. The " Mitchell grasses " (Astrebla pectinata) and
its varieties, viz. the Wheat (trtiicoides) , the weeping (elymoides)
and the curly (curvifolia), are those that have the most extra-
ordinary vitality, but some stockholders consider that the "Sugar
grass " or " Brown Top " (Pollinia fulva) surpasses them in its
quickness of bursting into leaf with the first showers of rain.
Amongst the fruits are Antidesma Bunius, A. Dallachyanum, A.
erostre, A. Ghaesembilla, and A. parvifolium, called cherries or
currants according to the size of the fruit they bear, the jelly made
from the fruit of some species being in nowise inferior to that made
from the European red currant. The Kumquat or lime of Southern
Downs country (Atalanlia glauca) makes a peculiarly nice-flavoured
preserve. Of the allied genus Citrus two species are met with
in the south, C. australis, which has a round fruit I to 2 in. in
diameter; the other, C. australasica, with long finger-like fruits
3 or more inches long and about I in. in diameter; of this a red
variety (C. inodora), which is only met with in the tropics, bears
a fruit often 2j in. long by ll in diameter. All these fruits
are juicy, and of an agreeably sharp, acid flavour. " Davidson's
Plum " (Davidsonia pruriens) is a fruit with a sharply acid, rich,
plum-coloured juice, sometimes attaining the size of a goose's egg.
Of the genus Eugenia, over thirty are indigenous, anal fully one-
third produce more or less useful fruits. One Fig (Ficus gracilipes)
produces a fruit used for jam and jelly. Two Garcinias are recorded
as indigenous, but of one only (G. Mestoni) is the fruit known.
It is of a depressed globular form, sometimes 3 in. in diameter,
very juicy, and of a pleasant flavour. Leptomeria acida, one of
the very early fruits used by Australian colonists, is met with in
some localities. The "Finger Berry" or "Native Loquat "
(Rhodomyrtus macrocarpa) makes a good jam, but is in bad repute
for use in the raw state, perhaps owing to a peculiar fungus at
734
QUEENSLAND
times found to infest the berries. The Queensland Raspberry
(Rubus rosaefolius) is widely spread and commonly used, but the
fruit is rather insipid. The representatives of the genus Vitis all
belong to the sub-genus Cissus ; several of them, although somewhat
acrid, are useful for jam and jelly : probably the best for the purpose
is one met with near the Walsh River, V. Gardineri, which is said
to bear bunches from I Ib to 2 Ib in weight, the berries being large
and of pleasant flavour. A large number of nut-like fruits are used
by the aborigines for food, but the only one used by the white
population is the fruit of Macadamia termfolia, the Queensland nut.
The foliage of many plants yields by distillation essential oils,
particularly Eucalypts, Backhousias and other Myrtaceous plants,
as well as some belonging to Rutaceae and Labiatae, especially the
genus Mentha. Apart from plants of economic value, there is a
profusion of ornamental plants, shrubs, trees and parasites. Of
ferns, one-half of the kinds met with in Australia are found in
Queensland as well as in the other states, one-fourth in Queensland
alone, the remaining fourth belonging to the other states, but not
to Queensland. The indigenous ferns equal in number those of New
Zealand, and are three times the number of those of Great Britain.
Fauna. The land fauna of Queensland is essentially one with
that of the entire continent. But the geographical position of the
state, which exposes it to the climatic and transporting influences
of the intertropical Pacific, has to a notable extent impressed
on its fauna characters of its own. It has thus been made the
headquarters of Australian bird-life on land and fish-life at sea,
the moisture of its coastal regions and the warmth of its tidal
waters being eminently favourable to that wealth of insect and
other low types of life which determines the multiplication of
the higher. The quadrupeds of Queensland are of the ordinary
Australian type already described. Of the predominant class,
the marsupials, one of the most interesting forms is the Tree-
Kangaroo (Dendrolagus) , as, apart from the habit of climbing trees,
which is shared to some extent by the Rock- Wallabies, they afford
a proof of the one-time continuity of the fauna with that of the
islands to the north, when land communication still existed between
the two areas. Of these curious animals, two species at least are
known. As to the rest of the marsupials, there is of course a general
resemblance to those of the continent as a whole, but this is accom-
panied by much evolution of forms, especially among the smaller
sorts, recognized by differences which are occasionally sufficient
to mark off distinct generic, or even more differentiated groups.
The larger Kangaroos are pretty conservative in character every-
where, while the common Wallabies, the Rock- Wallabies and the
Kangaroo-Rats exhibit a greater tendency to differ from their
southern and western kindred. The Koala, or native Bear, is
almost absolutely invariable, a sign of the antiquity of the race.
The Opossums and the so-called Flying-Opossums are not many
in species, and are dwarfed descendants from a more flourishing
ancestry. The Bandicoot family (Peramelidae) is fairly represented ;
it includes the rabbit-bandicoot, which crosses in its eastern range
the western border of the country. Carnivorous marsupials of
destructive powers are few; the largest of them, the spotted-tailed
native cat (Dasyurus maculatus), is the most troublesome. Superior
in size to the domestic cat, this pretender to the rank of cat is able
to devastate a whole hen-roost in a single night, and is even said
by the aboriginals to attack their infants. With the exception of
a smaller species of the same kind, and a brush-tailed ally very
much smaller, but yet able to kill a fowl with a single bite, the rest
(marsupial mice) are but partly carnivorous, chiefly insectivorous,
and therefore useful. This fauna is now fortunately deprived of
the Thylacinus (Native Tiger) and Sarcophilus (Native Devil), which
have been driven by physical changes southwards to Tasmania,
and, it was thought until lately, of the Wombats, but a new species
of these inoffensive burrowers has recently been discovered within
the southern borders of the state. One other peculiarity in the
form of a marsupial mammal is the little Musk-Rat (Hypsiprymnus),
inhabiting those northern scrubs which are so prolific in other
animal forms foreign to the rest of Australia, and seem to have
received some of their denizens from the Malay Archipelago and
some from the Papuan Islands. The remarkable deposits of fossil
bones, extending in patches throughout the length of the country,
are sufficient proof that in former times a much larger number of
animals were supported by it than are now to be found within its
borders. Queensland^ has only one native carnivorous beast, the
dingo, not a marsupial. Rats and mice of native origin are in
considerable variety; among them are the Jumping Rats (Hapolotis),
Jerboa-like little animals, which are seldom seen. The bats are of
several species; the most notorious of them are the great fruit-bats,
or flying-foxes, which the fruit grower could well enough spare.
The Sirenian mammal, the dugong, haunts nearly the whofa of
the coast-line. The Echidna, a porcupine ant-eater, and the
playtpus are met with in the south. Batrachians are limited to the
frogs and their nearest ajlies that is, to the tailless division of the
order, the tailed batrachians (newts, &c.) being, as far as is known
at present, entirely absent. The greater part of the frogs are
arboreal in habit, the most familiar being the large Green Tree Frog.
The exuberance and diversity of their food have doubtless been
the cause of their differentiation into many distinct species, which
enables them to play a very useful part in checking the undue
increase of noxious insects. Snakes, on the other hand, are in too
great variety for human interests, as they live very largely on insect-
feeders. The great majority belong to the venomous Colubridae,
but fortunately the kinds of which the bite is more or less deadly
are not numerous, and snake-bite is one of the rarest causes of
death. Those with the worst reputation are the Black Snake and
the Orange-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis), the Brown Snake
(Diemansia), the Keeled Snake (Tropidechis), and the Death Adder
(Acanthopis). The principal non-venomous species are the Pythons
or constricting snakes, e.g. the common Carpet Snake (Morelia),
the long lithe Tree Snake (Dendrophis) and the Fresh-water Snake
(Troptdonotus). The Black-headed Rock Snake (Aspidiotes), one
of the Pythons, is said to reach the length of from 20 to 25 ft., but
to be perfectly inoffensive. Several kinds of marine snakes occur
on the coasts, and all are to be accounted dangerous. Of reptiles,
the most numerous group by far is that of the lizards, which have
among them representatives of each of the leading families of the
class except the Chameleons. Tortoises are exemplified by many
forms in the fresh waters; on the coasts by the leather-back, the
edible turtle and the tortoise-shell turtle. Queensland waters are
not at present infested by any species of alligator, though in times
past one of large size was a scourge on the borders of the then
inland sea. The crocodilian of its coasts is the crocodile of the
Indian Seas, which ranges over the whole of the western tropical
Pacific, and wanders south into Queensland waters as far as Keppel
Bay. In the fresh-water pools of the northern tableland is found
a small and harmless crocodile (Philas) of a very uncommon form.
The avifauna is to the naturalist exceedingly attractive, for it is
full of surprises and interesting lines of research, while to the artist
it is a storehouse of form and colour. Where flowering and honey-
yielding trees prevail, a profusion of birds seek their food either on
the insects attracted by the honey, or, if so fitted, on the honey
itself. Accordingly, the most striking feature of the bird-life, amid
the forests of eucalypts and acacias, is its richness in honey-eaters
and insect destroyers. The former, however, taken as a whole,
are not a natural group, but include a family of perching birds and
a portion of the parroquet family, both furnished with brush
tongues adapted to the extraction of honey. A second characteristic
is the great development of that quaint company, the bower birds,
among them the regent bird, satin bird, cat birds, &c., constructors
of the elaborate playgrounds which have excited so much attention.
A third is the presence in one small part of the territory of a cassowary,
and on its seaboard of three kinds of rifle birds, both extensions
southwards of the tropical families of cassowaries and paradise
birds. In the same region of prolific vegetation the handsome
fruit-pigeons are also outliers of a large family of such pigeons
spread through the Papuan jungles. There is one species of lyre-
bird found in the southern highlands; the giant kingfisher, a laughing
jackass, is found in the same region. The Scrub-turkey (Catheturus)
heaps its mound of rotting debris to ferment in the shade of the
jungles and give warmth to its eggs; the Scrub-hen (Megapodius)
piles up sand on the beach for the sun to furnish the necessary
temperature. The comparative paucity of birds of prey (Falconidae),
and the almost total absence of rasorial game- and poultry-birds,
may be noted. Birds pursued for sport or profit, however, are not
wanting. The Emu and the Bustard or Plain Turkey afford sport
in the open country, Quail and Snipe in or near the timber, while
rivers and lakes still unvisited by the gun are covered with Ducks
and Geese, Swans and Pelicans. It has been said that Australia
has no migratory birds: this is an error, founded upon an undue
restriction of the term migratory. Several species could be mentioned
which are truly migratory in Queensland, as the Drongp-shrike,
Bee-eater, Dollar-bird, &c. On the land surface, among its lowly
organized products, interest centres in the multitudinous forms of
insect-life, of which.excepting the Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera)
and Beetles (Coleoptera), comparatively little is known at present.
Insects inimical to man, with the exception, in some localities, of
ants, flies and mosquitoes, are inconsiderable in number, and
possess few hurtful properties. Centipedes, scorpions and leeches
are less troublesome than in most other tropical regions. Spiders
present themselves in astonishing variety, but only one kind, a
small black spider with red spots (Lathrodectus) , is malignant.
Among the larger insects proper, the great-winged Phasmas, the
Skeleton or Stick-insects, the Leaf-insects, and the splendid Swallow-
tailed Butterflies are especially notable. Many of the Beetles are
remarkable for size or brilliancy of colour.
Fishes and Fisheries. The class fishes is extraordinarily profuse
in diversified forms, the coral reefs being the grazing- and hunting-
grounds of hosts of gorgeously decorated fish, chiefly of the Wrasse
family; these, however, are almost equalled in beauty by the
Chaetodons, Gurnards, &c., of other habitats. Among the Perches
are the enormous Groper, which may attain the weight of 4 cwt.,
the Murray Cod, and the Giant Perch, both excellent food-fish of
about 70 ft in weight. Sharks of many species abound. A survival
from the Mesozoic period is the Ceratodus or Burnett Salmon,
which, formerly inhabiting the headwaters of the Murray, still
breeds in two of the smaller rivers north of the Bunya Range. This
fish possesses a rudimentary lung in addition to ordinary gills. The
QUEENSLAND
735
barrier reefs are thickets of corals of the most varied forms, in life
glowing with colour, in death shrubs of snowy purity. Among
the shell-fish conspicuous for beauty or rarity are the exquisitely
delicate paper nautilus and Venus comb (Murex tenuispina), the
orange and other valuable cowries, and the gigantic clam-shell,
which may require a ship's tackle to lift it from its bed. The fishery
of the trepang, beche-de-mer or sea slug employs a considerable
number of boats about the coral reefs. Boiled, smoke-dried and
packed in bags, the trepang sells for exportation to China, though
its agreeable and most nourishing soup is relished by Australian
invalids. One species of this sea slug the teat-fish fetches as
much as 240 per ton. The pearl fishery is a prosperous and
progressive one in or near Torres Straits. A licence is paid, and
the traffic is under government supervision. Thursday Island is
the chief seat of this industry. The shells are procured by
diving, and fetch from 120 to 200 a ton. Mother-of-pearl and
tortoise-shell constitute important exports of the colony, capable
of great expansion. Oysters are as fine flavoured as they are
abundant. Turtles are caught to the northward. Of the
fish which frequent the coast, one of the best known varieties
is the sea mullet (Mugilidae), large shoals of which strike the
Australian coast 100 m. south of Sydney, and travel northwards,
arriving on the southern coast-line of Queensland in the months of
April and May, crossing bars and ascending rivers on the appearance
of south-easterly weather. These magnificent fish often attain a
weight of from IO Ib to 12 Ib. Small schools of bream succeed
the mullet, and are followed in September and October by the
poombah or tailor-fish, a fish of exceptional flavour, and much
esteemed by epicures. These are succeeded by jewfish, specimens
of which caught in southern waters have been known to exceed
a weight of 50 Ib, whiting, garfish and flatheads, while flounders,
black and tongue soles are occasionally caught by seine or hauling
nets. White and black trevally, groper and rock cod, and a variety
of bonito identical with the tunny of the Mediterranean Sea are
also frequently met with. Seyeraj species of the tassel fish (Poly-
nemus macrocohoir) , from which isinglass is procured, have been
taken by fishermen. King-fish, batfisn, gurnards and eels of many
varieties are also common. Schnapper, bream, rock cod, parrot-fish
and groper are caught by hook and line in from 10 to 30 fathoms
of water off the rocky headlands of the southern coast. Sardines,
whitebait and sprats make their appearance in large shoals on
the coast at intervals. The barramundi (Osteoglosswn leichardti),
which occurs in the Dawson and western waters, is found also on
the east coast, and is one of the most esteemed fresh-water fish in
Queensland. Dugong, which formerly were found in herds along
the northern coast and as far south as Moreton Bay, are caught in
set nets of 36 in. mesh, 100 fathoms in length. Different varieties
of turtle are plentiful, the green edible turtle being caught by large
set nets, and preserved and tinned for export. In Torres Strait
and the northern coast the hawksbill turtle, yielding the valuable
tortoise-shell of commerce, is said to be captured in a peculiar
manner, the sucking-fish or remora (Echeneis naucrales) being
utilized by the islanders for that purpose. The remora is carried
alive in the bottom of the canoe, a long thin line being attached to
the fish's tail and another usually to the gill. On a turtle being
sighted and approached to within the length of the line, the sucking-
fish is thrown towards it, and immediately it swims to and attaches
itself by its singular head sucker to the under surface of the turtle,
which if of moderate size is easily pulled into the canoe.
Amongst the Crustacea may be enumerated the gigantic clams
which are found on the reefs of the Inner Route. Occasionally
some are met with weighing nearly half a ton, embedded in coral.
Fresh-water clams are founa in the rivers in the northern districts.
The edible oyster (Ostrea graminifora) has been largely cultivated
in southern Queensland. Amongst other Crustacea, the squat
lobster (Themis orientalis) is, with giant prawns and quampi, or
small golden-lipped pearl shell, obtained by trawling in the southern
waters. Many varieties of crabs are also found on reefs and fore-
shores at low tide; prawns and shrimps are caught, dried, and form
an article for export to China ; mussels, pinna or razor-shell cockles,
and eugaries (a species of small shell-fish) are also abundant.
Climate. As one-half of Queensland lies within the tropics the
climate is naturally warm, though the temperature has a daily
range less than that of other countries under the same isothermal
lines. This circumstance is due to the sea breezes, which blow with
great regularity. The hot winds which prevail during the summer
in some of the other states are unknown in Queensland. Of course,
in a territory of such large extent there are many varieties of climate,
and the heat is greater along the coast than on the elevated lands of
the interior. In the northern parts of the state the high temperature
is trying to persons of European descent. The mean temperature
at Brisbane during December, January and February is about 76,
while during June, July and August it averages about 60. In
towns farther north, however, the* average is higher. Winter in
Rockhampton, for instance, averages nearly 65, while the summer
average rises almost to 85. At Townsville and Normanton the
average is higher still. The average rainfall is high, especially
along the northern coast, where it ranges from 60 to 70 in. per
annum. At Brisbane 50-01 in. is the average of 35 years, and
even on the plains of the interior from 20 to 30 in. usually fall
every year. West of the coast range the air is dry and hot, and in
summer the thermometer rises frequently to 106" in the shade.
The monsoons play an important part in cooling the atmosphere
near the coast, and are very regular in the north. The winter
climate is perfection, especially in the north, but frosts are frequent
and regular west of the coast range. Ice is commonly seen at
Herbertpn, 17 S., during winter, and on the Darling Downs frosts
are of nightly occurrence.
Population. The population of Queensland in 1905 was
estimated at 528,048 290,206 males and 237,842 females,
the density of population per sq. m. being about 0.79. In
1861, that is, two years after the separation from New South
Wales, the population of the colony stood at 34,400; in 1871
it had reached 125,100; in 1881, 227,000; in 1891, 410,300,
and at the census of 1901, 498,129. The policy of assisted
immigration contributed greatly to Queensland's progress, and
people of foreign descent are proportionately more numerous
than in any of the other states, though they only amount to
8-71% of the total population. At the census of 1901
there were 13,166 Germans, 3161 Danes, 2142 Scandinavians,
and among coloured aliens 8587 Chinese, 2269 Japanese, 939
Hindoos and Cingalese, 9327 Pacific Islanders, and 1787 other
races, making a total of 22,909 coloured aliens. It is estimated
that the total aboriginal population of Queensland is about
25,000.
The births in 1905 were 13,626, of which 950 were illegitimate,
and the deaths 5503, the respective rates per thousand of the
population being 25-92 and 10-47. The decline in the birth rate
will be gathered from the following table :
Period.
1861-65
1866-70
1871-75
1876-80
1881-85
Period.
1886-90
1891-95
1896-1900
1901-05
Birth Rate per 1000
of Population.
. 38-81
- 35-15
. 30-40
. 26-60
Birth Rate per 1000
of Population.
43-07
43-91
. 40-81
36-72
36-37
The death rate shows a remarkable diminution: in 1861-65 't
averaged 21-06 per 1000; in 1871-75, 17-94; > n 1881-85, 19-10;
and in 1891-95, 12-82. The marriage rate in 1905 was 6-04 per
looo, being an increase on the figures for 1904 of 95.
The chief cities and towns, with their population in 1905, are:
Bnsbane, 128,000; Rockhampton, 15,461; Gympie, 13,200;
Maryborough, 12,000; Townsville, 10,950; Toowoomba, 10,700;
Ipswich, 8637; Mount Morgan, 8836; Charters Towers, 6000;
Bundaberg, 5000.
Administration. As one of the Commonwealth states
Queensland returns six senators and nine representatives to
the federal parliament. The state parliament consists of a
legislative council of 37 members nominated for life, and a
legislative assembly of 72 members, who each receive 300
per annum for their services. For purposes of local govern-
ment the state in 1905 was divided into 46 municipalities and
125 shires. The boroughs control 354 sq. m. and the shires
667,898 sq. m.; the revenue and expenditure of the former in
1905 being respectively 312,510 and 321,645, and of the
latter 100,837 and 180,457. Revenue is mainly derived
from rates levied on the capital value of assessed properties,
which amounted for the whole state to 42,358,173, representing
an annual value of 2,647,400. All improvements are exempt
from assessment, and much of the revenue is expended in
road-making and the building of bridges. Rates are supple-
mented by an endowment from the central government.
Education. Public education is free, unsectarian and compulsory.
State or provisional schools are formed wherever an average
attendance of twelve children can be got. Theoretically the school
age is from six to twelve years, but in practice compulsory attendance
is seldom if ever enforced in certain parts, owing mainly to the
difficulty of providing suitable schools within reasonable access.
In 1905 there were 1044 state schools, with 2382 teachers and
88,903 scholars. Of private schools the number in 1905 was 171,
with 739 teachers and 14,891 pupils. Exclusive of coloured aliens
almost the whole adult population can read and write. In 1905
the sum spent on education was 281,575. Ten grammar schools
are endowed by the state. By a system of competitive scholarships
the government gives free education in grammar schools to scholars
in state schools, and also three-yearly exhibitions to universities to
students who pass an examination of a high standard. State aid
is also rendered to schools of art, schools of design, free libraries
and technical schools.
736
QUEENSLAND
There is no state church. Amongst the different denomina-
tions the Church of England, at the date of the last census,
numbered 37-5 % of the population, the Roman Catholic
24-5%, the Presbyterians 11-7, the Methodists 9-5, the Baptists
2-60, the Jews 0-2, other Christian bodies 12-3, Pagans and Mahom-
medans, 4-43.
Finance. For the year ending June 1905, the receipts amounted
to 3,595,399. equal to 6, 173. lod. per inhabitant. The chief
items of revenue were: taxation, 454,574; crown lands, 623,416;
railways, 1,409,414; balance refunded by the federal government,
752.532. The expenditure for that year was 3,581,403, equal to
6, 173. 4d. per inhabitant; the chief items being: interest on
public debt, 1,547,091; railways, 812,931; education, 322,496;
charitable institutions, 135,338. The public debt of the state
at the end of 1905 was 39,068,827, or 74, 6s. 3d. per inhabitant;
the bulk of this sum, 23,567,554, having been expended on railways.
The following shows the growth of the public indebtedness:
Year. Total Debt. Debt per Inhabitant.
1861 .... 70,000 209
1871 .... 4,047,850 32 6 II
1881 .... 13,245,150 58 7 2
1891 .... 29,457,134 73 12 5
1901 .... 39,338,427 76 8 6
1905
39,068,827
74 6 3
Defence. The Commonwealth defence forces in Queensland had
an actual strength at the end of 1905 of 7212 men, comprising a
permanent force of 258, 2486 militia, 959 cadets and 3189 riflemen.
Mining. In Mount Morgan Queensland possesses one of the chief
gold mines of the world, and this mine is also one of the leading
copper mines of the Commonwealth. In 1905 the value of the mineral
production of the state was 3,726,275, being an excess over that
of the previous year of 22,034, the highest in the history of the
state. This advance was due, not to any improvement in the gold
yield, which, latterly, has receded from the high level of former
years, but to the increased output of the industrial metals. The
value of the minerals, other than gold, won during 1905 amounted
to 1,208,980, almost one-third of the total value of the year's
mineral production, in which gold represented 2,517,295; silver,
69,176; copper, 503,547; tin, 297,454, and coal, i55,477-
Agriculture. The total area under cultivation in Queensland in
1905 was 622,987 acres, the principal crops being: wheat, 119,356
acres; maize, 113,720 acres; hay, 37,425 acres; green forage, 66,183
acres; potatoes, 7170 acres; barley, 5201 acres. Sugar-cane cultiva-
tion is important. The progress of the industry may be gauged from
the following figures: area under cane in 1864, 94 acres; 1871,
9581 acres; 1881, 28,026 acres; 1891, 50,948 acres; 1901, 112,031
acres; 1905, 134,107 acres. The greater part of the field work on
the Queensland plantations was long performed by coloured labour,
chiefly South Sea islanders. In 1901, however, the federal parlia-
ment passed an act under the provisions of which a limited number
of Pacific islanders were allowed to enter Australia up to the 3lst
of March 1904, but after that date their coming was to be pro-
hibited. All agreements for the employment of these Kanakas
were to terminate on the 3 1st of December 1906, after which date
all Pacific islanders were to be deported. Fruit cultivation has
attained considerable importance. In 1905, 2044 acres were under
vines; 6198 under bananas; 1845 under pineapples; 3078 under
oranges; 374 under mangoes; 173 under strawberries; 537 under
apples. The soil and climate of Queensland are admirably fitted
for the production of excellent cotton, but this promise has not been
realized. In 1871 the export of this staple was over 2,600,000 ft,
valued at 79,000; the production gradually diminished and in
1898 absolutely ceased. The year 1902 saw a revival when 8 acres
were planted; and in 1905 171 acres were devoted to cotton-
growing. While the area set apart for tobacco cultivation continues
to increase, the yield in 1905 being 10,230 cwt. (cured leaf) from 933
acres, the production of coffee dropped from 132,554 ft in 1904 to
82,230 ft in 1905.
Stock-raising is, however, the principal industry of the country.
At the close of 1905 the numbers of the principal kinds of stock
depastured were: cattle, 2,963,695; sheep, 12,535,231; horses,
430,565; swine, 164,087. The cattle industry has been greatly
affected by the ravages of the cattle tick and by a succession of
disastrous seasons, and the number in the state in 1905 was con-
siderably less than half the number mustered in 1894. As the
state is very lightly stocked a few good seasons will serve to bring
the number of cattle up to the previous greatest record. The sheep
industry in Queensland though of less importance than the cattle,
is still considerable, and of the six states of Australia, Queensland
ranks second in the number which it depastures. The sheep
depastured in 1905 were some nine millions less than in 1892. The
weight of wool exported in 1905 was 53,072,727 ft; in 1892,
however, the export was over 105 millions. Good progress has been
made in dairying, the production of butter in 1905 being 20,320,000
ft; of cheese, 2,682,089 H>i f bacon and ham, 10,500,335 ft.
It is estimated that the annual value of the pastoral and dairying
industry of Queensland is about 8,224,000. The export of live
cattle in 1905 amounted in value to 1,500,855; of fresh and pre-
served meat, 707,345; of wool, 2,280,924; of tallow, 183,372
in 1894 the tallow export was nearly 30,000 tons, valued at
596,000.
Manufactures. Queensland is not populous enough to have
manufactures on a Targe scale, nevertheless there are 21,705 persons
employed in the 1911 establishments of the state. The majority
of these persons are engaged in the preparation of natural products
for export, such as sugar, preserved meats and the like, or in
industries arising out of the domestic requirements of the popula-
tion. The horse power employed in 1905 was 28,009; the value
of plant and machinery was 3,988,056; and of land and premises
2,709,951 ; while the value of the output stood at 8,130,480.
Commerce. The shipping entering Queensland ports in 1905
had a tonnage of 1,067,741 as compared with 468,607 in 1890.
The imports in 1905 were 6,699,345, which is much less than the
average of Australia, but nearly ail the Queensland importations
are for home consumption, whereas New South Wales, Victoria
and South Australia have a large re-export trade. In 1861 the
imports were valued at 968,000, or 31 per inhabitant; in 1871,
1,563,000, or 13 per inhabitant; in 1881, 4,064,000, or 18, 6s.
per inhabitant; in 1891, 5,079,000, or 12, 135. per inhabitant;
in 1900, 7,184,112, or 14, 135. 3d. per inhabitant. The disparity
between the capitation figures of various years is due chiefly to
two causes: the irregularity of the state borrowings, and the
manner in which private capital has been sent from England and
from the Australian states for investment in Queensland, both the
borrowings and the investments appearing in the imports. The
important bearing of these two items on the Queensland import
trade may be gathered from the fact that, since 1863, there has
been an inflow of capital into the state at the rate of about one
million and a quarter sterling per annum. The exports from
Queensland in 1905 were valued at 11,939,594, which is equal to
the very high average of 22, 145. 3d. per head; nearly the whole
amount represents goods and produce of local origin. Going back
to 1861 the amount of exports at the various decennial periods
was:
Year. Value of Total Exports. Exports per Head.
1861 .... 709,599 22 14 8
1871 .... 2,760,045 22 18 8
1881 .... 3,540,366 15 18 6
1891 .... 8,305,387 20 13 6
1901 .... 9,249,366 18 5 10
Brisbane is the chief seat of trade, but this port does not hold so
predominating a position as do the chief cities of the other states
in regard to their minor ports. In 1905 the trade at the seven
principal seaports of Queensland was:-
Port. Imports. Exports.
Brisbane 4,104,574 3,524,939
Rockhampton .... 437,068 1,708,489
Townsville 671,853 1,838,055
Bundaberg 121,567 498,381
Maryborough .... 157,023 248,706
Mackay 80,468 499,034
Cairns 184,716 873,370
Railways. Up to 1905 the state had expended 21,683,355 upon
the construction and equipment of railways. The mileage open
for traffic at the end of that year was 3113; there were also 268 m.
of privately owned railways. Railway construction in the state
commenced in 1864, some five years after the introduction of re-
sponsible government. Progress during the early years was very
slow; in 1871 only 218 m. had been constructed and in 1881 only
800 m.; between 1881 and 1891 railway construction was pushed
on rapidly, an average of 152 m. a year being opened between those
dates. In 1891 the length open for traffic was 2320 m., and in
1901 2801 m. The state railways in 1905 earned 1,483,535 and
the working expenses were 851,627, leaving the net earnings
631,908, which is equal to 2-91% upon the capital expended.
As the rate of interest paid on the outstanding loans of the Queens-
land government is 3-94, there is an actual loss to the state of 0-30 %.
This loss, however, is more than counterbalanced by the advan-
tages resulting from the construction of the railways.
Posts and Telegraphs. There were 1360 post offices in the state
in 1905; telegraph stations numbered 515, and there were 19 tele-
phone exchanges. The revenue from these three services in 1905
was respectively 233,523, 88,285 and 31,765 a total of 353.573-
as against an expenditure of 415,420.
Banking. The liabilities of the eleven banks trading in the state
in 1905 totalled 13,770,865, and the assets 16,362,292. The
deposits amounted to 13,217,084. The banks held coin and bullion
to the value of 1,897,576. In the Government Savings Bank
there was a sum of 3,992,758 to the credit of 84,163 depositors.
The deposits in all banks amounted, therefore, to 17,209,842, which
represents 32, us. lod. per head of population.
AUTHORITIES. Statistical Register of Queensland (annual) ; Queens-
land Official Year Book (1901) \Reports of the Government Statistician;
H. Russell, Genesis of Queensland (Sydney, 1888); T. Weedon,
Queensland Past and Present (Brisbane, 1897); T. A. Coghlan,
Australia and New Zealand (Sydney, 1904); F. M. Bailey, Notes
on the Flora at Queensland. (T. A. C.)
QUEENSLAND
737
HISTORY
The Portuguese may have known the northern shore nearly
a century before Torres, in 1605, sailed through the strait
since called after him, or before the Dutch landed in the Gulf
of Carpentaria. Captain Cook passed along the eastern coast
in 1770, taking possession of the country as New South Wales.
Flinders visited Moreton Bay in 1802. Oxley was on the
Brisbane in 1823, and Allan Cunningham on Darling Downs in
1827. Sir T. L. Mitchell in 1846-47 made known the Maranoa,
Warrego, and Barcoo districts. Leichhardt in 1845-47 tra-
versed the coast country, going round the gulf to Port Essington,
but was lost in his third great journey. Kennedy followed
down the Barcoo, but was killed by the blacks while exploring
York Peninsula. Burke and Wills crossed western Queens-
land in 1860. Landesborough, Walker, M'Kinlay, Hann,
Jack, Hodgkinson and Favence continued the researches.
Squatters and miners opened new regions. Before its separa-
tion in 1859 the country was known as the Moreton Bay district
of New South Wales. A desire to form fresh penal depAts led
to the discovery of Brisbane river in December 1823, and the
proclamation of a penal settlement there in August 1826. The
convict population was gradually withdrawn again to Sydney,
and in 1842 the place was declared open to free rjersons only.
The first land sale in Brisbane was on August 9, 1843. An
attempt was made in 1846, under the colonial ministry of
Gladstone, to establish at Gladstone on Port Curtis the
colony of North Australia for ticket-of-leave men from Britain
and Van Diemen's Land. Earl Grey, when secretary for the
Colonies, under strong colonial appeals arrested this policy, and
broke up the convict settlement. In 1841 there were 176 males
and 24 females; in 1844, 540 in all; in 1846, 1867. In 1834
the governor and the English rulers thought it necessary to
abandon Moreton Bay altogether, but the order was withheld.
The first stock belonged wholly to, the colonial Government,
but flocks and herds of settlers came on the Darling Downs in
1841. In 1844 there were 17 squatting stations round Moreton
Bay and 26 in Darling Downs, having 13,295 cattle and
184,651 sheep. In 1849 there were 2812 horses, 72,096 cattle,
and 1,077,983 sheep. But there were few persons in Brisbane
and Ipswich. The Rev. Dr Lang then began his agitation in
England on behalf of this northern district.
Some settlers, who sought a separation from New South
Wales, offered to accept British convicts if the ministry granted
independence. In answer to their memorial a shipload of
ticket-of-leave men was sent in 1850. In spite of the objection
of Sydney, the Moreton Bay district was separated from New
South Wales by an Order in Council of I3th May 1859, and pro-
claimed the colony of Queensland. The population was then
about 20,000, and the revenue 6475.
The constitution, which was based upon the New South
Wales Act of 1853, provided for 16 electoral districts, with a
representation of 26 members. A Legislative Council was
also formed, to which the governor of New South Wales, Sir
William Denison, appointed 5 members, to hold office for four
years, and Sir George Ferguson Bowen, the first governor of
the new colony, 8 life members. Robert (afterwards Sir
Robert) George Wyndham Herbert was the first premier and
colonial secretary, and held office until 1866. Of the 39 repre-
sentatives in the first Parliament, 20 were pastoralists; the
others may be roughly classed as barristers, solicitors, and
merchants. The pastoralists were the pioneers of settlement
in the colony; those best known were the Archers of Gracemere,
the Bells of Jimboor, the Gores of Yandilla, the Bigges of
Mount Brisbane, Mr (afterwards Sir) Arthur Hodgson, Robert
Ramsay, Gordon Sandeman, and Messrs Kent and Wienholt.
The white population at the end of 1859 was 25,788, and the
exports were valued at 500,000.
Herbert's Administration, 1859-1866. The first Parliament
was opened on May 29, 1860. The providing of revenue and
the establishment of immigration were the chief matters for
consideration. The treasury was practically empty, but Sir
xxii. 24
Saul Samuel, treasurer of New South Wales, took a broad and
generous view of the situation, and rendered financial aid,
whilst in 1861 the first Government loan of 123,800 was
authorized, the money being appropriated to public works and
European immigration. Labour was so scarce that as early
as 1851 the squatters had imported Chinese; various schemes
for the introduction of coolies on a large scale were now mooted,
but public opinion was decidedly against any increase in the
number of coloured aliens then in the colony. In 1859 the
educational system was a mixed national and denominational
one; there were 10 schools of the latter class, i of the former,
and 30 private schools. In 1860 a Board of General Education
was established, which extinguished the denominational system
and placed the schools under State control. In the same
year State aid to religion was abolished. The governor, in
opening Parliament in 1863, pronounced decisively against
the reintroduction of convicts. In that year Queensland
boldly grappled with the extension of colonizing, and a settle-
ment was established at the northerly point of Cape York pen-
insula by Mr Jardine. During the following two years ports
were opened along the coast, and pastoral occupation spread
far into the northern and western interiors. The first sod
of the first railway, from Ipswich to the Darling Downs,
was turned on isth February 1864. On February i, 1866,
Mr Herbert retired, and Mr Macalister became premier and
Mr Mackenzie colonial secretary. In the following July the
failure of the Overend and Gurney and Agra banks, in the
latter of which the Government had public moneys, caused the
collapse of a loan which was being negotiated in London. A
panic followed: the Government could not pay the railway
contractors, and the navvies employed by them started for
Brisbane, threatening to hang the ministers and loot the town.
On arrival, however, they were easily headed off to a reserve.
By this time the treasury was empty, general insolvency pre-
vailed, and the community appeared to be wrecked. Treasury
bills to the amount of 300,000 were issued, and the governor
in council was authorized to legalize treasury notes, when
necessary, as currency, payable in gold on demand, to tide
over the crisis. Prior to this, however, the treasurer took
preliminary steps to issue 300,000 " Legal Tender Notes "-
inconvertible " greenbacks " but Sir George Bowen informed
the premier that he should veto such a scheme, and suggested
the issue of treasury bills. Mr Macalister thereupon resigned,
and Mr Herbert, who had made arrangements to proceed to
England (where subsequently he became permanent secretary
of the Colonial Office), took office again to help the colony
through the difficulty. His second ministry lasted for eighteen
days, and, having passed the Treasury Bills Act, he retired
from the public life of Queensland. The only determined
opposition the Herbert ministry met with was from the towns-
people's representatives, whose contention was that the squatters
dipped too deeply into the public purse for public works ex-
penditure; but an important factor in the early parliamentary
days was the opposition between the Brisbane and Ipswich parties
in the House, the latter town aspiring to be the capital of the
colony.
The Discovery of the Goldfields, 1866-1879. Macalister
returned to power in August 1866, and dealt so vigorously with
the after-effects of the financial crisis that by the end of 1867
affairs had approached their normal condition. A new era was
now opened for Queensland by the discovery of gold. The
Gympie field was discovered by Nash in 1867, and a big " rush "
resulted. In 1872 Hugh Mosman discovered Charters Towers,
the premier goldfield of the colony; and Hann, the rich Palmer
diggings. Other important discoveries were also made, and
Queensland has ever since been a gold-producing colony. Mining
is the foundation upon which much of the progress of the colony
has been built, and the legislation and records show continuous
traces of the influence of the gold-getter. In 1873 John Murtagh
Mucrossan, a digger, was returned to Parliament expressly as a
mining representative; and other men of a different stamp from
the representatives of the squatters and townspeople, who had
738
QUEENSLAND
hitherto composed the House, now began to enter public life.
From 1870 to 1879 progress was satisfactory, trade interests
were prosperous, and in this decade the foundations of the
public and social structure of Queensland were laid. Agriculture
was extended, and sugar-growing took the place of cotton
cultivation. (The first crop of sugar was grown by the Hon.
Louis Hope at Cleveland, about 1862.) Hitherto politics had
been non-partisan, and legislation was chiefly of a domestic
character. From the time of Herbert's departure until the
appearance of Thomas Mcllwraith and Samuel Walker Griffith,
the two master-spirits of Queensland parliamentary life, the
political history of the colony was composed of short-lived
administrations, with Messrs Macalister, Mackenzie, Palmer,
Lilley, George Thorn and John Douglas (afterwards Government
Resident at Thursday Island) as premiers. Arthur Hunter
Palmer (whose administration, from 1870 to 1874, had the
longest life), a New South Wales squatter, entered the Queens-
land Parliament in 1866. He was one of the most popular of
Queensland's parliamentary leaders, and has left the impress of
his labours on the public works, and educational and defence
force systems of the colony. In 1870 Queensland was dis-
appointed in her ambition of becoming the connecting-point
for Australia with the European and Eastern cable systems. A
company the British Australian Telegraph Company was
formed in London to connect Australia by cable with Singapore.
The plan provided for a land line from the Queensland telegraphs
at Burketown to Port Darwin, in the Northern Territory, where
the cable was to be landed. Writing on 25th January 1870,
the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company officially
informed the governor of Queensland that it had received a
contract from the British Australian Telegraph Company to
construct " cables and land lines, to be laid between Singapore
and Burketown, in North Australia." The Construction Com-
pany deputed Commander Noel Osborn to negotiate with the
Governments of South Australia and Queensland in reference
to the land line; but on arrival in Adelaide he accepted the offer
of the South Australian Government to construct and maintain
a telegraph line right across the continent from Port Darwin to
Adelaide, and Queensland was informed that the original plan
had been abandoned. Although the company was thus saved
the expense of making and maintaining the Port Darwin-Burke-
town line, it was regarded as having broken faith with Queens-
land, which had specially pushed on her telegraph system to
connect with the proposed line. In consequence of this incident
Queenslanders have not always had the facilities for cheap cabling
to Europe enjoyed by the other colonies, though the subsequent
owners of the cable, the Eastern Companies, were in no way
responsible for the act of their predecessors.
A resolution in favour of the payment of members was
carried in 1871. In 1872 the first Agent-General in London,
Richard Daintree, was appointed. The same year the Railways
Act Amendment Act was passed, authorizing the construction
of railways by private enterprise, land being offered as com-
pensation for the outlay. Electoral representation was increased
to forty-two members. In January 1874 Palmer resigned,
and Macalister came into power for two years, the most import-
ant measure of his Government being the State Education
Act of 1875, on which the present educational system is based.
Both Messrs Mcllwraith and Griffith were members of the
Macalister ministry, but the former resigned in October 1874,
owing to a difference of opinion as to a proposed land-grant
railway from Dalby to Normanton. In 1878 Mr (afterwards
Sir) James Francis Garrick first became a cabinet minister,
joining the Douglas ministry as secretary for public works and
mines.
Active Politics, 1879-1890. On 2ist January 1879 the first
Mcllwraith administration came into power, and an import-
ant extension of local government was one of the early measures
passed, divisional boards being formed to take charge of public
works in districts not included in municipalities. In the
following session, 1880, the Opposition, led by Mr Griffith,
bitterly opposed the Government proposals on Kanaka labour,
land-grant railways, and a European mail service via Torres
Straits. The Government, however, concluded an agreement
with the British India Steam Navigation Company for a monthly
mail service between Brisbane and London for an annual
subsidy of 55,000. The Railway Companies Preliminary Act,
giving the governor in council power to treat with persons
willing to construct railways in return for grants of 8000 acres
of land for each mile of rails laid, was also passed. This measure
was generally unpopular, and no railways were built under its
provisions. During the session Mr Griffith impeached the
premier in connexion with contracts for the purchase of 15,000
tons of steel railway metals, and their carriage to the colony,
made in London whilst Mcllwraith was there in January 1880.
A select committee in the colony, and afterwards a Royal
Commission in London, subsequently reported in the premier's
favour. The discovery of the celebrated Mount Morgan geld
mine, and the initiation of artesian well-boring by R. L. Jack,
Government geologist, took place in 1881. In 1883 a great
drought prevailed, and the compulsory stoppage of public works
demoralized the labour market. Early in the year information
reached the colony that Germany proposed to annex a portion
of New Guinea, which, together with other islands in the Papuan
Gulf, was becoming of great strategic value to Australia; and
the premier,, fearing that it would thus be lost to the empire,
instructed Mr H. M. Chester, police magistrate at Thursday
Island, to proceed to Port Moresby and take possession of the
unappropriated portion of the island in the name of the crown.
This act was afterwards to the indignation of Australia
repudiated by Lord Derby; and, eventually, under the Berlin
Treaty of 1886, England and Germany entered into joint-
possession of that part of New Guinea lying east of 141 E. In
July Sir Thomas Mcllwraith (created K.C.M.G. in 1882) was
defeated by 27 votes to 16 on a proposal to arrange for the
construction of a land-grant railway from Charleville to the
Gulf of Carpentaria. The general elections which followed were
fought mainly on the questions of coloured labour for the sugar
plantations and land-grant railways. The Government was
defeated, and Griffith formed his first administration. Later
in the year the premier drafted the Federal Council Act at
Sydney, and through his efforts Queensland eventually joined
the Federal Council of Australasia. In 1884 a ten-million Loan
Act was passed, intended to secure continuity in borrowing for
railway construction, but many of the lines specified were
unsurveyed. According to the view now generally held in
Queensland, this loan seriously hampered the colony in after
years. In 1887 the number of seats in the Assembly was
increased to 72 (the present number), and several reforms were
effected in the public service, notably the establishment of the
department of agriculture. At the general elections in 1888
Sir Thomas Mcllwraith was returned for North Brisbane, defeat-
ing Sir Samuel Griffith (who had been created K.C.M.G. in 1886)
by a large majority, and resumed office as premier and leader of
the " National Party." Ill-health, however, soon compelled
him to leave the colony, and he was succeeded by Boyd Dunlop
Morehead. Sir Thomas Mcllwraith's inflexible nature was
evidenced all through his public life. On the death of Sir
Anthony Musgrave in Brisbane in 1888, he maintained that the
Government should be consulted as to the appointment of the
new governor. Lord Knutsford declined to accept this view,
and appointed Sir Henry Blake. The premier formally protested,
and a deadlock ensued, which was only removed by the resigna-
tion of the governor-designate. In 1889 payment of members at
the rate of 300 a year, plus is. 6d. per mile travelling expenses,
was established. In 1890 a financial crisis arose. Sir Thomas
Mcllwraith had returned to the colony and dissociated himself
from the ministry. He conferred on the situation with Sir
Samuel Griffith, and a want-of-confidence motion was nearly
carried. Morehead resigned, and a coalition ministry, with
Griffith as premier, chief secretary and attorney-general, and
Mcllwraith as treasurer, was formed. An agitation for the
separation of Queensland into two or three separate colonies
mentioned as early as 1866 was very marked during this
QUEENSLAND
739
period. It took formidable shape at Townsville in 1882, the
chief argument in its favour being that the north and central
districts did not get a fair share of the public expenditure.
Delegates were sent to London on several occasions to interview
the Colonial Secretary, but success did not attend these direct
appeals. Sir Samuel Griffith's Decentralization Bill of 1800,
which proposed to erect separate legislatures in the three
divisions with powers of local government, was a blow to
separationists, and the agitation gradually disappeared.
The Labour Party in Politics, 1890-1900. The decade from
1890 to 1900 was chiefly notable, apart from the accomplish-
ment of Federation, for the rise of the Labour party as a power
in politics and the gradual disappearance of the squatter as
a dominant factor. In 1890 the old opponents, Sir Samuel
Griffith and Sir Thomas Mcllwraith, were still working side by
side. The revenue for the year fell short of the estimates by
half a million sterling, and a heavy accumulated deficit had
to be grappled with by Parliament. Sir Thomas Mcllwraith,
the treasurer, proposed a dividend tax and other imposts,
which were agreed to, and a Treasury Bills Act authorizing
an issue of 500,000 was also passed. A Constitution Act
establishing triennial Parliaments, in place of quinquennial,
which had hitherto existed, also went through. In August
the great maritime strike spread to Brisbane, and crippled
trade and commerce for several months. In 1891 a loan for
2,500,000, which was issued in London under the auspices
of the Bank of England, failed. Sir Thomas Mcllwraith
reflected strongly in Parliament on the conduct of the Bank
of England, and the governor of the bank wrote to Sir James
Garrick, the agent-general, protesting against Sir Thomas
Mcll wraith's statements, and breaking off relations with the
colony; but mutual explanations afterwards healed the
breach.
Litigation was initiated by the London board of the Queens-
land Investment and Land Mortgage Company against the
Queensland directors, on the ground that they had made
advances without taking adequate security. The case was
tried by the chief justice, Sir Charles Lilley, in 1891 and 1892,
the defendants being Sir Thomas Mcllwraith, Sir Arthur
Palmer, then president of the Legislative Council, and Messrs
F. H. Hart and E. R. Dniry. The judge submitted 143
questions to the jury, and though these were answered generally
in favour of the defendants, judgment was entered largely for
the plaintiffs. On appeal, heard before a specially constituted
court, presided over by the late Sir William Windeyer of New
South Wales, this judgment was reversed, with costs. Lack
of employment and a disastrous strike of bush workers para-
lysed the colony in this year. The strike began in January at
Logan Downs station, where 200 shearers refused to sign the
Pastoralists' Convention agreement. This strike was remark-
able for the determined and aggressive attitude of the men,
and the firm, though conciliatory, manner in which it was
handled by Mr (afterwards Sir) Horace Tozer, the colonial
secretary, who had to provide military forces and artillery to
hold the strikers in check. The trouble lasted many months;
and after it was over a farcically planned plot to seize the
central district and proclaim a republic was revealed in the
Brisbane Courier. As an outcome of this strike, " New
Australia " a settlement on communistic lines was founded
in Paraguay (?..). The year 1892 was one of gloom and
depression: want of money interfered with public works, and
the impending stoppage of Kanaka labour and the low price of
sugar almost ruined the planters. Sir Samuel Griffith then
announced his conversion to the policy of continuing Kanaka
labour for the sugar plantations, and also of land-grant railways.
An act was passed authorizing agreements with companies
for the extension of the trunk lines on this principle; but the
measure was unpopular, and no transactions under the act
are recorded. Financial depression reached its height in 1893:
the salaries of ministers and civil servants were reduced, and
drastic retrenchments were made in every department. In
February, 107 in. of rain fell at the head of the Brisbane
river, and enormous losses were caused by the resulting floods;
several vessels, including the Queensland Government gunboat
Paluma, were washed into the Brisbane Botanic Gardens,
and left high and dry when the waters subsided. A second
flood followed and caused further losses. Rockhampton,
Bowen, Townsville, and other places also suffered severely
from floods. On I3th March Sir Samuel Griffith was gazetted
chief justice, and on the 27th Mr (afterwards Sir) Hugh M.
Nelson became premier and treasurer, and Sir Thomas
Mcllwraith chief secretary and secretary for railways. Parlia-
ment was dissolved on 3rd April, and after the general elections
the ministry returned with 38 supporters, against Labour,
16, and Opposition and Independent, 18. During the month
several financial institutions suspended payment, and on
1 5th May the Queensland National Bank closed its doors.
Parliament was hurriedly summoned to deal with the financial
crisis and the question of the Government funds held by the
Queensland National Bank. Treasury notes, issued against
coin held by the treasurer, were made legal tender throughout
the colony; an issue of 1,000,00x3 treasury bills to retire
the treasury notes was authorized, and a series of acts dealing
with the suspended banks were passed. To assist the un-
employed, labour and co-operative communities were started,
but proved failures. An impetus was given to the sugar
industry by the Sugar Works Guarantee Act, which authorized
the treasurer to guarantee debentures issued by companies
for the erection of sugar mills and plant. In 1894 little legisla-
tion was achieved, the policy of the Government being directed
towards national rehabilitation. In 1895 Sir Thomas Mcllwraith
left the colony for London, where he died on I7th July 1000.
At the general election of 1896 'the Labour party slightly
improved its position. In that year a committee of investiga-
tion reported a heavy deficit in the affairs of the Queensland
National Bank, and made certain recommendations. In 1897
the bank was reconstructed a second time upon terms very
favourable to the institution. An act was passed granting
powers to a company to construct a railway from the rich
mining district of Chillagoe to the terminus of the Cairns
railway at Mareeba; at the end of fifty years the State was
to have the right to acquire the line. In April 1898 the
Queensland-born statesman, T. J. Byrnes, whose early death
in the following September was lamented throughout Australia,
succeeded Sir Hugh Nelson as premier. On 24th October
the trial of the three ex-directors of the Queensland National
Bank, Messrs F. H. Hart, B. D. Morehead and A. B. Webster,
was commenced. The prosecution was instituted by the
Government, on the advice of three barristers to whom the
report of the committee of investigation into the affairs of the
bank, which sat in 1897, was submitted. After a trial lasting
1 2 days, a verdict of " Not guilty " was returned. Proposals
for the acquisition of 250,000 acres of land in New Guinea,
made by a syndicate of London capitalists, were provisionally
agreed to, but were eventually rejected, owing to a popular
outcry raised in the colony and in New South Wales and
Victoria. In 1896 the first of a series of factory acts was
passed, and in 1907 Wages Boards were established for fixing
the statutory minimum rate of wages. (See AUSTRALIA.)
Federation was a burning question in the neighbouring
colonies during the year, but Queenslanders generally took
little interest in the movement, and the colony was not repre-
sented at the Federal Convention at Melbourne when the
Commonwealth Bill was passed. In 1809 Mr (afterwards
Sir J. R.) Dickson, who had succeeded Byrnes as premier, was
enlisted on the side of the " Billites," and in June of that year
an Enabling Bill was passed. In September the Referendum
supported the act by the narrow majority of 7492 votes on a
poll of 69,484. Towards the end of the second session the
ministry narrowly escaped defeat on the Railway Standing
Committees Bill, and resigned. Mr Dawson, leader of the
Labour Opposition, then formed a ministry, and held office
from ist December to 7th December 1899. He was then
defeated on a motion by R. Philp, and resigned, and Philp
740
QUEENSTOWN
became premier, and was in power when Queensland joined
the Commonwealth. The year was shadowed by the con-
tinuance of a terrible drought, which towards the end of 1900
became so aggravated that the revenue began to fall off, owing
to decreased receipts from railways and land. In that year
Philip's chief policy was the passing of legislation to permit
of the construction of railways by private enterprise. The
Labour party offered vigorous opposition; but notwithstanding
this a certain amount of progress was made. The Government
appointed Dr Maxwell, an American sugar expert, to super-
intend the sugar industry in the colony; a State school of
mines was established at Charters Towers; and the com-
pulsory clauses of the Education Act were put in force for
the first time. Another act of importance was the establish-
ment of a Government land bank. A powerful agitation for
the extension or renewal of the leases of pastoral lands was
raised, but no legislation resulted. A suggestion that Sir
Samuel Griffith should retire from the chief justiceship, on a
pension of 1750 a year (to be reduced by any emoluments
received), to enable him to enter Federal politics, fell through.
Some important discoveries of coal were made during the year,
and dredging the northern rivers for gold became an established
industry. J. R. Dickson represented the colony in London at
the conference of Federal delegates in 1900, when the final
details of the Commonwealth were settled. Early in 1901 he
was created K.C.M.G., but died somewhat suddenly, at Sydney,
on gth January of that year, shortly after he had been made a
member of the first Federal ministry.
Alien Immigration. The working classes of Queensland have
always objected to the presence of coloured aliens, and successive
Governments have legislated against indiscriminate immigration
into the colony. In 1876 Governor Cairns reserved an act imposing
certain disabilities upon Chinese working on goldfields. In that
year a poll tax of 10 was imposed upon Chinese arriving. In 1884
another principle was adopted : masters of ships were only allowed
to carry to Queensland ports one Chinese for every 50 registered
tons, and the poll tax was increased to 30. In 1888 Queensland
took the lead in summoning an intercolonial conference on Chinese
immigration, the outcome of which was the adoption of uniform
legislation: in the Queensland Act passed that year the main
provision was that only one Chinese for every 500 registered tons
should be permitted to be carried to the colony from Chinese ports.
The poll tax was then abolished. This act was also reserved, but
received the Rpyal Assent on 5th February 1890, after slight
modification had been made.
Treaty arrangements with Japan had been carried through by
the Imperial Government, at the initiation of Queensland, under
which the Japanese Government undertook to prevent the emigra-
tion of coolies to the colony; and a Pearl Shell Fisheries Act was
passed in 1895 placing restrictions upon the acquisition of vested
interests in the industry by Japanese and other aliens. At Federa-
tion eight acts two Imperial and six local regulated the importa-
tion of Kanakas from the South Seas: that of 1880 was the basis
of the system under which Kanakas were recruited in the islands,
brought to the colony in schooners, employed there, and returned
to their homes at the end of their three years' engagements. The
1884 act confined Kanakas to field work. In December 1884 a
Royal Commission was appointed, consisting of Messrs W. Kinnaird
Rose, J. F. Buckland, and Hugh M. Milman, to report upon the
system of recruiting Kanakas. Following the report of the Com-
mission, which was in effect that many islanders had been recruited
" by force and fraud," Sir Samuel Griffith, then premier, introduced
the important Pacific Island Labourers Amendment Act of 1885,
which stopped the importation of Kanakas after 1890. It was
and is an article of faith with the working classes that white
labour could be utilized for sugar cultivation. Yet from the passing
of the act the sugar industry began to decay, no fresh capital was
put into it, plantations dwindled down in value 50 to 75%,
mills were closed, and the magnificent industry threatened to die
out. Sir Samuel Griffith, being converted by these signs of the
times from his position that sugar could flourish in the colony without
coloured labour, issued on I2th February 1892 his " Manifesto to
the People of Queensland," in which he acknowledged that to
prevent the collapse of sugar-growing it was necessary to resume
the immigration of Polynesians. This manifesto was the forerunner
of the 1892 act, which reintroduced Kanaka labour. Since this
time there has been no further State legislation on the subject, but
the Federal Parliament has dealt with the matter (see above).
Land Legislation. In Queensland's early days, with the pre-
dominance of the squatting class, the lands were freely leased in
large blocks for sheep and cattle grazing. The squatter furnished
50% of the public revenue with his rents, and opened up
the great interior by his pioneering enterprise. As, however,
population increased, the necessity for the agriculturist arose, and
it became requisite to legislate in the interests of the small holder.
Successive Queensland Governments have had some of their hardest
work in adapting their land legislation to the needs of the community,
recent policy being to reduce large estates and place the cultivator
on the soil. At separation from New South Wales the holding of
land was regulated by Orders in Council, under an Imperial act of
1846: untransferable leases of " runs " for fourteen years were
issued, the minimum size of the run was measured in sheep-carrying
capacity 4000 sheep being the least number, and 10 the minimum
rent. The lessee was able to buy up his holding in blocks of 160 acres
at a time, i per acre being the minimum price, and was entitled
to a renewal of his lease at its expiry. The minimum lease principle
shut out the small agriculturist. The first leading acts passed by
Queensland were the Crown Lands Alienation Act of 1868, dealing
with the settled districts, and the Pastoral Leases Act of 1869,
dealing with the unsettled districts these divisions were fixed
by the first-named measure. The " resumption " principle was
introduced by the 1868 act: lands in the settled districts were
resumed after twelve months from the passing of the measure, and
lessees were granted leases of half of their holdings for ten years;
the other moiety was thrown open for settlement. The 1869 act
granted new leases for twenty-one years at practically the same
low rentals, but 10 % was added to the rent after each period
of seven years; the area of a run was fixed at from 25 to 100 sq. m.
This act greatly pleased the squatters. In 1884 the Dutton
Act was passed. Its importance lies in its dealings with the 1869
act leases: on their expiry the State resumed from one-quarter
to one-half of the area as crown lands, which were thrown open to
selectors, and new leases of from ten to fifteen years were granted '
for the balance. Grazing farms (20,000 acres) and agricultural
farms (1280 acres) were established. This measure was very
unpopular with the squatters. With the act of 1897 it forms the
basis of the existing land regulations of Queensland. Under the
1897 act the passing of the land into the hands of agriculturists
was further marked by the creation of agricultural homesteads
(160, 320, or 640 acres), grazing homesteads (20,000 acres), scrub
selections (10,000 acres), and unconditional selections (1280 acres).
Some of these classes of selections could be purchased right out,
and all were leased at extremely moderate rates. Sales of country
lands were established. Two measures were passed, in 1894 and
1897 the Agricultural Lands Purchases Acts under which the
State was authorized to purchase suitable estates of specially fertile
land already alienated, to be cut up and thrown open as agricultural
farms. These measures confirmed Queensland's determination to
encourage agriculture. Owing to the expiration of pastoral leases
and the fact that no legislation existed for their renewal for a term
long enough to encourage the investment of capital, a formidable
agitation prevailed in the colony, the lessees bitterly complaining
of the uncertainty of their tenure. The British Australasian
Society was formed in Great Britain, to protect the interests of
British capital invested in the pastoral industry in Queensland.
In 1900, out of the total Queensland area of 427,838,080 acres, no
less than 411,793,786 acres remained in the hands of the State
unalienated. (J. T. CR.)
QUEENSTOWN, a town of the Cape province, South Africa,
in the upper valley of the Great Kei river, 155 m. by rail N.W.
of East London. Pop. (1904) 9616, of whom 4157 were
white. Founded in 1853 and named after Queen Victoria,
it was laid out in an unusual form. From each angle of a
central hexagonal-shaped open space there runs one of the
main thoroughfares. This arrangement was adopted to
facilitate defence in case of an attack by Kaffirs, Queenstown
at the time of its foundation being a border settlement. Up
to 1868 the burghers held their lands on a military tenure.
It contains several fine buildings, including the town hall,
court-house and public offices and the Anglican church of
St Michael. Many of the streets are lined with oaks and
blue gums. Situated on the Karroo, at an elevation of 3500 ft.,
between the Stormberg and Amatola Mountains, it is the centre
of a wheat and sheep-rearing district, and is a busy commercial
town. The climate is healthy, and Queenstown has a reputa-
tion as a sanatorium.
QUEENSTOWN, a town of Montagu county, Tasmania, on
the Queen river, 23 m. by rail by Strahan, and 353 m. W. of
Hobart. It is the centre of the Mount Lyell mining district
and has numerous smelting works, brick-works, and sawmills.
The county is mountainous and finely wooded. Pop. (1901)
5051; of the district, 10,451.
QUEENSTOWN (formerly COVE OF CORK), a seaport, watering-
place, and naval station of county Cork, Ireland, picturesquely
situated on the south side of Great Island, on the slope of an
QUELPART QUENTAL
eminence rising abruptly above Cork Harbour. Pop. (1001)
7909. It is 12 m. E.S.E. of Cork and 177 m. S.W. of Dublin
by the Great Southern & Western railway. It consists
chiefly of terraces rising one above another with wide streets
and handsome houses. On account of the mildness of the
climate it is frequented by visitors both in summer and winter.
Previous to the American War, Cove of Cork was a small fishing
village, but it subsequently increased rapidly. It received
its present name on the occasion of the visit in 1849 of Queen
Victoria, being her first landing-place in Ireland. The town
is governed by an urban district council. The harbour, which
is defended by the Carlisle and Camden Forts at its entrance,
and by Fort Westmoreland on Spike Island, can shelter a large
fleet. Spike, Rocky and Haulbowline islands are used in
the formation of a government dockyard, which with the
adjoining victualling yard covers an area of 35 acres. There
is an enclosed basin 9 acres in extent, with 32 ft. 8 in. depth
over the sill at high-water spring tides; and a dry dock at its
southern end has a length of 408 ft. on the blocks. Queenstown
is a port of call for American mail steamers, and the mails are
transmitted overland by express trains; it is also a port of
embarkation for colonial troops, and a government emigration
station. The admiral's flagship is stationed here. The oldest
yacht club in the United Kingdom, the Royal Cork (founded
in 1720 as the Cork Harbour Water Club), has its headquarters
here, with a club-house, and holds an annual regatta. Among
the principal buildings are the modern Catholic cathedral of
St Colman for the diocese of Cloyne, designed by A. W. Pugin,
and the Protestant Episcopal church for the united parishes
of Clonmel and Temple Robin. A fine promenade, over a
mile in length, connects Queenstown with Rushbrook, a
favourite watering-place. The picturesque shores of the
harbour are dotted with country residences and village-resorts,
such as Crosshaven and Church Bay.
QUELPART (CHAi-Ju), an island to the south of Korea,
used as a Korean penal settlement. In measures 40 m. from
E. to W. and 17 from N. to S. It rises gradually from the
seaboard, is heavily wooded and is cleared for cultivation to
a height of 2000 ft. There are several crateriform hills, and
Hali San (Mount Auckland) has an altitude of 6558 ft. The
island is entirely volcanic, and the soil is finely disintegrated
lava. Broken black lava forms the beach, and blocks of it
are the universal building material. There is no good drinking
water. The flora and fauna are scarcely investigated. Pines
of three species, junipers, larches, oaks, maples, willows and
the Thuja Orientalis have been identified. The known fauna
comprise boars, bears, deer, swans, geese, pheasants and
quail. The roads are scarcely passable bridle tracks. Quelpart
was introduced to European notice by the Dutchman, Hendrik
Hamil, who was shipwrecked there in 1653.
The estimated population is 100,000, Korean by race,
language and costume. There are about ninety villages. The
valleys and slopes are carefully cultivated in fields divided
by stone walls, and produce beans, peas, sweet potatoes,
" Russian turnip radish," barley, a little rice and millet, the
last being the staple article of diet. Nuts, oranges, limes and
plums are grown. Small but strong ponies are bred for export,
and small cattle and pigs for home use. Apart from agriculture,
the industries consist in the manufacture of fine bamboo hats
and mats, and wooden combs for export and local use. For
fishing the islanders use double-decked raft boats, similar
to those of southern Formosa. Their lucrative pearl fisheries
have been practically monopolized by the Japanese, who use
proper diving apparatus. A valuable product is a species of
clam, the shell of which furnishes a specially iridescent mother-
o'-pearl, which the natives barter with the Japanese for inlaying
lacquer. European goods are not imported, but Japanese
articles find ready barter. There are no markets, and only a
few poor shops.
Chu-sung, the capital and seat of government, a few miles
from Port Pelto, has a black lava wall 25 ft. high, with three
gates and towers; an imposing audience-hall in Chinese style;
and a great bell tower, with a fine bronze bell, sounded to
drive off " evil dragons." Its population is estimated at
16,000. The governor has a hereditary army for coercive
purposes. The uniform is a complete suit of mail, with a
helmet, from which leather curtains fall over the shoulders.
The weapons are equally antique.
There are no good harbours, and the only anchorage for
large vessels is Tai-chung, or Yung-su, at the east end, with
9 to 13 fathoms of water. Pelto has ancient breakwaters
for the protection of small boats, erected, as many believe, by
the Mongol conqueror, Kublai Khan, who in 1273 built on
Quelpart one hutfdred ships for the invasion of Japan.
QUENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON (1800-1889),
German geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Eisleben in
Saxony on the gth of July 1809. He was educated at Berlin,
and after having acted as assistant in the mineralogical museum
he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geognosy in the
university of Tubingen in 1837, a post which he occupied until
his death. His earlier work related chiefly to crystallography
and mineralogy, on which subjects he published text-books
that were widely used. He became distinguished for his
researches on palaeontology, and especially for those on the
fossils of the Jurassic system. The museum at Tubingen owed
its establishment to his exertions. He died at Tubingen on the
2ist of December 1889.
His chief publications were: Method der Krystallograpkie
(1840); Das Flozgebirge Wurttembergs (1843); Petrefactenkunde
DeutscUands (7 vols. and atlases, 1846-84); Die Cephalopoden
(1846-49); Handbuch der Petrefactenkunde (2 vols., 1852, 3rd ed.
1882-85); Der Jura (2 vols., 1858); Handbuch der Mineralogie
( 1 855 , 3rd ed. 1 877) ; Die A mmoniten des Schwdbischen Jura ( 1 883-84) .
Obituary by W. T. Blandford, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xlvi., 1890.
QUENTAL, ANTHERO DE (1842-1891), Portuguese poet,
was born on the island of St Michael, in the Azores, on the
i8th of April 1842. He studied at the university of Coimbra,
and soon distinguished himself by unusual talent, as well as
turbulence and eccentricity. He began to write poetry at an
early age, chiefly, though not entirely, devoting himself to the
sonnet. After the publication of one volume of verse, he entered
with great warmth into the revolt of the young men which
dethroned Castilho, the chief living poet of the elder generation,
from his place as dictator over modern Portuguese literature.
He then travelled, engaged on his return in political and socialistic
agitations, and found his way through a series of disappointments
to the mild pessimism, a kind of Western Buddhism, which
animates his latest poetical productions. His melancholy was
increased by a spinal disease, which after several years of retire-
ment from the world, eventually drove him to suicide in his
native island, on the nth of September 1891. Anthero stands
at the head of modern Portuguese poetry after Joao de Deus.
His principal defect is monotony his own self is his solitary
thenfe, and he seldom attempts any other form of composition
than the sonnet. On the other hand, few poets who have
chiefly devoted themselves to this form have produced so large
a proportion of really exquisite work. The comparatively few
pieces in which he either forgets his doubts and inward conflicts,
or succeeds in giving them an objective form, are among the
most beautiful in any literature. The purely introspective
sonnets are less attractive, but equally finely wrought, interesting
as psychological studies, and impressive from their sincerity.
His mental attitude is well described by himself as " the effect
of Germanism on the unprepared mind of a Southerner." He
had learned much, and half-learned more, which he was unable
to assimilate, and his mind became a chaos of conflicting ideas,
settling down into a condition of gloomy negation, save for the
one conviction of the vanity of existence, which ultimately
destroyed him. A healthy participation in public affairs might
have saved him, but he seemed incapable of entering upon any
course that did not lead to delusion and disappointment. The
great popularity acquired, notwithstanding, by poetry so
metaphysical and egotistic is a testimony to the artistic instinct
of the Portuguese.
As a prose writer Quental displayed high talents, though he
742
QUERARD QUERETARO
wrote little. His most important prose work is the Con-
sider a^oes sobre a philosophia da historic, liter aria Portugueza,
but he earned fame by his pamphlets on the Coimbra question,
Bom senso e bom gosto, a letter to Castilho, and A dignidade
das lettras e litteraturas officiaes.
His friend Oliveira Martins edited the Sonnets (Oporto, 1886),
supplying an introductory essay; and an interesting collection of
studies on the poet by the leading Portuguese writers appeared in .
a volume entitled Anthero de Quental. In Memoriam (Oporto, 1896).
The sonnets have been turned into most European languages; into
English by Edgar Prestage (Anthero de Quental, Sixty-four Sonnets,
London, 1894), together with a striking autobiographical letter
addressed by Quental to his German translator, I^r Storck.
QUERARD, JOSEPH MARIE (1797-1865), French biblio-
grapher, was born at Rennes on the asth of December 1797.
He was apprenticed to a bookseller in his native town, and was
sent abroad on business. He remained in Vienna from 1819 to
1824, and there drew up the first volumes of his great work,
La France litteraire, ou Dictionnaire bibliographique des savants,
historiens, et gens de leltres de la France, &c. (10 vols., 1826-1842),
dealing especially with the i8th and early igth centuries, which
he was enabled to complete by a government subsidy granted by
Guizot in 1830, and by the help of the Russian bibliophile Serge
Poltoratzky. The firm of Didot, who were his publishers, took
out of his hands the Literature fran$aise contemporaine with
which he had intended to complete his work, and placed it
with Ch. Louandre and F. Bourquelot. Querard avenged
himself by pointing out the errors of his successors. In spite
of his claims Querard was unable to secure a position in any of
the public libraries. He died in Paris on the 3rd of December
1865.
Among his other works are: Les supercheries litteraires devoilees
(5 vols., 1845-56); Bibliographic La Menaisienne (1849); Diction-
naire des ouvrages-polyonymes et anonymes de la littcralure fran$aise,
1700-1859 (1846-47); an additional volume to La France litteraire
entitled crivains pseudonymes, &c. (1854-56). See Mar. Jozon
d'Erquar, Querard, in La France litteraire (1854), vol. xi.
QUERCITRON, a yellow dyestuff obtained from the bark of
the quercitron oak, Quercus tinctoria, a fine forest tree indigenous
in North America. The name is a shortened form of " querci-
citron," from Lat. quercus, oak, and " citron," and was invented
by Dr Edward Bancroft (1744-1821), who by act of parliament
in 1785 was granted special privileges in regard to the importa-
tion and use of the substance. The dyestuff is prepared by
grinding the bark in mills after it has been freed from its black
epidermal layer, and sifting the product to separate the fibrous
matter, the fine yellow powder which remains forming the
quercitron of commerce. The ruddy-orange decoction of quer-
citron contains 'quercitannic acid, whence its use in tanning,
and an active dyeing principle, quercitrin, CsiH^Ois. The
latter substance is a glucoside, and in aqueous solution under
the influence of mineral acids it yields quercetin, C^HeoOT,
which is precipitated, and the pentoside rhamnose. Quercetin
is a crystalline powder of a brilliant citron yellow colour, entirely
insoluble in cold and dissolving only sparingly in hot water, but
quite soluble in alcohol. Either by itself or in some form of
its glucoside quercitrin, quercetin is found in several vegetable
substances, among others in cutch, in Persian berries (Rhamnus
calharticus), buckwheat leaves (Polygonum Fagopyrum), Zante
fustic wood (Rhus Cotinus), and in rose petals, &c. Quercitron
was first introduced as a yellow dye in 1775, but it is principally
used in the form of flavin, which is the precipitate thrown down
from a boiling decoction of quercitron by sulphuric acid.
Chemically, quercetin is a member of a fairly extensive class of
natural colouring matters derived from ft phenyl benzo-7-pyrone
or flavone, the constitution of which followed on the researches
of St von Kostanecki, A. G. Perkin, Herzig, Goldschmidt and
others. Among the related colouring matters are: chrysin
from poplar buds, apigenin from parsley, luteolin from weld and
dyers' broom, fisetin from young fustic and yellow cedar,
galangin from galanga root, and myricetin from Myrica Nagi.
QUERCY (Lat. pagus Caturcinus, Fr. Cahorsin), a county
in France before the Revolution. The name is taken from
that of a Gallic tribe, the Cadurci, and was applied to a small
district watered by the Dordogne, the Lot and the Tarn. It
was bordered by Limousin, Rouergue, Armagnac, Perigord and
Agenais. In the middle ages it was divided into upper, or
black, Quercy, and lower, or white, Quercy, the capital of the
former being Cahors and of the latter Montauban. Its two
other chief towns were Figeac and Moissac. Ecclesiastically
it was included almost entirely in the diocese of Cahors until
1317, when a bishopric for lower Quercy was established at
Montauban. Judicially it was under the authority of the
parlement of Bordeaux; for financial purposes it was part of the
generalite of Montauban. The estates of the county had the
bishop of Cahors for president; other members were the bishop
of Montauban and other ecclesiastics, four viscounts, four barons
and some other lords and representatives of eighteen towns.
Under the Romans Quercy was part of Aquitania prima, and
Christianity was introduced therein during the 4th century.
Early in the 6th century it passed under the authority of the
Franks, and in the 9th century was part of the Prankish
kingdom of Aquitaine. At the end of the loth century its
rulers were the powerful counts of Toulouse. During the
wars between England and France in the reign of Henry II.,
the English placed garrisons in the county, and by the treaty
of Paris in 1259 lower Quercy was ceded to England. Both the
king of England and the king of France confirmed and added
to the privileges of the towns and the district, each thus
hoping to attach the inhabitants to his own interest. In 1360,
by the treaty of Bretigny, the whole county passed to England,
but in 1440 the English were finally expelled. In the i6th
century Quercy was a stronghold of the Protestants, and the
scene of a savage religious warfare. The civil wars of the
reign of Louis XIII. centred around Montauban. Quercy
was early an industrial district. It gave its name to
cadurcum, a kind of light linen, and the bankers of Cahors
were famous.
QUERETARO, a city of Mexico, capital of the state of
Queretaro-Arteaga, 152 m. by rail N.W. of the national capital.
Pop. (1900) 33,152, including a large Indian element. Queretaro
is served by the Mexican Central railway. The city stands
on a plain at the foot of the Cerro de las Campanas, 6168 ft.
above sea-level. Among the important buildings are the
Cathedral (said U> have been built originally about 1535, and
subsequently restored at various times), the Iturbide theatre
(in which occurred the trial of Maximilian), the government
offices, the federal palace and the churches of Santa Rosa,
Santa Clara and San Augustin. The federal palace and the
church of Santa Rosa are examples of the work of the celebrated
Mexican architect, Francisco Eduardo de Tresguerras (1765-
1833), who restored the church of Santa Clara also. The
gilded wood carvings of Santa Clara 'are noteworthy; and
in the courtyard of the federal palace there are other specimens
of the same work. The water-supply is brought over a fine
aqueduct 5 m. long, dating from i8th century. Among
manufactures are cottons, woollens, pottery and ironwares.
Queretaro has one of the oldest and largest cotton factories
in Mexico, employing about 2000 operatives, and maintaining
a small private military force for protection. It was built
in the days when brigandage held the whole country in terror,
and was strongly fortified and provided with artillery and
garrison. The latter was also used to escort pack trains of
goods and supplies before the building of the railway. This
old factory has also played its part in the civil wars of the
country since 1840, becoming a fortress whenever Queretaro
became involved in military operations.
Queretaro occupies the site of an Otomie Indian town dating
from about 1400. It was captured by the Spaniards in 1531
and was raised to the rank of a city in 1655. It was the scene
of a revolutionary outbreak against Spain in 1810. In 1848
a Mexican congress met here to ratify the treaty of peace with
the United States, and in 1867 Queretaro was the scene of
Maximilian's last stand against the republicans (under Escobedo),
which resulted in his capture and subsequent execution on
the Cerro de las Campanas just N. of the city.
QUERETARO-ARTEAGA QUESNAY
743
QUERETARO-ARTEAGA, a central state of Mexico, bounded
N. by San Luis Potosi, E. by Hidalgo, S.E. by the state of
Mexico, S. by Michoacan and W. by Guanajuato; area, 3556
sq. m. Pop. (1900) 232,389, largely Indian. The state belongs
to the elevated plateau region, with its semi-arid conditions.
The N. part of the state is traversed from E. to W. by the
wooded Sierra Gorda, whose spurs reach southward to the
central districts. The central and S. parts are covered by
plains, broken by low hills. The rivers are small and flow
chiefly to the San Juan, a part of the Panuco drainage basin.
There are some small lakes and swamps and a number of
mineral springs. Sugar, cotton, Indian corn, beans and
considerable quantities of wheat are grown, but agriculture
is largely hampered by the uncertainty of the rainfall. The
chief wealth of the state is in its mines. Silver, gold, copper,
mercury, lead, tin, antimony and precious stones are found,
in some cases in very rich deposits. The richest mining
districts are those of Cadcreyta and Tollman, where there
are metallurgical works for the reduction of ores. The Mexican
Central and Mexican National railways cross the S. end of
the state and afford transportation facilities for the agricultural
districts, but the mining districts of the N. are still dependent
upon old methods. The capital of the state is the historic
city of Queretaro (<?..), and other important towns, with their
populations in 1900, are: San Juan del Rio (8124), Landa (about
7000), Ahuacatlan (5929 in 1895), Jalpan (about 6000), and
Tollman, celebrated for its opals.
QUERFURT, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian
Saxony, situated in a fertile country on the Querne, 18 m.
W. from Merseburg, on a branch line from Oberroblingen.
Pop. (1905) 4884. Its chief industries are sugar-refining,
lime-burning and brewing. Querfurt was for some time the
capital of a principality which had an area of nearly 200 sq. m.
and a population of about 20,000. The ruling family having
become extinct in 1496, it passed to that of Mansfeld. In
I 635, by the peace of Prague, it was ceded to the elector of
Saxony, John George I., who handed it over to his son Augustus
of Saxe-Weissenfels; but in 1746 it was again united with
electoral Saxony. It was incorporated with Prussia in 1815.
See Schneider, Querfurter Stadt- und Kreischronik(Queriurt,igo2).
QUERN, the primitive form of hand-mill for grinding corn,
consisting of two flat circular stones; the lower stone, often
shaped with a rim, has a wooden or metal pin in the centre
which passes through a hole in the upper stone; the worker
pours the grain through the hole with one hand, revolving the
upper stone with the other by means of a peg fixed to one
side. The Old English word is cweorn; it is a word common
to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kweern, Swed. qvarn and various
forms in Old German; cognate words are found in Slavonic
languages pointing to a pre-Aryan root. It is not related to
" churn." (See FLOUR.)
QUESADA Y MATHEUS, JENARO DE (1818-1889), IST
MARQUIS OF MJRAVALLES, Spanish soldier, was born at
Santander, on the 6th of February 1818. He was a son of
General Vicente Quesada, a Conservative officer who was
murdered and atrociously mutilated in the streets of Madrid
by a revolutionary mob in the early days of Queen Isabella's
reign. As Quesada belonged to an ancient family connected
with the dukes of Fernan Nunez, he was made a cornet when
only six years old, was educated at the seminary- for nobles
and in 1833 was promoted lieutenant in the ist Foot Guards.
He served from 1833 to 1836 against the Carlists. When his
father was assassinated in 1836 he resigned, went to France,
got employment in a merchant's office and was only induced
to return to the army in 1837 by his relatives, who got him a
company in the guards. He distinguished himself often in
the Carlist war, but his promotion was slow, and he declined
to have anything to do with politics. He confined himself
to his duties as a soldier, always fighting on the side of govern-
ments against Carlist, Republican and Progressist risings.
He only became a general of division in 1853, and at the head
of the Madrid garrison he fought hard in 1854 to avert the
triumph of Espartero, O'Donnell and Dulce, who publicly
recognized his gallant conduct. When the war in Morocco
broke out, Marshal O'Donnell gave Quesada the command
of a division, which played so conspicuous a part in that
campaign and at the battle of Wad el Ras that its commander
was made lieutenant-general and grand cross of Charles III.
He was director-general of the Civil Guard when the military
rebellion of the 22nd of June 1866 broke out in Madrid, and
after he had been wounded in the leg he remained at the head
of the loyal troops until the insurgents were crushed. He did
not accept any military post during the revolution until Marshal
Serrano in 1874 offered him the direction of the staff, and he
only accepted it after clearly stating that he was a royalist
and partisan of Alfonso XII. In his long and brilliant career
he never swerved from his steadfast resolve never to be mixed
up in any political or military intrigues or pronunciamientos
to use his own words, " not even to restore my king." As
soon as the king was restored, the government of Senor
Canovas made Quesada first general-in-chief of the army of
Central Spain, and in February 1875 general-in-chief of the
army of the North. With the assistance of another officer
who also had never dabbled in pronunciamientos, General
O'Ryan, Quesada restored discipline in the armies confronting
Don Carlos, and for twelve months concerted and conducted
the operations that forced the pretender to retire into France
and his followers to lay down their arms. The government
confided to the marquis of Miravalles the difficult task of ruling
the northern provinces for several years after the war, and he
succeeded in conciliating the sympathies of the Basques and
Navarrese, though the penalty of their last rising had been the
loss of most of their ancient liberties or fueros. Quesada was
made marquis of Miravalles, grandee after the war, minister
of war in 1883 and senator. Though he was a strict, stern
disciplinarian of the old school and an unflinching Conservative,
Catholic and royalist, even his political and military opponents
respected him, and were proud of him as an unblemished type
of the Caslilian soldier and gentleman, He died at Madrid
on the igth of January 1889, and was given full military
honours. (A. E. H.)
QUESNAY, FRANCOIS (1694-1774), French economist, was
born at Merey, near Paris, on the 4th of June 1694, the son of
an advocate and small landed proprietor. Apprenticed at
the age of sixteen to a surgeon, he soon went to Paris, studied
medicine and surgery there, and, having qualified as a master-
surgeon, settled down to practice at Mantes. In 1737 he was
appointed perpetual secretary of the academy of surgery founded
by Francois la Peyronie, and became surgeon in ordinary to
the king. In 1744 he graduated as a doctor of medicine;
he became physician in ordinary to the king, and afterwards
his first consulting physician, and was installed in the palace
of Versailles. His apartments were on the entresol, whence
the Reunions de I'entresol received their name. Louis XV.
esteemed Quesnay much, and used to call him his thinker;
when he ennobled him he gave him for arms three flowers of
the pansy (pensie), with the motto Propter excogitationem mentis.
He now devoted himself principally to economic studies,
taking no part in the court intrigues which were perpetually
going on around him. About the year 1750 he became
acquainted with Jean C. M. V. de Gournay (1712-1759), who
was also an earnest inquirer in the economic field; and round
these two distinguished men was gradually formed the philo-
sophic sect of the fcconomistes, or, as for distinction's sake they
were afterwards called, the Physiocrates. The most remark-
able men in this group of disciples were the elder Mirabeau
(author of L'Ami des hommes, 1756-60, and Philosophic
rurale, 1763), Nicolas Baudeau (Introduction & la philosophic
tconomique, 1771), G. F. Le Trosne (De I'ordre social, 1777),
Andr6 Morellet (best known by his controversy with Galiani
on the freedom of the corn trade), Mercier Lariviere and
Dupont de Nemours. Adam Smith, dur'ng his stay on the
continent with the young duke of Buccleuch in 1764-66, spent
some time in Paris, where he made the acquaintance of
744
QUESNEL QUETTA
Quesnay and some of his followers; he paid a high tribute to
their scientific services in his Wealth of Nations. Quesnay
died on the i6th of December 1774, having lived long enough
to see his great pupil, Turgot, in office as minister of finance.
He had married in 1718, and had a son and a daughter; his
grandson by the former was a member of the first Legislative
Assembly.
The publications in which Quesnay expounded his system were
the following: two articles, on " Fermiers " and on " Grains,"
in the Encyclopedic of Diderot and D'AIembert (1756, 1757); a
discourse on the law of nature in the Physiocratie of Dupont de
Nemours (1768); Maximes generates de gouvernement economique
d'un royaume agricole (1758), and the simultaneously published
Tableau economique avec son explication, ou extrait des economies
royales de Sully (with the celebrated motto, " Pauvres paysans,
pauvre royaume; pauvre royaume, pauvre roi"); Dialogue sur
le commerce el les travaux des artisans; and other minor pieces.
The Tableau economique, though on account of its dryness and
abstract form it met with little general favour, may be considered
the principal manifesto of the school. It was regarded by the
followers of Quesnay as entitled to a place amongst the foremost
products of human wisdom, and is named by the elder Mirabeau,
in a passage quoted by Adam Smith, as one of the three great
inventions which have contributed most to the stability of political
societies, the other two being those of writing and of money. Its
object was to exhibit by means of certain formulas the way in which
the products of agriculture, which is the only source of wealth,
would in a state of perfect liberty be distributed among the several
classes of the community (namely, the productive classes of the
proprietors and cultivators of land, and the unproductive class
composed of manufacturers and merchants), and to represent by
other formulas the modes of distribution which take place under
systems of Governmental restraint and regulation, with the evil
results arising to the whole society from different degrees of such
violations of the natural order. It follows from Quesnay's theoretic
views that the one thing deserving the solicitude of the practical
economist and the statesman is the increase of the net product;
and he infers also what Smith afterwards affirmed, on not quite
the same ground, that the interest of the landowner is " strictly
and indissolubly connected with the general interest of the society. '
A small edition de luxe of this work, with other pieces, was printed
in 1758 in the palace of Versailles under the king's immediate super-
vision, some of the sheets, it is said, having been pulled by the royal
hand. Already in 1767 the book had disappeared from circulation,
and no copy of it is now procurable; but the substance of it has
been preserved in the Ami des hommes of Mirabeau, and the Physio-
cratie of Dupont de Nemours.
His economic writings are collected in the 2nd vol. of the Princi-
paux economistes, published by Guillaumin, Paris, with preface
and notes by Eugene Daire; also his CEuvres economiques et philo-
sophiques were collected with an introduction and note by Aug.
Oncken (Frankfort, 1888); a facsimile reprint of the Tableau
economique, from the original MS., was published by the British
Economic Association (London, 1895). His other writings were
the article " Evidence " in the Encyclopedic, and Recherches sur
I' evidence des verites eeometriques, with a Projet de nouveaux elements
de geometric, 1773. Quesnay s Eloge was pronounced in the Academy
of Sciences by Grandjean de Fouchy (see the Recueil of that Academy,
!774i P- J34)- See also F. J. Marmontel, Memoires; Memoires de
Mme. du Hausset; H. Higgs, The Physiocrats (London, 1897).
QUESNEL, PASQUIER (1634-1719), French Jansenist
theologian, was born in Paris on the i4th of July 1634, and,
after graduating in the Sorbonne with distinction in 1653,
joined the French Oratory in 1657. There he soon became
prominent; but his Jansenist sympathies led to his banish-
ment from Paris in 1681. He took refuge with the friendly
Cardinal Coislin, bishop pf Orleans; four years later, however,
foreseeing that a fresh storm of persecution was about to
burst, he fled to Brussels, and took up his abode with Antoine
Arnauld (q.v.). There he remained till 1703, when he was
arrested by order of the archbishop of Malines. After three
months' imprisonment he made a highly dramatic escape,
and settled at Amsterdam, where he spent the remainder of
his life. After Arnauld's death in 1694 Quesnel was generally
regarded as the leader of the Jansenist party; and his
Reflexions morales sur le Nouveau Testament played almost
as large a part in its literature as Jansen's Augustinus itself.
As its title betokens, this was a devotional commentary on
the Scriptures, wherein Quesnel managed to explain the aims
and ideals of the Jansenist party better than any earlier writer
had done; and it accordingly became the chief object of
Jesuit attack. It appeared in many forms and under various
titles, the original germ going back so far as 1668; the first
complete edition was published in 1692. The bull Unigenitus,
in which no fewer than 101 sentences from the Reflexions morales
were condemned as heretical, was obtained from Clement IX.
on the 8th of September 1713. Quesnel died at Amsterdam
on the 2nd of December 1719.
See also Mme. Albert Le Roy, Un Janseniste en exil (Paris,
1900; and Maulvault, Repertoire de Port Royal (Paris, 1902).
(Si. C.)
QUETELET, LAMBERT ADOLPHE JACQUES (1796-1874),
Belgian astronomer, meteorologist and statistician, was born
at Ghent on the 22nd of February 1796, and educated at the
lyceum of that town. In 1819 he was appointed professor of
mathematics at the athenaeum of Brussels; in 1828 he became
lecturer at the newly created museum of science and literature,
and he .continued to hold that post until the museum was
absorbed in the free university in 1834. In 1828 he was
appointed director of the new royal observatory which it had
been decided to found, chiefly at his instigation. The building
was finished in 1832, and the instruments were ready for work
in 1835, from which date the observations were published in
4to volumes (Annales de I'Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles),
but Quetelet chiefly devoted himself to meteorology and
statistics. From 1834 he was perpetual secretary of the
Brussels Academy, and published a vast number of articles
in its Bulletin, as also in his journal, Correspondance mathematique
et physique (n vols., 1825-39). He died at Brussels on the
i7th of February 1874. His son, ERNEST QUETELET (1825-78),
was from 1856 attached to the observatory, and on his death
succeeded him as director. He made a great number of
observations of stars with proper motion.
Quetelet's astronomical papers refer chiefly to shooting stars
and similar phenomena. He organised extensive magnetical and
meteorological observations, and in 1839 he started regular ob-
servations of the periodical phenomena of vegetation, especially the
flowering of plants. The results are given in various memoirs
published by the Brussels Academy, and in his works Sur le climat
de la Belgique and Sur la physique du globe (the latter forms vol.
xiii. of the Annales, 1861). He is, however, chiefly known by the
statistical investigations which occupied him from 1823 onward.
In 1835 he published his principal work, Sur I'homme et le developpe-
ment de ses facultes, ou essai de physique sociale (2nd ed., 1869),
containing a resume of his statistical researches on the develop-
ment of the physical and intellectual qualities of man, and on the
" average man ' both physically and intellectually considered. In
1846 he brought out his Lettres a S. A. R. le due regnant de Saxe-
Coburg n et Gotha sur la theorie des probabilites appliquee aux sciences
morales et politiques (of which Sir J. Herschel wrote a full account
in the Edinburgh Review), and in 1848 Du systeme social et des lots
qui le regissent. In these works he shows how the numbers re-
presenting the individual qualities of man are grouped round the
numbers referring to the " average man " in a manner exactly
corresponding to that in which single results of observation are
grouped round the mean result, so that the principles of the theory
of probabilities may be applied to statistical researches on the
subjects. These ideas are further developed in various papers in
the Bulletin and in his L'Anthropometrie, ou mesure des differ entes
facultes de I'homme (1871), in which he lays great stress on the
universal applicability of the binomial law, according to which the
number of cases in which, for instance, a certain height occurs
among a large number pf individuals is represented by an ordinate
of a curve (the binomial) symmetrically situated with regard to
the ordinate representing the mean result (average height). A
detailed Essai sur la vie et les travaux de L. A. J. Quetelet, by his
pupil and assistant E. Mailly, was published at Brussels in 1875.
QUETTA, the capital of British Baluchistan, India, which
also gives its name to a district. It rose to prominence in
1876, when Sir Robert Sandeman founded a residency there.
The name is a variation of the word kwat-kot, signifying a
fortress, and the place is still locally known as Shal Kot.
Quetta is the southernmost point in the line of frontier posts
and system of strategic railways on the north-west frontier of
India, 536 m. by rail N. of Karachi. It forms the head-
quarters of the fourth division of the southern army, with a
strong garrison of all arms. The railway was built in 1879,
with a view to its continuance to Kandahar; but its present
terminus is New Chaman on the Afghan border. A branch
line to Nushki was completed in 1905. The cantonment and
QUEUE QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS
745
civil station of Quetta stand in the open plain about 5500 ft.
above sea-level, within a ring of mountains (such as Takatu,
Murdar and Chilian), which overlook it from a height of over
11,000 ft. To the north-west the view is open across the base
of the Pishin valley to the Khojak Pass and Kandahar. South-
' wards is the open valley leading to the Bolan Pass, traversed
by the railway. North of Quetta is the open plain leading
to Pishin and the Harnai, also traversed by the Sibi-Pishin
railway, which passes through the fortifications. These
defensive works, stretching from the base of Takatu to the
foot of the Mashelak hills on the west, bar the way to advance
from the Khojak Pass. During the last quarter of the igth
century Quetta grew from a dilapidated group of mud build-
ings, with an inferior bazaar and a few scattered remnants of
neglected orchard cultivation, into a strong fortress, and one
of the most popular stations of the Indian army. Quetta was
visited by the prince of Wales (George V.) in 1906, and a staff
college for the Indian army was opened here in 1907. It has
become the trade mart for western Afghanistan, eastern Persia,
and much of central Asia. The population of the town and
cantonment in 1901 was 24,584.
The DISTRICT OF QUETTA (including Pishin) has an area of
5127 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 114,087, of whom more than three-
fourths are Afghans, showing an increase of 45 % in the decade.
The general aspect of the country is hilly, rocky and sterile,
particularly towards the north; but in many parts the soil
is rich and good, yielding wheat, rice, madder, tobacco, and
lucerne, besides numerous grasses. The district has abundant
orchards, furnishing grapes, apples, pears, pomegranates, figs,
&c.; melons and all kinds of English vegetables are also
largely cultivated. The valley is watered by the Pishin Lora
and by government irrigation works, including artesian wells.
Wild sheep and goats abound in the hills of the district. The
climate appears to be healthy and the temperature moderate,
ranging from 40 F. in the winter to about 78 in the summer.
The annual rainfall (including snow) averages about 10 in.
The actual line of valley which contains Quetta and the Bolan
Pass was originally rented from the khan of Kalat on terms
which were changed in 1882 to a quit-rent of Rsz5,ooo per
annum, and a further compensation of Rs3O,ooo in lieu of
transit duties in the Bolan Pass. This perpetual leasehold
was afterwards extended so as to include Nushki and give the
British government the command of the trade route to Sistan.
The Quetta district is now administered, together with the
assigned districts of Pishin, Tal Chotiali, and Sibi (assigned
by the treaty of Gandamak as being nominally Afghan territory)
by a regular staff of civil officials.
See Thornton, Life of Sir Robert Sandeman (London, 1896) ;
Quetta-Pishin District Gazetteer (Ajmer, 1907). (T. H. H.*)
QUEUE or CUE (from Fr. queue, O. Fr. cue, Lat. cauda, tail),
a tail of hair, either of the natural hair when so worn or of a
wig, plaited together and tied with ribbon, hanging down the
back of the neck. In Europe and European colonies and
settlements this method of wearing the hair prevailed after
the heavy periwig had gone out of fashion. The bob-wig
or tie-wig with the queue survives in the English barrister's
wig. In the second half of the i8th century the queue was
worn thick and short and sometimes encased in leather, when
it was termed a " club." In the navy and army the queue
survived its disuse in civil life. The three pieces of black
velvet sewn on to the collar of the full dress tunic of the officers
of the Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and styled the " flash," are said
to be a relic of the ribbon which tied the queue. The most
familiar use of this fashion of wearing the hair is the pigtail of
the Manchus, which was imposed on all Chinese men as a symbol
of loyalty and obedience at the conquest of China (see CHINA:
Social Life). A particular meaning of the word is for
the line of persons formed in order awaiting their turn for
admission to a theatre or other place. This appears also in
French, from which it is borrowed. In the form " cue " (Fr.
queue) the word is used of the tapering, striking implement in
the game of billiards (q.J.). It is often stated that the theatrical
use of " cue " for the concluding words of an actor's dialogue
or speech which marks the beginning of another actor's part
is merely an adaptation of the meaning " tail." The New
English Dictionary points out that there is no trace of this
use in French. In i6th and I7th century plays the endings
of parts are marked Q. or qu-, which has been taken to repre-
sent Lat. quando, when.
QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS, FRANCISCO G6MEZ DE (1580-
1645), Spanish Satirist and poet, was born at Madrid, where his
father, who came from the mountains of Burgos, was secretary
to Anne of Austria, fourth wife of Philip II. Early left an
orphan, Quevedo was educated at the university of Alcala,
where he acquired a knowledge of classical and modern tongues
of Italian and French, Hebrew and Arabic, of philosophy,
theology, civil law, and economics. His fame reached beyond
Spain; at twenty-one he was in correspondence with Justus
Lipsius on questions of Greek and Latin literature. His ab-
struse studies influenced Quevedo's style; to them are due
the pedantic traits and mania for quotations which characterize
most of his works.
He betook himself to the court and mingled with the society
that surrounded Philip III. The cynical greed of ministers,
the meanness of their flatterers, the corruption of the royal
officers, the financial scandals, afforded ample scope to Quevedo's
talent as a painter of manners. At Valladolid, where the court
resided from 1601 to 1606, he mingled freely with these intrigues
and disorders, and lost the purity of his morals but not his
uprightness and integrity. In 1611 he fought a duel in which
his adversary was killed, fled to Italy, and later on became
secretary to Pedro Tellez Gir6n, duke de Osuna, and viceroy
of Naples. Thus he learned politics the one science which
he had perhaps till then neglected, initiated himself into the
questions that divided Europe, and penetrated the ambitions
of the neighbours of Spain, as well as the secret history of the
intriguers protected by the favour of Philip III. The result
was that he wrote several political works, particularly a lengthy
treatise, La Politico de Dios (1626), in which he lays down
the duties of kings by displaying to them how Christ has
governed His church. The disgrace of Osuna (1620) com-
promised Quevedo, who was arrested and exiled to his estate
at La Torre de Juan Abad in New Castile. Though involved
in the process against the duke, Quevedo remained faithful to
his patron, and bore banishment with resignation. On the
death of Philip III. (313! of March 1621) he recommended
himself to the first minister of the new king by celebrating
his accession to power and saluting him as the vindicator of
public morality in an epistle in the style of Juvenal. Olivares
recalled him from his exile and gave him an honorary post
in the palace, and from this time Quevedo resided almost
constantly at court, exercising a kind of political and literary
jurisdiction due to his varied relations and knowledge, but
especially to his biting wit, which had no respect for persons.
General politics, social economy, war, finance, literary- and
religious questions, all came under his dissecting knife, and
he had a dissertation, a pamphlet, or a song for everything.
One day he is defending St James, the sole patron of Spain,
against a powerful coterie that wished to associate St Theresa
with him; next day he is writing against the duke of Savoy,
the hidden enemy of Spain, or against the measures taken to
change the value of the currency; or once more he is engaged
with the literary school of G6ngora, whose affectations seem
to him to sin against the genius of the Castilian tongue. And
in the midst of this incessant controversy on every possible
subject he finds time to compose a picaresque romance, the
Historic de la Vida del Buscon, Ilamado Don Pablos, Exemplo
de Vagamundos, y Espejo de Tacanos (1626); to write his
Suenos (1627), in which all classes are flagellated; to pen a
dissertation on The Constancy and Patience of Job (1631), to
translate St Francis de Sales and Seneca, to compose thousands
of verses, and to correspond with Spanish and foreign scholars.
But Quevedo was not to maintain unscathed the high position
won by his knowledge, talent, and biting wit. The government
746
QUEZAL
of Olivares, which he had welcomed as the dawn of a political
and social regeneration, made things worse instead of better,
and led the country to ruin. Quevedo saw this and could not
hold his peace. An anonymous petition in verse enumerating
the grievances of his subjects was found, hi December 1639, under
the very napkin of Philip IV. It was shown to Olivares,
who exclaimed, " I am ruined "; but before his fall he sought
vengeance on the libeller. His suspicions fell on Quevedo, who
had enemies glad to confirm them. Quevedo was arrested on
December 7, and carried under a strong escort to the monastery
of St Mark at Leon, where he was kept hi rigorous confine-
ment till the fall of the minister (January 1643) restored him
to light and freedom, but not to the health which he had lost
in his dungeon. He had little more than two years to live,
and these were spent in inactive retreat, first at La Torre de
Juan Abad, and then at the neighbouring Villanueva de los
Infantes, where he died September 8, 1645.
As a satirist and humorist Quevedo stands in the first rank of
Spanish writers; his other literary work does not count for
much. I. I. Chifflet, in a letter of February 2, 1629, calls
him " a very learned man to be a Spaniard," and indeed his
erudition was of a solid kind, but he merits attention not as
humanist, philosopher, and moralist, but as the keen polemic
writer, the pitiless mocker, the profound observer of all that
is base and absurd in human nature, and at the same time as a
finished master of style and of all the secrets of the Spanish
tongue. His style, indeed, is not absolutely pure; though
he ridiculed so well the bad taste of culteranismo, he fell him-
self into the style called conceptismo, which strains after am-
biguous expressions and alembicated " points." But, though
involved and overcharged with ideas, his diction is of singular
force and originality; after Cervantes he is the greatest Spanish
prose writer of the lyth century.
There is an excellent collected edition of Quevedo's prose works
with a good life of the author by D. Aureliano Fernandez-Guerra
(Bibl. Ribadeneyra, vols. xxiii. and xlviii.); his poetical works in
vol. Ixix. of the same collection are badly edited by D. Florencio
Janer. There is a second edition, enlarged and annotated by
Senor Men^ndez y Pelayo. E. MeVimde, in Essai sur la vie el
les eeuvres de Francisco de Quevedo (Paris, 1886), has supplied an
excellent critical and biographical monograph with a bibliography.
a- F.-K.)
QUEZAL, or QUESAL, the Spanish-American name for one
of the most beautiful of birds, abbreviated from the Aztec or
Maya Quetzal-Moil, the last part of the compound word meaning
fowl, and the first, also written Cuetzal, the long feathers of rich
green with which it is adorned. 1 The Quezal is one of the
Trogons (q.v.), and was originally described by Hernandez
(Historia, p. ij), whose account was faithfully copied by F.
Willughby. Yet the bird remained practically unknown to
ornithologists until figured in 1825, from a specimen belonging
to Leadbeater, 2 by C. J. Temminck (PL col., 372), who, however,
mistakenly thought it was the same as the Trogon pavoninus,
a congeneric but quite distinct species from Brazil, that had
just been described by Spix. The scientific determination of
the Quetzal-bird of Central America seems to have been first
made by C. L. Bonaparte in 1826, as Trogon paradiseus, accord-
ing to his statement in the Zoological Society's Proceedings
1 The Mexican deity Quetzal-coatl had his name, generally trans-
lated " Feathered Snake," from the quetzal, feather or bird, and
coatl, snake, as also certain kings or chiefs, and many places, e.g.
Quezalapan, Quezaltepec, and Quezaltenango, though perhaps
some of the last were named directly from the personages (cf.
Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, vol. v., Index). Quetzal-
itzli is said to be the emerald.
* This specimen had been given to Canning (a tribute, perhaps,
to the statesman who boasted that he had " called a New World into
existence to redress the balance of the Old ") by Mr Schenley, a
diplomatist, and was then thought to be unique in Europe; but,
apart from those which had reached Spain, where they lay neg-
lected and undescribed, James Wilson says (Ittustr. Zoology, pi. vi.
text) that others were brought with it, and that one of them was
given to the Edinburgh Museum. On the 2ist day of the sale of
Bullock's Museum in 1819, Lot 38 is entered in the Catalogue as
" The Tail Feather of a magnificent undescribed Trogon," and
probably belonged to this species.
for 1837 (p. 101); but it is not known whether the fact was ever
published. In 1832 the Registro Trimestre, a literary and scientific
journal printed at Mexico, contained a communication by Dr.
Pablo de la Llave, describing this species (with which he first
became acquainted before 1810, from examining more than
a dozen specimens obtained by the natural-history expedition
to New Spain and kept in the palace of the Retire near Madrid)
under the name by which it is now known, Pharomacrus mocino?
Quezal, male and female.
These facts, however, being almost unknown to the rest of the
world, J. Gould, in the Zoological Proceedings for 1835 (p. 29),
while pointing out Temminck's error, gave the species the
name of Trogon resplendens, which it bore for some time. Yet
little or nothing was generally known about the bird until
Delattre sent an account of his meeting with it to the Echo du
ntonde savant for 1843, which was reprinted in the Revue
zoologique for that year (pp. 163-165). In 1860 the nidification
of the species, about which strange stories had been told to the
naturalist last named, was determined, and its eggs, of a pale
* De la Llave's very rare and interesting memoir was reprinted
by M. Sall6 in the Revue el magazin de zoologie for 1861 (pp. 23-33).
QUEZALTENANGO QUIBERON
747
bluish-green, were procured by Robert Owen (P. Z. S., 1860,
p. 374; Ibis, 1861, p. 66, pi. ii. fig. i); while further and fuller
details of its habits were made known by O. Salvin (Ibis, 1861,
pp. 138-149), from his own observation of this very local and
remarkable species. Its chief home is in the mountains near
Coban in Vera Paz, but it also inhabits forests m other parts of
Guatemala at an elevation of from 6000 to 9000 ft.
The Quezal is hardly so big as a Turtle-Dove. The cock has a
fine yellow bill and a head bearing a rounded crest of filamentous
feathers; lanceolate scapulars overhang the wings, and from
the rump spring the long flowing plumes which are so charac-
teristic of the species, and were so highly prized by the natives
before the Spanish conquest that no one was allowed to
kill the bird when taken, but only to divest it of its feathers,
which were to be worn by the chiefs alone. These plumes,
the middle and longest of which may measure from 3 ft. to
3$ ft., with the upper surface, the throat, and chest, are
of a resplendent golden-green, 1 while the lower parts are of a
vivid scarlet. The middle feathers of the tail, ordinarily con-
cealed, as are those of the Peacock, by the uropygials, are
black, and the outer white with a black base. In the hen the
bill is black, the crest more round and not filamentous, the
uropygials scarcely elongated, and the vent only scarlet. The
eyes are of a yellowish-brown. Southern examples from Costa
Rica and Veragua have the tail-coverts much narrower, and
have been considered to form a distinct species, P. costaricensis.
Among other species are P. antisianus, P. fulgidus, P. auriceps
and P. pavoninus, from various parts of South America, but
though all are beautiful birds, none possess the wonderful
singularity of the quezal. (A. N.)
QUEZALTENANGO, the capital of the department of
Quezaltenango, Guatemala, 70 m. by road W. of Guatemala
city and at the terminus of a railway from Champerico on the
Pacific coast. Pop. (1905) about 51,000. It is situated on the
river Siguila, and at the foot of the volcano of Santa Maria. In
size the second city in the republic, it has a large agricultural
trade and manufactures of linen, woollen and cotton goods.
It contains a fine cathedral and some good public buildings,
including two national institutes for higher education; and
it is well supplied with water and electricity for light and power.
The majority of its inhabitants are Indians or half-breeds of
Quich6 descent. Quezattenango was the capital of a Quich6
kingdom, and was known as Xelahuh or Xelahue until 1524,
when it was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro de
Alvarado. In 1902 it was partially destroyed by an earthquake
and an eruption of Santa Maria.
QUIBERON, CAMPAIGN AND BATTLE OF. Quiberon Bay,
on the S. coast of Brittany, France, was the scene of the great
naval battle which defeated the plan laid by the ministers of
King Louis XV. of France, for the invasion of England in 1759,
during the Seven Years' War (q.v). An army had been collected
at Vannes, in the south-east of Brittany, and transports had
been brought together in the landlocked waters of the Morbihan
which are connected with Quiberon Bay. The scheme of the
French ministers was to combine twenty-one ships of the line
lying at Brest under the command of M. de Conflans, with
twelve which were to be brought round from Toulon by M. de
la Clue. The army was then to be carried to some point on the
coast of England or Scotland by the united squadrons. The
British government was well informed of its enemy's intentions,
and took vigorous measures of defence. Admiral Sir E. Hawke,
afterwards Lord Hawke, was directed to blockade Brest with a
fleet of twenty-five sail of the line, four ships of fifty guns and
nine frigates. The four ships of fifty guns together with four
frigates were detached, first under Commodore John Reynolds,
and then under Commodore Robert Duff, to lie in Quiberon
Bay and watch the entry to the Morbihan. During the whole
summer, from the beginning of June, Sir E. Hawke kept his
station off Brest, and the detached squadron occupied Quiberon
Bay. The task of blockading M. de la Clue at Toulon was given
1 Preserved specimens, exposed to the light, lose much of their
beauty.
to Edward Boscawen, who had with him fourteen sail of the
line. Boscawen reached his station on the i6th of May 1759.
At the beginning of July want of stores and water, together
with the injury inflicted on some of his vessels by a French
battery, compelled him to go to Gibraltar to provision and
refit. He reached the port on the 4th of August. On the $th
M. de la Clue left Toulon, and on the 171)1 passed the straits of
Gibraltar, where he was sighted by the look-out ships of
Boscawen. The British fleet hurried out to sea, and pursued
in two divisions, separated by a distance of some miles owing to
the haste with which they left port. During the night of the
I7th and i8th of August five of M. de la Clue's ships lost sight of
his flagship, and steered for Cadiz. The other seven, which
had been delayed for a time in the hope of rejoining their
consorts, were overtaken by Boscawen and attacked in the after-
noon of the i8th. One, the " Centaur " (74), was captured after a
very gallant resistance, in which the British flagship was severely
damaged. During the night of the iSth-igth of August, two
of the French ships altered course to the west, and escaped.
The remaining four fled to the north, and into Portuguese
waters, where two were driven ashore and destroyed, while two
were captured near Lagos. The five in Cadiz were blockaded
by Boscawen's second-in-command, Admiral Broderick.
La Clue was mortally wounded, and died ashore in Portugal.
Although the defeat of his squadron had ruined the scheme for
the combination of their forces, the French ministers decided
to* persevere with the invasion. M. de Conflans was ordered to
put to sea. On the 9th of November a severe gale forced Sir
E. Hawke from in front of Brest, and as his ships were in want
of stores he sailed for Torquay. Finding the way clear,
Conflans put to sea on the i4th, and steered for Quiberon. Sir
E. Hawke left Torquay to resume his station on the same day.
On the isth he learnt from a look-out ship that the French had
been seen at sea to the north-west of Belleisle, and steering
south-west. Concluding that they were bound for the Morbihan
he followed. Calms and contrary winds prevented either fleet
from making much progress till the evening of the igth, when
the French were rather over 60 m. to the south-west of
Belleisle, which is south of Quiberon. The wind had now
changed to the north-west and was beginning to blow hard.
M. de Conflans made for Quiberon under reduced canvas for
fear of making the land in the night, the coast being one of the
most dangerous in the world, on account of the rocky islands of
Houat and Hoedik, and the long string of reefs which lie inside
Belleisle. Hawke was steering in the same direction farther
out at sea. On the morning of the zoth of November, Conflans
was nearing the south point of Belleisle. The small squadron
of Commodore Duff, warned of his approach, endeavoured to
escape to sea before he could shut them in at Quiberon. One
of the ships worked out through the very dangerous passage to
the north of Belleisle; the others came round the south of the
island, where they were nearly cut off and captured. As the
pursuers came close to them the sails of Hawke's fleet were seen
rising over the horizon. M. de Conflans immediately called off
the pursuers, and endeavoured to form his line of battle. By
midday he was able to estimate the full strength of Hawke's
fleet of twenty-three sail of the line, which with the four so-gun
ships of Commodore Duff made twenty-seven vessels to
his twenty-one. He therefore altered his mind, and decided
to run inside the islands of Houat and Hoedik, and gain
the anchorage of Quiberon. He concluded that as the day was
far advanced and the wind was increasing, the British admiral
would not dare to follow him into so dangerous a place. But
Sir E. Hawke considered that the circumstances justified him
in taking all risks, and seeing his enemy in retreat he ordered a
pursuit. As the van of the French led by their admiral was
turning inside the Cardinal rocks at the southern end of the
reefs, his rear was attacked. The two fleets entered the Bay
late in the evening, and there followed a battle unique in naval
history, for it was fought in the dark, among rocks, in a severe
gale, and on a lee shore. Two of the British liners were wrecked
on a rock called the Four, but five of the French were taken or
QUICHE QUICK
destroyed, among the latter was the flagship of Conflans, who
escaped to the shore on a spar. Seven of the French ships ran
into the little river Vilaine, being compelled to throw their guns
overboard to lighten themselves before crossing the bar. Nine
escaped to the south. The small number of prizes taken gives
no measure of the importance of the victory, which broke the
spirit and strength of the French fleet so effectually that it
did not appear at sea again during the rest of the war, i.e. until
1763-
. See Beatson's Naval and Military Memoirs of Great' Britain, vol. ii.
p. 321 et seq.; Burrows's Life of Lord Hawke; Tronde, Batailles
navales de la France, vol. i. p. 379 et seq. (D. H.)
QUICH& or KICHES, a tribe of Central American Indians
of Mayan stock. They inhabited western Guatemala, where
their descendants still survive. They were at the time of the
conquest the most powerful of the three Mayan peoples in
Guatemala, the other two being the Cakchiquel and the Zutugil.
Their chronicles are said to date back to the 8th century. Their
sacred book, the Popol Vuh, containing a mythological cos-
mogony, survives in a 17th-century manuscript written by a
Christianized Guatemalan. To this tradition may be due the
remarkable similarity of the Quiche creation story to that of
the Old Testament. Their capital was Utatlan, near the site of
the modern Santa Cruz Quiche, and was skilfully fortified. They
had an elaborate system of government and religion. Records
were kept in picture-writing. The Quiche were the first Indians
met by Pedro de Alvarado in 1524 on his expedition into
Guatemala.
See further CENTRAL AMERICA and MEXICO; for the Popol Vuh
see English edition by L. Spence (1909); see also Nuttall, Ancient
American Civilizations (Camb. Mass., 1901), and W. Bollaert in
Proc. Roy. Soc. Lit. vii. 1862.
QUICHERAT, JULES ETIENNE JOSEPH (1814-1882), French
historian and archaeologist, was of Burgundian origin. His
father, a working cabinet-maker, came from Paray le Monial
to Paris to support his large family; Quicherat was born there
on the I3th of October 1814. He was fifteen years younger
than his brother Louis, a great Latin scholar and lexicographer,
who survived him. Although very poor, he was admitted to
the college of Sainte-Barbe, where he received a thorough classi-
cal education. He showed his gratitude to this establishment
by writing, its history (Histoire de Sainte-Barbe, college, com-
munaute, institution, 3 vols. 1860-1864). At the end of his
studies he hesitated for some time before deciding what career
he would follow, until Michelet put an end to his indecision by
inspiring him with a taste for history. In 1835 Quicherat entered
the ficole des Charles; he left two years later at the head of the
college. Once more inspired by the example of Michelet, who had
just written an admirable work on Joan of Arc (<?..), he published
the text of the two trials of Joan, adding much contemporary
evidence on her heroism in his Proces de condamnation et de
rehabilitation de Jeanne d'Arc (5 vols. 1841-1849), as well as half a
volume of Apergus nouveaux sur I'histoire de Jeanne d'Arc, in
which it seems that the last word has been said on important
points. From the isth century he drew other inspirations. He
published memoirs of the adventures of a brigand, Rodrigue
de VUlandrando (1844), which gradually grew into a volume
(1877), full of fresh matter. He wrote full biographies of two
chroniclers of Louis XL, one very obscure, Jean Castel (in the
Bibliotheque de l'cole des Charles, 1840), the other, Thomas
Basin, bishop of Lisieux, who was, on the contrary, a remark-
able politician, prelate and chronicler. Quicherat published the
works of the latter, most of which were now brought out for the
first time (4 vols. 1855-1859). In addition to these he wrote
Fragments inedits de Georges Chastellain (1842), Letlres, me-
moires et autres documents relatifs A la guerre du bien public en
1465 (1843, in vol. ii. of Melanges historiques, part of Documents
inedits), &c. These works did not wholly occupy his time: in
1847 he inaugurated a course of archaeological lectures at the
ficole des Charles, and in 1849 was appointed professor of
diplomacy at the same college. His leaching had exceplionally
good results. Although he was not eloquent and had a nasal
voice, his hearers were loth to miss any of his Ihoughlful teach-
ing, which was unbiased and well expressed. Of his lectures
the public saw only some articles on special subjects -which
were distributed in a number of reviews. Note should be made
of a short treatise on La Formation franfaise des anciens noms de
lieu (1867); a memoir De. I' ogive et de V architecture dite oghale
(1850), where he gives his theory on Ihe use of stone arches-
important for the history of religious archileclure; an article
on L' Age de la cathedrale de Laon (1874), in which he fixed Ihe
exact dale of Ihe birth of Golhic architecture; Histoire du
costume en France (1875; 2nd ed. 1877), which was first published
in the form of anonymous articles in Ihe Magasin pittoresque,
and which the author wished to retain the character of a
popular work. Following the advice of his friends, he began to
write oul, towards the end of his life, his lectures on archae-
ology, but only the introduclory chapters, up lo Ihe nth
cenlury, were found among his papers. On the other hand,
Ihe pupils Irained by him circulated his principles Ihroughoul
France, recognizing him as Ihe founder of national archaeology.
In one poinl he seems lo have taken a false slep; with a warmth
and perlinacity worthy of a better cause he maintained Ihe
identity of Caesar's Alesia with Alaise (Doubs), and he died
without becoming a convert to Ihe opinion, now universally
accepled, lhat Alise Sainte-Reine (C6te d'or) is the place where
Vercingetorix capitulated. But even Ihis error benefiled science;
some well directed excavations at Alaise brought many Roman
remains to light, which were subsequently senl to enrich the
museum at Besancon. After 1871, his course of lectures on
diplomacy having been given up, Quicherat, slill professor of
archaeology, was nominated director of the Ecole des Charles.
He filled this post with the same energy which he had shown
in the many scientific commissions in which he had taken part.
In 1878 he gave up his dulies as professor, which Ihen fell lo Ihe
mosl conspicuous of his pupils, Robert de Lasleyrie. He died
suddenly at Paris on the 8lh of April 1882, a short lime after
having corrected Ihe proofs of Supplement aux temoignages
conlemporains de Jeanne d'Arc, published in the Revue historique.
After his death it was decided to bring out his hitherlo unpub-
lished papers (Melanges d' archeologie et d'histoire, vol. i., Celtic,
Roman and Gallo-Roman antiquilies, ed. A. Giry and Aug.
Castan, 1885; vol. ii., Archeologie du moyen Age, ed. R. de
Lasteyrie, 1886); among ihese are some important fragments
of his archaeological lectures, bul his Histoire de la laine, wilh
which he was occupied for many years, is missing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Two of Quicherat's best pupils published ex-
cellent obituary notices of him: Robert de Lasteyrie, in Jules
Quicherat, sa vie et ses travaux (from Bulletin du Comite des
travaux historiques, 1883, n. i); and Arthur Giry, Jules Quicherat
(in the Revue historique, vol. xix.), with a Bibliographic des auvres
de Jules Quicherat (in the Bibliotheque de l'cole des Charles, vol.
xliii. p. 316). (C. B.*)
QUICHUA, a South American Indian tribe and stock, the
ruling people of Peru when the Spaniards arrived. The
Quichuan slock Ihen included Ihe Quichuas proper and the
many vassal iribes of Ihe ancienl empire of Peru. To-day
il numbers some Ihree millions. The modern Quichuas aver-
age a height of 5 ft. lo 5 ft. 6 in. They are of slender build,
but with well proportioned muscular limbs, and are capable
of enduring great faligue. Their complexions are of a fresh
olive colour, Ihe skin very smoolh and sofl, beardless, hair
slraighl and black, Ihe nose aquiline. They are skilful farmers
and herdsmen. (See PERU.)
QUICK, a word which, by origin, and in early and many
surviving uses, meanl " living," " alive." Il is common lo
Teulonic languages, cf. Ger. keck, lively, Du. kwik, and Dan.
kvik; cf. also Dan. kvaeg, cattle. The original root is seen in
Ski. jiva; Lat. vivus, living, alive; Gr. /Stos, life. In its original
sense the chief uses are such as " the quick and Ihe dead,"
oi the Apostles' Creed, a " quickset " hedge, i.e. consisting of
slips of living privet, thorn, &c., Ihe " quick," i.e. Ihe tender
parts of Ihe flesh under hard skin or particularly under Ihe
nail. The phrase " quick wilh child " is a conversion of
wilh a quick, i.e. living child. From Ihe sense of having full
QUIERZY QUIETISM
749
vigour, living or lively qualities or movements, the word got
its chief current meaning of possessing rapidity or speed of
movement, mental or physical. It is thus used in the names
of things which are in a constant or easily aroused condition
of movement, e.g. " quicksand," loose water-logged sand,
readily yielding to weight or pressure, and " quicksilver,"
the common name of the metal mercury (q.v.).
QUIERZY [KIERSY], CAPITULARY OF, a capitulary of the
emperor Charles the Bald, comprising a series of measures
for safeguarding the administration of his realm during his
second Italian expedition, as well as directions for his son
Louis the Stammerer, who was entrusted with the govern-
ment during his father's absence. It was promulgated on the
I4th of June 877 at Quierzy-sur-Oise in France (dep. of Aisne),
the site of a Carolingian royal palatium, before a great con-
course of lords. In this document Charles takes elaborate
precautions against Louis, whom he had every reason to
distrust. He forbids him to sojourn in certain palaces and
in certain forests, and compels him to swear not to despoil
his stepmother Richilde of her allodial lands and benefices.
At the same time Charles refuses to allow Louis to nominate
to the countships left vacant in the emperor's absence. In
principle the honor es (benefices) and the office of a deceased
count must be given to his son, who would be placed pro-
visionally in possession by Louis; the definitive investiture,
however, could be conferred only by Charles. The capitulary
thus served as a guarantee to the aristocracy that the general
usage would be followed in the existing circumstances, and
also as a means of reassuring the counts who had accompanied
the emperor into Italy as to the fate of their benefices. It
cannot, however, be regarded as introducing a new principle,
and the old opinion that the capitulary of Quierzy was a legis-
lative text establishing the hereditary system of fiefs has been
proved to be untenable. A former capitulary of Charles the
Bald was promulgated at Quierzy on the I4th of February 857,
and aimed especially at the repression of brigandage.
See E. Bourgeois, Le Capitulaire de Kierw-sur-Oise (Paris, 1885),
and " L'Assemblee de Quierzy sur-Oise " in Etudes d'histoiredu moyen-
dge, dediees d Gabriel Monod (Paris, 1896). (R. Po.)
QUIETISM, a complicated religious movement that swept
through France, Italy and Spain during the I7th century.
Its chief apostles were Miguel de Molinos, a Spaniard resident
in Rome; Ffinelon, the famous French divine, and his country-
woman, Madame Jeanne Marie Guyon. Quietism was essenti-
ally a reaction against the bureaucratic ecclesiasticism always
latent within the church of Rome, though it had come more
especially to the front during the struggles of the counter-
Reformation carried through by the Jesuits. A Catholic cut
to the orthodox pattern did not look, and would have thought
it wrong to look, beyond the spiritual fare provided for him
by the ecclesiastical authorities; all his relations with his
Maker were conducted through the intermediacy of the Church.
In the dogmatic sphere he believed whatever the Church be-
lieved, because the Church believed it; to the Church's institu-
tions the sacraments and the confessional he looked for
guidance in the practical affairs of life. Protestantism had
tried to put an end to this state of things by sweeping away the
Church altogether, but the Quietists were more tolerant than
Luther. They did not wish to abolish the Church; they ad-
mitted that it was a necessary stage in the evolution of the
human soul; but they insisted that it could only bring a man on
to the lowest slopes of Paradise. Those who aspired to be really
holy must learn to look beyond the Church, and enter into
immediate, personal relations with their Maker. But how
were they to do so? Like their contemporaries, the French
Jansenists, and the Quakers and Anabaptists of northern
Europe, the Quietists fell back on a doctrine of immediate
inspiration of the individual conscience. To the many God
spoke only in general terms through the Church; but to the
few He made His will directly known. But how did He do so?
How distinguish the voice of God from the vagaries of our
own imagination? Quietism offered an easy test. The less
" sense of proprietorship " a man had in his own good actions
the more they came from a source outside himself the surer
might he be that they were divine. If, on the other hand,
they were the fruit of his deliberate thought and will, that
was enough to show that they did not come from God, but
from his sinful self. Hence the first duty of the Quietist was to
be " passive." So far as was possible he must numb all his
spontaneous activities of every kind; then he could fold his
hands, and wait in dreamy meditation until inspiration came.
And since all our activities have their root in desire, the shortest
road to passivity was to suppress all desires and wishes of
every kind. Thus the great object of the Quietist was to
" sell or kill that cruel beast, self-conscious will." Then he
would be dead to hope and fear; he would be icily indifferent
to his fate, either in this world or the next. Thenceforward
no human tastes or affections would stand in the way of his
performing the will of God. He was, as Fenelon said, like a
feather blown about by all the winds of grace. His mind was
a mere tabula rasa, on which the Spirit printed any pattern
that it chose. Hence arose the great Quietist doctrine of dis-
interested love. " The Quietists maintain," says a contem-
porary writer, " that Christian perfection means a love of God
so absolutely free from all desire of happiness that it is indif-
ferent to salvation. The soul is moved neither by hope nor fear,
nor even by the foretaste of eternal bliss. Its only motive is
to do the will and promote the glory of God. Other things are
of no account: neither grace, nor merit, nor happiness, nor
even perfection, in so far as it attaches to us. Nay, the soul
must be ready to renounce its hopes of heaven, and the scrup-
ulous will often feel themselves bound to do so; for in the
last and fiercest trials they are invincibly persuaded of their
own damnation. In this sentence of condemnation they
generously acquiesce; and thenceforward, having nothing
more to lose, they stand tranquil and intrepid, without fear
and without remorse. This is what the Quietists call the
state of holy indifference. Their soul has lost all wish for
action, all sense of proprietorship in itself, and has thereby
reached the summit of Christian perfection " (Andre, Vie du
Pere Malebranche, ed. Ingold, Paris, 1886, p. 271).
Quietism is an outgrowth from the mysticism of the great
16th-century Spaniards, St Teresa and St John of the Cross,
though it would be unfair to hold them responsible for all the
utterances of their disciples. Certainly St Teresa made much
of " passivity," but she only regarded it as a refuge for a few
specially constituted souls; whereas the Quietists designedly
brought it within the reach of everyone. In St Teresa the
passivity itself was balanced by a strong attachment to the
virtues of the active life, and an equally strong devotion to
the Church. Among the Quietists both these checks disappear,
and passivity becomes the one and only test of holiness. But
if passivity is all in all, there is no room for the virtues of the
active life; all Quietists cherished the ancient saying that one
moment's contemplation is worth a thousand years' good works.
Still less room had they for the Church. It only professed to
gnide men to God; but those who had already found God stood
in no need of a guide. Nay, they did not even stand in need
of revelation. " If Christ be the way," wrote the Quietist
Malaval, " let us certainly pass by Him to God, but he who
is always passing never arrives at his journey's end." Such
utterances go far to explain the severity with which the Roman
Church tried to stamp out the later developments of Quietism.
In its earlier stages, before it had crystallized into a definite
doctrine, the ecclesiastical authorities had been tolerant enough.
The Spanish monk, Juan Falconi, who is generally reckoned as
the father of Quietism, died in the odour of sanctity in 1632;
some thirty years later his fellow-countryman, Molinos, trans-
ported his doctrines to Rome, where they gained unbounded
popularity with bishops and cardinals, and even with pope
Innocent XI. In 1675 Molinos published the Guida Spiriluale,
the great text-book of his school. But his success soon aroused
the suspicion of the Jesuits, the great champions of militant
ecclesiasticism. " Passivity " accorded ill with a zealous
750
QUILIMANE QUILLER-COUCH
frequentation of the confessional, their chief centre of influence.
Failing to turn public opinion against Molinos in Rome, they
brought pressure to bear on Louis XIV. through his confessor,
Pere La Chaise. At the instance of the French ambassador
Molinos was arrested (1685); his papers were seized, and his
chief disciples examined by the Inquisition. Two years later he
was convicted of heresy, and sentenced to imprisonment for life.
The later stages of the Quietist drama were played out in
France. Here Quietist ideas had long been spreading under the
leadership of enthusiasts like Francois Malaval (1627-1719), a
blind layman of Marseilles. A more romantic figure was
Jeanne Marie Guyon (1648-1717), a widow of good family and
remarkable personal charm, who devoted her life to missionary
journeys on behalf of " passivity." In 1688 fate brought her to
the French court, where she made a great impression on Mme. de
Maintenon and other persons of quality. But her most illus-
trious captive was Fenelon, then tutor to the duke of Burgundy,
eldest son of-' the Dauphin. " They met," says Saint-Simon;
" they pleased each other, and their sublime amalgamated."
In other words, they corresponded with a freedom that Fenelon
afterwards had cause to regret. For Mme. Guyon's paradoxical
and extravagant lauguage soon scandalized her friends. In
1693 she was examined by Bossuet, and dismissed with a severe
caution. Further imprudences led to her arrest, and a long
imprisonment in the Bastille. On her release in 1703 she
settled down quietly at Blois, where she died in 1717. Mean-
while Fenelon had become involved in her fortunes. When
Bossuet first took action, Fenelon defended her with a zeal that
drew down suspicion on his own head; and he was only pro-
moted to the archbishopric of Cambrai after signing what was
really a disguised retractation (1695). Meanwhile Bossuet
was at work on an Instruction sur les (tats d'oraison, which was
intended to distinguish once for all what was true in Quietism
from what was false. Fenelon, feeling sure that Bossuet would
do the Quietists less than justice, determined to be beforehand
with him. While Bossuet's book was still in the press, he
suddenly brought out an Explication des maximes des saints
(1697). The little volume raised a violent storm. For two
years Fenelon was at bitter feud with Bossuet; he was banished
from Versailles; finally, he was censured by the pope (1699),
although in very measured terms. For Fenelon by no means
shared all the ideas of Mme. Guyon; in the language of the
divinity schools he was, at most, a " semi-Quietist." For the
more ecstatic side of Quietism, so much in evidence with his
friend, he had no taste whatsoever; but he thought that
" passivity," when interpreted with large modifications, led
the way to a state of peaceful, other-world serenity highly
grateful to the denizens of a crowded court, where was much
splendid ennui and but little peace. Further, he was the
counsellor of many over-scrupulous souls; and Quietist dis-
interestedness, also much modified, enabled him to tell them
that they were not necessarily castaways because they suffered
much from " spiritual dryness," and seldom enjoyed the sweets
of piety. But in the heat of battle with Bossuet, Fenelon
carried his principles beyond all reasonable bounds. The
theme of his Maxims is that, as men grow in holiness they
become utterly indifferent to themselves. Not only do they
cease to covet the consolations of religion; they lose all inci-
dental pleasure in its exercise. Their whole soul is taken up in
loving God; and they neither know nor care whether God loves
them in return. But Bossuet had little trouble in persuading
the world that Wenn ich Dich liebe, was geht es Dick an? is but a
sorry foundation on which to build up a personal religion; and
the condemnation of the Maxims proved the deathblow to
official Quietism. But flickers of " passivity," not always
easily distinguishable from the teaching of Molinos, are still here
and there produced by violent reaction from the prevailing
legalism of the church of Rome.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. Heppe, Geschichte der quietistischen Myslik
(Berlin, 1875), covers the whole subject. On the place of Quietism
in the history of religious thought see W. R. Inge, Christian Mysti-
cism (London, 1899); on its psychology see H. Delacroix, Etudes
sur le mysticisme (Paris, 1908); J. Denis, Memoires de I' A cademie
de Caen for 1894; W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience
(London, 1902); H. Joly, Psychologic des saints (Paris, 1898); J. H.
Leuba, " Tendances fondamentales des mystiques chreiiens," in the
Revue phUpsophique for 1902; E. Murisier, Les Maladies du senti-
ment religieux (Paris, 1903); Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical
Religion (1909). See also the articles on BOSSUET; FENELON;
Mme. GUYON; and MOLINOS. (Sx C.)
QUILIMANE, or KILMANE (the former being the Portu-
guese spelling), a town of Portuguese East Africa, in 18 i' S.,
36 59' E., 14 m. inland from the mouth of the river Quilimane
or Qua Qua. The river, an independent stream during the rest
of the year, during the rainy season becomes a deltaic branch of
the Zambezi, with which it is connected by a channel called
Mutu. The town (officially Sao Martinho de Quilimane) lies on
the north bank of the river at a point where it is about a mile
broad. There is ample and deep anchorage in the river, but
the entrance is obstructed by a bar, over which there is 9 ft. of
water at low tide, and from 16 to 22 ft. at high tide. Almost all
the European merchants live in one long, acacia-shaded street
or boulevard skirting the river, while the Indian merchants or
Banyans occupy another street running at right angles to the
first street. Behind lies the native town. The total population
in 1909 was 2200, including 400 Europeans and 320 Asiatics. The
trade of Quilimane, formerly the only port for the produce of
the Zambezi valley, steadily declined after the establishment
of Chinde (q.v.). Efforts made at the beginning of the 2oth
century to develop local resources met with little success, owing
to high duties and freights. A railway 18 m. long runs to
Maquival, a large prazo for the cultivation of tropical produce.
The imports are largely cotton goods from England and India,
provisions from Portugal, and hardware from Germany. The
exports are chiefly copra, ground-nuts, sugar, sesamum, india-
rubber, wax, ivory, and beans. The average annual value of
the trade for the ten years 1897-1906 was: imports 60,509,
exports 34,547. The natives are noted for their skill in the
manufacture of jewelry, chiefly gold and silver ornaments.
The town lies low and is unhealthy, despite efforts to improve
its condition.
The Quilimane river was entered by Vasco da Gama in 1498,
who there discovered an Arab settlement. Tha present town
was founded by the Portuguese in the i6th century, and became
in the i8th and the early part of the igth centuries one of the
great slave marts on the east coast of Africa. It was the starting-
point of several notable expeditions that of Francisco Barreto
to the country of the Monomotapa in 1569, and that of David
Livingstone up the Zambezi to Lake Nyasa in 1861 being the
most famous. Until 1853 the trade of the port was forbidden
to any save Portuguese. The European population, until the
last quarter of the igth century, consisted mainly of convicts
from Portugal. (See PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA, History.)
QUILL, a term applied to the bare, hard, hollow tube of the
feather of a bird, also to the large flight feathers or remiges, and
especially to the strong feathers of the goose, swan, or crow used
in the making of quill pens (see FEATHER and PEN). The word
is of obscure origin; a word with similar meaning, Kid, is found
in German, and French has quille, ninepin, apparently connected
with Ger. Kegel. Certain ancient stringed instruments were
played with a plectrum or plucker made of the quill of a bird's
feather, and the word has thus been used of a plectrum made of
other material and differing in shape, and also of an analogous
object for striking the strings in the harpsichord, spinet or
virginal. The verb " to quill " is to fold lace, muslin or other
light material into narrow flutes or pleats; when so pleated the
material is called " quilling." The French term " quillon,"
apparently formed from quille, ninepin, is applied to the pro-
jecting arms or cross guards of the hilt of a sword.
QUILLER-COUCH, SIR ARTHUR THOMAS (1863- ),
English writer, known under the pseudonym of " Q " was born
in Cornwall on the 2ist of November 1863. He was educated
at Newton Abbot College, at Clifton College, and Trinity College,
Oxford. After taking his degree in 1886 he was for a short time
classical lecturer at Trinity. While he was at Oxford he
QUILLOTA QUIN
published (1887) his Dead Man's Rock (a romance in the vein of
Stevenson's Treasure Island), and he followed this up with Troy
Town (1888) and The Splendid Spur (1889). After some
Journalistic experience in London, mainly as a contributor to
the Speaker, in 1891 he settled at Fowey in Cornwall. His later
novels include The Blue Pavilions (1891), The Ship of Stars
(1899), Hetty Wesley (1903), The Adventures of Harry Revel
(1903), Fort Amity (1904), The Shining Ferry (1005), Sir John
Constantine (1906). He published in 1896 a series of critical
articles, Adventures in Criticism, and in 1898 he completed R. L.
Stevenson's unfinished novel, St Ives. From his Oxford days
he was known as a writer of excellent verse. With the exception
of the parodies entitled Green Bays (1893), his poetical work is
contained in Poems and Ballads (1896). In 1895 he published a
delightful anthology from the i6th and 17th-century English
lyrists, The Golden Pomp, followed in 1900 by an equally
successful Oxford Book of English Verse, 1250-1900 (1900).
In Cornwall he was an active worker in politics for the Liberal
party. He was knighted in 1910.
QUILLOTA, a town of Chile in the province of Valparaiso,
on the left bank of the Aconcagua river, 20 m. above its mouth
and 26 m. E.N.E. of the city of Valparaiso. Pop. (1902
estimate) 9876. The valley is noted for its beauty, fertility,
and healthfulness, and is the centre of thriving fruit and
wine industries. Among its fruits is the " chirimoya " (Anona
cherimolia). There are rich copper mines in the vicinity.
Quillota is situated on a railway between Valparaiso and
Santiago, which passes through a mountainous, semi-barren
country. It is one of the oldest towns of Chile, dating from the
first years of the conquest.
QUILON, a seaport of India, on the Malabar coast, in the
state of Travancore. Pop. (1901) 15,691. Quilon enjoys
great facilities of water communication, and has an active
export trade in timber, coco-nuts, ginger, pepper, &c. The
palace of the maharaja of Travancore stands on the bank of
Quilon lake, a beautiful sheet of water. Besides being on a pro-
jecting point, Quilon is rendered still more unsafe to approach
by the bank of hard ground called the Tangasseri reef, which
extends some distance to the south-west and west of the point
and along the coast to the northward. There is good anchorage,
however, in a bight about 3 m. from the fort. Quilon is one of
the oldest towns on the Malabar coast, and continued to be a
place of considerable importance down to the beginning of the
1 6th century. It is now the headquarters of the Travancore
army, with a subsidiary battalion. Cotton weaving and spinning
and the manufacture of tiles are the chief industries. It is the
terminus of a railway across the hills from Tinnevelly. Adjoin-
ing Quilon is the British village of Tangasseri, formerly a
Portuguese and then a Dutch settlement, which is administered
with Anjengo; pop. (1901) 1733.
QUILT, properly a coverlet for a bed, consisting of a mass of
feathers, down, wool or other soft substance, surrounded by an
outer covering of linen, cloth, or other material. In its earlier
uses the " quilt " was made thick, and served as a form of
mattress. The term was also given to a stitched wadded lining
for body armour, and also, when made stout and closely padded,
to a substitute for armour. The word came into English from
O. Fr. cuilte, coilte, or coute, mod. couette. This is derived from
Lat. culcita or cukitra, a stuffed mattress or cushion. From
the form culcitra came O. Fr. cotre or coutre, whence coutre pointe,
Low Lat. culcita puncta, i.e. stitched or quilted cushion; this
was corrupted to centre pointe, Eng. counterpoint, which in turn
was changed to " counterpane " (as if from Lat. pannus, piece of
cloth). Thus " counterpane," a coverlet for a bed, and " quilt,"
are by origin the same word.
QUIMPER, formerly QuiMPER-CoRENTiN, a town of- France,
capital of the department of Finistere, 158 miles north-west of
Nantes and 68 miles south-east of Brest on the railway between
those towns. Pop. (1906) 16,559. The delightful valley in
which it lies is surrounded by high hills and traversed by the
Steir and the Odet, which, meeting above the town, form a
navigable channel for vessels of 150 tons to the sea (n miles).
There is a small general shipping trade. Of 'the town walls
(i5th century) a few portions are preserved in the terrace of
the episcopal palace and in the neighbourhood of the college.
Quimper is the seat of a bishopric in the province of Rennes.
The cathedral, dedicated to St Corentin and erected between
1239 and 1515, has a fine facade (c. 1425), the pediment of
which is crowned by a modern equestrian statue of King Grallon,
and adorned (like several other external parts of the building)
with heraldic devices in granite. Two lateral towers with
modern spires (1854-56) and turrets reach a height of 247
feet. The axis of the choir is deflected towards the north, a
feature not uncommon, but here exaggerated. The nave and
the transept are in the style of the i sth century, and the central
boss bears the arms of Anne of Brittany (1476-1514). The
terminal chapel of the apse dates from the I3th century. In the
side chapels are the tombs of several early bishops. The high
altar, tabernacle, and ciborium are costly works of contemporary
art. The pulpit panels represent episodes in the life of St
Corentin. Of the other churches may be mentioned the church
of Locmaria, dating from the nth century, and the chapel of
the i sth century connected with the episcopal palace. A number
of houses, in wood or stone, date from the isth, i6th and I7th
centuries. The museum, built in 1869-70, contains archaeological
collections and about 1300 paintings and drawings. In 1868
a bronze statue of Laennec the inventor of the stethoscope
(born at Quimper in 1781) was erected in Place St Corentin.
Quimper, or at least its suburb Locmaria (which lies below
the town on the left bank of the Odet), was occupied in the time
of the Romans, and traces of the ancient foundations exist.
Later Quimper became the capital of Cornouailles and the
residence of its kings or hereditary counts. It is said to have
been Grallon Meur (i.e. the Great) who brought the name of
Cornouailles from Great Britain and founded the bishopric,
which was first held by St Corentin about 495. Hoel, count
of Cornouailles, marrying the sister and heiress of Duke Conan
in 1066, united the countship with the duchy of Brittany.
Quimper suffered in the local wars of succession. In 1344 it was
sacked by Charles of Blois. Monfort failed in his attempt to
take the town by storm on August n, 1345, but it opened its
gates to his son John IV. in 1364 after the victory at Auray.
At a later period it sided with the League. Doubtless on
account of its distance from the capital, Quimper, like Carpentras
and Landerneau, has been a frequent butt of French popular wit.
QUIMPERL.fi, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Finistere, at the con-
fluence of two rivers which unite to form the Laiter, 28 m. E.S.E.
of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1906) town 6203, commune 9176.
Quimperle grew up round the abbey of Ste Croix, founded in
the nth century, the romanesque basilica of which, restored in
modern times, still remains. The church of St Michel (i4th and
15th centuries), with a fine tower, crowns the hill above the
town. Quimperle has a tribunal of first instance, and carries
on the manufacture of farm implements, railway material,
paper, &c., and trades in grain, timber, cattle and agricultural
products. The town has a small port.
QUIN, JAMES (1693-1766), English actor of Irish descent,
was born in London on the 24th of February 1693. He was
educated at Dublin, and probably spent a short time at Trinity
College. Soon after his father's death in 1710, he made his
first appearance on the stage at Abel in Sir Robert Howard's
The Committee at the Smock Alley Theatre. Quin's first London
engagement was in small parts at Drury Lane, and he secured
his first triumph at Bajazet in Nicolas Rowe's Tamerlane, on
the Sth of November 1715. The next year he appeared as
Hotspur at Lincoln's Inn, where he remained for fourteen
years. On the loth of July 1718 he was convicted of man-
slaughter for having killed Bowen, another actor, in a duel
which the victim had himself provoked. Quin was not severely
punished, the affair being regarded as more of an accident
than a crime. The public took a similar view of another
episode in which Quin, on being attacked by a young actor
who had been angered by the sarcastic criticism of his superior,
752
QUINAULT QUINAZOLINES
drew upon him and killed him. But if he was eager in his own
defence he was no less so in that of others. In 1721 a drunken
nobleman reeled on to the stage of the theatre and assaulted
the manager, Rich, whose life was saved by Quin's prompt
armed interference. This resulted in a riot, and thereafter a
guard was stationed in all theatres. In 1732 Quin appeared
at Covent Garden, returning to Drury Lane from 1734 to 1741,
and in 1742 was again at Covent Garden, where he remained
until the close of his career. On the i4th of November 1746
Quin played Horatio and Garrick Lothario to the Calista of Mrs
Gibber in Rose's Fair Penitent. The appkuse of the audience
was so great as to disconcert if not actually to alarm the two
actors. Public interest was yet more keenly stimulated in
comparing Garrick's and Quin's impersonations of Richard III.,
the popular verdict being loudly in favour of Garrick. But
Quin's Falstaff in King Henry IV. was emphatically preferred to
the Hotspur of his rival. In consequence of an attempt made
by Garrick in 1750-51 to draw him away from Covent Garden,
Quin was enabled to extort from his manager a salary of 1000
a year, the highest figure then reached in the profession. Quin's
last regular appearance was on the isth of May 1757, as Horatio
in the Fair Penitent, though in the following year he twice
played Falstaff for the benefit of friends. He had retired to
Bath, where he lived a happy life, with late hours and much
eating and drinking, until his death on the zist of January
1766. He was buried in the abbey church at Bath. Some
coolness which had arisen between Quin and Garrick before the
former's retirement was dissipated on their subsequent meeting
at Chatsworth at the duke of Devonshire's, and Quin paid
many a visit to Garrick's villa at Hampton in the ktter part of
his life. The epitaph in verse on his tomb was written by
Garrick. Quin's will displayed a generous nature, and among
numerous bequests was one of fifty pounds to " Mr Thomas
Gainsborough, limner."
In the Garrick Club in London are two portraits of the actor
ascribed to Hogarth, and a portrait by Gainsborough is in
Buckingham Pakce. His personality was not gracious. His
jokes were coarse; his temper irascible; his love of food, his
important airs, and his capacity for deep drinking do not
command respect; on the other hand, a few of his jokes were
excellent, and there was no rancour in him. On many occa-
sions he showed his willingness to help persons in distress. His
character is summarized by Smollett in Humphrey Clinker. As
an actor his manner was charged with an excess of gravity
and deliberation; his pauses were so portentous as in some
situations to appear even ludicrous; but he was well fitted for
the delivery of Milton's poetry, and for the portrayal of the
graver r&les in his repertory.
See The Life of Mr. James Quin, Comedian, published in 1766 and
reprinted in 1887.
QUINAULT, PHILIPPE (1635-1688), French dramatist and
librettist, was born in Paris on the 3rd of June 1635. He
was educated by the liberality of Tristan 1'Hermite, the author
of Mariamne. Quinault's first play was produced at the H6tel
de Bourgogne in 1653, when he was only eighteen. The piece
succeeded, and Quinault followed it up, but he also read for the
bar; and in 1660, when he married a widow with money, he
bought himself a pkce in the Cour des Comptes. Then he tried
tragedies (Agrippa, &c.) with more success than desert. . He
received one of the literary pensions then recently established,
and was elected to the Academy in 1670. Up to this time he
had written some sixteen or seventeen comedies, tragedies,
and tragi-comedies, of which the tragedies were mostly of very
small value and the tragi-comedies of little more. But his
comedies especially his first piece Les Ritiales (1653), L'Amant
indiscret (1654), which has some likeness to Moliere's Etourdi,
Le FantSme amoureux (1659), and La Mere coquette (1665),
perhaps the best are much better. But in 1671 he contributed
to the singular miscelkny of Psyche, in which Corneille and
Moliere also had a hand, and which was set to the music of
Lulli. Here he showed a remarkable faculty for lyrical drama,
and from this time till just before his death he confined himself
to composing libretti for Lulli's work. This was not only very
profitable (for he is said to have received four thousand livres
for each, which was much more than was usually paid even
for tragedy), but it established Quinault's reputation as the
master of a new style, so that even Boileau, who had previously
satirized his dramatic work, was converted, less to the opera,
which he did not like, than to Quinault's remarkably ingenious
and artist-like work in it. His libretti are among the very
few which are readable without the music, and which are yet
carefully adapted to it. They certainly do not contain very
exalted poetry or very perfect drama. But they are quite free
from the ludicrous doggerel which has made the name libretto
a byword, and they have quite enough dramatic merit to carry
the reader, much more the spectator, along with them. It is
not an exaggeration to say that Quinault, coming at the exact
time when opera became fashionable out of Italy, had very much
to do with establishing it as a permanent European genre. His
first piece after PsycM was a kind of ckssical masque. Les
Fetes de V Amour et de -Bacchus (1672). Then came Cadmus
(1674), Alceste (1674), Thisee (1675), Atys (1676), one of his best
pieces, and Isis (1677). All these were classical in subject, and
so was Proserpine (1680), which was superior to any of them.
The Triumph of Love (1681) is a mere ballet, but in Persee (1682)
and Phaeton (1683) Quinault returned to the ckssical opera.
Then he finally deserted it for romantic subjects, in which he
was even more successful. Amadis de Gaule (1684), Roland
(1685), and Armide (1686) are his masterpieces, the last being the
most famous and the best of all. The very artificiality of the
French lyric of the later i7th century, and its resemblance to
alexandrines cut into lengths, were aids to Quinault in arranging
lyrical dialogue. Lulli died in 1687, and Quinault, his occupa-
tion gone, became devout, and began a poem called the " De-
struction of Heresy." He died on the 26th of November 1688.
The best edition of his works is that of 1739 (Paris, 5 vols.).
QUINAZOLINES (Phenmiazines or benzopyrimidines), in
organic chemistry, heterocyclic compounds of the structure
shown in the inset formuk. They may be regarded as resulting
( 4 j from the fusion of a benzene with a pyrimidine
N( . nucleus in the 5.6 position. They are isomeric
with the cinnolines, phthakzines and quinoxa-
lines. They may be obtained by the action of alco-
holic ammonia on the acidyl derivatives of ortho-
aminobenzaldehydes and ortho-aminoketones (A. Bischler, Ber.,
/CHO /CH : N
1891-95) iCeH/ +NH 3 = C 6 H/ | +2H 2 O;
X NH.CO.R X N : CR
and_from the corresponding dihydro compounds on oxidation with
potassium permanganate. They are stable, tertiary bases, and
may be distilled without decomposition; they form addition
products with alkyl iodides and double salts with mercuric and
platinum chlorides. On reduction with sodium in presence of
alcohol they yield dihydro derivatives. Those in which the -CH
group adjacent to the benzene nucleus is unsubstituted are oxid-
ized by chromic acid to ketodihydroquinazolines (quinazolones).
Quinazoline (C 6 H 2 Ns) is obtained by oxidizing its dihydro-deriv-
ative with potassium ferricyanide. The dihydro derivatives exist
in three different series, since the addition of two atoms of hydrogen
in the diazine ring can take place in three different positions, namely,
in the 3.4, 1.4 and 1.2 positions, and these different types are dis-
tinguished by the symbols Ai, Aa, A3, denoting that the double
linkage is between the first arid second, second and third, and
third and fourth atoms in the diazine ring. The Ai series, which
are obtained by the elimination of the elements of water from
the acidyl derivatives of ortho-aminobenzylamines, are rather
strong bases which form stable salts and yield the correspond-
ing keto derivatives on oxidation (C. Paal, Ber., 1889-1896).
4-Keto-dihydroquinazoline (/3-quinazolone) is formed by oxidiz-
ing the dihydro base with potassium permanganate; by boiling
acidyl-ortho-aminobenzamide with water (A. Weddige, Jour. prak.
Chem., 1885, (2)31, p. 1 24); or by heating anthranilic acid with forma-
mide (S. Niementowski, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 443). It reacts both in
the enol and keto forms, yielding both N-ethers and O-ethers, the
latter being obtained by the action of sodium alcoholates on 4-chlor-
quinazolines. The A2 series is obtained by heating acidyl-ortho-
aminobenzylamines with zinc chloride, whilst the A3 series, which
QUINCE QUINCY, J.
is only known in the form of its keto derivatives (o-auinazolincs),
results from the fusion of urea with ortho-aminobenzaidehydes and
benzophenones, the elements of water and of ammonia being elimi-
nated (S. Gabriel and Th. Posner, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1037). They
possess feeble basic and phenolic characters. The tctra-nydroquin-
azolines are obtained by reducing the quinazolines and dihydro-
quinazolines and by condensing ortho-ammobenzylamine with alde-
hydes (M. Busch, Jour. frak. Chem., 1896, (2) 53, p. 414). The
ring is easily split on hydrolysis, giving rise to ortho-disubstituted
benzenes. The keto derivatives of this series result by the action
of carbonyl chloride on ortho-aminobenzylamines of the type
H,N.C,H 4 .CH,NHR (M. Busch, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 2853), or from
the urea derivatives of ortho-aminobenzylamine. They are weak
bases which are indifferent to both acids and alkalis, and which on
oxidation yield the corresponding 2-4-diketo derivatives.
QUINCE (Lat. Cydonia or Colonea, Ital. Cotogna, Fr. coing,
Mid. Eng. coin, quin, whence a collective plural " quins,"
corrupted to singular " quince "), a fruit-tree concerning
which botanists differ as to whether or not it is entitled to take
rank as a distinct genus or as a section of the genus Pyrus
(natural order Rosaceae, q.v.). It is not a matter of much im-
portance whether we call the quince Pyrus Cydonia or Cydonia
vulgaris. For practical purposes it is perhaps better to con-
sider it as distinct from Pyrus, differing from that genus in the
twisted manner in which the petals are arranged in the bud,
and in the many-celled ovary, in which the numerous ovules
arc disposed horizontally, not vertically as in the pears. The
quinces are much-branched shrubs or small trees with entire
leaves, small stipules, large solitary white or pink flowers
like those of a pear or apple, but with leafy calyx lobes and
a many-celled ovary, in each cell of which are numerous hori-
zontal ovules. The common quince is a native of Persia and
Anatolia, and perhaps also of Greece and the Crimea, but in
these latter localities it is doubtful whether or not the plant
is not a relic of former cultivation. By Franchet and Savatier
P. Cydonia is given as a native of Japan with the native name
of " maroumerou." It is certain that the Greeks knew a
common variety upon which they engrafted scions of a better
variety which they called Kvduviov, from Cydon in Crete,
whence it was obtained, and from which the later names have
been derived. Pliny (H.N. xv. n) mentions that the fruit
of the quince, Malwn cotoneum, warded off the influence of
the evil eye; and other legends connect it with ancient Greek
mythology, as exemplified by statues in which the fruit is repre-
sented, as well as by representations on the walls of Pompeii.
The fragrance and astringency of the fruit of the quince are
well known, and the seeds were formerly used medicinally for
the sake of the mucilage they yield when soaked in water, a
peculiarity which is not met with in pears. This mucilage is
analogous to, and has the same properties as, that which is
formed from the seeds of linseed.
The quince is but little cultivated in Great Britain, two
or three trees planted in the slip or orchard being in general
found to be sufficient for a supply of the fruit; in Scotland
it seldom approaches maturity, unless favoured by a wall. The
fruit has a powerful odour, but in the raw state is austere and
astringent; it, however, makes an excellent preserve, and is
often used to give flavour and poignancy to stewed or baked
apples.
There are three principal varieties of the quince, the Portugal,
the apple-shaped and the pear-shaped. The Portugal is a taller
and more vigorous grower than the others, and has larger and finer
fruit; the apple-shaped, which has roundish fruit, is more _pro-
ductive, and ripens under less favourable conditions than either
of the others; while the pear-shaped has roundish-pyriform fruit,
which ripens later than that of the apple-shaped variety.
The quince prefers a rich, light and somewhat moist soil. The
tree is generally propagated by cuttings or layers, the former making
the best plants, but being longer in growing. It is much used as a
dwarfing stock for certain kinds of pears, and for this purpose the
young plants when bedded out in the quarters should_ be shortened
back to about 1 8 or 20 inches; the effect is to restrain the growth
of the pear, increase and hasten its fruitful ness, and enable it to
withstand the effects of cold. Those required to form standard
fruit-bearing trees should be trained up to a single stem till a height
of 5 or 6 feet is attained.
The common Japan quince, Pyrus or Cydonia japonica, is grown
in gardens for the sake of its flowers, which vary in colour from
753
creamy white to rich red, and are produced during the winter and
early spring months. The fruit is green and fragrant but auite
uneatable. C. Maulei, a more recently introduced shrub from
Japan, bears a profusion of equally beautiful orange-red flower*,
which arc followed by fruit of a yellow colour and agreeable fragrance,
so that, when cooked with sugar, it forms an agreeable conserve,
as in the case of the ordinary quince.
QUINCY, JOSIAH (1744-1775), American patriot, son of
Josiah Quincy (1709-1784), was born in Boston on the 23rd
of February 1744. He was a descendant of Edmund Quincy,
who emigrated to Massachusetts in 1633, and received in 1636
a grant of land at Mount Wollaston, or Merry Mount, after-
wards a part of Braintree and now Quincy. He graduated at
Harvard in 1763, and studied law in the office of Oxenbridge
Thacher (d. 1765), to whose large practice he succeeded. In
1767 Quincy contributed to the Boston Gazette two bold
papers, signed "Hyperion," declaiming against British op-
pression; they were followed by a third in September 1768;
and on the izth of February 1770 he published in the Gazette
a call to his countrymen to break off all social intercourse " with
those whose commerce contaminates, whose luxuries poisbn,
whose avarice is insatiable, and whose unnatural oppressions
are not to be borne." After the " Boston massacre " (sth
of March 1770) he and John Adams defended Captain Preston
and the accused soldiers and secured their acquittal. 1 He
used the signatures " Mentor," " Callisthenes," " Marchmont
Needham," " Edward Sexby," &c., in later letters to the Boston
Gazette. He travelled for his health in the South in 1773,
and left in his journal an interesting account of his travels
and of society in South Carolina; this journey was important
in that it brought Southern patriots into closer relations with
the popular leaders in Massachusetts. In May 1774 he pub-
lished Observations on the Act of Parliament, commonly called
" The Boston Port Bill," with Thoughts on Civil Society and
Standing Armies, in which he urged " patriots and heroes "
to " form a compact for opposition a band for vengeance."
In September 1774 he left for England, where he consulted
with leading Whigs as to the political situation in America;
on the i6th of March 1775 he started back, but he died on
the 26th of April in sight of land.
See the Memoir of tJie Life of Josiah Quincy, Jun., of Massa-
chusetts (Boston, 1825; 2nd ed., 1874), by his son, which contains
his more important papers.
His son, JOSIAH QUINCY (1772-1864), American lawyer and
author, was born in Boston on the 4th of February 1772. He
studied at Phillips Academy, Andover, graduated at Harvard
in 1790, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1793, but
was never a prominent advocate He became a leader of the
Federalist party in Massachusetts; was an unsuccessful candi-
date for the national House of Representatives in 1800; served
in the Massachusetts Senate in 1804-5; and was a member in
1805-13 of the national House of Representatives, where he
was one of the small Federalist minority. He attempted to
secure the exemption of fishing vessels from the Embargo Act,
urged the strengthening of the American navy, and vigorously
opposed the erection of Orleans Territory (Louisiana) into
a state in 1811, and stated as his "deliberate opinion, that
if this bill passes, the bonds of this Union are virtually dis-
solved; that the States that compose it are free from their
moral obligations to maintain it; and that, as it will be the
right of all, so it will be the duty of some to prepare definitely
for a separation, amicably if they can, violently if they must."
This is probably " the first assertion of the right of secession
on the floor of Congress." Quincy left Congress because he
saw that the Federalist opposition was useless, and thereafter
was a member of the Massachusetts Senate until 1820; in
1821-22 he was a member and speaker of the state House
of Representatives, from which he resigned to become judge
of the municipal court of Boston. In 1823-28 he was mayor,
of Boston, and in his term Faneuil Hall Market House was
1 His eldest brother, SAMUEL QUINCY (1735-1789), was at this
time solicitor-general of Massachusetts, and opened this trial. He
remained loyal to the Crown, left Boston in 1776, and was attorney
for the Crown in Antigua until his death.
754
QUINCY
built, the fire and police departments were reorganized, and
the city's care of the poor was systematized. In 1829-1845
he was president of Harvard College, of which he had been
an overseer since 1810, when the board was reorganized; he
has been called " the great organizer of the university ":
he gave an elective (or " voluntary ") system an elaborate trial;
introduced a system of marking (on the scale of 8) on which
college rank and honours, formerly rather carelessly assigned,
were based; first used courts of law to punish students who
destroyed or injured college property; and helped to reform
the finances of the university. During his term Dane Hall
(for law) was dedicated, Gore Hall was built, and the Astro-
nomical Observatory was equipped. His last years were spent
principally on his farm in Quincy, where he died on the ist of
July 1864.
He wrote a Memoir of his father (1825); a History of Harvard
University (2 vols., 1840), marred by a tendency to belittle the
clerical regime; The Journals of Major Samuel Shaw (1847); The
History of the Boston Athenaeum (1851); The Municipal History
of Ihe Town and City of Boston (1852) ; a Memoir of the Life of J. Q.
Adams (1858); and Essays on the Soiling of Cattle (1859), only one
of his many practical contributions to agriculture. See Edmund
Quincy, Life of Josiah Quincy (Boston, 1867).
JOSIAH QUINCY (1802-1882), son of the last-named, was
mayor of Boston in 1845-1849, and author of Figures of the Past
(1882); his brother EDMUND (1808-1877) was a prominent
Abolitionist, and author of the biography of his father and of a
romance, Wensley (1854); and his sister ELIZA SUSAN (1798-
1884) was her father's secretary and the biographer of her
mother. Josiah Quincy (1802-1882) had two sons JOSIAH
PHILLIPS (1829-1910), a lawyer, who wrote, besides some verse,
The Protection of Majorities (1876) and Double Taxation in
Massachusetts (1889); and SAMUEL MILLER (1833-1887), who
practised law, wrote on legal subjects, served in the Union army
during the Civil War, and was breveted brigadier-general of
volunteers in 1865. JOSIAH QUINCY (b. 1859), a son of Josiah
Phillips Quincy, was prominent in the Democratic party in
Massachusetts, and was mayor of Boston in 1895-1899.
QUINCY, a city and the county-seat of Adams county, Illinois,
U.S.A., in the western part of the state, on the Mississippi
river, about 105 m. W. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 31,494;
(1900) 36,252, of whom 4961 were foreign-born 3988 being
of German birth and 2029 were negroes; (1910, census)
36,587. Land area (1906), 5-8 sq. m. Quincy is served by
the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Quincy, Omaha & Kansas
City, and the Wabash railways, and by lines of river steamers,
which find an excellent harbour in Quincy Bay, an arm of the
Mississippi. The city is built on the river bluffs, which com-
mand an extensive view. In Indian Mounds park, within the
city limits and owned by the city, are prehistoric mounds. The
Quincy Library, founded in 1837, has been a free public library
since 1889. Among the principal public buildings are the
Court House and the Federal Government building. The
State Soldiers' and Sailors' Home (1887), with grounds cover-
ing 222 acres, is in Quincy; one of its fifty-five buildings
(Lippincott Memorial Hall) was erected by the veterans of
the institution in memory of Charles E. Lippincott, the first
superintendent. There is a monument in Quincy in memory
of George Rogers Clark, and the homestead (built in 1835) of
John Wood, founder of the city, is now owned by the Quincy
Historical Society, organized in 1896. Quincy is the seat of
St Francis Solanus College (1860) and St Mary's Institute
(Roman Catholic); The Chaddock Boys' School (Methodist
Episcopal), until 1900 known as Chaddock College; two schools
of music; and the Gem City Business College. Among the
charitable institutions are Blessing Hospital (1875), St Mary's
Hospital (1867; in charge of the Sisters of the Poor of St Francis),
the Woodland Home for Orphans and Friendless (1853), St
Aloysius Orphans' Home (1865), and several homes for the
age-1 an ' infirm. The city is the seat of a Protestant Episcopal
bisho-t. Quincy is the industrial and commercial centre of a
lar^e region. The value of factory products in 1905 was
$10,748.224, an increase of 35-7 per cent, since 1900. Among
the manufactures are stoves and furnaces, foundry and machine
shop products, carriages and wagons, flour and grist mill pro-
ducts, malt liquors, dairymen's and poulterers' supplies, show-
cases, men's clothing, agricultural implements, saddlery and
harness, and lumber.
In 1822 John Wood (1798-1880), the first white settler, built
a log cabin here, and in 1825, Quincy, then having less than
ten inhabitants, was made the county-seat of Adams county,
both town and county being named through Wood's influence
in honour of John Quincy Adams. Wood was lieutenant-
governor of the state in 1857-1860, and acting-governor in 1860-
1861. A bronze statue (dedicated in 1883) in his memory stands
in Washington Park. There was a general hospital of the
United States Army in Quincy during the Civil War. Quincy
was incorporated as a town in 1834, and was chartered as a
city in 1839.
QUINCY, a city of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, situated
on Massachusetts Bay, and separated from Boston by the
Neponset river on the N. and from Weymouth by Fore river
on the S. Pop. (1890) 16,723; (1900) 23,899, of whom
7662 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 32,642; area, about
16 sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, and by an interurban 'electric line. To a
large degree Quincy is a residential suburb of Boston. The
birthplaces of John Adams, built in 1681, and of John Quincy
Adams, built in 1716, are still standing. The Stone Temple,
or First (Unitarian) Congregational Church, is the burial-place
of the two Adamses. Quincy was also the home of Charles
Francis Adams. John Adams gave to the town his valuable
private library, and in 1822 founded here the Adams Academy
for boys (now closed). In the home of Josiah Quincy (1802-
1882) in Wollaston Park is the Quincy Mansion School for
Girls. Woodward Institute (1894) is an endowed high school
for girls. The public school system, the " Quincy System,"
was made famous in 1875-1880 by Col. Francis Wayland Parker
(1837-1902), who abolished learning lessons by rote, and intro-
duced Froebelian principles. A public library was opened in
1871, and in 1882 it was housed in the Crane Memorial Hall,
designed by H. H. Richardson, and given by the family of Thomas
Crane (1803-1875), who had spent his early youth in the town,
but had lived in New York City from 1827 until his death.
The library contained about 26,000 volumes in 1908. The
city has a fine system of parks, among them being Merrymount
and Faxon, the latter named in honour of the family of Henry
H. Faxon, who in 1882 secured a negative vote by the town
to the question whether " licenses be granted for the sale of
intoxicating liquors"; subsequently there has been a similar
vote each year. The manufactures of Quincy were long un-
important, with the exception of " Quincy granite," * which
was first quarried in 1825, this being the first " systematic
siliceous crystalline rock quarrying " in New England and
of which the output in the form of tombstones and monuments
in 1905 was valued at $2,018,198, and in the form of " marble
and stone work " was valued at $364,924. But manufacturing
rapidly increased in importance between 1900 and 1905; in
this period the value of factory products increased 198.2%,
to $8,982,446, and the capital invested increased 389%, to
$9,220,870. Quincy granite, a hornblende, pyroxene, bluish
or greyish, without mica, was used for the construction of the
Bunker Hill monument at Charlestown (in 1826), and of King's
Chapel, Boston; and for interior decorations it has found some
use, for example in the Philadelphia city buildings. Engines,
and iron and steel ships are built at a shipyard 2 on the Fore
river, and tubular rivets and studs, gearing, foundry products,
and translucent fabrics are among the city's other products.
1 Since 1877 the Granite Cutters' Journal has been published here
by the Granite Cutters' International Association of America.
For a description of the granite quarried in the vicinity of Quincy,
see T. N. Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Mass., New Hamp-
shire and Rhode Island (Washington, 1908), Bulletin 354 of the
U.S. Geol. Survey.
1 Here were built various vessels of the U.S. Navy, including the
battleship " North Dakota."
QUINET
755
The site of the present city was settled in 1625 as Merry
Mount or Mount Wollaston by Thomas Morton (q.v.) the
present Wollaston Heights is a part of the grant of 600 acres
made in 1636 by the town of Boston to William Hutchinson,
husband of Anne, the Antinomian, and was formerly known
as Taylor's Hill. A Puritan settlement was made here in 1634.
This first settled part of Braintree (q.v.) a name given in
1640 to the community then organized after 1708 was officially
called the North Precinct of the Town of Braintree; here the
Adamses and the Hancocks lived, and Quincy was the birth-
place of John Hancock in a house on Hancock lot lived the
first Josiah Quincy; the Mount Wollaston farm was a legacy
to John Quincy (1680-1767), in whose honour the township
was named on its separation from the township of Braintree
in 1792, and whose name was borne by his great grandson,
John Quincy Adams. In 1826 a railway about 4 m. long to
the Neponset river was built here the first in New England
for carrying granite from the quarries to tide-water; the cars
were drawn by horses. The township had previously been
engaged in maritime pursuits, agriculture, and the manufacture
of leather. Township government, owing to the abolition
of the committee on general business and the consequent
confusion of handling so many and minute details, and to
the addition to the population of a large Irish element and a
large New Hampshire element, both workmen in the quarries,
reached the minimum of efficiency in 1840-1870; in 1870, how-
ever, the town-meetings were reformed, and in 1874 a committee
to consider business details was again appointed. In 1888
Quincy was chartered as a city.
See " A Study of Church and Town Government," by C. F.
Adams, in the second volume of his Three Episodes of Massachusetts
History (Boston, 1892), for an admirable history of the community;
his Centennial Milestone, an Address in Commemoration of the One
Hundredth Anniversary of the Incorporation of Quincy, Mass. (Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, 1892); D. M. Wilson, Quincy, Old Braintree
and Merry Mount (Boston, 1907), and Where American Independence
Began (Boston, 1902); and D. M. Wilson and C. F. Adams, Col.
John Quincy of Mount Wollaston, 1689-1767 (Quincy, 1909), pub-
lished by the Quincy Historical Society, and containing addresses
made at the celebration in February 1908 in honour of Col. Quincy ;
and W. S. Pattee, History of Old Braintree and Quincy (Quincy,
1878).
QUINET, EDGAR (1803-1875), French historian and man of
letters, was born at Bourg-en-Bresse, in the department of the
Ain, France, on the I7th of February 1803. His father,
Jerome Quinet, had been a commissary in the army, but being
a strong republican and disgusted with Napoleon's usurpa-
tion, he gave up his post and devoted himself to scientific
and mathematical study. Edgar, who was an only child, was
much alone, but his mother (Eugenie Rozat Lagis, who was a
person of education and strong though somewhat unorthodox
religious views) exercised great influence over him. He was
sent to school first at Bourg and then at Lyons. His father
wished him on leaving school to go into the army, and then
suggested business. But Quinet was determined upon literature,
and after a time got his way. His first publication, the Tabletles
du juif errant, appeared in 1823. Being struck with Herder's
Philosophic der Geschichte, he undertook to translate it, learnt
German for the purpose, published his work in 1827, and ob-
tained by it considerable credit. At this time he was introduced
to Cousin, and made the acquaintance of Michelet. He had
visited Germany and England before the appearance of his
book. Cousin procured him a post on a government mission to
the Morea in 1829, and on his return he published in 1830 a
book on La Grece moderne. Some hopes of employment which
he had after the revolution of February were frustrated by the
reputation of speculative republicanism which he had acquired.
But he joined the staff of the Revue des deux mondes, and for
some years contributed to it numerous essays, the most remark-
able of which was that on Les pop(es fran^aises du Xlleme
siecle, an early, though not by any means the earliest, apprecia-
tion of the long-neglected chansons de geste. Ahasvtrus, his first
original work of consequence, appeared in 1833. This is a
singular prose poem, in language sometimes rather bombastic
but often beautiful. Shortly afterwards he married Minna
More, a German girl with whom he had fallen in love some years
before. Then he visited Italy, and, besides writing many essays,
produced two poems, Napolton (1835) and Promtthie (1838),
which being written in verse (of which he was not a master) are
inferior to Ahasvtrus. In 1838 he published a vigorous reply
to Strauss's Leben Jesu, and in that year he received the Legion
of Honour. In 1839 he was appointed professor of foreign
literature at Lyons, where he began the brilliant course of
lectures afterwards embodied in the Genie des religions. Two
years later he was transferred to the College de France, and the
Gfnie des religions itself appeared (1842).
Quinet's Parisian professorship was more notorious than
fortunate, owing, it must be said, to his own fault. His chair
was one of Southern Literature, but, neglecting his proper
subject, he chose, in conjunction with Michelet, to engage in a
violent polemic with the Jesuits and with Ultramontanism. Two
books bearing exactly these titles appeared in 1843 and 1844,
and contained, as was usual with Quinet, the substance of his
lectures. These excited so much disturbance, and the author
so obstinately refused to confine himself to literature proper,
that in 1846 the government put an end to them a course
which was not disapproved by the majority of his colleagues.
By this time Quinet was a pronounced republican, and some-
thing of a revolutionist. He appeared in arms during the dis-
turbances which overthrew Louis Philippe, and was elected by
the department of the Ain to the Constituent and then to the
Legislative Assembly, where he figured among the extreme
radical party. He had published in 1848 Les Revolutions
d'ltdie, one of his principal though not one of his best works.
He wrote numerous pamphlets during the short-lived Second
Republic, attacked the Roman expedition with all his strength,
and was from the first an uncompromising opponent of Prince
Louis Napoleon. He was banished from France after the coup
d'etat, and established himself at Brussels. His wife had died
some time previously, and he now married Mademoiselle Asaky,
the daughter of a Roumanian poet. At Brussels he lived for
some seven years, during which he published Les Esclaves (1853),
a dramatic poem, Marnix de Sainte-Aldtgonde (1854), a
study of that Reformer in which he very greatly exaggerates
Sainte-Aldegonde's literary merit, and some other books. He
then moved to Veytaux, on the shore of the Lake of Geneva,
where he continued to reside till the fall of the empire. Here
his pen was busier than ever. In 1860 appeared a singular
book, somewhat after the fashion of Ahasvtrus, entitled Merlin
I'enchanteur, in 1862 a Histoire de la campagne de 1815, in 1865
an elaborate book on the French Revolution, in which the
author, republican as he was, blamed the acts of the revolution-
ists unsparingly, and by that means drew down on himself
much wrath from more thoroughgoing partisans. Many
pamphlets date from this period, as does La Crtation (1870),
a third book of the class of Ahasvtrus and Merlin, but even
vaguer, dealing not with history, legend, or philosophy, but
with physical science for the most part.
Quinet had refused to return to France to join the liberal
opposition against Napoleon III., but immediately after Sedan
he returned. He was then restored to his professorship, and
during the siege wrote vehemently against the Germans. He
was elected deputy by the department of the Seine in 1871, and
was one of the most obstinate opponents of the terms of peace
between France and Germany. He continued to write till his
death, which occurred at Versailles on the 27th of March 1875. Le
Siege de Paris et la defense nationale appeared in 1871, La
Rfpublique in 1872, Le Lime de VexiU in the year of its author's
death and after it. This was followed by three volumes of
letters and some other work. Quinet had already in 1858
published a semi-biographic book called Histoire de mes idles.
Quinet's character was extremely amiable, and his letters to
his mother, his accounts of his early life, and so forth, are likely
always to make him interesting. He was also a man of great
moral conscientiousness, and as far as intention went perfectly dis-
interested. As a writer, his chief fault is want of concentration;
756
QUININE
as a thinker and politician, vagueness and want of practical
determination. His historical and philosophical works, though
showing much reading, fertile thought, abundant facility of
expression, and occasionally, where prejudice does not come in,
acute judgment, are rather (as not a few of them were in fact)
reported lectures than formal treatises. His rhetorical power
was altogether superior to his logical power, and the natural conse-
quence is that his work is full of contradictions. These contra-
dictions were, moreover, due, not merely to an incapacity or an
unwillingness to argue strictly, but also to the presence in his
mind of a large number of inconsistent tastes and prejudices
which he either could not or would not co-ordinate into an in-
telligible creed. Thus he has the strongest attraction for the
picturesque side of medievalism and catholicity, the strongest
repulsion for the restrictions which medieval and Catholic
institutions imposed on individual liberty. He refused to sub-
mit himself to any form of positive orthodoxy, yet when a man
like Strauss pushed unorthodoxy to its extreme limits Quinet
revolted. As a politician he acted with the extreme radicals,
yet universal suffrage disgusted him as unreasonable in its
principle and dangerous in its results. His pervading character-
istic, therefore, is that of an eloquent vagueness, very stimulating
and touching at times, but as deficient in coercive force of matter
as it is in lasting precision and elegance of form. He is less in-
accurate in fact than Michelet, but he is also much less absorbed
by a single idea at a time, and the result is that he seldom attains
to the vivid representation of which Michelet was a master.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. His numerous works appeared in a uniform
edition of twenty-eight volumes (1877-79). His second wife,
in 1870, published certain Memoires d'exil, and Lettres d'exil followed
in 1885. In that year Prof. George Saintsbury published a selection
of the Lettres & sa mere with an introduction. For many years
Quinet received little attention in France, but it was revived,
though not very strongly, by the publication in 1899 of Madame
Quinet's Cinquante ans d'amitie (that between her husband and
Michelet), and by the centenary pi his birth. On this latter (1903)
appeared A I' occasion du centenaire, by E. Ledrain; see also Libres
Penseurs retigieux, by E. Paris (1905). There is in English an
elaborate Early Life and Writings of Edgar Quinet, by R. Heath
(London, 1881). (G. SA.)
QUININE, the most important alkaloid contained in cinchona
bark (see CINCHONA). In 1810 Gomez of Lisbon obtained a
mixture of alkaloids which he named cinchonino, by treating
an alcoholic extract of the bark with water and then adding
a solution of caustic potash. In 1820 Pelletier and Caventou
proved that the cinchonino of Gomez contained two alkaloids,
which they named quinine and cinchonine. Later quinidine
and cinchonidine were discovered, and subsequently several
other alkaloids, but in smaller quantity.
Chemistry. The alkaloids exist in the bark chiefly in com-
bination with cinchotannic and quinic acids. The cinchotannic
acid apparently becomes altered by atmospheric oxidation into
a red-colouring matter, known as cinchono-fulvic or cinchona
red, which is very abundant in some species, as in C. succirubra.
For this reason those barks which, like C. Calisaya, C. officinalis,
and C. Ledgeriana, contain but little colouring matter are
preferred, the quinine being more easily extracted from them
in a colourless form. The exact mode of extraction adopted by
manufacturers is secret. That hitherto adopted by the Indian
Government for the preparation of the cinchona febrifuge (see
below) is simple, but the whole of the alkaloid present in the
bark is not obtained by it. This method is to exhaust the
powdered bark with water acidulated with hydrochloric acid
and then to precipitate the alkaloids by caustic soda.
Another method consists in mixing the powdered bark with
milk of lime, drying the mass slowly with frequent stirring,
exhausting the powder with boiling alcohol, removing the
excess of alcohol by distillation, adding sufficient dilute
sulphuric acid to dissolve the alkaloid and throw down colour-
ing matter and traces of lime, &c., filtering, and allowing the
neutralized liquid to deposit crystals. The sulphates of the
alkaloids thus obtained are not equally soluble in water, and
the quinine sulphate can be separated by fractional crystalliza-
tion, being less soluble in water than the other sulphates.
Quinine of commerce is the neutral sulphate, Cso^jNsOrHjS,
which occurs in commerce in the form of very light slender white
acicular crystals. It is soluble in about 780 parts of cold water,
but in 30 of boiling water, 60 of rectified spirit (sp. gr. 0-83), and
40 of glycerin. Its solubility in water is lessened by sodium or
magnesium sulphate, but is increased by potassium nitrate,
ammonium chloride, and most acids. It is not soluble in fixed
oils or in ether, although the pure alkaloid is soluble in both.
It becomes phosphorescent on trituration. When prescribed it
is generally rendered more soluble in water by the addition of
dilute sulphuric acid or of citric acid, one drop of the former or ^ths
of a grain of the latter being used for each grain of the quinine
sulphate. Quinine is precipitated from its solution by alkalis and
their carbonates. It is, however, very soluble in excess of ammonia.
The acid solution of sulphate of quinine is fluorescent, especially
when dilute; and it is laevo-rotatory. When a solution of chlorine
is first added and then ammonia an emerald green colour, due to
the formation of thalleoquin, is developed. This test answers with
a solution containing only I part of quinine in 5000, or in a solution
containing not more than ysJus part if bromine be used instead of
chlorine. The fluorescence is visible in an acid solution containing
I part in 200,000 of water. By adding an alcoholic solution of
iodine to a solution of the sulphate in acetic acid a compound
known as herapathite, 4Qu-3H 2 SO4-2HM 4 -6H 2 O, is obtained, which
possesses optical properties similar to those of tourmaline; it is
soluble in 1000 parts of boiling water; and its sparing solubility
in cold alcohol has been utilized for estimating quinine quantitat-
ively. The other alkaloids are distinguished from quinine thus:
quinidine resembles quinine, but is dextro-rotatory, and the iodide
is very insoluble in water; the solution of cinchonidine, which is
laevo-rotatory, does not give the thalleoquin test, nor fluorescence ;
cinchonine resembles cinchonidine in these respects, but is dextro-
rotatory.
Commercial sulphate of quinine frequently contains from I tc 10%
of cinchonidine sulphate, owing to the use of barks containing it.
The sulphate of cinchonidine is more soluble than that of quinine;
and, when I part of quinine sulphate suspected to contain it is
nearly dissolved in 24 parts of boiling water, the sulphate of quinine
crystallizes out on] cooling, and the cinchonidine is found in the
clear mother liquor, from which it can be precipitated by a solution
of potassium and sodium tartrate. Samples of quinine in which
cinchonidine is present usually contain a smaller percentage of
water than the pure sulphate. Traces of quinidine are also some-
times, though rarely, found in commercial quinine, but its presence
does not detract in a medicinal point of view from the value of the
latter.
Owing to its voluminous character as much as 18 % of water may
remain present in apparently dry samples of sulphate of quinine.
If it loses more than 14-6% of water when dried at iooC. it contains
an excessive amount of moisture. Owing to its variability in this
respect, and to its insolubility, certain other salts have largely re-
placed the sulphate in modern medicine.
Sulphate of quinine manufactured from cuprea bark (Remijia
pedunculate,) may contain from -10 to -90% of sulphate of homo-
quinine, which almost coincides in solubility with sulphate of
quinine. Homoquinine is decomposed on treatment with caustic
soda into quinine and a new alkaloid, cupreine, in the proportion
of 2 to 3. Cupreine is soluble in a solution of caustic soda (differing
in this respect from quinine), and therefore it is easy to prepare
sulphate of quinine perfectly free from either homoquinine or
cupreine. The medicinal properties of cupreine and homoquinine
are of no practical importance.
In consequence of the high price of the alkaloid an attempt was
made some years ago by the Government of India to manufacture
from cinchona bark a cheap febrifuge which should represent the
alkaloids contained in the bark and form a substitute for quinine.
This mixture is known as cinchona febrifuge, and is prepared chiefly
from C. succirubra, which succeeds better in India than the other
species in cultivation, and grows at a lower elevation, being con-
sequently procurable in large quantities at a comparatively low
price. A mixture of the cinchona alkaloids, consisting principally
of cinchonidine sulphate, with smaller quantities of the sulphates of
quinine and cinchonine, is sold under the name of " quinetum " at a
cheaper rate than quinine.
The chemical constitution of quinine and the allied alkaloids
is not definitely settled, although certain relationships are well
established. Thus quinine is methoxycinchonine or methylcupreine,
cupreine being an oxycinchonine. These relations are shown by
the formulae: cinchonine = Ci 9 H2iN2-OH; cupreine = CuHa)N3(OH)i;
quinine = Ci9H2oN2(OH)(pCH 3 ). Cinchonine yields on oxidation
cinchoninic acid (7 - quinoline carboxylic acid). CgHeN-COzH,
whilst quinine gives quininic acid, CsHs^CHsXCOjH). This per-
mits the writing of cinchonine, for example, as CH6N-CioHi S (OH)N,
the hydroxy group being in the part -CioH^OHJN, about which
the constitution is uncertain. The subject has been especi-
ally studied by Skraup, Konigs, and von Miller; Konigs and
von Miller have proposed formulae consisting of a piperidine
ring substituted with a vinyl group; in the former that is a
bridge of CHs-C(pH)- from the nitrogen atom to the -y-carbon
atom, connexion with the quinoline residue being made at the
QUININE
757
hydroxylic carbon atom through a -CHj- group: whilst in the
Lit i IT the piperidine ring is substituted by a methyl group in addition
in the vinyl group and the bridge is simply -C(OH)-, with which
connexion is made as before.
Medicine. The sulphate is still used in medicine, and
the British Pharmacopeia has admitted two others, which
arc much more valuable the hydrochloride and the acid
hydrochloride whilst the hydrobromide is also used. The
hydrochloride -formerly known as the hydrochlorate
C2oHHN 2 O2-HCl-2H2O, resembles the sulphate in appearance,
the crystals being, however, somewhat larger. It is soluble in
less than 40 parts of cold water, and in 3 parts of alcohol
(90%). The doses are similar to those of the sulphate, but
somewhat smaller, owing to its greater solubility. The acid
hydrochloride is the most valuable of all salts of quinine. It
is soluble in its own weight of water, and is the most rapidly
and completely absorbed of all the salts of this alkaloid. It
occurs in a colourless crystalline powder, having the formula
The sulphate of quinine used in medicine may contain up to
3% of cinchonidine, but should be free from cinchonine, quinidine
and cupreine. There are four pharmacopeial preparations. The
ferri et quininae citras, one of the " scale preparations " of iron,
is given as a haematinic and tonic in doses of about 10 grains. It
is very unpleasant to take. The pharmacopeial pilule quininae
contains 5 parts of the sulphate in 6. The syrupus ferri
phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina (Easton's Syrup) contains
Jths of a grain of quinine in each drachm, that is, in each
dose. Here the quinine acts as a bitter tonic. The tinctura
quininae ammoniata or " ammoniated quinine " is made by mixing
175 grains of quinine sulphate, 2 fluid oz. of liquor ammoniac
(the pharmacopeial solution of ammonia), and 18 fluid pz. of a
60 % solution of alcohol. The dose of J to I drachm contains little
more than a grain of quinine, the antipyretic action of which is
negligible. Its value in the early stages of a bronchitis or tracheitis
is due to the ammonia. The small quantity of quinine it contains
is conditioned by the solubility of the alkaloid, which is precipitated
when this tincture is diluted with water. No particular value
attaches to the pharmacopeial preparations of the hydrochloride.
Physiological Action. Our knowledge of this subject is mainly due
to Professor Binz of Bonn. Quinine has considerable powers as an
antiseptic, this term denned for some time as indicating the power
to kill bacteria. Whilst quinine possesses this power, however,
it is far more potently lethal to a particular form of animal organism
known as the plasmodium malariae. Against the bacteria quinine
is not at all an exceptionally powerful antiseptic, though more
powerful than carbolic acid. Many bacteria are killed by a -2 %
solution of the alkaloid. Quinine does not affect the unbroken
skin, and cannot be absorbed from it, but it is slightly irritant
to the pain-conducting nerves of a raw surface.
The first feature of the internal action of quinine is its intensely
bitter taste. This induces a reflex secretion from the salivary
and gastric glands, which is followed or accompanied by increased
vascularity of the gastric mucous membrane, and by some degree
of activity on the part of the muscular wall of the stomach. This
means that the appetite is strengthened, and digestion rendered
more rapid and complete. In this sense alone quinine is a tonic.
The hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice is stated to convert any
salt of quinine jnto a chloride, and it seems probable that the
absorption of quinine takes place mainly from the stomach, for when
the dVug reaches the alkaline secretions of the duodenum it is
precipitated, and probably none of it is thereafter absorbed. The
greater part of a dose of quinine sulphate administered by the
mouth may be recovered, as a rule, from the faeces, this being much
the most wasteful method of giving quinine. The absorption of
the acid hydrochloride is much more complete. Quinine hydro-
chloride circulates in the alkaline blood without precipitation,
probably owing to the presence of carbonic acid in the blood.
The action of quinine on the blood itself quite apart from its
action on malarial blood is of great complexity and importance.
Whilst it is not a haematinic, in that it does not increase the number
of the red blood corpuscles, it very markedly influences the stability
. of the compounds of the haemoglobin with oxygen. Like alcohol
and prussic acid, quinine interferes with oxidation, so that oxy-
haemoglobin is relatively unable to give up its oxygen to the tissues,
the metabolism of which is therefore greatly modified. This pro-
perty is doubtless partly though not wholly explanatory of
the antipyretic action of quinine. The leucocytes or white blood
corpuscles are very markedly affected by quinine, the character-
istic " amoeboid " movements of the cells being arrested. Hence
quinine stops the process of diapedesis or emigration of the leu-
cocytes from the blood-vessels into the tissues, and if applied to the
extravascular spaces it arrests the leucocytic movements there.
The explanation that this influence on the leucocytes explained the
favourable action of quinine on certain inflammatory processes no
longer holds, since we know that the inflammatory conditions are
of microbic origin, and that the movements of the leucocytes are
not objectionable, but highly desirable as a means of defence against
bacteria and their products. Quinine, therefore, is not beneficial
in inflammatory conditions as far as this particular property is
concerned.
The action of quinine on the circulatory apparatus is not marked.
It is only in very- large doses that it weakens the intracardiac
nervous ganglia, slows and weakens the pulse, and dangerously
lowers the blood pressure. Similarly the depressant action on the
respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata occurs only after the
administration of enormous doses.
The action of quinine on the temperature is important, for it is
the safest of all known antipyretics. Its action on the normal
temperature is nil. The drug is not an antiihermal. But when the
temperature is raised, quinine will frequently lower it. The action
is not due to any influence on the thermic centres, nor to any pro-
duction of diaphoresis, but to the influence of quinine upon the
stability of oxyhaemoglobin. Quinine was the first antipyretic
used, and after the introduction of such preparations as anti-
pyrin and acetanilide it may still be said to be the safest, though
it is much less powerful. The maximum dose of the sulphate is
about 40 grains, and of the acid hydrochloride about 25 grains. The
temperature usually begins to fall in about two hours. The in-
fluence of quinine upon a malarial temperature is due to an entirely
different cause (see below).
In some of the lower vertebrates quinine reduces the activity
of the spinal cord, but in the human species it appears to stimulate
the nervous mechanism of the uterus under certain conditions,
and it is therefore included under the class of oxytocic or ecbolic
drugs.
Quinine is excreted in some degree by nearly all the glands of
the body, but mainly by the kidneys. Traces of it may be detected
in the urine within an hour of its administration, and most of it
is eliminated within eight or ten hours. The study of the urine
is highly interesting in correlation with that of the influence of
quinine upon the oxidising power of the blood, and upon the move-
ments of the leucocytes. The amount of urea, creatin, creatinin,
sulphates and phosphates in the urine is diminished, clearly showing
that quinine exerts an inhibitory influence over the metabolic
processes of the body. This conclusion is further confirmed by the
observation that the amount of carbonic acid excreted by the lungs
is also diminished. The uric acid excreted in the urine (mostly in
the form of urates) is markedly diminished. This product is largely
derived from the nuclei of the leucocytes, which contain large
quantities of the nucleo-proteids, of which uric acid is a decomposi-
tion product. It is therefore plain that the diminution of leucocytic
movement is to be regarded as a sign of diminished metabolism
within the cells.
Therapeutics. The supreme value of quinine is as a specific
antidote to malaria, against which it also possesses a powerful
prophylactic action. Ten or fifteen grains of the sulphate are often
given three times a day for this latter purpose, and smaller doses
of the much more efficacious acid hydrochloride will be found to
convey even more certain immunity. In treating malaria (including
ague, remittent fever, intermittent fever, and all its other forms)
with this drug certain important facts are to be observed. Quinine
administered by the mouth or by any other means will soon enter the
blood, and will then kill the haematozoon malariae, whether it be free
in the blood-plasma, in the leucocytes or in the red blood corpuscles.
There is one exception, however. Quinine is apparently powerless
to kill the organism when it is in its reproductive phase. This
phase corresponds to the pyretic attack. There is therefore no
purpose to be served by administering quinine during a malarial
paroxysm. Two successful methods may be adopted. The quinine
may be given in a single large dose 30 grains of the sulphate,
or 20 of the acid hydrochloride an hour or two before the
attack is due, i.e. just before the parent organism in the red blood
corpuscles is about to discharge the new generation of young para-
sites into the blood-plasma. An equally effective method, which
may be combined with the above, is to give the quinine in lo-grain
doses of the acid hydrochloride every four hours between the
attacks. Whichever method be adopted, the paroxysm that was
expected will probably not appear. After a single full dose of
quinine no parasites can as a rule be observed in the blood for
several days. In beginning treatment, it is well to clear the hepatic
and alimentary passages by a preliminary dose of calomel combined
with a secretory cholagogue, such as enonymin or iridin. The
quinine treatment may be begun with success on the day following
an attack. Quinine is much less efficacious in the treatment of
post-malarial symptoms, such as neuralgia and haematuria, when
no parasites can be detected in the blood. In such cases quinine
is often inferior to arsenic.
Quinine is largelv used as a bitter tonic in doses of about half
a grain. The acid hydrochloride is the best salt to employ.
Quinine has some analgesic power, and is a safe and often efficient
drug in the treatment of neuralgia, even when the patient has not
had malaria. Somewhat smaller doses than those given in pyrexia
should be employed.
758
QUINOLINE
Cinchonism is the name applied to the congeries of toxic symptoms
which follow the prolonged administration of quinine, but may
appear after one small dose in certain persons. The symptoms
closely resemble those of salicylism, and also, though in less degree,
those of carbolism. The patient is deaf, but complains of ringing
in the ears, which may assume various forms, especially in musical
people. There is headache, which, with the continuance of the
drug, becomes exceedingly severe, the vision and equilibrium are
affected, and there is often some gastro-intestinal irritation. In
cases where the drug has been deliberately given for its poisonous
action the results are still more severe. There may be bleeding from
the nose, cutaneous congestion, deafness, blindness, coma or de-
lirium, and even death from cardiac failure. After death there is
found one noteworthy lesion, a commencing acute inflammation
of the internal ear. In persons who have a marked idiosyncrasy
towards cinchonism, the symptoms may often be successfully averted
if small doses of hydrobromic acid 10 minims of the dilute solution
are given with the quinine.
A non-official preparation of quinine Warburg's Tincture
occasionally succeeds where the ordinary preparations fail. The
dose is I to 4 drachms. It contains I part of quinine in 50.
Of the thirteen or more other ingredients, there may specially be
noticed the salicylic and benzoic acids.
The other alkaloids of cinchona bark quinidine, cinchonidine,
and cinchonine also possess similar properties, but all are much
less effective than quinine. Thjs is also the case with the cinchona
febrifuge prepared from C. succirubra.
The great disadvantage of the official preparations is the bitter
taste and insolubility. It is found, however, that all the
soluble salts are bitter, whilst the tasteless ones are insoluble.
Substitutes may therefore be divided into those administered orally
and those administered hypodermically. Of the insoluble salts
we may notice the tannate, the propionic acid ester (euquinine)
and carbonic acid ester (aristoquin), the salicylic acid ester (salo*
quinine); and of the soluble substitutes, quinopyrine (a compound
of quinine hydrochloride and antipyrine) and quinine hydrochloro-
carbamide (a compound of quinine, urea and hydrochloric acid).
Until 1867 English manufacturers of quinine were entirely
dependent upon South America for their supplies of cinchona
bark, which were obtained exclusively from uncultivated
trees, growing chiefly in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, the principal
species which were used for the purpose being Cinchona Calisaya;
C. officinalis; C. macrocalyx, var. Palton; C. Pitayensis, C.
micrantha and C. lancifolia. Since the cultivation of cinchona
trees was commenced in Java, India, Ceylon and Jamaica,
several other species, as well as varieties and hybrids cultivated
in those countries, have been used. 1 Later, C. lancifolia, var.
Calisaya, known as the calisaya of Santa Fe, was strongly
recommended for cultivation, because the shoots of felled trees
afford bark containing a considerable amount of quinine; C.
Pitayensia has been introduced into the Indian plantations on
account of yielding the valuable alkaloid quinidine, as well as
quinine.
The first importation from India took place in 1867, since which
time the cultivated bark has arrived in Europe in constantly in-
creasing quantities, London being the chief market for the Indian
barks and Amsterdam for those of Java. Cinchona Calisaya has
also been cultivated extensively in Bolivia and in Tolima, United
States of Columbia.
In order to obtain the cultivated bark as economically as possible,
experiments were made which resulted in the discovery that, if
the bark were removed from the trunks in alternate strips so as not
to injure the cambium, or actively growing zone, a new layer of
bark was formed in one year which was richer in quinine than the
original bark and equal in thickness to that of two or three years'
ordinary growth. This is known in commerce as " renewed bark."
The process has been found to be most conveniently practised when
the trees are eight years old, at which age the bark separates most
easily. The yield of quinine has been ascertained to increase
annually until the eleventh year, at which it seems to reach its
1 In Java, C. Calisaya, vars. anglica, javanica, Hasskarliana and
Ledgeriana; C. officinalis, var. angustifolia; C. lancifolia, C.
caloptera C. micrantha and C. succirubra. In India, C. succirubra,
C. officinalis, vars. angustifolia, crispa, Uritusinga and Bonplan-
diana, and to a lesser extent C. Calisaya, vars. Boliviana and micro-
carpa; C. micrantha, C. Peruviana and C. nitida form only a small
proportion of the plantations. Since J. E. Howard pointed out
that C. Pahudiana, and C. Calisaya, vars. javanica, Hasskarliana
and anglica, were likely to lead to disappointment as quinine-
yielding species, these have been replaced in the plantations as
rapidly as possible by the more valuable species, of which C. Led-
geriana, yielding from 5 to 10% or even more of quinine, C. officinalis,
and a hybrid between C. officinalis and C. succirubra, which has been
named C. robusla, are the most important.
maximum. The portion of the trunk from which the bark has been
removed is sometimes protected by moss, and the new bark which
forms is then distinguished by the name of " mossed bark." The
species which yield the largest amount of quinine are by no means
the easiest to cultivate, and experiments have consequently been
made in cross-fertilization and grafting with the view of giving
vigour of growth to delicate trees yielding a large amount of alka-
loid or of increasing the yield in strong-growing trees affording but
little quinine. Grafting, however, has not been found to answer
the purpose, since the stock and the graft have been found to
retain their respective alkaloids in the natural proportion just as
if growing separately. Hybridization also is very uncertain,
and is very difficult to carry put effectually; hence the method
of propagating the best varieties by cuttings has been adopted,
except in the case of those which do not strike readily, as in C.
Ledgeriana, in which the plants are grown from the shoots of felled
trees.
Some years ago it was discovered that a bark imported from
Colombia under the name of cuprea bark, or " hard bark, and
derived from Remijia pedunculata, Triana, and other species,
contained quinine to the extent of J to 2 J %, and in 1881 this bark
was exported in enormous quantities from Santander, exceeding in
amount the united importations of all the other cinchona barks;
and by reason of its cheapness this has since that date been largely
used for the manufacture of quinine.
Cinchona bark as imported is never uniform in quality. The
South American kinds contain a variable admixture of inferior
barks, and the cultivated Indian barks comprise, under the re-
spective names of yellow, pale, and red barks, a number of varieties
of unequal value.
The alkaloids are contained, according to Howard, chiefly in the
cellular tissue next to the liber. No definite knowledge has as yet
been attained of the exact steps by which quinine is formed in
nature in the tissues of the bark. From analyses of the leaves,
bark and root, it appears that quinine is present only in small
quantities in the leaves, in larger quantity in the stem bark, and
increasing in proportion as it approaches the root, where quinine
appears to decrease and cinchonine to increase in amount, although
the root bark is generally richer in alkaloids than that of the stem.
The altitude at which the trees are grown seems to affect the pro-
duction of quinine, since it has been proved that the yield of quinine
in C. officinalis is less when the trees are grown below 6000 ft. than
above that elevation, and that cinchonidine, quinidine, and resin
are at the same time increased in amount. It has also been shown
by Broughton that C. Peruviana, which yields cinchonine but no
quinine at a height of 6000 ft., when grown at 7800 ft. gives nearly
as much quinine, and almost as readily, as C. officinalis. Karsten
also ascertained by experiments made at Bogota on C. lancifolia
that the barks of one district were sometimes devoid of quinine,
while those of the same species from a neighbouring locality yielded
33 to 4i% of the sulphate; moreover, Dr De Vrij found that the
bark of C. officinalis cultivated at Utakamand varied in the yield
of quinine from I to 9%. In these cases the variation may have
been due to altitude. Free access of air to the tissues also seems
to increase the yield of quinine, for the renewed bark is found to
contain more quinine than the original bark
QUINOLINE (Benzopyridine), C 9 H 7 N, an organic base first
obtained from coal-tar in 1834 by F. Runge (Pogg. Ann.,
1834, 31, p. 68), and later by C. Gerhardt by the distillation of
cinchonine, quinine and other alkaloids with caustic potash
(Ann., 1842, 42, p. 310; 44, p. 279). It also occurs with
pyridine and its homologues in bone-oil. It may be prepared
by distilling cinchoninic acid with lime; by the reduction of
ortho-aminocinnamic aldehyde (A. Baeyer and V. Drewson, Ber.,
1883, 16, p. 2207); by passing the vapour of allyl aniline
over heated lead oxide; by the condensation of ortho-amino-
benzaldehyde with acetaldehyde in the presence of aqueous
caustic soda (P. Friedlander and C. F. Gohring, Ber.,
1882, 15, p. 2572; 1883, 16, p. 1833); by the action of ortho-
toluidine on glyoxal at 150 C. (V. Kulisch, Monats., 1894,
15, p. 276); by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on
hydrocarbostyril (the inner anhydride of ortho-aminohydro-
cinnamic acid), the chlorinated compound first formed being then
reduced by hydriodic acid (A. Baeyer):
CHg ~ Cti2 /CH = C'C1 /CH = CH
I -^ r M / I \r TT / I
I ~^ -6ti4\ | ?*~<iti4 \
NH-CO X N =C-C1 X N = CH
and by the so-called " Skraup " reaction, which consists in
oxidizing a mixture of aniline, glycerin and concentrated
sulphuric acid, with nitrobenzene (Z. Skraup, Monats., 1880,
i, p. 316; 1881, 2, p. 141). This reaction is a very violent
/ ,
4\
X
QUINOLINE
759
one, and its mechanism may probably be explained as
follows: The glycerin is first converted into acrolein,
which combines with the aniline to form acrolein-aniline,
and this product is then oxidized by the nitrobenzene:
The nitrobenzene may be replaced by arsenic acid, when the
reaction proceeds much more quietly and a cleaner product is
obtained (C. A. Knueppel, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 703). The Skraup
reaction is a perfectly general one for primary amino-compounds;
the halogen-, nitro- and oxy-anilines (aminophenols) react
similarly, as do also the toluidines, naphthylamines, amino-
anthracene, meta- and para-phenylene diamines, and ortho-
and y-aminoquinoline.
Quinoline is a colourless liquid with a smell resembling that
of pyridine. It boils at 238 C. and is very hygroscopic. It
is a tertiary base and forms well-defined salts. It is almost
insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in the common organic
solvents. It combines readily with the alkyl halides. H.
Decker (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 1 144) has found that many ortho substi-
tuted quinolines will not combine with methyl iodide owing to
steric hindrance, but the difficulty can be overcome in most cases
by using methyl sulphate and heating the reaction components
to 100 C. for half an hour. Nitric acid and chromic acid have
little action on quinoline, but alkaline potassium permanganate
oxidizes it to carbon dioxide, ammonia, oxalic, and quinolinic
acids (S. Hoogewerff and W. A. v. Dorp, Rec. Pays Bas, 1882,
i, p. 107). Bleaching powder oxidizes it to chlorcarbostyril.
It is reduced by the action of zinc and ammonia
to di-and tetra-hydroquinolines. A hexahydro-
and a decahydroquinoline have been obtained
>. N ' by heating tetrahydroquinoline with hydri-
odic acid and phosphorus to high temperatures
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1138). Numerous substitu-
tion products of quinoline are known, and the positions in the
molecule are generally designated in accordance with the
scheme shown in the inset formula: the letters o, m, p, a,
standing for ortho-, meta-, para-, and ana-.
The oxyquinolines possess a certain importance owing to their
relationship to the alkaloids. Those with the hydroxyl group in
the benzene nucleus are prepared from the aminophenols by the
Skraup reaction. Only two are known containing the hydroxyl
group in the pyridine nucleus, namely, carbostyril (u-oxyquinoline),
which is formed by the reduction of ortho-aminocinnamic acid with
ammonium sulphide (L. Chiozza, Ann., 1852, 83, p. 118) or with
ferrous sulphate and baryta, and kynurine (7-oxyquinoline), which is
obtained by the action of nitrous acid on 7-aminoquinoline (A.
Claus and H. Howitz, Jour. prak. Chem., 1894, 158, p. 232). It is
also formed by the condensation of anthranilic acid with acetalde-
hyde (S. Niementowski, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2811). They are both
crystalline solids, the former melting when anhydrous at 199-200,
and the latter at 52 C.
Of the hpmologues of quinoline, the most important are quin-
aldine, lepidine, y-phenylquinoline, and flavoline. Quinaldine
(a-methylquinoline) is present in coal-tar; it may be prepared
by condensing aniline with paraldehyde and concentrated hydro-
chloric acid (O. Doebner and W. v. Miller, Ber., 1881, 14, pp. 2812
et seq.). The reaction is a perfectly general one, for the aniline
may be replaced by other aromatic amines and the aldehyde by
other aldehydes, and so a large number of quinoline homologues
may be prepared in this way. Quinaldine may also be obtained by
condensing ortho-aminobenzaldehyde with acetone in presence
of caustic soda (P. Friedlander, loc. cit.). It is -a colourless
liquid which boils at 247 C. The -CH> group is very reactive,
condensing readily with aldehydes and with phthalic anhydride.
Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetylanthranilic acid,
HOOC(l)-CerM2)NH-COCH,, while chromic acid oxidizes it to
quinaldic acid (quinoline-a-carbpxylicacid). Lepiine(7-methylquino-
hne) was first obtained by distilling cinchonine with caustic potash.
It may be prepared synthetically by condensing ortho-aminoaceto-
phenone with paraldenyde and caustic soda (L. Knorr, Ann., 1886,
236, p. 69) or from aniline, acetone, formaldehyde and hydrochloric
acid (C. Beyer, Jour. prak. Chem., 1885, 140, p. 125). It may also
be prepared by condensing o-y-dimethvlquinoline and formalde-
hyde, the resulting a-ethanollepidine, C,H,-CH,N(CH,-CH,-OH),
breaks down on heating and forms lepidine (W. Konigs and A.
Mengel, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1322). It is a colourless liquid which
boils at 255 C. Chromic acid oxidizes it to cinchoninic acid
(see below), whilst potassium permanganate oxidizes it to lepidinic
acid (y-methylquinplinic acid) and cinchomeronic acid (see PYRI-
DINE). y-Phenylquinoline, which is probably the parent substance
of the cinchona alkaloids, is prepared by heating x-phenylquimJdic
acid, the oxidation product of the -y-phenylquinaldme, which
results from the action of alcoholic potash on a mixture of ortho-
aminobenzophenone and acetone (W. Konigs and R. Geigy, Ber.,
1885, 18, p. 2400), or by the action of sulphuric acid on benzoyl-
acetone anilide (C. Beyer, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1767). It crystallizes
in needles which melt at 61 C. Flavoline (o-phenyl-7-methyl-
quinoline) is formed on heating flavenol (see below) with excess of
zinc dust, or by heating molecular proportions of ortho-amino-
acetophenone and acetophenone, in dilute alcoholic solution, with
a small quantity of 10% caustic soda solution (O. Fischer, Ber.,
1886, 19, p. 1037). Closely related to flavoline is flavaniline or
(a)-para-aminophenyl-x-methylquinoline, which is formed when
acetanilide and anhydrous zinc chloride are heated together for
many hours at 250-270 C. (O. Fischer and C. Rudolph, Ber., 1882,
15, p. 1500), or by heating ortho- and para-aminoacetophenone
with zinc chloride to 90 C. (O. Fischer, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1038).
It crystallizes from benzene in prisms, which melt at 97 C. Sodium
nitrite in the presence of excess of acid converts it into the corre-
sponding hydroxylic compound flavenol.
The oxy derivatives of the quinoline homologues are best ob-
tained from the aniline derivatives of /3-ketonic acids. At 110 C.
aniline and acetoacetic ester condense to form anilido-acetoacetic
ester, CH,CO-CHi-CO-NH-C 6 H s , which isconverted by concentrated
acids into a-oxy--y-methylquinoline (L. Knorr, Ann., 1886, 236, p. 73).
On the other hand, at about 240 C., the amme and ester react
to form ^-anilidocrotonic ester, CHfC(NHCH 4 ) : CH-COOCjH,
which yields -y-oxy-o-methylquinoline (M. Conrad and L. Limpach,
Ber., 1887, 20, p. 947).
Numerous carboxylic acids of quinoline are known, the most
important of which are quinaldic, cinchoninic and acridinic acids.
Quinaldic acid (quinoline-a-carboxylic acid) is produced when
quin'aldine is oxidized by chromic acid. It crystallizes in needles,
which contain two molecules of water of crystallization, and melt
at 156 C. When heated above the melting-point it loses carbon
dioxide and yields quinoline. Alkaline potassium permanganate
oxidizes it to pyridine tricarboxylic acid (2-3-6). Cinchoninic
acid (quinoline--x-carboxylic acid) is formed when cinchonine is
oxidized by nitric acid, or bv the oxidation of lepidine. It crys-
tallizes from water in needles ot prisms and in the anhydrous
state melts at 253-254 C. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to
pyridine tricarboxylic acid (2-3-4). Acridinic acid (quinoline-o-
dicarboxylic acid) is formed when acridine is oxidized by potassium
permanganate (C. Graebe and H. Caro, Ber., 1880, 13, p. 100).
It crystallizes in needles, which are easily soluble in alcohol, and when
heated above 130 C. lose carbon dioxide and leave a residue of
quinoline-/3-carboxylic acid.
Isoquinoline, isomeric with quinoline, was first discovered in
coal-tar in 1885 by S. Hoogewerff and W. A. v. Dorp (Rec. Pays
Bas, 1885, 4, 125); its formula is shown in the
inset. It may be separated from the quinoline which (
accompanies it by means of the difference in the
solubility of the sulphates of the two compounds,'
isoquinoline sulphate being much less soluble than
quinoline sulphate. It may be prepared by passing Isoquinoline.
the vapour of benzylidene ethylamine through a red-hot tube
(A. Pictet and S. Popovici, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 733); by the action
of concentrated sulphuric acid on benzyl amino-acetaldehvde
C,H 6 -CH,-NH-CH 2 -CHO (E. Fischer), or on benzylidene amino^
acetal, C,H 6 CH : N CH, CH(9C,H,), (C. Pomeranz, Monats.,
1892, 14, p. n6); by heating cinnamenyl aldoxime with phos-
phorus pentoxide to 70 C. (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1894, 27, D loss)
C.HiCH : CH-CH : NOH ->[C,H,CH : CH-NH-COH]-C,HrN!
by the action of hydriodic acid on the oxydichlorisoquinoline
formed when phosphorus pentachloride reacts with hippuric acid;
by the distillation of homophthalimide over zinc dust (M. Le Blanc!
Ber., 1888, 21, p. 2299), or by treatment with phosphorus oxy-
chloride followed by the reduction of the resulting dichloriso-
quinoline with hydriodic acid (S. Gabriel, Ber., 1886, 19, pp. 1655
2355) :
It is also formed from isobenzalphthalide by the action of ammonia,
followed by phosphorus oxychloride and reduction of the chlorinated
product (S. Gabriel),
/CH-OC^ /CH-OOH.
\co-A \co-dn
-C-CiH s /CH-C-OHi
and from isocoumarin carboxylic acid by conversion into iso-
carbostyril on heating, and subsequent reduction by distillation with
zinc dust (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 1138). It melts at
22-23_ C. and boils at 240 C., and behaves in most respects similarly
to quinoline. By oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate
it yields phthalic acid and cinchomeronic acid. Reduction by means
of tin and hydrochloric acid gives a tetrahydro derivative.
Numerous derivatives of isoquinoline are obtained in the de-
composition of various vegetable alkaloids. Papaverine on fusion
760
QUINONES QUINTAIN
with alkalis yields a dimethoxyisoquinoline, whilst hydrohydras-
tinine, hydrocotarnine and the salts of cotarnine may be considered
as derivatives of reduced isoquinolines (see OPIUM).
QUINONES, in organic chemistry, a group of compounds in
which two hydrogen atoms of a benzene nucleus are replaced
by two oxygen atoms. This replacement may take place
either in the ortho or para positions, giving rise to orthoquin-
ones or to paraquinones; metaquinones do not appear to have
been isolated. The para or true quinones are obtained by the
oxidation of hydrocarbons with chromic acid or of various para
di-derivatives of benzene with chromic acid mixture, such, for
example, as para-aminophenol, para-phenylene diamine, para-
aminoazobenzene, &c. H. v. Pechmann (Ber., 1888, 21,
p. 1417) has shown that a-diketones are converted into para-
quinones by the action of warm solutions of the caustic alkalis,
diacetyl yielding para-xyloquinone:
CH 3 -CO-CO-CH 3 CHrC-CO-CH
- II Ell
CHs-CO-CO-CHs HC-CO-C-CH 3 ;
whilst P. H. Bayrac (Bull. soc. Mm., 1894 (3) n, p. 1129) ob-
tained anilino-derivatives of the paraquinones by the action of
an aqueous solution of potassium chromate on an acetic
acid solution of para-aminodimethylaniline and phenol:
C 6 H 6 OH+H 2 N-C 6 H 4 -N (CH 3 ) 2 -^O:C 6 H 4 :N-C 6 H 4 -N(CH 3 )2; these
compounds yield the quinone when heated with mineral
acids.
The paraquinones are generally crystalline solids of a yellowish
colour, having a characteristic sharp odour and being volatile
in steam. They are readily reduced to the corresponding
hydroquinones or para-dihydroxy-benzenes, and also combine
with hydroxylamine hydrochloride to form nitrosophenols,
which can further yield quinone dioximes,
Paraquinones also combine with ammonia
and with amines yielding amino-derivatives and hydroquinones.
The orthoquinones more resemble the a-diketones; they are
crystalline solids of a red or yellow colour, but differ from the
paraquinones in being devoid of smell and not volatile in a current
of steam.
Benzoquinone (para) or ordinary quinone, Csr^Oj, is formed by
the oxidation of aniline with sodium bichromate and sulphuric
acid. It sublimes in golden yellow needles. Hot concentrated
nitric acid oxidizes it to picric acid and oxalic acid, whilst on treat-
ment with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate it yields
chloranil (tetrachlorpquinone). It combines directly with two and
four atoms of bromine. Free hydroxylamine reduces it to hydro-
quinone. It combines directly with aniline to form dianilido-
quinone, dianilidoquinone-anil and dianilidoquinone-dianil or
azophenine. Two alternative structural formulae have been given
to benzoquinone, namely:
and
-O-O
V -/
The former, due to C. Graebe (Zeit.f. Chemie, 1867, 3, p. 39), ascribes
to the molecule a peroxide configuration which accounts for its
oxidizing powers but not for the fact that each oxygen atom is
capable of replacement by one atom of chlorine. The second
formula, due to R. Fittig (Ann., 1876, 180, p. 23) readily explains
the formation of the mono- and di-oximes of quinone and also
that it readily combines with bromine.
Quinone-chlorimide, C1N : C e H 4 : O, is obtained when para-
ammophenol is oxidized with bleaching powder. It is a yellow
crystalline solid readily volatile in steam. The dichlorimide,
C1N : CH4 : NCI, is formed in a similar manner from paraphenylene
diamine. It is a strong oxidizing agent. Quinone-dioxime,
HON : C e H 4 : NOH, crystallizes in colourless or yellow needles, which
decompose when heated to about 240 C. Potassium ferrocyanide
in alkaline solution oxidizes it to dinitrosobenzene, whilst cold
concentrated nitric acid oxidizes it to para-dinitrobenzene. Quin-
hydrone, CerhOj-Cer^OH^, is formed by the direct union of
quinone and hydroquinone or by careful oxidation of hydroquinone
with ferric chloride solution. On boiling with water it decomposes
into quinone and hydroquinone.
Benzoquinone (ortho). C. L. Jackson (Amer. Chem. Jour., 1901,
26, p. 10) attempted to prepare this compound by the action of
iodine on the lead salt of pyrocatechin suspended in chloroform.
A deep red solution was obtained, but the free quinone was not iso-
lated since the solution on standing deposits nearly black crystals
of dihydroxyphenylhydroxybenzoquinone (HO) 2 C 6 H3-C 6 H 2 OrOH.
R. Willstatter (Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4744), by dissolving pyrocatechin
in absolute ether containing ignited sodium sulphate and then
adding dry silver oxide, obtained the quinone in dark red crystalline
plates which decompose between 60 and 70 C.
For naphthalene quinones see NAPHTHALENE; for anthracene
quinone see ANTHRAQUINONE; and for phenanthrene quinone see
PHENANTHRENE.
Quinoles. The quinoles are a series of compounds of the type
jjo ~~/( ^)=O,obtained by the oxidation of para-alkylated phenols
with nitric acid, Caro's acid or bromine (Auwers, Ber., 1897-1903;
E. Bamberger, ib., 1903, 36, p. 2028; Th. Zincke, ib., 1895, 28, p.
3121); by the action of sulphuric acid on para-substituted phenyl-
hydroxylamines (E. Bamberger), and by the action of the Grignard
reagent on quinones (Bamberger). They are crystalline solids
which are readily converted into para-alkylated phenols by reducing
agents. They possess a weak acid and also an alcoholic character.
QUINOXALINES (Benzopyrazines), in organic chemistry,
heterocyclic compounds containing a ring complex made up of a
benzene ring and a pyrazine ring (formula I.) ; they are isomeric
with the cinnolenes, phthalazines and quinazolines. They are
formed by the condensing ortho-diamines with 1-2 diketones
(Hinsberg, Ann., 1887, 237, p. 327), the parent substance of
the group (quinoxaline) resulting when glyoxal is so condensed,
whilst substitution derivatives arise when a-ketonic acids,
a-chlorketones, a-aldehyde alcohols and o-ketone alcohols are
used in place of diketones.
/NH 2 OC-R ,N:C-R
C 6 H 4 / + | =C 6 H 4 / | +2H 2 0.
N NH 2 OC-R' N N:C-R'
In a similar manner, diamino derivatives are formed when
cyanogen is condensed with ortho-diamines, and these amino
compounds readily pass into the corresponding dioxy deriva-
tives when acted upon with dilute hydrochloric acid.
The quinoxalines are weak bases, and are stable towards oxidizing
agents but are readily reduced to hydro derivatives. The tetra-
hydroquinoxalines are formed by condensing ortho-diamines with
ortho-dihydroxy benzenes, and the keto-dihydro derivatives arise
similarly by condensing mono-alkyl diamines with ketonic acids
(Kehrmann and Messinger, Ber., 1892, 25, pp. 1628 et seq.).
The azonium bases (formula II.) of this series are produced when
the dihydroquinoxalines (obtained by similar condensations from
the mono-alkyl-ortho-diamines) are oxidized with ferric chloride.
/N:C-R'
C 6 H,< I
\N:i-R'
I. Quinoxaline. II. Azonium bases.
QUINSY, a common term for acute suppurative tonsilitis
(q.v.). The English word (formerly " squinzey ") is a corrup-
tion of Fr. esquinancie, from Gr. mivayx't (KVUV, dog, and afxtiv,
to choke), and is derived from the suffocating tendency of the
ailment.
QUINTAIN (O. Fr. quinlaine, from Lat. quintana, a street
between the fifth and sixth maniples of a camp, where warlike
exercises took place), an instrument used in the age of chivalry
in practising for the tournament. Originally perhaps the mere
trunk of a tree upon which the knight practised his sword-
strokes, as may be seen in an ancient illustration reproduced
in Strutt's Sports a)td Pastimes, the quintain developed into
various forms of posts at which the soldier tilted with his lance,
not only on horseback but on foot and even in boats. An early
form consisted of the wooden figure of a Saracen armed with
shield and sword; the object being to strike the figure on the
forehead directly between the eyes. This, according to Strutt,
was called by the Italians " running at the armed man " or
" at the Saracen." The " pel," or post-quintain, was generally
about 6 ft. high.
As late as the i8th century running at the quintain survived
in English rural districts. In one variation of the pastime the
quintain was a tun filled with water, which, if the blow was a
poor one, was emptied over the striker. A later form was a post
with a cross-piece, from which was suspended a ring, which the
horseman endeavoured to pierce with his lance while at full
speed. This sport, called " tilting at the ring," was very popular
in England and on the continent of Europe in the 1 7th century,
and is still practised as a feature of military and equestrian sport.
QUINTANA QUINTILIAN
761
QUINTANA, MANUEL JOSfi (1772-1857), Spanish poet and
man of letters, was born at Madrid on the nth of April 1772,
and after completing his studies at Salamanca was called to the
bar. In 1801 he produced a tragedy, El Duque de Viseo, founded
on M. G. Lewis's Castle Spectre; his Pelayo (1805), written on
a patriotic theme, was more successful. The first volume of
his Vidas de Espanoles cilebres (1807-33), containing lives of
Spanish patriots, stirred the public imagination and secured
Quintana the post of secretary to the Cortes during the French
invasion. His proclamations and odes fanned the national
enthusiasm into flame. But he was ill rewarded for his services,
for on the return of Ferdinand VII. he was imprisoned at
Pamplona from 1814 to 1820. He was finally given a small
post in the civil service, became tutor to Queen Isabella, and
was nominated senator. Though publicly " crowned " as the
representative poet of Spain (1855), he seems to have lived in
poverty. He died on the nth of March 1857. His poems,
thirty-four in number, are inspired by philanthropy and
patriotism; the style is occasionally gallicized, and the thought
is not profound, but his nobility of sentiment and resounding
rhetoric attract every generation of Spaniards.
See an excellent monograph by E. Pineyro, Manuel Jose Quintana,
ensayo critico y biogrdfico (Paris, 1892).
QUINTESSENCE, in ancient and scholastic philosophy, the
name given to the fifth immaterial element, over and above
the four material elements, air, water, earth and fire, which
Aristotle assumed to be permeating the whole world, and called
ovaia: in medieval philosophy this was called quinta essentia,
the fifth essence, and by many was considered material and
therefore capable of extraction. The ancient Indian philosophers
also contain the same idea of a fifth element; thus there were
five Sanskrit elements (bhutas), earth, wind, fire, water and aether.
In the history of chemistry the name was applied, by analogy, to
the most concentrated extract of a substance.
QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (c. A.D. 35-
95), Roman rhetorician, was born at Calagurris in Spain. Con-
cerning his family and his life but few facts remain. His father
taught rhetoric, with no great success, at Rome, and Quintilian
must have come there at an early age to reside, and must have
there grown up to manhood. The years from 61 to 68 he spent
in Spain, probably attached in some capacity to the retinue of the
future emperor Galba, with whom he returned to the capital.
For at least twenty years after the accession of Galba he was at .
the head of the foremost school of oratory in Rome, and may
fairly be called the Isocrates of his time. He also gained some,
but not a great, repute as a pleader in the courts. His greatest
speech appears to have been a defence of the queen Berenice,
on what charge is not known. He appears to have been wealthy
for a professional man. Vespasian created for him a professorial
chair of rhetoric, liberally endowed with public money, and from
this time he was unquestionably, as Martial calls him, " the
supreme controller of the restless youth." About the year 88
Quintilian retired from teaching and from pleading, to compose
his great work on the training of the orator (Inslitutio Oratorio).
After two years' retirement he was entrusted by Domitian with
the education of two grand-nephews, whom he destined as
successors to his throne. Quintilian gained the titular rank of
consul, and probably died not long before the accession of Nerva
(A.D. 96). A wife and two children died early.
Such is the scanty record that remains of Quintilian 's unevent-
ful life. But it is possible to determine with some accuracy
his relation to the literature and culture of his time, which he
powerfully influenced. His career brings home to us the vast
change which in a few generations had passed over Roman taste,
feeling and society. In the days of Cicero rhetorical teaching
had been entirely in the hands of the Greeks. The Greek
language, too, was in the main the vehicle of instruction in
rhetoric. The first attempt to open a Latin rhetorical school, in
94 B.C., was crushed by authority, and not until the time of
Augustus was there any professor of the art who had been born
to the full privileges of a Roman citizen. The appointment of
Quintilian as professor by the chief of the state marks the last
stage in the emancipation of rhetorical teaching from the old
Roman prejudices.
During the hundred years or more which elapsed between
the death of Cicero and the birth of Quintilian education all
over the Roman Empire had spread enormously, and the educa-
tion of the time found its end and climax in rhetoric. Mental
culture was for the most part acquired, not for its own sake, but
as a discipline to develop skill in speaking, the paramount
qualification for a public career. Rome, Italy and the pio-
vinces alike resounded with rhetorical exercitations, which
were promoted on all sides by professorships, first of Greek,
later also of Latin rhetoric, endowed from municipal funds.
The mock contests of the future orators roused a vast amount
of popular interest. In Gaul, Spain and Africa these pursuits
were carried on with even greater energy than at Rome The
seeds of the existing culture, such as it was, bore richer fruit on
the fresh soil of the western provinces than in the exhausted
lands of Italy and the East. While Quintilian lived, men
born in Spain dominated the Latin schools and the Latin
literature, and he died just too soon to see the first provincial,
also of Spanish origin, ascend the imperial throne.
As an orator, a teacher and an author, Quintilian set himself
to stem the current of popular taste which found its expression
in what we are wont to call silver Latin. In his youth the
influence of the younger Seneca was dominant. But the chief
teacher of Quintilian was a man of another type, one whom
he ventures to class with the old orators of Rome. This was
Domitius Afer, a rhetorician of Nlmes, who rose to the consul-
ship. Quintilian, however, owed more to the dead than to the
living. His great model was Cicero, of whom he speaks at
all times with unbounded eulogy, and whose faults he could
scarce bring himself to mention; nor could he well tolerate
to hear them mentioned by others. The reaction against
the Ciceronian oratory which had begun in Cicero's own life-
time had acquired overwhelming strength after his death.
Quintilian failed to check it, as another teacher of rhetoric,
equally an admirer of Cicero, had failed the historian Livy.
Seneca the elder, a clear-sighted man who could see in Cicero
much to praise, and was not blind to the faults of his own age,
condemned the old style as lacking in power, while Tacitus,
in his Dialogue on Orators, includes Cicero among the men of
rude and " unkempt " antiquity. The great movement for the
poetization of Latin prose which was begun by Sallust ran its
course till it culminated in the monstrous style of Fronto. In
the courts judges, juries and audiences alike demanded what
was startling, quaint or epigrammatic, and the speakers practised
a thousand tricks to satisfy the demand. Oratory became above
all things an art whose last thought was to conceal itself. It
is not surprising that Quintilian's forensic efforts won for him
no lasting reputation among his countrymen.
The Instilutio Oratoria is one long protest against the tastes
of the age. Starting with the maxim of Cato the Censor that
the orator is " the good man who is skilled in speaking," Quin-
tilian takes his future orator at birth and shows how this good-
ness of character and skill in speaking may be best produced.
No detail of training in infancy, boyhood or youth is too petty
for his attention. The parts of the work which relate to general
education are of great interest and importance. Quintilian
postulates the widest culture; there is no form of knowledge
from which something may not be extracted for his purpose;
and he is fully alive to the importance of method in education.
He ridicules the fashion of the day, which hurried over pre-
liminary cultivation, and allowed men to grow grey while
declaiming in the schools, where nature and reality were for-
gotten. Yet he develops all the technicalities of rhetoric with
a fulness to which we find no parallel in ancient literature.
Even in this portion of the work the illustrations are so apposite
and the style so dignified and yet sweet that the modern reader,
whose initial interest in rhetoric is of necessity faint, is carried
along with much less fatigue than is necessary to master most
parts of the rhetorical writings of Aristotle and Cicero. Quin-
tilian's literary sympathies are extraordinarily wide. When
762
QUINTUS SMYRNAEUS QUIRE
obliged to condemn, as in the case of Seneca, he bestows gener-
ous and even extravagant praise on such merit as he can find.
He can cordially admire even Sallust, the true fountain-head
of the style which he combats, while he will not suffer Lucilius
to lie under the aspersions of Horace. The passages in which
Quintilian reviews the literature of Greece and Rome are justly
celebrated. The judgments which he passes may be in many
instances traditional, but, looking to all the circumstances
of the time, it seems remarkable that there should then have
lived at Rome a single man who could make them his own
and give them expression. The form in which these judgments
are rendered is admirable. The gentle justness of the senti-
ments is accompanied by a curious felicity of phrase. Who
can forget " the immortal swiftness of Sallust," or " the milky
richness of Livy," or how " Horace soars now and then, and
is full of sweetness and grace, and in his varied forms and phrases
is most fortunately bold "? Ancient literary criticism perhaps
touched its highest point in the hands of Quintilian.
To comprehensive sympathy and clear intellectual vision
Quintilian added refined tenderness and freedom from self-
assertion. Taking him all in all, we may say that his person-
ality must have been the most attractive of his time more
winning and at the same time more lofty than that of the
younger Pliny, his pupil, into whom no small portion of the
master's spirit, and even some tincture of the master's literary
taste, was instilled. It does not surprise us to hear that Quin-
tilian attributed any success he won as a pleader to his command
of pathos, a quality in which his great guide Cicero excelled.
In spite of some extravagances of phrase, Quintilian's lament
(in his sixth book) for his girl-wife and his. boy of great promise
is the most pathetic of all the lamentations for bereavement
in which Latin literature is so rich. In his precepts about
early education Quintilian continually shows his shrinking
from cruelty and oppression.
Quintilian for the most part avoids passing opinions on
the problems of philosophy, religion and politics. The pro-
fessed philosopher he disliked almost as much as did Isocrates.
He deemed that ethics formed the only valuable part of philo-
sophy and that ethical teaching ought to be in the hands of
the rhetoricians. In the divine government of the universe
he seems to have had a more than ornamental faith, though
he doubted the immortality of the soul. As to politics Quin-
tilian, like others of his time, felt free to eulogize the great
anti-Caesarean leaders of the dying republic, but only because
the assumption was universal that the system they had cham-
pioned was gone for ever. But Quintilian did not trouble
himself, as Statius did, to fling stones at the emperors Caligula
and Nero, who had missed their deification. He makes no
remark, laudatory or otherwise, on the government of any
emperor before Domitian. No character figured more largely
in the rhetorical controversies of the schools than the ideal
despot, but no word ever betrayed a consciousness that the
actual occupant of the Palatine might exemplify the theme.
Quintilian has often been reproached with his flattery of Domi-
tian. No doubt it was fulsome. But it is confined to two
or three passages, not thrust continually upon the reader, as
by Statius and Martial. To refuse the charge of Domitian's
expected successors would have been perilous, and equally
perilous would it have been to omit from the Institutio Oratorio,
all mention of the emperor. And there was at the time only
one dialect in which a man of letters could speak who set any
value on his personal safety. There was a choice between
extinction and the writing of a few sentences in the loath-
some court language, which might serve as an official test of
loyalty.
The Latin of Quintilian is not always free from the faults of
style which he condemns in others. It also exhibits many of the
usages and constructions which are characteristic of the silver
Latin. But no writer of the decadence departs less widely from
the best models of the late republican period. The language is on
the whole clear and simple, and varied without resort to rhetorical
devices and poetical conceits. Besides the Institutio Oratorio,
there have come down to us under Quintilian's name 19 longer
(ed. Lehnert, 1905) and 145 shorter (ed. Ritter, 1884) Declamations,
or school exercitations on themes like those in the Controversiae of
Seneca the elder. The longer pieces are certainly not Quintilian's.
The shorter were probably published, if not by himself, at least from
notes taken at his lessons. It is strange that they could ever have
been supposed to belong to a later century; the style proclaims
them to be of Quintilian's school and time. The works of Quin-
tilian have often been edited. Of the editions of the whole works
the chief is that by Burmann (1720) ; of the Institutio Oratoria
that by Spalding, completed by Zumpt and Bpnnell (1798-1834,
5th ed., Meister, 1882, the last volume containing a lexicon), and
that by Halm (1868), and another by Meister (1886) ; Eng. trans.,
I. S. Watson (1856). The tenth book of the Institutio Oratoria
has often been separately edited, as by Krueger (ed. 3, 1888),
Peterson (1891), Bonnell, Mayor and others. (J. S. R.)
QUINTUS SMYRNAEUS, Greek epic poet, probably nourished
in the latter part of the 4th century A.D. He is sometimes
called Quintus Calaber, because the only MS. of his poem was
discovered at Otranto in Calabria by Cardinal Bessarion in
1450. According to his own account (xii. 310), he tried his
hand at poetry in his early youth, while tending sheep at
Smyrna. His epic in fourteen books, known as Ta ntB' "0/w/poi'
or Posthomerica, takes up the tale of Troy at the point where
Homer's Iliad breaks off (the death of Hector), and carries it
down to the capture of the city by the Greeks. The first five
books, which cover the same ground as the Aethiopis of Arctinus
of Miletus, describe the doughty deeds and deaths of Penthesileia
the Amazon, of Memnon, son of the Morning, and of Achilles; the
funeral games in honour of Achilles, the contest for the arms of
Achilles and the death of Ajax. The remaining books relate
the exploits of Neoptolemus, Eurypylus and Delphobus, the
deaths of Paris and Oenone, the capture of Troy by means of
the wooden horse, the sacrifice of Polyxena at the grave of
Achilles, the departure of the Greeks, and their dispersal by
the storm. The poet has no originality; in conception and style
his work is closely modelled on Homer. His materials are
borrowed from the cyclic poems from which Virgil (with whose
works he was probably acquainted) also drew, in particular
the Aethiopis of Arctinus and the Little Iliad of Lesches.
Editio princeps by Aldus Manutius (1504); Kochly (ed. major
with elaborate prolegomena, 1850; ed. minor, 1853); Z. Zimmer-
1)1,1111) (author of other valuable articles on the poet), (1891); see
also Kehmptzov, De Quinti Smyrnaei Fontibus ac Mythopoiia
(1889); C. A. Sainte-Beuve, tude sur . . . Quinte de Smyrne
(1857) ; F. A. Paley, Quintus Smyrnaeus and the " Homer " of the tragic
Poets (1879); G. W. Paschal, A Study of Quintus Smyrnaeus
(Chicago, 1904).
QUIPUS (Khipus, Qippos), the ancient Peruvian name for a
method of recording which was in use at the time of the arrival
of the Spaniards. It consisted of a cord two feet in length to
which were attached a series of knotted-strings (Peruv. qtiipu,
a knot) hanging like a fringe. These strings were coloured,
and the knots, their number and size, their distance apart, the
colours, the order in which the coloured threads hung, all had
a signification, e.g. white was silver, yellow gold; white meant
peace, red war, &c. In this manner a rough register of im-
portant events, of births, deaths and marriages, and other
statistics was kept, the quipus even constituting a rude history
of the people. They were also much used for conveying orders
to military chiefs in the provinces.
The idea of knotted strings to aid memory is so simple that
it is common to many peoples. A Pelew islander, visiting
England, knotted strings as a diary of all that struck him during
his travels. In the Hawaiian Islands native carriers have
knotted-string records of their rounds. The Peruvian quipus
is simply the perfecting of a system of mnemonics common to
the Red Indians. See also WAMPUM.
QUIRE (in earlier forms quaer, quair and quere, from the
O. Fr. quaier, modern cahier, a copy-book, manuscript book;
Lat. quaterni, set of four, from quattuor), originally the term
for four sheets of paper or parchment folded so as to make
eight leaves, the ordinary unit in manuscripts and early printed
books; the term is now chiefly applied to a twentieth part of a
ream of writing paper, twenty-four sheets. In bookbinding
and publishing the expression " in quires " is used of the sheets
of a book when not folded or bound. " Quire " was formerly
QUIRINUS QUOITS
763
used of a small book contained in a single quire of paper, and
so is frequently found in the title of short poems, treatises,
&c. A familiar example is the Kingis Quair of King James I.
of Scotland. " Choir," a body of singers or the part of a church
where the singers sit, was formerly spelled " quire," following
the pronunciation of the word (See CHOIR).
QUIRINUS, the Sabine name of the god Mars, probably an
adjective meaning " wielder of the spear " (Quiris, cf. Janus
Quirinus). Other suggested etymologies are: (i) from the
Sabine town Cures; (2) from curia, i.e. he was the god of the
Roman state as represented by the thirty curies. A. B. Cook
(Class. Rev. xviii., p. 368) explains Quirinus as the oak-god
(quercus ) , and Quirites as the men of the oaken spear. From early
times he was worshipped at Rome on the Quirinal hill, whither,
according to tradition, a body of Sabines under Titus Tatius
had migrated from Cures and taken up their abode. In the
religious system of Numa, Quirinus and Mars were both recog-
nized as divine beings, distinct but of similar attributes and
functions; thus, like Mars, Quirinus was at once a god of war
and a nature god, the protector of fields and flocks. Subse-
quently, at the end of the republic, Quirinus became identified
with the deified Romulus, son of Mars. One of the greater
flamens was attached to the service of Quirinus, a second
college of Salii founded in his honour, and a festival " Quirin-
alia " celebrated on the tyth of February, the day of the sup-
posed translation of Romulus to heaven. Old Roman formulae
of prayer mention a Hora Quirini, his female cult associate,
afterwards identified with Hersilia, the wife of Romulus.
The name was also borne by the following saints: (l) a Roman
tribune who suffered martyrdom under Hadrian; (2) a bishop of
Sisoia in Pannonia; (3) the patron of the Tegernsee in Bavaria,
beheaded in Rome in 269 and invoked by those suffering from gout.
The petroleum (Quirinus-pil) found in the neighbourhood of the
lake takes its name from him.
QUIRITES (literally " spearmen "; see QUIRINUS), the earliest
name of the burgesses of Rome. Combined in the phrase
" populus Romanus Quirites (or Quiritium) " it denoted the
individual citizen as contrasted with the community. Hence
ius Quiritium in Roman law is full Roman citizenship. Subse-
quently the term lost the military associations due to the
original conception of the people as a body of warriors, and was
applied (sometimes in a deprecatory sense, cf. Tac. Ann. i. 42)
to the Romans in domestic affairs, Romani being reserved for
foreign affairs. (For the distinction between Quiritary and
praetorian ownership, see ROMAN LAW.)
QUITO, the capital of the republic of Ecuador, the see of an
archbishopric covering the same territory, and the capital of
the province of Pichincha, in lat. o 14' S., long. 79 45' W.,
about 114 m. from the Pacific coast and 165 m. in a direct line
N. E. of Guayaquil, with which it is connected by a railway
completed in 1908. Pop. (1906) 50,840, of whom 1365 were
foreigners, mostly Colombians. It occupies a small basin of
the great central plateau formed by the volcano Pichincha
on the W., the Puengasi ridge on the E., and ridges N. and S.
formed by spurs from the eastern side of Pichincha. The
ground upon which the city is built is uneven and is traversed
from W. to E. by two deep ravines (quebradas) , one of which
is arched over in great part to preserve the alignment of
the streets, the drainage of which escapes through a cleft in
the ridge northward to the plain of Tumbaco. The city is
in great part laid out in rectangular squares, the streets
running nearly with the cardinal points of the compass. The
houses of Quito are chiefly of the old Spanish or Moorish style.
The building material in general use is sun-dried bricks, which
in the better houses is covered with plaster or stucco. The
public buildings are of the heavy Spanish type. Facing the
principal square (Plaza Mayor), and occupying the whole S. side,
is the cathedral; on the W. side is the government palace;
on the N. the archbishop's palace; and on the E. the municipal
hall. The elevation of this plaza is 9343 ft. above sea-level.
The finest building in the city is the Jesuits' church,
whose facade is covered with elaborate carving. Among
public institutions are the university, which occupies part of
the old Jesuit college, an astronomical observatory, and eleven
large monastic institutions, six of which are for nuns. One
of the convents, that of San Francisco, covers a whole block,
and ranks among the largest institutions of its kind in the
world. A part of it is in ruins, and another part has been for
some time used as military barracks by the government. The
university has faculties of theology, law and medicine, and has
200 to 250 students, but it is antiquated in character and poorly
supported. The eminent botanist and chemist, Dr William
Jameson (1796-1872), was a member of its faculty for many
years. The city has no large commercial houses, and only an
insignificant export trade, chiefly hides and forest products
from the wooded mountain slopes near by. Religious paintings
of a medieval type are produced in large numbers and exported.
The native manufactures include tanned leather, saddles, shoes,
ponchos, woollen and cotton cloth, fibre sandals and sacking,
blankets, coarse matting and coarse woollen carpets. Superior
hand-made carpets are also made, and Quito artisans show much
skill in wood carvings and in gold and silver works; the women
excel in fine needlework and lace-making.
Quito derives its name from the Quitus, who inhabited the
locality a long time before the Spanish conquest. In 1533
Sebastian Benalcazar took peaceable possession of the native
town (which had been successivly a capital of the Seyris and
Incas), and in 1541 it was elevated to the rank of a Spanish city.
Its full title was San Francisco del Quito, and it was capital of
the province or presidency of Quito down to the end of Spanish
colonial rule. It has suffered repeatedly from earthquakes, the
greatest damage occurring from those of 1797 and 1859.
QUIVER, a case for holding arrows. The word is taken
from O. Fr., where it appears in such forms as quivre, cuevre
or coivre. This is apparently cognate with the O. E. cocer,
Ger. Kocher, quiver or case. The ultimate origin is obscure,
and the medieval Latin and Greek words cucurum and KOVKOVPOV
are stated to be from the German. The word meaning " to
shake " or " tremble " must be distinguished; this is connected
with " quaver," " quake "; the New English Dictionary takes
these words to be onomatopoeic in origin.
QUOINS (an old variant spelling of " coin," from Lat. cuneus,
a wedge), in architecture, the term for the external angle of a
building, generally applied to the ashlar masonry employed
to stop the rubble masonry or brickwork of the wall at the
angles, as also of buttresses, doorways or projecting features.
In Saxon work the quoins were built with large stones laid
horizontally and vertically in alternate courses, technically
known as " long and short " work. Sometimes, to give greater
importance to the angles of towers, the quoin stones are rus-
ticated, and this treatment is found extensively employed in
ancient German towns. At Eastbury Manor House in Essex,
built in brick, the quoins at the angles of the walls, doorway
and windows were plastered in imitation of stonework.
QUOITS (O. Fr. coiter, quoiter, to incite), a pastime resembling
the ancient discus-throwing which formed one of the five games
of the Greek pentathlon (see Discus), the two main differences
between the ancient and modern sports being that the quoit is
ring-shaped (one surface being rounded, the other the back
being flat) and is lighter than the discus, and its throwing is
a test rather of accuracy than strength. Few traces of a game
resembling quoits can be found on the continent of Europe, and
its origin may be sought for on the borderland of Scotland and
England. There are references to it in the Midlands dating
from the beginning of the isth century, and it was one of the
games prohibited in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II.
in favour of archery. Ascham, in his Toxophilus (1545), says
that "quoiting be too vile for scholars," and in old times it was
chiefly played by the working classes, who often used horse-
shoes for want of quoits, a custom still prevailing in country
districts. According to the modern rules, slightly modified from
the code drawn up in 1869, two iron or steel pins 18 yds.
apart are driven into the ground, leaving i in. exposed. Each
is situated in the centre of an " end," a circle of stiff clay 3 ft.
764
QUORUM QUO WARRANTO
in diameter. The quoits, made of iron, may be of any weight,
but are usually about 9 lt> each. They must not exceed 85 in.
in diameter, or be less than 35 in. in the bore, or more than
2\ in. in the web. When delivering his quoit a player must
stand within 4 ft. 6 in. of the centre of the end and at its side.
Matches are played between teams or individuals, the object of
the game being to throw the quoit as near to the pin as possible,
a " ringer," i.e. a quoit actually surrounding the pin, counting
two, and a quoit nearer to the pin than any of the adversary's,
counting one. A match may be for any number of points,
the team or player scoring that number first being the winner.
In championship matches all quoits farther than 18 in. from
the end, are foul and removed. All measurements are made
from the middle of the pin to the nearest edge of the quoit.
If one or more quoits are lapped, the one most accessible is first
measured and withdrawn. All quoits on their backs are a foul.
The general principle of curling, to drive the opponents' quoits
away from the pin and place one's own near or on it, is followed.
Scotland, Lancashire and the Midlands are the principal
centres of quoiting in Great Britain. In Scotland the game is
patronized by the Curling Clubs, and this is also the case in the
United States and Canada. Billy Hodson was champion of
Great Britain in the middle of the igth century, and his trip
to America in the early 'sixties is of historical interest, as it
resulted in two contests for the championship of the world
with James McLaren of Newark, N. J., a native of Scotland,
who was champion of America. One hard-fought match was
won by each, the deciding one remaining unplayed. The
championship of America is rewarded by the " Bell Medal,"
presented by the Grand National Curling Club of America.
QUORUM (Lat. for " of whom "), in its general sense, a term
denoting the number of members of any body of persons whose
presence is requisite in order that business may be validly
transacted by the body or its acts be legal. The term is de-
rived from the wording of the commission appointing justices
of the peace which appoints them all, jointly and severally
to keep the peace in the county named. It also runs " We
have also assigned you, and every two or more of you (of whom
[quorum], any one of you the aforesaid A, B, C, D, &c., we will
shall be one) our justices to inquire the truth more fully,"
whence the justices so-named were usually called justices of
the quorum. The term was afterwards applied to all justices,
and subsequently by transference, to the number of members
of a body necessary for the transaction of its business. No
general rule can be laid down as to the number of members of
which a quorum should consist; its size is usually prescribed
by definite enactment or provision; it is entirely a matter for
self-constituted bodies as to what their quorum shall be, and
it usually depends on the size of the body. In bodies which
owe their existence to an act of the legislature, the necessary
quorum is usually fixed by statute. In England, in the House
of Lords, three form a quorum, though on a division there
must be thirty members present. In the House of Commons,
forty members, including the Speaker, form a quorum. The
quorum of a standing committee of the House of Lords is
seven, and of the House of Commons, twenty.
QUOTA, a proportional share or part that is due from or
to any person or body of persons, in Med. Lat. quota, sc. pars,
from quotus, an adjective formed from quot, how many. The
word first appears in connexion with the levying of men, money
or supplies for military and naval, purposes from districts,
towns or seaports, and thus is equivalent to " contingent "
(Lat. contingere, to happen to, fall to one's lot or share, cum,
with, and tangere, to touch), used since the i8th century specific-
ally of a contribution of men or ships according to a scale fixed
between the contracting parties.
QUOTATION, a passage repeated from the writings or speech
of another. The verb " to quote " comes from Med. Lat.
quotare (from quot, how many), to refer to by numbers, i.e. of
page, chapter, &c., also to separate into chapters, verses, &c.
The term is also specifically applied to the statement of the
current prices of goods and commodities, and of stocks and
shares (see STOCK EXCHANGE).
Useful lists of familiar quotations may be found in the following:
H. T. Riley, Dictionary of Latin and Greek Quotations, ed. Bohn;
P. H. Dalbiac, Dictionary of English Quotations (1896); in the same
series, T. B. Harbottle, Classical Quotations (1897), and T. B.
Harbottle and P. H. Dalbiac, French and Italian Quotations (1901);
Robinson Smith, English Quotations (n.d.); H. P. Jones, A New
Dictionary of Foreign Phrases and Classical Quotations; J. K. Hoyt
and A. L. Ward, The Cyclopaedia of Practical Quotations, English
and Latin (1892); Cassell's Book of Quotations (iqoi); J. Bartlett,
Familiar Quotations. . .in Ancient and Modern Literature (1902);
in Notes and Queries, the indices to the various series contain,
grouped under the heading " Quotation," a large number of out-
of-the-way quotations.
QUO WARRANTO, in English law, the name given to an
ancient prerogative writ calling upon any person usurping any
office, franchise, liberty or privilege belonging to the Crown, to
show " by what warrant " he maintained his claim, the onus
being on the defendant. It lay also for non-user or misuser of
an office, &c. If the Crown succeeded, judgment of forfeiture
or ousterlemain was given against the defendant. The pro-
cedure was regulated by statute as early as 1278 (the statute of
Quo Warranto, 6 Edw. I. c. i), passed in consequence of the
commission of quo warranto issued by Edward I. A distinction
was drawn in the report between libertates, jurisdiction exercised
by the lord as lord, and regalia, jurisdiction exercised by Crown
grant. After a time the cumbrousness and inconvenience of
the ancient practice led to its being superseded by the modern
form of an information in the nature of a quo warranto, exhibited
in the King's Bench Division either by the attorney-general ex
officio or by the king's coroner and attorney at the instance of
a private person called the relator. The information will not
be issued except by leave of the court on proper cause being
shown. It does not lie where there has been no user or where
the office has determined. Nor does it lie for the usurpation
of every kind of office. But it lies where the office is of a public
nature and created by statute, even though it is not an encroach-
ment upon the prerogative of the Crown. Where the usurpation
is of a municipal office the information is regulated by 9 Anne c.
25 (1711), under which the defendant may be fined and judg-
ment of ouster given against him, and costs may be granted for
or against the relator. Such an information must, in the case
of boroughs within the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, be
brought within twelve months after disqualification (s. 225);
in the case of other boroughs, within six years after the defendant
first took upon himself the office (32 Geo. III. c. 58, s. 2). The
information in the nature of a quo warranto', though nominally a
criminal, has long been really a civil proceeding, and has recently
been expressly declared to be so (Supreme Court of Judicature
Act 1884, s. 15). In cases not falling within 9 Anne c. 25,
judgment of ouster is not usually given. The most famous
historical instance of quo warranto was the action taken against
the corporation of London by Charles II. in 1684. The King's
Bench adjudged the charter and franchises of the city of London
to be forfeited to the Crown (State Trials, vol. viii. 1039). This
judgment was reversed by 2 Will. & Mary, sess. i, c. 8; and it
was further enacted, in limitation of the prerogative, that the
franchises of the city should never be seized or forejudged on
pretence of any forfeiture or misdemeanour. In Scotland the
analogous procedure is by action of declarator.
In the United States the right to a public office is tried by
quo warranto or similar procedure, regulated by the state laws.
.Proceedings by quo warranto lie in a United States court for the
removal of persons holding office contrary to art. xiv. s. 3 of the
Amendments to the Constitution (act of the 3ist of May 1870,
c. 14).
R RABAH ZOBEIR
765
RTHE twentieth letter in the Phoenician alphabet, the
nineteenth in the numerical Greek, the seventeenth in the
ordinary Greek and the Latin and (owing to the addition
of J) the eighteenth in the English. Its earliest form in
the Phoenician alphabet when written from right to left was
4 , thus resembling the symbol for D with one side of the
triangle prolonged. In Aramaic and other Semitic scripts
which were modified by opening the heads of the letters, the
symbol in time became very much changed. Greek, however,
maintained the original form with slight variations from place
to place. Not infrequently in the Greek alphabets of Asia
Minor and occasionally also in the West, R was written as D,
thus introducing a confusion with D (q.v.). Elsewhere a short
tail was added, as occasionally in the island of -Melos, in Attica
and in western Greece, but nowhere does this seem to have
been universal. The earliest Latin forms are exactly like
the Greek. Thus in the very early inscriptions found in the
Forum in 1899 R appears as S (from right to left), p and
D (from left to right). Later the forms /9 and R come in;
sometimes the back is not quite connected in the middle to
the upright, when the form R is produced. The name of the
Semitic symbol is Resh; why it was called by the Greeks Rho
(t&) is not clear. The h which accompanies r in the trans-
literation of Greek p, indicates that it was breathed, not voiced,
in pronunciation. No consonant varies more in pronunciation
than r. According to Brockelmann, the original Semitic r
was probably a trilled r, i.e. an r produced by allowing the tip
of the tongue to vibrate behind the teeth while the upper
surface of the tongue is pressed against the sockets of the teeth.
The ordinary English r is also produced against the sockets of
the teeth, but without trilling; another r, also untrilled, which
is found in various parts of the south of England, is produced
by turning up the tip of the tongue behind the sockets of the
teeth till the tongue acquires something of a spoon shape.
This, which is also common in the languages of modern India,
is called the cerebral or cacuminal r, the former term, which
has no meaning in this connexion, being only a bad translation
of a Sanscrit term. The common German r is produced by
vibrations of the uvula at the end of the soft palate, and hence
is called the uvular r. There are also many other varieties
of this sound. In many languages r is able to form syllables
by itself, in the same way that /, m, n may do, as in the English
brittle (brill), written (ritn). In Europe r with this value is
most conspicuous in Slavonic languages like Bohemian (Czech)
and Croatian; in English r in this function is replaced by a
genuine vowel in words like mother (moS6). This syllabic r is
first recorded for Sanscrit, where it is common, but is replaced
in the languages descended from Sanscrit by r and a vowel or
by a vowel only, according to the position in which it occurs.
Most philologists are of opinion that syllabic r existed also in the
mother-tongue of the Indo-European languages. (P. Gi.)
RAABE, HEDWIG (1844-1905), German actress, was born
in Magdeburg on the 3rd of December 1844, and at the age of
fourteen was playing in the company of the Thalia theatre,
Hamburg. In 1864 she joined the German Court theatre at
St Petersburg, touring about Germany in the summer with
such success that in 1868 she relinquished her Russian engage-
ment to devote herself to starring. In 1871 she married Albert
Niemann (b. 1831), the operatic tenor. She excelled in classical
r61es like Marianne in Goethe's Geschwister and Franziska
in Minna, von Barnhelm. It was she who first played Ibsen
in Berlin. She died on the 2ist of April 1905.
RAABE, WILHELM (1831-1910), German novelist, whose
early works were published under the pseudonym of Jakob
Corvinus, was born at Eschershausen in the duchy of Brunswick
on the 8th of September 1831. He served apprenticeship at
a bookseller's in Magdeburg for four years (1849-1854); but
tiring of the routine of business, studied philosophy at Berlin
(1855-1857). While a student at that university he pub-
lished his first work, Die Chronik der Sperlingsgasse (1857), which
at once attained to great popularity. Raabe next returned to
Wolfenbiittel, and then lived (1862-1870) at Stuttgart, where
he devoted himself entirely to authorship and wrote a number
of novels and short stories; notably Unseres Herrgotts Kanzlei
(1862); Der Hungerpastor (1864); Abu Tel/an (1867) and Der
Schtidderump (1870). In 1870 Raabe removed to Brunswick
and published the narratives Horacker (1876) perhaps his
masterpiece; Das Odfeld (1889); Kloster Lugau (1894) and
Hastenbeck (1899), and numerous other stories. The distinguish-
ing characteristic of Raabe's work is a genial humour which
reminds us occasionally of Dickens; but this humour is often
combined with a pessimism that is foreign to the English
novelist.
Raabe's Gesammelte Erzahlungen appeared in 4 vols. (1896-1900) ;
there is no uniform edition of his larger novels. See P. Gerber,
Wilhelm Raabe (1897); A. Otto, Wilhelm Raabe (1899); A. Bartels,
Wilhelm Raabe: Vortrag (1901).
RABA BEN JOSEPH BEN KAMA (r. 280-352), Babylonian
rabbi or amora. He is closely associated in his studies with
Abaye. The latter was head of the Academy at Pumbeditha.
Raba founded a new school at Mahuza, which eventually be-
came so long as Raba lived the only academy in Babylonia
(Persia). The development of Talmudic Law (or Halakhah)
was much indebted to this rabbi, whose influence in all branches
of Jewish learning was supreme. His friendship with the
King Shapur II. enabled .Raba to secure a relaxation of the
oppressive laws enacted against the Jews of Persia.
See Graetz, History of the Jews; (Eng. trans., vol. ii. ch. 'xxi.);
Bacher, Agada der Babyl. Amorder, p. 108, &c. and 114-133. (I. A.)
RABAH ZOBEIR (d. 1900), the conqueror of Bornu (an
ancient sultanate on the western shores of Lake Chad,
included since 1890 in British Nigeria), was a half- Arab, half-
negro chieftain. He was originally a slave or follower of
Zobeir Pasha (q.v.), and is said to have formed one of the party
which served as escort to Miss Tinne (q.v.) in her journeys in
the Bahr-el-Ghazal in 1862-64. In '879, Zobeir being in
Egypt, his son Suleiman and Rabah were in command of
Zobeir's forces in the Bahr-el-Ghazal. They persisted in slave-
raiding, and denied the khedive's authority, and Colonel C. G.
Gordon sent against them Romolo Gessi Pasha. Gessi cap-
tured Suleiman and routed Rabah, who in July 1879 fled west-
ward with some seven hundred Bazingirs (black slave soldiers).
He made himself master of Kreich and Dar Banda, countries
to the south and south-west of Wadai. In 1884-85 he was
invited by Mahommed Ahmed (the mahdi) to join him at
Omdurman, but did not do so. According to one account he
learnt that the mahdi intended, had he gone to Omdurman,
to put him to death. In 1891 Paul Crampel, a French ex-
plorer, was killed in Dar Banda by a chieftain tributary to
Rabah, and Crampel's stores, including 300 rifles, were sent
to Rabah. With this reinforcement of arms he marched
towards Wadai, but being stoutly opposed by the people of
that country he turned west and established himself in Bag-
irmi, a state south-east of Lake Chad. In 1893 Rabah over-
threw the sultan of Bornu. In his administration of the country
he showed considerable ability and a sense of public needs. To
the British, represented by the Royal Niger Company, Rabah
gave comparatively little trouble. During 1894-95 ne con-
tinually (but unavailingly) asked the company's representatives
at Yola and Ibi to supply him with gunpowder. Rabah then
tried threats, and in 1896 all communication between him and
the company ceased. Early in 1897 he began an advance
in the direction of Kano, the most important city in the Fula
empire. The news of the crushing defeat by Sir George Goldie
of the Fula at Bida, and of the capture of Illorin, induced
766
RABAT KABBAH BAR NAHMANI
Rabah to return to Bornu. He gave the British no further
trouble, but turned his attention to the French, fimile Gentil
had in this same year (1897) reached Lake Chad, via the Congo
and Bagirmi, and had installed a French resident with the
sultan of Bagirmi. As soon as Gentil had withdrawn, Rabah
again fell upon Bagirmi, and forced sultan and resident to flee.
In 1899 the French sent an expedition to reconquer the country,
but at first they were unsuccessful. In the summer of 1899
Rabah attacked and routed the French advanced post, held
by Naval-Lieutenant Bretonnet, and the latter was killed.
In October following another battle was fought, in which the
French, under Captain Robillot, completely defeated Rabah,
who retreated north-east towards Wadai. Gathering a fresh
army, he returned to Bagirmi and joined issue with the French
a third time. In a battle fought on the 22nd of April 1900
Rabah was slain and his host defeated. The chieftain's head
was cut off and taken to the French camp. In this engage-
ment Major Lamy, the French commandant, also lost his
life.
The French continued the campaign against Rabah's sons,
two of whom were killed. Rabah had left instructions that if
his army was finally defeated by the French, his successor
should return to Bornu and make friends with the British.
Rabah's third son, Fader-Allah, accordingly threw himself
entirely upon British protection. He made a favourable im-
pression, and it was contemplated to recognize him as sultan of
Bornu. However, in the later part of 1901 Fader- Allah, who
had 2500 riflemen, again made aggressive movements against
the French. In retaliation, Captain Dangeville pursued him
into British territory. A battle was fought at Gujba, Fader-
Allah being defeated. He fled mortally wounded, and died
the same night, being buried in the bed of a small river, the
course of which had been diverted for the purpose.
Connected accounts of Rabah's career are contained in E. Gentil's
La Chute de I'empire de Rabah (Paris, 1902) and in M. von Oppen-
heim's Rabeh und das Tschadseegebiet (Berlin, 1902). (F. R. C.)
RABAT (RibAt), a city on the Atlantic coast of Morocco,
in 34 3' N., 6 46' W., 130 m. S. of Cape Spartel, on the
southern side and at the mouth of the Bu Ragrag, which
separates it from Salli on the northern bank. It is a commercial
town of about 26,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, occupying a rocky
plateau and surrounded by massive but dilapidated walls,
strengthened by three forts on the seaward side. To the
south of the town stands a modern palace, defended by earth-
works and Krupp guns. The conspicuous feature in the view
from the ocean is the Borj el Hasan, an unfinished square-built
tower, 145 ft. high, built on an elevation about 65 ft. above
the sea to the west of the walled town. At one time the Bu
Ragrag afforded a much better harbour than it does now;
the roadstead is quite unprotected, and there is a dangerous
bar at the mouth of the river, which hampers the shipping,
and makes the growth of trade slow. The depth of water
over the bar varies from 7 to 12 ft. Rabat trades with Fez
and the interior of Morocco, with the neighbouring coast towns
and Gibraltar, and with Marseilles, Manchester and London,
and is the greatest industrial centre in Morocco.
Rabat was founded by Yak'ub el Mansur in 1184, but Salli
was then already an ancient city, and on the scarped hills
to the west of Rabat stand the ruins of Sala, a Roman colony,
known as Sheila. It contains a mausoleum of the Beni Marin
dynasty.
RABAUT, PAUL (1718-1794), French pastor of " the Church
of the Desert " (see HUGUENOTS), was born at Bedarieux, near
Montpellier, on the 29th of January 1718. In 1738 he was
admitted as a preacher by the synod of Languedoc, and in
1740 he went to Lausanne to complete his studies in the
seminary recently founded there by Antoine Court (q.v.). In
1741 Rabaut was placed at the head of the church of Nimes,
and in 1744 he was vice-president of the general synod.
During the persecution of 1745-1752 Rabaut himself was
obliged to hide. When the marquis of Paulmy d'Argenson
was sent to Languedoc to make a military inspection, Rabaut
succeeded in interviewing him (1750). For a time the per-
secution ceased, but it broke out again in 1753, a price
being put upon Rabaut's head. Louis Francois de Bourbon,
prince de Conti, interested himself in the Protestants in 1755,
and in July Rabaut visited him. During the years 1755-1760
periods of persecution and toleration alternated. By the
year 1760, however, the efforts of Antoine Court and P. Rabaut
had been so successful that French Protestantism was well
established and organized. Court de Gebelin, Paul Rabaut,
and his son Saint-fitienne now exerted themselves to get it
recognized by the law and government. When the people
revolted, the minister Turgot in 1775 requested Rabaut to
calm them. His success aroused the jealousy of his colleagues,
who tried to undo the good work started by Antoine Court.
But Rabaut persevered in his efforts to improve legally the
position of the Protestants. In 1785, when he was visited
by General La Fayette, it was arranged that Rabaut's son,
Rabaut Saint-fitienne, should go to Paris on behalf of the
Reformed Church. In November 1787 Louis XVI. 's edict of
toleration was signed, though it was not registered until the
29th of January 1788. Two years later liberty of conscience
was proclaimed by the National Assembly, of which Rabaut
Saint-fitienne was chosen vice-president, and it was declared
that non-Catholics might be admitted to all positions. After
the fall of the Girondists, however, in which Rabaut Saint-
fitienne was involved, Paul Rabaut, who had refused to renounce
his title of pastor, was arrested, dragged to the citadel of Nimes,
and kept in prison seven weeks (1794). He died at Nimes on
the 25th of September 1794, soon after his release.
See J. Pons de Ntmes, Notice biographique sur Paul Rabaut (1808) ;
Charles Dardier, Paul Rabaut, seslettres a Antoine Court (1884) and
Paul Rabaut, ses lettres d divers (1891).
RABAUT SAINT-ETIENNE, JEAN PAUL (1743-1793),
French revolutionist, was born at Nimes, the son of Paul
Rabaut (?.*.), the additional surname of Saint-fitienne being
assumed from a small property near Nimes. Like his father,
he became a pastor, and distinguished himself by his zeal
for his co-religionists, working energetically to obtain the
recognition of the civil rights which had been granted to them
by Louis XVI. in 1788. Having gained a great reputation by
his Histoire primitive de la Grece, he was elected deputy to the
States General in 1789 by the third estate of the bailliage of
Nimes. In the Constituent Assembly he worked on the framing
of the constitution, spoke against the establishment of the
republic, which he considered ridiculous, and voted for the
suspensive veto, as likely to strengthen the position of the
crown. In the Convention he sat among the Girondists, opposed
the trial of Louis XVI., was a member of the commission of
twelve, and was proscribed with his party. He remained in
hiding for some time, but was ultimately discovered and
guillotined on the sth of December 1793.
See J. A. Dartique, Rabaut Sl-tienne d I'Assemblee Constituante
(Paris, 1903) ; and A. Lods, " Correspondance de Rabaut St-Etienne "
in La Revolution franfaise (1898), " L'arrestation de Rabaut St
Etienne " in La Revolution fran^aise for 1903 (cf. the same review for
1901), and " Les debuts de Rabaut St-Etienne aux Etats Generaux et
a la Convention " in the Bulletin historique de la Societe de I'histoirt
du protestantisme fran$ais (1901), also an Essai sur la vie de Rabaut
Saint-Slienne (1893) separately published. An edition of the
(Euvres de Rabaut Saint-Etienne (2 vols., 1826) contains a notice by
Collin de Plancy.
RABBA, a town of British West Africa, in the province of
Nupe, Northern Nigeria, on the left bank of the Niger, in
9 6' N., and 200 m. above the confluence of the Niger and
the Benue. At the time of Richard Lander's visit in 1830
it was a place of 40,000 inhabitants and one of the most
important markets in the country. In 1867 Gerhard Rohlfs
found it with only 500 inhabitants. The town has somewhat
recovered its position since the establishment of British rule
in 1902.
RABBAH BAR NAflMANI (c. 27O-c. 330), a Babylonian
rabbi or amora (q.v.). He was for twenty-two years head of
the Academy at Pumbeditha. His great dialectic skill acquired
RABBAN BAR SAUMA RABBIT
767
for him the epithet " uprooter of mountains." The Talmud
owes much to this rabbi. He is said to have perished in a
jungle into which he had fled from the officers of the Persian
king.
See Gractz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. ii. ch. xxi. ;
Bacher, Agada der Babyl. Amorder, 97-101. (I. A.)
RABBAN BAR SAUMA (fl. 1280-1288), Nestorian traveller and
diplomatist, was born at Peking about the middle of the I3th
century, of Uigur stock. While still young he started on a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and travelling by way of Tangut,
Khotan, Kashgar, Talas in the Syr Daria valley, Khorasan,
Maragha and Mosul, arrived at Ani in Armenia. Warnings of
the danger of the routes to southern Syria turned him from his
purpose; and his friend and fellow-pilgr'm, Rabban Marcos,
becoming Nestorian patriarch (as Mar Yaballaha III.) in 1281,
suggested Bar Sauma's name to Arghun Khan, sovereign of the
Ilkhanate or Mongol-Persian realm, for a European embassy,
then contemplated. The purpose of this was to conclude an
anti-Moslem alliance, especially against the Mameluke power,
with the chief states of Christendom. On this embassy Bar
Sauma started in 1287, with Arghun's letters to the Byzantine
emperor, the pope and the kings of France and England. In
Constantinople he had audience of Andronicus II.; he gives an
enthusiastic description of St Sophia. He next travelled to
Rome, where he visited St Peter's, and had prolonged negotia-
tions with the cardinals. The papacy being then vacant, a
definite reply to his proposals was postponed, and Bar Sauma
passed on to Paris, where he had audience of the king of France
(Philip the Fair). In Gascony he apparently met the king of
England (Edward I.) at a place which seems to be Bordeaux,
but of which he speaks as the capital of Alanguitar (i.e. Angle-
terre). On returning to Rome, he was cordially received by the
newly elected pontiff Nicolas IV., who gave him communion on
Palm Sunday, 1 288, allowed him to celebrate his own Eucharist
in the capital of Latin Christendom, commissioned him to visit
the Christians of the East, and entrusted to him the tiara which
he presented to Mar Yaballaha. His narrative is of unique
interest as giving a picture of medieval Europe at the close of
the Crusading period, painted by a keenly intelligent, broad-
minded and statesmanlike observer.
See J. B. Chabot's translation and edition of the Histoire du
Patriarche Mar Jabalaha III. el du, moine Rabban Caunta (from
the Syriac) in Revue de I'Orient latin, 1893, pp. 566-610; 1894,
pp. 73-143, 235-300; O. Raynaldus, Annales Ecclesiastici (continua-
tion of Baronius), A.D. 1288, xxxv.-xxxvi. 11289, lxi. ; L. Wadding,
Annales Minorum, y. 169, 196, 170-173; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of
Modern Geography, ii. 15, 352; iii. 12, 189-190, 539-541.
RABBET, in carpentry and masonry, the name for a rect-
angular groove or slot cut in the edge of a piece of wood or
stone, to which another corresponding piece can be fitted (see
JOINERY and MASONRY). The word is an adaptation of the
O. Fr. rabat or rabbat, from rabattre, i.e. abattre, beat back, abate,
to make a recess, and is thus a doublet of " rebate " (q.v.), which
is now frequently used instead of " rabbet," the joint being also
known as a " rebated joint."
RABBI, a Hebrew word meaning " my master," " my
teacher." It is derived from the adjective rab (in Aramaic,
and frequently also in Hebrew, " great "), which acquired in
modern Hebrew the signification of "lord," in relation to servants
or slaves, and of " teacher," " master," in relation to the
disciple. The master was addressed by his pupils with the
word rabbi (" my teacher "), or rabbenu (" our teacher "). It
became customary to speak of Moses as Moshe rabbenu (" our
teacher Moses"). Jesus makes it a reproach against the
scribes that they cause themselves to be entitled by the people
rabbi (paftSi, Matt, xxiii. 7): and He Himself is saluted by the
disciples of John as rabbi (John i. 38, where the word is explained
as equivalent to oi5aaKa\t). As an honorary title of the
scribes, with whose name it was constantly linked, " Rabbi "
only came into use during the last decades of the second Temple.
Hillel and Shammai, the contemporaries of Herod, were men-
tioned without any title. Gamaliel I., the grandson of Hillel,
was the first to whose name the appellation Rabban (the same as
rabbon, and also pronounced as ribbon, cf. pafifiovvi, Mark x. 51 ;
John xx. 1 6) was prefixed. This title, a higher distinction than
that of rabbi, is in tradition borne only by the descendants of
Gamaliel I., the last being Gamaliel III., the son of Jehuda I.
(Aboth ii. 2), and by Johanan b. Zaccai, the founder of the
school of Jamnia (Jabneh). Otherwise all Tannaites (see
TANNA), the scholars of the Mishnah period, were distinguished
by the title of " rabbi." The Jehuda I. mentioned above, the
redactor of the Mishnah, was honoured as the " Rabbi "
("par excellence"), and in the tradition of the
houses of learning, if it was necessary to speak of him or to cite
his opinions and utterances, he was simply referred to as
" Rabbi," without the mention of any name. Scholars who were
not definitely ordained and among these were men of high
distinction were simply mentioned by their names without
the Rabbi-title. In the post-Talmudic age the Qaraites, who
rejected the tradition of the Talmud, designated the Jews -who
adhered to that tradition as Rabbanites. Similarly the term
Rabbins, or Rabbis, is applied to modern Jewish clergy. The
plural rabbanim was employed to describe the later Jewish
scholars (so, for example, in the historian Abraham Ibn Baud,
i2th century). By " rabbinical literature " is understood the
post-Talmudic Jewish literature; in particular, so far as its
subject is the literature of the tradition and its contents.
RAB became a proper name as the standing nomenclature
of the celebrated amora, Abba Arika (q.v.). (W. BA.)
RABBIT, the modern name of the well-known rodent,
formerly called (as it still is in English legal phraseology) CONY,*
a member of the family Leporidae (see RODENTIA). Till recently
the rabbit has generally been known scientifically as Lepus cuni-
culus, but it is now frequently regarded, at least by systematic
naturalists, as the representative of a genus by itself, under the
The Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).
name of Oryctolagus cuniculus. Some zoologists, indeed, include
in the same genus the South African thick-tailed hare, but by
others this is separated as Pronolagus crassicaudatus. From the
hare the wild rabbit is distinguished externally by its smaller
size, shorter ears and feet, the absence or reduction of the black
patch at the tip of the ears, and its greyer colour. The skull is
1 There are no native names either in Teutonic or Celtic languages;
such words as German Kaninchen or English cony are from the Latin
cuniculus, while the Irish, VVelsh and Gaelic are adaptations from
English. " Rabbit," which is now the common name in English,
was for long confined to the young of the cony, and so the Prompt-
orium Parvulorum, c. 1440, " Rabet, yonge conye, cunicellus." The
ultimate source of " rabbit " is itself unknown. The New English
Dictionary takes it to be of northern French origin. There is a
Walloon robett. Skeat suggests a possible connexion with Spanish
rabo, tail, rabear, to wag the hind-quarters. The familiar name for
toasted cheese, " Welsh rabbit," is merely a joke, and the alteration
to " Welsh rare-bit " is due to a failure to see the joke, such as it
is. Parallels may be found in " Prairie oyster," the yolk of an egg
with vinegar, pepper, &c. added; or " Scotch woodcock," a savoury
of buttered eggs on anchovy toast.
7 68
RABBLE RABBULA
very similar to that of the hare, but is smaller and lighter, with
a slenderer muzzle and a longer and narrower palate. Besides
these characters, the rabbit is separated from the hare by
the fact that it brings forth its young naked, blind, and help-
less; to compensate for this, it digs a deep burrow in the earth
in which they are born and reared, while the young of the hare
are born fully clothed with fur, and able to take care of them-
selves, in the shallow depression or " form " in which they
are produced. The weight of the rabbit is from 25 to 3 ft,
although wild individuals have been recorded up to more than
5 Ib. Its general habits are too well known to need detailed
description. It breeds from four to eight times a year, bringing
forth each time from three to eight young; its period of gesta-
tion is about thirty days, and it is able to bear when six months
old. It attains to an age of about seven or eight years.
The rabbit is believed to be a native of the western half of the
Mediterranean basin, and still abounds in Spain, Sardinia,
southern Italy, Sicily, Greece, Tunis and Algeria; and many
of the islands adjoining these countries are overrun with these
rodents. Thence it has spread, partly by man's agency, north-
wards throughout temperate western Europe, increasing rapidly
wherever it gains a footing; and this extension is still going
on, as is shown by the case of Scotland, where early in the
igih century rabbits were little known, while they are now
found in all suitable localities up to the extreme north. It has
also gained admittance into Ireland, and now abounds there
as much as in England. Out of Europe the same extension
of range has been going on. In New Zealand and Australia
rabbits, introduced either for profit or sport, have increased
to such an extent as to form one of the most serious pests
that the farmers have to contend against, as the climate and
soil suit them perfectly and their natural enemies are too few
and too lowly organized to keep them within reasonable bounds.
In North America about thirty species and twice as many geo-
graphic races (subspecies) are known, and the occurrence
of several distinct fossil forms shows that the genus has long
been established. The chief variety is the common grey or
cottontail (Lepus floridanus). For the " jack-rabbit," see
HARE.
The rabbit has been domesticated from an early period. Littje
doubt exists amongst naturalists that all the varieties of the domestic
animal are descended from Oryctolagus cuniculus. The variations
which have been perpetuated and intensified by artificial selection are,
with the exception of those of the dog, greater than have been induced
in any other mammal. For not only has the weight been more than
quadrupled in some of the larger breeds, and the structure of the
skull and other parts of the skeleton greatly altered, but the pro-
portionate size of the brain has been reduced and the colour and
texture of the fur altered in a remarkable manner. The lop-
eared breed is the oldest English variety, and has been cultivated
carefully since about 1785, the aim of the breeder being directed
to the development of the size of the ears, and with such success
that they sometimes measure more than 23 in. from tip to tip
and exceed 6 in. in width. This development, which is accom-
panied by changes in the structure of the skull, depends on breed-
ing the animals in warm damp hutches, without which the best
developed parents fail to produce the desired offspring. In colour
lop-eared rabbits vary greatly. The Belgian hare is a large breed
of a hardy and prolific character, which closely resembles the hare
in colour, and is not unlike it in form. Some years ago these rabbits
were sold as " leporides " or hybrids, produced by the union of the
hare and the rabbit ; but the most careful experimenters have failed
to obtain any such hybrid, and the naked immature condition in
which young rabbits are born as compared with the clothed and
highly developed young hare renders it unlikely that hybrids could
be produced. Nor does the flesh of the Belgian rabbit resemble
that of the hare in colour or flavour. A closely allied variety,
though of larger size, is known as the Patagonian rabbit, although
it has no relation to the country after which it is called.
The Angora rabbit is characterized by the extreme elongation
and fineness of the fur, which in good specimens reaches 6 or 7 in.
in length, requiring great care and frequent combing to prevent
it from becoming matted. The Angoras most valued are albinos,
with pure white fur and pink eyes; in some parts of the Continent
they are kept by the peasants and clipped regularly.
Amongst the breeds which are valued for the distribution of
colour on the fur are the Himalayan and the Dutch. The former
is white, but the whole of the extremities viz. the nose, the ears,
tail and feet are black or very dark in colour. This very pretty
breed has no connexion with the mountains from which it takes
its name, but is a variety produced by careful breeding and selection.
Though produced by crossing, it now generally breeds true to colour,
at times throwing back, however, to the silver greys from which it
was derived. The rabbits known as Dutch are small, and valued
for the disposition of the colour and markings. The entire body
behind the shoulder-blades is uniformly coloured, with the excep-
tion of the feet; the anterior part of the body, including the fore
legs, neck, and jaws, is white, the cheeks and ears being coloured.
In some strains the coloured portion extends in front of the fore
legs, leaving only a ring of white round the neck. The more
accurately the coloured portion is defined, the higher is the animal
esteemed. The silver grey is a uniform-coloured breed, the fur of
which is a rich chinchilla grey, varying in depth in the different
strains. From the greater value of the fur, silver greys have been
frequently employed to stock warrens, as they breed true to colour
in the open if the ordinary wild rabbits are excluded. Other
colours known, as silver fawn and silver brown, are closely related.
A blue breed has been recently introduced. The largest and
heaviest of all is the Flemish giant, with iron-grey fur above and
white below. Other breeds include the Japanese, with an orange
coat, broadly banded on the hind-quarters with black; the
pink-eyed and short and thick-furred albino Polish ; the Siberian,
probably produced by crossing the Himalayan with the Angora;
and the black-and-tan and blue-and-tan.
See also HARE, SHOOTING, and COURSING. (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
RABBLE, a general term for a disorderly crowd, apparently
connected with the verb " to rabble," to talk or work in a
confused manner, Du. rabbelen, Ger. dialect rabbeln, cf. Gr.
pafidaativ, to howl. In iron and steel manufacture, a puddling-
tool, for stirring the molten metal, is called a " rabble." This
is a different word, adapted from Fr. rdble, for roable, Med. Lat.
rolabulum, Lat. rutabidum (ruere, to rake), a fire-shovel or oven
rake.
RABBULA, a distinguished bishop of the Syrian church
early in the 5th century. He was a native of ICenneshrln,
a town some few miles south of Aleppo and the seat of a bishop-
ric. His father was a heathen priest, and though his mother
was a devoted Christian he continued in pagan belief and
practice until some time after his marriage. During a journey
to his country estates he was converted to Christianity partly
through coming in contact with a case of miraculous healing
and partly through the teaching and influence of Eusebius,
bishop of IjCenneshrin, and Acacius, bishop of Aleppo. With
all the energy of his fiery nature he threw himself into the
practice of Christian asceticism^ sold all his' possessions, and
separated from his wife and kinspeople. He resided for some
time in a monastery, and then passed to a life of greater hard-
ship as a solitary hermit. On the death of Diogenes, bishop of
Edessa, in the year 411-412, Rabbula was chosen his successor,
and at once accepted the position offered him, without any of
the customary show of reluctance. As a bishop he was marked
by extraordinary energy, by the continued asceticism of his
personal life, by his magnificent provision for all the poor
and suffering in his diocese, by his care for discipline among
the clergy and monks who were under his authority, and latterly
by the fierce determination with which he combated all heresies
and especially the growing school of the followers of Nestorius.
On one occasion he visited Constantinople and there preached
before Theodosius II. (who was then favourable to Nestorius)
and a great congregation a sermon in denunciation of Nes-
torian doctrine, of which a portion survives in the Syriac
version. 1 He became the friend of Cyril of Alexandria, with
whom he corresponded, and whose treatise De recta fide he trans-
lated into Syriac. 2 After a busy episcopal life of twenty-four
years he died in August 435, and was immensely lamented by
the people of his diocese. His successor was the Nestorian
Ibas.
The literary remains of Rabbula are small in bulk, and are
mostly to be found in Overbeck. Perhaps his main importance
to the historian of Syriac literature lies in the zeal with which
he strove to replace the Diatessaron or Gospel Harmony of
Tatian by the edition of the separate Gospels, ordering that
a copy of the latter should be placed in every church and should
1 Overbeck, op. cit. pp. 239-244.
2 The version survives in a British Museum MS. ; see Wright's
Catalogue p. 719.
RABELAIS
769
be read (see Wright's Syr. Lit. p. 9). According to his bio-
grapher (Overbeck, p. 172) he himself produced a version (or
revision) of the New Testament in Syriac. This may have been,
as Wright suggests (Syr. Lit. p. n), " a first step in the direc-
tion of the Philoxenian version." But there is great probability
in F. C. Burkitt's hypothesis that the product of Rabbula's
work, at least as regards the Gospels, is to be found in the
current Peshitta text, which " represents the Greek text as
read in Antioch about 400 A.D." and " was prepared by Rab-
bula . . . and published by his authority as a substitute for
the Diatessaron." '
Rabbula seems to have been a man of great force, devotion
and self-denial: on the one hand intellectually gifted, and on
the other thoroughly consistent in his practice of religion.
But his attractiveness is marred, as in the case of many of
his contemporaries, by the bitterness of a narrow orthodoxy.
(N. M.)
RABELAIS, FRANCOIS (c. 1490-1553), French humorist,
was born at Chinon on the Vienne in the province of Touraine.
The date of his birth is wholly uncertain: it has been put by
tradition, and by authorities long subsequent to his death, as
1483, 1490, and 1495. There is nothing in the positive facts of
his life which would not suit tolerably well with any of these
dates; most 17th-century authorities give the earliest, and this
also accords best with the age of the eldest of the Du Bellay
brothers, with whom Rabelais was (perhaps) at school. In
favour of the latest it is urged that, if Rabelais was born in 1483,
he must have been forty-seven when he entered at Montpellier,
and proportionately and unexpectedly olil at other known
periods of his life. In favour of the middle date, which has, as
far as recent authorities are concerned, the weight of consent in
its favour, the testimony of Guy Patin (1601-1672), a witness of
some merit and not too far removed in point of time, is invoked.
The only contribution which need be made here to the con-
troversy is to point out that if Rabelais was born in 1483 he
must have been an old man when he died, and that scarcely
even tradition speaks of him as such.
With regard to his birth, parentage, youth, and education
everything depends upon this tradition, and it is not until he
was according to one extreme hypothesis thirty-six, according
to the other extreme twenty-four, that we have solid testimony
respecting him. In the year 1519, on the 5th of April, the
Francois Rabelais of history emerges. The monks of Fontenay
le.Comte bought some property (half an inn in the town), and
among their signatures to the deed of purchase is that of Franc, ois
Rabelais. Before this all is cloudland. It is said that he had
four brothers and no sisters, that his fatner had a country
property called La Deviniere, and was either an apothecary
or a tavern-keeper. Half a century after his death De Thou
mentions that the house in which he was born had become a
tavern and then a tennis-court. It still stands at the corner of
a street called the Rue de la Lamproie, and the tradition may be
correct. An indistinct allusion of his own has been taken to
mean that he was tonsured in childhood at seven or nine years
old; and tradition says that he was sent to the convent of
Seuilly. From Seuilly at an unknown date tradition takes him
cither to the university of Angers or to the convent school of
La Baumette or La Basmette, founded by good King Rene in
the neighbourhood of the Angevin capital. Here he is supposed
to have been at school with the brothers Du Bellay, with Geoffroy
d'Estissac and others. The next stage in this (so far as evidence
goes, purely imaginary) career is the monastery of Fontenay le
Comte, where, as has been seen, he is certainly found in 1519
holding a position sufficiently senior to sign deeds for the com-
munity, where he, probably in 1511, took priest's orders, and
where he also pursued, again certainly, the study of letters, and
especially of Greek, with ardour. From this date, therefore,
he becomes historically visible. The next certain intelligence
which we have of Rabelais is somewhat more directly bio-
1 See 5. Ephraim's Quotations from the Gospel (Cambridge, 1901),
p. 57 f. ; Evangelion du-Mepharreshe (Cambridge, 1904), ii. 5; arid
Early Eastern Christianity (London, 1904), lecture ii.
xxn. 25
graphical. The letters of the well-known Greek scholar Budaeus,
two of which are addressed to Rabelais himself and several more
to his friend and fellow-monk Pierre Amy, together with some
notices by Andr6 Tiraqueau, a learned jurist, to whom Rabelais
rather than his own learning has secured immortality, show
beyond doubt what manner of life the future author of Gargantua
led in his convent. The letters of Budaeus show that an
attempt was made by the heads of the convent or the order to
check the studious ardour of these Franciscans; but it failed,
and there is no positive evidence of anything like actual perse-
cution, the phrases in the letters of Budaeus being merely the
usual exaggerated Ciceronianism of the Renaissance. Some
books and papers were seized as suspicious, then given back as
innocent; but Rabelais was in all probability disgusted with the
cloister indeed his great work shows this beyond doubt. In
1524, the year of the publication of Tiraqueau's book above
cited, his friend Geoffroy d'Estissac procured from Clement VII.
an indult, licensing a change of order and of abode for Rabelais.
From a Franciscan he became a Benedictine, and from Fontenay
he moved to Maillezais, of which Geoffroy d'Estissac was bishop.
But even this learned and hospitable retreat did not apparently
satisfy Rabelais. In or before 1 530 he left Maillezais, abandoned
his Benedictine garb for that of a secular priest, and, as he
himself puts it in his subsequent Supplicatio pro Apostasia to ,
Pope Paul III., " per seculum diu vagatus fuit." For a time the
Du Bellays provided him with an abode near their own chateau
of Langey. He is met at Montpellier in the year just mentioned.
He entered the faculty of medicine there on the i6th of September
and became bachelor on the ist of November, a remarkably
short interval, which shows what was thought of his acquire-
ments. Early in 1531 he lectured publicly on Galen and
Hippocrates, while his more serious pursuits seem to have been
chequered by acting in a morale comedle, then a very frequent
university amusement. Visits to the lies d'Hieres, and the
composition of a fish sauce in imitation of the ancient garum,
which he sent to his friend Etienne Dolet, are associated, not
very certainly, with his stay at Montpellier, which, lasting
rather more than a year at first, was renewed at intervals for
several years.
In 1532, however, he had moved from Montpellier to Lyons.
Here he plunged into manifold work, literary and professional.
He was appointed before the beginning of November physician
to the Hotel Dieu, with a salary of forty livres per annum,
and lectured on anatomy with demonstrations from the human
subject. He edited for Sebastian Gryphius, in the single
year 1532, the medical Epistles of Giovanni Manardi, the
Aphorisms of Hippocrates, with the Ars Paroa of Galen, and
an edition of two supposed Latin documents, which, however,
happened unluckily to be forgeries.
At this time Lyons was the centre and to a great extent
the headquarters of an unusually enlightened society, and
indirectly it is clear that Rabelais became intimate with this
society. A manuscript distich, which was found in the Toulouse
library, deals with the death of an infant named Theodule,
whose country was Lyons and his father Rabelais, but we
know nothing more about the . matter. What makes the
Lyons sojourn of the greatest real importance is that at this
time probably appeared the beginnings of the work which was
to make Rabelais immortal. It is necessary to say " probably,"
because the strange uncertainty which rests on so much of his
life and writings exists here also. There is no doubt that both
Gargantua and Pantagruel were popular names of giants in
the Middle Ages, though, curiously enough, no mention of the
former in French literature much before Rabelais's time has
been traced. In 1526, however, Charles de Bordign, in a
satiric work of no great merit, entitled la Ltgende de Pierre
Faifeu, has the name Gargantua with an allusion, and in 1532
(if not earlier) there appeared at Lyons les Grandes el inestimable!
chroniques du grand el enorme giant Gargantua. This is a short
book on the plan of the later burlesques and romances of the
Round Table. Arthur and Merlin appear with Grantgosier,
as he is here spelt, Galemelle (Gargamelle) , Gargantua himself,
770
RABELAIS
and the terrible mare. But there is no trace of the action or
other characters of Gargantua that was to be, nor is the manner
of the piece in the least worthy of Rabelais. No one supposes
that he wrote it, though it has been supposed that he edited
it and that in reality it is older than 1532, and may be the
direct subject of Bordigne's allusion six years earlier. What
does, however, seem probable is that the first book of Pantagrud
(the second of the whole work) was composed with a definite
view to this chap book and not to the existing first book of
Gargantua, which was written afterwards, when Rabelais dis-
covered the popularity of his work and felt that it ought to
have some worthier starting-point than the Grandes chroniques.
The earliest known and dated edition of Pantagrud is of 1533,
of Gargantua 1535, though this would not be of itself conclusive,
especially as we actually possess editions of both which, though
undated, seem to be earlier. But the definite description of
Gargantua in the title as " Pere de Pantagruel," the omission
of the words " second livre " in the title of the first book of
Pantagruel while the second and third are duly entitled " tiers "
and " quart," the remarkable fact that one of the most im-
portant personages, Friar John, is absent from book ii., the
first of Pantagrud, though he appears in book i. (Gargantua),
and many other proofs show the order of publication clearly
.enough. There is also in existence a letter of Calvin, dated
1533, in which he speaks of Pantagruel, but not of Gargantua,
as having been condemned as an obscene book. Besides this,
1533 saw the publication of an almanac, the first of a long
series which exists only in titles and fragments, and of the
amusing Prognostication Pantagrudine (still, be it observed,
Pantagrueline, not Gargantuine) . Both this and Pantagruel
itself were published under the anagrammatic pseudonym
of " Alcofribas Nasier," shortened to the first word only in
the case of the Prognostication.
This busy and interesting period of Rabelais's life was brought
to a close apparently by his introduction or reintroduction to
Jean du Bellay, who, in October 1533, passing through Lyons
on an embassy to Rome, engaged Rabelais as physician. The
visit did not last very long, but it left literary results in an
edition of a description of Rome by Marliani, which Rabelais
published in September 1534. It is also thought that the
first edition of Gargantua may have appeared this year.
In the spring of 1535 the authorities of the Lyons hospital,
considering that Rabelais had twice absented himself without
leave, elected Pierre de Castel in his room; but the documents
which exist do not seem to infer that any blame was thought
due to him, and the appointment of his successor was once
definitely postponed in case he should return. At the end
of 1535 Rabelais once more accompanied Jean du Bellay,
now a cardinal, to Rome and stayed there till April in the
next year. This stay furnishes some biographical documents
of importance in the shape of letters to Geoffroy d'Estissac,
of the already-mentioned Supplicalio pro Apostasia, and of
the bull of absolution which was the reply to it. This bull
not only freed Rabelais from ecclesiastical censure, but gave
him the right to return to the order of St Benedict when he
chose, and to practise medicine. He took advantage of this
bull and became a canon of St Maur. In 1537 he took his
doctor's degree at Montpellier, lectured on the Greek text
of Hippocrates, and next year made a public anatomical
demonstration. During these two years he seems to have
resided either at Montpellier or at Lyons. But in 1539 he
entered the service of Guillaume du Bellay-Langey, elder
brother of Jean, and would appear to have been with him
(he was governor of Piedmont) till his death on pth January
1543. Rabelais wrote a panegyrical memoir of Guillaume,
which is lost, and the year before saw the publication of an
edition of Gargantua and Pantagruel, book i., together (both had
been repeatedly reprinted separately), in which some dangerous
expressions were cut away. Nothing at all is known of his
life, whereabouts, or occupations till the publication of the
third book, which appeared in 1546, " avec privilege du roi,"
which had been given in September 1545.
Up to this time Rabelais, despite the condemnation of the
Sorbonne referred to above, had experienced nothing like
persecution or difficulty. Even the spiteful or treacherous
act of Dolet, who in 1542 reprinted the earlier form of the
books which Rabelais had just slightly modified, seems to have
done him no harm. But the storm of persecution which
towards the end of the reign of Francis I. was fatal to Dolet
himself and to Des Periers, while it exiled and virtually killed
Marot, threatened him. There is no positive evidence of any
measures taken or threatened against him; but it is certain
that he passed nearly -the whole of 1546 and part of 1547 at
Metz in Lorraine as physician to the town at the salary of
120 livres, and Sturm speaks of him as having been " cast
out of France by the times " (with the exclamation <eO TUV
Xpovuv) in a contemporary letter, and says that he himself in
another letter gives a doleful account of his pecuniary affairs
and asks for assistance. At Francis's death on 3ist March
1547 Du Bellay went to Rome, and at some time not certain
Rabelais joined him. He was certainly there in February 1549,
when he dates from Du Bellay's palace a little account of the
festivals given at Rome to celebrate the birth of the second
son of Henry II. and Catherine de' Medici. This account,
the Sciomachie as it is called, is extant. In the same year a
monk of Fontevrault, Gabriel du Puits-Herbault, made in a
book called Theotimus the first of the many attacks on Rabelais.
It is, however, as vague as it is violent, and it does not seem
to have had any effect. Rabelais had indeed again made for
himself protectors whom no clerical or Sorbonist jealousy could
touch. The Sciomachie was written to the cardinal of Guise,
whose family were all-powerful at court, and Rabelais dedicated
his next book to Odet de Chatillon, afterwards cardinal, a man
of great influence. Thus Rabelais was able to return to France,
and in 1550 was presented to the livings of Meudon and St
Christophe de Jambet. It may, however, surprise those who
have been accustomed to hear him spoken of as " cure de
Meudon," and who have read lives of him founded on legend,
to find that there is very little ground for believing that he
ever officiated or resided there. He certainly held the living
but two years, resigning it in January 1552 along with his other
benefice, and it is noteworthy that at the episcopal visitation
of 1551 he was not present. To this supposed residence at
Meudon and to the previous stay at Rome, however, are
attached two of the most mischievous items of the legend,
though fortunately two of the most easily refutable. It is
said that Rabelais met and quarrelled with Joachim du Bellay
the poet at Rome, and with Ronsard at Meudon and elsewhere,
that this cailsed a breach between him and the Pleiade, that he
satirized its classicizing tendencies in the episode of the Limousin
scholar, and that Ronsard after his death avenged himself
by a libellous epitaph. The facts are these. Nothing is
heard of the quarrel with Du Bellay or 'of any meeting with
him, nothing of the meetings and bickerings with Ronsard,
till 1697, when Bernier tells the story without any authority.
The supposed allusions to the Pleiade date from a time when
Ronsard was a small boy, and are mainly borrowed from an
earlier writer still, Geoffroy Tory. Lastly, the epitaph, read
impartially, is not libellous at all, but simply takes up the
vein of the opening scenes of Gargantua in reference to
Gargantua's author. There is indeed no reason to suppose
that either Ronsard or Du Bellay was a fervent admirer of
Rabelais, for they belonged to a very different literary school;
but there is absolutely no evidence of any enmity between them,
and Du' Bellay actually refers to Rabelais with admiration.
Some chapters of Rabelais's fourth book had been published
in 1548, but the whole did not appear till 1552. The Sorbonne
censured it and the parliament suspended the sale, taking
advantage of the king's absence from Paris. But it was soon
relieved of the suspension. He died, it is said, on the gth of
April 1553, but actual history is quite silent save on the point
that he was not alive in May of the next year, and the legends
about his deathbed utterances " La farce est jouee," " Je
vais chercher un grand peut-etre," &c. are altogether
RABELAIS
771
apocryphal. The same may be said of the numerous silly
stories told of his life, such as that of his procuring a free
passage to Paris by inscribing packets " Poison for the king,"
and so forth.
Ten years after the publication of the fourth book and nine
after the supposed date of the author's death there appeared
at Lyons sixteen chapters entitled ll'le sonnante par maislre
Francois Rabelais, and two years later the entire fifth book
was printed as such. In 1567 it took place with the others,
and has ever since appeared with them. But from the
beginning of the lyth century there have never been wanting
disbelievers in its authenticity. The controversy is one of
some intricacy, but as it is also one of capital importance in
literary history the heads of it at least must be given here.
The opponents of the book rely (i) on the testimony of a
certain Louis Guyon, who in 1604 declared that the fifth book
Was made long after Rabelais's death by an author whom he
knew, and who was not a doctor, and on the assertion of the
bibliographer Du Verdier, about the same time, that it was
written by an " 6colier de Valence "; (2) on the fact that the
anti-monastic and even anti-Catholic polemic is much more
accentuated in it; (3) on the arguments that parts are
apparently replicas or rough drafts of passages already
appearing in the four earlier books; and (4) that some allusions
are manifestly posterior to even the furthest date which can
be assigned for the reputed author's decease. On the other
hand, it is urged that, though Guyon and Du Verdier were in
a sense contemporaries, they wrote long after the events,
and that the testimony of the former is vitiated, not merely
by its extreme vagueness, but by the fact that it occurs in a
plaidoyer, tending to exculpate physicians from the charge of
unorthodoxy; that Du Verdier in another place assigns the
Pantagrueline Prognostication to this same unknown student
of Valence, and had therefore probably confused and hearsay
notions on the subject; that the rasher and fiercer tone, as
well as the apparent repetitions, are sufficiently accounted
for on the supposition that Rabelais never finally revised the
book, which indeed dates show that he could not have done,
as the fourth was not finally settled till just before his death;
and that it is perfectly probable, and indeed almost certain,
that it was prepared from his papers by another hand, which
is responsible for the anachronous allusions above referred to.
But the strongest argument, and one which has never been
attacked by authorities really competent to judge, is that
the " griffe de 1'aigle " is on the book, and that no known
author of the time except Rabelais was capable of writing the
passage about the Chats fourres, the better part of the history
of Queen Whims (La Quinte) and her court, and the conclusion
giving the Oracle of the Bottle. To this argument we beb'eve
that the more competent a critic is, both by general faculty
of appreciation and by acquaintance with contemporary
French literature, the more positive will be the assent that he
yields. The reader must, however, be on his guard against
confusing the authenticity of the fifth book generally with
that of supposed early copies of it. Quite recently it was
announced that an edition of 1549 had turned up in Germany;
but the investigations of M. R. Stein, un Rabelais apocryphe
(1901), repeated and confirmed by M. A. Lefranc in the
Revue des itudes Rabelaisiennes (1905), disposed of the matter.
The substance of the apocryphal document is quite different
from our fifth book.
Gargantua and Pantagruel, notwithstanding their high literary
standing and the frequency with which certain passages from them
are cited, are, owing partly to their archaism of language and partly
to the extreme licence which their author has allowed himself, so
little read that no notice of them or of him could be complete
without some sketch of their contents. The first book, Gargantua,
describes the birth of that hero (a giant and the son of gigantic
parents), whose nativity is ushered in by the account of a
tremendous feast. In this the burlesque exaggeration of the
pleasures of eating and drinking, which is one of the chief exterior
notes of the whole work, is pushed to an extreme an extreme which
has attracted natural but perhaps undue attention. Very early,
however, the author becomes serious in contrasting the early
education of his hero a satire on the degraded schools of the middle
ages with its subsequent and reformed stage, in the account of
which all the best and noblest ideas of the humanist Renaissance in
reference to pedagogy are put with exceptional force. Gargantua
is recalled from Pans, whither he had been sent to finish his educa-
tion, owing to a war between his father, Grandgosier, and the
neighbouring king, Picrochole. This war is described at great length,
the chief hero of it being the monk, Friar John, a very unclencal
cleric, in whom Rabelais greatly delights. Picrochole defeated
and peace made, Gargantua establishes the abbey of Thelema in
another of Rabelais's most elaborate literary passages, where all
the points most obnoxious to him in monastic life are indicated
by the assignment of their exact opposites to this model convent.
The second book, which introduces the principal hero of the whole,
Pantagruel, Gargantua's son, is, on any other hypothesis but that
already suggested of its prior composition, very difficult to explain,
but in itself it is intelligible enough. Pantagruel goes through
something like a second edition (really a first) of the educational
experiences of his father. Like him, he goes to Paris, and there
meets with Panurge, the principal triumph of Rabelaisian character-
drawing, and the most original as well as puzzling figure of the book.
Panurge has almost all intellectual accomplishments, but is totally
devoid of morality: he is a coward, a drunkard, a lecher, a spiteful
trickster, a spendthrift, but all the while infinitely amusing. This
book, like the other, has a war in its latter part ; Gargantua scarcely
appears in it and Friar John not at all. It is not till the opening
of the third book that the most important action begins. This
arises from Panurge's determination to marry a determination,
however, which is very half-hearted, and which leads him to consult
a vast number of authorities, each giving occasion for satire of a
more or less complicated kind. At last it is determined that
Pantagruel and his followers (Friar John has reappeared in the
suite of the prince) shall set sail to consult the Oracle of the Dive
Boukitte. The book ends with the obscurest passage of the whole,
an elaborate eulogy of the " herb pantagruelion," which appears
to be, if it is anything, hemp. Only two probable explanations
of this have been offered, the one seeing in it an anticipation of
Joseph de Maistre's glorification of the executioner, the other a
eulogy of work, hemp being on the whole the most serviceable
of vegetable products for that purpose. The fourth and fifth
books are entirely taken up with a description of the voyage. Many
strange places with stranger .names are visited, some of them
offering obvious satire on -human institutions, others, except by
the most far-fetched explanations, resolvable into nothing but
sheer extravaganza. At last the Land of Lanterns, borrowed from
Lucian, is reached, and the Oracle of the Bottle is consulted. This
yields the single word " Trinq," which the attendant priestess
declares to be the most gracious and intelligible she has ever heard
from it. Panurge takes this as a sanction of his marriage, and the
book ends abruptly. This singular romance is diversified by, or,
to speak more properly, it is the vehicle of the most bewildering
abundance of digression, burlesque amplification, covert satire
on things political, social and religious, miscellaneous erudition
of the literary and scientific kind. Everywhere the author lays
stress on the excellence of " Pantagruelism," and the reader who is
himself a Pantagruelist (it is perfectly idle for any other to attempt
the book) soon discovers what this means. It is, in plain English,
humour. The definition of humour is a generally acknowledged
crux, and till it is defined the definition of Pantagruelism will be in
the same position. But that it consists in the extension of a wide
sympathy to all human affairs, together with a comprehension of
their vanity, may be said as safely as anything else. Moroseness
and dogmatism are as far from the Pantagruelism of Rabelais as
maudlin sentimentality or dilettantism. Perhaps the chief things
lacking in his attitude are, in the first place, reverence, of which,
however, from a few passages, it is clear he was by no means totally
devoid, and secondly, an appreciation of passion and poetry. Here
and there there are touches of the latter, as in the portrait of Quint-
essence, but passion is everywhere absent an absence for which
the comic structure and plan of the book do not by any means supply
a complete explanation. i
For a general estimate of Rabelais's literary character and in-
fluence the reader may be referred to the article FRENCH LITERATURE.
But some detailed remarks must be given here. There are three
questions without the discussion of which this notice of one of the
foremost writers of the world would not be worthy of its present
place. These are What is the general drift and purpose of
Gargantua and Pantagruel, supposing there to be any? What
defence can be offered, if any defence is needed, for the extra-
ordinary licence of language and imagery which the author has
permitted himself? Whac was his attitude towards the great
questions of religion, philosophy and politics? These questions
succeed each other in the order of rgason, and the answer to each
assists the resolution of the next. ..
There have been few more remarkable instances of the lues
commentatoria than the work of the editors of Rabelais. Almost
every one appears to have started with a Rabelais ready made in
his head, and to have, so to speak, read that Rabelais into the
book. Those who have not done this, like Le Duchat, Motteux
772
RABELAIS
and Esmangart, have generally committed the error of tormenting
themselves and their author to find individual explanations of
personages and events. The extravagance of the last-named
commentator takes the form of seeing elaborate allegories; that
of some others devotes itself chiefly to identifying the characters
of the romance with more or less famous historical persons. But
the first blunder, that of forming a general hypothetical conception
of Rabelais and then adjusting interpretation of the work to it,
is the commoner. This conception, however, has singularly varied.
According to some expositors, among whom one of the latest and
not the least respectable is M. Fleury, Rabelais is a sober reformer,
an apostle of earnest work, of sound education, of rational if not
dogmatic religion, who wraps up his morals in a farcical envelope
partly to make them go down with the vulgar and partly to shield
himself from the consequences of his reforming zeal. According
to others, of whom we have had in England a distinguished example
in Sir Walter Besant, Rabelais is all this but with a difference. He
is not religious at all; he is more or less anti-religious; and his book
is more or less of a general protest against any attempt to explain
supernaturally the riddle of the earth. According to a third class,
the most distinguished recent representative of which was M. Paul
Lacroix, the Rabelaisian legend does not so much err in principle
as it invents in fact. Rabelais is the incarnation of the " esprit
Gaulois," a jovial, careless soul, not destitute of common sense or.
even acute intellectual power, but first of all a good fellow, rather
preferring a broad jest to a fine-pointed one, and rollicking through
life like a good-natured undergraduate. Of all these views it may
be said that those who hold them are obliged to shut their eyes
to many things in the book and to see in it many which are not
there. The religious part of the matter will be dealt with presently ;
but it is impossible to think that any unbiased judge reading
Rabelais can hold the grave-philosopher view or the reckless-good-
fellow view without modifications and allowances which practically
deprive either of any value. Those who, as it has been happily
put, identify Rabelais with Pantagruel, strive in vain, on any view
intellectually consistent or morally respectable, to account for the
vast ocean of pure or impure laughter and foolery which surrounds
the few solid islets of sense and reason and devotion. Those who
in the same way identify Rabelais with Panurge can never explain
the education scheme, the solemn apparition of Gargantua among
the farcical and fantastic variations on Panurge's wedding, and many
other passages; while, on the other hand, those who insist on a
definite propaganda of any kind must justify themselves by their
own power of seeing things invisible to plain men. But these
vagaries are not only unjustifiable; they are entirely unnecessary.
No one reading Rabelais without parti pris, but with a good know-
ledge of the history and literature of his own times and the times
which preceded him, can have much difficulty in appreciating
his book. He had evidently during his long and studious sojourn
in the cloister (a sojourn which was certainly not jess than five-and-
twenty years, while it may have been five-and-thirty, and of which
the studiousness rests not on legend but on documentary evidence)
acquired a vast stock of learning. He was, it is clear, thoroughly
penetrated with the instincts, the hopes, and the ideas of the
Renaissance in the form which it took in France, in England and
in Germany a form, that is to say, not merely humanist but full
of aspirations for social and political improvement, and above all
for a joyous, varied, and non-ascetic life. He had thoroughly
convinced himself of the abuses to which monachism lent itself.
Lastly, he had the spirit of lively satire and of willingness desipere
in loco which frequently goes with the love of books. It is in the
highest degree improbable that in beginning his great work he had
any definite purpose or intention. The habit of burlesquing the
romans d'aventures was no new one, and the form lent itself easily
to the two literary exercises to which he was most disposed
apt and quaint citation from and variation on the classics and
satirical criticism of the life he saw around him. The immense
popularity of the first two parts induced him to continue them, and
by degrees (the genuineness of the fifth book, at any rate in substance,
is here assumed) the possibility of giving the whole something
like a consistent form and a regular conclusion presented itself to
him. The voyage in particular allowed the widest licence of
satirical allusion, and he availed himself of that licence in the widest
sense. Here and there persons are glanced at, while the whole
scenery of his birthplace and its neighbourhood is curiously worked
in; but for the most part the satire is typical rather than individual,
and it is on the whole a rather negative satire. In only two points
can Rabelais be said to be definitely polemic. He certainly hated
the monkish system in the debased form in which it existed in his
time; he as certainly hated the brutish ignorance into which the
earlier systems of education had suffered too many of their teachers
and scholars to drop. At these two things he was never tired of
striking, but elsewhere, even in the grim satire of the Chats fourres,
he is the satirist proper rather than the reformer. It is in the
very absence of any cramping or limiting purpose that the great
merit and value of the book consist. It holds up an almost per-
fectly level and spotless mirror to the temper of the earlier
Renaissance. The author has no universal medicine of his own
(except Pantagruelism) to offer, nor has he anybody else's universal
medicine to attack. He ranges freely about the world, touching
the laughable sides of things with kindly laughter, and every now
and then dropping the ristbile and taking to the rationale. It is
not indeed possible to deny that in the Oracle of the Bottle, besides
its merely jocular and fantastic sense, there is a certain " echo,"
as it has been called, " of the conclusion of the preacher," a certain
acknowledgment of the vanity of things. But in such a book such
a note could hardly be wanting unless the writer had been a fanatic,
which he was not, or a mere voluptuary, which he was not, or a
dullard, which he was least of all. It is, after all, little more than a
suggestion, and is certainly nqt strengthened by anything in the
body of the work. Rabelais is, in short, if he be read without
prejudice, a humorist pure and simple, feeling often in earnest,
thinking almost always in jest. He is distinguished from the two
men who alone can be compared with him in character of work and
force of genius combined Lucian and Swift by very marked
characteristics. He is much less of a mere mocker than Lucian,
and he is entirely destitute, even when he deals with monks or
pedants, of the ferocity of Swift. He neither sneers nor rages;
the rire immense which distinguishes him is altogether good-natured ;
but he is nearer to Lucian than to Swift, and Lucian is perhaps
the author whom it is most necessary to know in order to under-
stand him rightly.
If this general view is correct it will probably condition to some
extent the answer to be given to the two minor questions stated
above. The first is connected with the great blemish of Gargantua
and Pantagruel their extreme coarseness of language and imagery 1 .
It is somewhat curious that some of those who claim Rabelais as
an enemy of the supernatural in general have been the loudest to
condemn this blemish, and that some of them have made the
exceedingly lame excuse for him that it was a means of wrapping
up his propaganda and keeping it and himself safe from the notice
of the powers that were. This is not complimentary to Rabelais,
and, except in some very small degree, it is not likely to be true.
For as a matter of fact obscenity no less than impiety was charged
against him by his ultra-orthodox enemies, and the obscenity no
less than the supposed impiety gave them a handle against him
before such bodies as the Sorbonne and the parliaments. As for
the extreme theory of the anti-Rabelaisians, that Rabelais was a
" dirty old blackguard " who liked filth and wallowed in it from
choice, that hardly needs comment. His errors in this way are of
course, looked at from an absolute standard, unpardonable. But
judged relatively there are several, we shall not say excuses, but
explanations of them. In the first place, the comparative in-
decency of Rabelais has been much exaggerated by persons
unfamiliar with early French literature. The form of his book was
above all things popular, and the popular French literature of the
middle ages as distinguished from the courtly and literary literature,
which was singularly pure, can hardly be exceeded in point of coarse-
ness. The fabliaux, the early burlesque romances of the Audigier
class, the farces of the I5th century, equal (the grotesque iteration
and amplification which is the note of Gargantua and Pantagruel
being allowed for, and sometimes without that allowance) the
coarsest passages of Rabelais. His coarseness, moreover, disgusting
as it is, has nothing of the corruption of refined voluptuousness
about it, and nothing of the sniggering indecency which disgraces
men like Pope, like Voltaire, and like Sterne. It shows in its author
a want of reverence, a want of decency in the proper sense, a too
great readiness to condescend to the easiest kind of ludicrous ideas
and the kind most acceptable at that time to the common run of
mankind. The general taste having been considerably refined
since, Rabelais has in parts become nearly unreadable the worst
and most appropriate punishment for his faults. As for those
who have tried to make his indecency an argument for his laxity
in religious principle, that argument, like another mentioned
previously, hardly needs discussion. It is notoriously false as a
matter of experience. Rabelais could not have written as he has
written in this respect and in others if he had been an earnestly
pious person, taking heed to every act and word, and studious
equally not to offend and not to cause offence. But no one in his
senses would dream of claiming any such character for him.
This brings us to the last point what his religious opinions
were. He has been claimed as a free-thinker of all shades, from
undogmatic theism to atheism, and as a concealed Protestant. The
last of these claims has now been very generally given up, and
indeed Erasmus might quite as reasonably be claimed for the
Reformation as Rabelais. Both disliked and attacked the more
crying abuses of their church, and both at the time and since have
been disliked and attacked by the more imprudent partisans of
that church. But Rabelais, in his own way, held off from the
Reformation even more distinctly than Erasmus did. The accusation
of free-thinking, if not of directly anti-Christian thinking, has always
been more common and has recently found much favour. It is,
however, remarkable that those who hold this opinion never give
chapter and verse for it, and it may be said confidently that chapter
and verse cannot be given. The sayings attributed to Rabelais
which colour the idea (such as the famous " Je vais chercher un
grand peut-gtre," said to have been uttered on his death-bed)
are, as has been said, purely apocryphal. In the book itself nothing
RABENER RACAN
773
of the kind is to be found. Perhaps the nearest approach to it is a
jest at the Sorbonne couched in the Pauline phrase about " the
evidence of things not seen," which the author removed from the
later editions. But irreverences of this kind, as well as the frequent
burlesque citations of the Bible, whether commendable or not,
had been, were, have since been, and are common in writers whose
orthodoxy is unquestioned; and it must be remembered that the
later Middle Age, which in many respects Rabelais represents
almost more than he does the Renaissance, was, with all its un-
questioning faith, singularly reckless and, to our fancy, irreverent
in its use of the sacred words and images, which were to it the
most familiar of all images and words. On the other hand, there
are in the book, in the description of Gargantua's and Pantagruel's
education, in the sketch of the abbey of Thelema, in several passages
relating to Pantagruel, expressions which either signify a sincere
and unfeigned piety of a simple kind or else are inventions of
the most detestable hypocrisy. For these passages are not, like
many to be found from the Renaissance to the end of the l8th
century, obvious flags of truce to cover attacks mere bowings
in the house of Rimmon to prevent evil consequences. There is
absolutely no sign of the tongue in the cheek. They are always
written in the author's highest style, a style perfectly eloquent
and unaffected; they can only be interpreted (on the free-thinking
hypothesis) as allegorical with the greatest difficulty and obscurity,
and it is pretty certain that no one reading the book without a
thesis to prove would dream of taking them in a non-natural sense.
It is not, indeed, to be contended that Rabelais was a man with
whom religion was in detail a constant thought, that he had a very
tender conscience or a very scrupulous orthodoxy. His form of
religious sentiment was not evangelical or mystical, any more than
it was ascetic or ceremonial or dogmatic. As regards one of the
accepted doctrines of his own church, the excellence of the celibate
life, of poverty, and of elaborate obedience to a rule, he no doubt
was a strong dissident; but the evidence that, as a Christian, he
was unorthodox, that he was even a heretical or latitudinarian
thinker in regard to those doctrines which the various Christian
churches have in common, is not merely weak, it is practically non-
existent. The counter-testimony is, indeed, not very strong, and
still less detailed. But that is not the point. It is sufficient to
say that there is absolutely nothing within the covers of Rabelais's
works incompatible with an orthodoxy which would be recognized
as sufficient by Christendom at large, leaving out of the question
those points of doctrine and practice on which Christians differ.
Beyond this no wise man will go, and short of it hardly any un-
prejudiced man will stop.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The dates of the original editions of Rabelais's
works have been given where possible already. The earlier books
were repeatedly reissued during the author's life, and always with
some correction. What may be called the first complete edition
appeared in 1567 at Lyons, published by Jean Martin. It is com-
puted that no less than sixty editions were printed before the close
of the i6th century. A very considerable time, however, elapsed
before the works were, properly speaking, edited. Huet devoted
much pains to them, but his results were not made public. The
first edition which calls for notice, except in a complete biblio-
graphy, is that of Le Duchat (Amsterdam, 1711). Le Duchat was a
very careful student, and on the whole a very efficient editor, being
perhaps, of the group of students of old French at the beginning
of the 1 8th century, which included La Monnoye and others, the
most sober, critical and accomplished. But at that time the
knowledge of the period was scarcely far enough advanced. The
next important date in the bibliography of Rabelais is 1823, in
which year appeared the most elaborate edition of his work yet
published, that of Esmangart and Johanneau (9 vols.), including
for the first time the Songes Drolatiques, a spurious but early and
not uninteresting collection of grotesque figure drawings illus-
trating Gargantua and Pantagruel, and the second edition of M.
de 1'Aulnaye, containing a bad text but a useful glossary. From
this time the editions have been very numerous. Among them
may be mentioned those illustrated by Gustave Dore, first on a
small scale (1854), afterwards more elaborately (1870); that of the
Collection Didot by Burgaud des Marets and Rathery (1857 and
later); the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne editisn by MM.Lacourand
A. de Montaiglon; that of the Nouvelle Collection Jannet (seven
small volumes, 1867-74), completed by M. Moland and very useful;
and lastly, the edition of M. Marty-Laveaux in the Collection
Lemerre (1868-1903), the handsomest, the most accurate, and the
most complete, in the scholarly sense, yet published. Commentaries
on Rabelais, independent of editions, have been numerous from
the work of Jean Bernier, Jugement et nouvelles observations sur les
ocuvres . . . de M . Francois Rabelais (1697), onwards. Of those of the
last half-century the best are, besides essays in the works of most
of the great critics: E. Noel, Rabelais (1850); A. Mayrargues,
Rabelais (1868); Jean Fleury (1876); Paul Stapfer (the best of all)
(1889); and G. Vallat (1899). Separate points have been treated
importantly by A. Heulhard, Dernieres annfes de Rabelais (1884),
and others; while the Revue des ftudes Rabelaisiennes (1903 onwards)
contains valuable studies, especially those of M. Abel Lefranc.
Rabelais was very early popular in England. There are possible
allusions to him in Shakespeare, and the current clerical notion of
him is very unjustly adopted by Marston in the words " wicked
Rabelais"; but Bacon described him better as the great jester of
France, and a Scot, Sir Thomas Urquhart, translated the earlier
books in 1653. This was not worthily completed till the Juckk^--
Motteux, or, as his compatriots call him, Le Mottcux, finished it
with an extensive commentary. It has been frequently reprinted.
A new translation by W. F. Smith appeared in 1893. Criticism
of a scattered kind on Rabelais in English is abundant, that of
Coleridge being the most important, while the constant evidence
of his influence in Southey's Doctor is also noteworthy. But he-
was hardly treated as a whole before Sir VValter Bcsant's book on
the subject in the " Foreign Classics for English Readers "(1879),
which the author followed up with Readings from Rabelais (1883).
Somewhat elaborate treatments of him in connexion with contem-
porary literature will be found in George Saintsbury's The Earlier
Renaissance (1901) and in A. Tilley's Literature of the French
Renaissance (1904). (G. SA.)
RABENER, GOTTLIEB WILHELM (1714-1771), German
satirist, was born on the I7th of September 1714 at Wachau near
Leipzig, and died at Dresden on the 22nd of March 1771. In
1741 he made his dibut as satirist in Schwabe's Belustigungen
des Verslandes wid Witzes, and was subsequently a contributor
to the Bremer Beitrdge. Rabener's satires are in prose and
mainly levelled at the follies of the middle classes. The papers
which he published in the Bremer Bcilrttge were subsequently
collected in a Sammlung satirischer Schriften (2 vols., 1751), to
which two volumes were added in 1755.
Rabener's Sdmtliche Werke appeared in 6 vols. in 1777; the edition
by E. Ortlepp (1839) also contains his correspondence, first published
by C. F. Weisse in 1772. See P. Richter, Rabener und Liscow (1884),
and D. Jacoby in AUg. Deutsche Biographie (1888).
RABIRIUS, a Latin epic poet of the age of Augustus. Among
the papyrus fragments discovered at Herculaneum in the early
part of the igth century were sixty-seven (mutilated) hexa-
meters, referring to the final struggle between Antony and
Octavian and the death of Cleopatra, generally supposed to be
part of a poem by Rabirius, since Seneca (De Benef. vi. 3, i)
informs us that he wrote on those subjects. If genuine, they
justify the qualified commendation of Quintilian rather than the
exaggerated praise of Velleius Paterculus (ii. 36, 3), who couples
Rabirius and Virgil as the two most eminent poets of his time.
Fragments in E. Bahrens, Fragments Poetarum Romanorum
(1885); W. Scott, Fragmenta Herculanensia (Oxford, 1885); O.
Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtune, ii. (1889); M. Schanz,
Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, ii. I (1899); Teuffel, Hist, of
Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 252, 9.
RABIRIUS, GAIUS, a Roman senator, who was defended
(63 B.C.) by Cicero in a speech still extant. Nearly forty years
after the death of L. Appuleius Saturninus, Titus Labienus
(whose uncle had lost his life among the followers of Saturninus
on that occasion) was put up by Caesar to accuse Rabirius of
having been implicated in the murder. Caesar's real object was
to warn the Senate against interference by force with popular
movements, to uphold the sovereignty of the people and the
inviolability of the person of the tribunes. The obsolete accusa-
tion of perdudlio was revived, and the case was heard before
Julius and Lucius Caesar as commissioners specially appointed
(duoviri perduellionis). Rabirius was condemned, and the
people, to whom the accused had exercised the right of appeal,
were on the point of ratifying the decision, when Metellus Celer
pulled down the military flag from the Janiculum, which was
equivalent to the dissolution of the assembly. Caesar's object
having been attained, the matter was then allowed to drop.
A nephew, known as C. RABIRIUS POSTUMUS, was also
defended by Cicero (54 B.C.) in the extant speech Pro Rabirio
Postumo, when charged with extortion in Egypt and complicity
with Aulus Gabinius (q.v.).
See Cicero, Pro Rabirio, ed. W. E. Heitland (1882); Dio Cassius,
xxxvii. 26-28; H. Putsche, Cber das genus iudicii der Rede Ciceros
pro C. Rabirio (Jena, 1881); O. Schulthess, Der Protess des
C. Rabirius (Frauenfeld, 1891).
RACAN, HONORS DE BUEIL, MARqtns DE (1580-1670),
French poet, was born at the chateau of La Roche-Racan in
1589. He became page at the court of Henry IV. and then
entered the army, seeing some active service. Racan was very
poor and was practically uneducated, for, if his own account
774
RACCONIGI RACHEL
may be credited, he had not learnt even Latin. But in middle
life he inherited some property, and he was thus able to devote
himself to the practice of poetry, in which he was the faithful,
and perhaps the most distinguished, disciple of Malherbe. He
had known Malherbe when he was a page at the court of
Henry IV., and had early contributed to the fashionable albums
of the day. In 1625 he published his most important work,
Bergeries, a dramatic pastoral in five acts, a part of which,
entitled Arthenice, was played in 1618. Racan was also the
author of Sept psaumes (1631), Odes sacrees tirees des psaumes de
David (1651), Dernieres auiires et poesies chretiennes (1660), in
all of which he was hampered by his inability to read the sacred
writings except in other French paraphrases. He was one of
the original members of the French Academy. He died in
February 1670.
His CEuvres completes were edited by Tenant de Latour in 1857,
and the edition includes a biographical notice. See Sainte-Beuve,
Causeries du lundi.
RACCONIGI, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
Cuneo, 24 m. S. of Turin, and 31 m. N. of Cuneo by rail, 837 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7364 (town); 9077 (commune).
It has a royal chateau built in 1570, with a large park laid out
in 1755 by the French gardener Molard from designs by Le
Notre, and enlarged in 1835. Since 1901 it has been the summer
residence of the king of Italy.
RACCOON (or RACOON), a name borne by the typical repre-
sentative of a group of American arboreal placental mammals
belonging to the order CARNIVORA (q.v.) and the family
Procyonidae. The word is a corruption of the North-American
Indian " arrathkune " or " arathcone." The Fr. raton or
raton laveur, Ger. Waschbdr, and other European names are
derived from a curious habit the raccoon has of dipping or washing
its food in water before eating it. The typical raccoon (Procyon
lotor) is a thickly built animal about the size of a badger, with
a coat of long coarse greyish-brown hairs, short ears, and a
bushy black-and-white-ringed tail. Its range extends over the
whole of the United States, and stretches on the west northwards
The Raccoon (Procyon lotor).
to Alaska and southwards well into Central America, where it
attains its maximum size. The following notes on the habits
of the raccoon are from Dr C. Hart Merriam's The Mammals of
the Adirondacks:
" Raccoons are omnivorous beasts and feed upon mice, small
birds, birds' eggs, turtles and their eggs, frogs, fish, crayfish, molluscs,
insects, nuts, fruits, maize and sometimes poultry. Excepting
alone the bats and flying-squirrels, they are the most strictly
nocturnal of all our mammals, and yet I have several times seen
them abroad on cloudy days. They haunt the banks of ponds
and streams, and find much of their food in these places, such as
crayfish, mussels and fish, although they are unable to dive and
pursue the latter under water, like the otter and mink. They are
good swimmers and do not hesitate to cross rivers that lie in their
path. . . . The raccoon hibernates during the severest part of
the winter, retiring to its nest rather early, and appearing again
in February or March, according to the earliness or lateness of the
season. It makes its home high up in the hollow of some large
tree, preferring a dead limb to the trunk itself. It does little in
the way of constructing a nest, and from four to six young are
commonly born at a time, generally early in April in this region.
The young remain with the mother about a year."
The South-American species, P. cancrivorus, the crab-eating
raccoon, is very similar to P. lotor, but differs by its shorter fur,
larger size, proportionally more powerful teeth and other minor
characters. It extends over the whole of South America, as far
south as the Rio Negro, and is common in all suitable localities.
Its habits are similar to those of the North-American species.
RACCOON-DOG (Nyctereutes procyonoides) , a small wild dog,
with sharp-pointed muzzle, short rounded ears, bushy tail and
long fur, found in China, Japan and Amurland. The total
length is about 32 in., of which the tail measures 4 in. The
prevailing hues are black and dusky yellow, the distribution of
which varies in different individuals. In habit these dogs are
chiefly nocturnal; and they are said to hibernate. In winter
they feed on fish, and in summer on mice, forming small packs
to hunt their prey.
RACE, an homonymous word of which the principal meanings
are (i) a trial or contest of speed; (2) a tribe, breed, a group of
individuals descended from a common ancestor. In the first
case the word is an adaptation of O.Nor. rds, a cognate form in
O.E. being raes, rush, onset; while the O.E. descendant reese
was frequently used in medieval poetry. The particular use
of the word for a swift current of water running through a narrow
channel, e.g. the Race of Alderney, and for the water conducted
in an artificial channel to a point where its power is to be used, as
in " mill-race," may be due to the O.Fr. raz or raze, probably
of Breton origin. The second word, an ethnical or national
stock, comes from Fr. rase, adapted from Ital. razzo, cf. Span.
raza. It has been referred to an O.H.G. reiza, line, mark,
cognate with Eng. " write," i.e. the line marking descent.
RACHEL (1821-1858), French actress, whose real name
was Elizabeth Felix, the daughter of poor Jew pedlars, was born
on the 28th of February 1821, at Mumpf, in the canton of Aargau,
Switzerland. At Reims she and her elder sister, Sophia, after-
wards known as Sarah, joined a troupe of Italian children who
made their living by singing in the cafes, Sarah singing and
Elizabeth, then only four years of age, collecting the coppers.
In 1830 they came to Paris, where they sang in the streets,
Rachel giving such patriotic songs as the Parisienne and the
Marseillaise with a rude but precocious energy which evoked
special admiration and an abundant shower of coppers. Etienne
Choron, a famous teacher of singing, was so impressed with the
talents of the two sisters that he undertook to give them
gratuitous instruction, and after his death in 1833 they were
received into the Conservatoire. Rachel made her first appear-
ance at the Gymnase in Paul Duport's La Vendee-tine on the 4th
of April 1837, with only mediocre success. But on the I2th of
June in the following year she succeeded, after great difficulty,
in making a debut at the Theatre Francais, as Camille in
Corneille's Horace, when her remarkable genius at once received
general recognition. In the same year she played Roxane in
Racine's Bajazet, winning a complete triumph, but it was in
Racine's Phedre, which she first played on the 2ist of January
1843, that her peculiar gifts were most strikingly manifested.
Her range of characters was limited, but within it she was
unsurpassable. She excelled particularly in the impersonation
of evil or malignant passion, in her presentation of which there
was a majesty and dignity which fascinated while it repelled.
By careful training her voice, originally hard and harsh, had
become flexible and melodious, and its low and muffled notes
under the influence of passion possessed a thrilling and pene-
trating quality that was irresistible. In plays by contemporary
authors she created the characters of Judith and Cleopatra in
the tragedies of Madame de Girardin, but perhaps her most
successful appearance was in 1849 in Scribe and Legouve's
Adrienne Lecouvreur, which was written for her. In 1841 and
in 1842 she visited London, where her interpretations of Corneille
RACINE, JEAN
and Racine were the sensation of the season. In 1855 she made a
tour in the United States with comparatively small success,
but this was after her powers, through continued ill-health, had
begun to deteriorate. She died of consumption at Cannet, near
Xirc, on the 4th of January 1858, and was buried in the Jewish
part of the cemetery of Pere Lachaise in Paris. Rachel's third
sister was Lia Felix (q.v.).
Jules G. Janin, Rachel el la tragedie (1858): Mrs Arthur
Ki-nnard, Rachel (Boston, 1888); and A. de Faucigny-Lucinge,
Rachel et son temps (1910).
RACINE, JEAN (1639-1699), French tragic dramatist, was
born at La Ferte Milon in the old duchy of Valois on an uncertain
date in December 1639. He was certainly christened on the
22nd, and the ceremony was at that time often, though not
invariably, performed on the day of birth. Racine belonged to a
family of the upper bourgeoisie, which had indeed been techni-
cally ennobled some generations earlier, and bore the punning
arms of a rat and a swan (rat, cygne). The poet himself subse-
quently dropped the rat. His family were connected with
others of the same or a slightly higher station in La Fert6 and
its neighbourhood the Desmoulins, the Sconins, the Vitarts,
all of whom appear in Racine's life. His mother was Jeanne
Sconin. His father, of the same name as himself, was only
four-and-twenty at the time of the poet's birth. He seems to
have been a solicitor (procureur) by profession, and held, as his
father, the grandfather of the dramatist, had done, the office of
controleur au grenier a sel. Racine was the eldest child. Little
more than a year afterwards his sister Marie was born and his
mother died. Jean Racine the elder married again, but three
months later he himself died, and the stepmother is never heard
of in connexion with the poet or his sister. They were left
without any provision, but their grandparents, Jean Racine
the eldest and Marie Desmoulins, were still living, and took
charge of them. These grandparents had a daughter, Agnes,
who figures in Racine's history. She was a nun and later abbess
of Port Royal under the style of Mere de Sainte Thecle, and
the whole family had strong Jansenist leanings. Jean Racine
the eldest died in 1649, and the poet was sent to the College de
Bcauvais. This (which was the grammar-school of the town
of that name, and not the famous College de Beauvais at Paris)
was intimately connected with Port Royal, and to this place
Racine was transferred in November 1655. His special masters
there were Nicole and Le Maitre. The latter, in an extant
letter written to his pupil, speaks of himself as " votre papa."
It is evident from documents that he was a very diligent student
both at Beauvais and Port Royal. He wrote verse both in
Latin and French, and his Port Royal odes, which it has been the
fashion with the more fanatical admirers of his later poetry to
ridicule, are far from despicable.
Racine stayed at Port Royal for three years, and left it, when
nearly nineteen, in October 1658. He was then entered at the
College d'Harcourt and boarded with his second cousin, Nicolas
Vitart, steward of the duke of Luynes. Later, if not at first,
he lived in the H6tel de Luynes itself. It is to be observed that
h ; s Jansenist surroundings continued with him here, for the
duke of Luynes was a severe Port Royalist. It is, however,
clear from Racine's correspondence, which, as we have it, begins
in 1660 and is for some years very abundant and interesting,
that he was not at all of an austere disposition at this
time. Occasionally the liveliness of the letters passes the
bounds of strict decency, though there is nothing very shocking
in them, and those to Madame (or, as the habit of the time called
her, Mademoiselle) Vitart are free from anything of this kind.
It does not appear that Racine read much philosophy, as he
should have done, but he occasionally did some business in
superintending building operations at Chevreuse, the duke's
country house. He would seem, however, to have been already
given up irrevocably to literature. This by no means suited
the views of his devout relations at Port Royal, and he complains
in one of his letters that an unlucky sonnet on Mazarin had
brought down on him "excommunications sur excommunica-
tions." The marriage of Louis XIV. was the occasion of an
775
ambitious ode, La nymphe de la Seine, which was submitted
before publication to Jean Chapelain, the too famous author of
the Pucelle. Chapelain made many suggestions which Racine
duly adopted. Nor did the ode bound his ambitions, for in
1660 he finished one piece, Antasie, and undertook another,
Les Amours d'Ovide, for the theatre. The first, however, was
rejected by the actors of the Marais, and it is not certain that the
other was ever finished or offered to those of the H6tel de
Bourgogne. Racine's letters show that he was intimate with
more than one actress at this time; he also made acquaintance
with La Fontaine, and the foundations at any rate of the
legendary " society of four " (Boileau, La Fontaine, Moliere
and Racine) were thus laid.
His relations were pretty certainly alarmed by this very
pardonable worldliness, though a severe expostulation with
him for keeping company with the abominable actors is perhaps
later in date. Racine was accordingly disturbed in his easy-
going life at Paris. In November 1661 he went to Uzes in
Languedoc to live with his uncle the Pere Sconin, vicar-general
of that diocese, whose attempts to secure a benefice for his
nephew were, however, in vain. Racine was back in Paris
before the end of 1663. His letters from Uzes to La Fontaine,
to Le Vasseur, and others are in much the same strain as
before, but there is here and there a marked tone of cynicism
in them. He also attempted a little courtiership. An ode
on the recovery of Louis XIV. from a slight illness probably
secured him the promise of a pension, of which he speaks to his
sister in the summer of 1664. It is uncertain whether this
pension is identical with " gratifications " which we know that
Racine for some years received, and which were sometimes
eight and sometimes six hundred livres. It would seem not,
as one of these gratifications had been allotted to him the year
before he so wrote to his sister. The ode in which he thanked
the king for his presents, La Renommee, is said to have intro-
duced him to Boileau, to whose censorship there is no doubt
that he owed much, if not everything; and from this date,
November 1663, the familiarity of " the four " seems to have
existed in full force. Unfortunately it is precisely at this date
that his correspondence ceases, and it is not renewed till after
the close of his brief but brilliant career as a dramatist (Esther
and Athalie excepted). From this time forward the gossip of
the period, and the Life by his son Louis, are the chief sources of
information. Unfortunately Louis Racine, though a man of
some ability and of unimpeached character, was only six years
old when his father died, and had no direct knowledge. Still
his account represents family papers and traditions; and seems
to have been carefully, as it is certainly in the main impartially,
written. From other sources notably Boileau, Claude
Brossette and Jean Baptiste de Valincourt a good deal of
pretty certainly authentic information is obtainable, and there
exists a considerable body of correspondence between Boileau
and the poet during the last ten years of Racine's life.
The first but the least characteristic of the dramas by which
Racine is known, La Thfbaide, was finished by the end of 1663,
and on Friday 2oth June 1664 it was played by Moliere's com-
pany at the Palais Royal theatre. Some editors assert that
Moliere himself acted in it, but the earliest account of the
cast we have, and that is sixty years after date, omits his name,
though those of Madeleine Bejard and Mademoiselle de Brie
occur. There is also a tradition that Moliere suggested the
subject; but Louis Racine distinctly says that his father
wrote most of the play at Uzes before he knew Moliere, From
Racine's own earlier letters it appears that the play was de-
signed for the rival theatre, and that " La D6hanchee," Racine's
familiar name for Mademoiselle de Beauchateau, with whom
he was intimate, was to play Antigone. The play itself is by
far the weakest of Racine's works. He has borrowed much
from Euripides and not a little from Jean de Rotrou; and in
his general style and plan he has as yet struck out no great
variation from Corneille. It was acted twelve times during
the first month, and was occasionally revived during the year
following. This is apparently the date of the pleasant picture
RACINE, JEAN
of the four friends which La Fontaine draws in his Psyche,
Racine figuring as Acante, " qui aimait extremement les jardins,
les fleurs, les ombrages," in which surroundings he helped to
compose the lampoon of Chapelain decoiffe on a writer who had
helped him with criticism, obtained royal gifts for him, and, in
a fashion, started him in the literary career.
We have no definite details as to Racine's doings during
the year 1664, but in February 1665 he read at the H6tel
de Nevers before La Rochefoucauld, Madame de la Fayette,
Madame de Sevigne, and other scarcely less redoubtable judges
the greater part of his second acted play, Alexandre le Grand,
or, as Pomponne (who tells the fact) calls it, Poms. It was
anxiously expected by the public, and Moliere's company
played it on the 4th of December Monsieur, his wife Henrietta
of England, and many other distinguished persons being present.
The gazetteer, Adrien Perdou de Subligny vouches for its
success, and the receipts were good and steady. But a fortnight
afterwards Alexandre was played, " de complot avec M. Racine,"
says La Grange, by the rival actors (who had four days before
performed it in private) at the Hotel de Bourgogne. A vast
amount of ink has been spilt on this question, but no one has
produced any valid justification for Racine. That the piece
failed at the Palais Royal, as is stated in the earliest attempt
to excuse Racine, and the only one made in his lifetime, is not
true. His son simply says that he was " mecontent des acteurs,"
which indeed is self-evident. It is certain that Moliere and he
ceased to be friends in consequence of this proceeding; and
that Moliere was in fault no one who has studied the character
of the two men will easily believe. If, however, Alexandre
was the occasion of showing the defects of Racine's character
as a man, it raised him vastly in public estimation as a poet.
He was now for the first time proposed as a serious rival to
Corneille. There is a story that he read the piece to the author
of the Cid and asked his verdict. Corneille praised the piece
highly, but not as a drama, " II 1'assurait qu'il n'etait pas propre
a la poesie dramatique." There is no reason for disbelieving
this, for the character of Alexander could not fail to shock
Corneille, and he was notorious for not mincing his words.
The contrast between the two even at this early period was
accurately apprehended and put by Saint Evremond in his
masterly Dissertation sur I' Alexandre, but this was not published
for a year or two. To this day it is the best criticism of the
faults of Racine, though not, it may be, of the merits, which
had not yet been fully seen. II may be added that in the preface
of the printed play the poet showed the extreme sensitiveness
to criticism which perhaps excuses, and which certainly often
accompanies, a tendency to criticize others. These defects
of character showed themselves still more fully in another
matter. The Port Royalists, as has been said, detested the
theatre, and in January 1666 Nicole, their chief writer, spoke
in one of his Lettres sur les visionnaires, directed against Des-
murets de Saint-Sulin, of dramatic poets as " empoisonneurs
publics." Racine immediately published a letter to the author.
It is very smartly written, and if Racine had contented himself
with protesting against the exaggeration of the decriers of
the stage there would have been little harm done. But he
filled the piece with personalities, telling an absurd story of
Mere Angelique Arnauld's supposed intolerance, drawing a
ridiculous picture of Le Maitre (a dead man and his own special
teacher and friend), and sneering savagely at Nicole himself.
The latter made no reply, but two lay adherents of Port Royal
took up the quarrel with more zeal than discretion or ability.
Racine wrote a second pamphlet as bitter and personal as the
first, but less amusing, and was about to publish it when fortu-
nately Boileau, who had been absent from Paris, returned
and protested against the publication. It remained accord-
ingly unprinted till after the author's death, as well as a pre-
face to both which he had prepared with a view to publishing
them together and so discharging the accumulated resentment
arising from a long course of " excommunications."
After this disagreeable episode Racine's life, for ten years
and more, becomes simply the history of his plays, if we except
his liaisons with the actresses Mademoiselle du Pare and Made-
moiselle de Champmesle, and his election to the Academy on
the 1 7th of July 1673. Mademoiselle du Pare (marquise de
Gorla) was no very great actress, but was very beautiful, and
she had previously captivated Moliere. Racine induced her
to leave the Palais Royal company and join the Hotel. She
died in 1668, and long afterwards the infamous Catherine
Voisin accused Racine of having poisoned her. Mademoiselle
de Champmesle was plain, but an admirable actress, and ap-
parently very attractive in some way, for not merely Racine
but Charles de Sevigne and many others adored her. For five
years before his marriage Racine seems to have been her amant
en litre, but. long afterwards, just before his own death, when
he heard of her mortal illness, he spoke of her to his son without
a flash of tenderness.
The series of his unquestioned dramatic triumphs began with
Andromaque, and this play may perhaps dispute with Phedre
and Athalie the title of his masterpiece. It is much more
uniformly good than Phedre, and the character of Hermione
is the most personally interesting on the French tragic stage.
It is said that the first representation of Andromaque was on
loth November 1667, in public and by the actors of the Hotel
de Bourgogne, but the first contemporary mention of it by the
gazettes, prose and verse, is on the I7th, as performed in the
queen's apartment. Perrault, by no means a friendly critic as
far as Racine is concerned, says that it made as much noise as
the Cid, and so it ought to have done. Whatever may be
thought of the tragedie pathetique (a less favourable criticism
might call it the " sentimental tragedy "), it could hardly be
better exemplified than in this admirable play. A ferocious
epigram of Racine's own tells us that some critics thought
Pyrrhus too fond of his mistress, and Andromache too fond
of her husband, but in the contemporary depreciations is to
be found the avowal of its real merit. Pyrrhus was taken by
Floridor, the best tragic actor by common consent of his time,
and Orestes by Montfleury, also an accomplished player. But
Mademoiselle du Pare, who played Andromache, had gener-
ally been thought below, not above , her parts, and Mademoiselle
des Oeillets, who played the difficult r&le of Hermione, was
old and had few physical advantages. No one who reads
Andromaque without prejudice is likely to mistake the secret
of its success, which is, in few words, the application of the
most delicate art to the conception of really tragic passion.
Before leaving the play it may be mentioned that it is said
to have been in the part of Hermione, three years later, that
Mademoiselle de Champmesle captivated the author. Andro-
maque was succeeded, at the distance of not more than a year,
by the charming comedietta of Les Plaideurs. We do not know
exactly when it was played, but it was printed on the 5th of
December 1668. Many anecdotes are told about its origin
and composition. The Wasps of Aristophanes, and the known
fact that Racine originally destined it, not for a French com-
pany, but for the Italian troupe which was then playing the
Commedia dell' arte in Paris, dispense us from enumerating
them. The result is a piece admirably dramatic, but suffici-
ently literary to shock the profanum vulgus, which too
frequently gives the tone at theatres. It failed completely,
the chief favouring voice being, according to a story sufficiently
well attested and worthy of belief even without attestation,
that of the man who was best qualified to praise and who might
have been most tempted to blame of any man then living.
Moliere, says Valincourt, the special friend of Racine, said in
leaving the house, " Que ceux qui se moquoient de cette piece
meritoient qu'on se moquoient d'eux." But the piece was
suddenly played at court a month later; the king laughed,
and its fortunes were restored. It need only be added that, if
Louis XIV. admired Les Plaideurs, Napoleon did not, and
excluded it from his travelling library. It was followed by a
very different work, Britannicus, which appeared on I3th
December 1669. This was much less successful than Andro-
maque, and seems to have held its own but a very few nights.
Afterwards it became very popular, and even from the first the
RACINE, JEAN
777
exquisite versification was not denied. But there is no doubt
that in Britannicus the defects of Racine display themselves
pretty clearly to any competent critic. The complete nullity
of Britannicus himself and of Junie, and the insufficient attempt
to display the complex and dangerous character of Nero are
not redeemed by Agrippina, who is really good, and Burrhus,
who is solidly painted as a secondary character. Voltaire calls
it " la piece des connaisseurs," a double-edged compliment.
The next play of Racine has, except Phedre, the most curious
history of all. " Berenice," says Fontenelle succinctly, " fut
un duel," and he acknowledges that his uncle was not the
conqueror. Henrietta of Orleans proposed (it is said without
lotting them know the double commission) the subject to
Corneille and Racine at the same time, and rumour gives no
very creditable reasons for her choice of the subject. Her
death preceded the performance of the two plays, both of which,
but especially Racine's, were successful. There is no doubt
that it is the better of the two, but Claude Chapelle's not un-
friendly criticism in quoting the two lines of an old song
"Marion pleure, Marion crie,
Marion veut qu'on la marie"-
is said to have annoyed Racine very much, and it has a most
malicious appropriateness. Bajazet, which was first played on
4th January 1672, is perhaps better. As a play, technically
speaking, it has great merit, but the reproach commonly brought
against its author was urged specially and with great force
against this by Corneille. It is impossible to imagine anything
less Oriental than the atmosphere of Bajazet; the whole thing
is not only French but ephemerally French French of the day
and hour; and its ingenious scenario and admirable style
scarcely save it. This charge is equally applicable with the
same reservations to Milhridale, which appears to have been
produced on I3th January 1673, the day after the author's
reception at the Academy. It was extremely popular, and Racine
could hardly have lodged a more triumphant diploma piece.
His next attempt, Iphigtnie, was a long step backwards and
upwards in the direction of Andromaque. It is not that the
characters are eminently Greek, but that Greek tragedy gave
Racine examples which prevented him from flying in the face
of the propriety of character as he had done in Btrinice, Bajazet,
and Mithridate, and that he here called in, as in Andromaque,
other passions to the aid of the mere sighing and crying which
form the sole appeal of these three tragedies. It succeeded
brilliantly and deservedly, but, oddly enough, the date of its
appearance is very uncertain. It was acted at court on the
i8th of August 1674, but it does not seem to have been given to
the public till the early spring of 1675.
The last and finest of the series of tragedies proper was the
most unlucky. Phedre was represented for the first time on
New Year's Day 1677, at the H6tel de Bourgogne. Within
a week the opposition company or troupe du roi launched an
opposition Phedre by Nicolas Pradon. This singular com-
petition, which had momentous results for Racine, and in
which he to some extent paid the penalty of the lex talionis
for his own rivalry with Corneille, had long been foreseen.
Racine had from the first been bitterly opposed, and his
enemies at this time had the powerful support of the duchess
of Bouillon, one of Mazarin's nieces, together with her brother
the duke of Nevers and divers other personages of hisjli position.
These persons of quality, guided, it is said, by Madame
Deshoulieres, selected Pradon, a dramatist of little talent
but of much facility, to compose a Phedre in competition with
that which it was known that Racine had been elaborating.
The partisans on both sides did not neglect means for correcting
fortune. On her side the duchess of Bomllon is accused of
having bought up the front places in both theatres for the
first six nights; on his, Racine is said to have prevailed on
the best actresses of the company that played Pradon's piece
to refuse the title part. There is even some ground for
believing that he endeavoured to prevent the opposition play
from being played at all. It was of no value, but the measures
of the cabal had been so well taken that the finest tragedy
of the French classical school was all but driven from the
stage, while Pradon's was a positive success. A war of
sonnets and epigrams followed, during which it is said that
the duke of Nevers menaced Racine and Boileau with the
same treatment which Dryden and Voltaire actually received,
and was only deterred by the protection which Cond6 extended
to them.
The unjust cabal against his piece no doubt made a deep
impression on Racine. But it is impossible to decide exactly
how much influence this had on the subsequent change in his
life. For thirteen years he had been constantly employed on a
series of brilliant dramas. He now broke off his dramatic
work entirely and in the remaining twenty years of his life
wrote but two more plays, and those under special circum-
stances and of quite a different kind. He had been during
his early manhood a libertine in morals and religion; he now
married, became irreproachably domestic, and almost
ostentatiously devout. No authentic account of this change
exists; for that of Louis Racine, which attributes the whole
to a sudden religious impulse, is manifestly little more than
the theory of a son, pious in both senses of the word. Probably
all the motives which friends and foes have attributed entered
more or less into his action. At any rate, what is certain is
that he reconciled himself with Arnauld and Port Royal
generally, accepted, with whatever sincerity, their doctrine of
the incompatibility of the stage and the Christian life, and
on the ist of June married Catherine de Romanet and definitely
settled down to a quiet domestic life, alternated with the
duties of a courtier. For his repentance was by no means a
repentance in sackcloth and ashes. The drama was not then
very profitable to dramatists, but Louis Racine tells us that
his father had been able to furnish a house, collect a library
of some value, and save 6000 livres. His wife had money,
and he had possessed for some time (it is not certain how long)
the honourable and valuable post of treasurer of France at
Moulins. His annual " gratification " had .been increased
from 800 to 1500 livres, then to 2000, and in the October of
the year of his marriage he and Boileau were made historio-
graphers-royal with a salary of 2000 crowns. Besides all
this he had, though a layman, one or two benefices. It would
have been pleasanter if Louis Racine had not told us that his
father regarded His Majesty's choice as " an act of the grace
of God to detach him entirely from poetry." For the historio-
grapher of Louis XIV. was simply his chief flatterer. However,
little came of this historiography. The joint incumbents of
the office made some campaigns with the king, sketched plans
of histories and left a certain number of materials and memoirs;
but they executed no substantive work. Racine, whether
this be set down to his credit or not, was certainly a fortunate
and apparently an adroit courtier. His very relapse into
Jansenism coincided with his rise at court, where Jansenism
was in no favour, and the fact that he had been in the good
graces of Madame de Montespan did not deprive him of those
of Madame de Maintenon. Neither in Esther did he hesitate
to reflect upon his former patroness. But a reported sneer
of the king, who was sharp-eyed enough, " Cavoie avec Racine
se croit bel esprit; Racine avec Cavoie se croit courtisan,"
makes it appear that his comparatively low birth was not
forgotten at Versailles.
Racine's first campaign was at the siege of Ypres in 1678,
where some practical jokes are said to have been played on
the two civilians who acted this early and peculiar variety of
the part of special correspondent. Again in 1683, in 1687
and in each year from 1691 to 1693 Racine accompanied the
king on similar expeditions. The literary results of these
have been spoken of. His labours brought him, in addition
to his other gains, frequent special presents from the king,
one of which was as much as 1000 pistoles. In 1690 he
further received the office of " gentilhomme ordinaire du roi,"
which afterwards passed to his son. Thus during the later
years of his life he was more prosperous than is usual with
poets. His domestic life appears to have been a happy one.
77 8
RACINE, JEAN
Louis Racine tells us that his mother " did not know what a
verse was," but Racine certainly knew enough about verses
for both. They had seven children. The eldest, Jean Baptiste,
was born in 1678; the youngest, Louis, in 1692. It has been
said that he was thus too young to have many personal memories
of his father, but he tells one or two stories which show Racine
to have been at any rate a man of strong family affection, as,
moreover, his letters prove. Between the two sons came five
daughters, Marie, Anne, Elizabeth, Francoise and Madeleine.
The eldest, after showing " vocation," married in 1699, Anne
and Elizabeth took the veil, the youngest two remained single
but did not enter the cloister. To complete the notice of
family matters much of Racine's later correspondence is
addressed to his sister Marie, Madame Riviere.
The almost complete silence which Racine imposed on
himself after the comparative failure of Phedre was broken
once or twice even before the appearance of his two last
exquisite tragedies. The most honourable of these was the
reception of Thomas Corneille on 2nd January 1685 at the
Academy in the room of his brother. The discourse which
Racine then pronounced turned almost entirely on his great
rival, of whom he spoke even more than becomingly. But
it was an odd conjunction of the two reigning passions of the
latter part of his life devoutness and obsequiousness to the
court which made him once more a dramatist. Madame de
Maintenon had established an institution, first called the
Maison Saint Louis, and afterwards (from the place to which
it was transferred) the Maison de Saint Cyr, for the education
of poor girls of noble family. The tradition of including
acting in education was not obsolete. At first the governess,
Madame de Grinon, composed pieces for representation, but,
says Madame de Caylus, a witness at first hand and a good
judge, they were " detestable." Then recourse was had to
chosen plays of Corneille and Racine, but here there were obvious
objections. The favourite herself wrote to Racine that " nos
petites filles " had played Andromaque " a great deal too well."
She asked the poet for a new play suited to the circumstances,
and, though Boileau advised him against it, it is not wonderful
that he yielded. The result was the masterpiece of Esther,
with music by Moreau, the court composer and organist of
Saint Cyr. Although played by schoolgirls and in a dormitory,
it had an enormous success, with which it may be charitably
hoped that the transparent comparison of the patroness to
the heroine had not too much to do. Printed shortly afterwards,
it had to suffer a certain reaction, or perhaps a certain vengeance,
from those who had not been admitted to the private stage.
But no competent judge could hesitate. Racine probably
had read and to some extent followed the A man of Antoine de
Montchretien, but he made of it only the use which a proved
master in literature has a perfect right to make of his fore-
runners. The beauty of the chorus, which Racine had restored
more probably from a study of the Pleiade tragedy than from
classical suggestions, the perfection of the characters and
the wonderful art of the whole piece need no praise. Almost
immediately the poet was at work on another and a still finer
piece of the same kind, and he had probably finished Athalie
before the end of 1690. The fate of the play, however, was
very different from that of Esther. Some fuss had been made
about the worldliness of great court fetes at Saint Cyr, and
the new play, with settings as before by Moreau, was acted
both at Versailles and at Saint Cyr with much less pomp and
ceremony than Esther. It was printed in March 1691, and
the public cared very little for it. The truth is that the last
five-and-twenty years of the reign of Louis XIV. were marked
by one of the lowest tides of literary accomplishment and
appreciation in the history of France. The just judgment of
posterity has ranked Athalie, if not as Racine's best work (and
there are good grounds for considering it to be this), at any
rate as equal to his best. Thenceforward Racine was practically
silent, except for four cantiques spirituelles, in the style and
with much of the merit of the choruses of Esther and Athalie.
The general literary sentiment led by Fontenelle (who inherited
the wrongs of Corneille, his uncle, and whom Racine had taken
care to estrange further) was against the arrogant critic and
the irritable poet, and they made their case worse by espousing
the cause of La Bruyere, whose personalities in his Caracteres
had made him one of the best-hated men in France, and by
engaging in the Ancient and Modern battle with Charles
Perrault. Racine, moreover, was a constant and spiteful
epigrammatist, and the unlucky habit of preferring his joke
to his friend stuck by him to the last. A savage epigram
on the Sesostris of Hilaire Bernard de Longepierre, who had
done him no harm, was his familiar acquaintance, and had
actually put him above Corneille in a parallele between them,
dates as late as 1695. Still the king maintained him in favour,
and so long as this continued he could afford to laugh at Grub
Street and the successors of the Hotel de Rambouillet alike.
At last, however, there seems to have come a change, and it
is even probable that royal displeasure had some effect on his
health. Disease of the liver appears to have been the immediate
cause of his death, which took place on i2th April 1699. The
king seems to have, at any rate, forgiven him after his death,
and he gave the family a pension of 2000 livres. Racine was
buried at Port Royal, but even this transaction was not the
last of his relations with that famous home of religion and
learning. After the destruction of the abbey in 1711 his body
was exhumed and transferred to Saint Etienne du Mont, his
gravestone being left behind and only restored to his ashes
a hundred years later, in 1818. His eldest son was never
married; his eldest daughter and Louis Racine have left
descendants to the present day.
Racine may be considered from two very different points of
view, (i) as a playwright and poetical artificer, and (2) as a
dramatist and a poet. From the first point of view there is
hardly any praise too high for him. He did not invent the form
he practised, and those who, from want of attention to the
historical facts, assume that he did are unskilful as well as
ignorant. When he came upon the scene the form of French
plays was settled, partly by the energetic efforts of the Pleiade
and their successors, partly by the reluctant acquiescence of
Corneille. It is barely possible that the latter might, if he had
chosen, have altered the course of French tragedy; it is nearly
certain that Racine could not. But Corneille, though he was
himself more responsible than any one else for the acceptance
of the single-situation tragedy, never frankly gave himself up
to it, and the inequality of his work is due to this. His heart
was, though not to his knowledge, elsewhere, and with Shake-
speare. Racine, in whom the craftsman dominated the man of
genius, worked with a will and without any misgivings. Every
advantage of which the Senecan tragedy adapted to modern
times was capable he gave it. He perfected its versification;
he subordinated its scheme entirely to the one motive which
could have free play in it, the display of a conventionally
intense passion, hampered by this or that obstacle; he set him-
self to produce in verse a kind of Ciceronian correctness. The
grammar-criticisms of Vaugelas and the taste-criticisms of
Boileau produced in him no feeling of revolt, but only a deter-
mination to play the game according to these new rules with
triumphant accuracy. And he did so play it. He had supremely
the same faculty which enabled the rhetoriqueurs of the i5th
century to execute apparently impossible tours deforce in ballades
couronnees, and similar tricks. He had besides a real and
saving vein of truth to nature, which preserved him from tricks
pure and simple. He would be, and he was, as much a poet as
prevalent taste would let him be. The result is that such plays
as Phedre and Andromaque are supreme in their own way. If
the critic will only abstain from thrusting in tierce, when accord-
ing to the particular rules he ought to thrust in quart, Racine
is sure to beat him.
But there is a higher game of criticism than this, and this
game Racine does not attempt to play. He does not even
attempt the highest poetry at all. His greatest achievements in
pure passion the foiled desires of Hermione and the jealous
frenzy of Phedre are cold, not merely beside the crossed love
RACINE, L. RACK
779
of Ophelia and the remorse of Lady Macbeth, but beside the
sincerer if less perfectly expressed passion of Corneille's Cleopatre
and Camille. In men's parts he fails still more completely.
As the decency of his stage would not allow him to make his
heroes frankly heroic, so it would not allow him to make them
utterly passionate. He had, moreover, cut away from himself,
by the adoption of the Senecan model, all the opportunities
which would have been offered to his remarkably varied talent
on a freer stage. It is indeed tolerably certain that he never
could have achieved the purely poetical comedy of As You Like
//or the Vida es Sueno, but the admirable success of Les Plaideitrs
makes it at least probable that he might have done something
in a lower and a more conventional style. From all this,
however, he deliberately cut himself off. Of the whole world
which is subject to the poet he took only a narrow artificial and
conventional fraction. Within these narrow bounds he did work
which no admirer of literary craftsmanship can regard without
admiration. It would be unnecessary to contrast his per-
formances with his limitations so sharply if those limitations
had not been denied. But they have been and are still denied
by persons whose sentence carries weight, and therefore it is
still necessary to point out the fact of their existence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Nearly all Racine's works are mentioned in
the above notice. There is here no room for a bibliographical
account of their separate appearances. The first collected edition
was in 1675-76, and contained the nine tragedies which had then
appeared. The last and most complete which appeared in the
poet's lifetime (1697) was perhaps revised by him, and contains
the dramas and a few miscellaneous works. Like the editio princeps,
it is in 2 vols. I2mo. The posthumous editions are innumerable
and gradually became more and more complete. The most
noteworthy are the Amsterdam edition of 1722; that by Abbe
d'Olivet, also at Amsterdam, 1743; the Paris quarto of 1760;
the edition of Luneau de Boisjermain, Paris and London, 1768;
the magnificent illustrated folios of 1805 (Paris); the edition of
Germain Gamier with La Harpe's commentary, 1807; Geoffrey's
of the next year; Aime Martin's of 1820; and lastly, the Grands
ecrivains edition of Paul Mesnard (Paris, 1865-73). This last
contains almost all that is necessary for the study of the poet, and
has been chiefly used in preparing the above notice. Louis Racine's
Life was first published in 1747. Translations and imitations of
Racine are innumerable. In English the Distressed Mother of
Ambrose Philips and the Phaedra and Hippolytus of Edmund
Smith (1672-1710), both composed more or less under Addison's
influence, are the most noteworthy.
As for criticism on him, a bibliography of it would be nearly a
bibliography of French critical literature. The chief recent instance
of substantive work is G. Larroumet's. monograph in the Grands
ecrivains franfais (1898), but F. Bruneti^re, fimile Faguet, and other
critics have constantly and in various ways endeavoured to apply
the general reaction from Romanticism to a semi-classical attitude
to this greatest of French " classics." The conclusions above given
remain unaffected by this temporary set of opinion. Racine will
never be enfonce " put to rout " as the extravagant Romantics
thought him to be for a time. But, on the other hand, his limita-
tions will remain, and no ingenious but arbitrary and extemporized
theories of drama as to " conflicts of will" and the like can suffice
to veil his defect in universality, his comparative shallowness, and
his inadequate appreciation, or at least representation, of the rich-
ness, the intricacy and the unconventionally of nature.
(G. SA.)
RACING, LOUIS (1692-1763), French poet, second son of
Jean Racine, was born in Paris on the 6th of November 1692.
Early conscious of a vocation for poetry, he had been dissuaded
from following his inclination by Boileau on the ground that the
gift never existed in two successive generations. In 1722 his
small means induced him to accept a position in the revenue in
Provence, but a marriage with a certain Mademoiselle Presle
secured his independence. In 1755 he lost his son in the disasters
consequent on the Lisbon earthquake. This misfortune,
commemorated by Ecouchard Lebrun, broke Racine's spirit.
He sold his library, and gave himself up entirely to the practice
of religion. In 1719 he had become a member of the Academic
des Inscriptions, but had never offered himself as a member of
the Academic Franchise, for fear, it is said, of incurring refusal
on account of his Jansenist opinions. La Grace (1720) and
Religion (1742), his most important work, are inspired by a
sincere piety, and are written in verse of uniform clearness and
excellence. His other works include epistles, odes, among which
the Ode sur I'harmonie (1736) should be mentioned, Mtmoires
(1747) of Jean Racine, and a prose translation of Paradise Lost
(1755). Louis Racine died on the 29th of January 1763. He
was characterized by Voltaire as " le bon versificateur Racine,
fils du grand poete Racine."
His CEuvres completes were collected (6 vols.) in 1808.
RACINE, a city and the county-seat of Racine county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the W. shore of Lake Michigan at the
mouth of the Root river, about 25 m. S.S.E. of Milwaukee and
about 60 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 21,014; (1900)
29,102, of whom 9242 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
38,002. Racine is served by the Chicago & North Western
and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, by two inter-
urban electric railways, connecting with Milwaukee and Chicago,
and by steamboat lines. The river has been deepened and its
mouth protected by breakwaters, providing an excellent
harbour; in 1909 vessels drawing 19 ft. could pass through the
channel. Among the public buildings are the City Hall, the
County Court House, the Federal Building, the Carnegie
Library, the 'High School, two hospitals and the Taylor
Orphan Asylum (1872). Among educational institutions,
besides the public schools, are Racine College (Protestant
Episcopal, 1853), St Catherine's Academy (Roman Catholic)
and two business colleges. Racine is, next to Milwaukee, the
most important manufacturing centre in Wisconsin. The
value of its factory products in 1905 was $16,458,965, an increase
of 41% over that of 1900. Of this, $5,177,079 (or 31-5% of
the city's total) represented agricultural implements and
machinery. Carriages and wagons ($2,729,311) and automobiles
ranked next in importance.
Racine was the French form of the name of the Root river.
The first Europeans positively known to have visited the site
of Racine were Vincennes, Tonty and several Jesuit missionaries,
who stopped here for a time on their way down the coast in
1699. Early in the igth century Jambeau, a French trader,
established himself on the Root river, and in 1834 Gilbert
Knapp (1798-1889), who had been a lake captain since 1818,
induced several residents of Chicago to make their homes at
its mouth. The place was at first called Port Gilbert. The
settlement grew rapidly, a sawmill was built in 1835, and the
present name was adopted in 1837. In 1841 Racine was
incorporated as a village and in 1848 was chartered as a city.
See S. S. Hurlburt, Early Days at Racine (Racine, 1872); History
of Racine and Kenosha Counties (Chicago, 1879).
RACK, an homonymous word of which the principal
branches are the words meaning (i) a mass of cloud driving
before the wind in the upper air, (2) to draw off wine or other
liquor from the lees, (3) a bar or framework of bars, (4) an .
instrument of torture. The etymology of (i) shows that it is
ultimately to be connected with " wreck " and " wrack,"
drifted seaweed, and means that which is driven by or drifts
with the wind; cf. Norw. rak, wreckage, refuse, Icel. reka, to
drive, toss. In (2) the term seems to have come from the
Gascon wine-trade, as Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1910) points out,
and was adapted from Prov. arracar, to decant wine, raca, the
stems and husks of grapes, dregs. Both (2) and (3) are in
origin to be connected. The O. E. reccan and Ger. recken
mean " to stretch," and so " rack " means something stretched
out, a straight bar or rail, especially a toothed bar gearing
with a cog-wheel, a framework of bars, as in the cradle of
upright bars in which fodder can be placed for cattle, and
the instrument of torture, which in Ger. is Recke or Rackbank.
The " rack " for torture was an oblong frame of wood, slightly
raised from the ground, having at one end a fixed bar to which
the legs were fastened, and at the other a movable bar to
which the hands were tied. By means of pulleys and levers
this latter could be rolled on its own axis, thus straining the
ropes till the sufferer's joints were dislocated. Its first employ-
ment in England is said to have been due to John Holland,
4th duke of Exeter, constable of the Tower in 1447, whence
it was popularly known as " the Duke of Exeter's daughter."
RACKETT RACQUETS
ffl
In 1628 the whole question of its legality was raised by the
attempt of the privy council to rack John Felton, the assassin
of the duke of Buckingham. This the judges resisted, unani-
mously declaring its use to be contrary to the laws of England.
RACKETT, or RACKETT-BASSOON (Fr. cervelas or cervdat;
Ger. Rackett, Ranke(t or Wurstfagott), a kind of dwarf bassoon,
now obsolete, with a body measuring only from 45 to n in.
in length, but nevertheless containing the necessary length
of tubing to give the bassoon or contra-bassoon pitch. The
rackett consists of a barrel-like body, resembling the barrel
drone of the musette (see BAGPIPE), made of wood or ivory.
Round a centre tube are grouped eight parallel channels of
very narrow cylindrical bore communicating with each other
and forming a continuous tube nine times the length of the
small body.
A reed mouthpiece in combination with a cylindrical tube
invests the latter with the acoustic properties of a closed pipe by
creating a node at the mouthpiece end; the fundamental note
given by such a tube is, therefore, an octave deeper in pitch than would
be an open pipe of the same length. The bassoon
has a conical bore and the properties of the open
pipe,wherefore the aggregate lengthofthechannels
in the rackett only requires to be half that of the
bassoon, a physical phenomenon to which this
curious freak owed its existence. In the rackett
the holes are bored obliquely through from the
channels to the circumference three in front for
the left and three for the right hand, with an
additional hole for the little finger; while at the
back are placed the vent and three holes, one for
the left thumb and two for the right, the second
hole being controlled by the ball of the thumb.
The rackett is played by means of a large double
reed placed within a pirouette or cap, so that the
From Capt. C. R. lips do not come into contact with the reed, but
Day's Catalogue rf on i y xn ^ a stream o f compressed air into the
mmt's by pVrmfal pirouette, whereby the reed is set in vibration,
sion 'of Eyre & The consequence of this principle of construction,
Spottiswoode. peculiar to the bagpipe cnaunter and drones (with
a slight variation) and to cromornes, hautbois de Poitou and a lew
other obsolete instruments, is that no harmonics can be obtained,
since the vibrating length and the tension of the reed cannot be
controlled by the player; the compass is therefore pbtained by means
of the fundamental and of the ten holes of the instrument, aided by
cross-fingering. (K. S.)
RACQUETS, or RACKETS, a game played in an enclosed
court with a ball and an implement with which the ball is
struck called a racquet, from which the game takes its name.
The racquet 1 is about 25 ft. long, the head, which was
formerly pear-shaped, being in the modern racquet nearly
circular, from 7 to 8 in. in diameter and tightly cross-
strung with cat-gut. The balls, which are about ij in.
in diameter, are made of strips of cloth tightly wound over
each other, with a sewn covering of smooth white leather,
the floor and walls of English courts being coloured black;
in India, where the floor and walls of the court are painted
FIG. i. The Racquet.
white, black balls are used. There are no regulation dimen-
sions for a racquet court, nor for the racquet or ball, though
substantial uniformity is observed in practice. The game is
usually played either by two or by four players; and in England
the court is the same for the four-handed and the two-handed
game, the floor measuring usually 60 ft. by 30 ft., or occasionally
an inch or two more each way; but in America larger courts
measuring on the floor 80 ft. by 40 ft., a size formerly not
1 The word comes, through Fr. raquette, from Sp. and Port, raquela.
The origin is doubtful, but Arab. rdffa(t), palm of the hand, has been
suggested; " fives "played with the hand long preceded the game
with a bat; cf. also Fr. name for fives, paume.
uncommon in England, are sometimes built for the fouz-
handed game. Modern racquet courts have four walls and a
roof, though in India they are sometimes left unroofed for the
sake of coolness. The floor, which must be perfectly level
and smooth, should be made of cement; but is sometimes
paved, with less perfect results. The floor cannot be too hard,
since the faster the ball travels the better the game; similarly
the walls, which should be built of masonry faced with cement
and most carefully smoothed, cannot be too hard and fast.
The front and side walls are about 30 ft. high, the back wall
being about half that height, with a gallery for spectators
(containing the marker's and umpires' box) above it. The
court is entered by a door in the centre of the back wall,
which when shut must be perfectly flush with that wall,
and without any projecting handle. The court is lighted
from the roof. The diagram (fig. 2)
shows the divisions and markings of
the court. On the front wall is fixed
a wooden board, the upper edge of
which, 26 in. from the floor, constitutes *
the " play-line," and which usually
fills the whole space from that height
to the floor; and at a height from the
floor of 8 ft. or a few inches more is
a second line, called the " cut-line " or
" service-line," painted white or in
colour. At a distance of 38 ft. (in a
court 60 ft. by 30 ft.) from the front
wall and parallel to it, a white line is
painted on the floor from wall to wall,
called the "short-line"; and from the
centre of the short-line to the centre
of the back wall is the " fault-line,"
dividing into two equal rectangles the
space between the back wall and the
short-line. These rectangles are the
service-courts and are called the right-
hand and left-hand court respectively.
Against the side walls outside these
courts, but so that one side in each case
is formed by the short-line, are squares
8 ft. by 8 ft. called the service-boxes.
The Game. Racquets . is usually played either by two
persons (" singles "), or four persons playing two against two
(" doubles "); and the general idea of the game is the same as
that in tennis, lawn tennis and fives, the object of the player in
all these games being to score a point by striking the ball either
before it reaches the ground or on its first bound, in accordance
with the rules of the game, in such a way that his adversary may
fail to make a " good," i.e. a valid, stroke in return. In the
four-handed game one of each set of partners takes the right-
hand court and his partner the left. The game consists of
15 points called "aces." Aces can only be scored by the
" hand-in " (the player, or side, having the "innings"), and the
" hand-out " must therefore win a stroke or strokes to obtain
innings before he or they can score an ace; in " doubles " each
of the partners has an innings, and both must therefore be
ousted before " hand-out " obtains the innings; but to this
rule the first innings of each game affords an exception (see
below). The " hand-in " always has " service," i.e. he opens the
rally (the " rally " being the series of strokes made alternately
by the two sides until one or other of them fails to make a good
return) by " serving " the ball from the hand. This first stroke,
or " serve," must be made in the following manner. The server,
standing with one foot at least inside one of the service-boxes,
must toss the ball from his hand, and while it is in the air he
must hit it with his racquet so that it strikes the front wall
above the service-line and falls to the floor within the service-
court on the opposite side; after striking the front wall the
ball may, but need not, strike the side wall or back wall, or
both, and it may do so either before or after touching the floor.
The serve is a " fault " if the ball (i) strikes the front wall
Elevation of End Wall
,
Service Line 8 from floor
Play Line
Floor Level
'
o * - a'-
Srvt '. Service
Box B Box
;Short Line
j
~
2
fi
Back Wall 15' high
Gallery Above
FIG. 2.
RACQUETS
781
above the board but on or below the service-line, in which case
it is called a " cut "; or (2) touches the floor on the first bound,
outside the proper service-court, when it is called " short " or
" fault " according to the position of its pitch (see below). If
the " hand-out " player to whom the fault is served " takes "
it (i.e. if he plays at it), the fault is condoned and the play
proceeds as if the serve had been good. If, however, the fault
be not taken, the server must serve again from the same box;
and if he serves a second fault he loses his " hand " or innings,
and his partner or his opponent, as the case may be, takes his
place. Two consecutive faults have thus the same result as the
loss of a stroke in the rally by the " hand-in." A serve which
mak-es the ball strike the board, or the floor before reaching the
front wall, or which sends it " out-of-court " (i.e. into the gallery
or roof of the court), counts the same as two consecutive faults;
it costs the server his innings. Skill in service is a most im-
portant part of proficiency in racquets; a player can hardly
become first-rate unless he possesses a " strong service." As
in tennis a great deal of " cut " may be imparted to the ball by
the stroke of the racquet, which makes the ball in its rebound
from the wall behave like a billiard ball carrying " side " when
striking a cushion; and when this "cut" is combined with
great pace in the bound of the ball off the side wall, the back
wall, and the floor, at varying angles which the server has to a
great degree under his control, it becomes exceedingly difficult
for hand-out to " get up " the serve (i.e. to hit it on the first
bound, sending it above the play-line on the back wall), and
still more so to make a good stroke which will render it difficult
for his adversary in his turn to get up the ball and thus continue
the rally. It often happens, therefore, that a long sequence of
aces, sometimes the whole 15 aces of a game, are scored con-
secutively by service which hand-out is unable to return. A
noteworthy instance of successful service occurred in the semi-
final tie of the doubles Amateur Championship matches at the
Queen's Club in 1897 when W. L. Foster opened service and
scored all the aces in the first two games, and added six in the
third, thus putting on a sequence of 36 aces before losing his
" hand." To obtain first innings is therefore an initial advantage,
although in doubles it is limited by the rule that only one partner
shall have a " hand " (innings) in the opening service.
The question which side shall have this advantage is decided
by spinning a racquet, the " rough " and " smooth " sides of
which take the place of " heads " and " tails " when a coin is
tossed. The side winning the spin opens the game by serving as
described above. The server may begin in either of the service
boxes; but when he has started, the service must proceed from
the two boxes alternately till the close of the innings of the
side, whether 'singles or doubles. When the other side obtains
the innings they may in like manner begin in either box, without
regard to where the last service of their opponents was delivered.
In singles, hand-out changes sides in the court after each serve,
answering to the change over of the server; in doubles the serve
is taken alternately by the two hand-out players, who perma-
nently occupy the right- and left-hand courts respectively, being
allowed to change the order in which they receive the service
only once in any game, or at the end of any game or rubber.
Except in the very rare case of left-handed players most of the
play in the left half of the court, including the taking of all
service on that side, is back-handed; and the stronger of the
two partners in back-hand play usually therefore takes the
left-hand court. The best position in the court for the hand-out
about to take the serve depends entirely on the nature of the
service, and he has to use his judgment the instant the ball
leaves the server's racquet in order to determine where it will
strike the floor and at what precise point in its course it will be
best for him to attempt to take it. A strong fast service,
heavily cut, that sends the ball darting round the corner of the
court, leaving the back wall at an extremely acute angle, or
dropping almost dead off it, can only be got up by standing near
the back wall a long way across the court and taking the ball by
a wrist stroke at the last instant before it falls to the ground a
second time. On the other hand when the server avoids the
side wall altogether and strikes the back wall direct and hard,
whether he achieves a " nick " serve (i.e. the ball striking
precisely in the angle between the back wall and the floor) or
hits the wall high up, hand-out will have little time to spare in
changing position to get within reach of the ball. Some good
players make a practice wherever possible, especially in the case
of heavily cut service, of taking the serve on the volley (i.e.
before the ball reaches the ground), sometimes of taking the ball
after it leaves the side wall and before it reaches the back wall;
practice alone enables the player to decide with the necessary
promptitude how each stroke is to be played. In returning
the serve, or in playing any stroke during the rally, the ball may
strike any of the other walls before the front wall; but though
this " boasted " stroke is quite legitimate, and is sometimes
the only way of getting up a difficult ball, it is not considered
good style deliberately to slash the ball round the corners in
order to keep it in the fore end of the court. Good play consists
for the most part in hard low hitting, especially as close as
possible along the side walls into the corners of the back wall.
One of the most effective strokes in racquets is the " drop,"
which means that the ball is hit so that it only just reaches the
front wall and drops close to it, while the player conceals his
intention by appearing to strike hard. " The drop-stroke,"
says Mr Eustace Miles, who regrets that it is less cultivated than
formerly, " is one of the most beautiful, and of all drop-strokes,
the volley or half-volley is the best." The " half-volley," in
which the ball is struck at the moment of its contact with the
floor and before it has had time to rise, is also employed with
great effect in hard play; it makes the return much quicker
than when the ball is allowed to rise to the full length of the
bound, and requires corresponding quickness on the part of
the adversary. It sometimes happens, too, that the player
finding himself too near the pitch of the ball to take it at the end
of the bound, yet not near enough to volley it, is compelled to
take it on the half-volley as the only chance of getting it up.
Accuracy in volleying and half-volleying, especially if the ball be
kept low, is a most difficult art to acquire, but a good long rally
in which are included a number of hard rapid half-volleys within a
couple of inches of the board, is the prettiest feature of the game.
If hand-out succeeds in returning the serve, the rally pro-
ceeds until one side or the other fails to make a good return.
A good return means (i) that the ball is struck by the racquet
before its second bound on the floor, and without its having
touched any part of the clothes or person of the striker or his
partner; (2) that it is hit against the front wall above the
board without first touching the floor or going out of court;
and (3) that it returns off the front wall into play (i.e. to the
floor of the court or to an adversary's racquet) without going
out of court. If hand-in be the one to fail in making a good
return, he loses his " hand," or innings, and (in singles) hand-
out goes in and proceeds to serve; in doubles one of the hand-
in partners loses his " hand," and the second partner goes in
and serves till he in turn similarly loses his " hand," except
that in the case of the opening service in the game there is
(as already mentioned) only one " hand " in any event. If
hand-out fails to make a good return to the serve or to any
stroke in the rally, hand-in scores an ace, and the side that
first scores 15 aces wins the game. When, however, the score
reaches " 13-3!! " (i.e. when each side has scored 13 aces), hand-
out may, before the next serve is delivered, declare that he
elects to " set " the game either to 5 or 3, whichever he prefers;
and similarly when the score stands at " 14-0!!," hand-out may
set " the game to 3. He makes this declaration by calling
"set-s!" or "set-3!" and it means that 5 aces, or 3 aces,
as the case may be, shall be required to win the game.
In the confined space of a racquet court it is not always easy,
especially in doubles, for the players to avoid obstructing
each other. It is provided in the rules that " each player
must get out of his opponents' way as much as possible," and
that it shall be a " let " (an Old English word for impediment
or hindrance) and " the service or rally shall count for nothing,
and the server shall serve again from the same service-box,
782
RACQUETS
(a) if the ball in play touch the striker's opponent on or above
the knee, and if in the marker's opinion it be thereby pre-
vented from reaching the front wall above the board (the play-
line); or (6) if either player undesignedly prevent his opponent
from returning the ball served in play." If a player considers
that he has been thus obstructed by his opponent he may
" claim a let," and the marker adjudicates his claim. The
marker's decision is final; but " if in doubt which way to
decide, the marker may direct that the ace be played over again."
It is the duty of the marker, who occupies a box in the gallery,
to " call the game." As soon as the server serves the ball the
marker calls "Play!" if the ball strikes the front wall above
the service-line; and "Cut!" if it strikes below the service-
line; if the ball falls in front of the short-line the marker
calls "Short!"; if the wrong side of the fault-line he calls
"Fault!"; but whether it be "cut," "short," or "fault,"
the serve counts as a fault in its effect. To every good return,
as to every good serve, the marker calls "Play!" If a return
is made after the second bound of the ball (called a "double")
the marker calls "Double!" or "Not up!"; if the ball is hit
into the gallery, or against its posts or cushions, or above
the girders or cross-beams of the roof, he calls " Out-of-court!"
At the end of every rally he calls the state of the game, always
naming first the score of hand-in: ''One-love" (love being
the term for zero) meaning that hand-in has scored one ace
and hand-out nothing, "Two-love," "Five-all," "Five-ten,"
" Fourteen-eleven," and so on, till one side has scored 15, when
the marker calls " Game! " He then in similar fashion calls the
state of the match "Two games to one," or whatever it may
be : before the commencement of the next game. The server
in possession at the end of the game continues to serve in the
new game, subject as before to the rule limiting the first innings
of the game to a single " hand." The usual number of games in
matches is five for singles, and seven for doubles. In matches
where there are umpires and a referee, there is an appeal to them
from the marker's decision except as regards questions relating
to the service, on which the marker's decision is final.
Records. Attempts have been made to trace racquets,
like tennis, to an ancient origin; but although it is doubtless
true that the striking of a ball with the hand or some primitive
form of bat is one of the oldest forms of pastimes, and that
racquets has been evolved from such an origin, the game as
now known can hardly be said to have existed before the
ipth century. Joseph Strutt's work on The Sports and Pastimes
of the People of England, published at the beginning of the
1 9th century, makes no mention of racquets; and the century
was far advanced before the racquet court was promoted from
being an adjunct of the pot-house and the gaol, in which con-
nexion the court within the purlieus of the Fleet prison has
been immortalized in the pages of Pickwick, to a position
scarcely less dignified than that of the tennis-court with its
royal and historical associations. It was at the public schools
that racquets first obtained repute. The school courts were at
first unroofed, and in some cases open also at the back and
sides, or on one side. Among the most famous of the early
racquets professionals, before the period of the modern closed
court, were Robert Mackay (1820), the brothers Thomas and
John Pittman, J. Lamb, J. C. Mitchell and Francis Erwood
(1860). One of the most famous matches ever played at
racquets was that in which Erwood was beaten by Sir William
Hart-Dyke, who used the " drop " stroke with telling effect,
and who, after representing Oxford in the first four inter-
university matches, was the only amateur racquet player
who ever defeated the open champion. A notable date in
the history of racquets was the year 1853, when the court
at the old Prince's Club in Hans Place, London, was built.
Here the annual racquet matches between Oxford and Cam-
bridge Universities, singles and doubles, were first played in
1858, and the Public Schools Championship (doubles only)
ten years later. Modern racquets may perhaps be said to date
from the time of the brothers Gray, who as professionals greatly
raised the standard of skill in the game, and as teachers at the
schools and universities improved the play of amateurs. Willia
Gray beat Foullces, the champion of America, in 1867; Henry
Gray and Joseph Gray were also great players. The latter
was beaten in 1875 by H. B. Fairs (" Punch ") but held the
championship from 1878 to 1887. Another member of the same
family was Walter Gray, who was as distinguished for the
power of his stroke as his brother William was for the accuracy
of his " drop " and the ease and grace of his volley and half-
volley. Walter Gray was followed in the championship by
Peter Latham, the first professional to combine the open Tennis
Championship with the Racquets Championship; and in the
opinion of Mr Eustace Miles " there has probably lived no
player who could have beaten him at either game." Latham
was the first to use the heavily cut service at racquets, and he
is also remarkable for the power of his wrist stroke. In the
last twelve years or so of the igth century Latham stood alone,
and in the opinion of the best judges he was the greatest of all
racquet players. When once he had won the championship he
never lost it, and when at last he resigned his title he was suc-
ceeded by Gilbert Browne, a player of a decidedly inferior
calibre, who in 1903 was challenged and beaten by an Indian
marker called Jamsetji. For the next six years, during which
Jamsetji held the championship, comparatively little was
heard of professional racquets; but in 1909 interest was revived
by a handicap at Queen's Club for a prize of 100, in which
Peter Latham himself took part, and which was won by Jennings
of Aldershot. As a result of this contest a challenge was issued
by W. Hawes, the marker at Wellington College, to play any
other professional for 200 a side and the championship of
England. The challenge was accepted by C. Williams, a young
player of Prince's Club, who easily won the match, and with it
the title of champion.
The institution of annual matches between Oxford and Cambridge
Universities in 1858, and of the Public Schools Championship in
1868, gave an immense stimulus to the game among amateurs.
Of the 51 inter-university (singles) matches from 1858 to
1908, Oxford won 26 and Cambridge 25; of the 52 contests in
doubles Oxford won 25 and Cambridge 27. Among the public
schools Harrow has been far the most successful, having won the
championship challenge cup 19 times out of 42 contests.
Moreover, under the condition permitting any school winning it in
three consecutive years to retain the challenge cup permanently,
Harrow became possessed of three cups, having won the champion-
ship 1871-1874 inclusive, 1879-1881 inclusive, and 1883-1887 in-
clusive. The next most successful school has been Eton, eight
times champion; Charterhouse having won five times, and no
other school more than three times. For the first twenty years
of the contest, with a single exception when Rugby won in 1870,
no school except Eton or Harrow gained the championship; and it
is not surprising therefore that the majority of famous amateurs
learnt the game at one or other of these schools. Among Etonians
were W. Hart-Dyke, C. J. Ottaway, the Hon. Alfred Lyttelton,
the Hon. Ivo Bligh (aftenvards Lord Darnley), C. T. Studd and H.
Philipson; Harrow has produced R. D. Walker, one of the best
of the earliest amateur racquet players, C. F. Buller, T. S. Dury,
A. J. Webbe, M. C. Kemp, E. M. Butler, the brothers Eustace
Crawley and H. E. Crawley, C. D. Buxton, H. M. Leaf, Percy Ash-
worth and C. Browning. The famous Malvern family of Foster
has been as conspicuous in the racquet court as on the cricket field,
the eldest, H. K. Foster, being probably the finest amateur player
of his generation. F. Dames Longworth, Major A. Cooper-Key,
Colonel Spens, E. M.Baerlein and Eustace H. Miles have also been
in the front rank of amateur players. The opening of the Queen's
Club, West Kensington, was a notable event in the history of
the game, especially as it was followed by the establishment of
amateur championships in singles and doubles in 1888, of which the
results have been as follows:
AMATEUR CHAMPIONSHIP
I. Singles
H. K. Foster.
1888. C. D. Buxton.
1889. E. M. Butler.
1890. P. Ashworth.
1891. H. Philipson.
1892. F. Dames Longworth.
1893. F. Dames Longworth.
1894. H. K. Foster.
1895. H. K. Foster.
1896. H. K. Foster.
1897. H. K. Foster.
1898. H. K. Foster.
1899. H. K. Foster.
1900.
1901. F. Dames Longworth.
1902. E. H. Miles.
1903. E. M. Baerlein.
1904. H. K. Foster.
1905. E. M. Baerlein.
1906. S. H. Sheppard.
1907. E. B. Noel.
1908. E. M. Baerlein.
1909. E. M. Baerlein.
1910. E. M. Baerlein.
RADAUTZ RADCLIFFE, ANN
783
II. Doubles
1890. P. Ashworth and VV. C. Heclley.
1891. P. Ashworth and K. L. Mrtcalfe.
1892. E. M. Butler and M. C. Kemp.
1893. F. H. Browning and H. K. FO>UT.
1894. H. K. Foster and F. C. Ridgeway.
1895. F. Dames Longworth and F. H. Browning.
1896. H. K. Foster and P. Ashworth.
1897. H. K. Foster and P. Ashworth.
1898. H. K. Foster and W. L. Foster.
1899. H. K. Foster and P. Ashworth.
1900. H. K. Foster and P. Ashworth.
1901. F. Dames Longworth and V. H. Pennell.
1902. E. M. Baerlein and E. H. Miles.
1903. H. K. Foster and B. S. Foster.
1904. E. H. Miles and E. M. Baerlein.
1905. E. H. Miles and E. M. Baerlein.
1906. E. H. Miles and F. Dames Longworth.
1907. W. L. Foster and B. S. Foster.
1908. F. Dames Longworth and V. H. Pennell.
1909. E. M. Baerlein and P. Ashworth.
1910. B. S. Foster and Hon. C. N. Bruce.
A military championship was inaugurated in 1903 and is played
annually at Princes' Club. In 1908, mainly through the exertions
of Major A. Cooper-Key, a " Tennis, Racquets and Fives Associa-
tion " was founded for the purpose of encouraging these games,
safeguarding their interests and providing a legislative body whose
authority would be recognized by all tennis and racquet players.
Racquets in America. In the United States and in Canada
racquets is a popular game, and most of the leading athletic clubs
have good courts. The American champions Foulkes, Boakes
and George Standing were all beaten* by English professionals,
but had a great reputation in their own country; and Tom Pettitt,
Ellis and Moore are names that stand high in the records of the
game. Among American amateurs, Lamontayne did much to
encourage racquets in New York in the early period of its history ;
and in more recent times Quincy Shaw, de Garmendia, R. Fearing,
Payne Whitney, Mackay, L. Waterbury and P. D. Haughton have
shown themselves racquet players of very high merit, although
Mr Eustace Miles is of opinion that " an English player like H. K.
Foster, or Dames Longworth, or Ashworth, would give any American
amateur upwards of seven aces."
Squash racquets is a form of the game which provides
admirable practice for the beginner, and has advantages of
its own which offer attractions even to those who are proficient
players of real racquets. It is played with a hollow india-
rubber ball about the size of a fives ball (i.e. nearly twice the
size of an ordinary racquet ball) and with a racquet rather
shorter in the handle than those used in racquets proper.
The court may be of any dimensions, but is always much
smaller than a real racquet court; the squash ball, being not
nearly so fast as the racquet ball, would not reach the back
wall in a 60 ft. court on the first bound unless hit high as well
as hard against the front wall. The rules of the game itself
are precisely the same as in real racquets. Squash racquets
originated at Harrow, where the boys were in the habit of
playing in an improvised court in the corner of the school-
yard against the old school building; the windows, buttresses
and water-pipe on the face of the wall forming irregularities
which developed great skill on the part of the players in taking
advantage of the difficulties thus caused. The marked success
of Harrow in the Public Schools Championship at racquets,
especially during the first twenty years of its institution (see
above), has been attributed to the early training and practice
gained at squash racquets in the school-yard, and in other
courts which came into use as the popularity of this form of
the game increased. Towards the end of the igth century
squash racquets became adopted at other schools and at the
universities; and as the court is much cheaper to build than
that required for real or " hard ball " racquets, and the game
is cheaper as well as easier to play, many private courts came
into existence. On the initiative of Lord Desborough, who
had learnt the game at Harrow, several squash courts were
provided at the Bath Club, London, where handicap tourna-
ments are annually played. At Lord's cricket ground, when
a new pavilion was erected in 1800, squash racquet courts
were included in the building. The dimensions of the courts
at Lord's, which may be taken as the best model, are as follows:
length 42 ft. by 24 ft.; height of back wall 8 ft. 8 in.;
height of service-line from floor 8 ft. 9 in.; height of play-
line 2 ft. 4 in. The short-line is 23 ft. from the front wall.
The place which squash racquets has come to occupy may be
estimated from the fact that Mr. Eustace Miles pronounces
it " an almost indispensable preparation " for tennis and
racquets as those games are played under modern conditions;
and the same authority sufficiently describes its merits when
he observes that it " gives, at a small cost of time or money,
abundance of hard and brisk and simple yet exciting exercise
for all times of life , of the year, and even of the day if we
have good artificial light." The squash courts at Lord's and
at the Bath Club are lighted by electricity, so that play is not
dependent on the condition of the atmosphere, or on the
season of the year.
See Tennis, Lawn Tennis, Rackets and Fives in the " Badminton
Library "; Racquets, Tennis and Squash, by Eustace Miles (London,
1902) ; Sporting and Athletic Register (London, 1908). (R. J. M.)
RADAUTZ, a town in Bukovina, Austria, 35 m. S. by W. of
Czernowitz by rail. Pop. (1900) 14,343, f which about
70% are Germans and 25% are Rumanians. It was formerly
the seat of a Greek bishopric, removed to Czernowitz in 1786,
and possesses a cathedral (1402) with the tombs of several
Moldavian princes. The Austrian government has here a
large stud. To the W. of Radautz are situated the old
monasteries of Putna and Suczawica, dating from the isth
century. They still contain many old and valuable ecclesiastical
objects of art, although a great part has been removed to the
various monasteries in Moldavia.
RADBERTUS PASCHASIUS (d. c. 860), French theologian,
was born at or near Soissons towards the close of the 8th
century. He became a monk of Corbie, near Amiens in Picardy,
in 814, and assumed the cloister name of Paschasius. He
soon gained recognition as a learned and successful teacher,
and the younger Adalhard, St Anskar the apostle of Sweden,
Odo bishop of Beauvais and Warinus abbot of Corvei in
Saxony may be mentioned among the more distinguished
of his pupils. Between 842 and 846 he was chosen abbot,
but as a disciplinarian he was more energetic than successful,
and about 851 he resigned the office. He never took priestly
orders. He died and was buried in Corbie.
Radbertus is one of the most important theologians in the
history of the church. " He was perhaps the most learned
and able theologian after Alcuin, as well versed in Greek
theology as he was familiar with Augustinianism, a compre-
hensive genius, who felt .the liveliest desire to harmonize theory
and practice, and at the same time give due weight to tradition "
(Harnack). His great work was the Liber de Corpore et
Sanguine Domini (first ed. 831; new ed., with an epistle to
Charles the Bald, 844), which was not only the first systematic
and thorough treatise on the sacrament of the eucharist, but
is the first clear dogmatic statement of transubstantiation,
and as such opened an unending controversy. It was at once
attacked by Ratramnus and Hrabanus Maurus, but was so
completely in touch with the practice of the church and the
spirit of the age, as to win the verdict of Catholic orthodoxy.
On the eucharistic controversy see the article on Radbertus by
Steitz in Herzog-Hauck's Real-Encyklopadie; Bach, Dogmenge-
schichte des Mittelalters, i. 156 ff.; Ernst, Die Lehre des h. Paschasius
Radbertus v. d. Eucharislie (1896); Renz, Die Geschichte des Messop-
ferbegriffs (1901); K. G. Goetz, Die Abendmahlsfrage in ihrer
geschichtlichen Entwicklung (1904), a complete survey of the whole
problem, beginning with Radbertus. A. Harnack's treatment in his
History of Dogma (vol. v., p. 308 ff.) is clear and appreciative.
RADCLIFFE, ANN (1764-1823), English novelist, only
daughter of William and Ann Ward, was born in London on
the gth of July 1764. She was the author of three famous
novels: The Romance of the Forest (1791), The Mysteries oj
Udolpho (1794) and The Italian (1797). When she was twenty-
three years old she married William Radcliffe, an Oxford
graduate and student of law. He gave up his profession for
literature, and afterwards became proprietor and editor of
the English Chronicle. After The Italian she gave up writing
for publication, and was reported to have been driven mad
7 8 4
RADCLIFFE, SIR G. RADETZKY
by the horrors of her own creations, but the nearest approach
to eccentricity on Mrs Radcliffe's part was dislike of public
notice. Of scenery Mrs Radcliffe was an enthusiastic admirer,
and she made driving tours .with her husband every other
summer through the English counties. She died on the
yth of February 1823. In the history of the English novel,
Mrs Radcliffe holds an interesting place. She is too often
confounded with her imitators, who vulgarized her favourite
" properties " of rambling and ruinous old castles, dark,
desperate and cadaverous villains, secret passages, vaults,
trapdoors, evidences of deeds of monstrous crime, sights and
sounds of mysterious horror. She deserves at least the credit
of originating a school of which she was the most distinguished
exponent; and none of her numerous imitators approach
her in ingenuity of plot, fertility of incident or skill in devising
apparently supernatural occurrences capable of explanation
by human agency and natural coincidence. She had a genuine
gift for scenic effect, and her vivid imagination provided every
tragic situation in her stories with its appropriate setting.
Sir Walter Scott wrote an appreciative essay for the edition
of 1824, and Miss Christina Rossetti was one of her admirers.
She exercised a great influence on her contemporaries, and
" Schedoni " in The Italian is one of the prototypes of the
Byronic hero.
RADCLIFFE, SIR GEORGE (1593-1657), English politician,
son of Nicholas Radcliffe (d. 1599) of Overthorpe, Yorkshire,
was educated at Oldham and at University College, Oxford.
He attained some measure of success as a barrister, and about
1626 became the confidential adviser of Sir Thomas Wentworth,
afterwards earl of Strafford, who was related to his wife, Anne
Trappes (d. 1659). Like his master he was imprisoned in 1627
for declining to contribute to a forced loan, but he shared the
good, as well as the ill, fortunes of Wentworth, acting as his
adviser when he was president of the council of the north.
When Wentworth was made lord deputy of Ireland, Radcliffe, in
January 1633, preceded him to that country, and having been
made a member of the Irish privy council he was trusted by the
deputy in the fullest possible way, his advice being of the greatest
service. In 1640, Radcliffe, like Strafford, was arrested and was
impeached, but the charges against him were not pressed, and in
1643 he was with Charles I. at Oxford. He died at Flushing in
May 1657. Radcliffe wrote An essay towards the life of my Lord
Strafford, from which the material for the various lives of the
statesman has been largely taken.
See Sir T. D. Whitaker, Life and Correspondence of Sir G. Radcliffe
(1810).
RADCLIFFE, JOHN (1650-1714), English physician, was
born at Wakefield in 1650. He matriculated at University
College, Oxford, and after taking his degree in 1669 was elected
to a fellowship at Lincoln College, which he gave up in 1677 when,
under the statutes of the college, he was called on to take orders.
Graduating in medicine in 1675, he practised first in Oxford, but
in 1684 removed to London, where he soon became one of the
leading physicians. He frequently attended William III. until
1699, when he caused offence by remarking, as he looked at the
King's swollen ankles, that he would not have his legs for his
three kingdoms.- On the ist of November 1714 he died of
apoplexy at his house in Carshalton. By his will he left pro-
perty to University College for founding two medical travelling
fellowships and for other purposes. Other property was put
at the disposal of his executors to use as they thought best, and
was employed, among other things, in building the Radcliffe
Observatory, Hospital and Library at Oxford, and in enlarging
St Bartholomew's Hospital in London. Radcliffe was elected
M.P. for Bramber in 1690 and for Buckingham in 1713.
RADCLIFFE, an urban district in the Radcliffe-cum-
Farnworth parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on
the river Irwell, 2 m. S.S.W. of Bury, on the Lancashire &
Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 25,368. The church of St
Bartholomew dates from the time of Henry IV.; some of the
Norman portions of the building remain. Cotton-weaving,
calico-printing, and bleaching, dyeing, paper-making, iron-
founding and machine-making are the principal industrie
and there are extensive collieries in the neighbourhood.
RADEBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
pleasantly situated in a fertile district on the Roder, 10 m. N.E.
of Dresden, by the railway to Gorlitz and Breslau. Pop. (1905)
13,301. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
and an old castle. Its principal industries are the manufacture
of glass, machinery, furniture and paper, and it produces a
light Pilsener beer which is largely exported. Near the town are
the Augustusbad and the Hermannsbad, two medicinal springs.
RADEGUNDA, ST (d. 587), Prankish queen, was the daughter
of Berthaire, king of the Thuringians. Berthaire was killed by
his brother Hermannfried, who took Radegunda and educated
her, but was himself slain by the Prankish kings Theuderich
and Clotaire (529), and Radegunda fell to Clotaire, who later
married her. Her piety was already so noteworthy that it was
said that Clotaire had married a nun, not a queen. She left
him when he unjustly killed her brother, and fled to Medardus,
bishop of Poitiers, who, notwithstanding the danger of the
act, consecrated her as a nun. Radegunda stayed in Poitiers,
founded a monastery there, and lived for a while in peace. Here
Venantius Fortunatus, the Italian poet, found a friendly recep-
tion, and two of the poems printed under his name are usually
attributed to Radegunda. From him we gain a most pleasing
picture of life at the monastery. The queen died on the i3th of
August 587. ,
See the references in A. Molinier, Sources de Vhistoire de France.
RADETZKY, JOSEF, COUNT OF RADETZ (1766-1858), Austrian
soldier, was born at Trzebnitz in Bohemia in 1766, to the
nobility of which province his family, originally Hungarian,
had for several centuries belonged. Orphaned at an early age,
he was educated by his grandfather, and after the old count's
death, at the Theresa academy at Vienna. The academy was.
dissolved during his first year's residence, and he joined the army
as a cadet in 1785. Next year he became an officer, and in 1787
a first lieutenant in a cuirassier regiment. He served as a
galloper on Lacy's staff in the Turkish War, and in the Low
Countries during the Revolutionary War. In 1795 he fought
on the Rhine. Next year he served with Beaulieu against
Napoleon in Italy, and inwardly rebelled at the indecisive
" cordon " system of warfare which his first chief, Lacy, had
instituted and other Austrian generals only too faithfully
imitated. His personal courage was conspicuous; at Fleurus.
he had led a party of cavalry through the French lines to discover
the fate of Charleroi, and at Valeggio on the Mincio, with a
few hussars, he rescued Beaulieu from the midst of the enemy.
Promoted major, he took part in Wurmser's Mantua campaign,
which ended in the fall of the place. As lieutenant-colonel and
colonel he displayed both bravery and skill in the battles of the
Trebbia and Novi (1799), and at Marengo, as colonel on the staff
of Melas, he was hit by five bullets, after endeavouring on the
previous evening to bring about modifications in the plan sug-
gested by the " scientific " Zach. In 1801 Radetzky received
the knighthood of the Maria Theresa order. In 1805, on the
march to Ulm, he received news of his promotion to major-
general and his assignment to a command in Italy under the
archduke Charles, and thus took part in the successful campaign
of Caldiero. Peace again afforded him a short leisure, which he
used in studying and teaching the art of war. In 1809, now a
lieutenant field marshal, he fought at Wagram, and in 1810 he
received the commandership of the Maria Theresa order and the
colonelcy of the 5th Radetzky hussars. From 1809 to 1812, as
chief of the general staff, he was active in the reorganization of
the army and its tactical system, but, unable to carry out the
reforms he desired owing to the opposition of the Treasury, he
resigned the post. In 1813 he was Schwarzenberg's chief of
staff, and as such had considerable influence on the councils
of the Allied sovereigns and generals. Langenau, the quarter-
master-general of the Grand Army, found him an indispensable
assistant, and he had a considerable share in planning the
Leipzig campaign and as a tactician won great praises in the-
RADEVORMWALD RADIATION
785
battles of Brienne and Arcis sur Aube. He entered Paris with
the allied sovereigns in March 1814, and returned with them to
the congress of Vienna, where he appears to have acted as an
intermediary between Metternich and the czar Alexander, when
these great personages were not on speaking terms.
During the succeeding years of peace he disappeared from the
public view. He resumed his functions as chief of the staff, but
his ardent ideas for reforming the army came to nothing in the
face of the general war-weariness and desire to " let well alone."
His zeal added to the number of his enemies, and in 1829, after
he had been for twenty years a lieutenant field marshal, it was
proposed to place him on the retired list. The emperor, un-
willing to go so far as this, promoted him general of cavalry and
shelved him by making him governor of a fortress. But very
soon afterwards the Restoration settlement of Europe was shaken
by fresh upheavals, and Radetzky was brought into the field
of war again. He took part under Frimont in the campaign
against the Papal States insurgents, and succeeded that general
in the chief command of the Austrian army in Italy in 1834.
In 1836 he became a field marshal. He was now seventy years
of age, but he displayed the activity of youth in training and
disciplining the army he commanded. But here too he was in
advance of his time, and the government not only disregarded
his suggestions and warnings but also refused the money that
would have enabled the finest army it possessed to take the field
at a moment's notice. Thus the events of 1848 in Italy, which
gave the old field marshal his place in history among the great
commanders, found him, in the beginning, not indeed unpre-
pared but seriously handicapped in the struggle with Charles
Albert's army and the insurgents. How by falling back to the
Quadrilateral and there, checking one opponent after another,
he was able to spin out time until reinforcements arrived, and
how thenceforward up to the final triumph of Novara on the
23rd of March 1849, he and his army carried all before them, is
described in the article ITALIAN WARS. The well-disciplined
sense of duty to the superior officer, which was remarked even in
the brilliant and sanguine young army reformer of 1810, had
become more intense in the long years of peace, and after keeping
his army loyal in the midst of the confusion of 1848, he made no
attempt to play the part of Wallenstein or even to assume
Wellington's r61e of family adviser to the nation. While as a
patriot he dreamed a little of a united Germany, he remained
to the end simply the commander of one of the emperor's armies.
He died, still in harness, though infirm, on the 5th of January
1858.
In military history Radetzky's fame rests upon one great
achievement, but in the history of the Austrian army he lives as
the frank and kindly " Vater Radetzky " whom the soldiers
idolized. He was fortunate in the moment of his death. In
the year following, another and a greater Italian war broke out,
his beloved army, disintegrated by peace economies which the
old field marshal had been unable any longer to redress by
ceaseless personal training, and in addition suffering from
divided command and confused staff work, was defeated in
every encounter.
RADEVORMWALD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
Rhine province, 10 m. E. from Remscheid, on the branch line
of railway from Krebsoge. Pop. (1905) 10,978. It consists of
the town proper and of several suburbs, and has five Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches. Its chief manufactures
are skates, files, locks and similar articles, and it has also cloth
and cotton factories.
See J. H. Becker, Geschichte der Sladt Radevormwald (Cologne,
1864).
RADHANPUR, a native state of India, in the Palanpur
agency, Bombay. It is situated in the north-western corner
of Gujarat, close to the Runn of Cutch. The country is an open
plain without hills and with few trees. It contains an area of
1150 sq. m. with a population in 1901 of 61,548, showing a
decrease of 37 % during the decade, due to the results of famine.
The estimated revenue is 27,000. The chief products are cotton,
wheat and the common varieties of grain; the only manufacture
of any importance is the preparation of a fine description of
saltpetre. Radhanpur first came under British protection in
1813. The chief, whose title is Nawab, belongs to the Babi
family, who have held power in Gujarat for more than two
centuries. The town of Radhanpur had a population in 1001
of 11,879. It is a walled town, with an export trade in rape-
seed, grain and cotton.
RADIATA, a term introduced by Cuvier in 1812 to denote
the lowest of his four great animal groups or " embranche-
ments. " He defined them as possessing radial instead of
bilateral symmetry, and as apparently destitute of nervous
system and sense organs, as having the circulatory system
rudimentary or absent, and the respiratory organs on or co-
extensive with the surface of the body; he included under '
this title and definition five classes, Echinodermata, Acalepha,
Entozoa, Polypi and Infusoria. Lamarck (Hist. not. d. Anim.
s. Vertebres) also used the term, as when he spoke of the
Medusae as radiata medusaria el anomala; but he preferred
the term Radiaria, under which he included Echinodermata and
Medusae. Cuvier's term in its wide extension, however, passed
into general use; but, as the anatomy of the different forms
became more fully known, the difficulty of including them
under the common designation made itself increasingly obvious.
Milne-Edwards removed the Polyzoa; the group was soon
further thinned by the exclusion of the Protozoa on the one
hand and the Entozoa on the other; while in 1848 Leuckart
and Frey clearly distinguished the Coelenterata from the
Echinodermata as a separate sub-kingdom, thus condemning
the usage by which the term still continued to be applied to
these two groups at least. In 1855, however, Owen included
under Lamarck's term Radiaria the Echinodermata, Anthozoa,
Acalepha and Hydrozoa, while Agassiz also clung to the term
Radiata as including Echinodermata, Acalepha and Polypi,
regarding their separation into Coelenterata and Echinodermata
as " an exaggeration of their anatomical differences " (Essay on
Classification, London, 1859). These attempts, however, to
perpetuate the usage were finally discredited by Huxley's
important Lectures on Comparative Anatomy (1864), in which
the term was finally abolished, and the " radiate mob " finally
distributed among the Echinodermata, Polyzoa, Vermes.
(Platyhelminthes), Coelenterata and Protozoa.
RADIATION, THEORY OF. The physical activities that
flourish on the surface of the earth derive their energy, in
a form which is highly available thermodynamically, from
the radiation of the sun. This has been ascertained to be
dynamic energy, transmitted in waves by the vibrations of a
medium occupying space, as the energy of sound is transmitted
by the vibrations of the atmosphere. The elasticity that
transmits it may be assumed to be mathematically perfect:
any slight loss in transit of the light from the most distant
stars, which recent statistical comparisons of brightness with
distance may possibly indicate, is to be explained far more
suitably by the presence of nebulous matter than by any
imperfection of the aether. The latter would thus be the
one perfect frictionless medium known to us: it could not
be such if it were constituted, like matter, of independent
molecules. It is thus on a higher plane, and may even be
considered to be a dynamical specification of space itself. A
molecule of matter is a kinetic system compounded of simpler
elements; its energy may be classified into constitutive energy
essential to its continued existence, and vibratory energy
which it can receive from or radiate away into aether. A.
piece of matter isolated in free aether would in time lose all
energy of the latter type by radiation; but the former will
remain so long as the matter persists, along with the energy
of the uniform translatory motion to which it is ultimately
reduced. Thus all matter is in continual exchange of vibratory
energy with the aether: it is with the laws of this exchange
of energy that the general theory of Radiation deals, as dis-
tinguished from the mechanism of the aethereal vibrations,
which is usually treated as the Theory of Light (see AETHER).
i. The foundation of this subject is the principle, arrived
786
RADIATION
at independently by Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff about the
year 1858, that the constitution ( 6) of the radiation which
pervades an enclosure, surrounded by bodies in a steady
thermal state, must be a function of the temperature of those
bodies, and of nothing else. It was subsequently pointed out
by Stewart (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871) that if the enclosure
contains a radiating and absorbing body which is put in
motion, all being at the same temperature, the constituents of
the radiation in front of it and behind it will differ in period
on account of the Doppler-Fizeau effect, so that there will
be an opportunity of gaining mechanical work in its settling
down to an equilibrium; there must thus be some kind of
thermodynamic compensation, which might arise either from
aethereal friction, or from work required to produce the motion
of the body against pressure exerted on it by the surrounding
radiation. The hypothesis of friction is now excluded in
ultimate molecular physics, while the thermodynamic bearing
of a pressure exerted by radiation, such as is demanded by
Maxwell's electric theory, has been more recently developed
on other lines by Bartoli and Boltzmann (1884), and combined
with that of the Doppler effect by W. Wien (1893) in develop-
ment of the ideas above expressed.
The original reasoning of Stewart and Kirchhoff rests on
the dynamical principle, that by no process of ordinary reflexion
or transmission can the period, and therefore the wave-length,
of any harmonic constituent of the radiation be changed;
each constituent remains of the same wave-length from the
time it is emitted until the time it is again absorbed. If we
imagine a field of radiation to be enclosed within perfectly
reflecting walls, then, provided there is no material substance
in the field which can radiate and absorb, the constitution of
the radiation in it may be any whatever, and it will remain
permanent. It is only the presence of material bodies that
by their continued emission and absorption can transform
the surrounding radiation towards the unique constitution
which corresponds to their temperature. We can define the
temperature of an isolated field of radiation, of this definite
ultimate constitution, to be- the same as that of the material
bodies with which it would thus be in equilibrium. Further,
the mutual independence of the various constituents of any
field of radiation enclosed by perfect reflectors allows us to
assign a temperature to each constituent, such as the part
involving wave-lengths lying between X and X+5X; that
will be the temperature of a material system with which this
constituent by itself is in equilibrium of emission and absorption.
But to reason about the temperature of radiation in this way
we must be sure that it completely pervades the space, and
has no special direction; this is ensured by the continual
reflexions from the walls of the enclosure. The question of
the temperature of a directed wave-train travelling through
space, such as a beam of light, will come up later. The tempera-
ture of each constituent in a region of undirected radiation
is thus a function of its wave-length and its intensity alone.
It is the fundamental principle of thermodynamics, that
temperatures tend to become uniform. In the present case
of a field of radiation, this equalization cannot take place
directly between the various constituents of the radiation that
occupy the same space, but only through the intervention of
the emission and absorption of material bodies; the constituent
radiations are virtually partitioned off adiabatically from
direct interchange. Thus in discussing the transformations
of temperatures of the constituent elements of radiation, we
are really reasoning about the activity of material bodies that
are in thermal equilibrium with those constituents; and the
theoretical basis of the idea of temperature, as depending on
the fortuitous residue of the energy of molecular motions, is
preserved.
2. Mechanical Pressure of Undulalory Motions. Consider
a wave-train of any kind, in which the displacement is !- = a cos
m(x+cf) so that it is propagated in the direction in which x
decreases; let it be directly incident on a perfect reflector
travelling towards it with velocity v, whose position is there-
fore given at time / by x = vt. There will be a reflected train
given by ' = a' cos m'(x-cl), the velocity of propagation c
being of course the same for both. The disturbance does not
travel into the reflector, and must therefore be annulled at its
surface; thus when x = vt we must have +'=o identically.
This gives a'= -a, and m'(c-v) = m(c+v). The amplitude of
the reflected disturbance is therefore equal to that of the in-
cident one; while the wave-length is altered on the ratio
r~, which is approximately 1-2-, where v/c is small, and
C\~ I/ ^
is thus in agreement with the usual statement of the Doppler
effect. The energy in the wave-train being half potential and
half kinetic, it is given by the integration of p(d^/dt) 1 along the
train, where p represents density. In the reflected train it is
therefore augmented, when equal lengths are compared, in the
ratio ^^^j ; but the length of the train is diminished by
the reflexion in the ratio : ; hence on the whole the
c+v'
energy transmitted per unit time is increased by the reflexion in
the ratio ^t^. This increase per unit time can arise only
c v
from work done by the advancing reflector against pressure
exerted by the radiation. That pressure, per unit surface, must
2
therefore be equal to the fraction -^- of the energy in a length
-9 -.9
c+uof the incident wave-train; thus it is the fraction
of the total density of energy in front of the reflector, belonging
to both the incident and reflected trains. When i; is small com-
pared with c, this makes the pressure equal to the density of
vibrational energy, in accordance with Maxwell's electrodynamic
formula (Elec. and Mag., 1871).
The argument may be illustrated by the transverse vibrations
of a tense cord, the reflector being then a lamina through a
small aperture in which the cord passes; the lamina can thus
slide along the cord and sweep the vibratory motion in front of
it. In this case the force acting on the lamina is the resultant
of the tensions T of the cord on the two sides of the aperture,
giving a lengthwise force }T</(+')V<k? when, as usual,
powers higher than the second of the ratio of amplitude to
wave-length are neglected; this, when v/c is small, is an oscil-
latory force of amount 2p(d^/di) 2 , whose time-average agrees
with the value above obtained. If we consider a finite train of
waves thus sent back from a moving reflector, the time integral
of the pressure must represent force transmitted along the cord,
or a gain of longitudinal momentum in the reflected waves, or
both together.
When it is a case of transverse waves in an elastic medium,
reflected by an advancing obstacle, the origin of. the working
pressure is not so obvious, because we cannot easily formulate
a mechanism for the advancing reflector like that of the lamina
above employed. In flie case of light-waves we can, however, ima-
gine an ideal material body, constituted of very small molecules,
that would sweep them in front of it with the same perfection
as a metallic mirror actually reflects the longer Hertzian waves.
The pressure will then be identified physically, as in the case of
the latter waves, with the mechanical forces acting on the
screening oscillatory electric current-sheet which is induced on
the surface of the reflector. The displacement represented
above by , which is annulled at the reflector, may then be
taken to be either the tangential electric force or the normal
component of the vector whose velocity is the magnetic force.
The latter interpretation is theoretically interesting, because
that vector, which is the dynamical displacement in electron-
theory, usually occurs only through its velocity. The general
case of oblique incidence can be treated on similar lines; each
filament of radiation (ray) in fact exerts its own longitudinal
push equal to its energy per unit length, and it is only a matter
of summation.
The usual formula for the pressure of electric radiation is
RADIATION
787
derived from a theory, namely, that of the ordinary electro-
dynamic equations, which considers the velocity of the matter,
or rather of the electrons associated with it, to be so small com-
pared with that of radiation that the square of the ratio of these
velocities can be neglected. The formula above obtained is of
general application, and shows that for high values of v the
pressure must fall off. It has been urged as an objection to
the thermodynamic reversibility of a ray (8) that the work
of the radiant pressure exerted at its front is lost, as there is no
obstacle to sustain it; but on an obstacle moving with the.
velocity of the wave-front the pressure would vanish, so that
this objection does not now hold.
In every such case of an advancing perfect reflector the
aggregate amplitude of the superposed incident and reflected
wave-trains, of different wave-lengths and periods, will be
represented by
. mv . c* . . me , ,
+ =20 rin^^jG* - -V sm U-uO;
thus the appearance presented will be that of a train of waves
each of length ( i - v/c) 2fjm, and progressing with the velocity
v of the reflector, which travels at one of the nodes of the train.
This slowly travelling wave-train corresponds to the stationary
train which would be produced by a stationary perfect reflector;
but the amplitude is now a varying quantity which, once
uniform vibration has been fully established along any path,
may itself be described as running on after the manner of a
superposed wave-train of very great wave-length (c/v-i)2ir/m
and of very great velocity c*/v, A somewhat similar state of
things arises when a wave-train is incident on a stationary
reflector very nearly normally, as may sometimes be seen with
incoming rollers along a shelving beach; the visible disturb-
ance at a reflecting ridge, arising from each single wave-crest,
then rushes along the ridge at a speed which is at first sight
surprising, as it is enormously in excess of the speed possible
for any simple train of waves travelling into quiescent aether.
3. Wien's Law. Let us consider a spherical enclosure filled
with radiation, and having walls of ideal perfectly reflecting
quality so that none of the radiation can escape. If there is
no material body inside it, any arbitrarily assigned constitution
of this radiation will be permanent. Let us suppose that the
radius a of the enclosure is shrinking with extremely small
velocity v. A ray inside it, incident at angle t, will always be
incident on the walls in its successive reflexions at the same
angle, except as regards a negligible change due to the motion
of the reflector ( 2) ; and the length of its path between successive
reflexions is 20 cos i. Each undulation on this ray will thus
undergo reflexion at intervals of time equal to za co& i/c, where
c is the velocity of light, and it is easily verified that on each
reflexion it is shortened by the fraction 2V cos i/c of itself: thus
in the very long time T required to complete the shrinkage it is
shortened by the fraction vTa, which is 8a/a where 8a is the
total shrinkage in radius, and is independent of the value of i.
The wave-length of each undulation in the radiation inside the
enclosure is therefore reduced in the same ratio as the radius.
Now suppose that the constitution of the enclosed radiation
corresponded initially to a definite temperature. During the
shrinkage thermal equilibrium must be maintained among its
constituents; otherwise there would be a running down of
their energies towards uniformity of temperature, if material
radiating bodies are present, which would be superposed on the
mechanical operations belonging to the shrinkage, and the process
could not be reversible. Such a state of affairs is not possible,
for it would land us in processes of the following type. Expand
the enclosure, gaining the mechanical work of the radiant
pressure against its walls, whatever that may be. Then equalize
the intensities of the constituent radiations to those correspond-
ing to a common temperature, by taking advantage of the
absorptions of material bodies at the actual temperatures of
these radiations; when this is done, as it may actually be to
some extent by aid of the sifting produced by partitions which
transmit some kinds of radiation more rapidly than others, a
further gain of work can be obtained at the expense of the
radiant energy. Then contract the remaining radiant energy
to its previous volume, which requires an expenditure of less
work on the walls of the enclosure than the expansion of the
greater amount of radiation originally afforded; and, finally,
gain still more work by again equalizing the temperatures of
its constituents. The energy now remaining, being of smaller
amount and under similar conditions, must have a temperature
lower than the initial one. This process might be repeated
indefinitely, and would constitute an engine without an ex-
traneous refrigerator, violating Carnot's principle by deriving
an unlimited supply of mechanical work from thermal sources
at a uniform temperature.
Thus, independently of any knowledge of the intensity of
the mechanical pressure of radiation, or indeed of whether such
a pressure exists at all, it is established that the shrinkage of the
enclosure must directly transform the contained radiation to
the constitution which corresponds to some definite new tempera-
ture. Now we have seen that the wave-lengths of its constituents
are all reduced in the same ratio by this process. If, then, we
can prove that the intensities of these constituents are also all
changed in a common ratio by the reflexions at the shrinking
envelope, it will follow that the distributions of the radiation
among the various wave-lengths are, at these two temperatures,
and therefore at any two temperatures, homologous, in the sense
that the intensity curves, after the wave-lengths in one of them
have been reduced in a ratio depending definitely on the two
temperatures, differ only in the absolute scale of magnitude
of the ordinates.
This procedure modifies Wien's argument by employing a
uniformly shrinking spherical enclosure (cf. Brit. Assoc. Report,
1900). If the enclosure is not spherical, the angles of incidence
at successive reflexions of the same ray will differ by finite
amounts; we must then estimate the average effect of the
shrinkage. In the form of enclosure here employed all rays are
affected alike, and no averaging is required; while by the
principle of Stewart and Kirchhoff what is established for any
one form is of general validity.
4. Pressure of Natural Radiation. The question reserved
above has now to be settled. At first sight it might have
appeared that the reflexion is simply total; but, as has been seen
in 2, the advancing perfect reflector does work against the
pressure of the radiation, and this work must be changed into
radiant energy and thus go to increase the intensity of the
reflected ray. Considering electric radiation incident at angle t,
the tangential electric force is annulled at the reflector; hence
the amplitude of the electric vibration is conserved on reflexion,
though its phase is reversed. As already seen, the wave-length
is shortened approximately by the fraction 211 cos i/c in each
reflexion; thus, just as in 2, the energy transmitted per unit
time per unit area is increased in the same ratio; and allowing
for the factor cos i of foreshortening, there is therefore a radiant
pressure equal to the total density of radiant energy in front of
the reflector multiplied by cos ! i. This argument, being inde-
pendent of the wave-length, applies to each constituent of the
radiation in this direction separately; thus their energies are
all increased in the same ratio by the reflexion, as was to be
proved. When we are dealing with the natural radiation in an
enclosure, which is distributed equally in all directions, this
factor cos'i must be averaged; and we thus attain Baltzmann's
result that the radiant pressure is then one-third of the density
of radiant energy in front of the reflector, this statement holding
good as regards each constituent of the natural radiation taken
separately.
5. Adiabatic Relations. Consider the enclosure filled with
radiation of energy-density E at volume V, of any given con-
stitution but devoid of special direction, and let it be shrunk to
volume V -5V against its own pressure; if the density thereby
become E - 6E, the conservation of the energy requires
EV-HESV = (E-SE)(V-V),
so that i|E5V-t-V5E = o, or E varies as V 1 .
Again but now with a restriction to radiation with its energy
7 88
RADIATION
distributed as regards wave-length so as to be of uniform
temperature the performance of this mechanical work JE5V
has changed the energy of radiation EV from the state that is in
equilibrium of absorption and emission with a thermal source at
temperature T to the state in equilibrium with an absorber of
some other temperature T-5T, and that in a reversible manner;
thus by Carnot's principle
iE5V/EV=-5T/T,
so that T varies as V~*, or inversely as the linear dimensions
when the enclosure is shrunk uniformly.
Combining these results, it appears that E varies as T 4 ; this
is Stefan's empirical law for the complete radiation corresponding
to the temperature, first established on these lines by Boltzmann.
Starting from the principle that this radiation must be a function
of the temperature alone, this adiabatic process has in fact
given us the form of the function. These results cannot, how-
ever, be extended without modification to each separate con-
stituent of the complete radiation, because the shrinkage of the
enclosure alters its wave-length and so transforms it into a
different constituent.
6. Law of Distribution of Energy. The effect of compressing
the complete radiation is thus to change it to the constitution
belonging to a certain higher temperature, by shortening all
its wave-lengths by the proportion of one-third of the com-
pression by volume, the temperature being in fact raised by
the same proportion; at the same time increasing in a uniform
ratio the amounts corresponding to each interval 6X, so as to
get the correct total amount of energy for the new temperature.
In the compression each constituent alters so that TX remains
constant, and the energy Ex5X in the range 5X in other respects
changes as a function of T alone. Hence generally ExSX must
be of form F(T)/(TX)5X. But. for each temperature
is equal to E and so varies as T 4 , by Stefan's law; that is,
T- ] F(T)/ /(TX)d(TX) cxT 4 ,
so that T-'F(T) ocT 4 . Thus, finally, E A 5X is of form AT 5 /(TX)5X
or AX~ 5 $(TX)5X, which is Wien's general formula.
7. Transformation of a Single Constituent. It is of interest
to follow out this adiabatic process for each separate con-
stituent of the radiation, as a verification, and also in order
to ascertain whether anything new is thereby gained. To
this end let now E(X,T)5X represent the intensity of the radia-
tion between X and X+6X which corresponds to the temperature
T. The pressure of this radiation, when it is without special
direction, is in intensity one-third of this; thus the application
of Carnot's principle shows, as before, that in adiabatic com-
pression T ocV~ 5 , so that a small linear shrinkage in the ratio
i-x raises T in the ratio i+*. We have still to express the
equation of energy. The vibratory energy E(X,T)5X . V in
volume V, together with the mechanical work |E(X,T)5X .
yields the vibratory energy
E{X(i-*),T(i+*)}aX(i-*).V(i-3*);
thus, writing E and Ex or E (X,T) we have, neglecting * 2 ,
dx </T v
-T, , ><JE rfE
so that 5E+ X -T^==O,
a partial differential equation of which the integral is
the same formula as was before obtained.
This method, treating each constituent of the radiation
separately, has in one respect some advantage, in that it is
necessary only to postulate an enclosure which totally reflects
that constituent, this being a more restricted hypothesis than
an absolutely complete reflector.
To determine theoretically the form of the function <#> we must
have some means of transforming one type of radiation into
another, different in essence from the adiabatic compression
already utilized. The condition that the entropy of the in-
dependent radiations in an enclosure 'is a minimum when
they are all transformed to the same temperature with total
energy unaltered, is already implicitly fulfilled; it would thus
appear that any further advance must involve ( n) the dynamics
of the radiation and absorption of material bodies.
8. Temperature of an Isolated Ray. The temperature of each
independent constituent of a radiation has here been taken to
be a function of the intensity EA, where Ex5X is the energy per
unit volume in the range between wave-lengths X and X+5X:
the condition is, however, imposed that this radiation is in-
different as to direction. When a beam of radiation travels
without loss in a definite direction across a medium, its form
varies as it progresses; but it is reversible inasmuch as it can
be turned back at any stage, or concentrated without loss, by
perfect reflectors. If the energy of the beam has a tempera-
ture, its value must therefore remain constant throughout the
progress of the beam, by the principle of Carnot. Now by
virtue of a relation in geometrical optics, which on a corpuscular
theory would be one aspect of the fundamental dynamical
principle of Action, the cross-section 5S at any place on the
beam, and the conical angle 5co within which the directions of its
rays are there included, are such that the value of V~^5S8w is
conserved along the beam, V being the velocity of propagation
of the undulations. If we represent the amount of radiant
energy transmitted per unit time across the section 5S of the
beam by I6S5co, it will follow that in passing along the beam its
intensity of illumination I varies as V" 2 , or as the square of the
index of refraction, provided there is no loss of energy in trans-
mission. This condition requires that changes of index shall
be gradual, otherwise there would be loss of energy by partial
reflexions; in free aether I is itself constant along the beam.
The volume-density of the energy in any part of the directed
beam is V~'I5w: it is thus inversely as the solid angular con-
centration of the rays and directly as the cube of the index of
refraction. Now we may consider this beam, of aggregate
intensity I5S5co, to form an elementary filament of the radiation
issuing in the direction of the normal from a perfect radiator.
As such a body absorbs completely and therefore radiates
equally in all directions in front of it, the total intensity of
radiation from its element of surface 5s is 5s Jl cos 65u, or
5s. TrI, while the volume-density of the total advancing and
receding radiation in front of it is 2V~ 1 fldw, and therefore
AirV" 1 !. If we take here I5X to represent the intensity between
wave-lengths X andX+5X, this density is the quantity Ex of
which the temperature of the radiator is a function. Thus
the quantity I which optically is a measure of the brightness
of the beam, and is conserved along it to the extent that (i-l
is the same from whichever of its cross-sections the beam
is supposed to be emitted also determines its .temperature,
the latter being that of an enclosure containing undirected
radiation of the same range SX which is density Ex5X given by
Ex = 47rV~ 1 I, where V is the velocity of radiation in the enclosure.
When a beam of radiation travels without suffering absorption,
its temperature thus continues to be that of its source multiplied
by the coefficient of emission of the source for that kind of
radiation, this coefficient being less than unity except in the
case of a perfect radiator; but when its intensity I falls by 51
in any part of its path owing to absorption or other irreversible
process, this involves a further fall of temperature of the energy
of the beam and a rise of entropy which can be completely
determined when the relation connecting /t~ 3 Ex with T and X
is known. Any directed quality in radiant energy increases
its effective temperature. Splitting a beam into two at a
reflecting and refracting surface diminishes the temperature
of each part; it is true that if the reflecting surface were non-
molecular the operation could be reversed, but actually the
reversed rays would encounter the reflecting molecules in
different collocations, and could not ( n) recombine into
the same detailed phase-relations as before. The direct solar
radiation falling on the Earth is almost completely convertible
into mechanical effect on account of its very high temperature;
there seems ground for believing that certain constituents
of it can actually be almost wholly turned to account by the
RADIATION
789
green leaves of plants. But the same solar radiation, when
broken up into diffused sky light, which has no definite direction,
has fallen into equilibrium with a much lower temperature,
through loss of its reversibility. It has been remarked that the
temperatures of the planets can be roughly compared by means
of this principle, if their coefficients of absorption of the solar
radiation are assumed; that of Neptune comes out below
200 C., if we suppose that it is not kept higher by a supply
of internal heat.
To obtain dynamical precision in this discussion an exact
definition of the narrow beam such as is usually called a ray is
essential. It can be specified as a narrow filament of radiation,
such as may be isolated within an infinitely thin, impermeable,
bounding tube without thereby producing any disturbance of
the motion. If either the tube or the surrounding radiation
were not present to keep the beam in shape, it would spread
sideways, as in optical diffraction. But the function of trie
tube is one of pure constraint; thus the change of energy-
content of a given length of the tube is represented by energy
flowing into it at the end where the radiation enters, and leaving
it at the other end, but with no leakage at the sides. The total
radiation may be considered as made up of such filaments.
9. Temperature of the Sun. The mean temperature of the
radiating layers of the Sun may be estimated from Stefan's law,
by computing the intensity of the radiation at his surface
from that terrestrially observed, on the basis of the law of
inverse squares; the result is about 6500 C. The application
of Wien's law, which makes the wave-length of maximum
energy vary inversely as the temperature, for the case of a
perfectly radiating source, gives a result 5500 C. These numbers
will naturally differ because (i) the Sun is not a perfect radiator,
the constitution of his radiation in fact not following the law
of that of a black body, (ii) the various radiating layers have
different temperatures, (iii) the radiation may be in part due
to chemical and electrical causes, and in so far would not
be determined by the temperature alone. The fair agreement
of these two estimates indicates, however, that the radiation
is largely regulated by the temperature, that the layers from
which the main part of it comes are at temperatures not very
different, and that not very much of the complete radiation
established in these layers and emitted from them is absorbed
by the overlying layers.
10. Fluorescence. When radiation of certain wave-lengths
falls on a fluorescent body, it is largely absorbed, but in such
manner as directly to excite other radiation of different type
which is emitted in addition to the true temperature-radiation
of the body. The distinction involved is that the latter radia-
tion is spontaneously convertible with the heat of the absorbing
body at its own temperature, without any external stimulus
or compensation; it is, in fact, on the basis of this convertibility
that the thermodynamic relations of the temperature-radiation
have been established. According to the experimental law of
Stokes, the wave-lengths of the fluorescent radiation are longer
than those of the radiation which excites it. If the latter
were directly transformed, in undiminished amount, into the
fluorescent kind, this is what would be expected. For such
a spontaneous change must involve loss of availability; and,
beyond the wave-length of maximum energy in the spectrum,
the temperature of a given density of radiation is greater the
shorter its wave-length, as it is a function of that density and
the wave-length alone such that greater radiation always
corresponds to higher temperature. But it would appear that
the opposite should be the case for radiation of long wave-
lengths, lying on the other side of the maximum, in which the
tendency would thus be for spontaneous change into shorter
waves; this may perhaps be related to the fact that the lines
of longer wave-lengths in spectra often come out brighter at
lower temperatures, for they are then thrown on the other side
of the maximum and cannot be thus degraded. The principle
does not, however, have free play in the present case, even
when the incident radiation is diffused and so has not the
abnormally high temperature associated with a directed beam
( 8), since part of it might be degraded into low-temperature
heat, or there might be other compensation of chemical type
for any abnormally high availability that might exist in the
fluorescent radiation. It has been found that fluorescent
radiation, showing a continuous or banded spectrum, can be
excited in many gases and vapours; milky phosphorescence
of considerable duration, and thus doubtless associated with
chemical change, is produced in vacuum tubes, containing
oxygen or other complexly constituted gases, by the electric
discharge.
1 1 . Entropy of a Ray. If each definitely constituted beam
of radiation has its own temperature and everything is rever-
sible as above, a question arises as to the location of the process
of averaging which enters into the idea of temperature. The
answer can depend only on the fact, that although the beam is
definite as to wave-length and intensity, yet it is far from being
a simple wave-train, in that it is constituted of trains of limited
lengths and various phases and polarizations, coming from the
independent radiating molecules. When such a beam has
once emerged, it travels without change, and can be reflected
back intact to its source, and is in so far reversible; but when
it has arrived there, the molecules of the source will have
changed their positions, and it cannot be wholly reabsorbed
in the same manner as it was emitted. There must thus be
some feature in the ultimate averaged constitution of the beam,
emitted from a body in the definite steady state of internal
motion determined by its temperature, which adapts it for
spontaneous uncompensated reabsorption into a body at its
own (or a lower) temperature, but not at a higher one.
The question of the determination of the form of the function
</> in 6 would thus' appear to be closely connected with the
other problems, hitherto imperfectly fathomed, relating to
the statistics of kinetic molecular theory. A very interesting
attack on the problem from this point of view has recently
been made in various forms by Planck. It of course suffices
to examine some simple type of radiating system, and the
results will be of general validity. He considers an enclosure
filled with radiation involving an entirely arbitrary succession
of phases and polarizations along each ray, and also containing
a system of fixed linear electric oscillators of the Hertzian
type, which are taken to represent the transforming action of
radiating and absorbing matter. The radiation contained in
the enclosure will be passed through these oscillators over and
over again, now absorbed, now radiated, and each constituent
will thus settle down in a unilateral or irreversible manner
towards some definite intensity and composition. But it
does not appear that a system of vibrators of this kind, each
with its own period, can perform one of the main functions of
a material absorber, namely, the transformation of the relative
intensities of the various types of radiation in the enclosure
to those corresponding to a common temperature. There
would be equilibrium established only between the mean
internal vibratory energy in the vibrators of each period and
the density of radiation of that period; there is needed also
some means of interchanging energy between vibrators of
different periods, which probably involves doing away with
their fixity, or else employing more complex vibrators and
assuming a law of distribution of their internal energy. In the
absence of any method of introducing this temperature equili-
brium directly, Planck originally sought, in the case of each
independent constituent, for a function of its intensity of
energy and its wave-length, restricted as to form by a certain
assumed molecular relation, which has the property of continu-
ally increasing after the manner of entropy, during the progress
of that constituent of the radiation in such a system towards
its steady state. If the actual entropy S per unit volume
could be thus determined, the relation of Clausius 5S=5E/T
would supply the connexion between the temperature and the
density of radiant energy E. This procedure led him, in an
indirect and tentative manner, to a relation rf J S/</E' = -a/E, so
that S=-oE log/3 E, where a, are functions of X; an expression
which conducts through Clausius's relation to E=(<-j3)- I e~'/ l>T .
RADIATION
790
The previous argument then gives E(X,T)5X = CiX~ 6 e
a type of formula which was originally suggested by Wien on
the basis of the analogy that it assigns the same distribution
for the radiant energy, among the various frequencies of vibra-
tion, as for the energy of the molecules in a gas among their
various velocities of translation. But the experimental in-
adequacy of this formula afterwards suggested a new pro-
cedure, as infra.
Processes may be theoretically assigned for the direct continuous
transformation of radiant into mechanical energy. Thus we can
imagine a radiating body at the centre of a wheel, carrying oblique
vanes along its circumference, which reflect the radiation on to a
ring of parallel fixed vanes, which finally reverse its path and return
it to the centre. The pressure of the radiation will drive the wheel,
and in case its motion is not resisted, a very great velocity may be
theoretically obtained. The thermodynamic compensation in such
cases lies in the reduction of the effective temperature of the portion
of the radiation not thus used up. We might even do away with
the radiating body at the centre of the wheel, and consider a beam
of definite radiation reflected backwards and forwards across a
diameter. It is easy to see that its path will remain diametral;
the work done by it in driving the wheel will be concomitant with
increase of the wave-length, and therefore with expansion of the
length occupied by the beam. The thermodynamic features are
thus analogous to those of the more familiar case of an envelope
filled with gas, which can change its thermal energy into mechanical
energy by expansion of the envelope against mechanical resistances.
In the case of the expanding gas pv_ = |E , where E is the total trans-
latory energy of the molecules, while in adiabatic expansion p = kv~v.
Thus the work gained in unlimited expansion, fpdv, is %E,/(y l).
The final temperature being absolute zero, this should by Carnot's
principle be equal to the total initial energy of the gas that is in
connexion with temperature, constitutive energy of the molecules
being excluded; when 7 1 is less than f there is thus internal
thermal energy in the molecules in addition to the translatory
energy. In the case of the beam of radiation, of length I, between
n and n+Sn reflexions, where Sn is an integer, its total energy E is
,. , . SE A.cv$n .. Si 2vSn
by 2 reduced according to the law-g-= 7 . .,. Also J=JTT^;
thus -p- = ;r~ j. When v is small compared with c, this gives
E = K/~ 2 ; and * is then 2E//, so that fpdl = E, the temperature
of the beam being ultimately reduced to absolute zero by the
unlimited expansion. This is in accord with Carnot's principle, in
that the whole energy of the beam travelling in a vacuum is mechani-
cally available when reduction to absolute zero of temperature is
in our power.
12. Experimental Knowledge. Under the stimulus of Wien's
investigation and of improvements in the construction of linear
thermopiles and bolometers for the refined measurement of the
distribution of energy along a spectrum, the general character
of the curve connecting energy and wave-length in the complete
radiation at a given temperature has been experimentally
ascertained over a wide range. At each temperature there is a
wave-length X m of maximum radiation, which is displaced
towards the ultra-violet as the temperature rises, and Wien's
law of homology ( 6) shows that X m T should be constant. This
deduction, and the law of homology itself, as also the law of
Stefan and Boltzmann that the total radiation varies as T 4 ,
have been closely verified by the experiments of Rubens and
Kurlbaum, Lummer and Pringsheim, Paschen and others.
They established a steady field of radiation inside a material
enclosure by raising the walls to a definite temperature, and
measured the radiant intensity emitted from it through an
opening or slit in the walls, by means of a bolometer or thermo-
pile, this being the radiation of the so-called perfectly black body.
The principle here involved formed one of the foundations ol
Balfour Stewart's early treatment of the theory, and had already
been employed by him and Stokes (1860) in experiments on the
polarized emission from tourmaline: cf. Stokes, Math, ana
Phys. Papers, iv. 136. It has been remarked by Planck anc
by Thiesen that the coefficient of T 4 in Stefan's law, and the
value of X m T, are two absolute physical constants independent
of any particular kind of matter, which in conjunction with the
constant of gravitation would determine an entirely absolute
system of physical units. The form of the function $(TX)
adopted by Wien and in Planck's earlier discussions, namely
Cie~' :/T \ was found to agree fairly with experiment over the
range from 100 C. to 1300 C., when Ci=i-24Xio~ 5 , and c =
1-4435 in c.g.s. measure, but not so well when the range is farther
extended: it appeared that a larger value of c was needed to
represent the radiation for high values of TX, that is, for high
emperature or for very long wave-lengths. Thiesen proposed
he somewhat more general form Ci(TX) t c~ <r/TA , and suggested
hat the value k= 5 agrees better with the experimental numbers
han Wien's value k = o. Lord Rayleigh was led (Phil. Mag.,
Tune 1900) towards this form with k equal to unity from entirely
different theoretical considerations, on the assumption of the
Vlaxwell-Boltzmann distribution of the energy of a system,
consisting of an isolated block of aether, among its free periods
>f vibration, infinite in number; in some cases this form appeared
o give as good results as Wien's own.
Acting on a suggestion advanced by Lord Rayleigh, Rubens
and Kurlbaum soon afterwards widely extended the test of the
ormulae by means of the so-called Reststrahlen. A substance
such as an aniline dye, which exhibits selective absorption of
any group of rays, also powerfully reflects those rays; and
iubens has been able thus to isolate in considerable purity the
rays belonging to absorption bands very far down in the invisible
ultra-red, having wave-length of order io~? cm., which are
ntensely absorbed by substances such as sylvine, by means of
five or six successive reflexions of the beam of radiation. By
experiments ranging between temperatures -200 C. and
+ 1500 C. of the source of radiation, it has been found that the
ntensity of this definite radiation tends to vary simply as T,
with close approximation, thus increasing indefinitely with
;he temperature, whereas Wien's formula would make it tend
to a definite limit. The only existing formula (except the
one suggested by Lord Rayleigh) that proved to be in accord
with this result was a new one advanced shortly before and
supported on theoretical grounds by Planck, namely, E*5X =
CX~ 6 5X/(e c/ ' AT i ), which for small values of XT agrees with Wien's
original form, known to be there satisfactory, while for larger
values it tends towards C/c .X~ 4 T; the new formula is, in fact, the
simplest and most likely form that satisfies these two conditions.
The point of Lord Rayleigh's argument was that, at any rate at
low frequencies, the law of distribution would suggest an equable
partition of the energy between temperature heat and radiant
vibrations, and that therefore the energy of the latter should
ultimately vary as T; and this prediction, which has thus been
verified, may be grafted on to any formula that is in other
respects appropriate.
Recognizing that his previous hypothesis, restricting the nature
of the entropy in addition to its property of continually in-
creasing, had thus to be abandoned, Planck had in fact made
a fresh start on the basis of a train of ideas which was introduced
by Boltzmann in 1877, in order to obtain a precise physical
conception of entropy. According to the latter, for an indefinitely
numerous system of molecules, with known properties and in
given circumstances, there is a definite probability of the
occurrence of each statistical distribution of velocities, or say
each " complexion " of the system, that is formally possible
when all velocities consistent with given total energy are con-
sidered to be equally likely as regards each molecule; the distri-
bution of greatest possible probability is the state of thermal
equilibrium of the system, and the probability of any other
state is a function of the entropy of that state. This conception
can be developed only in very simple cases; the application to
an ideal monatomic gas-system led Boltzmann to take the
entropy proportional to the logarithm of the probability. This
logarithmic law is in fact demanded in advance by the principle
that the entropy of a system should be the sum of the entropies
of its parts. By means of a priori considerations of this nature,
referring to the distribution of internal vibratory energy among
a system of linear electric vibrators of given period, and its
equilibrium of exchanges with the surrounding radiant energy,
Planck has been guided to an expression for the law of depend-
ence of the entropy of that system on the temperature, which
corresponds to the form of the law of radiation above stated.
The result gains support from the fact that the expressions for
the coefficients to which he is led give determinations of the
RADIATION
791
absolute physical constants of molecular theory, such as the
constant of Avogadro, which are in close accord with other
recent determinations. But on the other hand these deter-
minations are already involved in the earlier formula of Rayleigh,
which expresses the distribution for long waves, based merely
on the Maxwell-Boltzmann principle of the equable partition
of the energy among the high free periods belonging to the
enclosure which contains it. It is maintained by Jeans that the
reason why this principle is of avail only for very long wave-
lengths is that a steady state is never reached for the shorter ones,
a doctrine which as he admits would entirely remove the founda-
tions of the application of thermodynamic principles to this
subject. By an argument based on the theory of dimensions,
Lorentz has been led to the conclusion that consistency between
temperatures, as measured molecularly, and as measured by the
laws of radiation, requires that the ultimate indivisible electric
charges or electrons must be the same in all kinds of matter.
The abstract statistical theory of entropy, which is here
invoked, admits of generalization in a way which is a modifica-
tion of that of Planck, itself essentially different from the earlier
idea of Boltzmann. The molecules of matter, whose interactions
control physical phenomena, including radiation, are too
numerous to be attended to separately in our knowledge. They,
and the phenomena in which they interact, must thus be sorted
out into differential groups or classes. Elements of energy of
specified types might at first sight constitute such classes: but
the identity of a portion of energy cannot be traced during its
transformations, while an element of physical disturbance can
be definitely followed, though its energy changes by interaction
with other elements as it proceeds. The whole disturbance
may thus be divided into classes, or groups of similar elements,
each with permanent existence: and these may be considered
as distributed in series of cells, all equivalent in extent, which
constitute and map out the material system or other domain of
the phenomena. The test of this equivalence of extent is
superposition, in the sense that the same element of disturbance
always occupies during its wanderings the same number of cells.
This framework being granted, the probability of any assigned
statistical distribution of the elements of disturbance now
admits of calculation; and it represents, as above, the logarithm
of the entropy of that distribution, multiplied .however by a
coefficient which must depend on the minuteness of scale of the
statistics. But in the calculation, all the physical laws which
impose restrictions on the migrations of the elements of dis-
turbance must be taken into account; it is only after this is
done that the rest of the circumstances can be treated as
fortuitous. All these physical laws are, however, required and
used up in determining the complex of equivalent cells into
which the system which forms the seat of the energy is mapped
out. On this basis thermodynamics can be constructed in
a priori abstract fashion, and with deeper and more complete
implications than the formal Carnot principle of negation of
perpetual motions can by itself attain to. But the ratio of the
magnitude of the standard element of disturbance to the extent
of the standard cell remains inherent in the results, appearing
as an absolute physical constant whose value is determined
somehow by the other fundamental physical constants of
nature. A prescribed ratio of this kind is, however, a different
thing from the hypothesis that energy is constituted atomically,
which underlies, as Lorentz pointed out, Planck's form of the
theory. It has indeed already been remarked that the mere
fact of the existence of a wave-length Xm of maximum radiation,
whether obeying Wien's law X,T= constant or not, implies
by itself some prescribed absolute physical quantity of this
kind, whose existence thus cannot be evaded, though we may be
at a loss to specify its nature.
13. Modification by a Magnetic Field. The theory of ex-
changes of radiation, which makes the equilibrium of radiating
bodies depend on temperature alone, requires that, when an
element of surface of one body is radiating to an element of
surface of another body at the same temperature, the amounts
of energy interchanged (when reflexion is counted in along with
radiation) should be equal. This proposition is a general
dynamical consequence on the basis of the laws of reciprocity
developed in this connexion (after W. Rowan Hamilton) mainly
by Helmholtz, Kirchhoff, and Rayleigh of the form of the
equations of propagation of vibrations in the medium. But in
a material medium under the influence of a strong magnetic
field these equations are altered by the addition of extraneous
terms involving differential coefficients of the third order, and
the dynamical consistency of the cardinal principle of the
theory of exchanges is no longer thus directly verified. A
system of this kind has, in fact, been imagined by Wien in which
the principle is imperfectly fulfilled. A beam coming from a
body A, and polarized by passage through a nicol, may have
its plane of vibration rotated through half a right angle by
crossing a magnetically active plate, and may then pass through
another nicol, properly orientated for transmission, so as finally
to fall on another body B. On the other hand, the radiation
from B which gets through this adjacent nicol will have its
plane of vibration rotated through another half right angle by
the magnetically active plate, and so will not get through the
first nicol to the body A. Such possibilities of unequal ex-
change of radiation between A and B are the result of the want
of reversibility of the radiation in the extraneous magnetic
field, which might have been expected to lead to proportionate
inequalities of concentration; in this example, however, though
the defect of reversibility is itself slight, its results appear at
first sight to prevent any equilibrium at all. But a closer
examination removes this discrepancy. In order to make the
system self-contained, reflectors must be added to it, so as to
send back into the sources the polarized constituents that are
turned aside out of the direct line by the nicols. Then, as
Brillouin has pointed out, and as in fact Rayleigh had explained
some years before, the radiation from B does ultimately get
across to A after passage backward and forward to the reflectors
and between the nicols: this, it is true, increases the length of
its path, and therefore diminishes the concentration of a single
narrow beam, but any large change of path would make the
beam too wide for the nicols, and thus require other corrections
which may be supposed to compensate. The explanation of
the slight difference that is to be anticipated on theoretical
grounds might conceivably be that in such a case the magnetic
influence, being operative on the phases, alters the statistical
constitution of the radiation of given wave-length from the
special type that is in equilibrium with a definite temperature,
so that after passage through the magnetic medium it is not in
a condition to be entirely absorbed at that temperature; there
would then be some other element, in addition to temperature,
involved in equilibrium in a magnetic field. If this is not so,
there must be some thermodynamic compensation involving
reaction, extremely small, however, on the magnetizing system.
14. Origin of Spectra. In addition to the thermal radiations
of material substances, those, namely, which establish tem-
perature-equilibrium of the enclosure in which they are confined,
there are the fluorescent and other radiations excited by ex-
traneous causes, radiant or electric or chemical. Such radia-
tions are an indication, by the presence of higher wave-lengths
than belong in any sensible degree to the temperature, that the
steady state has not arrived; they thus fade away, either
immediately on the cessation of the exciting cause, or after an
interval. The radiations, consisting of definite narrow bright
bands in the spectrum, that are characteristic of the gaseous
state in which each molecule can vibrate freely by itself, are
usually excited by electric or chemical agency; thus there is
no ground for assuming that they always constitute true tem-
perature radiation. The absorption of these radiations by
strata of the same gases at low temperatures seems to prove
that the unaltered molecules themselves possess these free
periods, which do not, therefore, belong specially to dissociated
ions. Although very difficult to excite directly, these free
vibrations are then excited and absorb the energy of the inci-
dent waves, under the influence of resonance, which naturally
becomes extremely powerful when the tuning is exact; this
792
RADIATION
indicates, moreover, that the true absorption bands in a gas
of sufficiently low density must be extremely narrow. There
is direct evidence that many of the more permanent gases do
not sensibly emit light on being subjected to high temperature
alone, when chemical action is excluded, while others give
in these circumstances feeble continuous spectra; in fact,
looking at the matter from the other side, the more permanent
gases are very transparent to most kinds of radiation, and
therefore must be very bad radiators as regards those kinds.
The dark radiation of flames has been identified with that
belonging to the specific radiation of their gaseous products
of combustion. There is thus ground for the view- that the
impacts of the colliding molecules in a gas, or rather their
mutual actions as they swing sharply round each other in
their orbits during an encounter, may not be sufficiently violent
to excite sensibly the free vibrations of the definite periods
belonging to the molecules. But they may produce radiation
in other ways. While the velocity of an electron or other
electric charge is being altered, it necessarily sends out a stream
of radiation. Now the orbital motions of the electrons in an
actual molecule must be so adjusted, as appears to be theo-
retically possible, that it does not emit radiation when in a
steady state and moving with constant velocity. But in the
violent changes of velocity that occur during an encounter
this equipoise will be disturbed, and a stream of radiation,
without definite periods, but such as might constitute its share
of the equilibrium thermal radiation of the substance, may be
expected while the encounter lasts. At very high temperatures
the energy of this thermal radiation in an enclosure entirely
overpowers the kinetic energy of the molecules present, for the
former varies as T 4 , while the latter measures T itself when
the number of molecules remains the same. The radiation
which can be excited in gases, confined as it is to extremely
narrow bands in the spectrum, may indeed be expected to
possess such intensity as to be thermally in equilibrium with
extremely high temperatures. That the same gases absorb
such radiations when comparatively cold and dark does not,
of course, affect the case, because emissive and absorptive
powers are proportional only for incident radiations of the
intensity and type corresponding to the temperature of the
body. Thus if our adiabatic enclosure of 3 is prolonged into
a tube of unlimited length which is filled with the gas, then
when the temperature has become uniform that gas must send
back out of the tube as much radiation as has passed down the
tube and been absorbed by it; but if the tube is maintained
at a lower temperature, it may return much less. The fact
that it is now possible by great optical dispersion to make the
line-spectra of prominences in the middle of the Sun's disk
stand out bright against the background of the continuous
solar spectrum, shows that the intensities of the radiations of
these prominences correspond to a much higher temperature
than that of the general radiating layer underneath them;
their luminosity would thus seem to be due to some cause
(electric or chemical) other than mere temperature. On the
other hand, the general reversing gaseous layer which originates
the dark Fraunhofer lines is at a lower temperature than the
radiating layer; it is only when the light from the lower layers
is eclipsed that its own direct bright-line spectrum flashes out.
It is not necessary to attribute this selective flash-spectrum to
temperature radiation; it can very well be ascribed to fluor-
escence stimulated by the intense illumination from beneath.
When the radiation in a spectrum is constituted of wide
bands it may on these principles be expected to be in equi-
librium with a lower temperature than when it is constituted
of narrow lines, if the total intensity is the same in the cases
compared; this is in keeping with the easier excitation of
band spectra (cf. the banded absorption spectra), and with the
fact that various gases and vapours do appear to emit band
spectra more or less related to the temperature.
1 5. Constitution of Spectra. In the problem of the unravelling
of the constitutions of the very complex systems of spectral
lines belonging to the various kinds of matter, considerable
progress has been made in recent years. The beginning of
definite knowledge was the discovery of Balmer in 1885, that
the frequencies of vibration () of the hydrogen lines could
be represented, very closely and within the limits of error of
observation, by the formula n K i- ^mT 1 , when for m is sub-
stituted the series of natural numbers 3, 4, 5, ... 15. Soon
afterwards series of related lines were picked out from the
spectra of other elements by Liveing and Dewar. Rydberg
conducted a systematic investigation on the basis of a modifica-
tion of Balmer's law for hydrogen, namely, = <,-N/(i+ J u) 2 .
He found that in the group of alkaline metals three series of
lines exist, the so-called principal and two subordinate series,
whose frequencies fit approximately into this formula, and
that similar statements apply to other natural groups of ele-
ments; that the constant N is sensibly the same for all series
and all substances, while n a and p have different values for
each; and that other approximate numerical relations exist.
In each series the lines of high frequency crowd together to-
wards a definite limit on the more refrangible side; near this
limit they would, if visible, constitute a band. The principal
or strongest series of lines shows reversal very readily. The
lines of the first subordinate series are usually nebular, while
those of the second subordinate or weakest series are sharp;
but with a tendency to broaden towards the less refrangible
side. In most series there are, however, not more than six
lines visible: helium and hydrogen are exceptions, no fewer
than thirty lines of the principal series of the latter having
been identified, the higher ones in stellar spectra only. But
very remarkable progress has recently been made by R. W.
Wood, by exciting fluorescent spectra in a metallic vapour,
and also by applying a magnetic field to restore the lines sensitive
to the Zeeman effect after the spectrum has been cut off by
crossed nicols. The large aggregates of lines thus definitely
revealed are also resolved by him into systems in other ways;
when the stimulating light is confined to one period, say a
single bright line of another substance, the spectrum excited
consists of a limited number of lines equidistant in frequency,
the interval common to all being presumably the frequency of
some intrinsic orbital motion of the molecule. In this way the
series belonging to some of the alkali metals have been obtained
nearly complete.
Simultaneously with Rydberg, the problem of series was
attacked by Kayser and Runge, who, in reducing their extensive
standard observations, used the formula =A+Bw~ 2 +Cj~ 4 ,
higher terms in this descending series being presumed to be
negligible. This cannot be reconciled with. Rydberg's form,
which gives on expansion terms involving m~ 3 ; but for the
higher values of m the discrepancies rapidly diminish, and do
not prevent the picking out of the lines, the frequency-differences
between successive lines then varying roughly as the inverse
squares of the series of natural numbers. For low values of
m neither mode of expression is applicable, as was to be ex-
pected; and it remains a problem for the future to ascertain
if possible the rational formula to which they are approxima-
tions. More complex formulas have been suggested by Ritz
and others, partly on theoretical grounds.
Considered dynamically, the question is that of the deter-
mination of the formula for the disturbed motions of the system
which constitutes the molecule. Although we are still far from
any definite line of attack, there are various indications that
the quest is a practicable one. The lines cf each series, sorted
out by aid of the formulae above given, have properties in
common: they are usually multiple lines, either all doublets
in the case of monad elements, or generally triplets in the case
of those of higher chemical valency; in very few cases are the
series constituted of single lines. It is found also that the
components of all the double or triple lines of a subordinate
series are equidistant as regards frequency. In the case of a
related group of elements, for example the alkaline metals,
it appears that corresponding series are displaced continually
towards the less refrangible end as the atomic weight rises; it
is found also that the interval in frequency between the double
RADICAL RADIOACTIVITY
793
lines of a series diminishes with the atomic weight, and is pro-
portional to its square. These relations suggest that the atomic
weight might here act in part after the manner of a load attached
to a fundamental vibrating system, which might conceivably
be formed on the same plan for all the metals of the group;
such a load would depress all the periods, and at the same time
it would split them up in the manner above described, if it
introduced dissymmetry into the vibrator. The discovery of
Zeeman that a magnetic field triples each spectral line, and
produces definite polarizations of the three components, in
many cases further subdividing each component into lines
placed usually all at equal intervals of frequency, is explained,
and was in part predicted, by Lorentz on the basis of the electron
theory, which finds the origin of radiation in a system of unitary
electric charges describing orbits or executing vibrations in the
molecule. Although these facts form substantial sign-posts,
it has not yet been found possible to assign any likely structure
to a vibrating system which would lead to a frequency formula
for its free periods of the types given above. Indeed, the view
is open that the group of lines constituting a series form a
harmonic analysis of a single fundamental vibration not itself
harmonic. If that be so, the intensities and other properties
of the lines of a series ought all to vary together; it has in
fact been found by Preston, and more fully verified by Runge
and others, that the lines are multiplied into the same number
of constituents in a magnetic field, with intervals in frequency
that are the same for all of them. When the series consists of
double or triple lines the separate components of the same
compound line are not affected similarly, which shows that
they are differently constituted. The view has also found
support that the different behaviours of the various groups of
lines in a spectrum show that they belong to independent
vibrators. The form of the vibration sent out from a molecule
into the aether depends on the form of the aggregate hodograph
of the electronic orbits, which is in keeping with Rayleigh's
remark that the series-laws suggest the kinematic relations of
revolving bodies rather than the vibrations of steady dynamical
systems.
According to Rydberg, there is ground for the view that a
natural group of chemical elements have all the same type of
series spectrum, and that the various constants associated with
this spectrum change rapidly in the same directions in passing
from the elements of one group to the corresponding ones of
the following groups, after the manner illustrated in graphical
representations of Mendeleeff's law by means of a continuous
wavy curve in which each group of elements lies along this
same ascending or descending branch; the chemical elements
thus being built up in a series of types or groups, so that the
individuals in successive groups correspond one to one in a
regular progression, which may be put in evidence by connect-
ing them by transverse curves. Illustrations have been
worked out mathematically by J. J. Thomson of the effect of
adding successive outer rings of electrons to stable vibrating
collocations.
The frequencies of the series of very close lines which con-
stitute a single band in a banded spectrum are connected by a
law of quite different type, namely, in the simpler cases n 2 =
A-Bm 2 . It may be remarked that this is the kind of relation
that would apply to a row of independent similar vibrators in
which the neighbours exert slight mutual influence of elastic
type. If denote displacement and * distance along the row,
the equation -j| + * =-g-rf would represent the general fea-
dl uAr
turcs of their vibration, the right-hand side arising from the
mutual elastic influences. If the ends of the line of vibrators, of
length /, are fixed, or if the vibrators form a ring, the appropriate
type of solution is oo sin fix sin pi, where ju/ = mir and m is
integral; further-
'*, hence
t , which is of
the type above stated. Dynamical systems of this kind are
illustrated by the Lagrangean linear system of connected bodies,
such as, for example, a row of masses fixed along a tense cord,
and each subject to a restoring elastic force of its own in addition
to the tension of the cord. A single spectral line might thus
be transformed into a band of this type, as the. effect of dis-
turbance arising from slight elastic connexions established in
the molecule between a system of similar vibrators. But
the series in line-spectra are of entirely different constitution;
thus for the series expressed by the formula p? = p t -^tn~*
the corresponding period-equation might be expressed in some
such form as sin k(p 2 - # 2 )~i = constant, which belongs to no
type of vibrator hitherto analysed.
AUTHORITIES. The experimental memoirs on the constitution
of radiation are mostly in the Annalen der Physik; references
are given by P. Drude, Lehrbuch der Oplik, Leipzig, 1900; cf. also
reports in the collection issued by the International Congress of
Physics, Paris, 1900. See also Lord Rayleigh's Scientific Papers,
in various connexions; and Larmor, in Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1900-
1902, also the Bakeriari Lecture, Roy. Soc. Proc., 1909, for a general
discussion of molecular statistical theory in this connexion.
Planck's Theorie der Wdrmestrahlung, 1906, gives a discussion from
his point of view; there is a summary by Wien in Ency. Math.
Wiss. v. (3) pp. 282-357; also a lecture of H. A. Lorentz to the
Math. Congress at Rome, 1908, and papers by J. H. Jeans, Phil.
Mag., 1909, on the partition of energy. In spectrum analysis
Kayser's extensive treatise is the standard authority. Winckel-
mann's Handbuch der Physik, vol. ii. (by Kayser, Drude, &c.), may
also be consulted. (J. L.*)
RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root), in English politics, a term
applied to politicians who desire to make thorough, or radical,
changes in the constitution and in the social order generally.
Although it had been used in a somewhat similar way during
the reign of Charles II., the term Radical, in its political sense,
originated about the end of the i8th century, probably owing
its existence to Charles James Fox, who, in 1797, declared
that " radical reform " was necessary. The ideas of the first
Radicals were borrowed largely from the authors of the French
Revolution. The word was more generally employed during
the disturbed period between the close of the Napoleonic wars
and the passing of the great Reform Bill of 1832, and was
applied to agitators like Henry Hunt and William Cobbett.
After the Reform Bill had become law, the advocates of violent
change were drawn into the Chartist movement, and the
Radicals became less revolutionary both in speech and object.
Thus in 1842 an observer writes: " The term Radical, once
employed as a name of low reproach, has found its way into
high places, and is gone forth as the title of a class who glory
in their designation." About this time many members of
Parliament were known as Radicals, among these men being
George Grote and Joseph Hume. The Radicals never formed
a distinct party in the House of Commons, and subsequently
they formed simply the advanced section of the Liberal party.
For a few years in the ipth century the wearing of a white hat
was looked upon as the distinguishing mark of a Radical, a
hat of this colour having been worn by Hunt when addressing
meetings.
See W. Harris, History of the Radical Party in Parliament (1885) ;
S. Bamford, Passages in the Life of a Radical (new ed., 1893); C. B.
Roylance Kent, The English Radicals:, an Historical Sketch (1899).
RADIOACTIVITY. The subject of radioactivity deals with
phenomena exhibited by a special class of bodies of high atomic
weight of which uranium, thorium, radium and actinium are the
best known examples. These substances possess the property
of spontaneously emitting radiations of a special character
which are able to penetrate through matter opaque to ordinary
light. The beginning of this subject dates from 1896, and
was an indirect consequence of the discovery of the X rays
made a few months before by Rontgen. It was known that
the production of X rays in a vacuum tube was accompanied
by a strong phosphorescence of the glass, and it occurred to
several investigators that ordinary substances made phos-
phorescent by visible light might emit a penetrating radiation
similar to X rays. Following out this idea, H. Becquerel (i), 1
a distinguished French physicist, exposed amongst other
substances a phosphorescent compound of uranium, uranium-
1 These numbers refer to papers noted under References (below).
'94
RADIOACTIVITY
potassium sulphate, enveloped in paper beneath a photographic
plate. A weak photographic effect was obtained. This was
shown to be due to a penetrating radiation capable of passing
through sheets of matter opaque to ordinary light. Further
investigation showed that this photographic action was ex-
hibited by all compounds of uranium and by the metal itself,
and had nothing to do with phosphorescence. It was shown
equally if the uranium were kept in darkness and did not
vary appreciably with time. Becquerel showed that the
rays from uranium like X rays were capable of discharging
a body whether positively or negatively electrified. A
uranium compound brought close to the charged plate of a
gold leaf electroscope causes a rapid collapse of the gold leaves.
This property of uranium, and also of the radioactive bodies
in general, has supplied a delicate and quantitative method
of accurate comparison of the intensity of the radiations from
substances under varying conditions. A modified form of
gold leaf electroscope has come into general use for comparison
of the radioactivity of substances. Rutherford (2) made a
systematic examination of the discharging effect produced by
the rays from uranium and showed that it was due to the pro-
duction of charged carriers or ions in the volume of the gas
through which the radiations pass. In an electric field, the
positive ions travel to the negative electrode and vice versa,
too.
RADIW
EMAN/t ION
TIME IN DAYS
thus causing a discharge of the electrified body. If a suffi-
ciently strong field is used, the ions areaH swept to the electrodes
before appreciable loss of their number can occur by recom-
bination. The rate of discharge then reaches a steady maximum
value which is not altered by a large increase in voltage. This
maximum current through the gas is called the saturation
current. The ions produced in gases by the rays from uranium
and other radioactive substances are in general identical with
those produced by X rays, and the mechanism of conductivity
of the gas is very similar in both cases (see CONDUCTION,
ELECTRIC: Through Gases).
Some time after Becquerel's discovery, Mme Curie (3) made
a systematic examination of the electric method of a large
number of chemical elements and their compounds to test
whether they possessed the " radioactive " property of uranium.
Only one other element, thorium, was found to show this effect
to a degree comparable with that of uranium a result inde-
pendently observed by Schmidt. Mme Curie examined the
activity of the various compounds of uranium and found that
their radioactivity was an atomic property, i.e. the activity was
proportional to the amount of the element uranium present,
and was independent of its combination with other sub-
stances. In testing the activity of the minerals containing
uranium, Mme Curie found that the activity was always four
to five times as great as that to be expected from their content
of uranium. If the radioactivity were an atomic phenomenon,
this could only be explained by the presence in these minerals
of another substance more active than uranium itself. Relying
on this hypothesis, Mme Curie made a chemical examination
of uranium minerals in order to try to separate this new radio-
active substance. In these experiments, the Austrian Govern-
ment generously provided Mme Curie with a ton of the residues
from the State manufactory of uranium at Joachimstahl,
Bohemia. At that place there are extensive deposits of pitch-
blende or uranite which are mined for the uranium. After
separation of the latter, the residues are three to five times as
radioactive weight for weight as the uranium. From this
residue Mme Curie separated a substance far more radio-
active than uranium, which she called polonium in honour of
the country of her birth. This substance is usually separated
with bismuth in the mineral, but by special methods can be
partly separated from it. A further examination revealed the
presence of a second radioactive substance which is normally
separated with the barium, to which the name " radium "
was given. This name was happily chosen, for in the pure
state radium bromide has a very great activity about two
million times as great as an equal weight of uranium. By
means of successive fractionations of the chloride, the radium
was gradually concentrated, until finally the radium was
obtained so that the barium lines showed very faintly. The
atomic weight was found by Mme Curie to be 225. In a
recent redetermination, using a larger quantity of 0-4 grams of
pure radium chloride, Mme Curie (4) found the atomic weight
to be 226-2. Thorpe (5) using a smaller quantity obtained a
value 227. The spectrum of the purified sample of radium
chloride obtained by Mme Curie was first examined by
Demarcay. It "was found to have a characteristic spark
spectrum of bright lines analogous in many respects to the
spectra of the alkaline earths. Giesel (6) found that pure
radium bromide gives a brilliant carmine colour to the bunsen
flame. The flame spectrum shows two broad bright bands in
the orange-red. There is also a line in the blue-green and two
weak lines in the violet. Giesel (7) has taken an active part in
the preparation of pure radium compounds, and was the first
to place preparations of pure radium bromide on the market.
He found that the separation of radium from the barium mixed
with it proceeded much more rapidly if the crystallizations
were carried out using the .bromide instead of the chloride.
He states that six to eight crystallizations are sufficient for an
almost complete separation. From the chemical point of view
radium possesses all the characteristic properties of a new
element. It has a definite atomic weight, a well-marked and
characteristic spectrum, and distinct chemical properties.
Its comparative ease of separation and great activity has
attracted much attention to this substance, although we shall
see that very similar radioactive properties are possessed by a
large number of distinct substances.
Radium emits three distinct types of radiation, known as the
a, /3 and 7 rays, of which an account will be given later. It
produces in addition a radioactive emanation or gas which is
about 100,000 times as active weight for weight as radium
itself. The emanation released from 10 milligrams of pure
radium bromide causes a glass tube into which it is introduced
to phosphoresce brightly. A brilliant luminosity is produced
in phosphorescent substances like zinc sulphide, willemite and
barium platino-cyanide when introduced into a tube containing
the emanation. The radium emanation, a more detailed account
of which will be given later, has proved of the greatest utility
in radioactive experiments. The property of radium of pro-
ducing the emanation has been utilized as a very delicate and
certain method, not only of detection but of estimation of small
quantities of radium. This " emanation method " depends
upon the introduction of the emanation, liberated from a sub-
stance by boiling or heating, into a suitable electroscope. The
rate of discharge of the electroscope due to the emanation affords
a quantitative measure of the amount of radium present. In
this way, it is not difficult to determine with certainty the
RADIOACTIVITY
795
presence of radium in a body which contains only 10 " gram
of radium. With care, io~ 12 gram can just be detected. This
emanation method has been employed with great success in
measuring the quantity of radium in minerals and in rocks. A
very simple method has been devised of determining the quantity
of radium present when it is not less than 1/100 milligram. The
tube containing the radium is placed some distance from an
electroscope which is surrounded by a lead screen about 3 mms.
thick. This cuts off the a and ft rays and the effect in the
electroscope is then due to the penetrating y rays. By com-
parison of the rate of discharge with that of a standard prepara-
tion of radium at the same distance, the quantity of radium can
;it once he deduced, provided the radium is in equilibrium with
its emanation. This is usually the case if the radium preparation
is one month old. This method is simple and direct, and has
the great advantage that the radium tube under test need not
be opened, nor its contents weighed. We shall see later that the
amount of radium in an old mineral is always proportional to the
amount of uranium present. Rutherford and Boltwood (8)
found that 3-4 parts of radium by weight are present in ten
million parts of uranium. Consequently an old mineral con-
taining looo kilos of uranium should contain 340 milligrams of
pure radium.
In addition to radium and polonium, a number of other
radioactive substances have been found in uranium minerals.
With the exception of the radium emanation, none of these have
yet been isolated in a pure state, although preparations of some
of them have been obtained comparable in activity with radium
itself. Debierne (9) found a radioactive substance which was
separated from pitchblende with the rare earths and had chemical
properties similar to those of thorium. This he called actinium.
Giesel (10) independently noted the presence of a new radio-
active substance which was usually separated with lanthanum
and cerium from the minerals. It possessed the property of
giving out a radioactive emanation or gas, the activity of which
died away in a few seconds. For this reason he called it the
emanating substance and afterwards emanium. Later work has
shown that emanium is identical in chemical and radioactive
properities with actinium, so that the former name will be
retained.
We have already seen that Mme Curie gave the name polonium
to a radioactive substance separated with bismuth. Later
Marckwald found that a very radioactive substance was de-
posited from a solution of a radioactive mineral on a polished
bismuth plate. The active matter was found to be deposited
in the bismuth with tellurium, and he gave the name radio-
tellurium to this substance. In later work, he showed that the
new substance could be chemically separated from tellurium.
By treating the residues from 15 tons of Joachimsthal pitch-
blende, Marckwald (n) finally obtained 3 milligrams of intensely
active material far more active weight for weight than radium.
It has been definitely settled that the active substance of
Marckwald is identical with polonium. Both substances give
out a type of easily absorbed a rays and both lose their activity
at the same rate. The activity of polonium decays in a geo-
metrical progression with the time and falls to half its initial
value in 140 days. This law of decay, as we shall see, is char-
acteristic of all radioactive products, although the period of
decay is different in each case.
Mme Curie and Debierne (12) have described further experi-
ments with polonium. The latter substance was extracted
from several tons of pitchblende and purified until 2 milligrams
of material were obtained containing about i/io milligram of
pure polonium. From a knowledge of the relative periods of
transformation of radium and polonium, it can be calculated
that the amount of polonium in a radium mineral is 1/5000 of
the amount of radium, while the activity of pure polonium
measured by the a rays should be 5000 times greater than that
of radium. As we have seen, polonium is rapidly transformed,
and it is of great interest to determine the nature of the substance
into which polonium changes. We shall see later that there is
considerable evidence that polonium changes into lead.
Recently Boltwood (13) has separated another substance
from uranium minerals which he has called " ionium." This
substance is sometimes separated from the mineral with actinium
and has chemical properties very similar to those of thorium.
Preparations of ionium have been obtained several thousand
times as active as uranium. Ionium emits a rays of short
range and has a period of transformation probably much longer
than that of radium. Ionium has a special interest inasmuch
as it is the substance which changes directly into radium. A
preparation of ionium initially free from radium grows radium
at a rapid rate. Hofmann found that the lead separated from
uranium minerals and named it radiolead. The active con-
stituent in the lead is radium D, which changes into radium E
and then into radium F (polonium). Both radium D and
radium F are products of the transformation of radium. In
addition to these radioactive substances mentioned above,
a large number of other radioactive substances have been
discovered. Most of these lose their activity in the course of a
few hours or days. The properties of these substances and their
position in the radioactive series will be discussed later.
Radiations from Radioactive Substances. All the radioactive
substances possess in common the property of emitting radia-
tions which darken a photographic plate and cause a discharge
of electrified bodies. Very active preparations of radium,
actinium and polonium also possess the property of causing
strong phosphorescence in some substances. Bodies which
phosphoresce under X rays usually do so under the rays from
radioactive matter. Barium platinocyanide, the mineral
willemite (zinc silicate) and zinc sulphide are the best known
examples.
There are in general three types of radiation emitted by
the radioactive bodies, called the a, ft and y rays. Ruther-
ford (2) in 1899 showed that the radiation from uranium was
complex and consisted of (a) an easily absorbed radiation stopped
by a sheet of paper or a few centimetres of air which he called
the a rays and (b) a far more penetrating radiation capable of
passing through several millimetres of aluminium, called the ft
rays. Later Villard found that radium emitted a very pene-
trating kind of radiation called the y rays capable of passing
before absorption through twenty centimetres of iron and
several centimetres of lead.
Giesel and, later, Curie and Becquerel showed that the ft rays
of radium were deflected by a magnetic field. By the work of
Becquerel and Kaufmann the ft rays have been shown to consist
of negatively charged particles projected with a velocity ap-
proaching that of light, and having the same small mass as the
electrons set free in a vacuum tube. In fact the ft rays are
electrons spontaneously ejected from the radioactive matter at
a speed on an average much greater than that observed in the
electrons set free in a vacuum tube.
The very penetrating y rays are not deflected in a magnetic
or electric field and are believed to be a type of radiation
similar to X rays. The y rays are only observed in radioactive
substances which emit ft rays, and the penetrating power of
the y rays appears to be connected with the initial velocity of
expulsion of the ft rays. Two general theories have been
advanced to account for the properties of these rays. On one
view, the y rays are to be regarded as electromagnetic pulses
which have their origin in the expulsion of the ft particle from
the atom. On the other hand Bragg has collected evidence
in support of the view that the y rays are corpuscular and con-
sist of uncharged particles or " neutral doublets." There is as
yet no general consensus of opinion as to the true nature of the
y rays.
Rutherford (14) showed in 1003 that the o rays were deflected in
a powerful magnetic or electric field. The amount of deflection
is very small compared with the ft rays under similar con-
ditions. The direction of deflection in a magnetic field is
opposite to that of the ft rays, showing that the a rays consist
of a stream of positively charged particles. A pencil of rays
from a thick layer of radioactive matter is complex and con-
sists of particles moving at varying velocities If, however,
796
RADIOACTIVITY
a thin film of radioactive matter of one kind is taken, the
particles which escape without absorption are found to be homo-
geneous and consist of particles projected at an identical
speed. Observations of the velocity and mass of the particle
have been made by Rutherford. The general method employed
for this purpose is similar to that used for the determination
of the velocity and mass of the electron in a vacuum tube.
The deflection of a pencil of rays in a vacuum is determined
for both a magnetic and electric field. From these observa-
tions the velocity and value elm (the ratio of the charge carried
by the particle to its mass) are determined. The value of
elm has been found to be the same for the particles from all
the types of radioactive matter that have been examined,
indicating that the a particles from all radioactive substances
are identical in mass. The value of e/m found for the o particle
is 5-07 X icf. Now the value of e/m for the hydrogen atom set
free in the electrolysis of water is 9660. On the assumption
that the value of the charge e is the same for the a particle as
for the hydrogen atom, the value would indicate that the a
particle has about twice the mass of the hydrogen atom, i.e.
has the same mass as the hydrogen molecule. If the charge
on the a particle is twice that on the hydrogen atom, the value
of e/m indicates that the a particle is a helium atom, for the
latter has an atomic weight of four times that of hydrogen.
It was difficult at first to decide between these and other hypo-
theses, but we shall show later that there is now no doubt
that the a particle is in regality a helium atom carrying two
elementary charges. We may~~CoBseauently regard the a rays
as a stream of helium atoms which are projected from a radio-
active substance with a high velocity. The maximum velocity
of the a particle from radium is 2 X to 9 cms. per second, or one-
fifteenth of the velocity of light. Although the a .rays are the
least penetrating of the radiations, it will be seen that they
play an extremely important part in radioactive phenomena.
They are responsible for the greater part of the ionization and
heating effects of radioactive matter and are closely connected
with the transformations occurring in them.
Under ordinary experimental conditions the greater part
of the ionization observed in a gas is due to the a particles.
This ionization due to the a rays does not extend in air at
atmospheric pressure for more than 7 cms. from radium, and
8-6 cms. from thorium. If a screen of aluminium about -01 cms.
thick is placed over the active material, the a rays are com-
pletely absorbed, and the ionization above the screen is then
due to the ft and y rays alone. If a layer of lead about 2 mms.
thick is placed over the active material, the ft rays are stopped,
and the ionization is then due almost entirely to the penetrating
y rays. By the use of screens of suitable thickness we are
thus able to sift out the various types of rays. These three
types oj radiations all set up secondary radiations in passing
through matter. A pencil of ft rays falling on matter is widely
scattered in all directions. This scattered radiation is some-
times called the secondary ft rays. The y rays give rise to
secondary rays which consist in part of scattered y rays and in
part electrons moving with a high velocity. These secondary
rays in turn produce tertiary rays and so on. The impact of
the a rays on matter sets free a number of slow moving electrons
which are very easily deflected by a magnetic or electric field.
This type of radiation was first observed by ]. J. Thomson,
and has been called by him the 5 rays.
Emanations or Radioactive Gases. In additicn to their power
of emitting penetrating radiations, the substances thorium,
actinium and radium possess another very striking and im-
portant property. Rutherford (15) in 1900 showed that thorium
compounds (especially the oxide) continuously emitted a
radioactive emanation or gas. This emanation can be carried
away by a current of air and its properties tested apart from
the substance which produces it. A little later Dorn showed
that radium possesses a similar property, while Giesel and
Debierne observed a similar effect with actinium. These
emanations all possess the property of ionizing a gas and, if
sufficiently intense, of producing marked photographic and
phosphorescent action. The activity of the radioactive gases
is not permanent but disappears according to a definite law
with the time, viz. the activity falls off in a geometric pro-
gression with the time. The emanations are distinguished
by the different rates at which they lose their activity. The
emanation of actinium is very shortlived, the time for the
activity to fall to half value, i.e. the period of the emanation,
being 3-7 seconds. The period of the thorium emanation is
54 seconds and of the radium emanation 3-9 days. This pro-
perty of emitting an emanation is shown in a very striking
manner by actinium. A compound of actinium is wrapped in a
sheet of thin paper and laid on a screen of phosphorescent
zinc sulphide. In a dark room the phosphorescence, marked
by the characteristic scintillation, is seen to extend on all sides
from the active body. A puff of air is seen to remove the
emanation and with it the greater part of the phosphorescence.
Fresh emanation immediately diffuses out and the experiment
may be repeated indefinitely. The emanations have all the
properties of radioactive gases. They can be transferred from
point to point by currents of air. The emanations can be
separated from the air or other gas with which they are mixed
by the action of extreme cold. Rutherford and Soddy (16)
snowed that under ordinary conditions the temperature of
condensation of the radium emanation mixed was- 150 C.
The emanations are produced from the parent matter and
escape into the air under some conditions. Rutherford and
Soddy (17) made a systematic examination of the emanating
power of thorium compounds under different conditions. The
hydroxide emanates most freely, while in thorium nitrate,
practically none of the emanation escap.es into the air. Most
of the compounds of actinium emanate very freely. Radium
compounds, except in very thin films, retain most of the emana-
tion in the compound. The occluded emanation can in all
cases be released by solution or by heating. On account of
its very slow period of decay, tKe emanation of radium can be
collected like a gas and stored, when it retains its characteristic
properties for a month or more.
Induced Activity. Curie (18) showed that radium possessed
another remarkable property. The surface of any body placed
near radium, or still better, immersed in the emanation from
it, acquires a new property. The surface after removal is
found to be strongly active. Like the emanations, this induced
activity in a body decays with the time, though at quite a
different rate from the emanation itself. Rutherford (19)
independently showed that thorium possessed a like property.
He showed that the bodies made active behaved as if a thin
film of intensely active matter were deposited on their surface.
The active matter could be partly removed by rubbing, and
could be dissolved off by strong acids. When the acid was
evaporated the active matter remained behind. It was shown
that induced activity was due to the emanations, and could not
be produced if no emanation was present. We shall see that
induced activity on bodies is due to a deposit of non-gaseous
matter derived from the transformation of the emanations.
Each emanation gives a distinctive active deposit which decays
at different rates. The active deposits of radium, thorium and
actinium are very complex, and consist of several types of
matter. Several hours after removal from the emanation the
active deposit from radium decays to half-value 26 minutes,
for actinium half-value 34 minutes, for thorium half-value
10-5 hours. The active deposits obtained on a platinum wire
or plate are volatilized before a white heat, and are again de-
posited on the cooler bodies in the neighbourhood. Rutherford
showed that the induced activity could be concentrated on the
negative electrode in a strong electric field, indicating that the
radioactive carriers had a positive charge. The distribution
of the active deposit in a gas at low pressure has been investi-
gated in detail by Makower and Russ.
Theory of Radioactive Transformations. We have seen that
the radioactive bodies spontaneously and continuously emit
a great number of a and ft particles. In addition, new types
of radioactive matter like the emanations and active deposits.
LSCS
RADIOACTIVITY
797
appear, and these are quite distinct in chemical and physical
properties from the parent matter. The radiating power is an
atomic property, for it is unaffected by combination of the
active element with inactive bodies, and is uninfluenced by the
most powerful chemical and physical agencies at our command.
In order to explain these results, Rutherford and Soddy (20)
in 1903 put forward a simple but comprehensive theory. The
atoms of radioactive matter are unstable, and each second a
definite fraction of the number of atoms present break up with
explosive violence, in most cases expelling an a or ft particle
with great velocity. Taking as a simple illustration that an
o particle is expelled during the explosion, the resulting atom
has decreased in mass and possesses chemical and physical
properties entirely distinct from the parent atom. A new type
of matter has thus appeared as a result of the transformation.
The atoms of this new matter are again unstable and break up
in turn, the process of successive disintegration of the atom
continuing through a number of distinct stages. On this view,
a substance like the radium emanation is derived from the
transformation of radium. The atoms of the emanation are
far more unstable than the atoms of radium, and break up at
a much quicker rate. We shall now consider the law of radio-
active transformation according to this theory. It is experi-
mentally observed that in all simple radioactive substances,
the tensity of the radiation decreases in a geometrical pro-
gression with the time, i.e. I/I = "*' where I is the intensity
of the radiation at any time I, I the initial intensity, and X
a constant. Now according to this theory, the intensity of the
radiation is proportional to the number of atoms breaking up
per second. From this it follows that the atoms of active
matter present decrease in a geometrical progression with the
time, i.e. N/N =e"*'where N is the number of atoms present
at a time t, N the initial number, and X the same constant
as before. Differentiating, we have dN/dl= -XN, i.e. X repre-
sents the fraction of the total number of atoms present which
break up per second. The radioactive constant X has a definite
and characteristic value for each type of matter. Since X is
usually a very small fraction, it is convenient to distinguish
the products by stating the time required for half the matter
to be transformed. This will be called the period of the product,
and is numerically equal to log C 2/X. As far as our observation
has gone, the law of radioactive change is applicable to all
radioactive matter without exception. It appears to be an
expression of the law of probability, for the average number
breaking up per second is proportional to the number present.
Viewed from this point of view, the number of atoms breaking
up per second should have a certain average value, but the
.number from second to second should vary within certain
limits according to the theory of probability. The theory of
this effect was first put forward by Schweidler, and has since
been verified by a number of experimenters, including Kohl-
rausch, Meyer, and Begcner and H. Geiger. This variation
in the number of atoms breaking up from moment to moment
becomes marked with weak radioactive matter, where only a
few atoms break up per second. The variations observed are
in good agreement with those to be expected from the theory
of probability. This effect does not in any way invalidate the
law of radioactive change. On an average the number of
atoms of any simple kind of matter breaking up per second is
proportional to the number present. We shall now consider
how the amount of radioactive matter which is supplied at a
constant rate from a source varies with the time. For clear-
ness, we shall take the case of the production of emanation, by
radium. The rate of transformation of radium is so slow
compared with that of the emanation that we may assume
without sensible error that the number of atoms of radium
breaking up per second, i.e. the supply of fresh emanation, is
on the average constant over the interval required. Suppose
that initially radium is completely freed from emanation. In
consequence of the steady supply, the amount of emanation
present increases, but not at a constant rate, for the emanation is
in turn breaking up. Let q be the number of atoms of emanation
produced by the radium per second and N the number present
after an interval t, then dN/dl = q-\X where X is the radio-
active constant of the emanation. It is obvious that a steady
state will ultimately be reached when the number of atoms
of emanation supplied per second are on the average to the
atoms which break up per second. If N be the maximum
number, <?=XN . Integrating the above equation, it follows
that N/N = i -e~ x '. If a curve be plotted with N as
ordinates and time as abscissae, it is seen that the recovery
curve is complementary to the decay curve. The two curves
for the radium emanation period, 3-9 days, are shown in fig. I,
the maximum ordinate being in each case too.
This process of production and disappearance of active*
matter holds for all the radioactive bodies. We shall now
consider some special cases of the variation of the amount of
active matter with time which have proved of great importance
in the analysis of radioactive changes.
(o) Suppose that initially the matter A is present, and this changes
into B and B into C, it is required to find the number of atoms P, Q
and R of A, B and C present at any subsequent time /. .
Let Xi, X, Xs be the constants of transformation of A, B and C
respectively. Suppose n be the number of atoms of A initially
present. From the law of radioactive change it follows:
Substituting the value of Pin terms of n in (i),
the solution of which is of the form
(i)
(2)
where a and b are constants. By substitution it is seen that
o = X!/(X Xi). Since Q=o when t-o, b= Xi/(X, Xi)
Thus Q
Similarly it can be shown that
T? *f ( n&~
XiX.
x,x,
(3)
(4)
whereo (A-X.XXI-X,)' " (x 2 -x,)(x 2 -x,)' "- (A,-A,)(A,-X,)-
It will be seen from (3), that the value of Q, initially zero, increases
to a maximum and then decays; finally, according to an exponential
law, with the period of the more slowly transformed product, whether
A or B.
(6) A primary source supplies the matter A at a constant rate,
and the process has continued so long that the amounts of the
products A, B, C have reached a steady limiting value. The primary
source is then suddenly removed. It is required to find the amounts
of A, B and C remaining at any subsequent time /.
In this case of equilibrium, the number n of particles of A
supplied per second from the source is equal to the number of particles
which change into B per second, and also of B into C. This requires
the relation
where P , Q , R are the initial number of particles of A, B, C
present, and Xi, X 2 , Xj are their constants of transformation.
Using the same quotations as in case (i), but remembering the
new initial conditions, it can easily be shown that the number of
particles P, Q and R of the matter A, B and C existing at the time
t after removal are given by
The curves expressing the rate of variation of P, Q, R with time
are in these cases very different from case (i).
(c) The matter A is supplied at a constant rate from a primary
source. Required to find the number of panicles of A, B and C
present at any time / later, when initially A, B, and C were
absent.
This is a converse case from case (2) and the solutions can be
obtained from general considerations. Initially suppose A, B and
C are in equilibrium with the primary source which supplied A at a
constant rate. The source is then removed and the amounts of
A, B and C vary according to the equation given in case (2). The
source after removal continues to supply A at the same rate as
before. Since initially the product A was in equilibrium with the
source, and the radioactive processes are in no way changed by the
removal of the source, it is clear that the amount of A present in
the two parts in which the matter is distributed is unchanged. If
Pi be the amount of A produced by the source in the time /, and P
RADIOACTIVITY
the amount remaining in the part removed, then Pi + P = P where
P, is the equilibrium value. Thus
P./P.-I-P/P..
The ratio P/P can be written down from the solution given in
case (2). Similarly the corresponding values of Qi/Q , Ri/R ma V
be at once derived. It is obvious in these cases that the curve
plotted with P/P as ordinates and time as abscissae is comple-
mentary to the corresponding curve with Pi/P as ordinates. This
simple relation holds for all recovery and decay curves of radioactive
products in general.
We have so far considered the variation in the number of atoms
of successive products with time when the periods of the products
are known. In practice, the variation of the number of atoms is
deduced from measurements of activity, usually made by the electric
method. Using the same notation as before, the activity of any
product is proportional to its rate of breaking up, i.e. to XiP
where P is the number of atoms present. If two products are present,
the activity is the sum of two corresponding terms XiP and X^Q.
In practice, however, no two products emit a or /3 particles with
the same velocity. The difference in ionizing power of a single
a particle from the two products has thus to be taken into account.
If, under the experimental conditions, the ionization produced by
an a particle from the second product is K times that from the first
product, the activity observed is proportional to XiP+KXjQ. In
this way, it is possible to compare the theoretical activity curves
of a mixture of products with those deduced experimentally.
Analysis of Radioactive Changes. The analysis of the suc-
cessive changes occurring in uranium, thorium, radium and
actinium has proved a very difficult matter. In order to estab-
lish the existence of a new product and to fix its position in
the scheme of changes, it is necessary to show (a) that the new
product has a distinctive period of decay and shows some dis-
tinctive physical or chemical properties; (6) that the product
under consideration arises directly from the product preceding
it in the scheme of changes, and is transformed into the product
succeeding it.
In general, it has been found that each product shows some
distinctive chemical or physical behaviour which allows of its
partial or complete separation from a mixture of other products.
It must be remembered that in most cases the amount of radio-
active matter under examination is too small to detect by
weight, but its presence is inferred from its characteristic radia-
tions and rate of change. In some cases, a separation may be
effected by ordinary chemical methods; for example thorium X
is separated from thorium by precipitation of thorium with
ammonia. The Th X remains in the filtrate and is practically
free from thorium. In other cases, a separation is effected by a
separation of a metal in the solution of active matter. For
example, polonium (radium F) always comes down with bismuth
and may be separated by placing a bismuth plate in a solution.
Radium C is separated from radium B by adding nickel filings
to a solution of the two. Radium C is deposited on the nickel.
In other cases, a partial separation may be effected by electrolysis
or by differences in volatility when heated. For example,
when radium A, B and C are deposited on a platinum plate, on
heating the plate, radium B is volatilized and is deposited on any
cold surface in the neighbourhood. A very striking method of
separating certain products has been recently observed depend-
ing upon the recoil of an atom which breaks up with the expulsion
of an a particle. The residual atom acquires sufficient velocity
in consequence of the ejection of an a particle to escape and be
deposited on bodies in the neighbourhood. This is especially
marked in a low vacuum. This property was independently
investigated by Russ and Makower (21) and by Hahn (22).
The latter has shown that by means of the recoil, actinium C
may be obtained pure from the active deposit containing
actinium A, B and C, for B emits a rays, and actinium C is
driven from the plate by the recoil. In a similar way a new
product, thorium D, has been isolated. By the recoil method,
radium B may be separated from radium A and C. The recoil
method is one of the most definite and certain methods of
settling whether an a ray product is simple or complex.
While in the majority of cases the products break up either
with the emission of a or |3 particles, some products have been
observed which do not emit any characteristic radiation and have
been called " rayless products." For example, radium D and
thorium A are changing substances which break up without
emitting either penetrating a or ft rays. They appear to emit
slow 5 rays which can only be detected by special methods.
The presence and properties of a rayless product can be easily
inferred if it is transformed into a product emitting a radiation,
for the variation in activity of the latter affords a method of
determining the amount of the parent product present. The
distinction between a " ray " and a " rayless " product is not
clear. It may be that the atom of a rayless product undergoes
a re-arrangement of its constituent parts giving rise to an atom
of the same mass but of different properties. In the case of an
a ray or ft ray product, the expulsion of an a or ft particle affords
an obvious explanation of the appearance of a new product
with distinctive physical properties.
In the table a list of the known products of transformation
is given. In each case, the half period of transformation is
given and the type of radiation emitted. If the product emits
a rays, the range of ionization of the a particle in air is given.
TABLE OF RADIOACTIVE PRODUCTS
Half Period
Range
Product.
of
Transforma-
Rays.
of Rays
in Air in
tion.
Cms.
URANIUM
5X10" years
a
3-5
Uranium X
22 days
/S+7
Ionium .
?
a
2-8
RADIUM
1 760 years
a
3'5
Ra Emanation.
3-86 days
a
4'33
Radium A
3 mins.
a
4-83
Radium B
26 mins.
slow /3
Radium C
19 mins.
a+/3+7
7-06
Radium D
17 years
slow ff
Radium E
5 days
ft
Radium F
140 days
a
3-86
Radium G = lead?
THORIUM
about io 10 yrs.
3-5
(Th. i)
Mesothorium (Th. 2)
5-5 years
6-2 hourp
rayless
ff+y
Radiothorium .
737 days
a
3'9
Thorium X
3-6 days
a
5'7
Th Emanation
54 sees
a
5'5
Thorium A
10-6 hours
slow j9
Thorium B
55 mins.
a
5'0
Thorium C
very short?
a
8-6
Thorium D
3 mins.
+ 7
ACTINIUM
?
rayless
Radioactinium .
19-5 days
a+/3
4-8
Actinium X
1 1 -8 days
a
6-55
Act Emanation
3-7 sees.
a
5-8
Actinium A
36 mins.
slow ff
Actinium B
2-15 mins.
a
5-50
Actinium C
5-1 mins.
0+V
In each of the groups under the heading uranium, thorium and
actinium, each product is derived from the direct transformation of
the product above it.
Products of Radium. Radium is transformed directly into the
emanation which in turn goes through a rapid series of trans-
formations called radium A, B and C. The complete analysis
of these changes has involved a large amount of work. The
emanation changes first into radium A, a substance of period
3 minutes emitting only a rays. Radium A changes into radium
B, a product of period 26 minutes emitting ft rays of penetrating
power small compared with those emitted from the next product
radium C. The product radium C has proved of considerable
importance, for it not only emits very penetrating a rays and
ft rays, but is the origin of the 7 rays arising from radium in
equilibrium. When a wire charged negatively has been exposed
for some time in the presence of the radium emanation, it becomes
coated with an invisible film of radium A, B and C. After
RADIOACTIVITY
799
removal from the emanation for 20 minutes, radium A has
practically disappeared and the a rays arise entirely from radium
C. Radium C has proved very valuable in radioactive measure-
ments as providing an intense source of homogeneous a rays.
Twenty-four hours after removal, the activity due to radium
li and C has become exceedingly small. The wire, however,
si ill shows a very small residual activity, first noted by Mme
Curie. This residual activity measured by the a rays rapidly
increases with the time and reaches a maximum in about three
years. The active deposit of slow change has been examined
in detail by Rutherford (23) and by Meyer and Schweidler(24).
It has been shown to consist of three successive products called
radium D, E and F. Radium D is a rayless substance of slow
period of transformation. Its period has been calculated by
Rutherford to be about 40 years, and by Meyer and Schweidler
about 12 years. Antonoff (25) fixes the period of about 17
years. Radium D changes into E, a (3 ray product of period
about 5 days, and E into F, an a ray product of period
140 days. It was at first thought that radium E was complex,
but no evidence of this has been observed by Antonoff. The
product radium F is of special interest, for it is identical with
polonium the first active body separated by Mme Curie. In
a similar way it has been shown that radium D is the primary
source of the activity observed in, lead or " radiolead " separated
by Hofmann. It is interesting to note what valuable results
have been obtained from an examination of the minute residual
activity observed on bodies exposed in the presence of the radium
emanation.
Radium Emanation. The radium emanation is to be regarded
as a typical radioactive product or transition element which
exists in a gaseous form. It is produced from radium at a
constant rate, and is transformed into radium A and helium.
Its half-period of transformation is 3-86 days. The emanation
from radium has been purified by condensing it in liquid air,
and pumping out the residual gases. The volume (26) of the
emanation at normal pressure and temperature to be derived
from one gram of radium in equilibrium is about 0-6 cubic milli-
metres. This small quantity of gas contains initially more
than three-quarters of the total activity of the radium before
its separation. In a pure state, the emanation is 100,000 times
as active weight for weight as pure radium. Pure emanation
in a spectrum tube gives a characteristic spectrum of bright
lines (27). The discharge in the gas is bluish in colour. With
continued sparking, the emanation is driven into the walls of
the tube and the electrodes. Notwithstanding the minute
volume of emanation available, the boiling-point of the emana-
tion has been determined at various pressures. At atmo-
spheric pressure Rutherford (28) found the boiling-point to be
67 C., and Gray and Ramsay (29) 71 C. Liquid emanation
appears colourless when first condensed; when the temperature
is lowered, the liquid emanation freezes, and at the temperature
of liquid air glows with a bright rose colour. The density of
liquid emanation has been estimated at 5 or 6.
Approximate estimates of the molecular weight of the radium
emanation were early made by diffusion methods. The mole-
cular weight in most cases came out about 100. In a com-
parison by Perkins of the rate of diffusion of the emanation
with that of a monatomic vapour of high molecular weight, viz.
mercury, the value deduced was 234. Since the radium atom
in breaking up gives rise to one atom of the emanation and one
atom of helium, its atomic weight should be 226 4 = 222.
The emanation appears to have no definite chemical properties,
and in this respect belongs to the group of inert monatomic
gases of which helium and argon are the best known examples.
It is partially soluble in water, and readily absorbed by charcoal.
Thorium. The first product observed in thorium was the
emanation. This gives rise to the active deposit which has been
analysed by Rutherford, Miss Brooks and by Hahn, and shown
to consist of probably four products thorium A, B, C and D.
Thorium A is a rayless product of period 10-5 hours; thorium
B an a ray product of period about one hour. The presence
of thorium C has been inferred from the two types of a rays
present in the active deposit, but no chemical separation of
B and C has yet been found possible. Hahn has shown that
thorium D a /3 ray product of period 3 minutes can easily be
separated by the recoil method. A special interest attaches
to the product thorium X (30), which was first separated by
Rutherford and Soddy, since experiments with this substance
laid the foundation of the general theory of radioactive trans-
formations. A close analysis of thorium has led to the separa-
tion of a number of new products. Hahn (31) found that a
very active substance emitting a rays, which gave rise to thorium
X, could be separated from thorium minerals. This active
substance, called radiothorium, has been closely examined by
Hahn and Blanc. Its period of decay was found by Hahn to
be about 2 years, and by Blanc to be 737 days. From an
examination of the activity of commercial thorium nitrate of
different ages, Hahn showed that another product must be
present, which he called mesothorium. This is separated from
thorium with Th X by precipitation with ammonia. Thorium
is first transformed into the rayless product mesothorium, of
period about 5 years. This gives rise to a /3 ray product of
quick transformation, which in turn changes into radiothorium.
This changes into thorium X, and so on through a long series
of changes. When isolated in the pure state, radiothorium
would have an activity about a thousand times greater than
radium, but would lose its activity with time with a period of
about 2 years. Mesothorium, when first separated, would be
inactive, but in consequence of the production of radiothorium,
its activity would rapidly increase for several years. After
reaching a maximum, it would finally decay with a period
of five years. Since a large amount of thorium is separated
annually from thorium minerals, it would be of great importance
at the same time to separate the radiothorium and mesothorium
present. For many purposes active preparations of these
substances would be as valuable as radium itself, and the
amount of active matter from this source would be greater
than that at present available from the separation of radium from
uranium minerals.
Actinium. The transformations observed in actinium are
very analogous to those in thorium. Actinium itself is a rayless
product which changes into radioactinium, an o ray product
of period 19-5 days, first separated by Hahn (32). This changes
into actinium X, of period 10-2 days, first separated by Godlewski
(33). Actinium X is transformed into the emanation which in
turn gives rise to three further products, called actinium A, B
and C. Although very active preparations of actinium have
been prepared, it has so far not been found possible to separate
the actinium from the rare earths with which it is mixed. We
do not in consequence know its atomic weight or spectrum.
Origin of Radium. According to the transformation theory,
radium, like all other radioactive products, must be regarded
as a changing element. Preliminary calculations showed that
radium must have a period of transformation of several thousand
years. Consequently in order that any radium could exist in
old minerals, the supply must be kept up by the transformation
of some other substance. Since radium is always found asso-
ciated with uranium minerals, it seemed probable from the
beginning that uranium must be the primary element from
which radium is derived. If this were the case, in old minerals
which have not been altered by the action of percolating waters,
the ratio of the amount of radium to uranium in a mineral
must be a constant. This must evidently be the case, for in a
state of equilibrium the rate of breaking up of radium must
equal the rate of supply of radium from uranium. If P, Q be
the number of atoms of uranium and radium respectively in
equilibrium, and \,, X z their constants of change, then
X 2 Q = X,PorQ/P=X,/X2=Tj/T,.
where T 2 and TI are the half -periods of transformation of uranium
and radium respectively. The work of Boltwood (34), Strutt (35)
and McCoy (36) has conclusively shown that the ratio of radium
to uranium in old minerals is a constant. Bolt wood and Strutt
determined the quantity of radium present in a mineral by the
emanation method, and the amount of uranium by analysis.
8oo
RADIOACTIVITY
In order, however, to obtain a direct proof of the genetic relation
between uranium and radium, it is necessary to show that
radium appears after some time in a uranium compound from
which all trace of radium has been initially removed. It can
readily be calculated that the growth of radium should be easily
observed by the emanation method in the course of one week,
using a kilogram of uranium nitrate. Experiments of this kind
were first made by Soddy (37), but initially no definite evidence
was obtained that radium grew in the solution at all. The rate
of production of radium, if it took place at all, was certainly
less than io,&ooth part of the amount to be expected if uranium
were transformed directly into radium. It thus appeared
probable that one or more products of slow period of trans-
formation existed between uranium and radium. Since uranium
must be transformed through these intermediate stages before
radium appears, it is evident that the initial rate of production
of radium under these conditions might be extremely small.
This conclusion has been confirmed by Soddy, who has shown
that radium does appear in the solution which has been placed
aside for several years.
Since the direct parent of radium must be present in radio-
active minerals, one of the constituents separated from the
mineral must grow radium. This was shown to be the case by
Boltwood (38), who found that actinium preparations produced
radium at a fairly rapid rate. By the work of Rutherford and
Boltwood, it was found that the growth of radium was not due
to actinium itself, but to a new substance separated in some
cases with the actinium. This new substance, which emits
a rays, was separated by Boltwood (38), and called by him
" Ionium." It has chemical properties very similar to thorium.
Soddy has shown that the period of ionium is probably not
less than 20,000 years, indicating that ionium must exist in
uranium minerals in not less than ten times the quantity of
radium. It has not yet been directly shown that uranium
produces ionium, but there can be no doubt that it does do so.
Since ionium produces radium, Boltwood (38) has determined
by direct experiment that radium is half transformed in 2000
years a number in good agreement with other data on that
subject. The constant relation between uranium and radium
will only hold for old minerals where there has been no oppor-
tunity for chemical alteration or removal of its constituents
by the action of percolating water or other agencies. It is
quite possible that altered minerals of no great age will not
show this constant relation. It seems probable that this is
the explanation of some results of Mile Gleditsch, where the
relation between uranium and radium has been found not to
be constant for some mineral specimens.
Connexion of the Radioelements. We have already seen that
a number of slowly transforming radioactive substances, viz.
polonium (radium F), radiolead (radium D) and ionium are
linked up to the uranium-radium series of transformations.
Boltwood (39) has made a systematic examination of the
relative activity in the form of very thin films due to each
of the products present in the uranium-radium family. The
results are shown in the following table, where the activity of
pure uranium itself is taken as unity:
Uranium
Ionium
Radium .
Emanation
Radium A
i-oo
o-34
o-45
0-62
o-54
Radium B .
Radium C .
Radium F .
Actinium and
products .
. o-o 4 (?)
. 0-91
0-46
Us
Total activity mineral, 4-64 times uranium.
0-28
Taking into account the differences in the ionization due
to an a particle from the various products, the results indicate
that uranium expels two a particles for one from each of the
other a ray products in the series of transformations. This
indicates either that two particles are expelled during the
transformation of the atom of uranium, or that another a ray
product is present which has so far not been separated from the
uranium.
Although thorium is nearly always present in old uranium
minerals and uranium in thorium minerals, there does not
appear to be any radioactive connexion between these two
elements. Uranium and thorium are to be regarded as two
distinct radioactive elements. With regard to actinium, there
is still no definite information of its place in the scheme of
transformations. Boltwood has shown that the amount of
actinium in uranium minerals is proportional to the content
of uranium. This indicates that actinium, like radium, is
in genetic connexion with uranium. On the other hand, the
activity of actinium with its series of a ray products is less than
that of radium itself or uranium. In order to explain this
anomaly, Rutherford has suggested that at a certain stage of
disintegration of the uranium-radium series, the disintegration
is complex, and two distinct kinds of matter appear, one in
much larger quantity than the other. On this view, the smaller
fraction is actinium, so that the latter is a branch descendant
of the main uranium-radium series.
End Products of Transformation. It is now definitely estab-
lished that the o particle expelled from any type of radioactive
matter is an atom of helium, so that helium is a necessary accom-
paniment of radioactive changes involving the expulsion of
a particles. After the radioactive transformations have come
to an end, each of the elements uranium and thorium and
actinium should give rise to an end or final product, which
may be either a known element or some unknown element of
very slow period of transformation. Supposing, as seems
probable, that the expulsion of an a particle lowers the atomic
weight of an element by four units the atomic weight of
helium the atomic weights of each of the products in the
uranium and radium series can be simply calculated. Since
uranium expels two a particles, the atomic weight of the next
ray product, ionium, is 238-5-8 or 230-5. The atomic weight
of radium comes out to be 266-5, a number in good agreement
with the experimental value. Similarly the atomic weight of
polonium is 210-5, an d that of the final product after the trans-
formation of polonium should be 206-5. This value is very
close to the atomic weight of lead, and indicates that this sub-
stance is the final product of the transformation of radium.
This suggestion was first put forward by Boltwood (40), who
has collected a large amount of evidence bearing on this subject.
Since in old minerals the transformations have been in progress
for periods of time, in some cases measured by hundreds of
millions of years, it is obvious that the end product, if a stable
element, should be an invariable companion of the radioelement
and be present in considerable quantity. Boltwood has shown
that lead always occurs in radioactive minerals, and in many
cases in amount about that to be expected from their uranium
content and age. It is difficult to settle definitely this very
important problem until it can be experimentally shown that
radium is transformed into lead, or, what should prove simpler
in practice, that polonium changes into helium and lead. Un-
fortunately for a solution of this problem within a reasonable
time, a very large quantity of polonium would be necessary.
Mme. Curie and Debierne have obtained a very active pre-
paration of polonium containing about iVth milligram of pure
polonium. Rutherford and Boltwood and Curie and Debierne
have both independently shown that polonium produces helium
a result to be expected, since it emits a particles.
Production of Helium. In 1902 Rutherford and Soddy sug-
gested that the helium which is invariably found in radioactive
minerals was derived from the disintegration of radioactive
matter. In 1903 Ramsay and Soddy definitely showed that
helium was produced by radium and also by its emanation.
From the observed mass of the a particle, it seemed probable
from the first that the a particle was an atom of helium.
This conclusion was confirmed by the work of Rutherford and
Geiger (41), who showed that the a particle was an atom of
helium carrying two unit charges of electricity. In order to
prove definitely this relation, it was necessary to show that the
a particles, quite independently of the active matter from
which they were expelled, gave rise to helium. This was done
by Rutherford and Royds (42), who allowed the a particles
from a large quantity of emanation to be fired through the
RADIOACTIVITY
801
very thin glass walls of the containing tube. The collected
particle gave the spectrum of helium, showing, without doubt,
that the a particle must be a helium atom.
Since the a particle is an atom of helium, all radioactive
matter which expels a particles must give rise to helium. In
agreement with this, Debierne and Giesel have shown that
urtinium as well as radium produces helium. Observations
of the production of helium by radium have been made by
Ramsay and Soddy, Curie and Dewar, Himstedt and others.
The rate of production of helium per gram of radium was first
dctinitely measured by Dewar (43). His preliminary measure-
ments gave a value of 134 cubic mms. of helium per year per
gram of radium and its products. Later observations extend-
ing over a larger interval give a rate of production about
168 cubic mms. per year. As a result of preliminary measure-
ments, Boltwood and Rutherford (44) have found a growth
of 163 cubic mms. per year. It is of interest to note that the
rate of production of helium by radium is in excellent agreement
with the value calculated theoretically. From their work of
counting the particles and measuring their charge, Rutherford
and Geiger showed that the rate of production of helium should
be 158 cubic mms. per year.
Properties of the a Rays. We have seen that the rays are
positively charged atoms of helium projected at a high velocity,
which are capable of penetrating through thin metal sheets
and several centimetres of air. Early observations indicated
that the ionization due to a layer of radioactive matter decreased
approximately according to an exponential law with the thick-
ness of the absorbing matter placed over the active matter.
The true nature of the absorption of the a rays was first
shown by Bragg and by Bragg and Kleeman (45). The active
particles projected from a thin film of active matter of one
kind have identical velocities, and are able to ionize the air
for a definite distance, termed the " range " of the a particle.
It was found that the ionization per centimetre of path due
to a narrow pencil of a rays increases with the distance from
the active matter, at first slowly, then more rapidly, near the
end of the range. After passing through a maximum value
the ionization falls off rapidly to zero. The range of an a
particle in air has a definite value which can be accurately
measured. If a uniform screen of matter is placed in the path
of the pencil of rays the range is reduced by a definite amount
proportional to the thickness of the screen. All the a par-
ticles have their velocity reduced by the same amount in their
passage through the screen. The ranges in air of the a rays
from the various products of the radioelements have been
measured. The ranges for the different products vary between
2-8 cms. and 8-6 cms.
Bragg has shown that the range of an a particle in different
elements is nearly proportional to the square roots of their
atomic weights. Using the photographic method, Rutherford
(46) showed that the velocity V of an a particle of range R cms.
in air is given by V 2 =K(R+i-25), where K is a constant. In
his experiments he was unable to detect particles which had a
velocity lower than 8-SXio 8 cms. per second. Geiger (47),
using the scintillation method, has recently found that a
particles of still lower velocity can be detected under suitable
conditions by the scintillations produced on a zinc sulphide
screen. He has found that the connexion between velocity
and range can be closely expressed by V*=KR, where K is a
constant.
On account of the great energy of motion of the a particle,
it was at first thought that it pursued a rectilinear path in the
gas without appreciable deflection due to its encounters with
the molecules. Geiger (48) has, however, shown by the scintil-
lation method that the a particles are scattered to a marked
extent in passing through matter. The scattering increases
with the atomic weight of the substance traversed, and becomes
more marked with decreasing velocity of the o particle. A
small fraction of the a particles falling on a thick screen are
deflected through more than a right angle, and emerge again on
the side of incidence.
XXII. 26
Rutherford and Geiger (49) have devised an electrical method
of counting the a particles expelled from radioactive matter.
The a particle enters through a small opening into a metal
tube containing a gas at a reduced pressure. The ionization
produced by the o particle in its passage through the gas is
magnified several thousand times by the movement of the
ions in a strong electric field. In this way, the entrance of an
o particle into the detecting vessel is shown by a sudden and
large deflection of the measuring instrument. By this method,
they determined that 3-4 X io* a particles are ejected per
second from one gram of radium itself and from each of its
a ray products in equilibrium with it. By measuring the
charge on a counted number of a particles, it was found that
the a particle carries a positive charge of 9-3 X icr 10 electro-
static units. From other evidence, it is known that this must
be twice the fundamental unit of charge carried by the hydrogen
atom. It follows that this unit charge is 4-65 X io~ w units.
This value is in good agreement with numerous recent deter-
minations of this fundamental quantity by other methods.
With this data, it is possible to calculate directly the values
of some important radioactive data. The calculated and
observed values are given below:
Calculated. Observed.
Volume of the emanation in cubic milli-
metres per gram of radium . . -585 -6
Volume of helium in cubic millimetres pro-
duced per year per gram of radium. 158 169
Heating effect of radium per gram per hour
in gram calories 113 118
Half-period of transformation of radium
in year 1760 2000
The calculated values are in all cases in good agreement with
the experimental numbers.
It is well known from the experiments of Sir William Crookes
(50) that the a rays produce visible scintillations when they
fall on a screen of phosphorescent zinc sulphide. This is shown
in the instrument called the spinthariscope. By means of a
suitable microscope, the number of these scintillations on a
given area in a given time can be counted. The number so
obtained is practically identical with the number of a particles
incident on the screen, determined by the electrical method of
counting. This shows that each a particle produces a visible
Hash of light when it falls on a suitable zinc sulphide screen.
The scintillations produced by a rays are observed in certain
diamonds, and their number has been counted by Regener (51)
and the charge on each particle has been deduced. The latter
was the first to employ the scintillation method for actual
counting of a particles. Kinoshita has shown that the number
of a particles can also be counted by the photographic method,
and that each particle must produce a detectable effect.
Absorption of ft Rays. We have seen that the ft particles,
which are emitted from a number of radioactive products, carry
a negative charge and have the same small mass as the particles
constituting the cathode rays. The velocity of expulsion and
penetrating power of the ft rays varies widely for different
products. For example, the rays from radium B are very easily
absorbed, while some of the rays from radium C are of a very
penetrating type. It has been found that for a single ft ray
product, the particles are absorbed according to an exponential
law with the thickness of matter traversed, and Hahn has made
use of this fact to isolate a number of new products. It has been
generally assumed that the exponential law of absorption is a
criterion that the ft rays are all expelled at the same speed. In
addition, it has been supposed that the ft particles do not
decrease much in velocity in passing through matter. Wilson
has recently made experiments upon homogeneous ft rays, and
finds that the intensity of the radiation falls off in some cases
according to a linear rather than to an exponential law, and that
there is undoubted evidence that the ft particles decrease in
velocity in traversing matter. Experiments upon the absorption
of ft rays are greatly complicated by the scattering of the ft rays
in their encounters with the molecules. For example, if a pencil
of ft rays falls on a metal, a large fraction of the rays are scattered
802
RADIOLARIA
sufiiciently to emerge on the side of incidence. This scattering
of the /3 rays has been investigated by Eve, McLennan, Schmidt,
Crowther and others. It has been found that the scattering
for different chemical elements is connected with their atomic
weight and their position in the periodic table. McCelland and
Schmidt have given theories to account for the absorption of
/3 rays by matter. The whole problem of absorption and scatter-
ing of particles by substances is very complicated, and the
question is still under active examination and discussion. The
negative charge carried by the /3 rays has been measured by
a number of observers. It has been shown by Rutherford and
Makower that the number of particles expelled per second
from one gram of radium in equilibrium is about that to be ex-
pected if each atom of the /3 ray products in breaking up
emits one ft particle.
Heat Emission of Radioactive Matter. In 1903 it was shown
by Curie and Laborde (52) that a radium compound was always
hotter than the surrounding medium, and radiated heat at a
constant rate of about 100 gram calories per hour per gram of
radium. The rate of evolution of heat by radium has been
measured subsequently by a number of observers. The latest
and most accurate determination by Schweidler and Hess, using
about half a gram of radium, gave 118 gram calories per gram
per hour (53). There is now no doubt that the evolution of
heat by radium and other radioactive matter is mainly a second-
ary phenomenon, resulting mainly from the expulsion of .a
particles. Since the latter have a large kinetic energy and are
easily absorbed by matter, all of these particles are stopped in
the radium itself or in the envelope surrounding it, and their
energy of motion is transformed into heat. On this view, the
evolution of heat from any type of radioactive matter is pro-
portional to the kinetic energy of the expelled a particles. The
view that the heating effect of radium was a measure of the
kinetic energy of the a particles was strongly confirmed by the
experiments of Rutherford and Barnes (54). They showed that
the emanation and its products when removed from radium
were responsible for about three-quarters of the heating effect
of radium in equilibrium. The heating effect of the radium
emanation decayed at the same rate as its activity. In addition,
it was found that the ray products, viz. the emanation radium
A and radium C, each gave a heating effect approximately
proportional to their activity. Measurements have been made
on the heating effect of uranium and thorium and of pitch-
blende and polonium. In each case, the evolution of heat has
been shown to be approximately a measure of the kinetic energy
of the a particles.
Experiments on the evolution of heat from radium and its
emanation have brought to light the enormous amount of
energy accompanying the transformation of radioactive matter
where a particles are emitted. For example, the emanation
from one gram of radium in equilibrium with its products emits
heat initially at the rate of about 90 gram calories per hour.
The total heat emitted during its transformation is about
12,000 gram calories. Now the initial volume of the emanation
from one gram of radium is -6 cubic millimetres. Consequently
one cubic centimetre of emanation during its life emits 2 X io 7
gram calories. Taking the atomic weight of the emanation as
222, one gram of the emanation emits during its life 2 X io 9
gram calories of heat. This evolution of heat is enormous
compared with that emitted in any known chemical reaction.
There is every reason to believe that the total emission of energy
from any type of radioactive matter during its transformation
is of the same order of magnitude as for the emanation. The
atoms of matter must consequently be regarded as containing
enormous stores of energy which are only released by the dis-
integration of the atom.
A large amount of work has been done in measuring the
amount of the thorium and radium emanation in the atmo-
sphere, and in determining the quantity of radium and thorium
distributed on the surface of the earth. The information
already obtained has an important bearing on geology and
atmospheric electricity.
REFERENCES. I. H. Becquerel, Contptes Rendus, 1896, pp. 420,
501, 559. 689, 762, 1086; 2. Rutherford, Phil. Mag., Jan. 1899;
3. Mme Curie, Comptes Rendus, 1898, 126. p. noi; M and Mme
Curie and G. Bemont, ib., 1898, 127. p. 1215; 4. Mme Curie, ib.,
1907, 145. p. 422; 5. Thorpe, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1908, 80. p. 298;
6. Giesel, Phys. Zeit., 1902, 3. p. 578; 7. Giesel, Annal. d. Phys.',
1899, 69. p. 91; Ber., 1902, p. 3608; 8. Rutherford and Boltwood,
Amer. Journ. Sci., July 1906; 9. Debierne, Comptes Rendus,
1899, 129. p. 593; 1900, 130. p. 206; io. Giesel, Ber., 1902, p. 3608;
I93. P- 342; II. Marckwald, ib., 1903, p. 2662; 12. Mme Curie
and Debierne, Comptes Rendus, 1910, 150. p. 386; 13. Boltwood,
Amer. Journ. Sci., May 1908; 14. Rutherford, Phil. Mag., Feb. 1903,
Oct. 1906; 15. Rutherford, ib., Jan. 1900; 16. Rutherford and
Soddy, ib., May 1903; 17. Rutherford and Soddy, ib., Nov. 1902;
18. M and Mme Curie, Comptes Rendus, 1899, 129. p. 714; 19.
Rutherford, Phil. Mag., Jan. and Feb. 1900; 20. Rutherford and
Soddy, ib., Sept. and Nov. 1902, April and May 1903; Rutherford,
Phil. Trans., 1904, 2O4A. p. 169; 21. Russ and Makower, Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1909, 82A. p. 205; 22. Hahn, Phys. Zeit., 1909, io. p. 81;
23. Rutherford, Phil. Mag., Nov. 1904, Sept. 1905; 24. Meyer
and Schweidler, Wien. Ber., July 1905; 25. Antonoff, Phil. Mag.,
June 1910; 26. Cameron and Ramsay, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1907,
p. 1266; Rutherford, Phil. Mag., Aug. 1908; 27. Cameron and
Ramsay, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1908, 8lA. p. 210; Rutherford and
Royds, Phil. Mag., 1908, 16. p. 313; Royds, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1909,
82A. p. 22; Watson, ib., 1910, 83A. p. 50; 28. Rutherford, Phil.
Mag., 1909; 29. Gray and Ramsay, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1909,
pp. 354, 1073; 30. Rutherford and Soddy, Phil. Mag., Sept. and
Nov. 1902; 31. Hahn, Proc. Roy. Soc., March 1905; Phil. Mag.,
June 1906; Ber., 40. pp. 1462, 3304; Phys. Zeit., 1908, 9. pp. 245,
246; 32. Hahn, Phil. Mag., Sept. 1906; 33. Godlewski, ib.,
July 1905; 34. Boltwood, ib., April 1905; 35. Strutt, Trans. Roy.
Soc., I905A.; 36. McCoy, Ber., 1904, p. 2641; 37. Soddy, Phil.
Mag., June 1905, Aug. 1907, Oct. 1908, Jan. 1909; 38. Boltwood,
Amer. Journ. Sci., Dec. 1906, Oct. 1907, May 1908, June 1908;
39. Boltwood, ib., April 1908; 40. Boltwood, ib., Oct. 1905,
Feb. 1907; 41. Rutherford and Geiger, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1908, 8iA.
p. 141 ; 42. Rutherford and Royds, Phil. Mag., Feb. 1909; 43. Dewar,
Proc. Roy. Soc., 1908, SIA. p. 280; 1910, 83. p. 404; 44. Boltwood
and Rutherford, Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., 1909, 54. No. 6;
45. Bragg and Kleeman, Phil. Mag., Dec. 1904, Sept. 1905; 46.
Rutherford, ib., Aug. 1906; 47. Geiger, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1910, 83A.
P- 55! 4-8. Geiger, ib., 1910, 83A. p. 492; 49. Rutherford and
Geiger, ib., 1908, 8lA. pp. 141, 163; 50. Crookes, ib., 1903;
51. Regener, Verhandl. d. D. Phys. Ges., 1908, io. p. 28; 52. Curie
and Laborde, Comptes Rendus, 1904, 136. p. 673; 53. Schweidler
and Hess, Wien. Ber., June 1908, 117; 54. Rutherford and
Barnes, Phil. Mag., Feb. 1904.
General treatises are: P. Curie, (Euvres, 1908; E. Rutherford,
Radioactive Transformations, 1906; F. Soddy, Interpretation of
Radium, 1909; R. J. Strutt, Becquerel Rays and Radium, 1904;
W. Makower, Radioactive Substances, 1908; J. Joly, Radioactivity
and Geology, 1909. See also Annual Reports of the Chemical Society.
(E. Ru.)
RADIOLARIA, so called by E. Haeckel in 1862 (Polycystina,
by C. G. Ehrenberg, 1838), the name given to Marine Sarcodina,
in which the cytoplasmic body gives off numerous fine radiating
pseudopods (rarely anastomosing) from its surface, and is
provided with a chitinous " central capsule," surrounding
the inner part which encloses the nucleus, the inner and outer
cytoplasm communicating through either one or three aper-
tures or numerous pores in the capsule. The extracapsular
cytoplasm is largely transformed into a gelatinous substance
(" calymma "), through which a granular network of plasm
passes to form a continuous layer bearing the pseudopods at the
surface; this gelatinous layer is full of large vacuoles, " alveoli,"
as in other pelagic Sarcodina (Heliozoa, q.v.), Globigerinidae,
&c., among Foraminifera (q.v.). The protoplasm may contain
oil-globules, pigment-grains, reserve-grains and crystals. There
is frequently a skeleton present, either of silica (pure or contain-
ing a certain amount of organic admixture), or of " acanthin "
(possibly a proteid, allied to vitellin, but regarded by W.
Schewiakoff as a hydrated silicate of calcium and aluminium) ;
never calcareous or arenaceous. The skeleton may consist of
spicules, isolated or more or less compacted, or form a latticed
shell, which, in correlation with the greater resistance of its
substance, is of lighter and more elegant structure than in the
Foraminifera. The alveoli contain a liquid; which, as shown
by Brandt, is rich in carbon dioxide, and in proportion to its
abundance may become much lighter than sea- water; and
possibly the gelatinous substance of the calymma is also lighter
than the medium. In Acantharia the protoplasm at the base
RADIOLARIA
803
of the projecting spines is often differentiated into a bundle of
fibres converging on to the spines some way up (distally); these,
comparable to the myonemes of Infusoria (q.v.), Sic., and termed
" myophrisks ", possibly serve to drag outwards the surface
and so extend it, with concurrent dilatation of the alveoli, and
lower the specific gravity of the animal. In this group also a
thick temporary flagellum " sarcoflagellum " may be formed,
apparently by the coalescence of a number of pseudopodia.
The pigmented mass or " phaeodium " in the ectoplasm of
l'h;ieodaria appears to be an excretory product, formed within
the cenlral capsule and passing immediately outwards; a similar
uniform deposit of pigmented granules occurs in the Colloid
species, Thalassicotta nudeata. The wall of the central cap-
sule is simple in the Spumellaria, but formed of two layers
in the Nassellaria and Phaeodaria. In the Nassellaria the
oscule is simply a perforated area, and a cone of differentiated
fibres in the intracapsular cytoplasm has its base on it: it is
termed the "porocone," and the fibres may possibly be muscular
(myonemes). In Phaeodaria, the inner membrane at each oscule
is prolonged through the outer into a tube ("proboscis"):
the outer membrane of the principal oscule forms a large radially
EP
FIG. I. Thalassicotta pelagica, Haeckel; X25. CK, central capsule;
EP, extracapsular protoplasm ; al, alveoli, liquid-holding vacuoles
in the protoplasm similar to those of Heliozoa, Hastigerina, &c. ;
ps, pseudopodia. The minute unlettered dots are the " yellow
cells."
striated circular plate, the " astropyle," or " operculum."
The innermost shell of some with concentric shells may lie
within the central capsule, or even within the nucleus; this is
due to the growth of these organs after the initial shell is formed,
so that they pass out by lobes through the latticed openings
of the embryonic shell, which lobes ultimately coalesce outside
the embryonic chamber, and so come finally to invest it (fig.
in. 17). In some, a symbiosis occurs with Zooxanthella,
Brandt, a Flagellate of the group Chrysomadineae, which
in the resting state inhabits the extracapsular cytoplasm
growing and dividing freely therein, and only (under study)
becoming free and flagellate on the death of the host (fig. ra.
4, 6-13). The Silicoflagellata or Dictyochidae, also possessing
a vegetable colouring matter, but with a skeleton of impure
silica (like that of Phaeodaria), may pass some of their lives in
symbiosis with Radiolaria.
Living Radiolaria were first observed and partially described
by W. J. Tilesius in 1803-6 and 1814, by W. Baird in 1830,
and by C. G. Ehrenberg in 1831, as luminous organisms in the
sea; F. J. F. Meyen in 1834 recognized their animal character
and the siliceous nature of their spicules. Ehrenberg a little later
described a large number of Nassellarian skeletons under the
name of Polycystina (1838), but without more than a very
slight knowledge of a few living forms. T. H. Huxley in 1851
made the first adequate study of the living animal, and was
followed by Job. Miiller in the same decade. E. Haeckel began
his publications in 1862, and in two enormous, abundantly
illustrated, systematic works, besides minor publications, has
dealt exhaustively with the cytology, classification, and distri-
bution of the class. Next in value come the contributions
of Richard Hertwig (largely developmental), besides those of
L. Cienkowsky, Karl Brandt and A. Borgert, while to F.
Dreyer and V. Hacker we owe valuable studies on the physical
relations of the skeleton.
Our classification is taken from Haeckel.
A. Spumellaria, Haeck. (Peripylaea, Hertwig). Central capsule
perforated with numerous evenly distributee pores. Skeleton
siliceous, latticed or of detached spicules, or absent. Form
homaxohic or with at least three planes of symmetry intersecting
at right angles, rarely irregular or spiral, sometimes forming colonies,
i.e. with several central capsules in a common external cytoplasm.
FIG. 1 1. Eucyrtidium cranioides, Haeck. ; X 1 50 ; one of the Nassellaria.
Entire animal as seen in the living condition. The central capsule
is hidden by the beehive-shaped siliceous shell within which it is
lodged.
I. Skeleton of detached spicules, or absent.
Fam. I. COLLOIDEA. Skeleton absent. Thalassicotta, Huxl.
(figs. i. and in. l); Thalassophysa, Haeck.;
Coupzoum, Haeck. (fig. in. 2-5, 15, 16);
Actissa, Haeck.
Fam. 2. BELOIDEA. Skeleton spicular. Sphaeroxoum,
Haeck.; Raphidozoum, Haeck.
II. Skeleton latticed or spongy-reticulate.
Fam. 3. SPHAEROIDEA. Skeleton homaxial, sometimes
colonial. Cottosphaera, Mull.; Haliomma,
Ehrb. ; Actinomma, Haeck. (fig. HI. 17),
showing concentric latticed shells, the smallest
intranuclear, all connected by radial spines;
Spongosphaera, Haeck. (fig. iv. 8); Hdio-
sphaera, Haeck. (fig. HI. 14).
Fam. 4. PRUNOIDEA. Skeleton a prolate spheroid or
cylinder of circular section, sometimes con-
stricted like a dice-box.
Fam. 5. DISCOIDEA. Shell flattened, of circular plan,
rarely becoming spiral.
Fam. 6. LARCOIDEA. Shell with three unequal axes,
elliptical in the plane of any two, more rarely
becoming irregular or spiral.
B. Acantharia, Haeck. (Actipylaea, Hertw.). Skeleton of
spicules of acanthm radiating from a centre, and usually twenty,
8 04
RADIOLARIA
disposed on five successive zones of four on alternating meridians,
the zones corresponding to equator, tropics and circumpolar circles
on the globe ; pores of central capsule in scattered groups.
Fam. i. ACTINELIDA. Spines numerous, more than
twenty, irregularly grouped. Litholophus,
Haeck.; Xiphacantha, Haeck.
Fam. 2. ACANTHONIDA. Spines twenty, simple, usually
equal. Acanthometra, J. Miill. (fig. iv. 6, 7);
Astrolonche, Haeck.; Amphiloncne, Haeck.
(fig. HI. 18).
Fam. 3. SPHAEROPHRACTIDA: Spines equal, branching
and often coalescing into a latticed shell,
homaxonic.
Fam. 4. PRUNOPHRACTIDA: Branching spines coalescing
into a latticed shell which is elongated and
elliptical in at least one plane.
C. Nassellaria, Haeck. (Monopylaea, Hertw.). Silico-skeletal
Radiolaria in which the central capsule is typically monaxonic (cone-
shaped), with a single perforate area (pore-plate) placed on the basal
face of the cone; the membrane of the capsule, the nucleus single;
the skeleton is extracapsular, and forms a scaffold-like or beehive-
like structure of monaxonic form, a tripod or calthrop, a sagittal
ring, or a combination of these.
Fam. i. NASSOIDEA, Haeck. Skeleton absent. Cystidium,
Haeck.
Fam. 2. PLECTIDA, Haeck. Skeleton formed of a single
branching spicule, a tripod or usually a 4-
radiate calthrop, its branches sometimes
reticulate. Genera : Plagiacantha, Haeck. ;
Plegmatium, Haeck.
Fam. 3. SPYROIDEA. Shell latticed around the sagittal
ring (" cephalis "), sometimes with a lower
chamber added.
Fam. 4. BOTRIDEA, Haeck. Shell latticed, composed of
several chambers agglomerated without definite
order; a single central capsule. Genera:
Bolryocyrtis, Haeck.; Lithobotrys, Haeck.
Fam. 5. CYRTOIDEA, Haeck. Skeleton a monaxonic or
triradiate shell, or continuous piece (beehive-
shaped). Genera: Halicalyptra, Haeck.;
Eucyrttdium, Haeck. (fig. n.) ; Carpocanium,
Haeck. (fig. iv. 3).
Fam. 6. STEPHOIDEA, Haeck. Skeleton a sagittal ring
continuous with the branched spicule, and
sometimes growing out into other rings or
branches. Genera: Acanthpdesmia, Haeck.;
Zygostephanus, Haeck. ; Lithocircus, Haeck.
(fig. iv. i).
D. Phaeodaria, Haeck. (Tripylaea, Hertw.). Radiolaria of
cruciate symmetry, prolonged into tubular processes with three
oscula to the central capsule, one inferior, the principal, and two
symmetrically placed on either side of the opposite pole; skeleton
of spicules, a network of hollow filaments, or a minutely alveolate
shell, of a combination of silica with organic substance; extra-
capsular protoplasm containing in front of the large oscule an
agglomeration of dusky purplish or greenish pigment (" phae-
odium ").
Fam. I. PHAEOCYSTIDA, Haeck. Siliceous skeleton absent
or of separate needles. Genera: Aulacantha,
Haeck.; Thalassoplancta, Haeck.
Fam. 2. PHAEOSPHAERIDA. Spicules united into a
latticed shell. Genera: Aulosphaera, Haeck.
(fig. iv. 9); Auloplegma, Haeck.; Canna-
cantha, Haeck.
Fam. 3. PHAEOGROMIDA, Haeck. Shell continuous,
traversed by fine canals or finely alveolate,
provided with at least one pylome. Genera:
Challengeria, Wyv., Thomson; Lithogromia,
Haeck.
Fam. 4. PHAEOCONCHIDA. Shell as in Phaeosphaerida,
but of two symmetrical halves (valves), which
meet in the plane of the three oscules (" frontal "
of Haeckel, who terms the plane of symmetry
through the shells " sagittal "). Genera: Con-
chidium, Haeck.; Coelodendrum, Haeck.
(fig. iv. 4).
The following passages may be repeated here from Sir E. Ray
Lankester's article " Protozoa " in the Qth edition of this
Encyclopaedia :
" The important differences in the structure of the central capsule
of different Radiolaria were first shown by Hertwig, who also dis-
covered that the spines of the Acanthometridea consist not of
silica but of an organic compound (but see above). In view of
this latter fact and of the peculiar numerical and architectural
features of the Acanthometrid skeleton, it seems proper to separate
them altogether from the other Radiolaria. The Peripylaea may
be regarded as the starting-point of the Radiolarian pedigree, and
have given rise on the one hand to the Acanthometridea, which
18
FIG. III. Radiolaria. i. Central capsule of Thalassicolla
nudeata, Huxley, in radial section, a, the large nucleus (Binnen-
blaschen); b, corpuscular structures of the intracapsular proto-
plasm containing concretions; c, wall of the capsule (membranous
shell), showing the fine radial pore-canals; d, nucleolar fibres
(chromatin substance) of the nucleus. 2, 3. Collozoum
inerme, ]. M tiller, two different forms of colonies, of the natural
size. 4. Central capsule from a colony of Collozoum inerme,
showing the intracapsular protoplasm and nucleus, broken up
into a number of spores, the germs of swarm-spores or flagellulae ;
each encloses a crystalline rod. c, yellow cells lying in the extra-
capsular protoplasm. 5. A small colony of Collozoum inerme,
magnified 25 diameters, a, alveoli (vacuoles) of the extra-
capsular protoplasm; 6, central capsules, each containing besides
protoplasm a large oil-globule. 6-13. Yellow cells of various
Radiolaria: 6, normal yellow cell; 7. 8, division with formation
of transverse septum; 9, a modified condition according to
Brandt; 10, division of a yellow cell into four; n, amoeboid
condition of a yellow cell from the body of a dead Sphaerozoon;
12, a similar cell in process of division; 13, a yellow cell the
protoplasm of which is creeping out of its cellulose envelope.
14. Heliosphaera inermis, Haeck., living example; X 400. a,
nucleus; b, central capsule; c, siliceous basket-work skeletoa
15. Two swarm-spores (flagellulae) of Collozoum inerme, set free
RADIOLARIA
805
from such a central capsule as that drawn in 4; each contains
;i crystal ft and a nucleus a. 16. Two swarm-spores of Collo-
zoum inerme, of the second kind, viz. devoid of crystals, and of
two sizes, a macrospore and a microspore. They have been set
free from central capsules with contents of a different appearance
from that drawn in 4. a, nucleus. 17. Actinomma astera-
canthion, Haeck.; X 260; one of the Peripylaea. Entire animal
in optical section, a, nucleus; ft, wall of the central capsule;
c, innermost siliceous shell enclosed in the nucleus; c l , middle
shell lying within the central capsule; c 1 , outer shell fying in the
extracapsular protoplasm. Four radial siliceous spines holding
the three spherical shells together are seen. The radial fibrilla-
tion of the protoplasm and the fine extracapsular pseudopodia are
to be noted. 1 8. Amphilonche messanensis, Haeck.; X ZOO;
one of the Acanthometridea. Entire animal as seen living.
FIG. IV. Radiolaria. I. Liikocircus annularis, Hertwig; one
of the Monopylaea. Whole animal in the living state (optical
section); a, nucleus; 6, wall of the central capsule; c, yellow
cells; d, perforated area of the central capsule (Monopylaea).
2. Cystidium inerme, Hertwig; one of the Monopylaea. Living
animal. An example of a Monopylacon destitute of skeleton.
o, nucleus; 6, capsule- wall ; c, yellow cells in the extracapsular
protoplasm. 3. Carpocanium diadema, Haeck.; optical
section of the beehive-shaped shell to show the form and position
of the protoplasmic body, a, the tri-lobed nucleus; b, the
siliceous shell; c, oil-globules; d, the perforate area (pore-plate)
of the central capsule. 4. Coelodendrum gracillimum, Haeck.;
living animal, complete; one of the Tripylaea. a, the character-
istic dark pigment (phacodium) surrounding the central capsule 6.
The peculiar branched siliceous skeleton, consisting of hollow
fibres, and the expanded pseudopodia are seen. 5. Central
capsule of one of the Tripylaea, isolated, showing a, the nucleus;
ft, c, the inner and the outer laminae of the capsule wall; d, the
chief or polar aperture; e, e, the two secondary apertures.
6, 7. Acanthometra claparedei, Haeck. 7 shows the animal in
optical section, so as to exhibit the characteristic meeting of the
spines at the central point as in all Acanthometridea; 6 shows the
transition from the uninuclear to the multinuclear condition by
the breaking up of the large nucleus, a, small nuclei; b, large
fragments of the single nucleus; c, wall of the central capsule;
d, extracapsular jelly (not protoplasm); , peculiar intracapsular
yellow cells. 8. Sfongosphaera streptacantha, Haeck.; one
of the Peripylaea. Siliceous skeleton not quite completely drawn
on the right side, a, the spherical extracapsular shell (compare
fig. in. 17), supporting very large radial spines which are con-
nected by a spongy network of siliceous fibres. 9. Aulo-
sphaera elegantissima, Haeck.; one of the Phaeodaria. Half of
the spherical siliceous skeleton.
retain the archaic structure of the central capsule whilst developing
a peculiar skeleton, and on the other hand to the Monopylaea and
Phaeodaria, which have modified the capsule but retained the
siliceous skeleton.
Phaeodaria.
Peripylaea.
Monopylaea.
Acanthomrtridca.
Archi-peripylaea.
RADIOIAIUA.
" The occasional total absence of any siliceous or acanthinous
skeleton docs not appear to be a matter of classificatory importance,
since skeletal elements occur in close allies of those very few forms
which are totally devoid of skeleton. Similarly it does not appear
to be a matter of great significance that some forms (Polycyttaria)
form colonies, instead of the central capsules separating from one
another after fission has occurred.
" It is important to note that the skeleton of silex or acanthin
does not correspond to the shell of other Sarcodina, which appears
rather to be represented by the membranous central capsule. The
skeleton does, however, appear to correspond to the spicules of
Heliozoa, and there is an undeniable affinity between such a form as
Clathrulina and the Sphaerid Peripylaea (such as Heliosphaera,
fig. in. 14). The Radiolaria are, however, a very strongly marked
group, definitely separated from all other Sarcodina by the
membranous central capsule sunk in their protoplasm. Their
differences inter se do not affect their essential structure. The varia-
tions in the chemical composition of the skeleton and in the perfora-
tion of the capsule do not appear superficially. The most obvious
features in which they differ from one another relate to the form and
complexity of the skeleton, a part of the organism so little character-
istic of the group that it may be wanting altogether. It is not
known how far the form-species and form-genera which have been
distinguished in such profusion by Haeckel as the result of a study of
the skeletons are permanent (i.e. relatively permanent) physio-
logical species. There is no doubt that very many are local and
conditional varieties, or even merely stages of growth, of a single
Protean species. The same remark applies to the species discrimin-
ated among the shell-bearing Reticulana. It must not be supposed,
however, that less importance is to be attached to the distinguishing
and recording of such forms because we are not able to assert that
they are permanent species.
" The streaming of the granules of the protoplasm has been observed
in the pseudopodia of Radiolaria as in those of Heliozoa and
Reticularia; it has also been seen in the deeper protoplasm; and
granules have been definitely seen to pass through the pores of the
central capsule from the intracapsular to the extracapsular proto-
plasm. A feeble vibrating movement of the pseudopodia has
been occasionally noticed.
" The production of swarm-spores has been observed only in
"Acanthometra and in the Polycyttaria and Thalassicollidae, and
only in the two latter groups have any detailed observations been
made. Two distinct processes of swarm-spore production have
been observed by Cienkowski, confirmed by Hertwig, dis-
tinguished by the character of the resulting spores, which are
called ' crystalligerous ' and ' isospores ' (fig. HI. 15) in the one
case, and ' dimorphous ' or ' anisospores ' in the other (fig. HI.
16). In both processes the nucleated protoplasm within the central
capsule breaks up by a more or less regular cell-division into small
8o6
RADIOMETER
pieces, the details of the process differing a little in the two cases.
In those individuals which produce crystalligerous swarm-spores,
each spore encloses a small crystal (fig. 1 1 1. 15). On the other hand,
in those individuals which produce dimorphous swarm-spores, the
contents of the capsule (which in both instances are set free by its
natural rupture) are seen to consist of individuals of two sizes,
' megaspores ' and ' microspores,' neither of which contain
crystals (fig. in. 1 6). The further development of the spores has
not been observed in either case. Both processes have been observed
in the same species, and it is suggested that there is an alternation
of sexual and asexual generations, the crystalligerous spores develop-
ing directly into adults, which in their turn produce in their central
capsules dimorphous swarm-spores (megaspores and microspores),
which in a manner analogous to that observed in the Volvocinean
Flagellata copulate (permanently fuse) with one another (the larger
with the smaller) before proceeding to develop. The adults resulting
from this process would, it is suggested, produce in their turn
crystalligerous swarm-spores. Unfortunately we have no observa-
tions to support this hypothetical scheme of a life-history.
" Fusion or conjugation of adult Radiolaria, whether preliminary
to swarm-spore-production or independently of it, has not been
observed this affording a distinction between them and Heliozoa.
" Simple fission of the central capsule of adult individuals, pre-
ceded of course by nuclear fission, and subsequently of the whole
protoplasmic mass, has been observed in several genera of Acan-
tharia and Phaeodaria, and is probably a general method of repro-
duction in the group. In Spumellaria it gives rise to colonial
1 Polycyttarian ' forms when the extracapsular protoplasm does
not divide.
" The siliceous shells of the Radiolaria are found abundantly in
certain rocks from Palaeozoic times onwards. They furnish,
together with Diatoms and Sponge spicules, the silica which has
been segregated as flint in the Chalk formation. They are present
in quantity (as much as 10%) in the Atlantic ooze, and in the
celebrated ' Barbados earth ' (a Tertiary deposit) are the chief
components."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most important systematic works are
those of E. Haeckel, Die Radiolarien (1862-87), and the " Report "
on the Radiolaria of the " Challenger " Expedition (vol. xviii., 1887),
which contains full lists of the older literature. Among the most
important recent studies we cite K. Brandt, " Die Kolomebildenden
Radiolarien " in Fauna and Flora des Golfes von Neapel, xii. (1885);
A. Borgert in Zeitschrifi f. Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, li. (1891), and
Zoologische Jahrbiicher (Anatomic), xiii. (1900); F. Dreyer in
Jenaischer Zeitschr., xix. (1892); V. Hacker in Zeitsch. f. Wiss.
Zool., Ixxxiii. (1905). (M. HA.)
RADIOMETER. It had been remarked at various times,
amongst others by Fresnel, that bodies delicately suspended
within a partial vacuum are subject to apparent repulsion by
radiation. The question was definitely investigated by Sir W.
Crookes, who had found that some delicate weighings in vacua
were vitiated by this cause. It appeared that a surface black-
ened so as to absorb the radiant energy directed on it was
repelled relatively to a polished surface. He constructed an
apparatus in illustration, which he called a radiometer or light-
mill, by pivoting a vertical axle carrying equidistant vertical
vanes inside an exhausted glass bulb, one side of each vane
being blackened and the other side bright, the blackened sides
all pointing the same way round the axle. When the rays
of the sun or a candle, or dark radiation from a warm body,
are incident on the vanes, the dark side of each vane is repelled
more than the bright side, and thus the vanes are set into
rotation with accelerated speed, which becomes uniform when
the forces produced by the radiation are balanced by the
friction of the pivot and of the residual air in the globe. The
name radiometer arose from an idea that the final steady speed
of rotation might be utilized as a rough measure of the intensity
of the exciting radiation.
The problem of the cause of these striking and novel pheno-
mena at first produced considerable perplexity. A preliminary
question was whether the mechanical impulsion was a direct
effect of the light, or whether the radiation only set up internal
stresses, acting in and through the residual air, between the
vanes and the walls of the enclosure. The answer to this was
found experimentally by Arthur Schuster, who suspended
the whole instrument in delicate equilibrium, and observed
the effect of introducing the radiation. If the light exerted
direct impulsion on the vanes, their motion would gradually
drag the case round after them, by reason of the friction of
the residual air in the bulb and of the pivot. On the other
hand, if the effects arose from balanced stresses set up inside
the globe by the radiation, the effects on the vanes and on the
case would be of the nature of action and reaction, so that the
establishment of motion of the vanes in one direction would
involve impulsion of the case in the opposite direction; but
when the motion became steady there would no longer be any
torque either on the vanes or on the case, and the latter would
therefore come back to its previous position of equilibrium;
finally, when the light was turned off, the decay of the motion
of the vanes would involve impulsion of the case in the direction
of their motion until the moment of the restoring torque arising
from the suspension of the case had absorbed the angular
momentum in the system. Experiment showed that the latter
prediction was what happened. The important part played
by the residual air in the globe had also been deduced by
Osborne Reynolds from observing that on turning off the
light, the vanes came to rest very much sooner than the friction
of the pivot alone would account for; in fact, the rapid sub-
sidence is an illustration of Maxwell's great theoretical dis-
covery that viscosity in a gas (as also diffusion both of heat
and of the gas itself) is sensibly independent of the density.
Some phenomena of retardation in the production of the effect
had led Sir G. G. Stokes and Sir W. Crookes to the same general
conclusion.
The origin of these phenomena was recognized, among
the first by O. Reynolds, and by P. G. Tait and J. Dewar, as a
consequence of the kinetic theory of the constitution of gaseous
media. The temperature of a gas is measured by the mean
energy of translation of its molecules, which are independent
of each other except during the brief intervals of collision;
and collision of the separate molecules with the blackened
surface of a vane, warmed by the radiation, imparts heat to
them, so that they rebound from it with greater velocity than
they approached. This increase of velocity implies an increase
of the reaction on the surface, the black side of a vane being
thus pressed with greater force than the bright side. In air
of considerable density the mean free path of a molecule,
between its collisions with other molecules, is exceedingly
small, and any such increase of gaseous pressure in front of the
black surface would be immediately neutralized by flow of the
gas from places of high to places of low pressure. But at high
exhaustions the free path becomes comparable with the dimen-
sions of the glass bulb, and this equalization proceeds slowly.
The general nature of the phenomena is thus easily understood;
but it is at a maximum at pressures comparable with a milli-
metre of mercury, at which the free path is still small, the
greater number of molecules operating in intensifying the
result. The problem of the stresses in rarefied gaseous media
arising from inequalities of temperature, which is thereby
opened out, involves some of the most delicate considerations
in molecular physics. It remains practically as it was left
in 1879 by two memoirs communicated to the Phil. Trans.
by Osborne Reynolds and by Clerk MaxwelL The method of
the latter investigator was purely a priori. He assumed that
the distribution of molecules and of their velocities, at each
point, was slightly modified, from the exponential law belonging
to a uniform condition, by the gradient of temperature in the
gas (see DIFFUSION). The hypothesis that the state was steady,
so that interchanges arising from convection and collisions of
the molecules produced no aggregate result, enabled him to
interpret the new constants involved in this law of distribution,
in terms of the temperature and its spacial differential co-
efficients, and thence to express the components of the kinetic
stress at each point in the medium in terms of these quantities.
As far as the order to which he carried the approximations
which, however, were based on a simplifying hypothesis that
the molecules influenced each other through mutual repulsions
inversely as the fifth power of their distance apart the result
was that the equations of motion of the gas, considered as
subject to viscous and thermal stresses, could be satisfied by
a state of equilibrium under a modified internal pressure equal
in all directions. If, therefore, the walls of the enclosure held
RADISH RADIUM
807
the gas that is directly in contact with them, this equilibrium
would be the actual state of affairs; and it would follow
from the principle of Archimedes that, when extraneous forces
such as gravity are not considered, the gas would exert no
resultant force on any body immersed in it. On this ground
Maxwell inferred that the forces acting in the radiometer are
connected with gliding of the gas along the unequally heated
boundaries; and as the laws of this slipping, as well as the
constitution of the adjacent layer, are uncertain, the problem
becomes very intricate. Such slipping had shown itself at
high exhaustions in the experiments of A. A. Kundt and E. G.
Warburg in 1875 on the viscosity of gases; its effects would be
corrected for, in general, by a slight effective addition to the
thickness of the gaseous layer.
Reynolds, in his investigation, introducing no new form
of law of distribution of velocities, uses a linear quantity,
proportional to the mean free path of the gaseous molecules,
which he takes to represent (somewhat roughly) the average
distance from which molecules directly affect, by their con-
vection, the state of the medium; the gas not being uniform
on account of the gradient of temperature, the change going
on at each point is calculated from the elements contributed
by the parts at this particular distance in all directions. He
lays stress on the dimensional relations of the problem, pointing
out that the phenomena which occur with large vanes in highly
rarefied gas could also occur with proportionally smaller vanes
in gas at higher pressure. The results coincide with Maxwell's
so far as above stated, though the numerical coefficients do not
agree. According to Maxwell, priority in showing the necessity
for slipping over the boundary rests with Reynolds, who also
discovered the cognate fact of thermal transpiration, meaning
thereby that gas travels up the gradient of temperature in a
capillary tube, owing to surface-actions, until it establishes such
a gradient of pressure (extremely minute) as will prevent further
flow. In later memoirs Reynolds followed up this subject by
proceeding to establish definitions of the velocity and the
momentum and the energy at an element of volume of the
molecular medium, with the precision necessary in order that
the dynamical equations of the medium in bulk, based in the
usual manner on these quantities alone, without directly con-
sidering thermal stresses, shall be strictly valid a discussion
in which the relation of ordinary molar mechanics to the more
complete molecular theory is involved.
Of late years the peculiarities of the radiometer at higher
gas-pressures have been very completely studied by E. F.
Nichols and G. F. Hull, with the result that there is a certain
pressure at which the molecular effect of the gas on a pair of
nearly vertical vanes is balanced by that of convection currents in
it. By thus controlling and partially eliminating the aggregate
gas-effect, they succeeded in making a small radiometer, hori-
zontally suspended, into a delicate and reliable measurer of
the intensity of the radiation incident on it. With the ex-
perience thus gained in manipulating the vacuum, the achieve-
ment of thoroughly verifying the pressure of radiation on both
opaque and transparent bodies, in accordance with Clerk
Maxwell's formula, has been effected (Physical Review, 1901,
and later papers) by E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull; some months
earlier Lebedew had published in the Annalen der Physik a
verification for metallic vanes so thin as to avoid the gas-
action, by preventing the production of sensible difference of
temperature between the two faces by the incident radiation.
(See RADIATION.)
More recently J. H. Poynting has separated the two effects
experimentally on the principle that the radiometer pressure
acts along the normal, while the radiation pressure acts along
the ray which may be directed obliquely. (J. L. *)
RADISH, Raphanus saiivus (nat. order Cruciferae), in botany,
a fleshy-rooted annual, unknown in the wild state. Some
varieties of the wild radish, R. Raphanistrum, however, met
with on the Mediterranean coasts, come so near to it as
to suggest that it may possibly be a cultivated race of the
same species. It is very popular as a raw salad. There are
two principal forms, the spindle-rooted and the turnip-
rooted.
The radish succeeds in any well-worked not too heavy garden
soil, but requires a warm, sheltered situation. The seed is
generally sown broadcast, in beds 4 to 5 ft. wide, with alleys
between, the beds requiring to be netted over to protect them
from birds. The earliest crop may be sown about the middle
of December, the seed-beds being at once covered with litter,
which should not be removed till the plants come up, and then
only in the daytime, and when there is no frost. If the crop
succeeds, which depends on the state of the weather, it will be
in use about the beginning of March. Another sowing may be
made in January, a third early in February, if the season is a
favourable one, and still another towards the end of February,
from which time till October a small sowing should be made
every fortnight or three weeks in spring, and rather more
frequently during summer. About the end of October, and
again in November, a late sowing may be made on a south border
or bank, the plants being protected in severe weather with litter
or mats. The winter radishes, which grow to a large size, should
be sown in the beginning of July and in August, in drills from
6 to 9 in. apart, the plants being thinned out to 5 or 6 in. in
the row. The roots become fit for use during the autumn. For
winter use they should be taken up before severe frost sets in,
and stored in dry sand. Radishes, like other fleshy roots, are
attacked by insects, the most dangerous being the larvae of
several species of fly, especially the radish fly (Anthomyia
radicum). The most effectual means of destroying these is by
watering the plants with a dilute solution of carbolic acid, or
much diluted gas- water; or gas-lime may be sprinkled along
the rows.
Forcing. To obtain early radishes a sowing in the British Isles
should be made about the beginning of November, and continued
fortnightly till the middle or end of February; the crop will gener-
ally be fit for use about six weeks after sowing. The seed should
be sown in light rich soil, 8 or 9 in. thick, on a moderate hotbed,
or in a pit with a temperature of from 55 to 65. Gentle waterings
must be given, and air admitted at every favourable opportunity;
but the sashes must be protected at night and in frosty weather
with straw mats or other materials. Some of these .crops are often
grown with forced potatoes. The best forcing sorts are Wood's
early frame, and the early rose globe, early dwarf-top scarlet turnip,
and early dwarf-top white turnip.
Those best suited for general cultivation are the following:
Spindle-rooted. Long scarlet, including the sub-varieties scarlet
short-top, early frame scarlet, and Wood's early frame; long scarlet
short-top, best for general crop.
Turnip-rooted. Early rose globe-shaped, the earliest of all;
early dwarf -top scarlet turnip, and early dwarf -top white turnip;
earliest Erfurt scarlet, and early white short-leaved, both very
early sorts; French breakfast, olive-shaped; red turnip and
white turnip, for summer crops.
Winter sorts. Black Spanish, white Chinese, Californian
mammoth.
RADIUM (from Lat. radius, ray), a metallic chemical element
obtained from pitchblende, a uranium mineral, by P. and Mme.
Curie and G. Bemont in 1898; it was so named on account of
the intensity of the radioactive emanations which it yielded.
Its discovery was a sequel to H. Becquerel's observation in 1896
that certain uranium preparations emitted a radiation resem-
bling the X rays observed by Rontgen in 1895. Like the X
rays, the Becquerel rays are invisible; they both traverse thin
sheets of glass or metal, and cannot be refracted; moreover,
they both ionize gases, i.e. they discharge a charged electroscope,
the latter, however, much more feebly than the former. Char-
acteristic, also, is their action on a photographic plate, and the
phosphorescence which they occasion when they impinge on
zinc sulphide and some other salts. Notwithstanding these
resemblances, these two sets of rays are not indent ical. Mme.
Curie, regarding radioactivity i.e. the emission of rays like
those just mentioned as a property of some undiscovered
substance, submitted pitchblende to a most careful analysis.
After removing the uranium, it was found that the bismuth
separated with a very active substance polonium; this element
was afterwards isolated by Marckwald, and proved to be iden-
tical with his radiotellurium; that the barium could be
8o8
RADIUS RADNORSHIRE
separated with another active substance radium ; whilst a third
fraction, composed mainly of the rare earths (thorium, &c.),
yielded to Debierne another radioactive element actinium,
which proved to be identical with the emanium of Giesel.
Another radioactive substance ionium was isolated from car-
notite, a uranium mineral, by B. B. Boltwood in 1905. Radio-
active properties have also been ascribed to other elements, e.g.
thorium and lead. There is more radium than any other radio-
active element, but its excessive rarity may be gauged by the
facts that Mme. Curie obtained only a fraction of a gramme of
the chloride and Giesel -2 to -3 gramme of the bromide from a
ton of uranium residues.
There is a mass of evidence to show that radium is to be
regarded as an element, and in general its properties resemble
those of the metals of the alkaline earths, more particularly
barium. To the bunsen flame a radium salt imparts an intense
carmine-red colour (barium gives a green). The spectrum,
also, is very characteristic. The atomic weight, 226-4, places
the element in a vacant position in group II. of the periodic
classification, along with the alkaline earth metals.
Generally speaking, the radiation is not simple. Radium
itself emits three types of rays: (i) the a rays, which are
regarded as positively charged helium atoms; these rays are
stopped by a single sheet of paper; (2) the j3 rays, which are
identified with the cathode rays, i.e. as a single electron charged
negatively; these rays can penetrate sheets of aluminium, glass,
&c., several millimetres thick; and (3) the 7 rays which are
non-electrified radiations characterized by a high penetrating
power, i% surviving after traversing 7 cm. of lead or 150 cm.
of water. In addition, radium evolves an " emanation " which
is an extraordinarily inert gas, recalling the " inactive " gases
of the atmosphere. Wa. thus see that radium is continually
losing matter and energy as electricity; it is also losing energy
as heat, for, as was observed by Curie and Laborde, the tem-
perature of a radium salt is always a degree or two above that
of the atmosphere, and they estimated that a gramme of pure
radium would emit about 100 gramme-calories per hour.
The Becquerel rays have a marked chemical action on certain
substances. The Curies showed that oxygen was convertible
into ozone, and Sudborough that yellow phosphorus gave the
red modification when submitted to their influence. More
interesting are the observations of D. Berthelot, F. Bordas,
C. Doelter and others, that the rays induce important changes
in the colours of many minerals. (See RADIOACTIVITY.)
The action of radium on human tissues was unknown until
1901, when, Professor Becquerel of Paris having incautiously
carried a tube in his waistcoat pocket, there appeared on the
skin within fourteen days a severe inflammation which was
known as the famous " Becquerel burn." Since that time
active investigation into the action of radium on diseased tissues
has been carried on, resulting in the establishment in Paris in
1906 of the " Laboratoire biologique du Radium." Similar
centres for study have been inaugurated in other countries,
notably one in London in 1909. The diseases to which the
application has been hitherto confined are papillomata, lupus
vulgaris, epithelial tumours, syphilitic ulcers, pigmentary naevi,
angiomata, and pruritus and chronic itching of the skin; but
the use of radium in therapeutics is still experimental. The
different varieties of rays used are controlled by the inter-
vention of screens or filtering substances, such as silver, lead
or aluminium. Radium is analgesic and bactericidal in its action.
See Radiumtherapie, by Wickham and Degrais (1909); Die
therapeutische Wirkung der Radiumstrahlen, by O. Lassar, in Report
of Radiology Congress, Brussels, 1906; E. Dorn, E. Baumann and
S. Valentiner in Physische Zeitung (1905); Abbe in Medical Record
(October 1907).
RADIUS, properly a straight rod, bar or staff, the original
meaning of the Latin word, to which also many of the various
meanings seen in English were attached; it was thus applied
to the spokes of a wheel, to the semi-diameter of a circle or
sphere and to a ray or beam of light, " ray " itself coming
through the Fr. raie from radius. From this last sense comes
" radiant," " radiation," and allied words. In mathematics, a
radius is a straight line drawn from the centre to the circum-
ference of a circle or to the surface of a sphere; in anatomy
the name is applied to the outer one of the two bones of the
fore-arm in man or to the corresponding bone in the fore-leg of
animals. It is also used in various other anatomical senses in
botany, ichthyology, entomology, &c. A further application of
the term is to an area the extent of which is marked by the
length of the radius from the point which is taken as the centre;
thus, in London, for the purpose of reckoning the fare of hackney-
carriages, the radius is taken as extending four miles in any
direction from Charing Cross.
RADNOR, EARLS OF. The ist earl of Radnor was John
Robartes (1606-1685), who succeeded his father, Richard
Robartes, as 2nd baron Robartes of Truro in May 1634, the
barony having been purchased under compulsion for 10,000 in
1625. The family had amassed great wealth by trading in tin
and wool. Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, John Robartes
fought on the side of the Parliament during the Civil War,
being present at the battle of Edgehill and at the first battle
of Newbury, and was a member of the committee of both
kingdoms. He is said to have persuaded the earl of Essex
to make his ill-fated march into Cornwall in 1644; he escaped
with the earl from Lostwithiel and was afterwards governor
of Plymouth. Between the execution of Charles I. and the
restoration of Charles II. he took practically no part in public
life, but after 1660 he became a prominent public man, owing
his prominence partly to his influence among the Presbyterians,
and ranged himself among Clarendon's enemies. He was lord
deputy of Ireland in 1660-1661 and was lord lieutenant in 1669-
1670; from 1661 to 1673 he was lord privy seal, and from 1679 to
1684 lord president of the council. In 1679 he was created vis-
count Bodmin and earl of Radnor, and he died at Chelsea on
the 1 7th of July 1685. His eldest son, Robert, viscount Bodmin,
who was British envoy to Denmark, having predeceased his
father, the latter was succeeded as 2nd earl by his grandson,
Charles Bodvile Robartes (1660-1723), who was a member of
parliament under Charles II. and James II., and was lord
lieutenant of Cornwall from 1696 to 1705 and again from 1714
to 1723. Henry, the 3rd earl (c. 1690-1741), was also a grand-
son of the ist earl, and John, the 4th earl (c. 1686-1757), was
another grandson. When John, whose father was Francis
Robartes (c. 1650-1718), a member of parliament for over
thirty years and a musician of some repute, died unmarried in
July 1757, his titles became extinct.
Lanhydrock, near Bodmin, and the other estates of the
Robartes family passed to the earl's nephews, Thomas and
George Hunt. Thomas Hunt's grandson and heir, Thomas
James Agar-Robartes (1808-1882), a grandson of an Irish peer,
James Agar, ist viscount Clifden (1734-1789), was created baron
Robartes of Lanhydrock and of Truro in 1869, after having
represented East Cornwall in seven parliaments. His son and
successor, Thomas Charles Agar-Robartes, the 2nd baron
(b. 1844), succeeded his kinsman as 6th viscount Clifden in
1899.
In 1765 William Bouverie, 2nd viscount Folkestone (1725-
1776), son of Sir Jacob Bouverie, bart. (d. 1761), of Longford,
Wiltshire, who was created viscount Folkestone in 1747, was
made earl of Radnor. Descended from a Huguenot family,
William Bouverie was a member of parliament from 1747 until
he succeeded to the peerage in February 1761. He died on
the z8th of January 1776. His son and successor, Jacob,
the 2nd earl (1750-1828), who took the name of Pleydell-
Bouverie in accordance with the will of his maternal grand-
father, Sir Mark Stuart Pleydell, bart. (d. 1768), was the father
of William Pleydell-Bouverie, the 3rd earl (1779-1869), a
politician of some note. In 1900 his great-grandson, Jacob
Pleydell-Bouverie (b. 1868), became 6th earl of Radnor.
RADNORSHIRE (Sir Faesyfed), an inland county of Wales,
bounded N. by Montgomery, N.E. by Shropshire, E. by Here-
ford, S. and S.W. by Brecknock and N.W. by Cardigan. This
cocnty, which is lozenge-shaped, contains 471 sq. m., and is
RADNORSHIRE
809
consequently the smallest in area of the six South Welsh
counties. Nearly the whole surface of Radnorshire is hilly or
undulating, whilst the centre is occupied by the mountainous
tract known as Radnor Forest, of which the highest point
attains an elevation of 2163 ft. Towards the S. and S.E. the
hills are less lofty, and the valleys broaden out into considerable
plains abounding in rivulets. The hills for the most part
present smooth, rounded outlines, and are covered with heather,
bracken and short grass, though tracts of boggy soil in the
uplands are not uncommon. There are rich pastures and
numerous woods in the valleys of the Wye and Teme. The
Wye Valley has long been celebrated for its beauty, while
Radnor Forest and the wild district of Cwmdauddwr present
striking views of primeval and unspoiled scenery. Radnor-
shire is well supplied with water, its principal river being the
Wye (Gwy), which, after crossing the N.W. corner of the
county, forms its boundary from Rhayader onward to the
English border. Salmon, trout and grayling are plentiful,
and the Wye is consequently much frequented by anglers; as
are also its tributaries the Elan (which has been utilized for
the great Birmingham reservoirs) the Ithon, the Edw or Edwy,
the Lug, the Arrow and the Somergil. The Teme, which
divides Radnor from Shropshire on the N.E., is a tributary of
the Severn. All these streams are clear and rapid, and abound
in fish. In the numerous rocky ravines of the mountainous
districts are found many waterfalls, of which the most celebrated
is " Water-break-its-Neck," to the W. of New Radnor. Omit-
ting the artificially constructed reservoirs in the valleys of the
Elan and Claerwen, the lakes of Radnorshire are represented
only by a few pools of which Llynbychlyn near Painscastle is
the largest.
Geology. Ordovician rocks occupy most of the western side of
the county, they are succeeded eastward by the Silurian formations,
thr Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow beds in the order here given.
East of New Radnor an inlier of Wenlock rocks is surrounded by
Ludlow beds; while at Old Radnor a ridge of very ancient rocks
appears. In the south-east of the county Old Red Sandstone
rests upon the Silurian. Between Llandrindod, where there are
saline, sulphurous and chalybeate wells, and Builth, is a disturbed
area of Ordovician strata with masses of andesitic and diabasic
igneous rocks. In the vicinity of Rhayader the strata have been
classed as the Rhayader pale shales (Tarannon), the Caban group
(Upper Llandovery), the Gwastaden group (Lower Llandovery);
these rest upon shales of Bala age.
Climate and Industries. The climate of Radnorshire is bracing,
if somewhat bleak, and the rainfall is not so heavy as in the neigh-
bouring counties of Montgomery and Brecknock, but thick drizzling
mists are of constant occurrence. The winters are often very
severe, and deep snowfalls are not uncommon. Good hay and
tolerable crops of cereals are raised in the valleys, and the margin
of cultivation has risen considerably since 1880. The extensive
upland tracts, which still cover over one-third of the total area of
the county, afford pasturage for mountain ponies and for large
flocks of sheep. The quality of the wool of Radnorshire has long
been celebrated, and also the delicacy of the Welsh mutton of the
small sheep that are bred in this county. The most important
sheep fairs are held at Rhayader, which also contains some woollen
factories. There are practically no mining industries, nor are the
quarries of great value. The valley of the Wye is rich in medicinal
springs, and the saline, sulphur and chalybeate waters of Llan-
drindod have long been famous and profitable, and are growing in
popular esteem.
Communications. The Central Wales branch of the London &
North-Western railway enters the county at Knighton, traverses
it by way of Llandrindod and passes into Brecknock at Builth
Road Junction on the Wye. The Cambrian railway, after passing
through the N.W. corner of the county to Rhayader, follows the
course of the Wye, by way of Builth and Hay. Two small branch
lines connect New Radnor and Presteign with the system of the
Great Western.
Population and Administration. The area of Radnorshire
is 301,164 acres, and the population in 1891 was 21,791, while in
1901 it had risen to 23,362; an increase chiefly due to the
immigration of outside labourers to the Elan Valley waterworks.
There is no existing municipal borough, although New Radnor,
now a mere village with 405 inhabitants (1001), was incorporated
in 1561 and its municipal privileges were not formally abolished
till 1883. The chief towns are Presteign (pop. 1245);
Llandrindod (1827); Knighton (2139), and Rhayader (1215);
all, except Rhayader, being urban districts. Radnorshire is
included in the South Wales circuit, and assizes are held at
Presteign, which ranks as the county town. There is no exist-
ing parliamentary borough, and the whole county returns
one member to parliament. Ecclesiastically, Radnorshire is
divided into 46 parishes, of which 38 lie in the diocese of
St Davids, and 8 in that of Hereford.
History. The wild district of Maesyfed (a name of which the
derivation is much disputed), corresponding substantially with
the modern Radnorshire, originally formed part of the territory
of the Silures, who were vanquished by the Romans. Chris-
tianity seems to have been introduced into this barren region
during the $th and 6th centuries by itinerant Celtic missionaries,
notably by St David, St Padarn and St Cynllo. Towards the
close of the gth century Maesyfed was absorbed into the middle
kingdom of Powys, and in the roth century it was included in the
realm of Elystan Glodrudd, prince of Fferlys, or Feryllwg, who
ruled over all land lying between the Wye and Severn. In the
reign of William the Conqueror, the Normans began to penetrate
into Maesyfed, where, according to Domesday Book, the king
already laid claim to Radenoure, or Radnor (a name of doubtful
meaning), in the lordship of Melenith (Moelynaidd), which was
subsequently bestowed on the Mortimer family, when castles
were erected at Old Radnor (Penygraig), New Radnor and
Cefnllys. Later, the Norman invaders forced their way up the
Wye Valley, the de Breos family, lords of Elvel (Elfael), builcf-
ing fortresses at Painscastle and at Colwyn or Maud's Castle.
In 1188 Archbishop Baldwin, accompanied by Ranulf de Glan-
ville and Giraldus Cambrensis, entered Wales for the purpose of
preaching the Third Crusade, and was met in full state at New
Radnor by the Lord Rhys, prince of South Wales. The Wye
Valley long formed one of the debatable districts between
Welsh and Normans, and in 1282 Llewelyn ap Griffith, prince of
Wales, was at Aberedw shortly before his death in a skirmish
near Builth. After the annexation of Wales by Edward I., the
district of Maesyfed remained under the immediate jurisdiction
of the Lords-Marchers, represented by the great families of
Mortimer and Todeney. During the summer of 1402 Owen
Glendower entered the Marches and raided the lands of the
young Edward Mortimer, earl of March, whilst the royal troops
were severely defeated at the battle of Bryn Glas near Pilleth.
By the Act of Union (1536) Maesyfed was erected out of the
suppressed lordships into an English shire on the usual model.
For administrative purposes it was now divided into six hundreds,
and assizes were ordained to be held in alternate years at
Presteign and New Radnor. The newly created county was
likewise privileged to return two members to parliament; one
for the county, and one for the united boroughs of New Radnor,
Rhayader, Knighton, Cefnllys and Knucldas (Cnwclas). The
parliamentary district of the Radnor boroughs was, however,
disfranchised and merged in the county representation under
the act of 1885. The shire of Radnor with its immense tracts
of sheep-walk, its absence of large towns and its sparse rural
population has always been reckoned the poorest and least
important of the Welsh counties, nor since its creation under
Henry VIII. has it ever played a prominent part in the national
life of Wales. During the Commonwealth the local clergy were
made to suffer severely under the drastic administration of
Vavasor Powell (1617-1670), himself a Radnorshire man as
a native of Knucklas. Of recent years the rise of Llandrindod
as a fashionable watering-place and the construction of the
Birmingham reservoirs in the Elan Valley have tended to
increase the material prosperity of the county.
Among the leading families of Radnorshire, may be mentioned
Lewis of Harpton Court; Baskerville of Clyro; Thomas
(formerly Jones) of Pencerrig; Lewis-Lloyd of Nantgwyllt;
G wynne of Llanelwedd, and Prickard of Dderw.
Antiquities. Radnorshire contains numerous memorials of
early British times, of which the entrenchment called Crug-y-
buddair in the parish of Beguildy is specially worthy of note.
Of Roman remains, the most important are those of the fortified
camp at Cwm near Llandrindod, which is believed to be identical
8io
RADOM RADOWITZ
with the military station of Magos or Magna. The course of
Offa's Dyke (Clawdd Offa) is perceptible at various points in
the hilly regions west of Knighton and Presteign'. Very slight
traces exist of the many castles erected at various times after
the Norman invasion. The parish churches of Radnorshire are
for the most part small and of rude construction, and many of
them have been modernized or rebuilt. The churches at Old
Radnor, Presteign and Llanbister, however, are interesting
edifices, and a few possess fine oaken screens, as at Llananno
and Llandegley. There was only one monastic house of conse-
quence, the Cistercian abbey of St Mary, founded by Cadwallon
ap Madoc in 1143 in " the long valley " of the Clywedog, six
miles east of Rhayader, and from its site commonly called Abbey
Cwm Hir. Its existing ruins are insignificant, but the proportions
of the church, which was 238 ft. long, are still traceable. The
modern mansion adjoining, known as Abbey Cwm Hir, was for
some generations the residence of the Fowler family, once
reputed the wealthiest in the county.
Customs, &c. Although in most instances the old Celtic
place-names survive throughout the western portion of the
county, it is only in the wild remote districts of Cwmdauddwr and
St Harmon's that the Welsh tongue predominates, and in this
region some of the old Welsh superstitions linger amongst the
peasants and shepherds of the hills. In the eastern part of the
county English is spoken universally, and the manners and
customs of the inhabitants differ little from those prevailing
in the neighbouring county of Hereford. On the western side of
Radnor Forest the modern spirit of progress has destroyed most
of the old local customs. Until the beginning of the igth
century the ancient Welsh service of the pylgain on Christmas
morning was observed in Rhayader church; and the same town
was formerly remarkable for an interesting ceremony, evidently
of great antiquity, whereat after a funeral each attendant
mourner was wont to throw a stone upon a certain spot near the
church with the words " Cam ar dy ben " (a stone on thy head).
The laying of malicious sprites by means of lighted tapers was
formerly practised in the churches of the Wye Valley; and a
curious service, commemorative of the dead and known as
" the Month's End," is still observed in certain parish churches,
a month after the actual funeral has taken place. The practice
of farmers and their wives or daughters riding to the local
markets on ponies, the older women sometimes knitting as they
proceed, still continues, and is specially characteristic of agri-
cultural life in Radnorshire.
See A General History of the County of Radnor (compiled from the
MS. of the late Rev. Jonathan Williamsand other sources) (Brecknock,
1905)-
RADOM, a government of Russian Poland, occupying a
triangular space between the Vistula and Pilica, and bounded
N. by the governments of Warsaw and Siedlce, E. by Lublin,
S. by the crownland of Austrian Galicia and the Polish govern-
ment of Kielce, and W. by that of Piotrkow. The area is
4768 sq. m. Its southern part stretches over the well-wooded
Sandomir heights, a series of short ranges of hills, 800 to 1000 ft.
in altitude, intersected by deep valleys, which, running west
and east and drained by tributaries of the Vistula, are excel-
lently adapted for agriculture. In its central parts, the govern-
ment is level, the soil fertile, and the surface, which is diversified
here and there with wood, is broken up by occasional spurs
(800 ft.) of the Lysa Gora Mountains. The northern districts
consist of low, flat tracts with undefined valleys, exposed to
frequent floods and covered over large areas with marshes;
the basin of the Pilica, notorious for its unhealthiness, is through-
out a low marshy plain. Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian
and Triassic deposits appear in the south, Cretaceous and
Jurassic in the middle, and Tertiary in the north. Extensive
tracts are covered with Glacial deposits, the Scandinavian
erratics reaching as far south as Ilza; these last in their turn
are overlain by widespread post-Glacial lacustrine deposits.
The climate is cold and moist, the mean temperature for the
year being 47-5 Fahr., for January -s-8, and for July 77.
The Vistula skirts the government on the south and east, and is
an important means of communication, steamers plying as far
up as Sandomir (Sedomierz). The Sandomir district suffers
occasionally from disastrous inundations of the river. The
tributaries of the Vistula are short and small, those of the
Pilica are sluggish streams meandering amidst marshes. The
estimated population in 1906 was 932,800. The government
is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which are
Radom, ILza, Konskie, Kozienice, Opatow, Opoczno and
Sandomir. Out of the total area about 50% is under
cultivation and 28% under forests. The principal crops
are wheat, rye, barley, oats, buck-wheat, hemp, flax and
potatoes, these last chiefly cultivated for distilleries. Grain
is exported. Live stock is kept in large numbers. Manu-
factures have considerably developed of late years, the govern-
ment being rich in iron ore, while coal and zinc occur, as also
marble, gypsum, alabaster, potters' clay and red sandstone.
The iron industry occupies more than 60,000 workmen, and
turns out annually some 100,000 tons of pig iron, 25,000 tons
of iron, and 550,000 tons of steel. There are several sugar-
works, tanneries, flour-mills, machinery works, distilleries,
breweries and brickworks. Trade is not very extensive, the
only channel of commerce being the Vistula. (P. A.K., J.T.BE.)
RADOM, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, 100 m. by rail S. from Warsaw. Pop. 28,749,
half of whom were Jews. It is one of the best built provincial
towns of Poland. The church of St Wlaclaw, contemporary
with the foundation of the town, was transformed by the
Austrians into a storehouse, and subsequently by the Russian
government into a military prison. The old castle is in ruins,
and the old Bernardine monastery is used as barracks. Radom
has several iron and agricultural machinery works and tanneries.
In 1216 it occupied the site of what is now Old Radom. New
Radom was founded in 1340 by Casimir the Great, king of
Poland. Here Jadwiga was elected queen of Poland in 1382,
and here too in 1401 the first act relating to the union of Poland
with Lithuania was signed; the seim or diet of 1505, where the
organic law of Poland was sworn by the king, was also held at
Radom. Several great fires, and still more the Swedish war of
1701-7, were the ruin of the old city. After the third partition
of Poland in 1795 it fell under Austrian rule; it was in 1815
annexed to Russia, and became chief town of the province of
Sandomir.
RADOMYSL, formerly MYCHEK, a town of Russia, in the
government of Kiev, 31 m. W. of the city of Kiev, on the
Teterev river. Pop. 18,154. It is a very old town, being
mentioned in 1150; from 1746 to 1795 it was the residence of
the metropolitan of the United Greek Church. It has tanneries
and flour-mills, and exports timber, corn and mushrooms.
RADOWITZ, JOSEPH MARIA VON (1797-1853), Prussian
general and statesman, was born at Blankenburg in the Harz
Mountains, his family being of Hungarian origin. As a young
lieutenant in the Westphalian artillery he was wounded and
taken prisoner at the battle of Leipzig (1813), subsequently
entered the Hanoverian service, and in 1823 that of Prussia.
His promotion was rapid, and in 1830 he became chief of the
general staff of the artillery. In 1836 he went as Prussian
military plenipotentiary to the federal diet at Frankfort, and
in 1842 was appointed envoy to the courts of Carlsruhe, Darm-
stadt and Nassau. He had early become an intimate friend
of the crown prince (afterwards King Frederick William IV.),
and the Prussian constitution of February 1847 was an attempt
to realize the ideas put forward by him in his Gespriiche aus der
Gegenwart iiber Stoat und Kirche, published under the pseudonym
" Waldheim " in 1846. In November 1847 and March 1848
Radowitz was sent by King Frederick William to Vienna to
attempt to arrange common action for the reconstruction of
the German Confederation. In the Frankfort parliament he
was leader of the extreme Right; and after its break-up he was
zealous in promoting the Unionist policy of Prussia, which he
defended both in the Prussian diet and in the Erfurt parliament.
He was practically responsible for the foreign policy of Prussia
from May 1848 onwards, and on the 27th of September 1850
RAE RAEBURN
811
he was appointed minister of foreign affairs. He resigned,
however, on the 2nd of November, owing to the king's refusal
to settle the difficulties with Austria by an appeal to arms.
In August 1852 he was appointed director of military educa-
tion; but the rest of his life was devoted mainly to literary
pursuits. He died on the 2Sth of December 1853.
Radowitz published, in addition to several political treatises,
Ikonographie der Heiligen, ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte (Berlin,
1834) and Devisen und Mottos des spdtern Mittelalters (ib., 1850).
His Gesammelte Schriften were published in 5 vols. at Berlin, 1852-53.
See Hassel, Joseph Maria von Radowitz (Berlin, 1905, &c.).
RAE, JOHN (1813-1893), Scottish Arctic explorer, was born
on the 30th of September 1813, in the Orkney Islands, which
he left at an early age to study medicine at Edinburgh Uni-
versity, qualifying as a surgeon in 1833. He made a voyage
in a professional capacity in one of the ships of the Hudson's
Bay Company, and entering the service of the company was
resident surgeon for ten years at their station at Moose Factory,
at the head of James Bay. In 1846 he made a boat-voyage
to Repulse Bay, and having wintered there, in the following
spring surveyed 700 miles of new coast-line connecting the
earlier surveys of Ross and Parry. An account of this expedi-
tion, A Narrative of an Expedition to the Shores of the Arctic
Sea in 1846 and 1847, was published by him in 1850. During
a visit to London in 1848 he joined the expedition which was
then preparing to go out under Sir John Richardson in search
of Franklin; and in 1851, at the request of the Government
and with a very slender outfit, he travelled some 5300 miles,
much of it on foot, and explored and mapped 700 miles of new
coast on the south side of Wollaston and Victoria Lands. For
this achievement he received the Founder's gold medal of the
Royal Geographical Society. In 1853 he commanded another
boat-expedition which was fitted out by the Hudson's Bay
Company, which connected the surveys of Ross with that of
Deane and Simpson, and proved King William's Land to be
an island. It was on this journey that he obtained the first
authentic news regarding the fate of Franklin, thereby winning
the reward of 10,000 promised by the admiralty. He sub-
sequently travelled across Iceland, and in Greenland and the
northern parts of America, surveying routes for telegraph lines.
Dr Rae attributed much to his success in Arctic travel to his
adoption of the methods of the Eskimo, a people whom he
had studied very closely. He was a keen sportsman, an
accurate and scientific observer. He died at his house in London
and was buried in the Orkney Islands.
RAE BARELI, a town and district of British India, in the
Lucknow division of the United Provinces. The town is on the
river Sai, 48 m. S.E. of Lucknow, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand
railway. Pop. (1901) 15,880. It possesses many architectural
features, chief of which is a strong and spacious fort erected
in 1403, and constructed of bricks 2 ft. long by I ft. thick
and ij wide. Among other ancient buildings are the mag-
nificent palace and tomb of nawab Jahan Khan, governor in
the time of Shah Jahan, and four fine mosques. The town
is an important centre of trade, and muslins and cotton doth
are woven.
The DISTRICT OF RAE BARELI has an area of 1748 sq. m.
The general aspect of the district is slightly undulating, and
the country is beautifully wooded. The soil is remarkably
fertile, and the cultivation of a high class. The principal
rivers of the district are the Ganges and the Sai: the former
skirts it for 54 miles and is everywhere navigable for boats
of 40 tons; the latter traverses it from N.W. to S.E. In
1901 the population was 1,033,761, showing a slight decrease
during the decade. The principal crops are rice, pulse, wheat,
barley, millet and poppy. Rae Bareli town is connected
with Lucknow by a branch of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway,
which in 1898 was extended to Benares.
See Rae Bareli District Gazetteer, Allahabad, 1905.
RAEBURN, SIR HENRY (1756-1823), Scottish portrait-
painter, was born at Stockbridge, a suburb of Edinburgh, on
the 4th of March 1756, the son of a manufacturer of the city.
He was early left an orphan. Being placed in Heriot's Hospital,
he received there the elements of a sound education, and at
the age of fifteen was apprenticed to a goldsmith in Edinburgh.
Here he had some little opportunity for the practice of the
humbler kinds of art, and various pieces of jewelry, mourning
rings, and the like, adorned with minute drawings on ivory
by his band, are still extant. Soon he took to the production
of carefully finished miniatures; and, meeting with success
and patronage, he extended his practice to oil-painting, being
all the while quite self-taught. The worthy goldsmith his
master watched the progress of his pupil with interest, gave
him every encouragement, and introduced him to David Martin,
who had been the favourite assistant of Allan Ramsay junior,
and was now the leading portrait-painter in Edinburgh. Rae-
bum received considerable assistance from Martin, and was
especially aided by the loan of portraits to copy. Soon the
young painter had gained sufficient skill to render it advisable
that he should devote himself exclusively to painting. When he
was in his twenty-second year he was asked to paint the portrait
of a young lady whom he had previously observed and admired
when he was sketching from nature in the fields. She was the
daughter of Peter Edgar of Bridgelands and widow of Count
Leslie. The lady was speedily fascinated by the handsome and
intellectual young artist, and in a month she became his wife,
bringing him an ample fortune. This early insurance against
the risks of his chosen profession, did not, however, diminish
his anxiety to excel. The acquisition of wealth affected neither
his enthusiasm nor his industry, but rather spurred him to
greater efforts to acquire a thorough knowledge of his craft.
After the approved fashion of artists of the time, it was resolved
that Raeburn should visit Italy, and he accordingly started
with his wife. In London he was kindly received by Sir Joshua
Reynolds, who gave him excellent advice as to his study in
Rome, especially recommending to his attention the works of
Michelangelo. He also offered him more substantial pecuniary
aid, which was declined as unneeded; but Raeburn carried
with him to Italy many valuable introductions from the
president of the Academy. In Rome he made the acquaintance
of Gavin Hamilton, of Batoni, and of Byers. For the advice
of the last-named he used to acknowledge himself greatly
indebted, particularly for the recommendation that " he
should never copy an object from memory, but, from the
principal figure to the minutest accessory, have it placed before
him." After two years of study in Italy he returned to Edin-
burgh in 1787, where he began a most successful career as a
portrait-painter. In that year he executed an admirable seated
portrait of the second Lord President Dundas.
Of his earlier portraiture we have interesting examples in
the bust-likeness of Mrs Johnstone of Baldovie and in the
three-quarter-length of Dr James Hutton, works which, if they
are somewhat timid and tentative in handling and wanting in
the trenchant brush-work and assured mastery of subsequent
productions, are full of delicacy and character. The portraits
of John Clerk, Lord Eldin, and of Principal Hill of St Andrews
belong to a somewhat later period. Raeburn was fortunate
in the time in which he practised portraiture. Sir Walter
Scott, Blair, Mackenzie, Woodhouselee, Robertson, Home,
Ferguson, and Dugald Stewart were resident in Edinburgh, and
they all, along with a host of others less celebrated, honoured
the painter's canvases. Of his fully matured manner we could
have no finer examples than his own portrait and that of the
Rev. Sir Henry Moncrieff Wellwood, the bust of Dr Wardrop
of Torbane Hill, the two full-lengths of Adam Rolland of Cask,
the remarkable paintings of Lord Newton and Dr Alexander
Adam in the National Gallery of Scotland, and that of William
Macdonald of St Martin's. It was commonly believed that
Raeburn was less successful in his female than in his male
portraits, but the exquisite full-length of his wife, the smaller
likeness of Mrs R. Scott Moncrieff in the Scottish National
Gallery, and that of Mrs Robert Bell, and others, are sufficient
to prove that he could portray all the grace and beauty of the
gentler sex.
812
R^DWALD RAETIA
Raeburn spent his life in Edinburgh, rarely visiting the
metropolis, and then only for brief periods, thus preserving his
own sturdy individuality, if he missed the opportunity of
engrafting on it some of the fuller refinement and delicacy of
the London portraitists. But though he, personally, may have
lost some of the advantages which might presumably have
resulted from closer association with the leaders of English art,
and from contact with a wider public, Scottish art certainly
gained much from his disinclination to leave his native land.
He became the acknowledged chief of the school which was
growing up in Scotland during the earlier years of the igth
century, and to his example and influence at a critical period
is undoubtedly due much of the striking virility by which the
work of his followers and immediate successors is distinguished.
Evidences of this influence can be perceived even in the present
day. His leisure was employed in athletic sports, in his garden,
and in architectural and mechanical pursuits, and so varied
were the interests that filled his life that his sitters used to say
of him, " You would never take him for a painter till he seizes
the brush and palette." Professional honours fell thick upon
him. In 1812 he was elected president of the Society of Artists
in Edinburgh, in 1814 associate, and in the following year full
member of the Royal Academy. In 1822 he was knighted by
George IV. and appointed His Majesty's limner for Scotland.
He died at Edinburgh on the 8th of July 1823.
In his own day the portraits of Raeburn were excellently and
voluminously engraved, especially by the last members of the
great school of English mezzotint. In 1876 a collection of over
300 of his works was brought together in the Royal Scottish
Academy galleries; in the following year a series of twelve of
his finest portraits was included in the winter exhibition of
the Royal Academy, London; and a volume of photographs
from his paintings was edited by Dr John Brown.
Raeburn possessed all the necessary requirements of a popular
and successful portrait-painter. He had the power of producing
a telling and forcible likeness; his productions are distinguished
' by breadth of effect, by admirable force of handling, by execution
of the swiftest and most resolute sort. Wilkie has recorded that,
while travelling in Spain and studying the works of Velazquez,
the brush-work of that master reminded him constantly of the
" square touch " of Raeburn. But the portraits of Velazquez
are unsurpassable examples of tone as well as of handling, and
it is in the former quality that Raeburn is often wanting,
possibly because his inclinations led him to study effects of
diffused light in preference to those which were strong in con-
trasts of light and shade. The colour of his portraits is some-
times crude and out of relation, inclining to the use of positive
and definite local pigments, and too little perceptive of the
changeful subtleties and modifications of atmospheric effect.
His draperies frequently consist of little more than two colours
the local hue of the fabric and the black which, more or less
graduated, expresses its shadows and modelling. In his flesh,
too, he wants in all but his very best productions the delicate
refinements of colouring which distinguish the works of the
great English portrait-painters. His faces, with all their
excellent truth of form and splendid vigour of handling, are
often hard and.bricky in hue. Yet, after all allowances have
been made for what deficiencies there may be in his work, his
right to a place among the greater British masters cannot be
contested. The masculine power, the vitality and the strength
of characterization which are so apparent in his paintings
entitle him to the serious attention of all lovers of fine achieve-
ment; and there is much to be learned from study of his
methods. His sincerity and freedom from artificial graces of
style can be specially recognized, and his frank directness is
always attractive.
See Life of Sir Henry Raeburn, R.A., by his great-grandson
William Raeburn Andrew, M.A. Oxon. (2nd ed., 1894), which
contains some of the latest information, together with a complete
catalogue of the exhibition of 1876. There may also be consulted
Works of Sir Henry Raeburn, R.A., with tributes by Dr John Brown
and others, published by Andrew Elliot, Edinburgh; Tribute to the
Memory of Raeburn by Dr Andrew Duncan, the Catalogues of the
loan exhibitions in Edinburgh of 1884 and 1901 ; and the Essay
by W. E. Henley Sir Henry Raeburn by William Ernest Henley
(1890) with a finely produced series of plates, printed by T. & A.
Constable for the now defunct Royal Association for Promotion of
the Fine Arts in Scotland. But the leading work on the subject,
and the most splendidly illustrated, is Sir Henry Raeburn by Sir
Walter Armstrong, with an introduction by R. A. M. Stevenson
and a biographical and descriptive catalogue by J. L. Caw (1901).
RDWALD (d. c. 620), king of the East Angles, was the
son of King Tytili. He became a Christian during a stay in
Kent, but on his return to East Anglia he sanctioned the
worship both of the Christian and the heathen religions. Very
little is known about his reign, which probably began soon
after 600. For a time he recognized the overlordship of
^Ethelberht, king of Kent, but he seems to have shaken off
the Kentish yoke. He gained some superiority over the land
south of the Humber with the exception of Kent and is counted
among the Bretwaldas. Raedwald protected the fugitive
Edwin, afterwards king of Northumbria, and in his interests
he fought a sanguinary battle with the reigning Northumbrian
king, yEthelfrith, near Retford in Nottinghamshire, where
^thelfrith was defeated and killed in April 617. He was
followed as king of the East Angles by his son Eorpwald.
See Bede, Historiae ecclesiasticae, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford,
1896) ; and J. R. Green, The Making of England (1897-1899).
RAETIA (so always in inscriptions; in classical MSS. usually
RHAETIA), in ancient geography, a province of the Roman
Empire, bounded on the W. by the country of the Helvetii,
on the E. by Noricum, on the N. by Vindelicia and on the
S. by Cisalpine Gaul. It thus comprised the districts occupied
in modern times by the Grisons, the greater part of Tirol, and
part of Lombardy. The land was very mountainous, and the
inhabitants, when not engaged in predatory expeditions,
chiefly supported themselves by cattle-breeding and cutting
timber, little attention being paid to agriculture. Some of the
valleys, however, were rich and fertile, and produced corn and
wine, the latter considered equal to any in Italy. Augustus
preferred Raetian wine to any other. Considerable trade was
also carried on in pitch, honey, wax and cheese. Little is
known of the origin or history of the Raetians, who are described
as one of the most powerful and warlike of the Alpine tribes.
It is distinctly stated by Livy (v. 33) that they were of Etruscan
origin (a view favoured by Niebuhr and Mommsen). A tradi-
tion reported by Justin (xx. 5) and Pliny (Nat. Hist. iii. 24, 133)
affirmed that they were a portion of that people who had
settled in the plains of the Po and were driven into the moun-
tains by the invading Gauls, when they assumed the name of
Raetians from their leader Raetus; a more probable derivation,
however, is from Celtic rait, " mountain land." Even if their
Etruscan origin be accepted, at the time when the land became
known to the Romans, Celtic tribes were already in possession
of it and had amalgamated so completely with the original
inhabitants that, generally speaking, the Raetians of later
times may be regarded as a Celtic people, although non-Celtic
tribes (Lepontii, Euganei) were settled among them. The
Raetians are first mentioned (but only incidentally) by Polybius
(xxxiv. 10, 18), and little is heard of them till after the end of
the Republic. There is little doubt, however, that they retained
their independence until their subjugation in 15 B.C. by Tiberius
and Drusus (cf. Horace, Odes, iv. 4 and 14). At first Raetia
formed a distinct province, but towards the end of the ist
century A.D. Vindelicia was added to it; hence Tacitus (Ger-
mania, 41) could speak of Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg)
as " a colony of the province of Raetia." The whole province
(including Vindelicia) was at first under a military prefect, then
under a procurator; it had no standing army quartered in it,
but relied on its own native troops and militia for protection.
In the reign of Marcus Aurelius it was governed by the com-
mander of the Legio iii. Italica. Under Diocletian it formed
part of the diocese of the vicarius Italiae, and was subdivided into
Raetia prima and secunda (each under a praeses), the former
corresponding to the old Raetia, the latter to Vindelicia. The
boundary between them is not clearly defined, but may be
RAFF RAFFLES
stated generally as a line drawn eastwards from the lacus
Brigantinus (Lake of Constance) to the river Oenus (Inn)
During the last years of the Western Empire, the land was in
a desolate condition, but its occupation by the Ostrogoths in
the time of Theodoric, who placed it under a dux, to some
extent revived its prosperity. The chief towns of Raetia
(excluding Vindelicia) were Tridentum (Trent) and Curia
(Coire or Chur). It was traversed by two great lines of Roman
roads one leading from Verona and Tridentum across the
Brenner (in which the name of the Brenni has survived) to
Ocnipons (Innsbruck) and thence to Augusta Vindelicorum;
the other from Brigantium (Bregenz) on Lake Constance, by
Coire and Chiavenna to Como and Milan.
See P. C. Planta, Das alte Ratten (Berlin, 1872) ; T. Mommsen
in Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, iii. p. 706; J. Marquardt,
Riimische Staatsverwaltung, i. (2nd ed., 1881) p. 288; L. Steub,
Vber die Urbewohner Rdtiens und ihren Zusammenhang mil den
Etruskern (Munich, 1843); J. Jung, Romer und Romanen in den
Donaulandern (Innsbruck, 1877) ; Smith's Diet, of Greek'and Roman
"aphy (1873); T. Mommsen, The Roman Provinces (Eng. trans.,
i.-vsi,), i. pp. 16, 161, 196; Mary B. Peaks, The General Civil and
Military Administration of Noricum and Raetia (Chicago, 1907).
RAFF, JOSEPH JOACHIM (1822-1882), German composer
and orchestral conductor, was born near Zurich, Switzerland,
on the 27th of May 1822, and educated chiefly at Schwyz. Here,
under the care of the Jesuit fathers, he soon became an excellent
classical and mathematical scholar, but received scarcely
any instruction in his favourite art of music, in which, never-
theless, he made extraordinary progress through sheer force of
natural genius, developed by persevering study which no ex-
ternal obstacles could induce him to discontinue. So successful
were his unaided efforts that, when in 1843 he sent some MSS.
to Mendelssohn, that warm encourager of youthful talent felt
justified in at once recommending him to Breitkopf & Hartel,
the Leipzig publishers, who brought out a large selection of
his early works. Soon after this he became acquainted with
Liszt, who gave him much generous encouragement. He first
became personally acquainted with Mendelssohn at Cologne
in 1846, and gave up all his other engagements for the purpose
of following him to Leipzig, but his intention was frustrated by
the great composer's death in 1847. After this disappoint-
ment he remained for some time at Cologne, where his attention
was alternately devoted to composition and to the preparation
of critiques for the periodical Ciicilia. Thus far he was a self-
taught artist; but he felt the need of systematic instruction
so deeply that, retiring for a time from public life, he entered at
Stuttgart upon a long course of severe and uninterrupted
study, and with so much success that in 1850 he appeared
before the world in the character of an accomplished and
highly cultivated musician. Raff now settled for a time in
Weimar in order to be near Liszt. Hans von Billow had already
brought him into notice by playing his Concertstiick for piano-
forte and orchestra in public, and the favour with which this
fine work was everywhere received encouraged him to attempt
a greater one. During his stay in Stuttgart he had begun
the composition of an opera entitled Konig Alfred, and had
good hope of securing its performance at Dresden; but the
political troubles with which Germany was then overwhelmed
rendered its production in the Saxon capital impossible. At
Weimar he was more fortunate. In due time KSnig Alfred
was produced there under Liszt's able direction at the court
theatre with complete success; and later, in 1870, he wrote his
second opera, Dame Kobold, for performance at the same theatre.
A third opera, Samson, remained unstaged.
Raff lived at Weimar until 1856, when he obtained a large
clientele at Wiesbaden as a teacher of the pianoforte. In 1859
he married Doris Genast, an actress of high repute, and thence-
forward devoted himself with renewed energy to the work of
composition, displaying an inexhaustible fertility of invention
tempered by great technical skill. He resided chiefly at Wies-
baden till 1877, when he was appointed director of the Hoch-
Conservatorium at Frankfort, an office which he retained until
his death on the 25th of June 1882.
More than 200 of Raff's compositions have been published, in-
cluding ten symphonies undoubtedly his finest worjcs quartets,
concertos, sonatas, songs, and examples of nearly every known
variety of style; yet he never repeats himself. Notwithstanding
his strong love for the romantic school, he is never guilty of extra-
vagance, and, if in his minor works he is sometimes a little common-
place, he never descends to vulgarity. His symphonies Lenore and
1m Walde are wonderful examples of musical painting.
RAFFAELLINO DEL GARBO (1466, or perhaps 1476-1524),
Florentine painter. His real name was Raffaello Capponi;
Del Garbo was a nickname, bestowed upon him seemingly
from the graceful nicety (garbo) of his earlier works. He has
also been called Raffaello de Florentia, and Raffaello de Carolis.
He was a pupil of Filippino Lippi, with whom he remained till
1490, if not later. He showed great facility in design, and
excited hopes which the completed body of his works fell short
of. He married and had a large family; embarrassments and
a haphazard . manner of work ensued; and finally he lapsed
into a very dejected and penurious condition. Three of his
best tempera pictures are in the Berlin Gallery; one of the
Madonna standing with her Infant between two musician-
angels, is particularly attractive. We may also name the oil-
painting of the " Resurrection " done for the church of Monte
Oliveto, Florence, now in the academy of the same city, ordin-
arily reputed to be Raffaellino's masterpiece; the ceiling of
the Caraffa Chapel in the church of the Minerva, Rome; and a
" Coronation of the Virgin " in the Louvre, which is a pro-
duction of much merit, though with somewhat over-studied
grace. Angelo Allori was his pupil.
RAFFET, DENIS AUGUSTE MARIE (1804-1860), French
illustrator and lithographer, was born in Paris in 1804. At an
early age he was apprenticed to a wood turner, but took up the
study of art at evening classes. He became acquainted with
Cabanel, who made him apply his skill to the decoration of
china, and with Rudor, from whom he received instruction in
lithography, in the practice of which he was to rise to fame.
He then entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, but returned
definitely to lithography in 1830, when he produced on stone
his famous designs of " Lutzen," " Waterloo," " Le bal," " La
revue " and " Les adieux de la garnison," by which his reputa-
tion became immediately established. Raffet's chief works were
his lithographs of the Napoleonic campaigns, from Egypt to
Waterloo, vigorous designs that are inspired by ardent patriotic
enthusiasm. As an illustrator his activity was prodigious,
the list of works illustrated by his crayon amounting to about
forty-five, among which are Beranger's poems, the History of
the Revolution by Thiers, the History of Napoleon by de Norvins,
the great Walter Scott by Defauconpret, the French Plutarch
and Frederic Berat's Songs. He went to Rome in 1849, was
present at the siege of Rome, which he made the subject of
some lithographs, and followed the Italian campaign of 1859,
of which he left a record in his Episodes de la campagne d'ltalie
de i8$Q. His portraits in pencil and water-colour are full of
character. He died at Genoa in 1860. In 1893 a monument
by Fremiet was unveiled in the Jardin de 1'Infante at the
Louvre, Paris.
See Raffet, by F. Lhomme (Paris, 1892).
RAFFLE, a special kind of lottery, in which a particular
article is put up as the prize, the winner being drawn for by
lot out of the number of those who have paid a fixed sum for
admission to the drawing; the total amount realized by the
sale of the tickets is supposed to approximate to the value of
the object raffled for. The word appears in English as early
as Chaucer (The Parson's Tale) where it is used in its original
sense of a game of dice, the winner being that one who threw
three dice all alike, or, next, the highest pair. The Fr. rafle,
Med. Lat. raffia, was also used in the sense of a " sweeping-off "
of the stakes in a game; it has been connected with Ger. raffen,
to carry off.
RAFFLES, SIR THOMAS STAMFORD (1781-1826), English
administrator, founder of Singapore, was born on the sth of
fuly 1781, on board a merchantman commanded by his father,
Benjamin Raffles, when off Port Morant, Jamaica. He received
814
RAFN
his early education at a school at Hammersmith, but when only
fourteen he obtained temporary work in the secretary's office
of the East India Company. In 1800 he was appointed junior
clerk on the establishment. In 1805 the East India Company
decided to make Penang a regular presidency, and sent out
a governor with a large staff, including Stamford Raffles, who
was appointed assistant-secretary. On the eve of his departure
he married Mrs Fancourt (Olivia Mariamne Devenish), widow
of a surgeon on the Madras Establishment; she proved herself
a helpful wife and counsellor to her husband in his rapid rise to
fortune during the following nine years, dying prematurely in
Java in November 1814. On his way out to Penang, Raffles
began the study of the Malay language, and had mastered its
grammar before his arrival. He continued his studies, finding
a congenial fellow- worker and kindred spirit in John Leyden,
who was invalided to Penang. In August 1806 Raffles was
appointed acting secretary during the illness of that official,
and in 1807 he received the full appointment. In the mean-
time he had acted as Malay interpreter, which entailed heavy
and unappreciated work in addition to his regular duties. In
1808 his health gave way, and he was ordered for a change
to Malacca. This proved a turning-point in his career. The
East India Company had decided to abandon Malacca, and
orders had been issued to dismantle it. Raffles perfected his
study of Malay during his stay at this place, and learning from
the Malays, with whom he mixed freely, that the abandonment
of so important a position would be a grave fault, he drew up
a report explaining the great importance of Malacca, and urging
in the strongest manner its retention. This report was sent
by the Penang authorities not only to London, but to the
governor-general, the earl of Minto. The latter was so im-
pressed by the report that he at once gave orders for suspending
the evacuation of Malacca, and in 1809 the company decided
to reverse its own decision. When the whole question was
calmly considered in the light of subsequent events, many years
later, the verdict was that Raffles had " prevented the alienation
of Malacca from the British Crown." A direct correspondence
with Lord Minto was established by the mediation of Leyden,
who wrote to Raffles that the governor-general would be gratified
in receiving communications direct from him. In June 1810
Raffles, of his own accord, proceeded to Calcutta, where Lord
Minto gave him the kindest reception. Raffles remained four
months in Calcutta, and gained the complete confidence of the
governor-general. He brought Lord Minto round to his opinion
that the conquest of the island of Java, then in the hands of
the French, was an imperative necessity. To prepare the
way for the expedition, Raffles was sent to Malacca as " agent
to the Governor- General with the Malay States." He did
his work well and thoroughly even to the extent of discovering
that the short and direct route to Batavia by the Caramata
passage would be safe for the fleet. In August 1811 the expedi-
tion, accompanied by Lord Minto, and with Sir Samuel Auchmuty
in command of the troops (11,000 in number, half English and
half Indian), occupied Batavia without fighting. On the 25th
of the same month a battle was fought at Cornells, a few miles
south of Batavia, and resulted in a complete English victory.
On the 1 8th of September the French commander, General
Janssens, formally capitulated at Samarang, and the conquest
of the island was completed. Lord Minto's first act was to
appoint Raffles lieutenant-governor of Java. From September
1811 until his departure for England in March 1816, Raffles
ruled this large island with conspicuous success and the most
gratifying results. To give only one fact in support of this
statement, he increased the revenue eightfold at the same time
that he abolished transit dues, reduced port dues to one-third
and removed the fetters imposed on trade and intercourse with
the Javanese by Dutch officialdom. In his own words, his
administration aimed at being " not only without fear, but
without reproach." He had a still greater ambition, which was,
in his own words, " to make Java the centre of an Eastern
insular Empire," and to establish the closest relations of friend-
ship and alliance with the Japanese, whom he described as " a
highly polished people, considerably advanced in science,
highly inquisitive and full of penetration." It is interesting
to note that when another great Englishman, Rajah Brooke,
began his career in Sarawak in 1838, he announced: " I go to
carry Sir Stamford Raffles's views in Java over the whole
Archipelago."
The policy of Raffles was based on the assumption that Java
would be retained, but for reasons of European policy it was
decided that it must be restored to Holland. After his return
to England in 1816 he endeavoured to obtain a reconsideration
of the question, but the decision taken was embodied in a treaty
and beyond all possibility of modification. During his stay
in England Raffles was knighted by the prince regent, published
his History of Java (1817) and discussed with Sir Joseph Banks
a project for the foundation in London of a zoological museum
and garden on the model of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris.
He also married his second wife, Sophia, daughter of T. W.
Hull of Co. Down; he had many children by both marriages,
but the only one to live beyond childhood was a daughter,
who died fifteen years after her father's death, and before she
was twenty. He left, therefore, no direct descendants.
In November 1817 Sir Stamford quitted England on his
return to the East, where the lieutenant-governorship of Fort
Marlborough (Sumatra) had been kept in reserve for him. His
administration of Sumatra, which lasted from March 1818 till
December 1823, was characterized by the same breadth of view,
consistency of purpose and energy in action that had made
his government of Java remarkable. He had not, however,
done with the Dutch, who, on their recovery of Java, endeavoured
to establish a complete control over the Eastern archipelago,
and to oust British trade. This design Sir Stamford set himself
to baffle, and although he was more frequently censured than
praised by his superiors for his efforts, he had already met with
no inconsiderable success in minor matters when, by a stroke
of genius and unrivalled statecraft, he stopped for all time the
Dutch project of a mare clausum by the acquisition and founding
of Singapore on the apth of January 1819.
In 1824 Sir Stamford returned to England, but unfortunately
the differences between him and the East India Company had
resulted in an accumulation of disputes which placed a severe
strain on his enfeebled constitution. The memorials and state-
ments that he had to compile for his own vindication would fill
a large volume, but at last the court passed (i2th of April 1826)
a formal decision in his favour. It did not omit, however, to-
censure him for " his precipitate and unauthorized emancipation
of the Company's slaves," or after his death to make his widow
pay 10,000 for various items, which included the expense of
his mission to found Singapore ! Harassed as he was by these
personal affairs, he still found time to carry out his original
scheme with regard to a zoological society in London. He
took the largest part in the creation of the existing society,
and his fine Sumatra collection formed its endowment. He
was unanimously elected its president at the first meeting, and
by a remarkable unanimity of opinion on the part of those who
helped in the work, he has been recognized as " the Founder
of the Zoological Society." He was contemplating entering
parliamentary life when his sudden death on his birthday,
1826, ended his brilliant career at the early age of forty-five.
Sir Frederick Weld, lieutenant-governor at Singapore, when
unveiling the statue of his predecessor at that place in 1887,
crystallized the thoughts of his countrymen and anticipated
the verdict of history in a single sentence: " In Raffles, England
had one of her greatest sons."
See Lady Raffles, Memoir of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1830);
D. C. Boulger, Life of Sir Stamford Raffles (1897); Hugh Egerton,
Sir Stamford Raffles (1899); I. .Buckley, Records of Singapore
(1903). (D. C. B.)
RAFN, KARL CHRISTIAN (1795-1864), Danish archaeo-
logist, was born in Brahesborg, Fiinen, on the i6th of January
1795, and died at Copenhagen on the 2oth of October 1864.
He is chiefly known in connexion with the controversy as to
the question of the discovery of America by the Norsemen, his
RAFTER RAG-STONE
815
views being contained in his chief work, Antiquitates Americanae
(Copenhagen, 1837). See LEIF ERICSSON.
RAFTER, a beam in a sloping roof to which is attached the
framework for the slating, tiling or other external covering
(see ROOFS). The O.Eng. raefter is cognate with Icel. raflr,
Dan. and Swed. rafte or raft, a beam, which, in the special
sense of a floating collection of timbers, gives the English
" raft." The ultimate base of these words is the root raf-, to
cover, seen in Gr. 6p<xj>ot, roof.
RAGATZ, a famous watering-place in the Swiss canton of
St Gall, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, and by rail
13! m. N. of Coire or 6iJ m. S.E. of Zurich. It stands at a
height of 1696 ft., at the entrance to the magnificent gorge
of the Tamina, about 3 m. up which by carriage road are the
extraordinarily placed Baths of Pfafers (2247 ft.). Since 1840
the hot mineral waters of Pfafers are conducted in pipes to
Ragatz, which is in a more pleasant position. Consequently
Ragatz has much increased in importance since that date. In
IQOO its native population was 1866, mainly German-speaking,
while there were 1472 Romanists to 392 Protestants. The
annual number of visitors is reckoned at 30,000. In the church-
yard is the grave of the philosopher Schelling (d. here in 1854).
About 2 m. by road above Ragatz are the 17th-century build-
ings (now the cantonal lunatic asylum) of the great Benedictine
abbey of Pfafers (720-1838), to which all this region belonged
till 1798; while midway between them and Ragatz are the
ruins of the 14th-century castle of Wartenstein, now accessible
from Ragatz by means of a funicular railway. (W. A. B. C.)
RAGLAN, FITZROY JAMES HENRY SOMERSET, isx BARON
(1788-1855), British field marshal, was the eighth and youngest
son of Henry, 5th duke of Beaufort, by Elizabeth, daughter
of Admiral the Hon. Edward Boscawen, and was born on the
3Oth of September 1788. His elder brother, General Lord
(Robert) Edward (Henry) Somerset (1776-1842), distinguished
himself as the leader of the Household Cavalry brigade at
Waterloo. Lord Fitzroy Somerset was educated at West-
minster school, and entered the army in 1804. In 1807 he was
attached to the Hon. Sir Arthur Paget's embassy to Turkey,
and the same year he was selected to serve on the staff of Sir
Arthur Wellesley in the expedition to Copenhagen. In the
following year he accompanied the same general in a like
capacity to Portugal, and during the whole of the Peninsular
War was at his right hand, first as aide-de-camp and then as
military secretary. He was wounded at Busaco, became
brevet-major after Fuentes de Ofioro, accompanied the stormers
of the 52nd light infantry as a volunteer at Ciudad Rodrigo
and specially distinguished himself at the storming of Badajoz,
being the first to mount the breach, and afterwards showing
great resolution and promptitude in securing one of the gates
before the French could organize a fresh defence. During the
short period of the Bourbon rule in 1814 and 1815 he was
secretary to the English embassy at Paris. On the renewal
of the war he again became aide-de-camp and military secretary
to the duke of Wellington. About this time he married Emily
Harriet, daughter of the 3rd earl of Mornington, and Welling-
ton's niece. At Waterloo he was wounded in the right arm
and had to undergo amputation, but he quickly learned to
write with his left hand, and on the conclusion of the war
resumed his duties as secretary to the embassy at Paris. From
1818 to 1820, and again in 1826-29, he sat in the House of
Commons as member for Truro. In 1819 he was appointed
secretary to the duke of Wellington as master-general of the
ordnance, and from 1827 till the death of the duke in 1852 was
military secretary to him as commander-in-chief. He was then
appointed master-general of the ordnance, and was created
Baron Raglan. In 1854 he was promoted general and appointed
to the command of the English troops sent to the Crimea (see
CRIMEAN WAR) in co-operation with a strong French army
under Marshal St Arnaud and afterwards, up to May 1855,
under Marshal Canrobert. Here the advantage of his training
under the duke of Wellington was seen in the soundness of his
generalship, and his diplomatic experience stood him in good
stead in dealing with the generals and admirals, British, French
and Turkish, who were associated with him. But the trying
winter campaign in the Crimea also brought into prominence
defects perhaps traceable to his long connexion with the for-
malities and uniform regulations of military offices in peace
time. For the hardships and sufferings of the English soldiers
in the terrible Crimean winter before Sevastopol, owing to
failure in the commissariat, both as regards food and clothing,
Lord Raglan and his staff were at the time severely censured
by the press and the government; but, while Lord Raglan
was possibly to blame in representing matters in a too sanguine
light, it afterwards appeared that the chief neglect rested with
the home authorities. But this hopefulness was a shining
military quality in the midst of the despondency that settled
upon the allied generals after their first failures, and at Balaklava
and Inkermann he displayed the promptness and resolution of
his youth. He was made a field marshal after Inkermann.
During the trying winter of 1854-55, the suffering he was com-
pelled to witness, the censures, in great part unjust, which he
had to endure and all the manifold anxieties of the siege
seriously undermined his health, and although he found a friend
and ardent supporter in his new French colleague, General
Pelissier (q.v.), disappointment at the failure of the assault of
the i8th of June 1855 finally broke his spirit, and very shortly
afterwards, on the 28th of June 1855, he died of dysentery.
His body was brought home and interred at Badminton.
His elder son having been killed at the battle of Ferozeshah
(1845), the title descended to his younger son Richard Henry
Fitzroy Somerset, 2nd Baron Raglan (1817-1884); and subse-
quently to the latter's son, George Fitzroy Henry Somerset,
3rd baron (b. 1857), under-secretary for war 1900-2, lieutenant-
governor of the Isle of Man (1902) and a prominent militia
officer.
RAGMAN ROLLS, the name given to the collection of instru-
ments by which the nobility and gentry of Scotland were com-
pelled to subscribe allegiance to Edward I. of England between
the conference of Norham in May 1291 and the final award in
favour of Baliol in November 1292, and again in 1296. Of the
former of these records two copies were preserved in the chapter-
house at Westminster (now in the Record Office, London), and
it has been printed by Rymer (Foedera, ii. 542). Another copy,
preserved originally in the Tower of London, is now also in the
Record Office. The latter record, containing the various acts
of homage and fealty extorted by Edward from Baliol and others
in the course of his progress through Scotland in the summer
of 1296 and in August at the parliament of Berwick, was
published by Prynne from the copy in the Tower and now in
the Record Office. Both records were printed by the Banna-
tyne Club in 1834. The derivation of the word " ragman " has
never been satisfactorily explained, but various guesses as to
its meaning and a list of examples of its use for legal instruments
both in England and Scotland will be found in the preface
to the Bannatyne Club's volume, and in Jamieson's Scottish
Dictionary, s.v. " Ragman." The name " ragman roll " survives
in the colloquial " rigmarole," a rambling, incoherent state-
ment.
The name of " Ragman " has been sometimes confined to the
record of 1296, of which an account is given in Calendar of Docu-
ments relating to Scotland preserved in the Public Record Office, London
(1884), vol. ii., hit rod., p. xxiv; and as to the seals see p. Hi and
appendix.
RAG-STONE (probably equivalent to " ragged " stone), a
name given by some architectural writers to work done with
stones which are quarried in thin pieces, such as the Horsham
sandstone, Yorkshire stone, the slate stones, &c.; but this is
more properly flag or slab work. By rag-stone, near London,
is meant an excellent material from the neighbourhood of
Maidstone. It is a very hard limestone of bluish-grey colour,
and peculiarly suited for medieval work. It is often laid as
uncoursed work, or random work (see RANDOM), sometimes as
random coursed work 'and sometimes as regular ashlar. The
first method, however, is the more picturesque. (See MASONRY.)
8i6
RAGUSA
RAGUSA (Serbo-Croatian Dubrovnik), an episcopal city,
and the centre of an administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria.
Pop. (1900) of town and commune, 13,174, including a garrison
of 1 1 22. Its situation and its undisturbed atmosphere of
antiquity combine to make Ragusa by far the most picturesque
city on the Dalmatian coast. It occupies a ridge or promontory,
which juts out into the Adriatic Sea, under the bare limestone
mass of Monte Sergio. Its seaward fortifications rise directly
from the water's edge, one fort, on the north mole, standing
boldly on a tall rock almost isolated by a little inlet of the
Adriatic. On the landward side a massive round tower domi-
nates the city from a still higher eminence. Beyond the walls
and the deep moat, especially on the northward side towards
the port of Gravosa, are many pleasant villas, surrounded by
gardens in which the aloe, palm and cypress are conspicuous
among a number of flowering trees and shrubs. The island of
Lacroma lies less than half a mile to the south. Between the
seaward ridge and the mountain, the Stradone, or main street,
runs along a narrow valley which, until the I3th century,
was a marshy channel, dividing the Latin island of Ragusa
from the Slavonic settlement of Dubrovnik, on the lower slopes
of Monte Sergio. Parallel to the Stradone, on the north, is the
Prijeki, a long, very narrow street, flanked by tall houses with
overhanging balconies, and greatly resembling a Venetian
alley. Despite the havoc wrought by earthquake in 1667, the
whole city is rich in antiquarian interest. It possesses one
church, of the Byzantine period, which is mentioned in 13th-
century documents as even then of great age. Two stately
convents of the i4th century stand at the ends of the city;
for the Franciscans were set to guard the western gate, or Porta
Pile, against the hostile Slavs, while the Dominicans kept the
eastern gate, or Porta Ploce. The Franciscan cloister is a fine
specimen of late Romanesque; that of the Dominicans is
hardly inferior, though of later date. The Dominican church
is approached by a sloping flagged lane, having on one
side a beautifully ornamented balustrade of the i8th century.
Another 14th-century building is the Sponza, or custom-house,
from which the state derived its principal revenue. A fountain
and a curious clock-tower in the Piazza, which terminates the
Stradone towards the east, were erected by Onofrio, the archi-
tect and engineer whose aqueduct, built about 1440, supplied
Ragusa with water from the neighbouring hills. The Rector's
Palace, another noteworthy example of late Romanesque,
combined with Venetian Gothic, is one of the masterpieces of
Dalmatian architecture. It has a fine facade of six arches,
and the capitals of the supporting pillars are very curiously
carved. Especially interesting is the figure of Aesculapius,
whose traditional birthplace was Epidaurum or Epidaurus,
the parent city of Ragusa. The cathedral dates from the
1 8th century; and to the same period belongs another church,
rebuilt after a fire, but originally erected as a votive offering
after the pestilence of 1348, and dedicated to San Biagio (St
Blaize), the patron of Ragusa, whose name and effigy con-
tinually appear on coins and buildings. Among many fine pieces
of jewellers' work preserved in the ecclesiastical treasuries may
be mentioned the silver statuette of San Biagio, and the reli-
quary which contains his skull a 17th-century casket in filigree
and enamels with Byzantine medallions of the nth or i2th
century.
The harbour of Ragusa, once one of the chief ports of
southern Europe, is too small for modern needs; but Gravosa
(Gruz), a village at the mouth of the river Ombla, on the
north, is a steamship station and communicates by rail with
Herzegovina and the Bocche di Cattaro. Ragusa has thus
some transit trade with the interior. Its industries include the
manufacture of liqueurs, oil, silk and leather; but Malmsey,
its famous wine, could no longer be produced after the vine-
disease of 1852.
History. The name Ragusa is of uncertain origin. Con-
stantine Porphyrogenitus, in the loth century, connects its
early form, Lausa, with XaO, a " precipice." Jirecek dissents
from this view, and from the common opinion that Dubrovnik
is derived from the Slavonic dubrava, " woody." The city
first -became prominent during the 7th century. In 639
and 656 the flourishing Latin communities of Salona and
Epidaurum were destroyed by the Avars, and the island rock
of Ragusa was colonized by the survivors. Tradition identifies
Epidaurum, whence the majority came, with the neighbouring
village of Ragusa vecchia; but some historians, including Gelcich,
place it on the shores of the Bocche di Cattaro. Both sites
show signs of Roman occupation. A colony of Slavs soon
joined the Latin settlers at Ragusa, and thus, from an early
date, the city formed a link between two great civilizations
(see VLACHS). In the gth century it is said to have repulsed
the Saracens; in the icth it defended itself against the Naren-
tine pirates, and Simeon, tsar of the Bulgarians. Some writers
consider that it submitted to Venice in 998, with the rest of
Dalmatia; but this is generally denied by the native historians.
During the nth century an enforced alliance with the Normans
drew the republic into war with Venice and Byzantium; and
in the i2th century it was attacked by the Bosnians and Serbs.
From 1205 to 1358 it acknowledged Venetian suzerainty; its
chief magistrate was the Venetian count; and its archbishops,
who wielded much political influence, were often Venetian
nominees. The constitution took shape during this period,
and the first statute-book was published in 1272. Only
patricians could hold office in the senate, grand council and
lesser council, three bodies which shared the work of govern-
ment with the count, or, after 1358, the rector. The ancient
popular assembly was almost obsolete before the i4th century.
Ragusan policy was usually peaceful, and disputes with other
nations were frequently arranged by a system of arbitration
called stanicum. To refugees of all nations, even to those who
had been its own bitter foes, the city afforded asylum; and
by means of treaty and tribute it worked its way to a position
of mercantile power which Europe could hardly parallel. It
was conveniently situated at the seaward end of a great trade
route, which bifurcated at Plevlje to Byzantium and the
Danube. A compact with the Turks, made in 1370 and renewed
in the next century, saved Ragusa from the fate of its more
powerful neighbours, Servia and Byzantium, besides enabling
the Ragusan caravans to penetrate into Hungary, Croatia,
Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria and Rumania. From 1358 to 1526
the republic was a vassal state of Hungary, and no longer
controlled by its greatest commercial rival. It acquired,
among other territories, the important ship-building and salt-
producing centre Stagno Grande (Ston Veliki), on the promon-
tory of Sabbioncello; and from 1413 to 1416 it held the islands
of Curzola, Brazza and Lesina by lease from Hungary. Mean-
while, Ragusan vessels were known not only in Italy, Sicily,
Spain, Greece, the Levant and Egypt, but in the more northern
parts of Europe. The English language retains in the word
" argosy " a reminiscence of the carracks of Ragusa, long
known to Englishmen as Argouse, Argusa or Aragosa. In the
1 6th century the Ragusan merchants went even to India and
America, but they were unable to compete with their rivals
from western Europe. Many of their seamen took service
with Spain; and twelve of their finest ships were lost with the
Invincible Armada in 1588. After 1526 the downfall of Hun-
gary left Ragusa free; and about this time a great develop-
ment of art and literature, begun in the isth century and con-
tinued into the I7th, earned for the city its title of the " South
Slavonic Athens." (See SERVIA, Literature.) The earthquake
of 1667, which had been preceded by lesser shocks in 1520,
1521, 1536 and 1639, destroyed a considerable portion of the
city, and killed about one-fifth of the inhabitants. Only
during the Napoleonic wars did the republic regain its pros-
perity. From 1800 to 1805 it was the sole Mediterranean state
remaining neutral, and thus it secured a very large share of
the carrying trade. In 1805, however, it was seized by the
French; Napoleon deprived it of independence; and in 1814
it was annexed to Austria.
See L. Villari, The Republic of Ragusa (London, 1904), for a
thorough description and history, with a full bibliography. T. G.
RAGUSA RAIFFEISEN
817
Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and I stria (Oxford, 1887), gives
tin- IHM account of Kagusan architecture and antiquities. The
accurate native history is G. Gelcich (Celtic), Delta Sviluppo
civile di Ragusa (Ragusa. 1884). The course of Kagusan trade may
be studied in C J. Jire&k, Die Handelsstrassen und Bergwerke von
Serbien, Sfc. (Prague, 1879); and Heyd, Histoire du commerce du
Levant ait moyen age (Leipzig, 1885).
RAGUSA, a town of Sicily in the province of Syracuse,
70 m. S.W. of Syracuse by rail and 32 m. direct. It consists
of an upper (Ragusa Superiore) and a lower town (Ragusa
Inferiore), each of which forms a separate commune. Pop.
(1006) of the former, 35,529; of the latter, 866. It has some
churches with fine Gothic architecture, and is commercially
of some importance, a stone impregnated with bitumen being
quarried and prepared for use for paving slabs by being ex-
posed to the action of fire. On the hill occupied by the castle
of Ragusa Inferiore stood the ancient Hybla Heraea, a Sicel
town, under the walls of which Hippocrates of Gela fell in
491 B.C. A Greek settlement seems to have arisen in the neigh-
bourhood close to the present railway station, about the middle
of the 6th century B.C., and to have disappeared at the end
of the 5th. Orsi points out that the remains (cuttings in the
rock and a part of the castle wall), attributed by Freeman
(History of Sicily, i. 163) to Sicel times, are in reality post-
Roman.
See Orsi in Notizie degli scavi (1899), 402-418.
RAH WAY, a city of Union county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in
the north-eastern part of the state, on the Rahway river
and about 20 m. S.W. of New York City. Pop. (1890) 7105;
(1000) 7935, of whom 1345 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S.
census) 9337. Rahway is served by the main line of the
Pennsylvania railroad, and is connected with neighbouring
cities by electric lines. It has wide streets and attractive
parks, and is, to some extent, a residential suburb of New York
and other neighbouring cities. It has a public library (1864),
with upwards of 17,000 volumes, and about i| m. distant is
the New Jersey Reformatory (1903), to which prisoners between
the ages of sixteen and thirty may be sentenced instead of
to the State Prison. There are various manufactures. Rahway
was first settled in 1720, and was named in honour of the Indian
chief Rahwack, whose tribe owned the site and the surrounding
territory; it was chartered as a city in 1858. For many
years Rahway was popularly known as Spanktown, and in
January 1777, during the War of Independence, a skirmish,
known as the battle of Spanktown, was fought here.
RAICHUR. a town of India, in the state of Hyderabad, at
the junction of the Madras and Great Indian Peninsula railways,
351 m. N.E. from Madras. Pop. (1001) 22,165. It gives its
name to the doab, or tract between the rivers Kistna and Tunga-
bhadra, which was the scene of much fighting between Mahom-
medans and Hindus as debatable land during the i6th century.
It contains a well-preserved fort and two old mosques. It is a
thriving centre of trade, with several cotton-presses.
RAID, in the language of international law, an invasion
by armed forces, unauthorized and unrecognized by any state,
of the territory of a state which is at peace. Piracy is the
attack on the high sea of any vessel by an armed vessel, not
authorized or recognized by any state, for the purpose of
robbery. A raid for the purpose of carrying off movable
property and converting it ' to the use of the captors would
still be distinguishable from piracy, because it was committed
on territory subject to an exclusive territorial jurisdiction.
Where the attack or invasion by an armed ship not authorized
or recognized by any state is not for the purpose of capturing
property, it is properly speaking a raid and not piracy. An
attack though in time of peace, by armed forces authorized or
recognized by a regular government, is not a raid but an act
of war, there being a government responsible for the act com-
mitted. The fact of any act being authorized, not by the
supreme government, but by a chartered company, or by
its governing officer, makes no difference in international law,
the directorate of a chartered company exercising its powers
by delegation of the state under which it holds its charter.
The acts of its armed forces cannot in reason be distinguished
from the acts of the armed forces of the state government.
Thus compensation is just as much due for them as for the
deliberate acts of the state itself, and any claim of an injured
state can only be preferred against the state to which the
company belongs. Invasion by the regular forces of a state,
or by the regular forces of its delegated authority, being an
act of war, the laws of war apply to it, and, on capture, such
forces, or any members or part of such forces, are prisoners
of war. On the other hand, the state whose subordinate
authorities commit acts of war against a friendly state has
the option of following them up as a commencement of hostilities,
or of giving satisfactory compensation to the invaded state.
Where the invasion is not by forces subject to the orders of a
state, the invaded state has the right to apply its own laws
for the repression of disturbances in its territory. Thus, in
the so-called Jameson Raid, the Transvaal government had
no right to treat Dr Jameson, an officer holding his powers
under the British government, and his subordinates, as out-
laws, and it was probably so advised, and the British govern-
ment owed proper compensation for an act for the consequences
of which, under international law, it was responsible.
British domestic law punishes raiding under the Foreign
Enlistment Act 1870 (33 & 34 Viet. c. 90).' Section n of
this act provides as follows. "If any person within the
limits of His Majesty's dominions, and without the licence of
His Majesty, prepares or fits out any naval or military ex-
pedition to proceed against the dominions of any friendly
state, the following consequences shall ensue: (i) Every
person engaged in such preparation or fitting out, or assist-
ing therein, or employed in any capacity in such expedition,
shall be guilty of an offence against this act, and shall be
punishable by fine and imprisonment or either of such punish-
ments, at the discretion of the Court before which the offender
is convicted; and imprisonment, if awarded, may be either
with or without hard labour. (2) All ships and their equip-
ments, and all arms and munitions of war, used in or forming
part of such expedition, shall be forfeited by His Majesty."
Section 12 provides for the punishment of accessaries as
principal offenders, and section 13 limits the term of imprison-
ment for any offence under the act to two years. In the
Sandoval case (i886), 2 in which Colonel Sandoval, who was
not a British subject, bought guns and ammunition and shipped
them to Antwerp, where they were put on board a vessel,
which afterwards made an attack on Venezuela, it was held
that the offence of fitting out and preparing an expedition
within British territory against a friendly state, under this
section, is sufficiently constituted by the purchase of guns
and ammunition in the British Empire, and their shipment for
the purpose of being put on board a ship in a foreign port,
with knowledge of the purchaser and shipper that they are
to be used in a hostile demonstration against such state, though
the shipper takes no part in any overt act of war, and the ship
is not fully equipped for the expedition within any British
port. Under the same section, Dr Jameson, administrator
of the British South Africa Company, and his confederates
were tried before the Central Criminal Court and sentenced
to different terms of imprisonment.* The offence committed
under a British act is, of course, that of preparing and fitting
out an expedition on British territory. Any acts subsequently
committed by any British expedition on foreign soil are beyond
the operation of domestic legislation, and fall to be dealt with
by the domestic legislation of the state within which they occur,
or by diplomacy, as the case may be. (T. BA.)
RAIFFEISEN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1818-1888), founder
of the German system of agricultural co-operative banks, was
'The preamble to the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870 stated that
its object was " to make provision for the regulation of the conduct
of Her Majesty's subjects during the existence of hostilities between
foreign states with which Her Majesty is at peace." This preamble
was repealed by the Statutes Law Revision (No. 2) Act 1893.
'fl. v. Sandoval, 1886, 56 Law Times, 526.
1 R. v. Jemeson, 1896, 2 Q.B., 425.
8i8
RAIGARH RAIL
born at Hamm on the Sieg on the 3Oth of March 1818, being
the son of Gottfried Raiffeisen, burgomaster of that place.
Educated privately, he entered the artillery in Cologne, but
defective eyesight compelled him to leave the army. He then
entered the public service at Coblenz, and in 1845 was ap-
pointed burgomaster of Weyerbusch. Here he was so successful
that in 1848 he was transferred in a like capacity to Flammers-
feld, and in 1852 to Heddersdorf. Raiffeisen devoted himself
to the improvement of the social condition of the cultivators
of the soil, and did good work in the planning of public roads
and in other ways. The distress of the years 1846-47, the
causes of which he discerned in the slight amount of credit
obtainable by the small landed proprietors, led him to seek
for a remedy in co-operation, and at Heddersdorf and at Weyer-
busch he founded the first agricultural co-operative loan banks
(Darlehnskassenverein). These banks were called after him,
and their foundation resulted in a widespread system of land
banks, supported by the government. In 1865 the state of his
health compelled him to retire, but he continued to take an
interest in the movement he had originated, and in 1878 he
founded at Neuwied a periodical, Das landwirtschajtliche Genossen-
schajtsblait. He died on the i ith of March 1888.
Among Raiffeisen's writings are, Die Darlehnskassenvereine ah
Mittel zur Abhilfe (Neuwied, 1866; new ed., 1887^; Anleitung zur
Geschafts- und Buchfuhrung landlichen Spar- und Darlehns-
kassenvereine (new ed., 1896); and Kurze Anleitung zur Grundung
von Darlehnskassenvereinen (new ed., 1893). See A. Wattig, Friedrich
Wilhelm Raiffeisen (1890); H. W. Wolff, People's Banks. A
Record of Social and Economic Success (1895); and Fassbender,
Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (Berlin, 1902).
RAIGARH, a feudatory state of India, in the Chattisgarh
division of the Central Provinces. Area, 1486 sq. m. Pop.
(1901) 174,929, showing an increase of 4% in the decade.
Estimated revenue, 10,000; tribute, 260. The chief belongs
to the old Gond royal family. The state is traversed by the
Bengal-Nagpur railway, with a station at Raigarh town, 363 m.
from Calcutta. Rice is the chief crop; iron ore is worked by
indigenous methods, and coal is known to exist. Fine tussore
silk is produced at Raigarh town (pop. 6764). Raigarh is
also the name of a hill fortress in Kolaba district, Bombay,
which Sivaji made his chief place of residence. Here he was
crowned in 1674.
RAIKES, ROBERT (1735-1811), English educationist, the
founder of Sunday schools, was the son of Robert Raikes, a
printer in Gloucester and proprietor of the Gloucester Journal,
and was born on the i4th of September 1735. On the death
of his father in 1757 he succeeded him in the business, which
he continued to conduct till 1802. Along with some others he
started a Sunday school at Gloucester in 1780, and on his
giving publicity to the enterprise in the columns of his journal
the notice was copied into the London papers and awakened
considerable attention. For nearly thirty years he continued
actively engaged in the promotion of his undertaking, and he
lived to witness its wide extension throughout England. He
died on the sth of April 1811. His statue stands on the Thames
Embankment.
Among various accounts of the life and work of Raikes mention
may be made of that by P. M. Eastman, 1880.
RAIL, (i) (From Fr. Rale, cf. Ger. Ralle, Low Lat. Rallus, of
unknown origin), originally the English name of two birds,
distinguished from one another by a prefix as land-rail and
water-rail, but latterly applied in a much wider sense to all
the species which are included in the family Rallidae.
The land-rail, also very commonly known as the corn-
crake, and sometimes as the daker-hen, is the Rallus crex of
Linnaeus and Crex pratcnsis of recent authors. Its monotonous
grating cry has given it its common name in several languages.
With comparatively few individual exceptions, the land-rail
is essentially migratory. It is the Ortygometra of classical
authors supposed by them to lead the quail (q.v.) on its
voyages and in the course of its wanderings has now been
known to reach the coast of Greenland, and several times that
of North America, to say nothing of Bermuda, in every instance
we may believe as a straggler from Europe or Barbary. The
land-rail looks about as big as a partridge, but on examination
its appearance is found to be very deceptive, and it will hardly
ever weigh more than half as much. The plumage above is of
a tawny brown, the feathers being longitudinally streaked
with blackish brown; beneath it is of a yellowish white; but
the flanks are of a light chestnut barred with white. The
species is very locally distributed, and in a way for which there
is at present no accounting. In some dry upland and corn-
growing districts it is plentiful; in others, of apparently the
same character, it but rarely occurs; and the same may be
said in regard to low-lying marshy meadows, in most of which
it is in season always to be heard, while in others having a
close resemblance to them it is never met with. The nest is
on the ground, generally in long grass, and therein from nine
to eleven eggs are commonly laid. These are of a cream-
colour, spotted and blotched with light red and grey. The
young when hatched are thickly clothed with black down, as
is the case in nearly all species of the family.
The water-rail, locally known as the skiddy or billcock,
is the Rallus aquaticus of ornithology, and seems to be less
abundant than the preceding, though that is in some measure
due to its frequenting places into which from their swampy
nature men do not often intrude. Having a general resemblance
to the land-rail, 1 it can be in a moment distinguished by its
partly red and much longer bill, and the darker coloration of
its plumage the upper parts being of an olive brown with
black streaks, the breast and belly of a sooty grey, and the
flanks dull black barred with white. Its geographical dis-
tribution is very wide, extending from Iceland (where it is said
to preserve its existence during winter by resorting to the hot
springs) to China; and though it inhabits Northern India,
Lower Egypt and Barbary, it seems not to pass beyond the
tropical line. It never affects upland districts as does the land-
rail, but always haunts wet marshes or the close vicinity of
water. Its love-note is a loud and harsh cry, not continually
repeated as is that of the land-rail, but uttered at considerable
intervals and so suddenly as to have been termed " explosive."
Besides this, which is peculiar to the cock-bird, it has a croaking
call that is frog-like. The eggs resemble those of the preceding,
but are more brightly and delicately tinted.
The various species of rails, whether allied to the former or latter
of those just mentioned, are far too numerous to be here noticed.
Hardly any part of the world is without a representative of the
genera Crex or Rallus, and every considerable country has one or
perhaps more of each though it has been the habit of systematists
to refer them to many other genera, the characters of which are
with difficulty found. Thus in Europe alone three other species
allied to Crex pratensis occur more or less abundantly; but one of
them, the spotted rail or crake, has been made the type of a so-
called genus Porzana, and the other two, little birds not much
bigger than larks, are considered to form a genus Zapornia. The
first of these, which used not to be uncommon in the eastern part
of England, has a very near representative in the Carolina rail or
sora, Crex Carolina, of North America, often there miscalled the
ortolan, just as its European analogue, C. porzana, is in England
often termed the dotterel. But, passing over these as well as
some belonging to genera that can be much better defined, and
other still more interesting forms of the family, as Aphanapteryx,
coot (q.v.), moor-hen (q.v.) and ocydrome (q.v.), a few words must be
said of the more distant group formed by the South American
Heliornis, and the African and Indian Podica, comprising four or
five species, to which the name " Finfoots " has been applied
from the lobes or flaps of skin that fringe their toes. Though for a
long while placed among the Podicipedidae (see GREBE), their
osteology no less than their habits appear to indicate their alliance
with the rails, and they are placed as a separate family, Heliorni-
thidae of the order Gruiformes, to which the rails belong; but they
seem to show the extreme modification of that type in adaptation
to aquatic life. The curious genus Mesites of Madagascar, whose
systematic place has been so long in doubt, has been referred by
A. Milne-Edwards (Ann. Sc. Naturelle, ser. 6, vii. art. 2) to the
neighbourhood of the rails, but is now associated as a sub-order
Mesitae with Galliform birds. On the other hand the jacanas or
Parridae, which from their long toes were once thought to belong
1 Formerly it seems to have been a popular belief in England that
the land-rail in autumn transformed itself into a water-rail, re-
suming its own characters in spring.
RAILWAYS
819
to the rails, are now generally admitted to be Limicohne, while
the genus Aramus the courlan or limpkin of the southern United
States still occupies a very undetermined position. (A. N.)
(2) (Through O.Fr. reille, from Lat. regula, a rule; the Du.
and Swed. regel, Ger. Riegel, bolt or bar, are probably also from
the Latin), a horizontal bar of wood, metal or other material
resting on, or fixed in, upright posts to form a fence, or as a
support for hanging things on, to form the " hand-rail " of a
stair, &c.; on a ship the upper part of the bulwarks, e.g. the
" taffrail," round the stern bulwarks; especially, one of the pair
of iron or steel bars on which a train or tram runs (see RAILWAYS).
There are two other words " rail ": (a) an obsolete word (O.E.
hragel), for a garment, often in the compound " night-rail "; and
(6) a verb, to abuse, use angry language, from Fr. railler, possibly
from the same root as Lat. radere, to scrape. The word is also seen
in " rally," to banter, tease (distinguish, however, " rally," to bring
together, especially of defeated troops (from Fr. rallter; re, again,
and oilier, ally, Lat. alligare)).
RAILWAYS. Railways had their origin in the tramways
(q.v.) or wagon-ways which at least as early as the middle
of the i6th century were used in the mineral districts of England
round Newcastle for the conveyance of coal from the pits to
the river Tyne for shipment. It may be supposed that originally
the public roads, when worn by the cartage of the coal, were
repaired by laying planks of timber at the bottom of the ruts,
and that then the planks were laid on the surface of special
roads or ways 1 formed between the collieries and the river.
" The manner of the carriage," says Lord Keeper North in
1676, " is by laying rails of timber . . . exactly straight and
parallel, and bulky carts are made with four rowlets fitting
these rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will
draw down four or five chaldrons of coals " (from 10-6 to 13-2
tons). The planks were of wood, often beech, a few inches
wide, and were fastened down, end to end, on logs of wood, or
" sleepers," placed crosswise at intervals of two or three feet.
In time it became a common practice to cover them with a thin
sheathing or plating of iron, in order to add to their life; this
expedient caused more wear on the wooden rollers of the wagons,
and, apparently towards the middle of the i8th century, led to
the introduction of iron wheels, the use of which is recorded on
a wooden railway near Bath in 1734. But the iron sheathing
was not strong enough to resist buckling under the passage of the
loaded wagons, and to remedy this defect the plan was tried of
making the rails wholly of iron. In 1767 the Colebrookdale
Iron Works cast a batch of iron rails or plates, each 3 ft. long
and 4 in. broad, having at the inner side an upright ledge or
flange, 3 in. high at the centre and tapering to a height of
2\ in. at the ends, for the purpose of keeping the flat wheels
on the track. Subsequently, to increase the strength, a similar
flange was added below the rail. Wooden sleepers continued
to be used, the rails being secured by spikes passing through
the extremities, but about 1793 stone blocks also began to be
employed an innovation associated with the name of Ben-
jamin Outram, who, however, apparently was not actually
the first to make it. This type of rail (fig. i) was
known as the plate-rail, tramway-plate or barrow-
way-plate names which are preserved in the
modern term " platelayer " applied to the men
J
who lay and maintain the permanent way of a
railway.
Another form of rail, distinguished as the edge-
rail, was first used on a line which was opened
between Loughborough and Nanpantan in 1789.
This line was originally designed as a " plate-
way " on the Outram system, but objections were
raised to rails with upstanding ledges or flanges
being laid on the turnpike road which was crossed
at Loughborough on the level. In other cases
Rail - this difficulty was overcome by paving or " cau:
waying " the road up to the level of the top of the flanges, but
1 " Another thing that is remarkable is their way-leaves; for
when men have pieces of ground between the colliery and the
river, they sell leave to lead coals over their ground " (Roger North)
on this occasion William Jessop, of the Butterley Iron Works,
near Derby, proposed to get over it by laying down two plates
of iron, perfectly flat and level with the road but each
laving on its outside a groove \ in. wide and i in. deep to
control extra guiding wheels which were to be of somewhat
larger diameter than the bearing wheels and to be affixed
;o them. The rest of the line was laid with what were sub-
stantially plate-rails placed on their edge instead of flat. These
were cast in 3 ft. lengths, of a double-flanged section, and for the
sake of strength they were " fish-bellied " or deeper in the
middle than at the ends. At one end of each rail the flange
spread out to form a foot which rested on a cross sleeper, being
secured to the latter by a spike passing through a central hole,
and above this foot the rail was so shaped as to form a socket
nto which was fitted the end of the next rail. Each length was
thus fastened to a sleeper at one end, while at the other it was
socketed into the end of its fellow. This method, however,
was not found satisfactory: the projecting feet wete liable
to be broken off, and in 1799 or 1800 Jessop abandoned them,
using instead separate cast-iron sockets or chairs, which were
Fastened to the sleepers and in which the rails were supported
in an upright position. In the first instance he proposed to
place the guiding wheels outside the bearing wheels, and the
Nanpantan line was laid on this plan with a width of 5 ft.
between the guide wheels; but before it was opened he decided
not only to cast the guiding wheels and bearing wheels in one
piece but also to put the former inside the rails, arguing that
with this arrangement the edge-rails themselves would keep
the wheels in position on the axles, whereas with that first con-
templated fastenings would have been required for them (fig. 2).
Jessop thus produced what was virtually the flanged
wheel of to-day, having the flanges inside the rails,
and further, it is said, established what has become
the standard gauge of the world, 4 ft. 8J in., or 5 ft.
minus the width of two of his rails.
These two systems of constructing railways
the plate-rail and the edge-rail continued to
exist side by side until well on in the igth century.
In most parts of England the plate-rail was preferred,
and it was used on the Surrey iron railway, from
Wandsworth to Croydon, which, sanctioned by
parliament in 1801, was finished in 1803, and was
the first railway available to the public on payment
of tolls, previous lines having all been private and
reserved exclusively for the use of their owners.
In South Wales again, where in 1811 the railways in
connexion with canals, collieries and iron and copper Rail,
works had a total length of nearly 150 miles, the
plate-way was almost universal. But in the north of England
and in Scotland the edge-rail was held in greater favour,
and by the third decade of the century its superiority was
generally established. The manufacture of the rails them-
selves was gradually improved. By making them in longer
lengths a reduction was effected in the number of joints
always the weakest part of the line; and another advance
consisted in the substitution of wrought iron for cast iron,
though that material did not gain wide adoption until
after the patent for an improved method of rolling rails
granted in 1820 to John Birkinshaw, of the Bedlington
Ironworks, Durham. His rails were wedge-shaped in section,
much wider at the top than at the bottom, with the inter-
mediate portion or web thinner still, and he recommended
that they should be made 18 ft. long, even suggesting that
several of them might be welded together end to end to form
considerable lengths. They were supported on sleepers by
chairs at intervals of 3 ft., and were fish-bellied between
the points of support. As used by George Stephenson on the
Stockton & Darlington and Whitstable & Canterbury lines
they weighed 28 Ib per yard. On the Liverpool & Man-
chester railway they were usually 12 ft. or 15 ft. long and
weighed 35 Jb to the yard, and they were fastened by iron
wedges to chairs weighing 15 or 17 Ib each. The chairs were
820
RAILWAYS
[INTRODUCTORY
in turn fixed to the sleepers by two iron spikes, half-round
wooden cross sleepers being employed on embankments and
stone blocks 20 in. square by 10 in. deep in cuttings. The fish-
bellied rails, however, were found to break near the chairs,
and from 1834 they began to be replaced with parallel rails
weighing 50 Ib to the yard.
The next important development in rail design originated in
America, which, for the few lines that had been laid up to 1830,
remained content with wooden bars faced with iron. In that
year Robert Livingston Stevens (1787-1856), devised for the
Camden & Amboy railway a rail similar as to its top to those
in use in England, but having a flat base or foot by which it was
secured to the sleepers by hook-headed spikes, without chairs
(fig. 3); he had to get the first lot of these rails, which were
15 ft. long and weighed 36 Ib to the yard, manufactured in
England, since there were then no mills in America able to roll
them. This type, which is often known as the Vignoles rail, after
Charles' Blacker Vignoles (1793-1875), who re-invented it in
England in 1836, is in general use in America and on the continent
of Europe. The bridge-rail (fig. 4) so called because it was
FIG. 3. Flat-
Bottomed Rail.
FIG. 4. Bridge-
Rail.
first laid on bridges was supported on continuous longitudinal
sleepers and held down by bolts passing through the flanges,
and was employed by I. K. Brunei on the Great Western railway,
where, however, it was abandoned after the line was converted
from broad to standard gauge in 1892. In the double-headed
rail (fig. 5), originated by Joseph Locke in 1837, and first laid
on the Grand Junction railway, the two tables were equal.
This rail was more easily rolled than others, and, being reversible,
was in fact two rails in one. But as it was laid in cast-iron chairs
the lower table was exposed to damage under the hammering
of the traffic, and thus was liable to be rendered useless as a
running surface. In consequence the bull-headed rail (fig. 6)
FIG. 5. Double-
Headed Rail.
I
FIG. 6. Bull-
Headed Rail.
was evolved, in which the lower table was made of smaller size
and was intended merely as a support, not as a surface to be
used by the wheels. There was a waste of metal in these early
rails owing to the excessive thickness of the vertical web, and
subsequent improvements have consisted in adjusting the
dimensions so as to combine strength with economy of metal,
as well as in the substitution of steel for wrought iron (after
the introduction of the Bessemer process) and in minute attention
to the composition of the steel employed.
It was found, naturally, that the rails would not rest in their
chairs at the joints, but were loosened and bruised at the ends
by the blows of the traffic. The fish-joint was therefore devised
in 1847 by W. Bridges Adams, the intention being by " fishing "
the joints to convert the rails into continuous beams. In the
original design two chairs were placed, one under each rail, a
few inches apart, as in fig. 7. The joint was thus suspended
between the two chairs, and two keys of iron, called
" fishes," fitting the side channels of the rails, were driven
in on each side between the chairs and the rails. In subse-
quent modifications the fishes were, as they continue to be,
bolted to and through the rails, the sleepers being placed
rather further apart and the joint being generally suspended
between them.
The iron tramway or railway had been known for half a
century and had come into considerable use in connexion with
collieries and quarries before it was realized that for the carriage
FIG. 7. The original Fish-Joint of W. Bridges Adams.
of general merchandise it might prove a serious competitor to
the canals, of which a large mileage had been constructed in
Great Britain during that period. In the article on "Railways"
in the Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, published in
1824, it is said: "It will appear that this species of inland
carriage [railways] is principally applicable where trade is
considerable and the length of conveyance short; and is chiefly
useful, therefore, in transporting the mineral produce of the
kingdom from the mines to the nearest land or water communica-
tion, whether sea, river or canal. Attempts have been made
to bring it into more general use, but without success; and it is
only in particular circumstances that navigation, with the aid
either of locks or inclined planes to surmount the elevations,
will not present a more convenient medium for an extended
trade." It must be remembered, however, that at this time the
railways were nearly all worked by horse-traction, and that the
use of steam had made but little progress. Richard Trevithick,
indeed, had in 1804 tried a high-pressure steam locomotive, with
smooth wheels, on a plate-way near Merthyr Tydvil, but it
was found more expensive than horses; John Blenkinsop in
1811 patented an engine with cogged wheel and rack-rail which
was used, with commercial success, to convey coal from his
Middleton colliery to Leeds; William Hedley in 1813 built two
locomotives Puffing Billy and Wylam Dilly for hauling coal
from Wylam Colliery, near Newcastle; and in the following
year George Stephenson's first engine, the Blucher, drew a train
of eight loaded wagons, weighing 30 tons, at a speed of 4 m. an
hour up a gradient of i in 450. But, in the words of the same
article, " This application of steam has not yet arrived at such
perfection as to have brought it into general use."
The steam locomotive, however, and with it the railways,
soon began to make rapid progress. On the Stockton &
Darlington railway, which was authorized by parliament in
1821, animal power was at first proposed, but on the advice
of Stephenson, its engineer, steam-engines were adopted.
This line, with three branches, was over 38 m. .in length, and
was in the first instance laid with a single track, passing-places
being provided at intervals of a quarter of a mile. At its
opening, on the 27th of September 1825, a train of thirty-
four vehicles, making a gross load of about 90 tons, was drawn
by one engine driven by Stephenson, with a signalman on horse-
back in advance. The train moved off at the rate of from 10
to 12 m. an hour, and attained a speed of 15 m. an hour on
favourable parts of the line. A train weighing 92 tons could be
drawn by one engine at the rate of 5 m. an hour. The principal
business of the new railway was the conveyance of minerals
and goods, but from the first passengers insisted upon being
carried, and on the loth of October 1825 the company began
to run a daily coach, called the " Experiment," to carry six
inside, and from fifteen to twenty outside, making the journey
from Darlington to Stockton and back in two hours. The
fare was is., and each passenger was allowed to take baggage
not exceeding 14 Ib weight. The rate for carriage of mer-
chandise was reduced from sd. to one-fifth of a penny per ton
per mile, and that of minerals from yd. to ijd. per ton per mile.
The price of coals .at Darlington fell from i8s. to 8s. 6d. a ton.
The example of the Stockton & Darlington line was fol-
lowed by the Monklands railway in Scotland, opened in 1826,
and several other small lines including the Canterbury &
INTRODUCTORY]
RAILWAYS
821
Whitstable, worked partly by fixed engines and partly by
locomotives quickly adopted steam traction. But the
Liverpool & Manchester railway, opened in 1830, first im-
pressed the national mind with the fact that a revolution in
the methods of travelling had really taken place; and further,
it was for it that the first high-speed locomotive of the modern
type was invented and constructed. The directors having
offered a prize of 500 for the best engine, trials were held on a
finished portion of the line at Rainhill in October 1829, and
three engines took part the Rocket of George and Robert
Stephenson, the Novelty of John Braithwaite and John Erics-
son, and the Sanspareil of Timothy Hackworth. The last
two of these engines broke down under trial, but the Rocket
fulfilled the conditions and won the prize. Its two steam
cylinders were 8 in. in diameter, with a stroke of i6J in., and
the driving wheels, which were placed in front under the funnel,
wrri- 4 ft. 8J in. in diameter. The engine weighed 4$ tons;
the tender following it, 3 tons 4cwt.; and the two loaded car-
riages drawn by it on the trial, 9 tons n cwt.: thus the weight
drawn was 12$ tons, and the gross total of the train 17 tons.
The boiler evaporated i8J cub. ft., or 114 gals., of water an
hour, and the steam pressure was 50 Ib per square inch. The
engine drew a train weighing 13 tons 35 m. in 48 minutes, the
rate being thus nearly 44 m. an hour; subsequently it drew an
average gross load of 40 tons behind the tender at 13-3 m. an
hour. The Rocket possessed the three elements of efficiency
of the modern locomotive the internal water-surrounded
fire-box and the multitubular flue in the boiler; the blast-pipe,
by which the steam after doing its work in the cylinders was
exhausted up the chimney, and thus served to increase the
draught and promote the rapid combustion of the fuel; and
the direct connexion of the steam cylinders, one on each side
of the engine, with the two driving wheels mounted on one
axle. Of these features, the blast-pipe had been employed by
Trevithick on his engine of 1804, and direct driving, without
intermediate gearing, had been adopted in several previous
engines; but the use of a number (25) of small tubes in place
of one or two large flues was an innovation which in conjunction
with the blast-pipe contributed greatly to the efficiency of
the engine. After the success of the Rocket, the Stephensons
received orders to build seven more engines, which were of
very similar design, though rather larger, being four-wheeled
engines, with the two driving wheels in front and the cylinders
behind; and in October 1830 they constructed a ninth engine,
the Planet, also for the Liverpool & Manchester railway,
which still more closely resembled the modern type, since the
driving wheels were placed at the fire-box end, while the two
cylinders were arranged under the smoke-box, inside the frames.
The main features of the steam locomotive were thus estab-
lished, and its subsequent development is chiefly a history
of gradual increase in size and power, and of improvements
in design, in material and in mechanical construction, tending
to increased efficiency and economy of operation.
In America the development of the locomotive dates from
almost the same time as in England. The earliest examples
used in that country, apart from a small experimental model
constructed by Peter Cooper, came from England. In 1828,
on behalf of the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company, which
had determined to build a line, 16 m. long, from Carbondale
to Honesdale, Pennsylvania, Horatio Allen ordered three
locomotives from Messrs Foster & Rastrick, of Stourbridge,
and one from George Stephenson. The latter, named the
America, was the first to be delivered, reaching New York in
January 1829, but one of the others, the Stourbridge Lion,
was actually the first practical steam locomotive to run in
America, which it did on the 9th of August 1829. The first
American-built loccmotive, the Best Friend, of Charleston,
was made at the West Point Foundry, New York, in 1830, and
was put to work on the South Carolina railroad in that year.
It had a vertical boiler, and was carried on four wheels all
coupled, the two cylinders being placed in an inclined position
and having a bore of about 6 in. with a stroke of 16 in. It
is reported to have hauled 40 or 50 passengers in 4 or 5 cars at
a speed of 16-21 m. an hour. After a few months of life it
was blown up, its attendant, annoyed by the sound of the
escaping steam, having fastened down the safety-valve. A
second engine, the West Point, also built at West Point Foundry
for the South Carolina railroad, differed from the Best Friend
in having a horizontal boiler with 6 or 8 tubes, though in
other respects it was similar. In 1831 the Baltimore & Ohio
Company offered a prize of $4000 for an American engine
weighing 3^ tons, able to draw 15 tons at 15 m. an hour on
the level: it was won by the York of Messrs Davis &
Gartner in the following year. Matthias W. Baldwin, the
founder of the famous Baldwin Locomotive Works in Phila-
delphia, built his first engine, Old Ironsides, for the
Philadelphia, Germantown & Morristown railroad; first
tried in November 1832, it was modelled on Stephenson's
Planet, and had a single pair of driving wheels at the fire-
box end and a pair of carrying wheels under the smoke-box.
His second engine, the E. L. Miller, delivered to the South
Carolina railroad in 1834, presented a feature which has re-
mained characteristic of American locomotives the front
part was supported on a four-wheeled swivelling bogie-truck,
a device, however, which had been applied to Puffing Billy
in England when it was rebuilt in 1813.
The Liverpool & Manchester line achieved a success which
surpassed the anticipations even of its promoters, and in con-
sequence numerous projects were started for the construction '
of railways in various parts of Great Britain. In the decade
following its opening nearly 2000 m. of railway were sanc-
tioned by parliament, including the beginnings of most of the
existing trunk-lines, and in 1840 the actual mileage reached
1331 m. The next decade saw the " railway mania." The
amount of capital which parliament authorized railway com-
panies to raise was about 4^ millions on the average of the two
years 1842-1843, 17! millions in 1844, 60 millions in 1845, and
132 millions in 1846, though this last sum was less than a
quarter of the capital proposed in the schemes submitted to the
Board of Trade; and the wild speculation which occurred in
railway shares in 1845 contributed largely to the financial crisis
of 1847. In 1850 the mileage was 6635, in 1860 it was 10,410,
and in 1870 it was 15,310. The increase in the decade 1860-1870
was thus nearly 50%, but subsequently the rate of increase
slackened, and the mileages in 1880, 1890 and 1900 were 17,935,
20,073 an d 21,855. I Q the United States progress was more
rapid, for, beginning at 2816 in 1840, the mileage reached 9015
in 1850, 30,600 in 1860, 87,801 in 1880, and 198,964 in 1900.
Canada had no railway till 1853, and in South America con-
struction did not begin till about the same time. France and
Austria opened their first lines in 1828; Belgium, Germany,
Russia, Italy and Holland in the succeeding decade; Switzer-
land and Denmark in 1844, Spain in 1848, Sweden in 1851,
Norway in 1853, and Portugal in 1854; while Turkey and Greece
delayed till 1860 and 1869. In Africa Egypt opened her first
line (between Alexandria and Cairo) in 1856, and Cape Colony
followed in 1860. In Asia the first line was that between
Bombay and Tannah, opened in 1853, and in Australia Victoria
began her railway system in 1854 (see also the articles on the
various countries for further details about their railways).
Transcontinental Railways. A railway line across North
America was first completed in 1869, when the Union Pacific,
building from the Missouri river at Omaha (1400 m. west of
New York), met the Central Pacific, which built from San
Francisco eastwards, making a line 1848 m. long through
a country then for the most part uninhabited. This was
followed by the Southern Pacific in 1881, from San Francisco
to New Orleans, 2489 miles; the Northern Pacific, from St
Paul to Portland, Ore., in 1883; the Atchison, Topeka &
Santa F6, from Kansas City to San Diego; and the Great
Northern from St' Paul to Seattle and New Westminster in
1893. Meanwhile the Canadian Pacific, a true transcontinental
line, was built from Montreal, on Atlantic tide-water, to the
Pacific at Vancouver, 2906 m. But these lines have been
822
RAILWAYS
[GENERAL STATISTICS
dwarfed since 1891 by the Siberian railway, built by the
Russian government entirely across the continent of Asia from
Cheliabinsk (1769 m. by rail east of St Petersburg) to Vladi-
vostok, a distance of 4073 m., with a branch from Kharbin
about 500 m. long to Dalny and Port Arthur. The main line
was finished in 1902, except for a length of about 170 m. in
very difficult country around the south end of Lake Baikal;
this was constructed in 1904, communication being maintained
in the interval by ferry-boats, which conveyed all the carriages
of a train across the lake, more than 40 m., when the ice
permitted. A transcontinental line was long ago undertaken
across South America from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso, where
the continent is only about 900 m. wide. The last section
through the Andes was finished in 1910. (H. M. R.)
GENERAL STATISTICS
Mileage. M the close of 1907 there were approximately
601,808 miles of railway in the world, excluding tramways.
On the whole, the best statistical source for this information is
the annual computation published by the Archill fur Eisenbahn-
ivesen, the official organ of the Prussian Ministry of Public
Works; but the figure quoted above utilizes the Board of Trade
returns for the United Kingdom and the report of the Inter-
state Commerce Commission for the United States. In the
United States and in certain other countries, a fiscal year,
ending on the aoth of June or at some other irregular period,
is substituted for the calendar year.
The partition of this total between the principal geographical
divisions of the world is given in Table I.
TABLE I. MILEAGE OF THE WORLD
Miles. Miles.
Europe .... 199,371 Africa .... 18,516
America .... 309,974 Australia . . . 17,766
Asia .... 56,181
Table II., classifying the mileage of Europe, show.s that Russia
has taken the lead, instead of Germany, as in former years. If
the Asiatic portions of the Russian Empire were given in the same
table, the total Russian mileage would appear nearly as large as
that of Germany and Italy together.
TABLE II. RAILWAYS OF EUROPE IN 1907
Miles. .
Portugal
Denmark
Norway
Sweden
Germany . . . 36,066
Austria-Hungary, including
Bosnia and Herzegovina 25,853
GreatBritain and Ireland 23,108
France .... 29,717
EuropeanRussia, includ-
ing Finland . . 36,280
Italy .... 10,312
Belgium .... 4,874
Holland .... 2,230
Switzerland . . . 2,763
Spain .... 9,228
Miles.
1,689
2,141
1,607
8,322
379
1,995
771
Servia
Rumania
Greece ....
European Turkey, Bul-
garia, Rumelia . 1,968
Malta, Jersey, Isle of
Man .... 68
Total . 199,371
In the United States railway mileage now tends to increase at
the rate of slightly over 5000 miles a year, which is about 2j%
on the present main line mileage. In the 'eighties, the country
passed through a period of competitive building, which was pro-
ductive of much financial disaster. Thus, in 1882, 11,569 m.
were built an addition equivalent to more than 1 1 % of mileage
then existing and in 1887, 12,876 m. were built. Unjustifiable
railway expansion had much to do with the American commercial
panics of 1884 and 1893. After the reconstruction period of the
1893 panic, however, the tendency for a number of years was to spend
larger sums in bettering existing railways rather than in new exten-
sions. The decade from 1896 until 1905, inclusive, saw huge sums
spent on yards, passing tracks, grade reduction, elimination of
curves, substitution of large locomotives and cars for small ones,
&c. During those ten years, the route mileage increased 34,991 m.,
or 17%, while the mileage of second, third, fourth and yard tracks
and sidings increased 32,666 m., or nearly 57%. The number of
locomotives increased 12,407, or 35%, and the number of freight
cars, 545,222, or 42%. Moreover, the average tractive power per
locomotive and the average capacity per freight car advanced
greatly in this period, although specific figures cannot be given.
Thus it may fairly be said that the railway system of the United
States was reconstructed between 1896 and 1905, so far as concerns
rails, sleepers, ballast and the general capacity of a given group
of lines to perform work. About 1905, however, a new tendency
became apparent. At that time the so-called transcontinental
railways, connecting the Pacific coast of the United States with the
central portions of the country, and thus with the group of railways
reaching the Atlantic seaboard, consisted of five railways within
the borders of the United States, and one in Canada. In Canada
the Canadian Pacific was the only transcontinental line, extending
from St John, on the bay of Fundy, and from Quebec, on the river
St Lawrence, to Vancouver, on the strait of Georgia, the distance
from St John to Vancouver being approximately 3379 m. Within
'the boundaries of the United States the northernmost of the trans-
continental lines was the Great Northern railway, extending from
a point opposite Vancouver, B.C., and from Seattle, Wash., to
Duluth, on Lake Superior, and to St Paul and Minneapolis, Minn.,
where connexion through to Chicago was made over an allied line,
the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, owned jointly by the Great
Northern and the Northern Pacific.
Next, south of the Great Northern, lay the Northern Pacific
railway, starting on the west from Portland, Ore., and from Seattle
and Tacoma, Wash., and extending east to Duluth, St Paul and
Minneapolis by way of Helena, Mont. The Central Pacific Union
Pacific route to the coast, with its important affiliated companies,
the Oregon Short Line and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation
Company, extended from San Francisco, Cal., and Portland, Ore.,
to Omaha, Neb., by way of Salt Lake City; the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa F6 extended from San Francisco and Los Angeles, Cal.,
to Chicago and to Galveston, Tex.; while the Southern Pacific had
its line from San Francisco and Los Angeles to Galveston and New
Orleans, running for the greater part of the distance just north of
the Mexican border.
, Thus it will be observed that the five great cities of the Pacific
coast Seattle and Tacoma, Wash., Portland, Ore., and San Francisco
and Los Angeles, Cal. -were already well supplied with railways;
but the growth of the fertile region lying west of the transcontinental
divide was most attractive to American railway builders; and
railways serving this district, almost all of them in trouble ten years
before, were showing great increases in earnings. In 1903 the
Gould lines determined to enter this Pacific territory. Hitherto
the western terminus of this group of lines had been Salt Lake City,
Utah; by the exceedingly bold construction of the Western Pacific
from Salt Lake City to Oakland, Cal., opposite San Francisco, an
additional line to the Pacific coast was provided, having low grades
and being in all respects well adapted for cheap operation.
Shortly after the plans were announced for building the Western
Pacific, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul also decided to extend
west. Before that time the St Paul had been a great local railway,
operating primarily in the Dakptas, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin
and Illinois; but by the construction of a long arm from the Missouri
river to Spokane, Seattle and Tacoma, it became a transcontinental
line of the first importance, avoiding the mistakes of earlier railway
builders by securing a line with easy gradients through the most
favourable regions.
At the same time that these two extensions were being undertaken
by old and well-established railways, a new company the Kansas
City, Mexico & Orient was engaged in constructing a line almost
due south-west from Kansas City, Mo., to the lower part of the
gulf of California in Mexico; while an additional independent
line was under construction from Denver in a north-westerly
direction towards the Pacific coast. The guarantee for this activity
may be illustrated by a single fact: the combined building opera-
tions, in 1908, of San Francisco, Seattle, Portland, Los Angeles,
Spokane and Salt Lake City exceeded th? combined building opera-
tions of Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Kansas City, Boston, Baltimore
and Cincinnati during the same year. San Francisco spent more
in new permanent structures than Philadelphia, and Seattle spent
more than Pittsburg.
Recent American railway development, viewed in its larger
aspects, has thus been characterized by what may be described
as the rediscovery of the Pacific coast. How far this movement
will extend it is impossible to say; it is certain, however, that it
will be enormously important in re-aligning trade conditions in
the United States, Canada and Mexico.
Table III. illustrates the railway mileage in the continent of
America at the close of 1907.
TABLE III. RAILWAYS OF AMERICA IN 1907
United States .
Canada
Newfoundland .
Mexico
Central America .
Greater Antilles.
Lesser Antilles .
Colombia .
Venezuela .
British Guiana .
Outside the United
American developments
Miles.
236,949
22,452
666
13,612
1,392
2,43
336
449
634
104
States an
are in Me
Dutch Guiana
Ecuador
Peru .
Bolivia
Brazil .
Paraguay .
Uruguay
Chile .
Argentina .
T
d Canada, the n
tico and Argentina
otal
lost
, thes
Miles.
37
1 86
1-332
702
10,714
157
1,210
2,939
J3-673
. 309-974
interesting
e countries
GENERAL STATISTICS]
RAILWAYS
823
having nearly the same amount of railway mileag
national government is carrying out a consistent p<
its railway lines. It has succeeded in restoring 1
enterprises, and is proceeding with care and skill
into an efficient transportation system. In Argt
of the railways are owned and operated by the
balance being in the hands of private companies,
in England. Development of these lines has r.
extension from the large cities in the East to the ag
in the West, but a change of great importance
in 1910 by the completion of the last tunnel
Transandine Railway, which serves to connect Sa
and the other great cities of the west coast wi
Montevideo, Bania, Rio de Janeiro and the other
east coast. Naturally the company named doe
these points, but its line across the Andes supplies
link of communication, in the absence of which th
and the west coast towns have hitherto been as
as if they had been located on different contir
more widely separated in point of time and of fre
Great Britain and the United States.
Table IV. shows as closely as possible the railv
open in Asia at the close of 1907.
TABLE IV. RAILWAYS OF ASIA IN
Miles.
Central Russia in Asia. 2,808 Malay States
Siberia and Man- Dutch East I r
churia . . 5,565 Siam
China . . . 4,162 Ceylon .
Korea . . . 688 Cochin China ^
Japan . . . 5,013 Cambodia
British India . 29,893 Annam
Persia . . -33 Tonkin
Asia Minor, Syria Arabia Pondicherry
and Cyprus . 2,930 Malacca
Portuguese East Indies 51 Philippines
Although more than half of the total mileage of
India, it is probable that the greatest proportio
near future will be in China, Siberia and Manch
Russia in Asia. In proportion to its populatio
least railway development of any of the great
world; the probability that its present comm
will extend seems large, and in that case it will ne
in its interior communications.
In Africa, it will be seen by Table V. that the r
the British possessions amounts to almost five-sixt
TABLE V. RAILWAYS OF AFRICA ii>
Miles.
Egypt .... 3,445 BritishProvinc
Algiers and Tunis . 3,049 South Africa
Congo States . . 399 French Provin
Abyssinia . . . 192 Italian Provinc
British South Africa . 7,028 Portuguese
German Provinces . 1,148 vinces
The so-called Cape-to-Cairo route shows occa
particularly in the opening up of new country i
by the Rhodesian railway system. The Rhodesia
in 1910 had penetrated north of Broken Hill, wh
the fifteenth parallel of south latitude, while the
system had reached Gondokoro, located close to
of north latitude. The intervening distance,
exceedingly unhealthy for white men, and theref
traffic except raw materials, does not seem a like
railway extension.
In Australia the increase in railway mileage :
ending December list, 1907 was about 7% a
as compared with America, Asia or Africa. The
both relative and absolute, was in Queensland;
South Australia, which added only 24 m. durin
Yet the mileage open per 10,000 inhabitants ir
whole, far surpasses that in any other of the br
divisions.
TABLE VI. RAILWAYS OF AUSTRALIA
Miles.
New Zealand . . . 2,571 Queensland .
Victoria. . . 5,517 Tasmania .
New South Wales . 3,471 West Australia
South Australia . . 1,924 Hawaiian Grou
e. In Mexico the
)licy of developing
he credit of these
to form the lines
ntina about 15%
government, the
largely controlled
leen primarily an
ricultural districts
as brought about
on the Argentine
ntiago, Valparaiso
th Buenos Aires,
great cities of the
i not reach all of
the indispensable
: east coast towns
widely separated
ents indeed, far
ight charges than
ray route mileage
1907
Miles.
. . 636
idies . i ,509
- 571
561
. . 1,761
Table VII. illustrates the mileage open to the end of 1907 per
100 so. m. of territory and per 10,000 inhabitants. It will be observed
that Belgium leads all the countries of the world in what may be
called its railway density, with the United Kingdom a far-distant
second in the list, and Persia last. In railway mileage per 10,000
inhabitants, however, Queensland, in the Australian group, reports
a figure much greater than any other country ; while at the other
end of the list Persia holds the record for isolation.
TABLE VII. MILES OPEN AT THE END OF 1907
Europe
Per 100 Per 10,000
sq. miles, inhabitants.
Germany . . . 17-2 6-4
Austro-Hungary 10-0 5-5
United Kingdom 19-0 5-6
France 14-2 7-6
Russia in Europe, including Finland . 1-8 3-4
{talX 9-3 3-2
Belgium . ...... 42-8 7-3
Holland 15-0 3-9
Switzerland 17-2 8-3
Spain . 4-8 5-2
Portugal . 4-7 3-1
Denmark . 14-3 8-7
Norway . 1-3 7-2
Sweden . 4-8 16-2
Servia . 2-1 1-5
Rumania . 3-2 3-4
Greece 3-1 3-2
Turkey in Europe, Bulgaria, Rumelia . 1-9 2-0
Malta, Jersey, Man . . . .16-1 1-9 .
Total . 5-3 5-1
America, 1907
Per 100 Per 10,000
sq. miles, inhabitants.
United States 6-4 26-8
Canada 0-6 42-1
Newfoundland 1-6 31-1
Mexico 1-8 9-4
Total . 56,181
Asia is in British
nate gains in the
uria, and Central
n China has the
countries of the
ercial awakening
;d a vast increase
ailway mileage in
hs of the total.
1907
Miles,
es.except
1,235
:es. . 1,246
:es. . 71
Pro-
703
Venezuela 0-16 2-6
British Guiana o-n 3-5
Ecuador 0-16 1-3
Peru 0-32 2-9
Bolivia 0-16 3-1
Brazil 0-32 7-1
Paraguay 0-16 2-5
Uruguay 1-8 13-0
Chile i-o 8-9
Argentina 1 1-3 28-0
Asia, 1907
Per 100 Per 10,000
sq. miles, inhabitants.
Central Russia in Asia . . . . 1-3 3-6
Siberia and Manchuria . . . . o-li 9-8
China o-i 0-12
Korea 0-8 0-68
Japan 3-1 i-i
Bntish India 1-4 i-o
Ceylon . . 2-3 1-6
Persia 0-005 o - 4
Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, Cyprus . 0-5 1-5
Portuguese Indies 3-5 0-9
Malay Archipelago 1-9 8-8
Dutch Indies 0-6 0-5
Siam 1 0-16 0-6
Africa, 1907
Per 100 Per 10,000
sq. miles, inhabitants.
Egypt i-o 3-5
Algiers and Tunis 0-8 4-5
Cape Colony 1-3 21-6
Natal 3-5 12-6
Transvaal i-i 15-7
Orange Colony 1-8 42-6
Complete estimates for the balance of Africa not available.
Total . 18,516
sional extensions,
n Central Africa
n railway system
ich is just above
igyptian railway
the fifth parallel
through country
are promising no
ly field for rapid
n the five years
small proportion
jreatest increase,
the smallest in
j the five years.
Australia, as a
oad geographical
IN 1907
Miles.
3-405
620
2,259
p . . 88
* No accurate returns for Central America, Greater and Lesser
Antilles and Dutch Guiana.
* Estimates of area and population incomplete for Cochin China,
Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, Pondicherry, Malacca and Philippines.
Total . 19,855
824.
RAILWAYS
[ECONOMICS AND
Australia. 1907
New Zealand
Victoria
New South Wales
South Australia
Queensland
Tasmania
West Australia
Per loo Per 10,000
sq. miles, inhabitants.
2-4
3-9
i-i
0-16
o-5
2-4
0-16
Hawaiian Group 1-3
Total . 0-6
30-9
28-5
25-4
53-o
70-2
36-0
54-8
8-1
35-9
Capital. The total construction capital invested in the railways
of the world in 1907 was estimated by the Archivfur Eisenbahnwesen
at 8,986,150,000; the figure is necessarily incomplete, though it
serves as a rough approximation. This total was divided nearly
evenly between the countries of Europe and the rest of the world.
The United States of America, with a capital of 3,059,800,000
invested in its railways on the 3Oth of June 1906, was easily ahead
of every other country, and in 1908 the figure was increased to
3,443,027,685, of which 2,636,569,089 was in the hands of the
public. On a route-mileage basis, however, the capital cost of the
British railway system is far greater than that of any other country
in the world, partly because a vast proportion of the lines are double,
treble or even quadruple, partly because the safety requirements
of the Board of Trade and the high standards of the original builders
made actual construction very costly.
The total paid-up railway capital of the United Kingdom amounted,
in 1908, to 1,310,533,212, or an average capitalization of 56,476
per route mile, though it should be noted that this total included
196,364,618 of nominal additions through " stock-splitting," &c.
Per mile of single track, the capitalization in England and Wales,
Scotland, Ireland and the United Kingdom, is shown in Table VIII.
TABLE VIII. PAID-UP CAPITAL, 1908
Route
Miles.
Single-
Track
Miles.
Paid-up
Capital.
Paid-up
Capital
per
Route
Mile.
Paid-up
Capital
per
Single-
Track
Mile.
England and
Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland
United Kingdom
15.999
3,843
3-363
23,205
29,748'
4,531'
4,037
39,316
1,080,138,674
185,345494
45,049,044
1,310,533,212
67,513
48,229
13,396
56,476
36,309'
.33,510'
11,159
33,333
The table excludes sidings, because they cannot fairly be compared
with running tracks, mile for mile. Yet the mileage of sidings in
the United Kingdom amounted to 14,353 in 1908, and the cost of
constructing them was probably not far from 60,000,000.
On a single-track-mile basis, the following comparison may be
made between apparent capital costs in Great Britain and the
United States:
Single-Track Paid-up Capital
Mileage. per Mile.
United Kingdom, 1908 . . 39>3i6 33,333
United States, 1908 . . 254,192 10,372 *
The figures for the United States are from the report of the Inter-
state Commerce Commission for the year ended 3Oth of June 1908,
and comprise mileage of first, second, third and fourth tracks, and
paid-up capital in the hands of the public only. The British figures
are from the Board of Trade returns for the calendar year 1908.
In comparing the figures, it should be noted that main line mileage
in the Eastern states, as for example that of the Pennsylvania
railroad and the New York, New Haven & Hartford, does not
differ greatly in standards of safety or in unit cost from the best
British construction, although improvement work in America is
charged to income far more liberally than it has been in England.
But there are long stretches of pine loam in the South where branch
lines can be, and are, built and equipped for 2400 or less per mile,
while the construction of new main line in the prairie region of the
West ought not to cost more than 4000 per single-track-mile,
under present conditions.
The problem of the early railway builders in the United States
was to conquer the wilderness, to build an empire, and at the same
time to bind the East to the West and the North to the South.
There can be little doubt but that the United States would long
ago have disintegrated into separate, warring republics, had they
not been bound together by railways, and standards of safety were
"These figures are derived from a total. They are not exact,
but may be taken as representing an approximation correct within
one per cent.
* Dollars to pounds sterling @ 4-87.
rightly subordinated to the main task to be accomplished. Con-
quest is not usually bloodless, whether achieved at the van of a
marching column or at the head of a hastily-built railway, and the
process under which the American railway system took form left
the way open for a distressing record of accidents to the traveller
and the railway servant. But as traffic becomes more dense, year
by year, the rebuilding process is constant, and American railway
lines are gradually becoming safer
In Europe the average route-mile capital is 27,036, and Table IX.
shows the differences between various countries.
TABLE IX. ROUTE-MILE CAPITAL IN EUROPE
Germany (1907) 22,298
France (1905) 25,285
Belgium (State railways 1906) .... 35,381
Italy (State railways 1906-7) .... 26,008
Denmark (State railways 1907-8) . . . 10,433
Norway (1907-8) 8,027
Sweden (1905) 6,647
Russia (excluding Finland; 1905) . . . 16,534
Finland (State railways 1907) .... 7,300
Statistical Study of Railway Operation. The study of railway
operation through statistics has two distinct aspects. It has
been well said that statistics furnish the means by which the
railway manager disciplines his property; this is the aspect
of control. On the other hand, the banker, the government
official and the economist use railway statistics to obtain
information which may be characterized as static rather than
dynamic. Both uses ultimately rest upon comparison of the
observed data from a certain property with the observed data
from other properties, or with predetermined standards of
performance.
In general, the British working unit supplied as public infor-
mation has always been the goods-train-mile and the passenger-
train-mile, these figures being the products of the number of
trains into the number of miles they have travelled. In America,
the basic units have been the ton-mile and the passenger-mile,
and these figures are now required to be furnished to the
Interstate Commerce Commission and to most of the state
commissions as well. Both the British manager and the
American manager, however, are supplied with a considerable
number of daily, weekly and monthly reports, varying on
different railways, which are not made public. The daily
sheets usually include a summarized statement of the per-
formance of every train on the line, covering the amount of
business done, the destination of the loads, &c. For a number
of years there has been a movement in Great Britain to require
the inclusion of ton-mile statistics in the stated returns to the
Board of Trade, but most railway managers have objected
to the change on the ground that their own confidential infor-
mation was already adequate for purposes of control, and
that ton-mile statistics would require additional clerical force
to a costly extent. The Departmental Committee of the
Board of Trade, sitting in 1909 to consider railway accounting
forms, while recommending ton-miles to the careful considera-
tion of those responsible for railway working in Great Britain,
considered the question of their necessity in British practice
to be still open, and held that, at all events, they should not be
introduced under compulsion.
REFERENCES. Annual Reports of the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission ; Poor's Manual of Railroads (annual, New York) ; Statistical
Abstract of the United States (annual, Washington, published by the
U. S. Bureau of Statistics); A. T. Hadley, Railroad Transportation,
Its History and Laws (New York, 1885); E. R. Johnson, American
Railway Transportation (New York, 1908); L. G. McPherson,
Railroad Freight Rates (New York, 1909); S. Daggett, Railroad
Reorganization (Boston, 1908); M. L. Byers, Economics of Railway
Operation (New York, 1908) ; E. R. Dewsnup (ed.), Railway Organiza-
tion and Working (Chicago, 1906) ; Interstate Commerce Commission;
Rate Regulation Hearings before the U.S. Senate Committee (Washing-
ton, 5 vols., 1905); and on cunent matters, The Official Railway
Guide (monthly, New York), the Railroad Age Gazette (weekly, New
York) and the Commercial and Financial Chronicle (weekly, New
York). (R. Mo.)
ECONOMICS AND LEGISLATION
It was at one time an axiom of law and of political economy
that prices should be determined by free competition. But in
the development of the railway business it soon became evident
LEGISLATION]
RAILWAYS
825
that no such dependence on free competition was possible,
either in practice or in theory. This difficulty is not peculiar
to railways; but it was in the history of railway economy
and railway control that certain characteristics which are
now manifesting themselves in all directions where large
investments of fixed capital are involved were first brought
prominently to public notice.
For a large number of those who use a railway, competition
in its more obvious forms does not and cannot exist. Inde-
pendent carriers cannot run trains over the same line and
underbid one another in offering transportation services. It
would be practically impossible for a line thus used by different
carriers to be operated either with safety, or with economy, or
with the advantage to the public which a centralized manage-
ment affords. It is equally impossible for the majority of
shippers to enjoy the competition of parallel lines. Such duplica-
tion of railways involves a waste of capital. If parallel lines
compete at all points, they cause ruin to the investors. If
they compete at some points and not at others, they produce
a discrimination or preference with regard to rates and facilities,
which builds up the competitive points at the expense of the
non-competitive ones. Such partial competition, with the
discrimination it, involves, is liable to be worse for the public
than no competition at all. It increases the tendency, already
too strong, towards concentration of industrial life in large
towns. It produces an uncertainty with regard to rates which
prevents stability of prices, and is apt to promote the interests
of the unscrupulous speculator at the expense of those whose
business methods are more conservative. So marked are these
evils that such partial competition is avoided by agreements
between the competing lines with regard to rates, and by divisions
of traffic, or pools, which shall take away the temptation to
violate such rate agreements. The common law has been
somewhat unfavourable to the enforcement of such agreements,
and statutes in the United States, both local and national, have
attempted to prohibit them; but the public advantage from
their existence has been so great as to render their legal dis-
abilities inoperative. In those parts of the continent of Europe
where railways are owned and administered by state authority,
the necessity for such agreements is frankly admitted.
But if rates are to be fixed by agreement, and not by com-
petition, what principle can be recognized as a legitimate basis
of railway rate-making? The first efforts at railway legis-
lation were governed by the equal mileage principle; that is,
the attempt was made to make rates proportionate to the
distance. It was, however, soon seen that this was inadmissible.
So much of the expense of the handling, both of freight and of
passengers, was independent of the length of the journey that
a mileage rate sufficiently large for short distances was un-
necessarily burdensome for long ones, and was bound to destroy
long-distance traffic, if the theory were consistently applied.
The system has been retained in large measure in passenger
business, but only because of the conflict which inevitably
occurs between the authorities and the passengers with regard
to the privilege of breaking and resuming a journey when
passenger rates are arranged on any other plan. In freight
schedules it has been completely abandoned.
A somewhat better theory of rate regulation was then framed,
which divided railway expenditures into movement expense,
connected with the line in general, and terminal expense,
which connected itself with the stations and station service.
Under this system each consignment of freight is compelled to
pay its share of the terminal expense, independently of distance,
plus a mileage charge proportionate to the length of the journey
or haul. There has been also a further attempt in England
to divide terminal charges into station and service terminals,
according to the nature of the work for which compensation is
sought. But none of these classifications of expense reaches
the root of the matter. A system of charges which compels
each piece of traffic to pay its share of the charges for track and
for stations overlooks the fundamental fact that a very large
part of the expenses of a railway more than half is not
connected either with the cost of moving traffic or of handling
traffic at stations, but with the cost of maintaining the property
as a whole. Of this character are the expenditures necessary
for maintenance of way, for general administration and for
interest on capital borrowed, which are almost independent
of the total amount of business done, and quite independent of
any individual piece of business. To say that all traffic must bear
its share of these interest and maintenance charges is to impose
upon the railways a rate which would cut off much of the long-
distance traffic, and much of the traffic in cheap articles, which
is of great value to the public, and which, from its very magni-
tude, is a thing that railways could not afford to lose. It is also
a fact that with each recurring decade these general expenses
(also called indirect, undistributed or fixed charges) have an
increased importance as compared with the particular (direct,
distributed or operating) expense attaching naturally to the
particular portions of the traffic. For with increased density
of population it becomes profitable to make improvements on
the original location, even though this may involve increased
charges for interest and for some parts of its maintenance, for
the sake of securing that economy of operation, through larger
train-loads, which such an improved location makes possible.
Whatever the ostensible form of a railway tariff, the con-
tribution of the different shipments of freight to these general
expenses is determined on the principle of charging what the
traffic will bear. Under this principle, rates are reduced where
the increase of business which follows such reduction makes the
change a profitable one. They are kept relatively high in those
cases where the expansion of business which follows a reduction
is small, and where such a change is therefore unprofitable.
This theory of charging what the traffic will bear is an un-
popular one, because it has been misapplied by railway managers
and made an excuse for charging what the traffic will not bear.
Rightly applied, however, it is the only sound economic principle.
It means taxation according to ability that ability being
determined by actual experiment.
In the practical carrying out of this principle, railways divide all
articles of freight into classes, the highest of which are charged
two or three, or even four times the rates of the lowest. This
classification is based partly upon special conditions of service,
which make some articles more economical to carry than others
(with particular reference to the question whether the goods
are offered to the companies in car-loads or in small parcels),
but chiefly with regard to the commercial value of the article,
and its consequent ability to bear a high charge or a low one.
For each of these classes a rate-sheet gives the actual rate-
charge per unit of weight between the various stations covered
by the tariff. This rate increases as the distance increases,
but not in equal proportion; while the rates from large trade
centres to other trade centres at a great distance are not higher
than those to intermediate points somewhat less remote; if
the law permits, there is a tendency to make them actually
a little lower. Besides the system of charges thus prescribed
in the classification and rate-sheet, each tariff provides for a
certain number of special rates or charges made for particular
lines of trade in certain localities, independently of their relation
to the general system. If these special rates are published in
the tariff, and are offered to all persons alike, provided they
can fulfil the conditions imposed by the company, they are
known as commodity rates, and are apparently a necessity
in any scheme of railway charges. If, however, they are not
published, and are given to certain persons as individual favours,
they become a prolific source of abuse, and are quite indefensible
from the standpoint of political economy.
While the superficial appearance of the railway tariff is
different for different countries, and sometimes for different
parts of the same country, the general principles laid down
are followed in rate-making by all well-managed lines, whether
state or private. It is a mistake to suppose that the question
of public or private ownership will make any considerable
difference in the system of rate-making adopted by a good
railway. A state system will be compelled, by the exigencies
826
RAILWAYS
[BRITISH LEGISLATION
of the public treasury, to arrange its rates to pay interest on its
securities; a private company will generally be prevented, by
the indirect competition of railways in other parts of the country
which it serves, from doing very much more than this. The
relative merit of the two systems depends upon the question
how we can secure the best efficiency and equity in the applica-
tion of the principles thus far laid down. There are three
different systems of control:
1. Private operation, subject only to judicial regulation, was
exemplified most fully in the early railway history of the United
States. Until 1870 railway companies were almost free from
special acts of control; and, in general, any company that
could raise or borrow the capital was allowed to build a railway
wherever it saw fit. In the United Kingdom there was almost
as much immunity from legislative interference with charges,
but the companies were compelled to secure special charters,
and to conform to regulations made by the Board of Trade in
the interests of public safety. The advantage of this relatively
free system of railway building and management is that it
secures efficient and progressive methods. Most of the im-
provements in operation and in traffic management have had
their origin in one of these two countries. The disadvantage
attendant upon this system is that the courts are reluctant to
exercise the right of regulation, except on old and traditional
lines, and that in the face of new business methods the public
may be inadequately protected. There is also this further
disadvantage, that in the gradual progress of consolidation
railway companies take upon themselves the aspect of large
monopolies, of whose apparently unrestricted power the public
is jealous. As a result of these difficulties there has been, both
in the United Kingdom and in the United States, a progressive
increase of legislative interference with railways. In the former
the Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1854 specially prohibited
preferences, either in facilities or in rates. The Regulation of
Railways Act of 1873 provided for a Railway Commission,
which should be so constituted as to take cognizance of cases
on the investigation of which the courts were reluctant to enter.
Finally, the legislation of 1888 put into the hands of a reorganized
Railway Commission and of the Board of Trade powers none
the less important in principle because their action has been
less in its practical effect than the advocates of active control
demanded. In the United States the years from 1870 to 1875
witnessed sweeping and generally ill-considered legislation
(" Granger " Acts) concerning railway charges throughout
the Mississippi valley; while the years from 1884 to 1887 were
marked by more conservative, and for that reason more en-
forceable, acts, which culminated in the Interstate Commerce
Act, prohibiting personal discrimination and gradually restrict-
ing discrimination between places, and providing for a National
Commission of very considerable power not to speak of the
pooling clause, which was extraneous to the general purpose
of the act, and has tended to defeat rather than strengthen its
operation.
2. Operation by private companies, under specific provisions
of the government authorities with regard to the method of its
exercise, has been the policy consistently carried out in France,
and less systematically and consistently in other countries
under the domination of the Latin race. It was believed by its
advocates that this system of prescribing the conditions of
construction and operation of lines could promote public safety,
prevent waste of capital and secure passengers and shippers
against extortionate rates. These expectations have been only
partially fulfilled. Well trained as was the civil service of
France, the effect of this supervision in deadening activity
was sometimes more marked than in its effect in preventing
abuse. Moreover, such a system of regulation almost necessarily
carries with it a guarantee of monopoly to the various com-
panies concerned, and not infrequently large gifts in the form
of subsidies, for without such aid private capital will not sub-
mit to the special burdens involved. These rights, whether of
monopoly or of subsidy, form a means of abuse in many direc-
tions. Where the government is bad, they are a fruitful
source of corruption; even where it is good, they enable the
companies to drive hard bargains with the public, and prevent
the expected benefits of official control from being realized.
3. State operation and ownership is a system which originated
in Belgium at the beginning of railway enterprise, and has been
consistently carried out by the Scandinavian countries and by
Hungary. Since 1860 it has been the policy of Australia.
It has generally come to be that of Germany and, so far as the
finances of the countries allow, of Austria and Russia; British
India also affords not a few examples of the same method. The
theory of state ownership is excellent. So large a part of
the railway charge is of the nature of a tax, that there seem to
be a priori reasons for leaving the taxing powers in the hands of
the agents of the government. In practice its operation is far
more uncertain. Whether the intelligence and efficiency of the
officials charged by the state with the handling of its railway
system will be sufficient to make them act in the interest of the
public as fully as do the managers of private corporations, is a
question whose answer can only be determined by actual
experience in each case. If they fail to have these qualities,
the complete monopoly which a government enjoys, and the
powers of borrowing which are furnished by the use of the public
credit, increase instead of diminishing the danger of arbitrary
action, unprogressiveness and waste of capital. Even in
matters like public safety it is by no means certain that govern-
ment authorities will do so well as private ones. The question
is one which practical railway men have long since ceased to
argue on general principles; they recognize that the answer
depends upon the respective degree of talent and integrity
which characterize the business community on the one hand and
the government officials on the other.
AUTHORITIES. On economics of construction and of operation,
see Wellington, The Economic Theory of Railway Location (sth ed.,
New York, 1896). On principles governing railway rates in general,
and specifically in England, see Acworth, The Railways and the
Traders (London, 1891). On comparative railway legislation and
the principles governing it, see Hadley, Railroad Transportation;
its History and its Laws (New York, 1885). On the history of railway
legislation in England, see Cohn, Untersuchungen iiber die Englische
Eisenbahnpolitik (Leipzig, 1874-83). On practice concerning rates
in continental Europe, see Ulrich, Das Eisenbahnlarifwesen (Berlin,
1886). (Since this was published, continental passenger rates have
fallen. The French translation Paris, 1898 gives Russian tariffs.)
On the question of " nationalization " (i.e. state ownership and
operation), see an article by Edgar Crammond in the Quarterly
Review (London) for October 1909, which cites, among other works
on the subject, Clement Edwards's Railway Nationalization (1898);
Edwin A. Pratt's Railway Nationalization (1908), and E. A. Da vis's
Nationalization of Railways (1908). (A. T. H.)
BRITISH RAILWAY LEGISLATION
The first thing a railway company in Great Britain has to do is
to obtain a special or private act of parliament authorizing the
construction of the line. Not that the mere laying or
working of a railway requires parliamentary sanction,
so long as the work does not interfere with other
people's rights and interests. An example of a railway built
without any legislative authority is the little mountain railway
from Llanberis to the summit of Snowdon, which was made by
the owner of the land through which it passes. Such a railway
has no statutory rights and no special obligations, and the
owner of it is liable to be sued for creating a nuisance if the work-
ing of the line interferes with the comfort of those residing in the
neighbourhood. When, however, a company desires to construct
a line on a commercial scale, to acquire land compulsorily, to
divert rivers and streams, to cross roads either on the level or
by means of bridges, to pass near houses, to build tunnels or
viaducts, and to execute all the other works incidental to a
railway, and to work the line when completed without inter-
ference, it is essential that the authority of parliament should
be obtained. The company therefore promotes a bill, which
is considered first by select committees of the two houses of
parliament, and afterwards by the two houses themselves,
during which period it faces the opposition, if any, of rival
concerns, of local authorities and of hostile landowners. If
this is successfully overcome, and the proposals meet with the
:
BRITISH LEGISLATION]
RAILWAYS
827
approval of parliament, the bill is passed and, after securing
the Royal Assent, becomes an act of parliament. The company
is then free to proceed with the work of construction, and
at once becomes subject to various general acts, such as the
Companies Clauses Act, which affects all joint-stock companies
incorporated by any special act; the Land Clauses Act, which
has reference to all companies having powers to acquire land
compulsorily; the Railway Clauses Act, which imposes certain
conditions on all railways alike (except light railways); the
various Regulation of Railways Acts; the Carriers Protection
Act; acts for the conveyance of mails, parcels, troops; acts
relating to telegraphs, to the conveyance of workmen and to
the housing of the labouring classes; and several others which
it is unnecessary to specify. From the early days of railways
parliament has also been careful to provide for the safety of the
public by inserting in the general or special acts definite con-
ditions, and by laying upon the Board of Trade the duty of
protecting the public using a railway.
The first act which has reference to the safety of passengers
is the Regulation of Railways Act of 1842, which obliges every
railway company to give notice to the Board of Trade
of its intention to open the railway for passenger
traffic, and places upon that public department the
duty of inspecting the line before the opening of it takes place.
If the officer appointed by the Board of Trade should, after
inspection of the railway, report to the department that in his
opinion " the opening of the same would be attended with
danger to the public using the same, by reason of the incomplete-
ness of the works or permanent way, or the insufficiency of the
establishment for working such railway," it is lawful for the
department to direct the company to postpone the opening of
the line for any period not exceeding one month at a time, the
process being repeated from month to month as often as may be
necessary. The company is liable to a fine of twenty pounds a
day if it should open the line in contravention of such order or
direction. The inspections made by the officers of the Board
of Trade under this act are very complete: the permanent
way, bridges, viaducts, tunnels and other works are carefully
examined; all iron or steel girders are tested; stations, including
platforms, stairways, waiting-rooms, &c., are inspected; and
the signalling and " interlocking " are thoroughly overhauled.
A code of requirements in regard to the opening of new railways
has been drawn up by the department for the guidance of railway
companies, and as the special circumstances of each line are
considered on their merits, it rarely happens that the depart-
ment finds it necessary to prohibit the opening of a new railway.
The Regulation of Railways Act of 1871 extends the provisions
of the above act to the opening of " any additional line of
railway, deviation line, station, junction or crossing on the
level " which forms a portion of or is connected with a passenger
railway, and which has been constructed subsequently to the
inspection of it. This act further defines the duties and powers
of the inspectors of the Board of Trade, and also authorizes the
Board to dispense with the notice which the previous act
requires to be given prior to the opening of a railway.
It may be remarked that neither of these acts confers on the
Board of Trade any power to inspect a railway after it has once
been opened, unless and until some addition or alteration, such
as is defined in the last-named act, has been made. When a line
has once been inspected and passed, it lies with the company to
maintain it in accordance with the standard of efficiency it
originally possessed, but no express statutory obligation to do
so is imposed upon the company, and whether it does so or not,
the Board of Trade cannot interfere.
The act of 1871 further renders it obligatory upon every
railway company to send notice to the Board of Trade in the
inquiries case of (i) any accident attended with loss of life or
intoAcci- personal injury to any person whatsoever; (2) any
collision where one of the trains is a passenger train;
(3) any passenger train or part of such train leaving the rails;
(4) any other accident likely to have caused loss of life or
personal injury, and specified on that ground by any order
made from time to time by the Board of Trade. The depart-
ment is authorized, on receipt of such report, to direct an inquiry
to be made into the cause of any accident so reported, and the
inspector appointed to make the inquiry is given power to enter
any railway premises for the purposes of his inquiry, and to
summon any person engaged upon the railway to attend the
inquiry as a witness, and to require the production of all books,
papers and documents which he considers important for the
purpose. The inspector, after making his investigation, is re-
quired to make a report to the Board of Trade as to the causes
of the accident and the circumstances attending the same, with
any observations on the subject which he deems right, and the
Board " shall cause every such report to be made public in such
manner as they think expedient." The usual mode of publish-
ing such reports is to forward them to railway companies con-
cerned, as well as to the press, and on application to any one
else who is interested. The reports are subsequently included
in a Blue-book and presented to parliament. It should be noted
that although the inspecting officer may in his report make any
recommendations that he may think fit with a view to guarding
against any similar accident occurring in the future, no power
is given to the Board of Trade, or to any other authority, to
compel any railway company to adopt such recommendations.
This omission is sometimes held to be an error, but as a fact it is
an advantage. The moral effect of the report, with the criticisms
of the company's methods and recommendations appended
thereto, is great, and it rarely happens that a company refuses to
adopt, or at any rate to test, the recommendations so made. If,
on the other hand, the company is of opinion that the suggestions
of the inspecting officer are not likely to prove beneficial, or are
for any reason unadvisable, it is at liberty to reject them, the
responsibility of doing so resting entirely upon itself. The
effect of this latitude is to give the company ample discretion
in the matter, and to enable the act to be administered and
the object of it to be attained without undue interference.
In 1889 a very important act was passed placing upon the
Board of Trade the obligation to call upon railway companies
throughout the United Kingdom (i) to adopt upon Workla
all passenger lines the " block " system of working;
(2) to " interlock " their points and signals; (3) to fit all trains
carrying passengers with some form of automatic continuous
brake. Prior to this some companies had, to a certain extent,
done these things, but few, if any, were completely equipped in
these respects. A reasonable period was afforded them, accord-
ing to circumstances, to comply with these requirements, and
at the present time the work is practically complete. In this
respect the lines of the United Kingdom are far ahead of those
of any other country, and a diminution of accidents, particularly
of collisions, has resulted therefrom. America is now following
the lead thus set, and all the most important lines in the United
States have adopted block working and interlocking, but a great
deal still remains to be done. In certain respects, on the other
hand, America has gone further than the United Kingdom,
especially in the matter of automatic signalling, and in the
operating of points and signals by electrical power or air-pressure
instead of manual labour. In America, also, freight trains are
fitted with an automatic continuous brake, whereas in the
United Kingdom this appliance is required by law only in the
case of passenger trains, and in fact is not fitted to goods and
mineral trains except in a few isolated instances.
The above-named acts enable the Board of Trade to take all
the necessary steps to ensure that the safety of passenger trains
is sufficiently guarded. More recently legislation has
been passed to safeguard the lives and interests of
railway servants. In 1893 an act was passed by
parliament giving the Board power to interfere if or when
representations are made to them by or on behalf of any servant
or class of servants of a railway company that the hours of
work are unduly long, or do not provide sufficient intervals
of uninterrupted rest between the periods of duty, or sufficient
relief in respect of Sunday duty. In such cases the company
concerned may, after inquiry, be called upon to submit such a
828
RAILWAYS
[AMERICAN LEGISLATION
schedule of the hours during which the man or men are em-
ployed as will bring those hours within limits which appear to
the department reasonable. In the event of the company
failing to comply with the demands of the department, the
latter is empowered to refer the case to the Railway and Canal
Commissioners, who form a special Court constituted by the
Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1888, for deciding, among
other things, questions relating to rates and charges, for pro-
tecting traders from undue charges and undue preference,
for regulating questions of traffic, and for deciding certain
disputes between railway companies and the public. The Com-
missioners are then empowered to deal with the matter, and if
" a railway company fail to comply with any order made by the
Railway and Canal Commissioners, or to enforce the provisions
of any schedule " approved by them, it is liable to a fine of a
hundred pounds for every day during which the default con-
tinues. This act has been the means of effecting a considerable
reduction in the hours worked by railway men on certain rail-
ways, and no case has yet arisen in which a reference to the
Commissioners has been necessary. Such modifications of the
hours of work have not only been beneficial to the men, but
have improved the discipline of the staff and the punctuality
and regularity of the train service, particularly in respect of the
goods trains.
The Notice of Accidents Act of 1884, which obliges employers
of labour to report to the Board of Trade, when " there occurs in
any employment " as defined by the schedule of the act, " any
accident which causes to any person employed therein, either loss
of life or such bodily injury as to prevent him on any one of
the three working days next after the occurrence of the accident
from being employed for five hours on his ordinary work," affects
railways in course of construction, but not, as a rule, otherwise.
Although the administration of the above-mentioned acts of
parliament has had a beneficial effect upon the safety of the
public, and has enabled an enormous volume of traffic
Servants. to ^ e handled with celerity, punctuality and absence
of risk, it has during recent years come to notice that
the number of casualties among railway servants is still unduly
great, and in 1899 a Royal Commission was appointed to in-
vestigate the causes of the numerous accidents, fatal and non-
fatal, to railway men. As a consequence of the report of this
Commission the Railway Employment (Prevention of Accidents)
Act of 1900 was passed, putting upon the Board of Trade the
duty of making " such rules as they think fit with respect to any
of the subjects mentioned in the schedule to this act, with the
object of reducing or removing the dangers and risks incidental
to railway service." Rules may also be made in respect to other
matters besides those mentioned in the schedule, and companies
may be called upon to adopt or reject, as the case may be, any
appliance, the use or disuse of which may be considered desirable
in the interest of the men. Before, however, the rules so made
become binding upon the companies, the latter have the right
of appealing against them to the Railway Commissioners.
Failure to comply with any of the rules renders a company
" liable for each offence, on conviction under the Summary
Jurisdiction Acts, to a fine not exceeding fifty pounds, or in the
case of a continuing offence to a fine not exceeding ten pounds
for every day during which the offence continues after con-
viction." Rules drafted by the Board of Trade under this act
came into force on the 8th of August 1902, the subjects referred
to being (i) labelling of wagons; (2) movements of wagons by
propping and tow-roping; (3) power-brakes on engines;
(4) lighting of stations and sidings; (5) protection of points,
rods, &c.; (6) construction and protection of gauge-glasses;
(7) arrangement of tool-boxes, &c., on engines; (8) provision
of brake-vans for trains upon running lines beyond the limits of
stations; (9) protection to permanent-way men when relaying
or repairing permanent way. The final settlement of a rule
requiring brake-levers to be fitted on both sides of goods-wagons
was, however, deferred, owing to objections raised by certain of
the railway companies.
Other acts which are of importance in connexion with
accidents are the Accidents Compensation Act of 1846, the
Employers' Liability Act of 1880, and the Workmen's Com-
pensation Act of 1897.
The public acts of parliament referring to British railways are
collected in Bigg's General Railway A els. (H. A. Y.)
AMERICAN RAILWAY LEGISLATION
Before 1870. The earliest legislation is contained in charters
granted by special act, for the construction of railways. These
special acts gradually gave way to general statutes under
which railway corporations could be created without application
to the legislature. In the east, where, as a rule, charters had
been uniform and consistent, the change to general incorpora-
tion law was due to a desire to render incorporations speedier
and less expensive. In the west, general laws came rather as
a result of the abuses of special legislation. By 1850, general
incorporation laws were found in nearly all the eastern states,
and by 1870 in those of the west.
Early legislation was confined almost entirely to matters
of construction. In cases where statutes did touch the question
of regulation, they had to do with the operation of trains and
with the provision of facilities for shippers and passengers,
rather than with questions of rates. It was natural that
this should be so, for the new transportation agency was so
much more efficient than anything previously available that
the people were eager to take advantage of its superior service.
As a rule, the making of rates was left to the corporations.
If the maximum rates were prescribed, as they sometimes
were, the limit was placed so high as to be of no practical value
for control. Such crude attempts as were made to prevent
rates from being excessive concerned themselves with profits,
and were designed to confiscate for the state treasury any
earnings beyond a certain prescribed dividend. Publicity of
rates was not generally required, and provisions against dis-
crimination were rare. In the period before 1850 there was
but little realization of the public nature of the railway industry
and of the possibilities of injury to the public if railway cor-
porations were left uncontrolled.
In regions where capital was lacking eagerness for railway
facilities led the people to demand the direct co-operation of
the state, and many projects, most of which ended in disaster,
were undertaken either by the state itself or through the aid
of the state's credit. For example, Michigan, in 1837, in the
first session of its state legislature, made plans for the con-
struction of 557 miles of railway under the direct control of the
state, and the governor was authorized to issue bonds for the
purpose. The unfortunate results of this policy led many of the
states, from about 1850, to put constitutional limitations upon
the power of their legislatures to lend the state's credit or to in-
volve the state as stockholder in the affairs of any corporation.
As railway building increased in response to traffic needs,
and as the consolidation of short lines into continuous systems
proceeded, legislation applicable to railways became somewhat
broader in scope and more intelligent. About 1850 there
began to appear on the statute books laws requiring publicity
of rates and the submission of annual reports to the legislature,
prescribing limits to corporate indebtedness, and also making
provision for safety in operation and for the character and
quality of railway service. Consolidation and leasing were
commonly permitted in the case of continuous lines, but were
regularly prohibited in the case of parallel and competing lines.
The practice of pooling seems not to have attracted the attention
of the legislature. In general it may be asserted that legis-
lation of this period was ill-considered, haphazard, and on a
petty scale. Moreover, it was of little practical importance
even within its narrow range, for it does not appear to have
been generally enforced.
1870-1900. Railway legislation first assumed importance
in connection with the " Granger Movement " in the middle
west. There the policy of subsidies for railway building
had been carried to a reckless extreme. Roads had been
constructed in advance of settlement, and land-seekers had been
AMERICAN LEGISLATION]
RAILWAYS
829
transported to these frontier sections only to become dependent
upon the railways for their very existence. To the unusual
temptations thus offered for favouritism and discriminations
in rates, the railways generally yielded. This preferential
and discriminating policy, combined with other causes which
cannot here be discussed, resulted in the Granger legislation
of the 'seventies. In the first instance laws were enacted pre-
scribing schedules of maximum freight and passenger rates
with stringent penalties against rebates and discriminations.
These measures proving unsatisfactory, they were soon super-
seded by statutes creating railway commissions with varied
powers of regulation. The commission method of control was
not a new one. Such bodies, established to appraise land for
railway purposes, to apportion receipts and expenditures of
interstate traffic, and in a general way to supervise railway
transportation, had been in existence in New England before
1860, one of the earliest being that of Rhode Island in 1839.
In 1869 Massachusetts had instituted a commission of more
modern type, which was given only powers of investigation
and recommendation, the force of public opinion being relied
upon to make its orders effective. Western commissions,
the offspring of the Granger movement, were of a more vigorous
type. Most of them had power to impose schedules of maximum
rates; practically all of them had authority to prescribe rates
upon complaint of shippers; and they could all seek the aid
of the courts to enforce their decrees. Their power to initiate
rates, conferred upon them by their legislatures, was sustained
by the Supreme Court of the United States, the Court reserving
to itself only the power to decide whether the prescribed rates
were reasonable.
But the jurisdiction of the state commissions was, by judicial
interpretation, limited to commerce beginning and ending within
the limits of the single state. The most important part of
railway transportation, that which was interstate in character,
was left untouched. It was this impotence of the state com-
mission that furnished the strongest incentive to Congressional
action. The result was the passage, in 1887, of the Interstate
Commerce Act, which was directed towards the extirpation of
illegal and unjust practices in commerce among the states. Its
primary purpose was to embody in statutory form the common-
law principle of equal treatment under like circumstances, and
to provide machinery for enforcement. It aimed at the
prohibition of discrimination between persons, places and
commodities. It made provision for publicity of rates and for
due notice of any change in rates; it forbade pooling of freight
or earnings, and required annual reports from the carriers. For
its enforcement, it created an Interstate Commerce Commission
of five members, with powers of investigation, and with authority
to issue remedial orders upon complaint and after hearing.
Findings of the Commission were to be prima facie evidence in
any court proceeding for the enforcement of its orders.
In this connexion, reference should be made to the Anti-Trust
Act of 1890, which, by its judicial interpretation, has been held to
include railways and to forbid rate agreements between com-
peting carriers.
The act of 1887 remained in force without substantial amend-
ment until 1906, although with constantly diminishing prestige,
a result largely due to adverse decisions concerning the powers of
the Commission. Ten years after the passage of the law, the
court decided that the Commission had no power to prescribe
a rate, and that its jurisdiction over rates was confined to a
determination of the question whether the rate complained of
was unreasonable. The Commission had much difficulty at the
beginning in securing the testimony of witnesses, who invoked
the Constitution of the United States as a bar against self-
incrimination, and the immunity clause of the act had to be
amended before testimony could be obtained. The so-called
" long-and-short-haul clause," which forbade a greater charge
for a long than for a short haul over the same line, if circum-
stances were substantially similar, was also robbed of all its
vitality by court decision. The section requiring annual reports,
while it led to the creation of a Bureau of Statistics, did not give
the Commission power to compel complete or satisfactory answers
to its requests for information. The only element of real
strength that the statute acquired during the first twenty years
of its history came from the Elkins Act of 1903, which stipulated
that the published rate should be the legal rate, and declared
any departure from the published rate to be a misdemeanour.
It held shipper as well as carrier, and corporation as well as its
officer or agent, liable for violations of the act, and conferred upon
United States courts power to employ equity processes in putting
an end to discrimination. Conviction for granting rebates was
by this law made easier and more effective.
Since igoo. The movement in favour of more vigorous
railway regulation became pronounced after 1900. Twenty
years of experience and observation had revealed the defects
of the earlier legislation, and had concentrated public atten-
tion more intelligently than ever before upon the problem of
strengthening the weak spots. The state commissions, since
their establishment in the 'seventies and the 'eighties, had
increased their functions and influence. Many of them,
beginning only with powers of recommendation, had obtained a
large extension of authority. By 1908, thirty-five of the forty
state commissions were of the mandatory type, and thirteen of
these had been created since 1904. They had been given power
to require complete annual reports from carriers, with a conse-
quent great increase in public knowledge concerning railway
operation and practice. The most recent type of state com-
mission is the so-called Public Utility Commission, of which the
best examples are those of New York and Wisconsin, established
in 1907. In both states, the Commissions have power over
electric railways and local public utilities furnishing heat, light
and power, as well as over steam railway transportation, and the
Wisconsin Commission also has control over telephone companies.
In both states the consent of the Commission is necessary for the
issue of corporate securities.
Mention should be made of the mass of general legislation
passed, principally by western states, since 1905, in response
to a popular demand for lower rates. This demand has in many
instances led to ill-considered legislation, has frequently ignored
the prerogatives and even the existence of the state commissions,
and has brought about the passage by state legislatures of maxi-
mum freight and passenger rate laws, with rates so low in many
cases that they have been set aside by the courts as unconstitu-
tional. The numerous laws limiting the fare for passengers to
two cents per mile are an illustration of this tendency.
In the field of federal legislation, no significant change took
place until the passage of the Hepburn Act of 1906, which was an
amendment of the act of 1887. While failing to correct all the
defects in the original statute, the amended law was a decided
step in the direction of efficient regulation. It increased the
jurisdiction of the Commission by placing under the act express
companies, sleeping-car companies and pipe lines for the
transportation of oil. It extended the meaning of the term
" railroad " to include switches, spurs and terminal facilities,
and the term " transportation " to include private cars, and all
collateral services, such as refrigeration, elevation and storage.
The Elkins Act of 1903 was incorporated in the statute, ,and an
imprisonment penalty was added to the existing fine. It
forbade the granting of passes except to certain specified classes,
a provision entirely .absent from the original measure. It
expressly conferred upon the Commission the power to prescribe
maximum rates, upon complaint and after hearing, as well as
to make joint rates, and to establish through rates when the
carriers had themselves refused to do so. It enacted that
published rates should not be changed except on thirty days'
notice, whether the change involved an increase or a decrease,
and it required annual reports to be made under oath, penalties
being prescribed for failure to comply with the Commission's
requests for information. Power was also given to prescribe
uniform systems of accounts for all classes of carriers, and to
employ special examiners to inspect the books and accounts.
Carriers were forbidden to keep any accounts, records or
memoranda other than those approved by the Commission.
8 3 o
RAILWAYS
[ACCIDENT STATISTIC
Orders of the Commission became effective within such time, not
less than thirty days, as the Commission should prescribe, and
penalties began to take effect from the date fixed by the Com-
mission, unless the carrier secured an injunction from the Court
suspending the order. Such injunction might not issue except
after hearing, of which five days' notice must be given. Decisions
of the Commission were not reviewable by the Court unless the
Commission had exceeded its authority, or had issued an uncon-
stitutional order.
A new and important act was signed by the President on
the i8th of June 1910. It created a Commerce Court (com-
posed of five judges nominated by the president of the
United States from the Federal circuit judges), transferred to
it jurisdiction in cases instituted to enforce or set aside orders
of the Inter-State Commerce Commission, and made the United
States instead of the Commission a party in all such actions.
The law forbids a railway or any other common carrier to
charge more for a short haul than for a long haul over the
same line, unless, in special cases, it is authorized to do so by
the Commission. It forbids a railway which has reduced its
rates while in competition with a water route to raise them
again when the competition has ceased, unless the Commission
permits it to do so because of other changed conditions. It
extends the initiative of the Commission from the investigation
of complaints to the investigation of rates on its own motion;
authorizes it to suspend rates in advance of their going into
effect, pending an investigation which may be continued for ten
months, and to establish through routes; and provides for a
special commission, appointed by the President, to investigate
questions pertaining to the issuance of railway securities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See A. T. Hadley, Railroad Transportation (New
York, 1885); B. H. Meyer, Railway Legislation in the United Stales
(New York, 1903); F. A. Cleveland and F. W. Powell, Railroad
Promotion and Capitalization in the United States (New York, 1909) ;
L. H. Haney, A Congressional History of Railways (2 vols., Madison,
Wis., 1908 and 1910) ; Elkins Committee Report (1905) ; F. H. Dixon,
" The Interstate Commerce Act as Amended," Quarterly Journal of
Economics, xxi. 22 (Nov. 1906); F. H. Dixon, " Recent Railroad
Commission Legislation," Political Science Quarterly, xx. 612 (Dec.
1905). (F. H. D.*)
ACCIDENT STATISTICS
Statistics of railway accidents may be divided into three
classes: casualties (a) to passengers, (b) to servants or employes
'and (c) to other persons; and again into (i) train accidents,
(2) accidents to persons doing work on or about trains and
(3) other accidents.
Such statistics are studied mainly with the object of learning
the lessons which they may afford as to preventive measures
for the future; and from this point of view the most important
element is the single item of passengers killed in train accidents
(a i). The number injured is, indeed, a fact of interest, no less
than the number killed, but comparisons under this head are
unsatisfactory because it is impracticable or unprofitable to
go into sufficient detail to determine the relative seriousness
of the injuries. The statistics of the killed usually afford all
necessary stimulus to improvement. Accidents to passengers
other than those caused by collisions or derailments of trains
are very largely due to causes which it is fair to class either
as unavoidable or as due mainly to the fault or carelessness of
the victim himself. That this is so is indicated by the fact
that, although the railways always made to suffer severely
in pecuniary damages for injuries for which their officers or
servants are held responsible by the courts have for years
taken almost every conceivable precaution, the number of
accidents, in proportion to the number of persons travelling,
diminishes but slowly so slowly that, in view of the variety
of conditions to be considered, it would hardly be safe to con-
clude that the diminution is due to any definite improvement
in the safeguards provided. Collisions, on the other hand, are
preventable, and derailments nearly so, and the records of
deaths and injuries in this class in successive years are therefore
justly taken as an index to the efficiency with which the railways
are managed.
The number of servants killed in train accidents is the nex
in importance. The safety of passengers is, indeed, the first
care of the railway manager; but the employls, exposed to
many risks from which the passengers are protected, must be
looked after. On the British railways the men who run the
trains are safeguarded very efficiently, and the collisions and
derailments which are serious enough to do injury to the train-
men or the enginemen are really rare. The roadway, tracks
and rolling stock are so well maintained that those causes which
lead to the worst derailments have been eliminated almost
completely, and the record of serious collisions has been reduced
nearly to zero by the universal use of the block system and by
systematic precautions at junctions. In America the record
is far less satisfactory. The best railways of the United States
and Canada have, indeed, been greatly improved, and their
main lines approach the high standards of safety which prevail
in Great Britain, both as regards maintenance and care of
roadway and vehicles (as a preventive of derailments) and the
use of the block system (as a preventive of collisions); but
when the inquirer looks at America as a whole the total
length of lines in the United States being over 230,000 m.,
ten times the total of the United Kingdom he is considering
a figure which includes an enormous mileage of railway lying
in thinly settled regions where the high standards of safety
maintained on the best railways have scarcely been thought
of. The duty of a railway with deficient plant or facilities
would seem to be to make up for their absence by moderating
the speeds of its trains, but public sentiment in America appears
so far to have approved, at least tacitly, the combination of
imperfect railways and high speeds.
Apart from collisions and derailments, a large proportion
of all accidents is found to be due primarily to want of care on
the part of the victims. Accidents to workmen in marshalling,
shunting, distributing and running trains, engines and cars,
may be taken as the most important class, after train accidents,
because this work is necessary and important and yet involves
considerable hazard. On British railways the duty of the
companies to provide all practicable safeguards and to educate
and caution the servants may be said to have been faithfully
performed, and the accident totals must be taken as being
somewhat near the " irreducible minimum" unless some of
the infirmities of the human mind can be cured. In America
the number of men killed and injured in handling freight trains
has been very large. In the year ending June 30, 1909, exclusive
of casualties due to collisions, derailments and other accidents
to trains, the number killed was 811 and of injured 28,156
(Accident Bulletin, No. 32, p. 14). The number killed (811)
is equal to about three in every thousand trainmen employed.
From this and all other causes, the number of trainmen killed
in the year ending June 30, 1909, was about 8 in 1000.
The use of automatic couplers for freight cars throughout the
United States, introduced in 1893-1900, greatly reduced the
number of deaths and injuries in coupling, and the use of air
brakes on freight cars, now universal, has reduced the risk to
the men by making it less necessary for them to ride on the
roofs of high box-cars, while at the same time it has made it
possible to run long trains with fewer men; but except in
these two features the freight service in America continues to
be a dangerous occupation. The high and heavy cars, the
high speeds, the severe weather in the northern states in winter,
the fluctuating nature of the business, resulting often in the
employment of poorly qualified men and in other irregularities,
are among the causes of this state of things.
Being struck or run over by a train while standing or walking
on the track is the largest single cause of " railway accidents."
Workmen are killed and injured in this way, both while on
duty and when going to and from their work; passengers, with
or without right, go in front of trains at stations and at highway
crossings at grade level; and trespassers are killed and injured
in large numbers on railways everywhere, at and near stations,
at crossings, and out on the open road, where they have no
shadow of right. Of trespassers the number killed per mile of
ACCIDENT STATISTICS]
RAILWAYS
line is about as large in England as in America, the density
of population and of traffic in Great Britain apparently counter-
balancing the laxity of the laws against trespassing in America.
In the thickly settled parts of the United States the number of
trespassers killed on the railway tracks, including vagrants who
suffer in collisions and derailments while stealing rides, is very
large. In New York and four adjacent states, having about as
many miles of railway as the United Kingdom, the number in
the year ending June 30, 1907, was 1552. In the United
Kingdom the number for the corresponding year was 447, or
less than one-third.
As was suggested at the outset, railway accident statistics
are useful only as showing how to make life and limb safer,
though in pursuing this object increased economy should also
be secured. Railways have always been held by the legis-
latures and by the courts strictly accountable for their short-
comings, so far as accountability can be enforced by compelling
the payment of damages to victims of accidents; but in spite
of this, a want of enterprise and even some apparent neglect of
passengers' and servants' plain rights, have often been apparent,
and the Board of Trade, with its powers of supervision, in-
spection and investigation, must therefore be classed as one of
the most beneficent factors in the promotion of safety on
British railways. Its powers have been exercised with the
greatest caution, yet with consistent firmness; and the pub-
licity which has been given to the true and detailed causes of
scores and scores of railway accidents by the admirable reports
of the Board of Trade inspectors has been a powerful lever
in improving the railway service. Useful compulsory laws
regarding the details of train management are difficult to frame
and hard to carry out; but the Board has exercised a persistent
persuasiveness and has secured most of its objects. Its in-
vestigations justified the law making the block system com-
pulsory, thus removing the worst danger of railway travel. Its
constant and impartial expositions of cases of over-work and
insufficient training of employes have greatly helped to elevate
the character of these employes.
In the United States the governments have done far less.
A majority of the states have railway commissions, but the
investigation of railway accidents, with comparatively few
exceptions, has not been done in such a way as to make the
results useful in promoting improved practice. Many of the
commissions have done little or nothing of value in this respect.
The Federal government, having authority in railway matters
only when interstate traffic is affected, gathers statistics and
publishes them; but in the airing of causes the field in which
the British Board of Trade has been so useful nothing so far
has been done except to require written reports monthly from
the railways. These are useful so far as they go, but they lack
the impartiality that would be secured by an inquiry such as is
held in England.
TABLE X. CASUALTIES ON THE RAILWAYS OF THE
UNITED KINGDOM
Passengers:
1. In train accidents
2. Other accidents in or around
trains, &c.
3. Other causes
Total of passengers
Servants:
4. In train accidents
5. Other accidents in or around
trains, &c.
6 Other causes
Total of servants
Other Persons:
7 In train accidents
8. At level crossings
9. Trespassing on Tine
IO. Suicides (including unsuc-
cessful attempts)
1908.
In-
jured.
o 283
1907.
In-
jured.
1 8 534
102
5
107
6
2,242
863
3.388
164
376 4,976
50 19,041
102
5
125
13
441
55
2,132
836
3-502
236
5.577
15.701
432 24,181 509 21,514
o
51
291
1 88
7
44
99
5
50
278
19 169
n
30
"5
18
11. On business at stations
12. Miscellaneous
32
27
580
167
36
39
6l8
167
Total of " other persons " . 589 916 577
959
Grand total . 1,128 28,485 1,211 25,975
The casualties enumerated in items I, 4 and 7 of Table X. aggre-
gate 6 killed and 454 injured; the six deaths were due to collisions,
while of the cases of injury 372 occurred by collisions, 47 by derail-
ments, and 35 by other accidents to trains. This undoubtedly is
the greatest record for train safety ever known in the world. Item I
shows no passengers killed in train accidents during the year. This
was the case once before, in 1901 ; and the total of fatal accidents
to passengers and servants, taken together, has in several years
been very low (1896, eight; 1901, eight; 1902, ten; 1904, thirteen),
but never before was it down to six.
Items 2 and 5 in Table X. are made up of the classes of accidents
shown in Table XI.
TABLE XI. DETAIL CAUSES OF CERTAIN ACCIDENTS
Year 1908.
Item 2, Passengers: Killed. Injured.
1 . From falling between trains and platforms
(a) When entering trains . . . .21 53
(6) When alighting from trains . . 2 no
2. From falling on to the platform, ballast, &c. :
(a) When entering trains . . . . 5 115
(b) When alighting from trains . . 10 874
3. From falling off platforms and being struck or
run over by trains . ... 8 19
4. While crossing the line at stations
(a) Where there is either a subway or
footbridge ..... 9 6
(b) Where there is neither a subway nor
footbridge ..... 9 6
5. By the closing of carriage doors . . ... 748
6. From falling out of carriages during the running
'of trains ....... 19 64
7. By other accidents ..... 19 247
Item 5, Servants:- Total of passengers . 102 2242
By accidents occurring during shunting operations, viz.
1. While coupling or uncoupling vehicles . . 16 675
2. By coming in contact, while riding on
vehicles, with other vehicles, &c., standing
on adjacent lines ...._.. 2 19
3. While passing over, under, or standing on
buffers 2 13
4. When getting on or off, or falling off engines,
wagons, &c 4 278
5. While braking, spragging, or chocking wheels 15 627
6. While attending to ground-points ... I 98
7. While moving vehicles by capstans, turn-
tables, props, levers, &c. . . . . 16 498
8. By other accidents not included in the
preceding 41 587
9. From falling off trains, engines, &c., in motion 5 43
10. When getting on or off engines, vans, &c.,
during the running of trains .... 2 226
11. By coming in contact with over-bridges or
erections on the sides of the line ... 5 53
12. While attending to the machinery, &c., of
engines in motion 2 674
13. While working on the permanent-way, sidings,
&c 52 100
14. While attending to gates at level-crossings . 3 3
15. While walking, crossing or standing on the
line on duty :
(a) At stations . . ' . . . . 84 245
(b) At other parts of the line ... 40 46
16. From being caught between vehicles . . 23 95
17 From falling, or being caught between trains
and platforms, walls, &c. . . . . IO 70
18 \Vhile\valking, &c.,alongthelinetoorfrom work 34 31
19. Miscellaneous 19 595
Total of servants . 376 4976
Table XII. analyses the classes of accident comprised in items
3 and 6 df Table X.
TABLE XII. DETAIL CAUSES OF CERTAIN ACCIDENTS
1908. 1907.
Passengers:
a. While ascending or descending
steps at stations ....
b. By being struck by barrows, by
falling over packages, &c., on
station platforms ....
Kaled -jured. Kmed - >'
3 370
142
339
122
8 3 2
RAILWAYS
[ACCIDENT STATISTICS
TABLE XII. DETAIL CAUSES OF CERTAIN ACCIDENTS continued.
1908. 1907.
In-
jured.
Killed.
c. From falling off platforms upon the
ballast i 105
d. By other accidents .... i 246
Total of passengers . 5 863
Servants:
1. While loading, unloading or sheet-
ing wagons, trucks and horse-
boxes
2. While moving goods and luggage
in stations or sheds
3. While working at cranes or capstans
4. By the falling of wagon-doors,
lamps, bales of goods, &c. .
5. While attending to engines at rest
6. From falling off, or when getting
on or off, engines or vehicles at rest
7. From falling off, or when getting
on or off, platforms
8. From falling off ladders, scaffolds,
&c
9. By stumbling while walking on
the line 2 1,068
10. By being trampled on or kicked
by horses while engaged in rail-
way work I 94
11. From being struck by articles
thrown from passing trains ... 7
12. From the falling of rails, sleepers,
&c., when at work on the line . . . 686
13. Otherwise injured when at work on
the line or in sidings ... 5 2,182
14. Miscellaneous .... 9 3,085
Killed.
In-
jured.
IIO
265
836
8 4,018 5 2,899
1,992
411
583
2,479
1-504
483
449 ii
975
34
390
2,363
1-495
404
400
1,049
611
1,981
2,753
Total of servants . 50 19,041 55 15,701
TABLE XIII. NATURE OF ACCIDENTS TO TRAINS, VEHICLES
AND PERMANENT-WAY
1008
1007
(A) Accidents to trains:-
1. Collisions between passenger trains or
parts of passenger trains ....
2. Collisions between passenger trains and
goods or mineral trains or light-engines .
3. Collisions between goods trains or parts
of goods trains and light-engines .
4. Collisions between trains and vehicles
standing foul of the line ....
5. Collisions between trains and buffer-stops
or vehicles standing against buffer-
stops :
(a) From trains running into stations
or sidings at too high a speed . .
(b) From other causes ....
6. Trains coming in contact with projections
from other trains or vehicles on parallel
lines ........
7. Passenger trains or parts of passenger
trains leaving the rails ....
8. Goods trains or parts of goods trains, light-
engines, &c., leaving the rails . . .
9. Trains running through gates at level-
crossings or into other obstacles . .
10. Fires in trains .......
11. Miscellaneous ......
(B) Accidents to or failure of rolling stock and
permanent-way :
12. Bursting of boilers or tubes, &c., of engines
13. Failure of machinery, springs, &c., of
engines .......
14. Failure of tires .......
15. wheels ......
16. axles .......
17. couplings ......
18. ropes used in working inclines
19. tunnels, bridges, viaducts, cul-
verts, &c ......
20. Broken rails .......
21. Flood ng of portions of permanent- way
22. Slips in cuttings or embankments
23. Fires at stations or involving injury to
bridges or viaducts .....
24. Miscellaneous ......
43
78
180
20
15
30
94
407
368
195
3
7
2-16
17
25
483
364
'7
4
13
61
86
125
172
2
8
165
160
2,346
2,440
3
287
289
24
40
18
28
30
i
Percentages. On British railways the casualties from train acci-
dents, especially fatal injuries, have been reduced to so small a pro-
portion of the number of passengers travelling, or the number of
servants employed, that the figures showing the percentages vary
from year to year considerably; but in other classes of accidents, in
which a large proportion of the cases may be classed as unprevent-
able, the percentages dp not vary greatly. The following are the
more significant ratios in the year 1907, as shown in the Board of
Trade returns:
(a) Passengers killed in train accidents, approxi-
mately . . . . . . I in 83,000,000
(1908, o in 1,500,000,000.)
(b) Passengers injured in train accidents, ap-
proximately . . . . . i in 3,000,000
(1908, approximately I in 6,000,000.)
(c) Servants killed in train accidents:
Number of servants killed per 10,000,000
train miles ...... 0-329
Engine drivers, ratio killed to number
employed . . . . . i in 5,628
Firemen, ratio killed to number employed . i in 12,857.
Passenger guards, ratio killed to number
employed . . . . . I in 4,237
Goods guards and brakemen, ratio killed
to number employed . . . I in 8,438
(d) Servants killed in work about trains, &c. (ex-
cluding train accidents), ratio killed to
number employed . . . I in 790
Goods guards and brakemen, ratio killed to
number employed . . . I in 409
Shunters, ratio killed to number employed i in 337
Engine drivers, ratio killed to number
employed . . ... I in 1,126
Passenger guards, ratio killed to number
employed . . . . . i in 1,059
Railway Accidents in America. The statistics of accidents
in America are kept in a form somewhat different from the fore-
going. Table XIV. is taken from the Accident Bulletin of
the Interstate Commerce Commission (No. 32), the items being
numbered to correspond as nearly as practicable with the
numbers in the British table (No. X.). The items 7-8 embrace
the statistics which most nearly correspond to the items 7-12
in the British table.
TABLE XIV. CASUALTIES ON THE RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA
Year ending June 30.
1909.
1908.
Killed. ' Injured. Killed. Injured.
Passengers:
1. In train accidents .
2, 3. Other causes
Total of passengers
Servants:
4. In train accidents
5.
204
5,865
6,251
241
7-43
335 12,116 406 12,645
6. Other causes
520
1,936
4,877
46,927
642
2,716
6,818
49,526
Total of servants
Other Persons:
2,456 51,804 3,358 56,344
Year ending June 30, 1907.
Trespassing. Not Tres
Killed. Injured. Killed.
Total.
Killed. Injured.
7-
In train accidents
Struck by trains at
highway cross-
ings
Do. at stations .
Do. at other
places
Other causes
97
52 1202 149 1373
237
421
274
423
696
89
1523
259
933
5io
1797
682
3732
1125
2063
2581
Ji3
94
200
1287
3845
1219
2263
3868
Total of " other
j . 5612
persons" . )' -~ 5512 IO44 4 471
The salient feature of Table XIV. is the diminution from 1908
to 1909. This is mainly due to a great falling off in traffic, because
of a general business depression; from 1907 to 1909 the reduction
in the accident record is still greater. In items I and 4 the increase
in safety is due in part, no doubt, to the extension of the use of the
block system. The accidents to " other persons " cannot readily
be compared with items 7-12 in the British record, except as to
the totals and a few of the items.
In any comparison between British and American records the
first point to be borne in mind is the difference in mileage and traffic.
The American railways aggregate approximately ten times the
length of the British lines; but in train miles the difference is far
less. In the latest years in which comparisons can be made, the
passenger journeys in the United Kingdom amounted to 1500 millions
(including season-ticket holders, estimated) and the train miles
to 428-3 millions, while the corresponding figures in the United
States were 873-9 millions and 1171-9 millions. The average length
FINANCIAL]
RAILWAYS
833
of the passenger's journey in the United States is reported to be
about 32 m. ; in Great Britain it is undoubtedly less, but no record
is published. Of the total train mileage in America more than half
is freight ; in Great Britain much more than half is passenger.
TABLE XV. TOTAL CASUALTIES ON RAILWAYS or THE
UNITED STATES
1008.
Killed. Injured.
Passengers .... 383 11,592
Employees .... 3,470 83,367
Other persons . . . 6,460 10,275
Glledlni
Killed. Injured.
610 13,041
4-534 87.644
6,695 10.331
Total . 10,313 105,234 11,839 111,016
Table XV. shows the casualties on American railways in 1907
and 1908 (year ending June 30). These figures differ from those
in Table XIV. because of differences in classification. In Tabje
XIV. the item " passengers killed " includes those on some electric
railways, which presumably are not covered in the statement here
given; also passengers in freight trains, &c. Under " employees "
this table includes men in shops, &c., not shown in Table XIV.
In 1907 one passenger in 2,318,051 was killed, and one in 107,004
was injured, in train accidents. The number of employes killed
in train accidents was 12-9 in 10 million train miles. Of train
men (including engine-drivers and firemen), one out of 125 employed
was killed (all causes), and one in eight injured.
The great differences between the records of the United States
and the United Kingdom seem to afford justification for the view,
which has often been expressed, that in America the spirit of hurry
and recklessness manifest in many of the activities of the people
prevails even among the men on whom rests the grave responsi-
bility of running trains in safety. Yet the best safety devices are
made in America, and means of reducing these death records are
well known.
France. Railway accidents in France are recorded in a shape
somewhat different from that found in either Great Britain or
America. The principal items for the years 1006 and 1007 are
shown in Table XVI. The length of railways in the republic
was 39,963 km. (24,832 m.), the number of persons employed
on them was rather less than 300,000, the number of pas-
sengers carried annually being between 450 and 500 millions.
The number of passengers (36) killed in train accidents in 1907
was equal to 0-0759 per million passengers carried and 0-0024
per million kilometres travelled by passengers, or 0-1503 per
million kilometres travelled by trains.
TABLE XVI. RAILWAY CASUALTIES IN FRANCE
1907. 1906.
Killed. Injured. Killed. Injured.
36 430 14 500
23 168 21 132
In train accidents
Passengers
Servants
Other accidents, due to railway
operations
Passengers and others
Servants
59 598 35 632
ii 39 14 29
18 24 17
29 63 22 46
Other accidents, victim's own fault
Passengers and others . . 290 189 305 155
Servants . . . .281 465 265 421
571 654 570 576
Grand total . 659 1315 627 1254
The most significant item in the table, 36 passengers killed in
train accidents, is perhaps to be considered as abnormally
large, the totals under this head for the preceding six years
beginning with 1901 being 7, 35, 3, 18, 4, 14, or an average of
11-57 per year. The French secretary of Public Works, who
has furnished these statistics, keeps also similar records of the
local or light railways, on which the number of fatal accidents
appears to be exceedingly small.
Germany. The number of persons killed on the railways of
the German Empire in the year 1907 was 1249, classified as
in Table XVII. This number does not include suicides and
attempts at suicide, of which there were 333, all but 24 being
successful. In these statistics, the third item, " other persons,"
includes post office and customs officials and other persons
connected with the railway service, as well as railway officers
and servants off duty. The totals of passengers killed and
XXH. 27
injured in train accidents are not separated from those killed
and injured from other causes, but ratios are given showing
that for four years no passengers were killed in this class.
TABLE XVII. RAILWAY CASUALTIES IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE
(From Statistic der im Betriebe befindlichen Eisenbahnen ;
E. S. Mittler & Son, Berlin)
1907. 1906.
Killed. Injured. Killed. Injured.
Passengers . . . . 135 653 118 597
Servants 714 1673 703 1513
Other persons .... 400 365 360 373
1249 2691 1181 2483
See the Quarterly and Annual Reports, issued by the Board of
Trade, London, and the Annual Statistical Reports and Quarterly
Accident Bulletins, published by the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion, Washington. (B. B. A.)
FINANCIAL ORGANIZATION
The methods of financing railway enterprises, both new
projects and existing lines, have been influenced very largely
by the attitude of the state and of municipal authorities.
Railways may be built for military reasons or for commercial
reasons, or for a combination of the two. The Trans-Siberian
railway was a military necessity if Russia was to exercise
dominion throughout Siberia and maintain a port on the Yellow
Sea or the Sea of Japan. The Union Pacific railroad was a
military necessity to the United States if the authority of the
national government was to be maintained in the Far West.
The cost of such ventures and the detailed methods by which
they are financed are of relatively small importance, because
they are not required to earn a money return on the investment.
To a less degree, the same is true of railways built for a special
instead of a general commercial interest. The Baltimore &
Ohio railroad was built to protect and further the commercial
interests of the city of Baltimore; the Cincinnati Southern
railway is still owned by the city of Cincinnati, which built the
line in the 'seventies for commercial protection against Louis-
ville, Ky. From a commercial point of view such ventures
are differentiated from railway projects built for general com-
mercial reasons because they do not depend on their own credit.
The government, national or local, furnishes the borrowing
power, and makes the best bargain it can with the men it
designates to operate the line.
Where a railway is built for general commercial reasons,
however, it must furnish its own credit; that is to say, it must
convince investors that it can be worked profitably and give
them an assured return on the funds they advance. The
state is interested in the commercial railway venture as a matter
of public policy, and because it can confer or withold the right
of eminent domain, without which the railway builder would
be subjected to endless annoyance and expense. This govern-
mental sanction has been obtainable only with difficulty, and
after the exercise of numerous legal forms, in Great Britain and
on the continent of Europe. In the United States, on the other
hand, it has been obtained with considerable ease. In the
earlier years of American railway building, each project was
commonly the subject of a special law; then special laws were
in turn succeeded by general railway laws in the several states,
and these in turn have come to be succeeded in most parts of
the country by jurisdiction vested in the state railway com-
mission. Each of these changes has tended to improve the
existing status, to legitimize railway enterprise, and to safe-
guard capital or investment.
The laws regulating original outputs for capital were strictly
drawn in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe; in
America they were drawn very loosely. As a result it has been
far easier for the American than for the European railway
builder to take advantage of the speculative instinct in obtain-
ing money. Instead of the borrowing power being restricted to
a small percentage of the total capital, as in European countries,
most of the railway mileage of America has been built with
borrowed money, represented by bonds, while stock has been
given freely as an inducement to subscribe to the bonds on the
834
RAILWAYS
[CONSTRUCTION
theory that the bonds represented the cost of the enterprise, and
the stock the prospective profits. As a natural result weak railway
companies in the United States have frequently been declared
insolvent by the courts, owing to their inability in periods of
commercial depression to meet their acknowledged obligations,
and in the reorganization which has followed the shareholders
have usually had to accept a loss, temporary or permanent.
The situation in Great Britain has been wholly different.
The debt in that country is relatively small in amount, and
is not represented by securities based upon hypothecation of
the company's real property, as with the American railway
bond, resting on a first, second or third mortgage. But British
share capital has been issued so freely for extension and im-
provement work of all sorts, including the costly requirements
of the .Board of Trade, that a situation has been reached where
the return on the outstanding securities tends to diminish year
by year. Although this fact will not in itself make the com-
panies liable to any process of reorganization similar to that
following insolvency and foreclosure of the American railway,
it is probable that reorganization of some sort must nevertheless
take place in Great Britain, and it may well be questioned
whether the position of the transportation system of that
country would not have been better if it had been built up
and projected on the experience gained by actual earlier losses,
as in the United States.
Thus the characteristic defect in the British railway organiza-
tion has been the tendency to put out new capital at a rate
faster than has been warranted by the annual increases in
earnings. The American railways do not have to face this
situation; but, after a long term of years, when they were
allowed to do much as they pleased, they have now been brought
sharply to book by almost every form of constituted authority
to be found in the states, and they are suffering from increased
taxation, from direct service requirements, and from a general
tendency on the part of regulating authorities to reduce rates
and to make it impossible to increase them. Meantime, the
purchasing power of the dollar which the railway company
receives for a specified service is gradually growing smaller,
owing to the general increases year by year in wages and in the
cost of material. The railways are prospering because they
are managed with great skill and are doing increasing amounts
of business, though at lessening unit profits. But there is
danger of their reaching the point where there is little or no
margin between unit costs of service and unit receipts for the
service. It will probably be inevitable for American railway
rates to trend somewhat upward in the future, as they have
gradually declined in the past; but the process apparently
cannot be accomplished without considerable friction with the
governing authorities. The attitude of the courts is not that
the railways should work without compensation, but that the
compensation should not exceed a fair return on funds actually
expended by the railway. This is in line with the provisions
in the Constitution of the United States regarding the protec-
tion of property, but the difficulty in applying the principle
to the railway situation lies in the fact that costs have to
be met by averaging the returns on the total amount of
business done, and it is often impossible, in specific instances,
to secure a rate which can be considered to yield a fair return
on the specific service rendered. Hence losses in one quarter
must be compensated by gains in another a process which the
law, regarding only the gains, renders very difficult.
The growth of railways has been accompanied by a world-wide
tendency toward the consolidation of small independent ventures
into large groups of lines able to aid one another in the exchange
of traffic and to effect economies in administration and in the
purchase of supplies. Both in England and in America this
process of consolidation has been obstructed by all known legis-
lative devices, because of the widespread belief that competition
in the field of transportation was necessary if fair prices were
to be charged for the service. But the general tendency to
regulate rates by authority of the state has apparently rendered
unnecessary the old plan of rate regulation through competition,
Year.
Route
Miles.
Paid-up
Capital.
Gro"=s
Receipts.
Net
Receipts.
Percent
Net to
Capital.
1878
17.333
698.545,154
62,862,674
29,673,306
4-25
1888
19,812
864,695,963
72,894,665
35,132,558
4-06
1898
21,659
,134,468,462
96,252,501
40,291,958
3-55
1899
2I,7OO
,152-317,501
101,667,065
41,576,378
3-6i
1900
21,855
,176,001,890
104,801,858
40,058,338
3-41
1901
22,078
,195,564,478
106,558,815
39,069,076
3-27
1902
22,152
,2l6,86l,42I
109,469,720
41,628,502
3-42
1903
22,435
,235,528,917
110,888,714
42,326,859
3-43
1904
22,634
,258,294,68!
111,833,272
42,660,741
3-39
1905
22,847
,272,600,935
113,531,019
43,466,356
3-42
1906
23,063
,286,883,341
117,227,931
44,446,077
3-45
1907
23,108
,294,065,662
121,548,923
44,939,729
3-47
1908
23,205
,310,533,212
119,894,327
43,486,526
3-32
even if it had not been demonstrated often and again that
this form of regulation is costly for all concerned and is effective
only during rare periods of direct conflict between companies.
^Nevertheless, in spite of difficulties, consolidation has gone
on with great rapidity. When Mr E. H. Harriman died
he exercised direct authority over more than 50,000 m. of
railway, and the tendency of all the great American railway
systems, even when not tied to one another in common owner-
ship, is to increase their mileage year by year by acquiring
tributary lines. The smaller company exchanges its stock
for stock of the larger system on an agreed basis, or sells it
outright, and the bondholders of the absorbed line often have a
similar opportunity to exchange their securities for obligations
of the parent company, which are on a stronger basis or have a
broader market. Similarly in Great Britain there is a tendency
towards combination by mutual agreement among the com-
panies while they still preserve their independent existence.
Table XVIII. shows the paid-up capital, gross receipts, net
receipts and proportion of net receipts to total paid-up capital on
the railways of the United Kingdom for a series of years.
TABLE XVIII. BRITISH RAILWAYS
A similar comparison (Table XIX.) can be made for the United
States of America, statistics prior to the establishment of the Inter-
state Commerce Commission being taken from Poor's Manual oj
Railroads as transcribed in government reports.
TABLE XIX. AMERICAN RAILWAYS
Year.
Route
Miles.
Issued
Capital.
Gross
Receipts.
Net
Receipts.f
Percent
Net to
Capital.
1878
81,747
$4,772,297,349
$490,103,351
Sl87,575,l67
3-93
1888
156,114
9,281,914,605
960,256,270
301,631,051
3-25
1898
190,870
10,818,554,031
1,269,263,257
407,018,432
376
1899
194,336
",033,954,898
1,339,655,114
435.753.291
3-95
1900
198,964
11,491,034,960
1,519-570,830
509,289,944
4-43
I9OI
202,288
11,688,147,091
1,622,014,685
540,140,744
4-62
1902
207,253
12,134,182,964
1,769,447.408
598,206,186
4-93
1903
213,422
12,599,990,258
1,950,743,636
634,924,788
5-04
1904
220,112
13,213,124,679
2,024,555,061
623,509,113
4-72
'90S
225,196
13,805,258,121
2,134,208,156
679,518,807
4-92
1906
230,761
14,570,421,478
2,386,285,473
774.051,156
5-31
1907
236,949
*i6,o82, 146,683
2,649,731,911
820,254,887
5-io
1908
237,389t
16,767,544,827
2,393,805,989
651,561,587
3-88
* Includes $145,321,601 assigned to other than railway property,
but earning net receipts.
t After taxes; to compare with British figures.
I This figure should be received with caution. The Interstate
Commerce Commission made certain accounting changes this year.
(R. Mo.)
CONSTRUCTION
Location. An ideal line of railway connecting two terminal
points would be perfectly level and perfectly straight, because
in that case the resistance due to gradients and curves would be
eliminated (see Locomotive Power) and the cost of mechanical
operation reduced to a minimum. But that ideal is rarely if
ever attainable. In the first place the route of a railway must
be governed by commercial considerations. Unless it be quite
short, it can scarcely ever be planned simply to connect its two
terminal points, without regard to the intervening country;
in order to be of the greatest utility and to secure the greatest
revenue it must be laid out with due consideration of the traffic
CONSTRUCTION]
RAILWAYS
835
arising at intermediate places, and as these will not usually
lie exactly on the direct line, deviations from straightness will
be rendered necessary. In the second place, except in the
unlikely event of all the places on the selected route lying
at the same elevation, a line that is perfectly level is a
physical impossibility; and from engineering considerations,
even one with uniform gradients will be impracticable on the
score of cost, unless the surface of the country is extraordinarily
even. In these circumstances the constructor has two broad
alternatives between which to choose. On the one hand he may
make the line follow the natural inequalities of the ground as
nearly as may be, avoiding the elevations and depressions by
curves; or on the other he may aim at making it as nearly straight
and level as possible by taking it through the elevations in
cuttings or tunnels and across the depressions on embankments
or bridges. He will incline to the first of these alternatives when
cheapness of first cost is a desideratum, but, except in unusually
favourable circumstances, the resulting line, being full of sharp
curves and severe gradients, will be unsuited for fast running
and will be unable to accommodate heavy traffic economically.
If, however, cost within reasonable limits is a secondary con-
sideration and the intention is to build a line adapted for
express trains and for the carriage of the largest volume of
traffic with speed and economy, he will lean towards the second.
In practice every line is a compromise between these two ex-
tremes, arrived at by carefully balancing a large number of
varying factors. Other things being equal, that route is best
which will serve the district most conveniently and secure
the highest revenue; and the most favourable combination of
curves and gradients is that by which the annual cost of con-
veying the traffic which the line will be called on to carry, added
to the annual interest on the capital expended in construction,
will be made a minimum.
Cuttings and Embankments. A cutting, or cut, is simply a
trench dug in a hill or piece of rising ground, wide enough at
the bottom to accommodate one or more pairs of rails, and
deep enough to enable the line to continue its course on the
level or on a moderate gradient. The slopes of the sides vary
according to the nature of the ground, the amount of moisture
present, &c. In solid rock they may be vertical; in gravel,
sand or common earth they must, to prevent slipping, rise
i ft. for i to i i or 2 ft. of base, or even more in treacherous
clay. In soft material the excavation may be performed by
mechanical excavators or " steam navvies," while in hard it
may be necessary to resort to blasting. Except in hard rock,
the top width of a cutting, and therefore the amount of material
to be excavated, increases rapidly with the depth; hence if
a cutting exceeds a certain depth, which varies with the par-
ticular circumstances, it may be more economical, instead of
forming the sides at the slope at which the material of which
they are composed will stand, to make them nearly vertical
and support the soil with a retaining wall, or to bore a tunnel.
An embankment-bank, or fill, is the reverse of a cutting, being
an artificial mound of earth on which the railway is taken
across depressions in the surface of the ground. An endeavour
is made so to plan the works of a railway that the quantity of
earth excavated in cuttings shall be equal to the quantity
required for the embankments; but this is not always practic-
able, and it is sometimes advantageous to obtain the earth
from some source close to the embankment rather than incur
the expense of hauling it from a distant cutting. As embank-
ments have to support the weight of heavy trains, they must
be uniformly firm and well drained, and before the line is fully
opened for traffic they must be allowed time to consolidate, a
process which is helped by running construction or mineral
trains over them.
An interesting case of embankment and cutting in combination
was involved in crossing Chat Moss on the Liverpool & Manchester
railway. The moss was 4$ m. across, and it varied in depth from
10 to 30 ft. Its general character was such that cattle could not
stand on it, and a piece of iron would sink in it. The subsoil was
composed principally of clay and sand, and the railway had to be
earned over the moss on the level, requiring cutting, and embanking
for upwards of 4 m. In forming 277,000 cub. yds. of embankment
670,000 yds. 01 raw peat were consumed, the difference being
occasioned by the squeezing out of the water. Large quantities
of embanking were sunk in the moss, and, when the engineer,
George Stephenson, after a month's vigorous operations, had made
up his estimates, the apparent work done was sometimes less than
at the beginning of the month. The railway ultimately was made
to float on the bog. Where embankment was required drains
about 5 yds. apart were cut, and when the moss between them
was dry it was used to form the embankment. Where the way
was formed on the level, drains were cut on each side of the intended
line, and were intersected here and there by cross drains, by which
the upper "part of the moss was rendered dry and firm. On this
surface hurdles were placed, 4 ft. broad and 9 long, covered with
heath, upon which the ballast was laid.
Bridges. For conveying small streams through embank-
ments, channels or culverts are constructed in brickwork or
masonry. Larger rivers, canals, roads, other railways and
sometimes deep narrow valleys are crossed by bridges (q.v.)
of timber, brick, stone, wrought iron or steel, and many of
these structures rank among the largest engineering works
in the world. Sometimes also a viaduct consisting of a series
of arches is preferred to an embankment when the line has to
be taken over a piece of flat alluvial plain, or when it is desired
to economize space and to carry the line at a sufficient height
to clear the streets, as in the case of various railways entering
London and other large towns. In connexion with a railway
many bridges have also to be constructed to carry public
roads and other railways over the line, and for the use of owners
or tenants whose land it has cut through (" accommodation
bridges "). In the early days of railways, roads were often
taken across the line on the level, but such " level " or " grade "
crossings are now usually avoided in the case of new lines in
populous countries, except when the traffic on both the road
and the railway is very light. In many instances old level
crossings have been replaced by over-bridges with long sloping
approaches; in this way considerable expenditure has been
involved, justified, however, by the removal of a danger to
the public and of interruptions to the traffic on both the roads
and the railways. In cases where the route of a line runs across
a river or other piece of water so wide that the construction of
a bridge is either impossible or would be more costly than
is warranted by the volume of traffic, the expedient is some-
times adopted of carrying the wagons and carriages across
bodily with their loads on train ferries, so as to avoid the
inconvenience and delay of transshipment. Such train ferries
are common in America, especially on the Great Lakes, and
exist at several places in Europe, as in the Baltic between
Denmark and Sweden and Denmark and Germany, and across
the Straits of Messina.
Gradients. The gradient or grade of a line is the rate at
which it rises or falls, above or below the horizontal, and is
expressed by stating either the horizontal distance in which
the change of level amounts to i ft., or the amount of
change that would occur in some selected distance, such as
loo ft., 1000 ft. or i m. In America a gradient of i in 100
is often known as a i% grade, one of 2 in TOO as a 2% grade,
and so on; thus a 0-25% grade corresponds to what in Eng-
land would be known as a gradient of i in 400. The ruling
gradient of a section of railway is the steepest incline in that
section, and is so called because it governs or rules the maximum
load that can be placed behind an engine working over that
portion of line. Sometimes, however, a sharp incline occurring
on an otherwise easy line is not reckoned as the ruling gradient,
trains heavier than could be drawn up it by a single engine
being helped by an assistant or " bank " engine; sometimes
also " momentum " or " velocity " grades, steeper than the
ruling gradient, are permitted for short distances in cases where
a train can approach at full speed and thus surmount them by
the aid of its momentum. An incline of i in 400 is reckoned
easy, of i in 200 moderate and of i in 100 heavy. The ruling
gradient of the Liverpool & Manchester railway was fixed at
i in oco, excepting the inclines at Liverpool and at Rainhill
summit, for working which special provision was made; and
I. K. Brunei laid out the Great Western for a long distance
8 3 6
RAILWAYS
[CONSTRUCTION
out of London with a ruling gradient of i in 1320. Other
engineers, however, such as Joseph Locke, cheapened the
cost of construction by admitting long slopes of i in 80 or 70.
One of the steepest gradients in England on an important line
is the Lickey incline at Bromsgrove, on the Midland railway
between Birmingham and Gloucester, where the slope is i in
37 for two miles. The maximum gradient possible depends
on climatic conditions, a dry climate being the most favourable.
The theoretical limit is about i in 16; between i in 20 and
i in 16 a steam locomotive depending on the adhesion between
its wheels and the rails can only haul about its own weight.
In practice the gradient should not exceed i in 225, and even
that is too steep, since theoretical conditions cannot always be
realized; a wet rail will reduce the adhesion, and the gradients
must be such that some paying load can be hauled in all weathers.
When an engineer has to construct a railway up a hill having
a still steeper slope, he must secure practicable gradients by
laying out the line in ascending spirals, if necessary tunnelling
into the hill, as on the St Gothard railway, or in a series of
zigzags, or he must resort to a rack or a cable railway.
Rack Railways. In rack railways a cog-wheel on the engine
engages in a toothed rack which forms part of the permanent way.
The earliest arrangement of this kind was patented by John Blen-
kinsop, of the Middleton Colliery, near Leeds, in 181 1, and an engine
built on his plan by Mathew Murray, also of Leeds, began in 1812
to haul coals from Middleton to Leeds over a line 35 m. long. Blen-
kinsop placed the teeth on the outer side of one of the running rails,
and his reason for adopting a rack was the belief that an engine
with smooth wheels running on smooth rails would not have sufficient
adhesion to draw the load required. It was not till more than half
a century later that an American, Sylvester Marsh, employed the
rack system for the purpose of enabling trains to surmount steep
slopes on the Mount Washington railway, where the maximum
gradient was nearly I in zj. In this case the rack had pin teeth
carried in a pair of angle bars. The subsequent development of
rack railways is especially associated with a Swiss engineer, Nicholas
Riggenbach, and his pupil Roman Abt, and the forms of rack
introduced by them are those most commonly used. That of the
latter is multiple, several rack-plates being placed parallel to each
other, and the teeth break joint at i, i or i of their pitch, according
to the number of rack-plates. In this way smoothness of working
is ensured, the cog-wheel being constantly in action with the rack.
Abt also developed the plan of combining rack and adhesional
working, the engine working by adhesion alone on the gentler
slopes but by both adhesion and the rack on the steeper ones.
On such lines the beginning of a rack section is provided with a
piece of rack mounted on springs, so that the pinions of the engine
engage smoothly with the teeth. Racks of this type usually
become impracticable for gradients steeper than I in 4, partly because
of the excessive weight of the engine required and partly because
of the tendency of the cog-wheel to mount the rack. The Locher
rack, employed on the Mount Pilatus railway, where the steepest
gradient is nearly I in 2, is double, with vertical teeth on each side,
while in the Strub rack, used on the Jungfrau line, the teeth are cut
in the head of a rail of the ordinary Vignoles type.
Cable Railways. For surmounting still steeper slopes, cable
railways may be employed. Of these there are two main systems:
(i) a continuous cable is carried over two main drums at each end
of the line, and the motion is derived either (a) from the weight
of the descending load or (b) from a motor acting on one of the
main drums; (2) each end of the cable is attached to wagons, one
set of which accordingly ascends as the other descends. The weight
required to cause the downward motion is obtained either by means
of the material which has to be transported to the bottom of the
hill or by water ballast, while to aid and regulate the motion generally
steam or electric motors are arranged to act on the main drums,
round which the cable is passed with a sufficient number of turns
to prevent slipping. When water ballast is employed the water
is filled into a tank in the bottom of the wagon or car, its quantity,
if passengers are carried, being regulated by the number ascending
or descending.
Curves. The curves on railways are either simple, when
they consist of a portion of the circumference of a single circle,
or compound, when they are made up of portions of the cir-
cumference of two or more circles of different radius. Reverse
curves are compound curves in which the components are
of contrary flexure, like the letter S; strictly the term is only
applicable when the two portions follow directly one on the
other, but it is sometimes used of cases in which they are
separated by a " tangent " or portion of straight line. In
Great Britain the curvature is defined by stating the length of
the radius, expressed in chains (i chain=66 ft.), in America
by stating the angle subtended by a chord 100 ft. long; the
measurements in both methods are referred to the central line
of the track. The radius of a i-degree curve is 5730 ft., or
about 86f chains, of a is-degree curve 383 ft. or rather less
than 6 chains; the former is reckoned easy, the latter very
sharp, at least for main lines on the standard gauge. On some
of the earlier English main lines no curves were constructed
of a less radius than a mile (80 chains), except at places where
the speed was likely to be low, but in later practice the radius
is sometimes reduced to 40 or 30 chains, even on high-speed
passenger lines.
When a train is running round a curve the centrifugal force
which comes into play tends to make its wheel-flanges press
against the outer rail, or even to capsize it. If this pressure is
not relieved in some way, the train may be derailed either (i) by
" climbing " the outer rail, with injury to that rail and, generally,
to the corresponding wheel-flanges; (2) by overturning about
the outer rail as a hinge, possibly without injury to rails or
wheels; or (3) by forcing the outer rail outwards, occasionally
to the extent of shearing the spikes that hold it down at the
curve, thus spreading or destroying the track. In any case the
details depend upon whether the vehicle concerned is an engine,
a wagon or a passenger coach, and upon whether it runs on
bogie-trucks or not. If it is an engine, particular attention
must be directed to the type, weight, arrangement of wheels
and height of centre of gravity above rail level. In considering
the forces that produce derailment the total mass of the vehicle
or locomotive may be supposed to be concentrated at its centre
of gravity. Two lines may be drawn from this point, one to
each of the two rails, in a plane normal to the rails, and the
ends of these lines, where they meet the rails, may be joined
to complete a triangle, which may conveniently be regarded as a
rigid frame resting on the rails. As the vehicle sweeps round
the curve the centre of gravity tends to be thrown outwards,
like a stone from a horizontal sling. The vertical pressure of the
frame upon the outer rail is thus increased, while its vertical
pressure on the inner rail is diminished. Simultaneously the
frame as a whole tends to slide horizontally athwart the rails,
from the inner towards the outer rail, urged by the same centri-
fugal forces. This sliding movement is resisted by placing a
check rail on the inner side of the inner rail, to take the lateral
thrust of the wheels on that side. It is also resisted in part by
the conicity of the wheels, which converts the lateral force
partly into a vertical force, thus enabling gravity to exert a
restoring influence. When the lateral forces are too great to
be controlled " climbing " occurs. Accidents due to simple
climbing are, however, exceedingly rare, and are usually found
associated with a faulty track, with " plunging " movements of
the locomotive or vehicle, or with a " tight gauge " at curves
or points.
From consideration of the rigid triangular frame described
above, it is clear that the " overturning " force acts horizontally
from the centre of gravity, and that the length of its lever arm
is, at any instant, the vertical distance from the centre of gravity
to the level of the outer rail. This is true whatever be the tilt
of the vehicle at that instant. The restoring force exerted by
gravity acts in a vertical line from the centre of gravity; and
the length of its lever arm is the horizontal distance between
this vertical line and the outer rail. If therefore the outer rail
is laid at a level above that of the inner rail at the curve, over-
turning will be resisted more than would be the case if both
rails were in the same horizontal plane, since the tilting of the
vehicle due to this " superelevation " diminishes the overturning
moment, and also increases the restoring moment, by shortening
in the one case and lengthening in the other the lever arms at
which the respective forces act. The amount of superelevation
required to prevent derailment at a curve can be calculated *
under perfect running conditions, given the radius of curvature,
the weight of the vehicle, the height of the centre of gravity, the
distance between the rails, and the speed; but great experience
1 See The Times Engineering Supplement (August 22, 1906), p. 265.
CONSTRUCTION]
RAILWAYS
837
is required for the successful application of definite formulae
to the problem. For example, what is a safe speed at a given
curve for an engine, truck or coach having the load equally
distributed over the wheels may lead to either climbing or
overturning if the load is shifted to a diagonal position. An
ill-balanced load also exaggerates " plunging," and if the period
of oscillation of the load happens to agree with the changes
of contour or other inequalities of the track vibrations of a
dangerous character, giving rise to so-called " sinuous " motion,
may occur.
In general it is not curvature, but change of curvature, that
presents difficulty in the laying-out of a line. For instance, if
the curve is of S-form, the point of danger is when the train
enters the contra-flexure, and it is not an easy matter to assign
the best superelevation at all points throughout the double
bend. Closely allied to the question of safety is the problem
of preventing jolting at curves; and to obtain easy running it
is necessary not merely to adjust the levels of the rails in respect
to one another, but to tail off one curve into the next in such a
manner as to avoid any approach to abrupt lateral changes of
direction. With increase of speeds this matter has become
important as an element of comfort in passenger traffic. As a
first approximation, the centre-line of a railway may be plotted
out as a number of portions of circles, with intervening straight
tangents connecting them, when the abruptness of the changes
of direction will depend on the radii of the circular portions.
But if the change from straight to circular is made through the
medium of a suitable curve it is possible to relieve the abruptness,
even on curves of comparatively small radius. The smoothest
and safest running is, in fact, attained when a " transition,"
" easement " or " adjustment " curve is inserted between the
tangent and the point of circular curvature.
For further information see the following papers and the discus-
sions on them: "Transition Curves for Railways," by James
Glover, Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. 140, part ii.; and " High Speed on
Railway Curves," by J. W. Spiller, and " A Practical Method for
the Improvement of Existing Railway Curves," by W. H. Shortt,
Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. 176, part ii.
Gauge. The gauge of a railway is the distance between
the inner edges of the two rails upon which the wheels run.
The width of 4 ft. 8| in. may be regarded as standard, since it
prevails on probably three-quarters of the railways of the
globe. In North America, except for small industrial railways
and some short lines for local traffic, chiefly in mountainous
country, it has become almost universal; the long lines of
3 ft. gauge have mostly been converted, or a third rail has been
laid to permit interchange of vehicles, and the gauges of 5 ft. and
more have disappeared. A considerable number of lines still use
4 ft. 9 in., but as their rolling stock runs freely on the 4 ft. 8J in.
gauge and vice versa, this does not constitute a break of gauge
for traffic purposes. The commercial importance of such free
interchange of traffic is the controlling factor in determining
the gauge of any new railway that is not isolated by its geo-
graphical position. In Great Britain railways are built to
gauges other than 4 ft. 8| in. only under exceptional conditions;
the old " broad gauge " of 7 ft. which I. K. Brunei adopted for
the Great Western railway disappeared on the 20th-23rd of
May 1892, when the main line from London to Penzance was
converted to standard gauge throughout its length. In Ireland
the usual gauge is 5 ft. 3 in., but there are also lines laid to a
3 ft. gauge. On the continent of Europe the standard gauge is
generally adopted, though in France there are many miles of
4 ft. 9 in. gauge; the normal Spanish and Portuguese gauge is,
however, 5 ft. 5} in., and that of Russia 5 ft. In France and
other European countries there is also an important mileage
of metre gauge, and even narrower, on lines of local or secondary
importance. In India the prevailing gauge is s ft. 6 in., but
there is a large mileage of other gauges, especially metre. In
the British colonies the prevailing gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., as in
South Africa, Queensland, Tasmania and New Zealand; but
in New South Wales the normal is 4 ft. 8| in. and in Victoria
5 ft. 3 in., communication between different countries of the
Australian Commonwealth being thus carried on under the
disadvantage of break of gauge. Though the standard gauge
is in use in Lower Egypt, the line into the Egyptian Sudan was
built on a gauge of 3 ft. 6. in., so that if the so-called Cape to
Cairo railway is ever completed, there will be one gauge from
Upper Egypt to Cape Town. In South America the 5 ft. 6 in.
gauge is in use, with various others.
Mono-Rail Systems. The gauge may be regarded as reduced
to its narrowest possible dimensions in mono-rail lines, where
the weight of the trains is carried on a single rail. This method
of construction, however, has been adopted only to a very
limited extent. In the Lartigue system the train is straddled
over a single central rail, elevated a suitable distance above the
ground. A short line of this kind runs from Ballybunnion to
Listowel in Ireland, and a more ambitious project on the same
principle, on the plans of Mr F. B. Behr, to connect Liverpool
and Manchester, was sanctioned by Parliament in 1901. In
this case electricity was to be the motive-power, and speeds
exceeding 100 m. an hour were to be attained, but the line has
not been built. In the Langen mono-rail the cars are hung from
a single overhead rail; a line on this system works between
Barmen and Elberfeld, about 9 m., the cars for a portion
of the distance being suspended over the river Wupper. In
the system devised by Mr Louis Brennan the cars run on a
single rail laid on the ground, their stability being maintained
by a heavy gyrostat revolving at great speed in a vacuum.
Permanent Way. When the earth-works of a line have been
completed and the tops of the embankments and the bottoms
of the cuttings brought to the level decided upon, the next
step is to lay the permanent way, so-called probably in dis-
tinction to the temporary way used during construction. The
first step is to deposit a layer of ballast on the road-bed or
" formation," which often slopes away slightly on each side
from the central line to facilitate drainage. The ballast con-
sists of such materials as broken stone, furnace slag, gravel,
cinders or earth, the lower layers commonly consisting of
coarser materials than the top ones, and its purpose is to provide
a firm, well-drained foundation in which the sleepers or cross-
ties may be embedded and held in place, and by which the
weight of the track and the trains may be distributed over the
road-bed. Its depth varies, according to the traffic which the
line has to bear, from about 6 in. to i ft. or rather more under
the sleepers, and the materials of the surface layers are often
chosen so as to be more or less dustless. Its width depends
on the numbers of tracks and their gauge; for a double line of
standard gauge it is about 25 ft., a space of 6 ft. (" six-
foot way ") being left between the inner rails of each pair in
Great Britain (fig. 8), and a rather larger distance in America
FIG. 8. Half of English Double Track.
(fig. 9), where the over-hang of the rolling stock is greater. The
intervals between the sleepers are filled in level with ballast,
FIG. 9. Half of American Double Track.
which less commonly is also heaped up over them, especially
at the projecting ends.
8 3 8
RAILWAYS
[CONSTRUCTION
Sleepers, called ties or cross-ties in America, are the blocks
or slabs on which the rails are carried. They are nearly always
placed transversely, across the direction of the lines, the longi-
tudinal position such as was adopted in connexion with the
broad gauge on the Great Western in England having been
abandoned except in special cases. Stone blocks were tried as
sleepers in the early days of railways, but they proved too rigid,
and besides, it was found difficult to keep the line true with
them. Wood is the material most widely used, but steel is
employed in some countries where timber is scarce or liable
to destruction by white ants, though it is still regarded as
too expensive in comparison with wood for general adoption.
Steel sleepers were used experimentally on the London &
North- Western, but were abandoned owing to the shortness of
their life. In Germany, where they have met with greater
favour, there were over 265 millions in use in 1905,' and they
have been tried by some American railways. Numerous forms
of ferro-concrete sleepers have also been devised.
In Great Britain, Germany and France, at least 90% of
the wooden sleepers are " treated " before they are laid, to
increase their resistance to decay, and the same practice is
followed to some extent in other European countries. A great
number of preservative processes have been devised. In that
most largely used, known as " creosoting," dead oil of tar, to
the amount of some 3 gallons per sleeper, is forced into the
wood under pressure, or is sucked in by vacuum, both the
timber and the oil being heated. In the United States only a
small percentage of the ties are treated in any way beyond
seasoning in the open air, timber, in the opinion of the railway
officials, being still too cheap in nearly all parts of that country
to justify the use of preservatives. Some railway companies,
however, having a long mileage in timberless regions, do
" treat " their sleepers.
Typical dimensions for sleepers on important British railways
are: length 9 ft., breadth 10 in., and depth 5 in. In America
8 ft. is the most common length, the breadth being 8 in., and the
depth 6 or 7 in.
There are two main ways of attaching the rails to the sleepers,
corresponding to two main types of rails the bull-headed rail
FIG. 10. A, Section of British Bull-Headed Rail, 90 Ib to the
yard, showing also chair and fastenings. B, Plan of Chair.
and the Vignoles or flange rail. In the first method, which is
practically universal in Great Britain and is also employed to
1 See a full account of steel sleepers in a paper read by A. Haar-
mann before the Verein der Deutschen Eisenhiittenleute on Dec. 8,
1907, translated in the Railway Gazette (London) on April 3, 10 and
17, 1908.
some extent in France and India, the rails have rounded bases
and are supported by being wedged, with wooden keys, in cast-
iron chairs which are bolted to the sleepers. In the second
method the rails have flat flanged bases which rest directly on
the sleepers (fig. 10). The chairs on the British system weigh
about 45 or 50 Ib each on important lines, though they may be
less where the traffic is light, and are fixed to the sleepers each
by two, three or four fastenings, either screw spikes, or round
drift bolts entered in holes previously bored, or fang bolts or
wooden trenails. Sometimes a strip of felt is interposed between
the chair and the sleeper, and sometimes a serrated surface is
prepared on the sleeper for the chair which is forced into its
seat by hydraulic pressure. The keys which hold the rail in the
chairs are usually of oak and are placed outside the rails; the
inside position has also been employed, but has the disadvantage
of detracting from the elasticity of the road since the weight of a
passing train presses the rails up against a rigid mass of metal
instead of against a slightly yielding block of wood. The rails,
which for heavy main line traffic may weigh as much as 100 Ib
per yard, or even more, are rolled in lengths of from 30 to 60 ft.,
and sleepers are placed under them at intervals of between 2
and 3 ft. (centre to centre), n sleepers to a 30 ft. rail being a
common arrangement. On the London & North- Western railway
there are 24 sleepers to each 60 ft. rail. A small space is left
between the end of one rail and that of the next, in order to allow
for expansion in hot weather, and at the joint the two are
firmly braced together by a pair of fish-plates (fig.n). These
are flat bars of iron or steel from 18 in. to 2 ft.
long, which are lodged in the channels of the
rail, one on each side, and secured with four
bolts passing through the web; sometimes, to
give additional stiffness, they extend down
below the lower table of the rail and are bent
round so as to clip it. Occasionally the joints
thus formed are " supported " on a sleeper,
as was the practice in the early days of rail- F IG - J 1 - British
way construction, but they are generally a" and
" suspended " between two sleepers, which are
set rather more closely together than at other points in the rail.
Preferably, they are so arranged that those in both lines of rails
come opposite each other and are placed between the same pair
of sleepers.
Flat-bottomed rails are fastened to the sleepers by hook-
headed spikes, the heads of which project over the flanges.
In the United States the spikes are simply driven in with a maul,
and the rails stand upright, little care being taken to prepare
seats for them on the sleepers, on which they soon seat them-
selves. The whole arrangement is simple and cheap in first
cost, and it lends itself admirably to fast track-laying and to
repairs and changes of line. On the continent of Europe the
practice is common of notching the sleeper so as to give the rail
a slight cant inwards a result obtained in England by canting
the rail in the chairs and metal plates or strips of felt are put
under the rail, which is carefully fastened to the sleeper by
screwed spikes (fig. 12). This method of construction is more
FIG. 12. French Rail, 90! Ib to the yard, showing rail joint
and seat in the sleeper.
expensive than the American in first cost, but it gives a more
durable and stable track. Such metal plates, or " tie-plates,"
have come into considerable use also in the United States, where
they are always made of rolled steel, punched with rectangular
holes through which the spikes pass. They serve two principal
CONSTRUCTION]
RAILWAYS
839
purposes: they diminish the wear of the sleeper under the rail
by providing a larger bearing surface, and they help to support
the spikes and so to keep the gauge. On all the accepted forms
there are two or more flanges at the bottom, running lengthwise
of the plate and crosswise of the rail; these are requisite to give
proper stiffness, and further, as they are forced into the tie by
the weight of passing traffic, they help to fix the plate securely
in place. The joints of flanged rails are similar to those employed
with bull-headed rails. Various forms, mostly patented, have
been tried in the United States, but the one most generally
adopted consists of two symmetrical angle bars (fig. 13),
varying in length (from 20 to
48 in.), in weight and in the
number of bolts, which may be four
or six.
The substitution of steel for iron
as the material for rails which
made possible the axle loads and
the speeds of to-day, and, by
reducing the cost of maintenance,
contributed enormously to the
FIG. 13-Amencan Rad, 90 economic efficiency of railways,
was one of the most important
events in the history of railways,
jb to the yard, showing rail
joint.
and a scarcely less important element of progressive economy has
been the continued improvement of the steel rail in stiffness of
section and in toughness and hardness of material. Carbon is
the important element in controlling hardness, and the amount
present is in general higher in the United States than in Great
Britain. The specifications for bull-headed rails issued by the
British Engineering Standards Committee in 1004 provided for a
carbon-content ranging from 0-35 to 0-50%, with a phosphorus
maximum of 0-075%. 1 tne United States a committee of
the American Society of Civil Engineers, appointed to consider
the question of rail manufacture in consequence of an increase
in the number of rail-failures, issued an interim report in 1907
in which it suggested a range of carbon from 0-55 to 0-65% for
the heaviest sections of Bessemer steel flange rails, with a
phosphorus maximum of 0-085%; while the specifications of
the American Society for Testing Materials, current at the same
period, put the carbon limits at 0-45 to 0-55%, and the phos-
phorus limit at o-io. For rails of basic open-hearth steel,
which is rapidly ousting Bessemer steel, the Civil Engineers'
specifications allowed from 0-65 to 0-75% of carbon with 0-05%
of phosphorus, while the specifications of the American Railway
Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association provided for
a range of 0*75 to 0-85% of carbon, with a maximum of 0-03%
of phosphorus. The rail-failures mentioned above also drew
renewed attention to the importance of the thermal treatment
of the steel from the time of melting to the last passage through
the rolling mill and to the necessity of the finishing temperature
being sufficiently low if the product is to be fine grained, homo-
geneous and tough; and to permit of this requirement being met
there was a tendency to increase the thickness of the metal in
the web and flanges of the rails. The standard specification
adopted by the Pennsylvania railway in 1908 provided that in
rails weighing 100 Ib to the yard 41 % of the metal should be
in the head, 18-6% in the web, and 40-4% in the base, while
for 85 !b rails 42-2% was to be in the head, 17-8% in the web
and 40-0% in the base. These rails were to be rolled in 33-ft.
lengths. According to the specification for 85 Ib rails adopted by
the Canadian Pacific railway about the same time, 36-77% of
the metal was to be in the head, 22-21 %in the web and 41-02%
in the base.
Points and Crossings. To enable trains to be transferred
from one pair of rails to another pair, as from the main line
to a siding, " points " or " switches " are provided. At the
place where the four rails come together, the two inner ones
(one of the main line and the other of the siding), known as
" switch rails " (6, fig. 14), are tapered to a fine point or tongue,
and rigidly connected together at such a distance apart that
when one of the points is pressed against the outer or " stock "
I I
rail (a) of either the siding or the main line there is sufficient
space between the other tongue and the other stock rail to
permit the free passage of
the flanges of the wheels
on one side of the train,
while the flanges on the
other side find a con-
tinuous path along the
other switch rail and thus
are deflected in the desired
direction. The same ar-
rangement is employed
at junctions where differ-
ent running lines con-
verge. The points over
which a train travels when
directed from the main
to a branch line are called
" facing points " (FP),
while those which it passes
when running from a
branch to a main line are
"trailing points" (TP).
In Great Britain the Board
of Trade requires facing
points to be avoided as
far as possible; but, of
course, they are a neces-
sity at junctions where
running lines diverge and
at the crossing places
which must be provided
to enable trains to pass
each other on single-track
lines. At stations the
points that give access
to sidings are generally
arranged as trailing points
with respect to the direc-
tion of traffic on the main
lines; that is, trains can-
FlG. 14. Points and Crossings.
FP = Facing points.
TP= Trailing points,
a = Stock rail.
6 = Switch rail.
V = Single or V-crossing.
D= Diamond crossing.
c = Check rails.
<i = Wing rails.
e = Winged check rails.
/ = Diamond points.
backwards into them. In
not pass direct into sidings,
but have to stop and then run
shunting yards the points are commonly set in the required
direction by means of hand levers placed close beside the
lines, but those at junctions and those which give access
from the main lines to sidings at wayside stations are worked
by a system of rods from the signal cabin, or by electric or
pneumatic power controlled from it and interlocked with the
signals (see SIGNAL: Railway). Crossings are inevitable
adjuncts of points. Where a branch diverges from a main
line, one rail of the one must cross one rail of the other, and a
V-crossing is formed (V)- Where, as at a double-line junction,
one pair of rails crosses another pair, " diamond " crossings (D)
are formed. At both types of crossing, check rails (c) must be
provided to guide the wheel-flanges, and if these are not accur-
ately placed the safety of the trains will be endangered. At
double-line junctions trains passing over the diamond crossings
evidently block traffic going in the opposite direction to that
in which they are travelling. To avoid the delay thus caused
the branch line which would occasion the diamond crossing
if it were taken across on the level is sometimes carried over
the main line by an over-bridge (" flying junction ") or under
it by an under-bridge (" burrowing junction").
Railway Stations. Railway stations are either " terminal "
or " intermediate." A terminal station embraces (i) the
passenger station; (2) the goods station; (3) the locomotive,
carriage and waggon depots, where the engines and the carrying
stock are kept, cleaned, examined and repaired. At many
intermediate stations the same arrangements, on a smaller
scale, are made; in all of them there is at least accommoda-
tion for the passenger and the goods traffic. The stations for
B40
RAILWAYS
[CONSTRUCTION
. passengers and goods are generally in different and sometimes
in distant positions, the place selected for each being that
which is most convenient for the traffic. The passenger station
abuts on the main line, or, at termini, forms the natural terminus,
at a place as near as can conveniently be obtained to the centre
of the population which constitutes the passenger traffic;
and preferably its platforms should be at or near the ground
level, for convenience of access. The goods station is ap-
proached by a siding or fork set off from the main line at a
point short of the passenger station. In order to keep down
the expense of shunting the empty trains and engines to and
from the platforms the carriage and locomotive depots should
be as near the passenger station as possible; but often the
price of land renders it impracticable to locate them in the
immediate vicinity and they are to be found at a distance of
several miles.
In laying out the approaches and station yard of a passenger
station ample width and space should be provided, with well-
defined means of ingress and egress to facilitate the
circulation of vehicles and with a long setting-down
pavement to enable them to discharge their passengers
and luggage without delay. The position of the main buildings
^ticket offices, waiting and refreshment-rooms, parcels offices,
&c. relative to the direction of the lines of rails may be used
as a means of classifying terminal stations. They are placed
either on the departure side parallel to the platform (" side "
stations) or at right angles to the rails and platforms (" end "
stations). Many large stations, however, are of a mixed type,
and the offices are arranged in a fork between two or more
series of platforms, or partly at the end and partly on one side.
Where heavy suburban traffic has to be dealt with, the ex-
pedient is occasionally adopted of taking some of the lines round
the end in a continuous loop, so that incoming trains can
deposit their passengers at an underground platform and
immediately proceed on their outward journey. Intermediate
stations, like terminal ones, should be convenient in situation
and easy of approach, and, especially if they are important,
should be on the ground level rather than on an embankment
or in a cutting. The lines through them should be, if possible,
straight and on the level; the British Board of Trade forbids
them being placed on a gradient steeper than i in 260, unless
it is unavoidable. Intermediate stations at the surface level
are naturally constructed as side stations, and whether
offices are provided on both sides or whether they are mainly
concentrated on one will depend on local circumstances, the
amount of the traffic, and the direction in which it preponder-
ates. When the railway lies below the surface level the bulk
of the offices are often placed on a bridge spanning the lines,
access being given to the platforms by staircases or lifts, and
similarly when the railway is at a high level the offices may
be arranged under the lines. Occasionally on a double-track
railway one platform placed between the tracks serves both
of them; this " island " arrangement, as it is termed, has
the advantage that more tracks can be readily added without
disturbance of existing buildings, but when it is adopted the
exit from the trains is at the opposite side to that which is
usual, and accidents have happened through passengers alight-
ing at the usual side without noticing the absence of a plat-
form. At stations on double-track railways which have a
heavy traffic four tracks are sometimes provided, the two
outside ones only having platforms, so that fast trains get a
clear road and can pass slow ones that are standing in the
station. In Great Britain, it may be noted, trains almost
invariably keep to the left, whereas in most other countries
right-handed running is the rule.
The arrangement and appropriation of the tracks in a station
materially affect the economical and efficient working of the
traffic. There must be a sufficient provision of sidings, con-
nected with the running tracks by points, for holding spare
rolling stock and to enable carriages to be added to or taken
off trains and engines to be changed with as little delay as
" ile. At terminal stations, especially at such as are used
by short-distance trains which arrive at and start from the
same platform, a third track is often laid between a pair of
platform tracks, so that the engine of a train which has arrived
at the platform can pass out and place itself at the other end
of the train, which remains undisturbed. At the new Victoria
station (London) of the London, Brighton & South Coast
railway which is so long that two trains can stand end to
end at the platforms this system is extended so as to permit a
train to start out from the inner end of a platform even though
another train is occupying the outer end. One of the advan-
tages of electric trains on the multiple control system is that
they economize terminal accommodation, because they can be
driven from either end indifferently, and therefore avoid the
necessity for tracks by which engines can change from one end
of the train to the other.
The platforms on British railways have a standard elevation
of 3 ft. above rail level, and they are not now made less than
2 5 ft. in height. In other countries they are generally lower;
in the United States they are commonly level with, or only a
few inches higher than, the top of the rails. They may consist
of earth with a retaining wall along the tracks and with the
surface gravelled or paved with stone or asphalt, or they may
be constructed entirely of timber, or they may be formed of
stone slabs supported on longitudinal walls. They should be
of ample dimensions to accommodate the traffic the British
Board of Trade requires them to be not less than 6 ft. wide at
small stations and not less than 12 ft. wide at large ones and
they should be as free as possible from obstructions, such as
pillars supporting the roof. At intermediate stations the roofs
are often carried on brackets fixed to the walls of the station
buildings, and project only to the edge of the platforms. At
larger stations where both the platforms and the tracks are
covered in, there are two broad types of construction, with
many intermediate variations: the roof may either be com-
paratively low, of the " ridge and furrow " pattern, borne on
a number of rows of pillars, or it may consist of a single lofty
span extending clear across the area from the side walls. The
advantage claimed for roofs formed with one or two large spans
is that they permit the platforms and tracks to be readily
rearranged at any time as required, whereas this is difficult with
the other type, especially since the British Board of Trade
requires the pillars to be not less than 6 ft. away from the
edges of the platforms. On the other hand, wide spans are
more expensive both in first cost and in maintenance, and there
is the possibility of a failure such as caused the collapse in
December 1905 of the roof of Charing Cross (S.E.R.) station,
London, which then consisted of a single span. Whatever
the pattern adopted for the roof, a sufficient portion of it must
be glazed to admit light, and it should be so designed that the
ironwork can be easily inspected and painted and the glass
readily cleaned. For the illumination of large stations by
night electric arc lamps are frequently employed, but some
authorities favour high-pressure incandescent gas-lighting.
At busy stations separate tracks are sometimes appropriated to
the use of light engines and empty trains, on which they may
be run between the platforms and the locomotive and LOCO-
carriage depots. A carriage depot includes sheds in
which the vehicles are stored, arrangements for wash-
ing and cleaning them, and sidings on which they are mar-
shalled into trains. At a locomotive depot the chief building
is the " running shed " in which the engines are housed and
cleaned. This may be rectangular in shape (" straight " shed),
containing a series of parallel tracks on which the engines stand
and which are reached by means of points and crossings di-
verging from a main track outside; or it may take a polygonal
or circular form (round house or rotunda), the lines for the
engines radiating from a turn-table which occupies the centre
and can be rotated so as to serve any of the radiating lines.
The second arrangement enables any particular engine to enter
or leave without disturbing the other; but on the other hand
an accident to the turn-table may temporarily imprison the whole
of them. In both types pits are constructed between the rails
CONSTRUCTION]
RAILWAYS
841
Goods
on which the engines stand to afford easy access for the inspec-
tion and cleaning of their mechanism. Machine shops are
usually provided to enable minor repairs to be executed; the
tendency, both in England and America, is to increase the
amount of such repairing plant at engine sheds, thus lengthening
the intervals between the visits of the engines to the main
repairing shops of the railway. A locomotive depot further
includes stores of the various materials required in working
the engines, coal stages at which they are loaded with coal,
and an ample supply of water. The quality of the last is a
matter of great importance; when it is unsuitable, the boilers
will suffer, and the installation of a water-softening plant may
save more in the expenses of boiler maintenance than it costs
to operate. The water cranes or towers which are placed at
intervals along the railway to supply the engines with water
require similar care in regard to the quality of the water laid
on to them, as also to the water troughs, or track tanks as they
are called in America, by which engines are able to pick up
water without stopping. These consist of shallow troughs
about 1 8 in. wide, placed between the rails on perfectly level
stretches of line. When water is required, a scoop is lowered
into them from below the engine, and if the speed is sufficient
the water is forced up it into the tender-tanks. Such troughs
were first employed on the London & North-Western railway
in 1857 by John Ramsbottom, and have since been adopted on
many other lines.
Goods stations vary in size from those which consist of
perhaps a single siding, to those which have accommodation
* or tnousan ds of wagons. At a small roadside station,
where the traffic is of a purely local character, there
will be some sidings to which horses and carts have
access for handling bulk goods like coal, gravel, manure, &c.,
and a covered shed for loading and unloading packages and
materials which it is undesirable to expose to the weather. The
shed may have a single pair of rails for wagons running through
it along one side of a raised platform, there being a roadway for
cartson the other side; or if more accommodation is required
there may be two tracks, one on each side of the platform, which
is then approached by carts at the end. In either case the
platform is fitted with a crane or cranes for lifting merchandise
into and out of the wagons, and doors enable the shed to be
used as a lock-up warehouse. In a large station the arrange-
ments become much more complicated, the precise design being
governed by the nature of the traffic that has to be served and by
the physical configuration of the site. It is generally convenient
to keep the inwards and the outwards traffic distinct and to deal
with the two classes separately; at junction stations it may also
be necessary to provide for the transfer of freight from one wagon
to another, though the bulk of goods traffic is conveyed through
to its destination in the wagons into which it was originally
loaded. The increased loading space required in the sheds is
obtained by multiplying the number and the length of lines
and platforms; sometimes also there are short sidings, cut into
the platforms at right angles to the lines, in which wagons are
placed by the aid of wagon turn-tables, and sometimes the wagons
are dealt with on two floors, being raised or lowered bodily
from the ground level by lifts. The higher floors commonly
form warehouses where traders may store goods which have
arrived or are awaiting despatch. An elaborate organization
is required to keep a complete check and record of all the
goods entering and leaving the station, to ensure that they are
loaded into the proper wagons according to their destination,
that they are unloaded and sorted in such a way that they can
be delivered to their consignees with the least possible delay,
that they are not stolen or accidentally mislaid, &c.; and
accommodation must be provided for a large clerical and
supervisory staff to attend to these matters. British rail-
ways also undertake the collection and delivery of freight, in
addition to transporting it, and thus an extensive range of
vans and wagons, whether drawn by horses or mechanically
propelled, must be provided in connexion with an important
station.
Shunting Yards. It may happen that from a large station
sufficient traffic may be consigned to certain other large
stations to enable full train-loads to be made up daily, or several
times a day, and despatched direct to their destinations. In
general, however, the conditions are less simple. Though a
busy colliery may send off its product by the train-load to
an important town, the wagons will usually be addressed to a
number of different consignees at different depots in different
parts of the town, and therefore the train will have to be broken
up somewhere short of its destination and its trucks rearranged,
together with those of other trains similarly constituted, into
fresh trains for conveyance to the various depots. Again, a
station of moderate size may collect goods destined for a great
variety of places but not in sufficient quantities to compose a
full train-load for any of them, and then it becomes impossible,
except at the cost of uneconomical working, to avoid despatching
trains which contain wagons intended for many diverse destina-
tions. For some distance these wagons will all travel over the
same line, but sooner or later they will reach a junction-point
where their ways will diverge and where they must be separated.
At this point trains of wagons similarly destined for different
places will be arriving from other lines, and hence the necessity
will arise of collecting together from all the trains all the wagons
which are travelling to the same place.
The problem may be illustrated diagrammatically as follows
(fig. 15): A may be supposed to be a junction outside a large
I
FIG. 15. Diagram to illustrate use of Shunting Yards.
seaport where branches from docks a, b, c and d converge, and
where the main line also divides into three' 'going to B, C and D
respectively. A train from a will contain some wagons for B,
some for C and some for D, as will also the trains from a, b, c and
d. At A therefore it becomes necessary to disentangle and group
together all the wagons that are intended for B, all that are intended
for C, and all that are intended for D. Even that is not the whole
of the problem. Between A and B, A and C, and A and D, there
may be a string of stations, p, y, r, s, &c., all receiving goods from
a, b, c and d, and it would manifestly be inconvenient and wasteful
of time and trouble if the trains serving those intermediate stations
were made up with, say, six wagons from a to p next the engine, five
from 6 to p at the middle, and four from c to p near the end. Hence
at A the trucks from a, b, c and d must not only be sorted according
as they have to travel along A B, A C, or A D, but also must be
marshalled into trains in the order of the stations along those lines.
Conversely, trains arriving at A from B, C and D must be broken up
and remade in order to distribute their wagons to the different
dock branches.
To enable the wagons to be shunted into the desired order yards
containing a large number of sidings are constructed at important
junction points like A. Such a yard consists essentially of a group
or groups of sidings, equal in length at least to the longest train run
on the line, branching out from a single main track and often again
converging to a single track at the other end; the precise design,
however, varies with the amount and character of the work that
has to be done, with the configuration of the ground, and also with
the mode of shunting adopted. The oldest and commonest method
of shunting is that Known as " push-and-pull," or in America as
" link-and-pin " or " tail " shunting. An engine coupled to a batch
of wagons runs one or more of them down one siding, leaves them
there, then returns back with the remainder clear of the points
where the sidings diverge, runs one or more others down another
siding, and so on till they are all disposed of. The same operation
is repeated with fresh batches of wagons, until the sidings contain
a number of trains, each intended, it may be supposed, for a particular
town or district. In -some cases nothing more is required than to
attach an engine and brake-van (" caboose ") and despatch the
train; but if, as will happen in others, a further rearrangement of
842
RAILWAYS
[LOCOMOTIVE POWER
the wagons is necessary to get them into station order this is effected
on the same principle.
Push-and-pull shunting is simple, but it is also slow, and there-
fore efforts have been made at busy yards where great numbers of
trains are dealt with to introduce more expeditious methods. One
of these, employed in America, is known as " poling." Alongside
the tracks on which stand the trains that are to be broken up and
from which the sidings diverge subsidiary tracks are provided for
the use of the shunting engines. These engines have a pole pro-
jecting horizontally in front of them, or are attached to a " pole-
car " having such a pole. The method of working is for the pole
to be swung out behind a number of wagons; one engine is then
started and with its pole pushes the wagons in front of it until their
speed is sufficient to carry them over the points, where they are
diverted into any desired siding. It then runs back to the train
to repeat the operation, but while it is doing so a second engine
similarly equipped has poled away a batch of wagons on the opposite
side. In this way a train is distributed with great rapidity, especi-
ally if the points giving access to the different sidings are worked
by power so that they can be quickly manipulated.
Another method, which was introduced into America from Europe
about 1890, is that of the summit or " hump." The wagons are
pushed by an engine at their rear up one slope of an artificial mound,
and as they run down the other slope by gravity are switched into
the desired siding. Sometimes a site can be found for the sorting
sidings where the natural slope of the ground is sufficiently steep
to make the wagons run down of themselves. One of the earliest
and best known of such " gravity " yards is that at Edgehill, near
Liverpool, on the London & North-Western railway, which was
established in 1873. Here, at the highest level, there are a number
of " upper reception lines " converging to a single line which leads
to a group of " sorting sidings " at a lower level. These in turn
converge to a pair of single lines which lead to two groups of marshall-
ing sidings, called " gridirons " from their shape, and these again
converge to single lines leading to " lower reception and departure
lines " at the bottom of the slope. The wagons from the upper
reception lines are sorted into trains on the sorting sidings, and then,
in the gridirons, are arranged in the appropriate order and marshalled
ready to be sent off from the departure lines. (H. M. R.)
LOCOMOTIVE POWER
The term " power " is used in technical sense to mean the
rate at which work is done against a resistance, and is measured
in units of energy expended per unit of time. The unit of power
commonly used by engineers is the horse-power, and this unit
corresponds to a rate of working of 550 foot-lb of work per second.
The problems arising out of the special consideration of the
power required to propel a railway train against the resistances
opposing its motion, the way the power is applied to trains, the
agent by means of which the power is exerted, are conveniently
grouped together under the general heading of Locomotive
Power. There are certain fundamental relations common to
all tractive problems, and these are briefly considered in i and
2, after which the article refers particularly to steam locomotives,
although 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10 have a general application to all
modes of traction.
i. Fundamental Relations. The resistance against which
a train is moved along a railway is overcome by means of
energy obtained from the combustion of fuel, or in some few
cases by energy obtained from a waterfall. If the total resist-
ance against which the train is maintained in motion with an
instantaneous velocity of V feet per second is R, the rate at
which energy is expended in moving the train is represented by
the product RV, and this must be the rate at which energy is
supplied to the train after deducting all losses due to transmission
from the source of power. Thus if R is equal to 10,000 Ib when
the velocity is 44 ft. per second, equivalent to 30 m. per hour,
the rate of working against the resistance is 440,000 foot-lb per
second.
In whatever form energy is produced and distributed to
the train it ultimately appears as mechanical energy applied
to turn one or more axles against the resistance to their rotation
imposed by the weight on the wheels and the motion of the
train.
The rate at which work is done on a particular axle is measured
by the product Tou, where T is the torque or turning moment
exerted on the axle by the motor or mechanism applied to it for
this purpose, and u is the angular velocity of the axle in radians
per second. Hence if all the energy supplied to the train is utilized
at one axle there is the fundamental relation
T<o = RV (i)
Continuing the above arithmetical illustration, if the wheels to the
axle of which the torque is applied are 4 ft. diameter, u = 44/2 =22
radians per second, and therefore T = 440,000/22 = 20,000 tb ft.
If the energy supplied is distributed between several axles the
relation becomes
T^+T^+Tsus . . . =RV (2)
where TI, T 2 , T 3 , &c. are the torques on the axles whose respective
angular velocities are u>i,u>2, ws, &c.
The fundamental condition governing the design of all tractive
machinery is that the wheels belonging to the axles to which
torque is applied shall roll along the rails without slipping, and
exert a tractive force on the train.
The fundamental relation between the applied torque and the
tractive force F will be understood from fig. 16, which shows in a
diagrammatic form a wheel and
axle connected to the framework
of a vehicle, in the way adopted
for railway trains. The journal
of the axle A, is carried in a bear-
ing or axle-box B, which is free
to move vertically in the wide
vertical slot G, formed in the frame
and called generally " the horns,'"
under the control of the spring.
The weight Wi carried by the part
of the frame supported by the
wheel (whose diameter is D) is
transmitted first to the pins Pi, P 2 ,
which are fixed to the frame, and FIG. 16. Wheel and Connexion
then to the spring links Li, L 2 , to Frame,
which are jointed at their respective ends to the spring S, the centre
of which rests on the axle-box.
Let a couple be applied to the axle tending to turn it in the direc-
tion shown by the arrow. This couple, we may assume, will be
equally divided between the two wheels, so that the torque acting
on each will be JT. Assuming the wheels to roll along the rail
without slipping, this couple will be equivalent to the couple formed
by the equal opposite and parallel forces, FI acting in the direction
shown, from the axle-box on to the frame, and Fi=pB, acting along
the rail. The torque corresponding to this couple is FI X |D = jjiWiD,
and hence follows the fundamental relation, JT = jFiD = 5AiWiD,
or if W now represents the weight supported by the axle, F will be
the tractive force exerted on the frame by the two axle-boxes to
propel the vehicle, and the more convenient relation is established,
T = JFD = i M WD .(3)
If T has a greater value than this relation justifies the wheels will
slip. F is called the " tractive force " at the rail. The coefficient
of friction /i is a variable quantity depending upon the state of the
rails, but is usually taken to be J. This is the fundamental equa-
tion between the forces acting, however the torque may be applied.
Multiplying through by o> we obtain
Ta> = $F u D = i M Wa,D = RV (4)
This is a fundamental energy equation for any form of locomotive
in which there is only one driving-axle.
The couple T is necessarily accompanied by an equal and opposite
couple acting on the frame, which couple endeavours to turn the
frame in the opposite direction to that in which the axle rotates.
The practical effect of this opposite couple is slightly to tilt the frame
and thus to redistribute slightly the weights on the wheels carrying
the vehicle.
If there are several driving-axles in a train, the product Tw must
be estimated for each separately; then the sum of the products
will be equal to RV. In equation (4) there is a fixed relation
between o>, V and D given by the expression
o, = 2V/6 (5)
Here D is in feet, V in feet per second and u in radians per second.
If the speed is given in miles per hour, S say,
V = 1-466 S (6)
The revolutions of the axle per second, n, are connected with the
radians turned through per second by the relation
W = o>/2ir = 01/6-38 (7)
2. Methods of Applying Locomotive Power. By locomotive
power is to be understood the provision of power to maintain
the rates of working on the driving-axles of a train indicated by
the relation (4). The most usual way of providing this power is
by the combustion of coal in the fire-box of a boiler and the
utilization of the steam produced in a steam-engine, both boiler
and engine being carried on a frame mounted on wheels in such
a way that the crank-shaft of the steam-engine becomes the
driving-axle of the train. From equation (3) it is clear that the
wheels of the driving-axle must be heavily loaded in order that
F may have a value sufficiently great to propel the train. The
maximum weight which one pair of wheels are usually allowed to
carry on a first-class track is from 18 to 20 tons. If a larger
LOCOMOTIVE POWER]
RAILWAYS
843
value of the tractive force is required than this provides for,
namely from 4 to 5 tons, the driving-wheels are coupled to one
or more pairs of heavily loaded wheels, forming a class of what
are called " coupled engines " in contradistinction to the " single
engine " with a single pair of loaded driving-wheels. Mechanical
energy may be developed in bulk at a central station conveniently
situated with regard to a coal-field or a waterfall, and after
transformation by means of electric generators into electric
energy it may be transmitted to the locomotive and then by
means of electric motors be retransformed into mechanical
energy at the axles to which the motors are applied. Every
axle of an electric locomotive may thus be subjected to a torque,
and the large weight which must be put on one pair of wheels
in order to secure sufficient adhesion when all the driving is
done from one axle may be distributed through as many pairs
of wheels as desired. In fact, there need be no specially
differentiated locomotive at all. Motors may be applied to
every axle in the train, and their individual torques adjusted to
values suitable to the weights naturally carried by the several
axles. Such an arrangement would be ideally perfect from the
point of view of the permanent-way engineer, because it would
then be possible to distribute the whole of the load uniformly
between the wheels. This perfection of distribution is practi-
cally attained in present-day practice by the multiple control
system of operating an electric train, where motors are applied
to a selected number of axles in the train, all of them being
under the perfect control of the driver.
The fundamental difference between the two methods is that
while the mechanical energy developed by a steam engine is in
the first case applied directly to the driving-axle of the loco-
motive, in the second case it is transformed into electrical
energy, transmitted over relatively long distances, and retrans-
formed into mechanical energy on the driving-axles of the train.
In the first case all the driving is done on one or at most two
axles, sufficient tractive force being obtained by coupling these
axles when necessary to others carrying heavy loads. In the
second case every axle in the train may be made a driving-axle
if desired, in which case the locomotive as a separate machine
disappears. In the second case, however, there are all the
losses due to transmission from the central station to the train to
be considered, as well as the cost of the transmitting apparatus
itself. Ultimately the question resolves itself into one of com-
mercial practicability. For suburban traffic with a service at
a few minutes' interval and short distances between the stations
electric traction has proved itself to be superior in many respects
to the steam locomotive, but for main line traffic and long dis-
tance runs it has not yet been demonstrated that it is com-
mercially feasible, though it is known to be practically possible.
For the methods of electric traction see TRACTION; the remainder
of the present article will be devoted to the steam locomotive.
3. General Efficiency of Steam Locomotive. One pound of good
Welsh coal properly burned in the fire-box of a locomotive yields
about 15,000 British thermal units of heat at a temperature high
enough to enable from 50 to 80% to flow across the boiler-heating
surface to the water, the rest escaping up the chimney with the
furnace gases. The steam produced in consequence of this heat
transference from the furnace gas to the water carries heat to the
cylinder, where 7 to 1 1 % is transformed into mechanical energy,
the remainder passing away up the chimney with the exhaust
steam. The average value of the product of these percentages,
namely 0-65X0-00 = 0-06 say, may be used to investigate generally
the working of a locomotive ; the actual value could only be deter-
mined by experiment in any particular case. With this assumption,
0-06 is the fraction of the heat energy of the coal which is utilized
in the engine cylinders as mechanical work; that is to say, of
the 15,000 B.Th.U. produced by the combustion of I Ib of coal,
15,000X0-06=900 only are available for tractive purposes.
Coals vary much in calorific value, some producing only 12,000
B.Th.U. per Ib when burnt, whilst 15,500 is obtained from the best
Welsh coals. Let E represent the pounds of coal burnt per hour
in the fire-box of a locomotive, and let c be the calorific value
in B.Th.U. per Ib; then the mechanical energy available in foot-
pounds per hour is approximately 0-06 X 778 X Kf, and this expressed
in hprse-power units gives
I.H.P._*6XZZXE_ 6 4 g.
i ,980,000.
A " perfect engine " receiving and rejecting steam at the same
temperatures as the actual engine of the locomotive, would develop
about twice this power, say 1400 I.H.P. This figure represents the
ideal but unattainable standard of performance. This question
of the standard engine of comparison, and the engine efficiency
is considered in 15 below, and the boiler efficiency in n below.
The indicated horse-power developed by a cylinder may always
be ascertained from an indicator diagram and observations of the
speed. Let p be the mean pressure in pounds per square inch, cal-
culated from an indicator diagram taken from a particular cylinder
when the speed of the crank-shaft is n revolutions per second.
Also let / be the length of the stroke in feet and let a be the area of one
cylinder in square inches, then, assuming two cylinders of equal size,
I.H.P. =2 plan/550 (8)
The I.H.P. at any instant is equal to the total rate at which energy
is required to overcome the tractive resistance R. The horse-
power available at the driving-axle, conveniently called the brake
horse-power, is from 20 to 30% less than the indicated horse-power,
and the ratio, B.H.P./I.H.P. = , is called the mechanical efficiency
of the steam engine. The relation between the b.h.p. and the
torque on the driving-axle is
55oB.H.P.=T (9)
It is usual with steam locomotives to regard the resistance R as
including the frictional resistances between the cylinders and the
driving-axle, so that the rate at which energy is expended in moving
the train is expressed either by the product RV, or by the value of
the indicated horse-power, the relation between them being
550 I.H.P. = RV (10)
or in terms of the torque
550 I.H.P. X = RVe=T (u)
The individual factors of the product RV may have any value
consistent with equation (10) and with certain practical conditions,
so that for a given value of the I.H.P. R must decrease if V increases.
Thus if the maximum horse-power which a locomotive can develop
is icoo, the tractive resistance R, at 60 m. per hour ( = 88 ft. per
second) is R = (ioooX55o)/88=625O Ib. If, however, the speed is
reduced to 15 m. per hour ( = 22 ft. per second) R increases to 25,000 Ib.
Thus an engine working at maximum power may be used to haul a
relatively light load at a high speed or a heavy load at a slow speed.
4. Analysis of Train Resistance. Train resistance may be
analysed into the following components:
(1) Journal friction and friction of engine machinery.
(2) Wind resistance.
(3) Resistance due to gradients, represented by R,.
(4) Resistance due to miscellaneous causes.
(5) Resistance due to acceleration, represented by R .
(6) Resistance due to curves.
The sum of all these components of resistance is at any instant
equal to the resistance represented by R. At a uniform speed
on a level straight road 3, 5 and 6 are zero. The total resistance
is conveniently divided into two parts: (i) the resistance due
to the vehicles hauled by the engine, represented by R t ; (2) the
resistance of the engine and tender represented by R.. In each
of these two cases the resistance can of course be analysed into
the six components set out in the above list.
5. Vehicle Resistance and Draw-bar Pull. The power of the
engine is applied to the vehicles through the draw-bar, so that the
draw-bar pull is a measure of the vehicle resistance. The draw-bar
pull for a given load is a function of the speed of the train, and numerous
experiments have been made to find the relation connecting the
pull with the speed under various conditions. The usual way of
experimenting is to put a dynamometer car (see DYNAMOMETER)
between the engine and the train. This car is equipped with
apparatus by means of which a continuous record of the draw-bar pull
is obtained on a distance base; time indications are also made on
the diagram from which the speed at any instant can be deduced.
The pull recorded on the diagram includes the resistances due to
acceleration and to the gradient on which the train is moving. It is
usual to subtract these resistances from the observed pull, so as to
obtain the draw-bar pull reduced to what it would be at a uniform
speed on the level. This corrected pull is then divided by the weight
of the vehicles hauled, in which must be included _ the weight of
the dynamometer car, and the quotient gives the resistance per ton
of load hauled at a certain uniform speed on a straight and level
road. A series of experiments were made by J. A. F. Aspinall on
the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway to ascertain the resistance of
trains of bogie passenger carriages of different lengths at varying
speeds, and the results are recorded in a paper, " Train Resistance,"
Proc. Inst. C.E. (1901), vol. 147. Aspinall 's results are expressed
by the formula
r " =2 ' 5+ 5o-8-r-o-0278,L
where r. Is the resistance in pounds per ton, S is the speed in miles
per hour, and L is the length of the train in feet measured over the
.8 4 4
RAILWAYS
[LOCOMOTIVE POWER
carriage bodies. The two following expressions are given in the
.Bulletin of the International Railway Congress (vol. xii. p. 1275),
by Barbier, for some experiments made on .the Northern railway
of France with a train of 157 tons mean weight; they are valid
between 37 and 77 m. per hour:
for 4-wheel coaches, (13)
i-64S(i-6iS + io) , , .
1000 for bogie coaches.
The Baldwin Locomotive Company give the formulae
(14)
d5)
and
r^ =1-68 +0-2248 for speeds from 47 to 77 m. per hour. (16)
All the above formulae refer to carriage stock. The resistance of
goods wagons has not been so systematically investigated. In the
paper above quoted Aspinall cites a case where the resistance of a
train of empty wagons 1830 ft. long was 18-33 H> P er ton at a speed
of 26 m. per hour, and a train of full wagons 1045 ft. long gave only
9-12 ft per ton at a speed of 29 m. per hour. The resistance found
from the above expressions includes the components I, 2 and 4 of
4. The resistance caused by the wind is very variable, and in
extreme cases may double the resistance found from the formulae.
A side wind causes excessive flange friction on the leeward side of
the train, and increases the tractive resistances therefore very
considerably, even though its velocity be relatively moderate.
The curves corresponding to the above expressions are plotted in
fig. 17, four values of L being taken for formula (12) corresponding
to trains of 5, 10, 15 and 20 bogie carriages.
The resistance at starting is greater than the running resistance
at moderate speeds. From Aspinall's experiments it appears to
be about 17 ft per ton, and this value is plotted on the diagram.
The resistance to motion round a curve has not been so systematic-
ally studied that any definite rule can be formulated applicable to
all classes of rolling stock and all radii of curves. A general result
could not be obtained, even from a large number of experiments,
because the resistance round curves depends upon so many variable
factors. In some cases the gauge is laid a little wider than the
standard, and there are varying amounts of superelevation of the
outer rail; but the most formidable factor in the production of re-
sistance is the guard-rail, which is sometimes put in with the object
of guiding the wheel which runs on the inner rail of the curve on
the inside of the flange.
6. Engine Resistance. From experiments made on the North-
Eastern railway (see a paper by W. H. Smith on " Express Loco-
motive Engines," Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., October 1898), it appeared
that the engine resistance was about 35% of the total resistance,
and in the train-resistance experiments on the Lancashire &
Yorkshire railway quoted above the engine resistance was also
about 35 % of the total resistance, thus confirming the North-Eastern
railway results. Barbier (loc. cit.) gives as the formula for the
engine resistance
r.=8-5i+3-24S(i-6iS+3o)/iooo (17)
where S is the speed in miles per hour. This formula is valid between
speeds of 37 and 77 m. per hour, and was obtained in connexion
with the experiments previously quoted on the Northern railway
of France with an engine and tender weighing about 83 tons.
Barbier's formula is plotted in fig. 17, together with a curve expressing
generally the results of some early experiments on the Great Western
railway carried out by Sir D. Gooch. The extension of the Barbier
curve beyond the above limits in fig. 17 gives values which must be
regarded as only very approximate.
tAoxn? ytMelt A Eoob. MUBM*
Speed In Miles per Hour
ap 4p q> so
FIG. 17.
7. Rate at which work is done against the resistances given by
the curves in fig. 17. When the weight of the engine and tender and
the weight of the vehicles are respectively given, the rate at which
work must be done in the engine cylinders in order to maintain the
train 'in motion at a stated speed can be computed by the aid of
the curves plotted in fig. 17. Thus let an engine and tender weighing
80 tons haul vehicles weighing 200 tons at a uniform speed on the
level of 40 m. per hour. As given by the Barbier curves in fig. 17
the engine resistance at 40 m. per hour is 20 ft per ton, and the
vehicle resistance 8-5 ft per ton at the same speed. Hence
Engine resistance, R e = 80X20 =1600 ft
Vehicle resistance, R^ = 2OoX8-5 = 1700 ,,
Train resistance, R = 3300
The speed, 40 m. per hour, is equal to 58-6 ft. per second ; therefore
the rate of working in foot-pounds per second is 3300X58-6, from
which I.H.P. = (3300X58-6)7550 = 354. This is the horse-power,
therefore, w-hich must be developed in the cylinders to maintain
the train in motion at a uniform speed of 40 m. per hour on a level
straight road with the values of the resistances assumed.
8. Rate at which work is done against a gradient. Gradients are
measured either by stating the number of feet horizontally, G say,
in which the vertical rise is I ft., or by the vertical rise in 100 ft.
measured horizontally expressed as a percentage, or by the number
of feet rising vertically in a mile. Thus a gradient of I in 200 is the
same as a half per cent, grade or a rise of 26-4 ft. per mile. The
difference between the horizontal distance and the distance measured
along the rail is so small that it is negligible in all practical calcula-
tions. Hence if a train is travelling up the gradient at a speed of
V ft. per second, the vertical rise per second is V/G ft. If VVi is
the weight of the train in pounds, the rate of working against the
gradient expressed in horse-power units is
H.P. =^7550 G. (18)
Assuming the data of the previous section, and in addition that
the train is required to maintain a speed of 40 m. per hour up a
gradient of I in 300, the extra horse-power required will be
H P _ 280X2240X58-6 _
300X550 3-
This must be exerted in addition to the horse-power calculated in
the previous section, so that the total indicated horse-power which
must be developed in the cylinders is now 354+223 = 577. If the
train is running down a gradient this horse-power is the rate at
which gravity is working on the train, so that with the data of the
previous section, on the assumption that the train is running down
a gradient of I in 300, the horse-power required to maintain the
speed would be 354223 = 131.
9. Rate at which work is done against acceleration. If Wi is
the weight of the train in pounds and a the acceleration in feet per
second, the force required to produce the acceleration is
/=W,o/g. (19)
And if V is the average speed during the change of velocity implied
by the uniform acceleration a, the rate at which work is done by
this force is
or in horse-power units
/V=W 1 Va/g
(20)
(21)
Assuming the data of 7, suppose the train to change its speed
from 40 to 41 m. per hour in 13 seconds. The average acceleration
in feet per second is measured by -the fraction
Change of speed in feet per sec. 60-07 58-6
Time occupied in the change " 13
Therefore the horse-power which must be developed in the cylinders
to effect this change of speed is from (21)
Hp ,280^2240 XQ-II3X59 _.
550X32 ~ 237 '
The rate of working is negative when the train is retarded; for
instance, if the train had changed its speed from 41 to 40 m. per
hour in 13 seconds, the rate at which work would have to be absorbed
by the brake blocks would represent 237 H.P. This is lost in heat
produced by the friction between the brake blocks and the wheels,
though in some systems of electric driving some of the energy
stored in the train may be returned to the central station during
retardation. The principal condition operating in the design of
locomotives intended for local services with frequent stops is the
degree of acceleration required, the aim of the designer being to
produce an engine which shall be able to bring the train to its journey
speed in the shortest time possible. For example, suppose it is
required to start a train weighing 200 tons from rest and bring it
to a speed of 30 m. per hour in 30 seconds. The weight of the
engine may be assumed in advance to be 80 tons. The acceleration,
a, which may be supposed uniform, is 1-465. The average velocity
is 15 m. per hour, which is equal to 22ft. per second; therefore
the tractive force required is, from (19),
(280X2240X1 '465)732 =28,720 ft,
and the corresponding horse-power which must be developed in the
cylinders is, from (20), /V/55O, and this is with / and V equal to the
above values, 1149. To obtain the tractive force the weight on
the coupled wheels must be about five times this amount that is.
LOCOMOTIVE POWER]
RAILWAYS
845
64 tons; and to obtain the horse-power the boiler will be one of the
lar^i-st that can be built to the construction gauge. After accelera-
tion to the journey speed of 30 m. per hour the horse-power required
is reduced to about one-third of that required for acceleration alone.
10. General expression for total rate of working. Adding the
various rates of working together
RV IHp (W.r.+W,r.)V 22 4 oWV
I.H.P.= --
, .
where \V. is weight of engine and tender in tons, VV, the weight of
vrliicles in tons, W the weight of train in tons = VV.-f-W,, r, and
r, the respective engine and vehicle resistances taken from the
curves fig. 17 at a speed corresponding to the average speed during
the acceleration a, G the gradient, g the acceleration due to gravity,
and V the velocity of the train in feet per second. In this expression
it is .i-Minn-d that the acceleration is uniform, and this assumption
is sufficiently accurate for any practical purpose to which the above
formula would be applied in the ordinary working of a locomotive.
If a is variable, then the formula must be applied in a series of steps,
each step corresponding to a time interval over which the accelera-
tion may la- assumed uniform.
Dividing through by V and multiplying through by 550,
an expression giving the value of R the total tractive resistance. If
the draw-bar pull is known to be R, then applying the same principles
to the vehicle alone which above are applied to the whole train,
, 224OW, 224O\V,a
total draw-bar pull = W,r, =*= * - a - . (24)
This expression may be used to find r, when the total draw-bar
pull is observed as well as the speed, the changes of speed and the
gradient. The speed held to correspond with the resistance must
be the mean speed during the change of speed. The best way of
deducing r, is to select portions of the dynamometer record where
the speed is constant. Then a disappears from all the above
expressions. These expressions indicate what frequent changes
in the power are required as the train pursues its journey up and
down gradients, against wind resistance, journal friction and perhaps
the resistance of a badly laid track; and show how both the
potential energy and kinetic energy of the train are continually
changing: the first from a change in vertical position due to the
gradients, the second from changes in speed. These considerations also
indicate what a difficult matter it is to find the exact rate of working
against the resistances, because of the difficulty of securing conditions
which eliminate the effect both of the gradient and of acceleration.
ii. The Boiler. Maximum Power. The maximum power
which can be developed by a locomotive depends upon the
maximum rate of fuel combustion which can be maintained
per square foot of grate. This maximum rate depends upon
the kind of coal used, whether small, friable, bituminous or
hard, upon the thickness of the fire, and upon the correct
design and setting of the blast-pipe. A limit is reached to the
rate of combustion when the draught becomes strong enough to
carry heavy lighted sparks through the tubes and chimney.
This, besides reducing the efficiency of the furnace, introduces
the danger of fire to crops and buildings near the line. The
maximum rate of combustion may be as much as 1 50 Ib of coal
per square foot of grate per hour, and in exceptional cases even a
greater rate than this has been maintained. It is not economical
to force the boiler to work at too high a rate, because it has been
practically demonstrated that the boiler efficiency decreases after
a certain point, as the rate of combustion increases. A few
experimental results are set forth in Table XX., from which it
will be seen that with a relatively low rate of combustion, a rate
which denotes very light service, namely 28 Ib of coal per square
foot of grate per hour, the efficiency of the boiler is 82 %, which
is as good a result as can be obtained with the best class of
stationary boiler or marine boiler even when using economizers.
The first group consists of experiments selected from the records
of a large number made on the boiler of the locomotive belonging
to the Purdue University, Indiana, U.S.A.
The second group consists of experiments made on a boiler be-
longing to the Great Eastern Railway Company. The first one of the
group was made on the boiler fixed in the locomotive yard at Strat-
ford, and the two remaining experiments of the group were made
while the engine was working a train between London and March.
The third group consists of experiments selected from the records
of a senes of trials made on the London & South-Western railway
with an express locomotive.
12. Draught. One pound of coal requires about 20 Ibof air for
its proper combustion in the fire-box of a locomotive, though this
quantity of air diminishes as the rate of combustion increases.
For instance, an engine having a grate area of 30 sq. ft. and
burning 100 Ib of coal per square foot of grate per,hour would
TABLE XX
Kind, and calorific
value of coal.
Dry coal
fired per
square foot
of grate
per hour.
Ib
Pounds of
water eva-
porated per
Ib of coal
from and
at 212 F.
Boiler
effici-
ency.
Reference.
Indiana block coal
49
7-83
0-58
Prof. Goss
from the neigh-
109
6-59
0-49
(Amer-Soc.
bourhood of
Brazil. Esti-
181
5-71
0-42
of Aleck.
Eng., vol.
mated calorific
22, 1900).
value, 13,000
B.Th.U. per Ib
Nixon's Naviga-
tion. Calorific
35-5
28-1
13
I3-3
0-80
0-82
" Experi-
ments on
value, 15,560
B.Th.U. per ft
31-7
I3-I
0-81
Steam Boil-
ers," Don-
kin and
Kennedy,
(Engineer-
ing, Lon-
don,i897).
Calorific value,
62-5
11-15
0-77
Adams and
13,903
Calorific value,
80-9
8-86
0-66
Pettigrew
(Proc. Inst.
12,840
C.E., vol.
125).
require that 60,000 Ib of air should be drawn through the
furnace per hour in order to burn the coal. This large quantity
of air is forced through the furnace by means of the difference
of pressure established between the external atmospheric
pressure in the ash-pan and the pressure in the smoke-box.
: J
FIG. 1 8. Smoke-box, L. & N.W.R. four-coupled 6 ft. 6 in.
passenger engine, scale j"j.
The exhaust steam passing from the engine through the blast-
pipe and the chimney produces a diminution of pressure, or
8 4 6
RAILWAYS
[LOCOMOTIVE POWER
partial vacuum, in the smoke-box roughly proportional to the
weight of steam discharged per unit of time. The difference of
pressure between the outside air and the smoke-box gases may
be measured by the difference of the water levels in the limbs
of a U tube, one limb being in communication with the smoke-
box, the other with the atmosphere. The difference of levels
varies from i to as much as 10 in. in extreme cases. The
draught corresponding to the smallest rate of combustion
shown in Table XX. in Professor Goss's experiments, was 1-72
in. of water, and for the highest rate, namely 181, 7-48 in. of
water. To get the best effect the area of the blast-nozzle must
be properly proportioned to the size of the cylinders and be
properly set with regard to the base of the chimney. The best
proportions are found by trial in all cases.
Figs. 1 8 and 19 show two smoke-boxes typical of English practice.
Fig. 18 is the smoke-box of the 6 ft. 6 in. six-coupled express passenger
engines designed by G. Whale for the London & North-Western
Railway Company in 1904, and fig. 19 shows the box of the four-
coupled express passenger engine designed by J. Holden for the
[ ;
FIG. 19. Smoke-box and Spark Arrester, G.E.R. four-coupled
express engine, scale ^.
Great Eastern Railway Company. In the case of the London &
North- Western engine (fig. 18), the blast-pipe orifice B is placed
at about the centre of the boiler barrel, and the exhaust steam is
discharged straight into the trumpet-shaped end of the chimney,
which is continued down inside the smoke-box. In fig. 19 the blast
orifice B is set much lower, and the steam
is discharged through a frustum of a cone
set in the upper part of the smoke-box
into the short chimney. Fig. 20 shows
the standard proportions recommended
by the committee of the Railway Mas-
ter Mechanics' Association on Exhaust
Pipes and Steam Passages (Proc. Amer.
Railway Master Mechanics' Assoc., 1906).
" ~~ According to the Report, for the best
results both H and h should be made
as great as practicable, and then d =
o-2iD+o-i6/t, b = 2d or 0-50, P = o-32D,
p = o-22D, L = o-6D or o-pD, but not of
intermediate values. This last relation
is, however, not well established. For
much detailed information regarding
FIG. 20. Smoke-box,
American Railway
Master Mechanics' American smoke-box practice, reference
Association. may be made to Locomotive Sparks, by
Professor W. F. M. Goss (London, 1902).
The arrangements for arresting sparks in American practice
and on the continent of Europe are somewhat elaborate. In
English practice where a spark-arrester is put in it usually
takes the form of a wire-netting dividing the smoke-box hori-
zontally into two parts at a level just above the top row of
tubes, or arranged to form a continuous connexion between the
blast-pipe and the chimney.
Fig. 19 illustrates an arrangement designed by J. Holden. The
heavy sparks are projected from the tubes in straight lines and are
caught by the louvres L, L, L, and by them deflected downwards to
the bottom of the smoke-box, where they collect in a heap in the
space D round a tube which is essentially an ejector. At every
blast a small quantity of steam is caught by the orifice O and led to
the ejectors, one on each side, with the result that the ashes are
blown out into the receptacles on each side of the engine, one of
which is shown at E. The louvres /, /, / are placed to shield the
central region occupied by the blast-pipe.
As the indicated horse-power of the engine increases, the
weight of steam discharged increases, and the smoke-box
vacuum is increased, thereby causing more air to flow through
the furnace and increasing the rate of combustion. Thus the
demand for more steam is automatically responded to by the
boiler. It is this close automatic interdependence of engine
and boiler which makes the locomotive so extraordinarily well
suited for the purpose of locomotive traction.
13. The Steam Engine. The steam engine of a locomotive
has the general characteristics of a double-acting non-condensing
engine (see STEAM ENGINE). Distribution of steam is effected
by a slide valve, sometimes fitted with a balancing device, and
sometimes formed into a piston valve. All types of valves are
with few exceptions operated by a link motion, generally of the
Stephenson type, occasionally of the Allan type or the Gooch
type, or with some form of radial gear as the Joy gear or the
Walschaert gear, though the latter gear has characteristics which
ally it with the link motions. The Stephenson link motion is
used almost universally in England and America, but it has
gradually been displaced by the Walschaert gear on the con-
tinent of Europe, and to some extent in England by the Joy
gear. The general characteristics of the distribution efiected
by these gears are similar. Each of them, besides being a
reversing gear, is an expansion gear both in forward and back-
ward running. The lead is variable in the Stephenson link
motion, whilst in the Walschaert and the Joy gears it is con-
stant. Illustrations of these gears are given in the article
STEAM ENGINE, and the complete distribution of steam for
both forward and backward running is worked out for a typical
example of each of them in Valves and Valve Gear Mechanisms
by W. E. Dalby (London, 1906).
' 14. Cylinder Dimensions. Adhesion. Tractive Force. A
locomotive must be designed to fulfil two conditions. First,
it must be able to exert a tractive force sufficient to start the
train under the worst conditions possible on the railway over
which it is to operate for instance, when the train is stopped by
signal on a rising gradient where the track is curved and fitted
with a guard-rail. Secondly, it must be able to maintain the train
at a given speed against the total resistances of the level or
up a gradient of given inclination. These conditions are to a
certain extent mutually antagonistic, since an engine designed
to satisfy either condition independently of the other would be
a different engine from that designed to make the best com-
promise between them.
Equation (3), i expresses the fundamental condition which
must be satisfied when a locomotive is starting a train. The
torque exerted on the driving-axle by the steam engine just at
starting may be that due to the full boiler pressure acting in the
cylinders, but usually the weight on the coupled wheels is hardly
sufficient to enable advantage to be taken of the full boiler
pressure, and it has to be throttled down by the regulator to
prevent slipping. Sand, driven between the wheel and the rail
by a steam jet, used just at starting, increases the adhesion
beyond the normal value and enables a larger pressure to be
exerted on the piston than would otherwise be possible. When
the train is started and is moving slowly, the torque acting on
the driving-axle may be estimated as that due to about 85% of
the full boiler pressure acting in the cylinders. The torque
LOCOMOTIVE POWER]
RAILWAYS
847
due to the two cylinders is variable to a greater or less extent,
depending upon the degree of expansion in the cylinders and
the speed. The form of the torque curve, or crank effort curve,
as it is sometimes called, is discussed in the article STEAM
ENGINE, and the torque curve corresponding to actual indicator
diagrams taken from an express passenger engine travelling at
a speed of 65 m. per hoor is given in The Balancing of Engines by
W. E. Dalby (London, 1906).
The plotting of the torque curve is laborious, but the average
torque acting, which is all that is required for the purposes of this
article, can be found quite simply, thus: Let p be the mean effective
pn^Mirr acting in one cylinder, a, the area of the cylinder, and /,
the stroke. Then the work done during one revolution of the crank
is 2pla per cylinder. Assuming that the mean pressure in the
other cylinder is also p, the total work done per revolution is 4pla.
If T is the mean torque, the work done on the crank-axle per revolu-
tion is 2T. Hence assuming the mechanical efficiency of the
engine to bet, and substituting-^ 2 for the area a,
2)iT = 4/>/at = />/,
so that
T = i/xP/e.
But from I, T = JDF;
I herefore F - fxPlt/D (25)
F in this expression is twice the average magnitude of the equal and
opposite forces constituting the couple for one driving-wheel illus-
trated in fig. 16, one force of which acts to propel the train whilst
the other is the value of the tangential frictionaf resistance between
the wheel and the rail. This force F must not exceed the value /iW
or slipping will take place. Hence, if p is the maximum value of
the mean effective pressure corresponding to about 85% of the
boiler pressure,
U.W = pd t U/D (26)
is an expression giving a relation between the total weight on the
coupled wheels, their diameters and the size of the cylinder. The
magnitude of F when p and t are put each equal to unity, is usually
called the tractive force of the locomotive per pound of mean effective
pressure in the cylinders. If p is the mean pressure at any speed
the total tractive force which the engine is exerting is given by
equation (25) above. The value of t is variable, but is between
7 and -8, and for approximate calculations may be taken equal to
unity. In the following examples the value will be assumed unity.
These relations may be illustrated by an example. Let an engine
have two cylinders each ip in. diameter and 26 in. stroke. Let
the boiler pressure be 175 ID per square inch. Taking 85% of this,
the maximum mean effective pressure would be 149 Ib per square
inch. Further, let the diameter of the driving-wheels be 6 ft. 3 in.
Then the tractive force is, from (25),
(l49Xl9'X2-i66)/6-25 = i8,6oolb=8-3 tons.
Assuming that the frictional resistance at the rails is given by J the
weight on the wheels, the total weight on the driving-wheels necessary
to secure sufficient adhesion to prevent slipping must be at least
8- 3 X5 =41 -5 tons. This would be distributed between three coupled
axles giving an average of 1-38 tons per axle, though the distribu-
tion might not in practice be uniform, a larger proportion of the
weight falling on the driving-axle. If the starting resistance of
the whole train be estimated at 16 Ib per ton, this engine would be
able to start 1-163 tons on the level, or about 400 tons on a gradient
of i in 75, both these figures including the weight of the engine and
tender, which would be about 100 tons.
The engine can only exert this large tractive force so long as the
mean pressure is maintained at 149 Ib per square inch. This high
mean pressure cannot be maintained for long, because as the speed
increases the demand for steam per unit of time increases, so that
cut-off must take place earlier and earlier in the stroke, the limiting
steady speed being attained when the rate at which steam is supplied
to the cylinders is adjusted by the cut-off to be equal to the maximum
rate at which the boiler can produce steam, which depends upon
the maximum rate at which coal can be burnt per square foot of
grate. If C is the number of pounds of coal burnt per square foot
of grate per hour, the calorific value of which is c B.Th.U. per pound,
the maximum indicated horse-power is given by the expression
I.H.P. maximum = CcA , X7 ? 8 Xi>,
1980000
where A is the area of the grate in square feet, and i\ is the combined
efficiency of the engine and boiler. With the data of the previous
example, and assuming in addition that the grate area is 24 sq. ft.,
that the rate of combustion is 150 Ib of coal per square foot of grate
per hour, that the calorific value is 14000, and finally that 77 = 0-06,
the maximum indicated horse-power which the engine might be
expected to develop would be o-o6X 150X14000X24X778/1980000
= 1 190, corresponding to a mean effective pressure in the cylinders
of 59'5 Ib per square inch.
Assuming that the train is required to run at a speed of 60 m.
per hour, that is 88 ft. per second, the total resistance R, which the
engine can overcome at this speed, is by equation (10)
R = (i i90X55o)/88 = 7-400 Ib.
Thus although at a slow speed the engine can exert a tractive force
of 18,600 Ib, at 60 m. per hour, the tractive force falls to 7400 Ib,
and this cannot be increased except by increasing the rate of com-
bustion (neglecting any small changes due to a change in the
efficiency ij). Knowing the magnitude of R, the draw-bar pull,
and hence the weight of vehicle the engine can haul at this speed,
can be estimated if the resistances are known. Using the curves
of fig. 17 it will be found that at 60 m. per hour the resistance of
the engine and tender is 33 Ib per ton, and the resistance of a train
of bogie coaches about 14 Ib per ton. Hence if W is the weight of
the vehicles in tons, and the weight of the engine and tender be
taken at 100 tons, the value of W can be foundtrom the equation
i4W+33oo = 7440, from which W = 2g6 tons. This is the load
which the engine would take in ordinary weather. With exception-
ally bad weather the load would have to be reduced or two engines
would have to be employed, or an exceptionally high rate of com-
bustion would have to be maintained in the fire-box.
It will be seen at once that with a tractive force of 7400 Ib a
weight of 37,000 ft ( = 16-5 tons) would be enough to secure sufficient
adhesion, and this could be easily carried on one axle. Hence for
a level road the above load could be hauled at 60 m. per hour with
a " single " engine. When the road leads the train up an incline,
however, the tractive force must be increased, so that the need for
coupled wheels soon arises if the road is at all a heavy one.
15. Engine Efficiency. Combined Engine and Boiler
Efficiency. The combined engine and boiler efficiency has
hitherto been taken to be 0-06; actual values of the boiler
efficiencies are given in Table XX. Engine efficiency depends
upon many variable factors, such as the cut-off, the piston
speed, the initial temperature of the steam, the final tem-
perature of the steam, the quality of the steam, the sizes of
the steam-pipes, ports and passages, the arrangement of the
cylinders and its effect on condensation, the mechanical per-
fection of the steam-distributing gear, the tightness of the
piston, &c. A few values of the thermal efficiency obtained
from experiments are given in Table XXI. in the second column,
the first column being added to give some idea of the rate at
which the engine was working when the data from which the
efficiency has been deduced were observed. The corresponding
boiler efficiencies are given in the third column of the table,
when they are known, and the combined efficiencies in the
fourth column. The figures in this column indicate that 0-06
is a good average value to work with.
TABLE XXI
this column
g. 22.
Indi-
cated
horse-
power.
Engine
Effici-
ency.
Boiler
Effici-
ency.
Com-
bined
Effici-
ency.
Boiler
Pressure
Ib per
sq. in.
q*
.3
128
0-073
Mean
Deduced from
.a S
205
0-075
about
data given by
1"
222
0-080
128 but
Professor Goss
c
399
0-088
throttled.
(Trans. Am.
01
r*
Soc. Mech.
P
Eng. vol. 14).
^-.^
mean
I
129
0-057
0-815
0-047
mean
Deduced from
about
120
Kennedy and
Donkin's trials
"(Engineering,
London, 1887).
2
490
0-098
0-775
0-077
167
Deduced from
3
582
O-II
0-665
0-073
169
Adams and
Pettigrew's
trials (Proc.
Inst. C.E. vol.
125).
4
520
0-084
0-52
0-044
140
Deduced from
5
692
0-083
0-65
0-054
175
Smith's experi-
6
558
0-074
0-69
0-051
175
ments (Proc.
7
603
0-086
0-63
0-054
175
Inst. Mech.
8
570
0-08 1
0-64
0-052
166
Eng. October
1898).
It is instructive to inquire into the limiting efficiency of an
engine consistent with the conditions under which it is working,
because in no case can the efficiency of a steam-engine exceed
a certain value which depends upon the temperatures at which
RAILWAYS
[LOCOMOTIVE POWER
it receives and rejects heat. Thus a standard of comparison
for every individual engine may be obtained with which to
compare its actual performance. The standard of comparison
generally adopted for this purpose is obtained by calculating
the efficiency of an engine working according to the Rankine
cycle. That is to say, expansion is adiabatic and is continued
down to the backpressure which in a non-condensing engine
is 14-7 ft) per square inch, since any back pressure above this
amount is an imperfection which belongs to the actual engine.
The back pressure is supposed to be uniform, and .there is no
compression.
Fig. 21 shows the pressure-volume diagram of the Rankine cycle
for one pound of steam where the initial pressure is 175 Ib per
square inch by the
gauge, equivalent
to 190 Ib per square
inch absolute. In
no case could an
engine receiving
steam at the tem-
perature corre-
sponding to this
pressure and reject-
ing heat at 212 F.
convert more heat
into work than is
Ana It
Equivalent
<o>S5B.7Ji t <i
qua! to
143330 foot pounds
Indicate* diagram corresponding to 1 Ib. oftttam for
the Rankine Engine of Comparison uhen Initial prem.
ft 190 tbs sq. inch absolute, and exhaust prtst,it
gctibiaftel
FIG. 21.
represented by the area of this diagram. The area of the diagram
may be measured, but it is usually more convenient to calculate the
number of B.Th.U. which the area represents from the following
formula, which is expressed in terms of the absolute temperature Ti
of the steam at the steam-pipe, and the temperature T 2 =46i+2i2
= 673 absolute corresponding to the back pressure:
Maximum available work ) TT ,, , , , . Li.
per pound of steam \ = ^'^ (l +T7 ) -
With the initial pressure of 190 Ib per square inch absolute it will be
found from a steam table that Ti=838 absolute. Using this and
the temperature 673 in the expression, it will be found that
U = i8s B.Th.U. per pound of steam. If ht is the water heat
at the lower temperature, hi the water heat at the higher temperature,
and LI the latent heat at the higher temperature, the heat supply
per pound of steam is equal to hi fe+Li, which, from the steam
tables, with the values of the temperatures given, is equal to 1013
B.Th.U. per pound. The thermal efficiency is therefore
185/1013=0-183.
That is to say, a perfect engine working between the limits of
temperature assigned would convert only 18% of the total heat
supply into work. This would be an ideal performance for an
engine receiving steam at 190 Ib initial pressure absolute, and reject-
ing steam at the back pressure assumed above, and could never be
attained in practice. When the initial pressure is 100 Ib per square
inch by the gauge the thermal efficiency drops to about nearly 15%
with the same back pressure. The way the thermal efficiency of
the ideal engine increases with the pressure is exhibited in fig. 22 by
the curve AB. The curve was drawn by calculating the thermal
efficiency from the above expression for various values of the
initial temperature, keeping the final temperature constant at
673, and then plotting these efficiencies against the corresponding
values of the gauge pressures.
The actual thermal efficiencies observed in some of the cases
cited in Table XXI. are plotted on the diagram, the reference
numbers on which refer to the first column in the table. Thus the
100 ItO 120 130 1O 150 160 1TO ISO 18O 2OO 21O 22O 23O 240 230 ISO
FIG. 22. Engine Efficiency Curves.
cross marked 3 in fig. 22 represents the thermal efficiency actually
obtained in one of Adams and Pettigrew's experiments, namely, o- 1 1 ,
the pressure in the steam-pipe being 167 Ib per square inch. From the
diagram it will be seen that the corresponding efficiency of the ideal
engine is about o- 1 8. The efficiency ratio is therefore 0-11/0-18=0-61.
That is to say, the engine actually utilized 61 % of the energy which
it was possible to utilize by means of a perfect engine working with
the same initial pressure against a back pressure equal to the
atmosphere. Lines representing efficiency ratios of 0-6, 0-5 and
0-4 are plotted on the diagram, so that the efficiency ratios corre-
sponding to the various experiments plotted may be readily read
off. The initial temperature of the standard engine of comparison
must be the temperature of the steam taken in the steam-pipe.
For further information regarding the standard engine of comparison
see the article STEAM ENGINE and also the " Report of the Committee
on the Thermal Efficiency of Steam Engines," Proc.Inst. C.E. (1898).
1 6. Piston Speed. The expression for the indicated horse-power
may be written
[.H.P.-#or/550 (27)
where v is the average piston speed in feet per second. For a stated
value of the boiler pressure and the cut-off the mean pressure p
is a function of the piston speed v. For the few cases where data
are available data, however, belonging to engines representing
standard practice in their construction and in the design of cylinders
and steam ports and passages the law connecting p and v is approxi-
mately linear and of the form
p = c-bv (28)
where 6 and c are constants. (See W. E. Dalby, " The Economical
Working of Locomotives," Proc. Inst. C.E., 1905-6, vol. 164.)
Substituting this value of p in (27)
(29)
the form of which indicates that there is a certain piston speed for
which the I.H.P. is a maximum. In a particular case where the
boiler pressure was maintained constant at 130 Ib per square inch,
and the cut-off was approximately 20% of the stroke, the values
c=55 and 6 = 0-031 were deduced, from which it will be found that
the value of the piston speed corresponding to the maximum horse-
power is 887 ft. per minute. The data from which this result is
deduced will be found in Professor Goss's paper quoted above in
Table XXI. The point is further illustrated by some curves
published in the American Engineer (June 1901) by G. R. Henderson
recording the tests of a freight locomotive made on the Chicago
& North-Western railway. Any modification of the design which
will reduce the resistance to the flow of steam through the steam
passages at high speeds will increase the piston speed for which
the indicated horse-power is a maximum.
17. Compound Locomotives. The thermal efficiency of
a steam-engine is in general increased by carrying out the
expansion of the steam in two, three or even more stages
in separate cylinders, notwithstanding the inevitable drop of
pressure which must occur when the steam is transferred from
one cylinder to the other during the process of expansion.
Compound working permits of a greater range of expansion
than is possible with a simple engine, and incidentally there
is less range of pressure per cylinder, so that the pressures
and temperatures per cylinder have not such a wide range
of variation. In compound working the combined volumes
of the low-pressure cylinders is a measure of the power of
the engine, since this represents the final volume of the steam
used per stroke. The volume of the high-pressure cylinder
may be varied within wide limits for the same low-pressure
volume; the proportions adopted should, however, be such
that there is an absence of excessive drop between them as
the steam is transferred from one to the other. Compound
locomotives have been built by various designers, but opinion
is still uncertain whether any commercial economy is obtained
by their use. The varying load against which a locomotive
works, and the fact that a locomotive is non-condensing, are
factors which reduce the margin of possible economy within
narrow limits. Coal-saving can be shown to the extent of
about 14% in some cases, but the saving depends upon the
kind of service on which the engine is employed. The first true
compound locomotive was constructed in 1876 from designs
by A. M. Mallet, at the Creusot works in Bayonne. The first
true compound locomotive in England was constructed at
Crewe works in 1878 by F. W. Webb. It was of the same
type as Mallet's engine, and was made by simply bushing one
cylinder of an ordinary two-cylinder simple engine, the bushed
cylinder being the high-pressure and the other cylinder the
low-pressure cylinder. Webb evolved the type of three-
cylinder compound with which his name is associated in 1882.
LOCOMOTIVE POWER]
RAILWAYS
849
There were two high-pressure cylinders placed outside the
frames and driving on a trailing wheel, and one low-pressure
cylinder placed between the frames and driving on a wheel
placed in front of the driving-wheel belonging to the high-
pressure cylinders. The steam connexions were such that the
two high-pressure cylinders were placed in parallel, both ex-
hausting into the one low-pressure cylinder. The first engines
of this class were provided with high-pressure cylinders, n iti.
diameter and 24 in. stroke, a low-pressure cylinder 26 in.
diameter, 24 in. stroke, and driving-wheels 6 ft. 6 in. diameter;
but subsequently these dimensions were varied. There were
no coupling rods. A complete account of Webb's engines
will be found in a paper, " The Compound Principle applied
to Locomotives," by E. Worthington, Proc. Inst. C.E., 1889,
vol. xcvi. Locomotives have to start with the full load on
the engine, consequently an outstanding feature of every
compound locomotive is the apparatus or mechanism added
to enable the engine to start readily. Generally steam from
the boiler is admitted direct to the low-pressure cylinder
through a reducing valve, and valves and devices are used
to prevent the steam so admitted acting as a back pressure
on the high-pressure cylinder. In the Webb compound the
driver opened communication from the high-pressure exhaust
pipe to the blast-pipe, and at the same time opened a valve
giving a supply of steam from the boiler direct to the low-
pressure valve chest. T. W. Worsdell developed the design
of the two-cylinder compound in England and built several,
first for the Great Eastern railway and subsequently for the
North-Eastern railway. The engines were built on the Worsdell
and Von Borries plan, and were fitted with an ingenious starting-
valve of an automatic character to overcome the difficulties
of starting. Several compounds of a type introduced by
W. M. Smith on the North-Eastern railway in 1898 have been
built by the Midland railway. In these there are two low-
pressure cylinders placed outside the frame, and one high-
pressure cylinder placed between the frames. All cylinders
drive on one crank-axle with three cranks at 120. The driving-
wheels are coupled to a pair of trailing wheels. A controlling
valve enables the supply of steam to the low-pressure cylinders
to be supplemented by boiler steam at a reduced pressure.
For a description and illustrations of the details of the starting
devices used in the Webb, Worsdell and Smith compounds,
see an article, " The Development of the Compound Locomotive
in England," by W. E. Dalby in the Engineering Magazine
for September and October 1904. A famous type of com-
pound locomotive developed on the continent of Europe is
the four-cylinder De Glehn, some of which have been tried
on the Great Western railway. There are two high-pressure
cylinders placed outside the frame, and two low-pressure
placed inside the frames. The low-pressure cylinders drive
on the leading crank-axle with cranks at right angles, the high-
pressure cylinders driving on the trailing wheels. The wheels
are coupled, but the feature of the engine is that the coupling-
rods act merely to keep the high-pressure and low-pressure
engines in phase with one another, very little demand being
made upon them to transmit force except when one of the
wheels begins to slip. In this arrangement the whole of
the adhesive weight of the engine is used in the best possible
manner, and the driving of the train is practically equally
divided between two axles. The engine can be worked as
a four-cylinder simple at the will of the driver. S. M.
Vauclain introduced a successful type of four-cylinder com-
pound in America in 1889. A high- and low-pressure
cylinder are cast together, and the piston-rods belonging to
them are both coupled to one cross-head which is connected
to the driving-wheels, these again being coupled to other
wheels in the usual way. The distribution of steam to both
cylinders is effected by one piston-valve operated by a link
motion, so that there is considerable mechanical simplicity in
the arrangement. Later Vauclain introduced the " balanced
compound." In this engine the two piston-rods of one side are
not coupled to a common cross-head, but drive on separate
I cranks at an angle of 180, the pair of 180 cranks on each side
being placed at right angles.
18. The Balancing of Locomotives. The unbalanced masses
of a locomotive may be divided into two parts, namely, masses
which revolve, as the crank-pins, the crank-cheeks, the coupling-
rods, &c. ; and masses which reciprocate, made up of the piston,
piston-rod, cross-head and a certain proportion of the con-
necting-rod. The revolving masses are truly balanced by
balance weights placed between the spokes of the wheels, or
sometimes by prolonging the crank-webs and forming the pro-
longation into balance weights. It is also the custom to balance
a proportion of the reciprocating masses by balance weights
placed between the spokes of the wheels, and the actual balance
weight seen in a driving-wheel is the resultant of the separate
weights required for the balancing of the revolving parts and
the reciprocating parts. The component of a balance weight
which is necessary to balance the reciprocating masses intro-
duces a vertical unbalanced force which appears as a variation
of pressure between the wheel and the rail, technically called '
the hammer-blow, the magnitude of which increases as the
square of the speed of the train. In consequence of this action
the compromise is usually followed of balancing only j of the
reciprocating masses, thus keeping the hammer-blow within
proper limits, and allowing J of the reciprocating masses to be
unbalanced in the horizontal direction. It is not possible to
do anything better with two-cylinder locomotives unless bob-
weights be added, but with four-cylinder four-crank engines
complete balance is possible both in the vertical and in the
horizontal directions. When the four cranks are placed with
two pairs at 180, the pairs being at 00, the forces are balanced
without the introduction of a hammer-blow, but there remain
large unbalanced couples, which if balanced by means of re-
volving weights in the wheels again reintroduce the hammer-
blow, and if left unbalanced tend to make the engine oscillate
in a horizontal plane at high speed. The principles by means
of which the magnitude and position of balance weights are
worked out are given in the article MECHANICS (Applied
Mechanics), and the whole subject of locomotive balancing
is exhaustively treated with numerous numerical examples
in The Balancing of Engines by W. E. Dalby, London, 1906.
19. Classification. Locomotives may be classified primarily
into " tender engines " and " tank engines," the water and
fuel in the latter being carried on the engine proper, while
in the former they are carried in a separate vehicle. A tender
is generally mounted on six wheels, or in some cases on two
bogies, and carries a larger supply of water and fuel than can
be carried by tanks and the bunker of a tank engine. A tender,
however, is so much dead-weight to be hauled, whilst the weight
of the water and fuel in a tank engine contributes largely
to the production of adhesion. A classification may also be
made, according to the work for which engines are designed,
into passenger engines, goods engines, and shunting or switching
engines. A convenient way of describing any type of engine
is by means of numerals indicating the number of wheels
(i) in the group of wheels supporting the leading or chimney
end, (2) in the group of coupled wheels, and (3) in the group
supporting the trailing end of the engine. In the case where
either the leading or trailing group of small wheels is absent
the numeral o must be used in the series of three numbers used
in the description. Thus 4-4-2 represents a bogie engine with
four-coupled wheels and one pair of trailing wheels, the well-
known Atlantic type; 4-2-2 represents a bogie engine with a
single pair of driving-wheels and a pair of trailing wheels;
0-4-4 represents an engine with four-coupled wheels and a
trailing bogie, and 4-4-0 an engine with four-coupled wheels
and a leading bogie. A general description of the chief
peculiarities of various kinds of locomotives is given in the
following analysis of types:
(l) " SingleAiriver type, 4-2-2 or 2-2-2. Still used by several
railways in Great Britain for express passenger service, but going
out of favour; it is also found in France, and less often in Germany,
Italy, and elsewhere in Europe. It is generally designed as a 4-2-2
engine, but some old types are still running with only three axles,
850
RAILWAYS
[LOCOMOTIVE POWER
the 2-2^-2. It is adapted for light, high-speed service, and noted
for its simplicity, excellent riding qualities, low cost of maintenance,
and high mechanical efficiency; but having limited adhesive weight
it is unsuitable for starting and accelerating heavy trains.
(2) " Four-coupled " type, 4-4-0, with leading bogie truck.
For many years this was practically the only one used in America
for all traffic, and it is often spoken of as the " American " type.
In America it is still the standard engine for passenger traffic, but
for goods service it is now employed only on branch lines. It has
been extensively introduced, both in Great Britain and the continent
of Europe, for passenger traffic, and is now the most numerous and
popular class. It is a safe, steady-running and trustworthy engine,
with excellent distribution of weight, and it is susceptible of a wide
range of adaptability in power requirements.
(3) " Four-coupled " three-axle type, 2-4-0. Used to some extent
in France and Germany and considerably in England for passenger
traffic of moderate weight. Engines of this class, with 78-inch
driving wheels and the leading axle fitted with Webb's radial axle-box,
for many years did excellent work on the London & North-Western
railway. The famous engine " Charles Dickens " was one of this
class. Built in 1882, it had by the I2th of September 1891
performed the feat of running a million miles in 9 years 219 days,
and it completed two million miles on the 5th of August 1902,
having by that date run 5312 trips with express trains between
London and Manchester.
(4) " Four-coupled " three-axle type, with trailing axle, 0-4-2.
Used on several English lines for fast passenger traffic, and also
on many European railways. The advantages claimed for it are:
short coupling-rods, large and unlimited fire-box carried by a
trailing axle, compactness, and great power for a given weight.
Its critics, however, accuse it of lack of stability, and assert that
the use of large leading wheels as drivers results in rigidity and
produces destructive strains on the machinery and permanent way.
(5) " Four-coupled " type, with a leading bogie truck and a
trailing axle, 4-4-2. It is used to a limited extent both in England
and on the continent of Europe, and is rapidly increasing in favour
in the United States, where it originated and is known as the
" Atlantic " type. It has many advantages for heavy high-speed
service, namely, large and well-proportioned boiler, practically
unlimited grate area, fire-box of favourable proportions for firing,
fairly low centre of gravity, short coupling-rods, and, finally, a
combination of the safe and smooth riding qualities of the four-
coupled bogie ty^e, with great steaming capacity and moderate
axle loads. Occasionally a somewhat similar type is designed with
the bogie under the fire-box and a single leading axle forward under
the smoke-box an arrangement in favour for suburban tank
engines. In still rarer cases both a leading and a trailing bogie
have been fitted.
(6) " Six-coupled " with bogie, or " Ten-wheel " type, 4-6-0. A
powerful engine for heavy passenger and fast goods service. It is
used to a limited extent both in Great Britain and on the continent
of Europe, but is much more common in America. The design
combines ample boiler capacity with large adhesive weight and
moderate axle loads, but except on heavy gradients or for unusually
large trains requiring engines of great adhesion, passenger traffic
can be more efficiently and economically handled by four-coupled
locomotives of the eight-wheel or Atlantic types.
(7) " Six-coupled " total-adhesion type (all the weight carried
on the drivers), o 6-0. This is the standard goods engine of Great
Britain and the continent of Europe. In America the type is used
only for shunting. It is a simple design of moderate boiler power.
(8) " Six-coupled " type, with a leading axle, 2-6-0. This is
of American origin, and is there known as the " Mogul." It is
used largely in America for goods traffic. In Europe it is in con-
siderable favour for goods and passenger traffic on heavy gradients.
The type is, however, less in favour than either the ten-wheel or
the eight-coupled " Consolidation " for freight traffic.
(9) " Eight-coupled " total-adhesion type, o-8-o; now found
on a good many English railways, and common on the continent
of Europe for heavy slow goods traffic. In America it is comparatively
infrequent, as total-adhesion types are not in favour.
(10) " Eight-coupled " type, with a leading axle, 2-8-0. This
originated in America, where it is termed the " Consolidation."
In the United States it is the standard heavy slow-speed freight
engine, and has been built of enormous size and weight. The type
has been introduced in Europe, especially in Germany, where the
advantages of a partial-adhesion type in increased stability and a
larger boiler are becoming appreciated. Occasionally the American
eight-coupled type has a bogie instead of a single leading axle
(4-8-0), and is then termed a " Twelve- wheeler," or " Mastodon."
(n) " Ten-coupled " type, with a leading axle, 2-10-0. This
originated in America, where it is known as the " Decapod." It
is used to a limited extent for mountain-grade goods traffic, and has
the advantage over the_" Consolidation ' or eight-coupled type of
lighter axle loads for a given tractive capacity.
In addition to the foregoing list, various special locomotive
types have been developed for suburban service, where high rates
of acceleration and frequent stops are required. These are generally
tank engines, carrying their fuel and water on the engine proper.
Their boilers are of relatively large proportions for the train weight
and average speed, and the driving wheels of small diameter, a
large proportion of their total weight being " adhesive." Other
special types are in limited use for " rack-railways," and operate
either by engagement of gearing on the locomotive into a rack
between the track rails, or by a combination of this and rail adhesion.
20. Current Developments. The demand of the present
day is for engines of larger power both for passenger and goods
service, and the problem is to design such engines within the
limitations fixed by the 4 ft. 85 in. gauge and the dimensions
of the existing tunnels, arches, and other permanent works.
The American engineer is more fortunately situated than his
English brother with regard to the possibility of a solution,
as will be seen from the comparative diagrams of construction
gauges, figs. 23, 24, 25, 26. Fig. 23 shows the construction
L.& N.W. Ry.
G.W. Ry.
FIGS. 23-26.
gauge for the London & North- Western railway, fig. 24 that
for the Great Western 1 railway, fig. 25 that for the Great Eastern
railway, whilst fig. 26 gives a general idea of the American
gauge in a particular case, generally typical, however, of the
American limits. In consequence of this increasing demand
for power, higher boiler pressures are being used, in some cases
225 Ib per sq. in. for a simple two-cylinder engine, and cylinder
volume is slightly increased with the necessary accompani-
ment of heavier loads on the coupled wheels to give the
necessary adhesion. Both load and speed have increased
so much in connexion with passenger - trains that it is
necessary to divide the weight required for adhesion between
three-coupled axles, and the type of engine gradually coming
into use in England for heavy express traffic is a six-coupled
engine with a leading bogie, with wheels which would have
been considered small a few years ago for the speed at which
the engine runs. The same remarks apply to goods engines.
There is a general increase in cylinder power, boiler pressure
and weight, and in consequence in the number of coupled axles.
Not only are the load and speed increasing, but the distances
run without a stop are increasing also, and to avoid increasing
the size of the tenders, water-troughs, first instituted by
J. Ramsbottom on the London & North-Western railway
in 1859, have been laid in the tracks of the leading main
lines of Great Britain. For local services where stoppages
are frequent the demand is for engines capable of quickly
*At the beginning of 1908 the Great Western's loading gauge
on its main lines was widened to 9 ft. 8'in. from a height of 5 ft. above
rail level.
ROLLING STOCK]
RAILWAYS
851
TABLE XXII. COMPARATIVE DATA or LOCOMOTIVES
No
OWNING RAILWAY.
Type.
Cylinders.
Diam
of
Driving
Wheels.
Weight!Ton-224o!b).
Grate
Area.
Total
HeatinL-
Surfacc.
REUASJU.
Position.
Diam.
Stroke.
Total
of
Engine.
Total
on
Coupled
Wheels.
Total
with
Tender.
In.
In.
In.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Sq. Ft.
Sq. Ft.
" Rocket " (Liverpool & )
Manchester) . . . )
0-2-2
Outside
8
.61
56)
4-25
745
6
'37-75
> In Victoria and Albert Museum, South
( Kensington.
i
2
Caledonian
London & South-Western
4-4-0
4-4-0
Inside
Inside
.9
26
26
78
79
51-70
4885
33-4S
9'7
93-0
23
24
.600
1500
" Dunalastair III." (900) class.
Fitted withcross-water tubes in fire-box
giving 165 sq. ft. of heating surface.
3
Midland ....
4-4-0
Inside
>9
26
78;
58-5
38-7S
104-4
284
'557
BeTpaire fire-box. Pressure 220 Ib per
s'i. in.
( Fitted with superheater contributing
4
Great Western .
4-6-0
Outside
i8J
3
8oj
72
54-8
1.2
27
2OOO
S 360 sq. ft. of heating surface to the
' total- Boilerprcssure2ootbp*-rsq. in.
S
Great Eastern .
4-4-0
Inside
9
26
84
50-3
33-20
85-3S
21-3
1630
Fired with Holden's system of liquid
fuel.
6
London & North- Western
4-6-0
Inside
193
26
75
65-75
46-75
.02-75
25
.090
Experiment class. Boiler pressure
.85 tb per sq. in.
r4<ylmder simple. Fitted with super-
7
Great Western .
4-0-0
( 2 inside (
( 2 outside )
Ml
26
8oJ
756
55'4
I.5'6
27
2076
J heater contributing 260 sq. ft. of
1 heating surface to the total. Boiler
1 pressure 225 tb per sq. in.
8
London & South- Western .
4-6-0
5 2 inside )
( 2 outside J
.6
24
72
73
5'5
31'5
2727
i4-cylinder simple. Working pressure
175 tb per sq. in. Fitted with
cross-tubes in fire-box.
Lancashire & Yorkshire .
4-4-2
Inside
.9
26
87
S8-75
35'0
89.4.
26*05
2O52
Belpaire fire-box.
10
Great Northern .
4-4-2
Outside
>9
24
78
58
3
99
26-75
.442
990 class..
1.
North-Eastern .
4-4-2
5 2 inside
( 3 outside
22 )
Mi i
26
85
736
39' S
I.6'2
29
969
.2
13
Highland ....
Midland ....
4-6-0
4-4-0
Outside
! 2 L.-P. outside
( l H.-P. inside
19)
21
19
26
26 )
26 f
69
84
58-85
59'S
39-1
96-95
IO2"7
26
28-4
2050
MS8
Steam pressure 200 Tb per sq. in.
5 3 -cylinder compound. Working pres-
i. sure 220 tb per sq. in.
14
Midland ....
o-6-o
Inside
18}
26
63
43-8
43-8
84-95
2.-J
.4.2
.75 tb per sq. in.
IS
16
North-Eastern .
Caledonian
o-6-o
4-6-0
Inside
Outside
.84
19
26
26
II
34*4
60-4
34'4
45-9
82-05
98-4
2O'O
21
.658
20.8
Pressure .75 tt> per sq. in.
17
18
Lancashire & Yorkshire .
Great Western
o-8-o
4-4-2
Inside
( 2 H.-P . outside
2 L.-P. inside
20
.4*2 )
23'6 5
26
25-2
54
80-5
5378
73-8
S3'?8
84-45
.08-9
26-05
33'3
2038
2755
! De Glehn compound. Boiler pressure
<! 227 tb per sq. in.
19
20
Chicago & Alton
Atchison, Topeka & *
Sante Ft . . . )
4-4-2
4-4-2
Outside
( 2 outside
( 2 inside
20
25
.5
28
26 !
26 f
80
79
82-8
86-5
45-3
.55
160
33'5
49'5
2606
3215
Balanced piston valves.
54-cylinder balanced compound.
( Vauclain type.
21
Central of Georgia .
4-6-2
Outside
20
28
68
84-0
SO'?
.50
468
3357
Balanced valve.
_. j
Pennsylvania
2-6-0
Outside
20
28
62
7<*43
62*09
125
30'2
2431.3
'3
Chicago, Rock Island & *
Pacific . . . . (
2-8-0
Outside
23
30
63
888
79-2
M7
49'7
29.2
< t
24
Atchison, Topeka & )
Sante Fe . . . J
2-IO-2
Outside
Outside
.9
32
32 J
32 }
57
128*4
I04'5
2OI
SS'S
4796
Tandem compound.
"Driving-wheels divided into two
25
Great Northern, U.S.A. .
2-6-6-2
( Outside
1 Outside
2.)
33
32 \
32 S
55
158-5
.41
225
78
5658
groups of six-coupled wheels.
J Leading group driven by L.-P.
cylinders, trailing group by H.-P.
[ cylinders. Mallet type.
26
Erie Railroad
0-8-8-0
( Outside
I Outside
25
39 t
28 >
28 J
5'
183
>83
loo
6.08
Mallet type.
27
28
Argentine Great Western
Belgian State .
2-IO-O
2-6-0
Outside
2 outside )
2 inside \
28
24
51
78
79'S
82-0
;o*8
52*0
.24*17
36
2440
.672
5 ft. 6 in. gauge.
4-cylinder simple expansion. Pres-
sure 205 tb per sq. in.
29
Nord ....
4-4-2
3 outside
2 inside
13-4 )
" a
25-2
80*3
66-2
32*5
.07*3
29'7
2368
Serve tubes. Boiler pressure 235 Ib
per sq. in.
30
Est
4-O-O
2 H.-P. outside
2 L -P inside
>3 78 i
21-65 f
25-2
70
62-4
48*7
27-6
9155
Serve tubes.
3.
Austro-Hungarian State .
2-IO-O
1 2 H -P. inside
2 L.-P. outside
M56)
24-80 f
28-34
57
77'2
67-4
49'S
2777
Fitted with superheater contributing
678 sq. ft. to the total.
f Articulated tank engine on two motor
32
Nord
6-2-2-6
< 2 outside
\ 3 outside
.5 75 )
24-8 J
268
S7'2
.00
7.
32'3
2660
bogies mounted on a central girder,
splayed at ends to take Duffer
beams. H.-P. cylinders drive one
bogie. L.-P. the other.
33
Paris, Orleans .
4-6-0
( 2 outside
\ 3 inside
I4''7 )
23-62 f
25-19
73
726
53
109*5
33'37
2577
Serve tubes. Boiler pressure 235 tb
per sq. in.
34
Italian State
6-4-0
2 H.-P. on one )
side l
I 2 L.-P. on other
23*22 1
23-62
756
695
42-6
100
32-29
2217
( Serve tubes. Boiler pressure 220 tb
( per sq. in.
35
Austrian State .
2-6-1
\ 2 H.-P. inside
~i 2 L.-P. outside
28-34
7I-5
68-9
42-9
.07-9
43'0
2775
Boiler pressure 220 Ib per sq. in.
36
Prussian State .
4-4-2
( 2 H.-P. outside
'( 2 L.-P. inside
22-04)
23-62
73
6ro
29-9
.079
29*0
2520
I Lentz double-beat equilibrium valves.
< Serve tubes. Boiler pressure 205
( tb per sq. in
accelerating the train to the journey speed. The nature of this
problem is illustrated by the numerical example in 9. When
the service is frequent enough to give a good power factor
continuously, the steam locomotive cannot compete with the
electric motor for the purpose of quick acceleration, because
the motors applied to the axles of a train may for a short time
absorb power from the central station to an extent far in excess
of anything which a locomotive boiler can supply.
With regard to the working of the locomotive, J. Holden
developed the use of liquid fuel on the Great Eastern railway
to a point beyond the experimental stage, and used it instead
of coal with the engines running the heavy express traffic of
the line, its continued use depending merely upon the relative
market price of coal and oil. Compound locomotives have
been tried, as stated in 17, but the tendency in England is
to revert to the simple engine for all classes of work, though
on the continent of Europe and in America the compound
locomotive is largely adopted, and is doing excellent work. A
current development is the application of superheaters to
locomotives, and the results obtained with them are exceedingly
promising.
The leading dimensions of a few locomotives typical of English,
American and European practice are given in Table XXII.
(W. E. D.)
ROLLING STOCK
The rolling stock of a railway comprises those vehicles by
means of which it effects the transportation of persons and
things over its lines. It may be divided into two classes,
according as it is intended for passenger or for goods traffic.
Passenger Train Stock. In the United Kingdom, as in Europe
generally, the vehicles used on passenger trains include first-
class carriages, second-class carriages, third-class carriages,
composite carriages containing compartments for two or more
classes of passengers, dining or restaurant carriages, sleeping
852
RAILWAYS
[ROLLING STOCK
carriages, mail carriages or travelling post offices, luggage brake
vans, horse-boxes and carriage-trucks. Passenger carriages
were originally modelled on the stage-coaches which they
superseded, and they are often still referred to as " coaching
stock." Early examples had bodies about 15 ft. long, 6j ft.
wide and 4$ ft. high; they weighed 3 or 4 tons, and were
divided into three compartments holding six persons each, or
eighteen in all.
The distinction into classes was made almost as soon as the
railways began to carry passengers. Those who paid the highest
fares (zjd. or 3d. a mile) were provided with covered vehicles,
on the roofs of which their luggage was carried, and from the
circumstance that they could book seats in advance came the
term " booking office," still commonly applied to the office
where tickets are issued. Those who travelled at the cheaper
rates had at the beginning to be content with open carriages
having little or no protection from the weather. Gradually,
however, the accommodation improved, and by the middle of
the i gth century second-class passengers had begun to enjoy
" good glass windows and cushions on the seat," the fares they
paid being about ad. a mile. But though by an act of 1844 the
railways were obliged to run at least one train a day over their
lines, by which the fares did not exceed the " Parliamentary "
rate of id. a mile, third-class passengers paying i jd. or i^d. a
mile had little consideration bestowed on their comfort, and
were excluded from the fast trains till 1872, when the Midland
railway admitted them to all its trains. Three years later
that railway did away with second-class compartments and
improved the third class to their level. This action had the
effect, through the necessities of competition, of causing travellers
in the cheaper classes to be better treated on other railways,
and the condition of the third-class passenger was still further
improved when Parliament, by the Cheap Trains Act of 1883,
required the railways to provide " due and sufficient " train
accommodation at fares not exceeding id. a mile. In the
United Kingdom it is now possible to travel by every train, with
very few exceptions, and in many cases to have the use of
restaurant cars, for id. a mile or less, and the money obtained
from third-class travellers forms by far the most important item
in the revenue from passenger traffic. Since the Midland
railway's action in 1875 several other English companies have
abandoned second-class carriages either completely or in part,
and in Scotland they are entirely unknown.
On the continent of Europe there are occasionally four classes,
but though the local fares are often appreciably lower than in
Great Britain, only first and second class, sometimes only first
class, passengers are admitted to the fastest trains, for which in
addition a considerable extra fare is often required. In Hungary
and Russia a zone-tariff system is in operation, whereby the
charge per mile decreases progressively with tht length of the
journey, the traveller paying according to the number of zones
he has passed through and not simply according to the distance
traversed. In the United States there is in most cases nominally
only one class, denominated first class, and the average fare
obtained by the railways is about id. per mile per passenger.
But the extra charges levied for the use of parlour, sleeping and
other special cars, of which some of the best trains are exclusively
composed, in practice constitute a differentiation of class,
besides making the real cost of travelling higher than the figures
just given.
In America and other countries where distances are great
and passengers have to spend several days continuously in a
Restaur- tra i n sleeping and resta urant cars are almost a necessity,
ant and and accordingly are to be found on most important
sleeping through trains. Such cars in the United States are
cars ' largely owned, not by the railway companies over
whose lines they run, but by the Pullman Car Company,
which receives the extra fees paid by passengers for their use.
Similarly in Europe they are often the property of the Inter-
national Sleeping Car Company (Compagnie Internationale des
Wagons-Lits), and the supplementary fares required from those
who travel in them add materially to the cost of a journey. In
the United Kingdom, where the distances are comparatively
small, sleeping and dining cars must be regarded rather as
luxuries; stifl even so, they are to be met with very frequently.
The first dining car in England was run experimentally by the
Great Northern railway between London and Leeds in 1879,
and now such vehicles form a common feature on express trains,
being available for all classes of passengers without extra
charge beyond the amount payable for food. The introduction
of corridor carriages, enabling passengers to walk right through
the trains, greatly increased their usefulness. The first English
sleeping cars made their appearance in 1873, but they were very
inferior to the vehicles now employed. In the most approved
type at the present time a passage runs along one side of the
car, and off it open a number of transverse compartments or
berths resembling ships' cabins, mostly for one person only, and
each having a lavatory of its own with cold, and sometimes
hot, water laid on. A charge of 73. 6d. or ios., according to
distance, is made for each bed, in addition to the first-class fare.
In the United States the standard sleeping car has a central
alley, and along the sides are two tiers of berths, arranged
lengthwise with the car and screened off from the alley by
curtains. To some extent cars divided into separate compart-
ments are also in use in that country. On the continent of
Europe the typical sleeping car has transverse compartments
with two berths, one placed above the other.
The first railway carriages in England had four wheels with
two axles, and this construction is still largely employed,
especially for short-distance trains. Later, when
increased length became desirable, six wheels with
three axles came into use; vehicles of this kind were
made about 30 ft. long, and contained four compartments for
first-class passengers or five for second or third class, carrying
in the latter case fifty persons. Their weight was in the
neighbourhood of 10 tons. In both the four-wheeled and the
six-wheeled types the axles were free to rise and fall on springs
through a limited range, but not to turn with respect to the
body of the carriage, though the middle axle of the six-wheeled
coach was allowed a certain amount of lateral play. Thus the
length of the body was limited, for to increase it involved an
increase in the length of the rigid wheel base, which was incom-
patible with smooth and safe running on curves. (On the
continent of Europe, however, six-wheeled vehicles are to be "
found much longer than those employed in Great Britain.) This
difficulty is avoided by providing the vehicles with four axles
(or six in the case of the largest and heaviest), mounted in pairs
(or threes) at each end in a bogie or swivel truck, which being
pivoted can move relatively to the body and adapt itself to the
curvature of the line. This construction was introduced into
England from America about 1874, and has since been extensively
adopted, being now indeed standard for main line stock. It
soon led to an increase in the length of the vehicles; thus in
1885 the Midland railway had four-wheeled bogie third-class
carriages with bodies 43 ft. long, holding seventy persons in
seven compartments and weighing nearly 18 tons, and six-
wheeled bogie composite carriages, 54 ft. long and weighing
23 tons, which included 3 first-class and 4 third-class com-
partments, with a cupboard for luggage, and held 58 passengers.
The next advance, introduced on the Great Western railway
in 1892, was the adoption of corridor carriages having a passage
along one side, off which the compartments open, and connected
to each other by vestibules, so that it is possible to pass from one
end of the train to the other. This arrangement involves a
further increase of length and weight. For instance, four-
wheeled bogie third-class corridor carriages employed on the
Midland railway at the beginning of the zoth century weighed
nearly 25 tons, and had bodies measuring 50 ft.; yet they held
only 36 passengers, because not only had the number of com-
partments been reduced to six, as compared with seven in the
somewhat shorter carriage of 1885, by the introduction of a
lavatory at each end, but each compartment held only 6
persons, instead of 10, owing to the narrowing of its width by
the corridor.
ROLLING STOCK]
RAILWAYS
853
It will be seen from these particulars which are typical of
what has happened not only on other British railways, but
also on those of other countries that much more space has
to be provided and more weight hauled for each passenger
than was formerly the case. Thus, on the Midland railway
in 1885, each third-class passenger, supposing the carriage to
have its full complement, was allowed 0-62 ft. of lineal length,
and his proportion of the total weight was 5-7 cwt. Less than
20 years later the lineal length allowed each had increased
to nearly 1-4 ft., and the weight to nearly 14 cwt. Passengers
in sleeping cars appropriate still more space and weight; in
Great Britain some of these cars, though 40 tons in weight
and over 65 ft. in length, accommodate only n sleepers, each
of whom thus occupies nearly 6 ft. of the length and requires
over 3$ tons of dead weight to be hauled.
In America the long open double-bogie passenger cars, as
originally introduced by Ross Winans on the Baltimore &
Ohio railway, are universally in use. They are distinguished
essentially from the British type of carriage by having in the
centre of the body a longitudinal passage, about 2 ft. wide,
which runs their whole length, and each car having communica-
tion with those on either side of it, the conductor, and also
vendors of books, papers and cigars, are enabled to pass right
through the train. The cars are entered by steps at each end, and
are provided with lavatories and a supply of iced water. The
length is ordinarily about 50 ft., but sometimes 80 or 90 ft.
The seats, holding two persons, are placed transversely on
each side of the central passage, and have reversible backs, so
that passengers can always sit facing the direction in which
the train is travelling. Cars of this saloon type have been
introduced into England for use on railways which have adopted
electric traction, but owing to the narrower loading gauge of
British railways it is not usually possible to seat four persons
across the width of the car for its whole length, and at the
ends the seats have to be placed along the sides of the vehicle.
A considerable amount of standing room is then available,
and those who have to occupy it have been nicknamed " strap-
hangers," from the fact that they steady themselves against
the motion of the train by the aid of leather straps fixed from
the roof for that purpose. Cars built almost entirely of steel,
in which the proportion of wood is reduced to a minimum,
are used on some electric railways, in order to diminish danger
from fire, and the same mode of construction is also being
adopted for the rolling stock of steam railways.
End doors opening on end pktforms have always been
characteristic of American passenger equipment. Their use
secures a continuous passage-way through the train,
but is attended with some discomfort and risk when
the train is in motion. The opening of the doors was apt
to cause a disagreeable draught through the car in cold weather,
and passengers occasionally fell from the open platform, or
were blown from it, when the train was moving. To remedy
these defects vestibules were introduced, to enclose the plat-
form with a housing so arranged as to be continuous when
the cars are made up into trains, and fitted with side doors
for ingress and egress when the trains are standing. A second
advantage of the vestibule developed in use, for it was found
that the lateral swaying of the cars was diminished by the
friction between the vestibule frames. The fundamental
American vestibule patent, issued to H. H. Sessions of Chicago
in November 1887, covered a housing in combination with a
vertical metallic plate frame of the general contour of the
central passage-way, which projected slightly beyond the line
of the couplings and was held out by horizontal springs top
and bottom, being connected with the platform housing by
flexible connexions at the top and sides and by sliding plates
below. A common form is illustrated in fig. 27. Subsequent
improvements on the Sessions patent have resulted in a modified
form of vestibule in which the housing is made the full width
of the platform, though the contact plate and springs and the
flexible connexions remain the same as before. The applica-
tion of vestibules is practically limited to trains making long
Vesti-
bules.
journeys, as it is an obstruction to the free ingress and egress
of passengers on local trains that make frequent stops.
FIG. 27. A "Vestibule"; the "lazytongs" gate is folded away
when two cars are coupled together, givmg'.free passage from end
to end of the train.
In the United States the danger of the stoves that used to
be employed for heating the interiors of the cars has been
realized, and now the most common method is by Heating
steam taken from the locomotive boiler and circulated * a
through the train in a line of piping, rendered con- noting.
tinuous between the cars by flexible coupling-hose. The
same method is finding increased favour in Great Britain,
to the supersession of the old hot-water footwarmers. These
in their simplest form are cans filled with water, which is heated
by immersing them in a vessel containing boiling water. In
some cases, however, they are filled with fused acetate of soda;
this salt is solid when cold, but when the can containing it is
heated by immersion in hot water it liquefies, and in the process
absorbs heat which is given out again on the change of state
back to solid. Such cans remain warm longer than those con-
taining only hot water. On electric railways the trains are
heated by electric heaters. As to lighting, the oil lamp has
been largely displaced by gas and electricity. The former is
often a rich oil-gas, stored in steel reservoirs under the coaches
at a pressure of six or seven atmospheres, and passed through
a reducing valve to the burners; these used to be of the
ordinary fish-tail type, but inverted incandescent mantles are
coming into increasing use. Gas has the disadvantage that
in case of a collision its inflammability may assist any fire that
may be started. Electric light is free from this drawback.
The current required for it is generated by dynamos driven
from the axles of the coaches. With "set" or "block"
trains, that is, trains having their vehicles permanently coupled
up, one dynamo may serve for the whole train, but usually
a dynamo is provided for each coach, which is then an
RAILWAYS
[ROLLING STOCK
independent unit complete in itself. It is necessary that the
voltage of the current shall be constant whatever be the in-
crease of the speed of the train, and therefore of the dynamo.
In most of the systems that have been proposed this result
is attained by electrical regulation; in one, however, a mech-
anical method is adopted, the dynamo being so hung that it
allows the driving belt to slip when the speed of the axle exceeds
a certain limit, the armature thus being rotated at an approxim-
ately constant speed. In all the systems accumulators are
required to maintain the light when the train is at rest or is
moving too slowly to generate current.
In all countries passenger trains must vary in weight accord-
ing to the different services they have to perform; suburban
Weight trains, for example, meant to hold as many pas-
aad sengers as possible, and travelling at low speeds, do not
speed. weigh so much as long-distance expresses, which include
dining and sleeping cars, and on which, from considerations of
comfort, more space must be allowed each occupant. The speed
at which the journey has to be completed is obviously another
important factor, though the increased power of modern loco-
motives permits trains to be heavier and at the same time to
run as fast, and often faster, than was formerly possible, and
in consequence the general tendency is towards increased
weight as well as increased speed. An ordinary slow suburban
train may weigh about 100 tons exclusive of the engine, and may
be timed at an inclusive speed, from the beginning to the end
of its journey, as low as 12 or 15 m. an hour; while usually the
fastest express trains maintaining inclusive speeds of say 45 m.
an hour, and made up of the heaviest and strongest rolling stock,
do not much exceed 300 tons in any country, and are often less.
The inclusive speed over a long journey is of course a different
thing from the average running speed, on account of the time
consumed in intermediate stops; the fewer the stops the more
easily is the inclusive speed increased, hence the advantage of
the non-stop runs of 150 and 200 m. or more which are now
performed by several railways in Great Britain, and on which
average speeds of 54 or 55 m. per hour are attained between
stopping-places. Over shorter distances still more rapid running
is occasionally arranged, and in Great Britain, France and the
United States there are instances of trains scheduled to main-
tain an average speed of 60 m. an hour or more between stops.
Still higher speeds, up to 75 or even 80 m. an hour, are reached,
and sustained for shorter or longer distances every day by
express trains whose average speed between any two stopping-
places is very much less. But isolated examples of high speeds
do not give the traveller much information as to the train
service at his disposal, for on the whole he is better off with a
large number of trains all maintaining a good average of speed
than with a service mostly consisting of poor trains, but leavened
with one or two exceptionally fast ones. If both the number
and the speed of the trains be taken into account, Great Britain
is generally admitted still to remain well ahead of any other
country.
Goods Trains. The vehicles used for the transportation of
goods are known as goods wagons or trucks in Great Britain,
and as freight cars in America. The principal types to
be found in the United Kingdom and on the continent of
.Europe are open wagons (the lading often protected from the
weather by tarpaulin sheets), mineral wagons, covered or box
wagons for cotton, grain, &c., sheep and cattle trucks, &c.
The principal types of American freight cars are box cars,
gondola cars, coal cars, stock cars, tank cars and refrigerator
cars, with, as in other countries, various special cars for special
purposes. Most of these terms explain themselves. The
gondola or flat car corresponds to the European open wagons
and is used to carry goods not liable to be injured by the weather;
but in the United States the practice of covering the load with
tarpaulins is unknown, and therefore the proportion of box
cars is much greater than in Europe. The long hauls in the
United States make it specially important that the cars should
carry a load in both directions, and so box cars which have
carried grain or merchandise one way are filled with wool,
coal, coke, ore, timber and other coarse articles for the return
journey. On this account it is common to put small end doors
in American box cars, through which timber and rails may
be loaded.
The fundamental difference between American freight cars
and the goods wagons of Europe and other lands is in carrying
capacity. In Great Britain the mineral trucks can ordinarily
hold from 8 to 10 tons (long tons, 2240 ft>), and the goods
trucks rather less, though there are wagons in use holding
12 or 15 tons, and the specifications agreed to by the railway
companies associated in the Railway Clearing House permit
private wagon owners (who own about 45% of the wagon
stock run on the railways of the United Kingdom) to build also
wagons holding 20, 30, 40 and 56 tons. On the continent of
Europe the average carrying capacity is rather higher; though
wagons of less than 10 tons capacity are in use, many of those
originally rated at 10 tons have been rebuilt to hold 15, and the
tendency is towards wagons of 15-20 tons as a standard, with
others for special purposes holding 40 or 45 tons.
The majority of the wagons referred to above are compara-
tively short, are carried on four wheels, and are often made
of wood. American cars, on the other hand, have long bodies
mounted on two swivelling bogie-trucks of four wheels each,
and are commonly constructed of steel. About 1875 their
average capacity differed little from that of British wagons
of the present day, but by 1885 it had grown to 20 or
22 short tons (2000 Ib) and now it is probably at least three
times that of European wagons. For years the standard freight
cars have held 60,000 Ib and now many carry 80,000 Ib or
100,000 Ib; a few coal cars have even been built to contain
200,000 Ib. This high carrying capacity has worked in several
ways to reduce the cost of transportation. An ordinary
British lo-ton wagon often weighs about 6 tons empty, and
rarely much less than 5 tons; that is, the ratio of its possible
paying load to its tare weight is at the best about 2 to i. But
an American car with a capacity of 100,000 Ib may weigh
only 40,000 Ib, and thus the ratio of its capacity to its tare
weight is only about 5 to 2. Hence less dead weight has to be
hauled for each ton of paying load. In addition the increased
size of the American freight car has diminished the interest
on the first cost and the expenses of maintenance relatively
to the work done; it has diminished to some extent the amount
of track and yard room required to perform a unit of work;
it has diminished journal and rolling friction relatively to the
tons hauled, since these elements of train resistance grow rela-
tively less as the load per wheel rises; and finally, it has tended
to reduce the labour costs as the train loads have become greater,
because no more men are required to handle a heavy train than
a light one.
It is sometimes argued that if these things are true for one
country they must be true for another, and that in Great Britain,
for example, the use of more capacious cars would bring down
the cost of carriage. It may be pointed out, however, that the
social and geographical conditions are different in the United
Kingdom and the United States, and in each country the
methods of carrying goods and passengers have developed
in accordance with the requirements of those conditions. In
the one country the population is dense, large towns are
numerous and close to one another, the greatest distances
to be travelled are short, and relatively a large part of the
freight to be carried is merchandise and manufactured material
consigned in small quantities. In the other country precisely
the opposite conditions exist. Under the first set of conditions
quickness and flexibility of service are relatively more important
than under the second set. Goods therefore are collected and
despatched promptly, and, to secure rapid transit, are packed
in numerous wagons, each of which goes right through to its
destination, with the consequence that, so far as general mer-
chandise is concerned, the weight carried in each is a quarter
or less of its capacity. But if full loads cannot be arranged for
small wagons, there is obviously no economy in introducing
larger ones. On the other hand, where, as in America, the great
ROLLING STOCK]
RAILWAYS
855
volume of freight is raw material and crude food-stuffs, and
the distances are great, a low charge per unit of transportation
is more important than any consideration such as quickness
of delivery; therefore full car-loads of freight are massed
into enormous trains, which run unbroken for distances of
perhaps 1000 m. to a seaport or distributing centre.
The weight and speed of goods trains vary enormously
according to local conditions, but the following figures, which
Weight refer to traffic on the London & North-Western
aa railway between London and Rugby, may be taken
*pctd. as representative of good English practice. Coal
trains, excluding the engine, weigh up to 800 or goo tons,
and travel at from 18 to 22 m. an hour; ordinary goods or
merchandise trains, weighing 430 tons, travel at from 25 to 30 m.
an hour; and quick merchandise trains with limited loads of
300 tons make 35 to 40 m. an hour. In the United States
mineral and grain trains, running at perhaps 12 m. an hour, may
weigh up to about 4000 tons, and loads of 2000 tons are common.
Merchandise trains run faster and carry less. Their speed must
obviously depend greatly on topographical conditions. In the
great continental basin there are long lines with easy gradients
and curves, while in the Allegheny and Rocky Mountains the
gradients are stiff, and the curves numerous and of short radius.
Such trains, therefore, range in weight from 600 to 1800 tons or
even more, and the journey speeds from terminus to terminus,
including stops, vary from 15 to 30 m. an hour, the rate of
running rising in favourable circumstances to 40 or even 60 m.
an hour.
Couplers. The means by which vehicles are joined together
into trains are of two kinds automatic and non-automatic,
the difference between them being that with the former the
impact of two vehicles one on the other is sufficient to couple
them without any human intervention such as is required with
the latter. The common form of non-automatic coupler, used
in Great Britain for goods wagons, consists of a chain and hook;
the chain hangs loosely from a slot in the draw-bar, which
terminates in a hook, and coupling is effected by slipping the
chain of one vehicle over the hook of the next. For this opera-
tion, or its reverse, a man has to go in between the wagons,
unless, as in Great Britain, he is provided with a coupling-stick
that is, a pole having a peculiarly shaped hook at one end by
which the chain can be caught and thrown on or off the draw-
bar hook. This coupling gear is placed centrally between a
pair of buffers; formerly these were often left " dead " that is,
consisted of solid prolongations of the frame of the vehicle,
but now they are made to work against springs which take up
the shocks that occur when the wagons are thrown violently
against one another in shunting. In British practice the chains
consist of three links, and are of such a length that when fully
extended there is a space of a few inches between opposing
buffers; this slack facilitates the starting of a heavy train,
since the engine is able to start the wagons one by one and the
weight of the train is not thrown on it all at once. For passenger
trains and occasionally for fast goods trains screw couplings are
substituted for the simple chains. In these the central bar
which connects the two end links has screw threads cut upon it,
and by means of a lever can be turned so as either to shorten
the coupling and bring the vehicles together till their buffers
are firmly pressed together, or to lengthen it to permit the end
link to be lifted off the hook.
Another form of coupler, which used to be universal in the
United States, though it has now been almost entirely super-
seded by the automatic coupler, was the " link and pin," which
differed fundamentally from the couplers commonly used in
Europe, in the fact that it was a buffer as well as a coupler, no
side buffers being fitted. In it the draw-bar, connected through
a spring to the frame of the car, had at its outboard end a socket
into which one end of a solid link was inserted and secured by a
pin. The essential change from the link and pin to the auto-
matic coupler is in the outboard end or head of the draw-bar.
The socket that received the link is replaced by a hook, shown at
A in fig. 28, which is usually called the knuckle. This hook
swings on the pivot B, and has an arm which extends backwards,
practically at right angles with the working face of the hook,
FIG. 28. Automatic Coupling for Freight Cars (U.S.A.).
in a cavity in the head, and engages with the locking-pin C.
This locking-pin is lifted by a suitable lever which extends to
one or both sides of the car; lifting it releases the knuckle,
which is then free to swing open, disconnecting the two cars.
The knuckle stands open until the coupling is pushed against
another coupling, when the two hooks turn on their pivots to
the position shown in fig. 28, and, the locking-pin dropping
into place, the couplers are made fast. This arrangement is
only partly automatic, since it often happens that when two cars
are brought together to couple the knuckles are closed and must
be opened by hand. There are various contrivances by which
this may be done by a man standing clear of the cars, but often
he must go in between their ends to reach the knuckle.
This form of automatic coupler has now gained practically
universal acceptance in the United States. To effect this
result required many years of discussion and experiment. The
Master Car Builders' Association, a great body of mechanical
officers organized especially to being about improvement and
uniformity in details of construction and operation, expressed
its sense of the importance of " self-couph'ng " so far back as
1874, but no device of the kind that could be considered useful
had then been invented. At that time a member of the Associa-
tion referred to the disappearance of automatic couplers which
had been introduced thirty or forty years before. This body
pursued the subject with more or less diligence, and in 1884 laid
down the principle that the automatic coupler should be one
acting in a vertical plane that is, the engaging faces should be
free to move up and down within a considerable range, in order
to provide for the differences in the height of cars. By the fixing
of this principle the task of the inventor was considerably
simplified. In 1887 a committee reported that the coupler
question was the " knottiest mechanical problem that had ever
been presented to the railroad," and over 4000 attempted
solutions were on record in the United States Patent Office.
The committee had not found one that did not possess grave
disadvantages, but concluded that the " principle of contact of
the surfaces of vertical surfaces embodied in the Janney coupler
afforded the best connexion for cars on curves and tangents ";
and in 1887 the Association recommended the adoption of a
coupler of the Janney type, which, as developed later, is shown in
fig. 28. The method of constructing the working faces of this
coupler is shown in fig. 29. The principle was patented, but
the company owning the patent undertook to permit its free use
by railway companies which were members of the Master Car
Builders' Association, and thus threw open the underlying
orinciple to competition. From that time the numerous patents
have had reference merely to details. Many different couplers
of the Janney type are patented and made by different firms,
but the tendency is to equip new cars with one of only four or
five standard makes. The adoption of automatic couplers was
stimulated in some degree by laws enacted by the various states
and by the United States; and the Safety Appliance Act passed
by Congress in 1893 made it unlawful for railways to permit to
be hauled on their lines after the ist of January 1898 any car
used for interstate commerce that was not equipped with
couplers which coupled automatically by impact, and which
could be uncoupled without the necessity for men going in
between the ends of the cars. The limit was extended to the
ist of August 1900 by the Interstate Commerce Commission,
which was given discretion 1 in the matter.
856
RAILWAYS
[INTRA-URBAN RAILWAYS
., Automatic couplers resembling the Janney are adopted in
a few special cases in Great Britain and other European countries,
FIG. 29. Development of the Working Faces of the Janney Coupler.
The sides of the square are 6 in., and the centres AA are taken
at 2 in. from the top and bottom of the square. The circles
A' A', which are struck with 2-inch radius, define the first portion
of the knuckle. The inner circle B has a radius of 1 3 in.
From its intersection with A' A' arcs are struck cutting B in two
points. These intersections determine the centres of the semi-
circles CC which form the ends of the respective knuckles. These
semicircles and the circles A' A' are joined by tangents and short
arcs struck from the centre of the figure.
but the great majority of couplings remain non-automatic. It
may be pointed out that the general employment of side buffers
in Europe greatly complicates the problem of designing a satis-
factory automatic coupling, while to do away with them and
substitute the combined buffer-coupling, such as is used in the
United States, would entail enormous difficulties in carrying
on the traffic during the transition stage.
Brakes. In the United States the Safety Appliance Act of
1893 also forbade the railways, after the ist of January 1898,
to run trains which did not contain a " sufficient number "
of cars equipped with continuous brakes to enable the speed
to be controlled from the engine. This law, however, did not
serve in practice to secure so general a use of power brakes
on freight trains as was thought desirable, and another act
was passed in 1903 to give the Interstate Commerce Commission
authority to prescribe what should be the minimum number of
power-braked cars in each train. This minimum was at first
fixed at 50%, but on and -after the ist of August 1906 it was
raised to 75%, with the result that soon after that date practi-
cally all the rolling stock of American railways, whether passenger
or freight, was provided with compressed air brakes. In the
United Kingdom the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 em-
powered the Board of Trade to require all passenger trains,
within a reasonable period, to be fitted with automatic con-
tinuous brakes, and now all the passenger stock, with a few
trifling exceptions, is provided with either compressed-air or
vacuum brakes (see BRAKE), and sometimes with both. But
goods and mineral trains so fitted are rare, and the same is
the case on the continent of Europe, where, however, such brakes
are generally employed on passenger trains. (H. M. R.)
INTRA-URBAN RAILWAYS
The great concentration of population in cities during the
igth century brought into existence a class of railways to
which the name of intra-urban may be applied. Such
^ nes are primarily intended to supply quick means
of passenger communication within the limits of cities,
and are to be distinguished on the one hand from surface tram-
ways, and on the other from those portions of trunk or other
lines which lie within city boundaries, although the latter may
incidentally do a local or intra-urban business. Intra-urban
railways, as compared with ordinary railways, are characterized
by shortness of length, great cost per mile, and by a traffic
almost exclusively passenger, the burden of which is enor-
mously heavy. For the purpose of connecting the greatest
possible number of points of concentrated travel, the first
railways were laid round the boundaries of areas approximately
circular, the theory being that the short walk from the cir-
cumference of the circle to any point within it would be no
serious detention. It 'has been found, however, in the case of
such circular or belt railways, that the time lost in traversing
the circle and in walking from the circumference to the centre
is so great that the gain in journey speed over a direct surface
tramway or omnibus is entirely lost. Later intra-urban rail-
ways in nearly every case have been built, so far as possible,
on straight lines, radiating from the business centre or point
of maximum congestion of travel to the outer limits of the
city; and, while not attempting to serve all the population
through the agency of the line, make an effort to serve a portion
in the best possible manner that is, with direct transit.
The actual beginning of the construction of intra-urban
railways was in 1853, when powers were obtained to build a
line, 2y m. long, from Edgware Road to King's Cross, in London,
from which beginning the Metropolitan and Metropolitan
District railways developed. These railways, which in part
are operated jointly, were given a circular location, but the
shortcomings of this plan soon became apparent. It was found
that there was not sufficient traffic to support them as purely
intra-urban lines, and they have since been extended into the
outskirts of London to reach the suburban traffic.
The Metropolitan and Metropolitan District railways followed
the art of rail way: building as it existed at the time they were
laid out. Wherever possible the lines were constructed in
open cutting, to ensure adequate ventilation; and where this
was not possible they were built by a method suggestively
named " cut and cover." A trench was first excavated to the
proper depth, then the side walls and arched roof of brick were
put in place, earth was filled in behind and over the arch, and
the surface of the ground restored, either by paving where
streets were followed, or by actually being built over with
houses where the lines passed under private property. Where
the depth to rail-level was too great for cut-and-cover methods,
ordinary tunnelling processes were used; and where the trench
was too shallow for the arched roof, heavy girders, sometimes
of cast iron, bridged it between the side walls, longitudinal
arches being turned between them (fig. 30).
FIG. 30. Type- Section of Arched Covered Way, Metropolitan
District railway, London.
The next development in intra-urban railways was an elevated
line in the city of New York. Probably the first suggestion
for an elevated railway was made by Colonel Stevens, of
Hoboken, New Jersey, as early as 1831, when the whole art of
railway construction was in its infancy. He proposed to build
an elevated railway on a single line of posts, placed along the
curb-line of the street: a suggestion which embodies not only
the general plan of an elevated structure, but the most striking
feature of it as subsequently built namely, a railway supported
INTRA-URBAN RAILWAYS]
RAILWAYS
857
n in
nt n
J
by a single row of columns. The first actual work, however, was
not begun till 1870, when the construction of an iron structure
on a single row of columns was
undertaken. The superiority, so
far as the convenience of passen-
gers is concerned, of an elevated
over an underground railway, when
both are worked by steam loco-
motives, and the great economy
and rapidity of construction, led to
the quick development and exten-
sion of this general design. By
the year 1878 there were four
parallel lines in the city of New
York, and constructions of the
same character had already been
projected in Brooklyn and Chicago
and, with certain modifications of
details, in Berlin. In the year
1894 an elevated railway was built
in Liverpool, and in 1900 a similar
railway was constructed in Boston,
U.S.A., and the construction of a
new one undertaken in New York.
These elevated railways as a rule
follow the lines of streets, and are
of two general types. One (fig. 31),
the earliest form, consisted of a
single row of columns supporting
two lines of longitudinal girders
FIG. 31. Single-Column
Elevated Structure.
n tn
n
carrying the rails, the lateral stability of the structure being ob-
tained by anchoring the feet of the columns to their foundations.
The other type (fig. 32)
has two rows of columns
connected at the top by
transverse girders, which in
turn carry the longitudinal
girders that support the
railway. In Berlin, on the
Stadtbahn which for a
part of its length traverses
private property masonry
arches, or earthen embank-
ments between retaining
walls, were substituted for
the metallic structure
wherever possible.
The next great develop-
ment, marking the third
step in the progress of
intra-urban railway con-
struction, took place in
1886, when J. H. Greathead
(q.v.) began the City &
South London railway, ex-
tending under the Thames
from the Monument to
Stockwell, a distance of
3$ m. Its promoters recog-
nized the unsuitability of
ordinary steam locomotives
FIG. 32. Double-Column Elevated
Structure (half-section).
for underground railways, and intended to work it by means of
a moving cable; but before it was completed, electric traction
had developed so far as to be available for use on such lines.
Electricity, therefore, and not the cable, was installed (fig. 33).
In the details of construction the shield was the novelty. In
principle it had been invented by Sir Marc I. Brunei for the con-
struction of the original Thames tunnel, and it was afterwards
improved by Beach, of New York, and finally developed by
Greathead. (For the details of the shield and method of its
operation, see TUNNEL.) By means of the shield Great-
head cut a circular hole at a depth ranging from 40 to 80 ft.
below the surface, with an external diameter of 10 ft. 9 in.;
this he lined with cast-iron segments bolted together, giving a
fr 3
flat
FIG. 33. Section of Tunnel and Electric Locomotive, City & South
London railway.
clear diameter of 10 ft. 2 in. Except at the shafts, which were
sunk on proposed station sites, there was no interference with
the surface of the streets or with street traffic during con-
struction. Two tunnels were built approximately parallel,
each taking a single track. The cross-section of the cars was
made to conform approximately to the section of the tunnel,
the idea being that each train would act like a piston in a
cylinder, expelling in front of it a column of air, to be forced
up the station shaft next ahead of the train, and sucking down
a similar column through the station shaft just behind. This
arrangement was expected to ensure a sufficient change in air
to keep such railways properly ventilated, but experience has
proved it to be ineffective for the purpose. This method of
construction has been used for building other railways in
Glasgow and London, and in the latter city alone the " tube
railways " of this character have a length of some 40 m.
The later examples of these railways have a diameter ranging
from 13 to 15 ft.
The fourth step in the development of intra-urban railways
was to go to the other extreme from the deep tunnel which
Greathead introduced. In 1893 the construction was com-
pleted in Budapest of an underground railway with a thin,
flat roof, consisting of steel beams set close together, with small
longitudinal jack arches between them, the street pavement
FIG. 34. Electric Underground Railway, Budapest.
resting directly on the roof thus formed (fig. 34). The object
was to bring the level of the station platforms as close to the
8 5 8
RAILWAYS
[INTRA-URBAN RAILWAYS
surface of the street as the height of the car itself would permit ;
in the case of Budapest the distance is about 9 ft. This prin-
ciple of construction has since been followed in the construction
of the Boston ' subway, of the Chemin de Fer Metropolitain
in Paris, and of the New York underground railway. The
Paris line is built with the standard gauge of 4 ft 83 in.,
but its tunnels are designedly made of such a small cross-
section that ordinary main line stock cannot pass through
them.
The New York underground railway (fig. 35) marks a still
further step in advance, in that there are practically two
Opera-
tion.
[-T;
--.":Y -..I ""'&'
TgtFg"
&-f-3"T~"
;.-.'. V-;;. .^~\-' ;
xH*r
S N
^ JN
o!
/" N
^ >
j^ *^
i
j, ^
^ v - fU Uf j ^
FIG. 35. New York Rapid Transit railway, showing also the tracks
and conduits of the electric surface tramway.
different railways in the same structure. One pair of tracks
is used for a local service with stations about one-quarter of
a mile apart, following the general plan of operation in vogue
on all other intra-urban railways. The other, or central, pair
of tracks is for trains making stops at longer distances. Thus
there is a differentiation between the long-distance traveller
who desires to be carried from one extreme of the city to the
other and the short-distance traveller who is going between
points at a much less distance.
To sum up, there are of intra-urban railways two distinct
classes: the elevated and the underground. The elevated is
used where the traffic is so light as not to warrant the expen-
sive underground construction, or where the construction of
an elevated line is of no serious detriment to the adjoining
property. The underground is used where the congestion of
traffic is so great as to demand a railway almost regardless
of cost, and where the conditions of surface traffic or of
adjoining property are such as to require that the rail-
way shall not obstruct or occupy any ground above the
surface.
Underground railways are of three general types: the one
of extreme depth, built by tunnelb'ng methods, usually with
the shield and without regard to the surface topography, wheie
the stations are put at such depth as to require lifts to carry
the passengers from the station platform to the street level.
This type has the advantage of economy in first construction,
there being the minimum amount of material to be excavated,
and no interference during construction with street traffic or
subsurface structures; it has, however, the disadvantage of
the cost of operation of lifts at the stations. The other extreme
type is the shallow construction, where the railway is brought
to the minimum distance below the street level. This system
has the advantage of the greatest convenience in operation,
no lifts being required, since the distance from the street surface
to the station platform is about 12 10 15 ft.; it has the dis-
advantages, however, of necessitating the tearing up of the
street surface during construction, and the readjustment of
sewer, water, gas and electric mains and other subsurface
structures, and of having the gradients partially dependent on
the surface topography. The third type is the intermediate
one between those two, followed by the Metropolitan and
Metropolitan District railways, in London, where the railway
has an arched roof, built usually at a sufficient distance
below the surface of the street to permit the other sub-
surface structures to lie in the ground above the crown
of the arch, and where the station platforms are from 20
to 30 ft. beneath the surface of the street a depth not
sufficient to warrant the introduction of lifts, but enough to
be inconvenient.
In the operation of intra-urban railways, steam locomotives,
cables and electricity have severally been tried: the first having
been used in the earlier examples of underground lines
and in the various elevated systems in the United
States. The fouling of the air that results from the
steam-engine, owing to the production of carbonic acid gas and
of sulphurous fumes and aqueous vapour, is well known, and
its use is now practically abandoned for underground working.
The cable is slow; and unless development along new lines
of compressed air or some sort of chemical engine takes place,
electricity will monopolize the field. Electricity is applied
through a separate locomotive attached to the head
of the train, or through motor carriages attached
either at one end or at both ends of the train, or by
putting a motor on every axle and so utilizing the
whole weight of the train for traction, all the motors
being under a single control at the head of the train,
or at any point of the train for emergency. The
distance between stations on intra-urban railways is
governed by the density of local traffic and the
speed desired to be maintained. As a general rule
the interval varies from one-quarter to one-half mile;
on the express lines of the New York underground
railway, the inter-station interval averages about 15 m. On
steam- worked lines the speed of trains is about n to 15 m.
per hour, according to the distance between stations Later-
practice takes advantage of the great increase in power that
can be temporarily developed by electric motors during the
period of acceleration; this, in proportion to the weight of
the train to be hauled, gives results much in advance of those
obtained on ordinary steam railways. Since high average
speed on a line with frequent stops depends largely on rapidity
of acceleration, the tendency in modern equipment is to secure
as great an output of power as possible during the accelerating
period, with corresponding increase in weight available for
adhesion. With a steam locomotive all the power is concen-
trated in one machine, and therefore the weight on the drivers
available for adhesion is limited. With electricity, power can
be applied to as many axles in the train as desired, and so the
whole weight of the train, with its load, may be utilized if
necessary. Sometimes, as on the Central London railway,
the acceleration of gravity is also utilized; the different stations
stand, as it were, on the top of a hill, so that outgoing trains
are aided at the start by having a slope to run down, while
incoming ones are checked by the rising gradient they encounter.
The cost of intra-urban railways depends not only on the
type of construction, but more especially upon local conditions,
such as the nature of the soil, the presence of subsurface Cosr
structures, like sewers, water and gas mains, electric
conduits, &c.; the necessity of permanent underpinning or
temporary supporting of house foundations, the cost of acquiring
land passed under or over when street lines are not followed,
and, in the case of elevated railways, the cost of acquiring
easements of light, air and access, which the courts have held
are vested in the abutting property. The cost of building an
ordinary two-track elevated railway according to American
practice varies from $300,000 to $400,000 a mile, exclusive of
equipment, terminals or land damages. The cost of construct-
ing the deep tubular tunnels in London, whose diameter is about
15 ft. exclusive, in like manner, of equipment, terminals or land
damages, is about 170,000 to 200,000 a mile. The cost of
the Metropolitan and Metropolitan District railways of London
varied greatly on account of the variations in construction.
The most difficult section namely, that under Cannon Street
where the abutting buildings had to be underpinned', and a very
dense traffic maintained during construction, while a network
of sewers and mains was readjusted, cost at the rate of about
1,000,000 a mile. The contract price of the New York under-
ground railway, exclusive of the incidentals above mentioned,
was $35,000,000 for 21 m., of which 16 m. are underground and
5 are elevated. The most difficult portion of the road, 4? m. of
four-track line, cost $15,000,000.
(W. B. P.)
LIGHT RAILWAYS]
RAILWAYS
859
LIGHT RAILWAYS
The term light railways is somewhat vague and indefinite,
and therefore to give a precise definition of its significance is
not an easy matter. No adequate definition is to be
found even in the British statute-book; for although
parliament has on different occasions passed acts
dealing with such railways both in Great Britain and Ireland,
it has not inserted in any of them a clear and sufficient statement
of what it intends shall be understood by the term, as dis-
tinguished from an ordinary railway. Since the passing of the
Light Railways Act of 1896, which did not apply to Ireland, it
is possible to give a formal definition by saying that a light
railway is one constructed under the provisions of that act;
but it must be noted that the commissioners appointed under
that act have authorized many lines which in their physical
characteristics are indistinguishable from street tramways
constructed under the Tramways Act, and to these the term
light railways would certainly not be applied in ordinary parlance.
Still, they do differ from ordinary tramways in the important
fact that the procedure by which they have been authorized is
simpler and cheaper than the methods by which special private
acts of parliament have to be obtained for tramway projects.
Economy in capital outlay and cheapness in construction is
indeed the characteristic generally associated with light railways
by the public, and implicitly attached to them by parliament
in the act of 1896, and any simplifications of the engineering
or mechanical features they may exhibit compared with the
standard railways of the country are mainly, if not entirely, due
to the desire to keep down their expenses.
The saving of cost is effected in two ways: (i) Instead of
having to incur the expenses of a protracted inquiry before
parliament, the promoters of a light railway under the act of
1896 make an application to the light railway commissioners,
who then hold a local inquiry, to obtain evidence of the usefulness
of the proposed railway, and to hear objections to it, and, if they
are satisfied, settle the draft order and hand it over to the Board
of Trade for confirmation. The Board may reject the order
if it thinks the scheme to be of such magnitude or importance
that it ought to come under the direct consideration of parlia-
ment, or it may modify it in certain respects, or it may remit it
to the commissioners for further inquiry. But once the order
is confirmed by the Board, with or without modifications, it
has effect as if it had been enacted by parliament, and it cannot
afterwards be upset on the ground of any alleged irregularity
in the proceedings. (2) The second source of economy is to be
sought in the reduced cost of actually making the line and of
working it when made. Thus the gauge may be narrow, the
line single, the rails lighter than those used in standard practice,
while deep cuttings and high embankments may be avoided by
permitting the curves to be sharper and the gradients steeper:
such points conduce to cheapness of construction. Again,
low speeds, light stock, less stringent requirements as to
continuous brakes, signals, block-working and interlocking,
road-crossings, stations, &c., tend to cheapness in working. On
the lines actually authorized by the Board of Trade under the
1896 act the normal minimum radius of the curves has been
fixed at about 600 ft.; when a still smaller radius has been
necessary, the speed has been reduced to 10 m. an hour and a
guard-rail insisted on inside the curve. Again, the speed has
been restricted to 20 m. an hour on long inclines with gradients
steeper than i in 50, and also on a line which had scarcely any
straight portions and in which there were many curves of 600 ft.
radius and gradients of i in 50. In the case of a line of 2j ft.
gauge, with a ruling gradient of i in 40, a maximum speed of
15 m. an hour and a minimum radius of curve of 300 ft. have
been prescribed. Curves of still smaller radius have entailed a
maximum speed of 10 m. an hour. It must be understood
that a railway described as " light " is not necessarily built of
narrower gauge than the standard. Many lines, indeed, have
been designed on the normal 4 ft. 8J in. gauge, and laid with
rails weighing from 50 to 70 Ib per yard; a flat-footed 60 Ib rail,
with the axle load limited to 14 tons, has the advantage for such
lines that it permits the employment of a proportion of the
locomotives used on main lines. The orders actually granted
have allowed 50 Ib, 56 Ib, 60 Ib and 70 Ib rails, with correspond-
ing axle loads of 10, 12, 14 and 16 tons. On a line of 2 ft. gauge,
rails of 40 Ib have been sanctioned. In regard to fencing and
precautions at level-crossings, less rigid requirements may be
enforced than with standard railways; and in some cases where
trains are likely to be few, it has been provided that the normal
position of the gates at crossings shall be across the line. Again,
if the speed is low and the trains infrequent, the signalling
arrangements may be of a very simple and inexpensive kind, or
even dispensed with altogether. It should be mentioned that
the act provided that the Treasury might advance a portion of
the money required for a line in cases where the council of any
county, borough or district had agreed to do the same, and
might also make a special advance in aid of a light railway
which was certified by the Board of. Agriculture to be bene-
ficial to agriculture in any cultivated district, or by the
Board of Trade to furnish a means of communication between
a fishing-harbour and a market in a district where it would not
be constructed without special assistance from the state.
As a general classification the commissioners have divided
the schemes that have come before them into three classes:
(A) those which like ordinary railways take their own line across
country; (B) those in connexion with which it is proposed
to use the public roads conjointly with the ordinary road traffic;
and (Neutral) which includes inclined railways worked with a
rope, and lines which possess the conditions of A and B in about
equal porportions.
The Light Railways Act 1896 was to remain in force only
until the end of 1901 unless continued by parliament, but it
was continued year by year under the Expiring Laws Continu-
ance Act. In 1901 the president of the Board of Trade intro-
duced a bill to continue the act until 1906, and to amend it so
as to make it authorize the construction of a light railway on
any highway, the object being to abolish the restriction that a
light railway should run into the area of at least two local
authorities; but it was not proceeded with. Towards the end
of 1901 a departmental committee of the Board of Trade was
formed to consider the Light Railways Act, and in 1002 the
president of the Board of Trade (Mr Gerald Balfour) stated that
as a result of the deliberations of this committee, a new bill
had been drafted which he thought would go very far to meet
all the reasonable objections that had been urged against the
present powers of the local authorities. This bill, however,
was not brought forward. In July 1003, Lord Wolverton, on
behalf of the Board of Trade, introduced a bill to continue
and amend the Light Railways Act. It provided that the
powers of the light railway commissioners should continue
until determined by parliament, and also provided, inter alia,
that in cases where the Board of Trade thought, under section (9)
subsection (3) of the original act, that a proposal should be
submitted to parliament, the Board of Trade itself might
submit the proposals to parliament by bringing in a bill for
the confirmation of the light railway order, with a special report
upon it. Opposition on petition could be heard before a select
committee or a joint committee as in the case of private bills.
The bill was withdrawn on the nth of August 1903, Lord
Morley appealing to the Board of Trade to bring in a more
comprehensive measure to amend the unsatisfactory state of
legislation in relation to tramways and light railways. In
1004 the president of the Board of Trade brought in a bill on
practically the same lines as the amending bill of 1903. It
reached second reading but was not proceeded with. Similar
amending bills were introduced in the 1905 and 1906 sessions,
but were withdrawn. During the first ten years after the
act came into force 545 applications for orders were received,
313 orders were made, and 282 orders were confirmed. The
orders confirmed were for 1731 m., involving an estimated
capital expenditure of 12,770,384. At the end of 1906 only
500 m. had been opened for traffic, and the mileage of lines
86o
RAILWAYS
[LIGHT RAILWAYS
opened was much less in proportion to the mileage sanctioned
in the cases of lines constructed on their own land than in the
case of lines more of the nature of tramways. (In other
countries where the mileage of main lines of railways in pro-
portion to area and population is roughly the same as in the
United Kingdom, the mileage of light railways already con-
structed is considerable, while many additional lines are under
construction. At the end of 1903 there were 6150 m. working
in France, costing on an average 4500 per mile, earning 275
per mile per annum; 3730 miles in Prussia costing 4180 per
mile, earning 310 per mile per annum; 1430 m. in Belgium
at 3400 per mile, earning 320 per mile per annum.) The
average cost per mile in Great Britain on the basis of the
prescribed estimates is 5860, but this figure does not include
the cost of equipment and does not cover the whole cost of
construction. According to the light railway commissioners,
experience satisfied them (a) that light railways were much
needed in many parts of the country and that many of the lines
proposed, but not constructed, were in fact necessary to admit
of the progress, and even the maintenance, of existing trade
interests; and (b) that improved means of access were requisite
to assist in retaining the population on the land, to counteract
the remoteness of rural districts, and also, in the neighbourhood
of industrial centres, to cope with the difficulties as to housing
and the supply of labour. They pointed out that while during
the first five years the act was in force there were 315 applica-
tions for orders, during the second five years there were only
142 applications, and that proposals for new lines had become
less numerous owing to the various difficulties in carrying
them to a successful completion and to the difficulty of raising
the necessary capital even when part of it was provided with
the aid of the state and of the local authorities. They ex-
pressed the opinion that an improvement could be effected
enabling the construction of many much-needed lines by an
amendment of some of the provisions of the Light Railways
Act, and by a reconsideration of the conditions under which
financial or other assistance should be granted to such lines by
the state and by local authorities.
The so-called light railways in the United States and the
British colonies have been made under the conditions peculiar
to new countries. Their primary object being the development
and peopling of the land, they have naturally been made as
cheaply as possible; and as in such cases the cost of the land is
inconsiderable, economy has been sought by the use of lighter
and rougher permanent way, plant, rolling stock, &c. Such
railways are not " light " in the technical sense of having been
made under enactments intended to secure permanent lowness
of cost as compared with standard lines. On the continent
of Europe many countries have encouraged railways which are
light in that sense. France began to move in this direction
in 1865, and has formulated elaborate provisions for their
construction and regulation. Italy did the same in its laws
in 1873, 1879, 1881, 1887 and 1889; and Germany fostered
enterprise of this kind by the imperial edicts of 1875, 1878
and 1892. Holland, Hungary and Switzerland were all early
in the field; and Belgium has succeeded, through the in-
strumentality of the semi-official Societe Nationale de Chemins
de Fer Vicinaux, started in 1885, in developing one of the most
complete systems of rural railway transport in the world.
In France the lines which best correspond to British light railways
are called Chemins de fer d'interet local. These are regulated by
a decree No. 11,264 of 6th August 1881, which the
lce> Ministry of Public Works is charged to carry out. The
model " form of regulation " lays down the scales of the drawings
and the information to be shown thereon. For the first installation
a single line is prescribed, but the concessionaire must provide
space and be prepared to double when required. The gauge may be
either 1-44 metres (4 ft. 8-7 in.), or I metre (3 ft. 3-37 in.), or -75
metre (2 ft. 5-5 in.). The radius of curves for the 1-44 m. gauge
must not be less than 250 metres, 100 metres for the I m. gauge
and 50 metres for the -75 m. gauge. A straight length of not less
than 60 metres for the largest gauge and 40 metres for the smallest
must be made between two curves having opposite directions.
Except in special cases, gradients must not exceed 3 in 100; and
between gradients in the opposite sense there must be not less than
60 metres of level for 1-44 m. and 40 metres for I m. and -75 m.
gauges. The position of stations and stopping-places is regulated
by the council of the department. The undertaking, once approved,
is regarded as a work of public utility, and the undertakers are
invested with all the rights that a public department would have
in the case of the carrying out of public works. At the end of the
period of the concession the department comes into possession of
the road and all its fixed appurtenances, and in the last five years
of the period the department has the right to enter into possession
of the line, and apply the revenue to putting it into a thorough
state of repair. It has also the right to purchase the under-
taking at the end of the first fifteen years, the net profits of the
preceding seven years to govern the calculation of the purchase
price. The maximum ist, 2nd and 3rd class passenger fares are,
per kilometre, -067 f. (-6d.), -050 f. (-455d.) and -037 f. (>34d.)
respectively, when the trains are run at grande vitesse, the fares
including 30 kilogrammes weight of personal baggage.
In Belgium a public company under government control (" Societe
Nationale de Chemins de Fer Vicinaux ") does all that in France
forms the responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior
and of the prefect of the department. Over an average Belgium.
of years it appears that 27% of the capital cost was found by
the state, 28% by the province, 40-9% by the communes and
4-1% by private individuals. At the end of 1908 there were
2085 m. in operation, and the total mileage authorized was 2603,
while the construction of a considerable further mileage was under
consideration. As far as possible, these railways are laid beside
roads, in preference to independent formation; the permanent
way costs 977 per mile in the former as against 793 in the latter.
If laid in paving, the price varies between 1108 and 2266 per
mile. Through villages, and where roads have to be crossed, the
line is of the usual tramway type. The line is of I metre gauge,
with steel rails weighing 2iJ kilos (42 Ib) per yard. In the towns
a deeper rail is used, weighing about 60 ft per yard. In three lines
of the Vicinaux system, in the aggregate 45 m. in length, the
sharpest curves are 30 metres, 35 metres and 40 metres respectively.
There are gradients of I in 20 and I in 25. The speed is limited
to 30 kilometres (about 18 m.) in the country and 6 m. per hour in
towns and through villages.
In Italy many railways which otherwise fulfil the conditions of
a light railway are constructed with a gauge of 4 ft. 8 in. The
weights are governed by what the railway has to carry , t j
and the speed. Light locomotives, light rails and light
rolling stock are employed. There are no bridges, except where
watercourses occur. Cuttings are reduced to a minimum; and
where the roads are sufficiently wide, the rails are laid on the
margins. The advantage of uniformity of gauge is in the use of
trucks for goods which belong to the rolling stock of the main lines.
In Italy these railways are called " economic railways," and are
divided into five types. Types I., II. and III. are of 4 ft. 85 in.
gauge, type IV. of 0-95 m. and type V. of 0-70 m.; but as there
is no example of type V., the classification is practically one of
1-445 m - (4 ft- 85 in.) and one of 0-95 (3 ft. 0-5 in.). The chief
difference between the first three types lies in the weight of rails
and rolling stock and in the radius of the curves. The real light
railway of Italy is that of type IV.: gauge, 0-95 m. (3 ft. 0-5 in.);
weight of rails, 12 (26-45 ">) to 20 (44 ft) kilos; mean load per
axle, 6 tons; minimum curve, 70 m. (229 ft. 2-6 in.) radius; width
of formation, 3-50 m. (n ft. 5-5 in.); top width of ballast, 2-10 m.
(6 ft. 10-7 in.) ; depth of ballast under sleepers, o-io m. (3 ft. 9-5 in.) ;
maximum gradient, I in 50; length of sleepers, 1-70 m. (5 ft. 6-92 in.) ;
width between parapets and width of tunnels, I m. over width of
carriage; height of tunnels, 5 m. (16 ft. 4-85 in.); locomotives,
maximum weight per axle 6 tons, rigid wheel base 1-80 m. (5 ft.
10-86 in.), diameter of driving-wheels I m. (3 ft. 3-37 in.).
In Germany the use of light railways (Klein-bahnen) has made
great strides. The gauges in use vary considerably between 4 ft.
8i in., the standard national gauge, and I ft. nf in., a er maay.
which appears to be the smallest in use. They are under
the control of the Post and Telegraph department, the state issuing
loans to encourage the undertakings; the authorities in the provinces
and communes also give support in various ways, and under various
conditions, to public bodies or private persons who desire to promote
or embark in the industry. These conditions, as well as the degree
of control over the construction and working of the lines, are left
to the regulation of the provincial governments. Similarly, the
same authorities decide for themselves the conditions under which
the public roads may be used, and the precautions for public safety,
all subject to the confirmation of the imperial government.
What are known as " portable railways " should be included
in the same category as light railways. With a 24 in. gauge,
lines of a portable kind can be made very handily and Partable
the cost is very much less than that of a permanently railways.
constructed light railway. The simplicity is great;
they can be quickly mounted and dismounted; the correct
gauge can be perfectly maintained; the sections of rails and
RAIMBACH RAINBOW
861
sleepers (which are of iron) are very portable, and skilled labour
is not required to lay or to take them up; the making of a
" turn-out " is easy, by taking out a 15 ft. section of the way
and substituting a section with points and crossings. The safe
load per wheel varies between 12 cwt. on a 10 in. 16 Ib wheel
and 40 cwt. on an 1 8 in. 56 ft wheel. The rolling stock is con-
structed either for farm produce or heavy minerals, the latter
holding 10 to 27 cub. ft. For timber, 4 or 5 ft. bogies can
be used. A useful wagon for agricultural transport on a 24 in.
gauge line is 16 ft. long by 5 ft. wide; it weighs 72 cwt. and
costs 30. A portable line of this kind will have 20 Ib steel rails
and 21 1 2 steel sleepers 4 ft. 6 in. long to a mile, laid 2 ft. 6 in.
apart centre to centre. The total cost per mile of such a line,
including all bolts, nuts, fishplates and fastenings, ready for
laying, delivered in the United Kingdom, is under 500 a mile.
See Evans Austin, The Light Railways Act 1896, which con-
tains the rules of the Board of Trade; W. H. Cole, Light Railways
at Home and Abroad; Lieut. -Col. Addison, Report to the Board of
Trade (1894) on Light Railways in Belgium. (C. E. W. ; E. GA.)
RAIMBACH, ABRAHAM (1776-1843), English line-engraver,
a Swiss by descent, was born in London in 1776. Educated at
Archbishop Tenison's Library School, he was an apprentice to
J. Hall the engraver from 1789 to 1796. For nine years part of
his working-time was devoted to the study of drawing in the
Royal Academy and to executing occasional engravings for the
booksellers, whilst his leisure hours were employed in painting
portraits in miniature. Having formed an intimacy with Sir
David Wilkie, Raimbach in 1812 began to engrave some of that
master's best pictures. At his death, in 1843, he held a gold
medal awarded to him for his " Village Politicians " at the
Paris Exhibition of 1814. He was elected corresponding member
of the Institute of France in 1835.
RAIMUND, FERDINAND (1790-1836), Austrian actor and
dramatist, was born on the ist of June 1790, in Vienna. In
1814 he acted at the Josefstadter Theater, and in 1817 at the
Leopoldstadter Theater. In 1823 he produced his first play,
Der Barometermacher auf der Zauberinsel, which was followed
by Der Diamant des Geisterkonigs (1824) and the still popular
Bauer als Milliondr. The last-mentioned play, which appeared
in 1826, Der Alpenkonig und der Menschenfeind (1828) and Der
Verschwender (1833) are Raimund's masterpieces. He com-
mitted suicide on the 5th of September 1836, owing to the fear
that he had been bitten by a mad dog. Raimund was a master
of the Viennese Posse or farce; his rich humour is seen to
best advantage in his realistic portraits of his fellow-citizens.
Raimund's Sdmtliche Werke (with biography by J. N. Vogl)
appeared in 4 vols. (1837); they have been also edited by K. Glossy
and A. Sauer (4 vols., 1881; 2nd ed., 1891), and a selection by E.
Castle (1903). See E. Schmidt in Charakteristiken, vol. i. (1886);
A. Farinelli, Grillparzer und Raimund (1897); L. A. Frankl, Zur
Biographie F. Raimunds (1884); and especially A. Sauer's article
in the Allgem. Deutsche Biographie.
RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages,
cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected
with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. fipixfiv), the water vapour of the
atmosphere when condensed into drops large enough to be
precipitated upon the earth. Hence the term is extended to
signify the fall of such drops in a shower, and in the plural, " the
rains," it signifies the rainy seasons in India and elsewhere where
under normal climatic conditions such seasons are clearly dis-
tinguished from the dry. A rain-band is " a dark band in the
solar spectrum, caused by the presence of water-vapour in the
atmosphere " (New Engl. Diet.); a rain-gauge is an instrument
used to measure the amount of rainfall (see METEOROLOGY, where
the whole subject of precipitation is' .fully treated).
RAINBOW, formerly known as the iris, the coloured rings
seen in the heavens when the light from the sun or moon shines
on falling rain; on a smaller scale they may be observed when
sunshine falls on the spray of a waterfall or fountain. The
bows assume the form of concentric circular arcs, having their
common centre on the line joining the eye of the observer to the
sun. Generally only one bow is clearly seen; this is known as
the primary rainbow; it has an angular radius of about 41,
and exhibits a fine display of the colours of the spectrum, being
red on the outside and violet on the inside. Sometimes an
outer bow, the secondary rainbow, is observed; this is much
fainter than the primary bow, and it exhibits the same play of
colours, with the important distinction that the order is reversed,
the red being inside and the violet outside. Its angular radius is
about 57. It is also to be noticed that the space between the
two bows is considerably darker than the rest of the sky. In
addition to these prominent features, there are sometimes to be
seen a number of coloured bands, situated at or near the summits
of the bows, close to the inner edge of the primary and the
outer edge of the secondary bow; these are known as the
spurious, supernumerary or complementary rainbows.
The formation of the rainbow in the heavens after or during
a shower must have attracted the attention of man in remote
antiquity. The earliest references are to be found in the various
accounts of the Deluge. In the Biblical narrative (Gen. ix. 1 2-17)
the bow is introduced as a sign of the covenant between God and
man, a figure without a parallel in the other accounts. Among
the Greeks and Romans various speculations as to the cause of
the bow were indulged in; Aristotle, in his Meteors, erroneously
ascribes it to the reflection of the sun's rays by the rain; Seneca
adopted the same view. The introduction of the idea that the
phenomenon was caused by refraction is to be assigned to
Yitellio. The same conception was utilized by Theodoric of
Vriberg, a Dominican, who wrote at some time between 1304
and 1311 a tract entitled De radialibus impressionibus, in which
he showed how the primary bow is formed by two refractions
and one internal reflection; i.e. the light enters the drop and is
refracted; the refracted ray is then reflected at the opposite
surface of the drop, and leaves the drop at the same side at which
it enters, being again refracted. It is difficult to determine the
influence which the writings of Theodoric had on his successors;
his works were apparently unknown until they were discovered
by G. B. Venturi at Basel, partly in the city library and partly
in the library of the Dominican monastery. A full account,
together with other early contributions to the science of light, is
given in Venturi's Commentari sopra la storia de la Teoria del
Ottica (Bologna, 1814). John Fleischer (sometimes incorrectly
named Fletcher), of Breslau, propounded the same view in a
pamphlet, De iridibus doclrina Aristotelis et Vilellonis (1574);
the same explanation was given by Franciscus Maurolycus in his
Photismi de lumine et umbra (1575).
The most valuable of all the earlier contributions to the
scientific explanation of rainbows is undoubtedly a treatise
by Marco Antonio de Dominis (1566-1624), archbishop of
Spalatro. This work, De radiis visits et lucis in vitris perspec-
liuis et iride, published at Venice in 1611 by J. Bartolus, although
written some twenty years previously, contains a chapter
entitled " Vera iridis tola generatio explicatur," in which it is
shown how the primary bow is formed by two refractions and
one reflection, and the secondary bow by two refractions and two
reflections. Descartes strengthened these views, both by experi-
ments and geometrical investigations, in his Meteors (Leiden,
1637). He employed the law of refraction (discovered by
W. Snellius) to calculate the radii of the bows, and his theoretical
angles were in agreement with those observed. His methods,
however, were not free from tentative assumptions, and were
considerably improved by Edmund Halley (Phil. Trans., 1700,
714). Descartes, however, could advance no satisfactory
explanation of the chromatic displays; this was effected by
Sir Isaac Newton, who, having explained how white light is
composed of rays possessing all degrees of refrangibility, was
enabled to demonstrate that the order of the colours was in
perfect accord with the requirements of theory (see Newton's
Opticks, book i. part 2, prop. 9).
The geometrical theory, which formed the basis of the investi-
gations of Descartes and Newton, afforded no explanation of
the supernumerary bows, and about a century elapsed before
an explanation was forthcoming. This was given by Thomas
Young, who, in the Bakerian lecture delivered before the Royal
Society on the 24th of November 1803, applied his principle
862
RAINBOW
FIG. i.
of the interference of light to this phenomenon. His not wholly
satisfactory explanation was mathematically examined in 1835
by Richard Potter (Camb. Phil. Trans., 1838, 6, 141), who,
while improving the theory, left a more complete solution to
be made in 1838 by Sir George Biddell Airy (Camb. Phil. Trans.,
1838, 6, 379).
The geometrical theory first requires a consideration of the path
of a ray of light falling upon a transparent sphere. Of the total
amount of light falling on such a sphere, part is reflected or
scattered at the incident surface, so rendering the drop
metrical visible, while a part will enter the drop. Confining our
theory. attention to a ray entering in a principal plane, we will
determine its deviation, i.e. the angle between its directions of
incidence and emergence, after one, two, three or more internal
reflections. Let EA be a ray incident at
an angle i (fig. i) ; let AD be the refracted
ray, and r the angle of refraction. Then
the deviation experienced by the ray at
A is i-r. If the ray suffers one internal
reflection at D, then it is readily seen that,
if DB be the path of the reflected ray, the
angle ADB equals 2r, i.e. the deviation of
the ray at D is x-2r. At B, where the
ray leaves the drop, the deviation is the
same as at A, viz. i-r. The total devia-
tion of the ray is consequently given by D=2(i-r)+v 2r.
Similarly it may be shown that each internal reflection introduces
a supplementary deviation of ir-2r; hence, if the ray be reflected
n times, the total deviation will be D = 2(i-r)+n(r-2r). ^
The deviation is thus seen to vary with the angle of incidence;
and by considering a set of parallel rays passing through the same
principal plane of the sphere and incident at all angles, it can be
readily shown that more rays will pass in the neighbourhood of
the position of minimum deviation than in any other position
(see REFRACTION). The drop will consequently be more intensely
illuminated when viewed along these directions of minimum devia-
tion, and since it is these rays with which we are primarily concerned,
we shall proceed to the determination of these directions.
Since the angles of incidence and refraction are connected by
the relation sin i =M sin r (Snell's Law), p being the index of refrac-
tion of the medium, then the problem may be stated as follows:
to determine the value of the angle i which makes D = 2 (i -r ) -\-n (TT- 2r)
a maximum or minimum, in which * and r are connected by the
relation sin *=M sin r, M being a constant. By applying the method
of the differential calculus, we obtain cos i = ^\(jf-i)l(n^+2n)\ as
the required value; it may be readily shown either geometrically
or analytically that this is a minimum. For the angle i to be real,
cos i must be a fraction, that is n s +2w>/u 2 i. or (n+i) 2 >M 2 -
Since the value of ji for water is about J, it follows that n must
be at least unity for a rainbow to be formed; there is obviously
no theoretical limit to the value of n, and hence rainbows of higher
orders are possible.
So far we have only considered rays of homogeneous light, and
it remains to investigate how lights of varying refrangibilities will
be transmitted. It can be shown, by the methods of the differential
calculus or geometrically, that the deviation increases with the
refractive index, the angle of incidence remaining constant. Taking
the refractive index of water for the red rays as 1 & 8 , and for
the violet rays as *{, we can calculate the following values for
the minimum deviations corresponding to certain assigned values
of n.
n
Red.
Violet.
i
2
3
4
ir- 42-!
27T 129-2
3ir-23l-4
4r-3i7-o7
IT 4O-22
2ir-l25-48
3T-227-o8
4jr-3io-o7
To this point we have only considered rays passing through a
principal section of the drop; in nature, however, the rays impinge
at every point of the surface facing the sun. It may be readily
deduced that the directions of minimum deviation for a pencil of
parallel rays lie on the surface of cones, the semi-vertical angles of
which are equal to the values given in the above table. Thus, rays
suffering one internal reflection will all lie within a cone of about
42; in this direction the illumination will be most intense; within
the cone the illumination will be fainter, while, without it, no light
will be transmitted to the eye.
Fig. 2 represents sections of the drop and the cones containing
the minimum deviation rays after i, 2, 3 and 4 reflections; the order
of the 'Colours is shown by the letters R (red) and V (violet). It is
apparent, therefore, that all drops transmitting intense light after
one internal reflection to the eye will lie on the surfaces of cones
having the eye for their common vertex, the line joining the eye to
the sun for their axis, and their semi-vertical angles equal to about
41 for the violet rays and 43 for the red rays. The observer will,
therefore, see a coloured band, about 2 in width, and coloured
violet inside and red outside. Within the band, the illumination
FIG. 2
will be faint; outside the band there will be perceptible darkening
until the second bow comes into view. Similarly, drops trans-
mitting rays after two internal reflections will be situated on covertical
and coaxial cones, of which the semi-vertical angles are 51 for the
red rays and 5^. for the violet. Outside the cone of 54 there will be
faint illumination; within it, no secondary rays will be transmitted
to the eye. We thus see that the order of colours in the secondary
bow is the reverse of that in the primary; the secondary is half as
broad again (3), and is much fainter, owing to the longer path of the
ray in the drop, and the increased dispersion.
Similarly, the third, fourth and higher orders of bows may be
investigated. The third and fourth bows are situated between the
observer and the sun, and hence, to be viewed, the observer must
face the sun. But the illumination of the bow is so weakened by the
repeated reflections, and the light of the sun is generally so bright,
that these bows are rarely, if ever, observed except in artificial
rainbows. The same remarks apply to the fifth bow, which differs
from the third and fourth in being situated in the same part of the
sky as the primary and secondary bows, being just above the
secondary.
The most conspicuous colour band of the principal bows is the red ;
the other colours shading off into one another, generally with con-
siderable blurring. This is due to the superposition of a great
number of spectra, for the sun has an appreciable apparent diameter,
and each point on its surface gives rise to an individual spectrum.
This overlapping may become so pronounced as to produce a rain-
bow in which colour is practically absent; this is particularly so
when a thin cloud intervenes between the sun and the rain, which
has the effect of increasing the apparent diameter of the sun to as
much as 2 or 3. This phenomenon is known as the " white
rainbow " or " Ulloa's Ring or Circle," after Antonio de Ulloa.
We have now to consider the so-called spurious bows which are
sometimes seen at the inner edge of the primary and at the outer
edge of the secondary bow. The geometrical theory can physkal
afford no explanation of these coloured bands, and it has theory
been shown that the complete phenomenon of the rainbow
is to be sought for in the conceptions of the wave theory of light.
This was first suggested by Thomas Young, who showed that the
rays producing the bows consisted of two systems, which, although
emerging in parallel directions, traversed different paths in the drop.
Destructive interference between these superposed rays will there-
fore occur, and, instead of a continuous maximum illumination in
the direction of minimum deviation, we should expect to find
alternations of brightness and darkness. The later investigations of
Richard Potter and especially of Sir George Biddell Airy have proved
the correctness of Young's idea. The mathematical discussion
of Airy showed that the primary rainbow is not situated directly
on the line of minimum deviation, but at a slightly greater value;
this means that the true angular radius of the bow is a little less than
that derived from the geometrical theory. In the same way, he
showed that the secondary bow has a greater radius than that
previously assigned to it. The spurious bows he showed to consist
of a series of dark and bright bands, whose distances from the
principal bows vary with the diameters of the raindrops. The
smaller the drops, the greater the distance; hence it is that the
spurious bows are generally only observed near the summits of the
bows, where the drops are smaller than at any lower altitude. In
Airy's investigation, and in the extensions by Boitel, J. Larmor,
E. Mascart and L. Lorentz, the source of light was regarded as a
point. In nature, however, this is not realized, for the sun has an
appreciable diameter. Calculations taking this into account have
been made by J. Pernter (Neues iiber den Regenbogen, Vienna, 1888)
and by K. Aichi and T. Tanakadate (Jour. College of Science, Tokyo,
1906, vol. xxi. art. 3).
Experimental confirmation of Airy's theoretical results was af-
forded in 1842 by William Hallows Miller (Camb. Phil. Trans, yii.
277). A horizontal pencil of sunlight was admitted by a vertical
slit, and then allowed to fall on a column of water supplied by a jet
of about ^yth of an inch in diameter. Primary, secondary and
spurious bows were formed, and their radii measured; a com-
parison of these observations exhibited agreement with Airy's
analytical values. Pulfrich (Wied. Ann., 1888, 33, 194) obtained
similar results by using cylindrical glass rods in place of the column
of water.
In accordance with a general consequence of reflection and refrac-
tion, it is readily seen that the light of the rainbow is partially
polarized, a fact first observed in 1811 by Jean Baptiste Biot (see
POLARIZATION).
RAINOLDS RAIS
863
Lunar rainbows. The moon can produce rainbows in the same
manner as the sun. The colours are much fainter, and according
to Aristotle, who claims to be the first observer of this phenomenon,
the lunar bows are only seen when the moon is full.
Marine rainbow is the name given to the chromatic displays
formed by the sun's rays falling on the spray drawn up by the wind
playing on the surface of an agitated sea.
Intersecting rainbows are sometimes observed. They are formed
by parallel rays of light emanating from two sources, as, for example,
the sun and its image in a sheet of water, which is situated between
the observer and the sun. In this case the second bow is much
fainter, and has its centre as much above the horizon as that of the
direct system is below it.
REFERENCES. For the history of the theory of the rainbow, see
G. B. Venturi, Commentari sopra la storia de la teoria del Ottica
(Bologna, 1814); F. Rosenberger, Geschichte der Physik (1882-90).
The geometrical and physical theory is treated in T. Preston's
Theory of Light; E. Mascart's TraM d'optique (1899-1903); and
most completely by T. Pernter in various contributions to scientific
journals and in his Meteorologische Optik (1905-9).
RAINOLDS (or REYNOLDS), JOHN (1549-1607), English
divine, was born about Michaelmas 1549 at Pinhoe, near Exeter,
and was educated at Merton and Corpus Christi Colleges,
Oxford, becoming a fellow of the latter in 1568. In 1572-73 he
was appointed reader in Greek, and his lectures on Aristotle's
Rhetoric laid the sure basis of his fame. He resigned the office
in 1578 and his fellowship in 1586, through inability to agree
with the president William Cole, and became a tutor at Queen's
College. By this time he had acquired a considerable reputation
as a disputant on the Puritan side, and the story goes that
Elizabeth visiting the university in 1592 " schooled him for
his obstinate preciseness, willing him to follow her laws, and not
run before them." In 1593 he was made dean of Lincoln.
The fellows of Corpus were anxious to replace Cole by Rainolds,
and exchange was effected, Rainolds being elected president
in December 1598. The chief events of his subsequent career
were his share in the Hampton Court Conference, where he was
the most prominent representative of the Puritan party and re-
ceived a good deal of favour from the king, and in the Authorized
Version of the Bible. Of this project he was initiator, and
himself worked with the company who undertook the transla-
tion of the Prophets. He died of consumption on the 2ist of
May 1607, leaving a great reputation for scholarship and high
character.
RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906), Scotch Presbyterian divine,
was born on the ist of January 1826; his father, Dr Harry
Rainy, professor of forensic medicine in Glasgow University,
was the son of a Sutherlandshire minister. Young Rainy was
intended for his father's profession, but he was caught by the
evangelical fervour of the Disruption movement, and after
studying for the Free Church he became a minister, first in
'Aberdeenshire and then in Edinburgh, till in 1862 he was elected
professor of Church history in the theological seminary, New
College, a post he only resigned in 1900. In 1874 he was made
principal of the college and was subsequently known as Prin-
cipal Rainy. He had come to the front as a champion of the
liberal party in the Union controversy within the Free Church,
and in combating Dean Stanley's Broad Church views in the
interests of Scotch evangelicism; and about 1875 he became
the undisputed leader of the Free Church. He guided it through
the controversies as to Robertson Smith's heresies, as to the use
of hymns and instrumental music, and as to the Declaratory
Act, brought to a successful issue the union of the Free and
United Presbyterian Churches, and threw the weight of the
united church on the side of freedom .of Biblical criticism. He
was the first moderator of the General Assembly of the United
Free Church of Scotland, having previously been moderator
of the Free General Assembly. Though not a great scholar
he was eminent as an ecclesiastical statesman, and his influence
was far-reaching. After the strain of the fight with the so-callec
" Wee Frees " in 1904-5 his health broke down, and he wenl
to Australia for recovery, but died at Melbourne on the 22nc
of December 1906
See Lives by P. Carnegie Simpson (1909) and R. Mackintosh
(1907).
RAIPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Chhattis-
garh division of the Central Provinces. The town is 994 ft.
above sea-level, 188 m. E. of Nagpur; and has a station on the
Bengal-Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 32,114- There are ruins
of an immense fort, with many tanks and old temples. It has
a German mission and a government high school. The Raj-
cumar college, for the education of the sons of the chiefs of
Chhattisgarh, was transferred here from Jubbulpore in 1894.
The DISTRICT OF RAIPUR has an area of 9831 sq. m. It
spreads over a vast plateau closed in by ranges of hills branching
:rom the great Vindhyan chain. It is drained by the Seonath
and the Mahanadi rivers. Geologically the country consists in the
billy tracts of gneiss and quartzite; the sandstone rocks in the
west are intersected with trap dykes. Iron ore is abundant,
and red ochre of high repute is found. In the interior the
principal strata are a soft sandstone slate (covered generally
by a layer of laterite gravel) and blue limestone, which crops
out in numerous places on the surface and is invariably found
in the beds of the rivers. Throughout the plains the soil is
generally fertile. The climate is generally good; the mean
temperature is 78 F., and the annual rainfall averages 55 in.
The population on the present area in 1901 was 1,096,858, show-
ing a decrease of 2-5% in the decade. The principal crop is
rice. There are manufactures of cotton goods and brassware.
The north-west corner of the district is crossed by the main line
of the Bengal-Nagpur railway, and a narrow-gauge branch runs
from Raipur town due south. The district suffered severely
from famine in 1896-97, and again in 1899-1900.
Raipur was governed by a branch of the Haihaivansi dynasty
of Ratanpur for many centuries until their deposition by the
Mahrattas in 1 7 50. The country was then already in a condition
of decay, and soon afterwards it relapsed into absolute anarchy.
In 1818 it was taken under British superintendence and made
rapid progress. It fell with the rest of the Nagpur dominions
to the British government in 1854. In 1906 its area was
reduced by the formation of the new district of Drug.
RAIS (or RETZ), 6ILLES DE (1404-1440), marshal of France
and the central figure of a 15th-century cause cilebre, whose
name is associated with the story of Bluebeard, was the son of
Guy de Montmorency-Laval, the adopted son and heir of
Jeanne de Rais and of Marie de Craon. He was born at Mache-
coul in September or October 1404, and, being early left an
orphan, was educated by his maternal grandfather, Jean de
Craon. Chief among his great possessions was the barony of
Rais (erected in the i6th century into the peerage-duchy of
Retz), south of the Loire, on the marches of Brittany. He
joined the party of the Montforts, supporting Jean V. of Brit-
tany against the rival house of Penthievre. He helped to
release Duke John from Olivier de Blois, count of Penthievre,
who had taken him prisoner by craft, and was rewarded by
extensive grants of land, which were subsequently commuted
by the Breton parliament for money payments. In 1420,
after other projects of marriage had fallen through, in two
cases by the death of the bride, he married Katherine of
Thouars, a great heiress in Brittany, La Vend6e and Poitou.
In 1426 he raised seven companies of men-at-arms, and began
active warfare against the English under Art us de Richemont,
the newly made constable of France. He had already built
up a military reputation when he was chosen to accompany
Joan of Arc to Orleans. He continued to be her special pro-
tector, fighting by her side at Orleans, and afterwards at Jar-
geau and Patay. He had advocated further measures against
the English on the Loire before carrying out the coronation of
Charles VII. at Reims. On the I7th of July he was made
marshal of France at Reims, and after the assault on Paris
he was granted the right to bear the arms of France as a border
to his shield, a privilege that was, however, never ratified.
In the winter he was in Normandy, at Louviers, whether with
a view to the release of Joan, then a prisoner at Rouen, cannot
be stated. Meanwhile his fortune was disappearing, although
he had been one of the richest men in France. He had expended
great sums in the king's service, and he maintained a court of
86 4
RAISIN
knights, squires, heralds and priests, more suited to royal than
baronial rank. He kept open house, was a munificent patron
of literature and of music, and his library contained many
valuable works, he himself being a skilled illuminator and
binder. He also indulged a passion for the stage. At the
chief festivals he gave performances of mysteries and moralities,
and it has been asserted that the Mystere de la Passion, acted
at Angers in 1420, was staged by him in honour of his own
marriage. The original draft of the Mystery of Orleans was
probably written under his direction, and contains much detail
which may be well accounted for by his intimate acquaintance
with the Maid. In his financial difficulties he began to alienate
his lands, selling his estates for small sums. These proceedings
provided his heirs with material for lawsuits for many years.
Among those who profited by his prodigality were the duke
of Brittany, and his chancellor, Jean de Malestroit, bishop of
Nantes, but in 1436 his kinsfolk appealed to Charles VII., who
proclaimed further sales to be illegal. Jean V. refused to
acknowledge the king's right to promulgate a decree of this
kind in Brittany, and replied by making Gilles de Rais lieutenant
of Brittany and by acknowledging him as a brother-in-arms.
Gilles hoped to redeem his fortunes by alchemy; he also spent
large sums on necromancers, who engaged to raise the devil
for his assistance. On the other hand he sought to guarantee
himself from evil consequences by extravagant charity and a
splendid celebration of the rites of the church. The abominable
practices of which he was really guilty seem not to have been
suspected by his equals or superiors, though he had many
accomplices and his criminality was suspected by the peasantry.
His wife finally left him in 1434-35, and may possibly have
become acquainted with his doings, and when his brother Rene
de la Suze seized Champtoce, all traces of his crimes had not
been removed, but family considerations no doubt imposed
silence. His servants kidnapped children, generally boys, on
his behalf, and these he tortured and murdered. The number
of his victims was stated in the ecclesiastical trial to have
been 140, and larger figures are quoted. The amazing im-
punity which he enjoyed was brought to an end in 1440, when
he was imprudent enough to come into conflict with the church
by an act of violence which involved sacrilege and infringement
of clerical immunity. He had sold Saint Etienne de Malemort
to the duke of Brittany's treasurer, Geffroi le Ferron. In the
course of a quarrel over the delivery of the property to this
man's brother, Jean le Ferron, Gilles seized Jean, who was in
clerical orders, in church, and imprisoned him. He then pro-
ceeded to defy the duke, but was reconciled to him by Riche-
mont. In the autumn, however, he was arrested and cited
before the bishop of Nantes on various charges, the chief of
which were heresy and murder. With the latter count the
ecclesiastical court was incompetent to deal, and on the 8th
of October Gilles refused to accept its jurisdiction. Terrified
by excommunication, however, he acknowledged the evidence
of the witnesses, and by confession he secured absolution.
He had been pronounced guilty of apostasy and heresy by the
inquisitor, and of vice and sacrilege by the bishop. A detailed
confession was extracted by the threat of torture on the aist
of October. A separate and parallel inquiry was made by
Pierre de l'H6pital, president of the Breton parliament, by
whose sentence he was hanged (not burned alive as is sometimes
stated), on the 26th of October 1440, with two of his accomplices.
In view of his own repeated confessions it seems impossible to
doubt his guilt, but the numerous irregularities of the pro-
ceedings, the fact that his necromancer Prelati and other of
his chief accomplices went unpunished, taken together with the
financial interest of Jean V. in his ruin, have left a certain
mystery over a trial, which, with the exception of the process
of Joan of Arc, was the most famous in 15th-century France.
His name is connected with the tale of Bluebeard (?..) in local
tradition at Machecoul, Tiffauges, Pornic and Chemere, though
the similarity between the two histories is at best vague. The
records of the trial are preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale
in Paris, at Nantes and elsewhere.
See Eugene Bossard, Gilles de Rais, dit Barbe Bleue (2nd ed., 1886),
which includes the majority of the documents of the trial published
originally by De Maulde; E. A. Vizetelly, Bluebeard (1902); H. C.
Lea, Hist, of the Inquisition (iii. 468, seq.) ; A. Molinier, Les Sources
de I'histoire de France (No. 4185). Huysmans in La-bas describes
his hero as engaged on a life of Gilles de Rais, and takes the oppor-
tunity for a striking picture of the trial.
RAISIN (Fr. raisin, grape; Lat. racemus), the name given
to the dried fruits of certain varieties of the grape vine, Vitis
mnifera, which grow principally in the warm climate of the
Mediterranean coasts and are comparatively rich in sugar.
The use of dried grapes or raisins as food is of great antiquity
(Num. vi. 3; i Sam. xxv. 18, xxx. 12). In medieval times
raisins imported from Spain were a prized luxury in England,
and. to the present day Great Britain continues to be the best
customer of the raisin-producing regions. " Raisins of the
sun " are obtained by letting the fruit continue on the vines
after it has come to maturity, where there is sufficient sunshine
and heat in the autumn, till the clusters dry on the stocks.
Another plan is partially to sever the stalk before the grapes
are quite ripe, thus stopping the flow of the sap, and in that
condition to leave them on the vines till they are sufficiently
dry. The more usual process, however, is to cut off the fully
ripe clusters and expose them, spread out, for several days to
the rays of the sun, taking care that they are not injured by
rain. In unfavourable weather they may be dried in a heated
chamber, but are then inferior in quality. In some parts of
Spain and France it is common to dip the gathered clusters in
boiling water, or in a strong potash lye, a practice which softens
the skin, favours drying and gives the raisins a clear glossy
appearance. Again, in Asia Minor the fruit is dipped into hot
water on the surface of which swims a layer of olive oil, which
communicates a bright lustre and softness to the skin. Some
superior varieties are treated with very great care, retained
on their stalks, and sent into the market as clusters for table
use; but the greater part are separated from the stalks in the
process of drying and the stalks winnowed out of the fruit.
Raisins come from numerous Mediterranean localities, and
present at least three distinct varieties (i) ordinary or large
raisins, (2) sultana seedless raisins, and (3) currants or Corinthian
raisins (see CURRANT). The greater proportion of the common
large raisins of English commerce comes from the provinces
of Malaga, Valencia and Alicante in Spain; these are known
by the common name of Malaga raisins. Those of the finest
quality, called Malaga clusters, are prepared from a variety of
muscatel grape, and preserved on the stalks for table use. This
variety, as well as Malaga layers, so called from the manner
of packing, are exclusively used as dessert fruit. Raisins of
a somewhat inferior quality, known as " lexias," from the
same provinces, are used for cooking and baking purposes.
Smyrna raisins also come to some extent into the English
market. The best quality, known as Eleme, is a large fruit,
having a reddish-yellow skin with a sweet pleasant flavour.
Large-seeded dark-coloured raisins are produced in some
of the islands of the Greek archipelago and in Crete, but they
are little seen in the British markets. In Italy the finest raisins
are produced in Calabria, inferior qualities in central Italy
and in Sicily. From the Lipari Islands a certain quantity of
cluster raisins of good quality is sent to England. In the
south of France raisins of high excellence Provence raisins
in clusters are obtained at Roquevaire, Lunel and Frontignan.
Sultana seedless raisins are the produce of a small variety of
yellow grape, cultivated exclusively in the neighbourhood
of Smyrna. The vines are grown on a soil of decomposed
hippurite limestone, on sloping ground rising to a height of
400 ft. above the sea, and all attempts to cultivate sultanas
in other raisin-growing localities have failed, the grapes
quickly reverting to a seed-bearing character. The dried
fruit has a fine golden-yellow colour, with a thin,
delicate, translucent skin and a sweet aromatic flavour.
A very fine seedless oblong raisin of the sultana type
with a brownish skin is cultivated in the neighbourhood of
Damascus.
RAJA RAJPUT
865
RAJA, the Hindu title for a chief, or prince, derived from
the same root as the Latin rex. Other forms are rao, rana and
rawal, while chiefs of high rank are styled maharaja, maharao
and maharana. The Hindustani form is rai, and the title of
the Hindu emperor of Vijayanagar in S. India was raya. It
is not confined to the rulers of native states, being conferred
by the British government on Hindu subjects, sometimes as an
hereditary distinction. In the form of rao it appears as a
suffix to the names of most Mahrattas, and to the names of
Kanarese Brahmans.
RAJAHMUNDRY, or RAJAMAHENDRI, a town of British
India, in the Godavari district of Madras. Pop. (1901) 36,408.
It stands on the left bank of the river Godavari, at the head of
the delta, 360 m. N. of Madras, and has a station on the East
Coast railway, which is here carried across the river by a bridge
of 56 spans. The government college is one of the four pro-
vincial schools established in 1853. There are also a training
college and high school. Carpets, rugs and wooden wares are
manufactured.
Tradition divides the merit of founding Rajahmundry be-
tween the Orissa and Chalukya princes. In 1470 it was wrested
from Orissa by the Mahommedans, but early in the i6th century
it was retaken by Krishna Raja. It continued under Hindu
rule till 1572, when it yielded to the Moslems of the Deccan
under Rafat Khan. It passed into the possession of the French
n 1753, but they were driven out by the British under Colonel
Forde in 1758.
RAJASTHANI (properly RAJASTHANI, the language of
Rajasthan of Rajputana), ah Indo-Aryan vernacular closely
related to Gujarati (q.v.). It is spoken in Rajputana and
the adjoining parts of central India, and has several dialects
the principal of which are Jaipurl, Marwari, MewSti and
Malvl. Harauti, an important variety of Jaipurl, is spoken in
the states of Kota and Bundi. Carey, the well-known Seram-
pur missionary, paid great attention to Rajasthani in the early
part of the igth century, translating the New Testament into
no fewer than six dialects, viz. HarautI, UjainI (i.e. Malvl),
Udaipurt (a form of MSrwarl), Marwari proper, Jaipurl proper
and BlkanOrl (another form of Marwari). In 1901 the total
number of speakers of Rajasthani was 10,917,712. (G. A. GR.)
RAJGARH, a native state of central India, in the Bhopal
agency. Area, 940 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 88,376, showing a
decrease of 26% in the decade, due to the results of famine.
Estimated revenue, 33,000; tribute (to Sindhia), 3640.
The chief, whose title is rawat, is a Rajput of the Umat clan.
Grain and opium are the principal articles of trade. The town
of Rajgarh, which is surrounded by a battlemented wall, had a
population of 5399 in 1901.
RAJKOT, India, capital of a native state in Bombay, and
headquarters of the political agent for Kathiawar. Pop. (1901)
36,151. It is situated in the middle of the peninsula of Kathia-
war, and is the centre of the railway system. There is a military
cantonment. The Rajkumar college, for the education of the
sons of chiefs on the lines of an English public school, has achieved
great success. Besides the high school there are training
colleges for masters and mistresses. The Rasulkhanji hospital
has a department for women, opened in 1897. All these institu-
tions are maintained at the joint expense of the chiefs of Kathia-
war. The state of Rajkot, which is a branch of Nawanagar,
has an area of 282 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 49,795. Estimated
revenue, 20,000.
RAJMAHAL, a former capital of Bengal, India, now a village
in the district of the Santal Parganas, situated on the right
bank of the Ganges, where that river makes a turn to the south.
Pop. (1901) 2047. It was chosen for his residence by Man
Singh, Akbar's Rajput general in 1592, but the capital of the
province was shortly afterwards transferred to Dacca. It
contains many palaces and mosques, now in ruins and over-
grown with jungle. It has a station on the loop line of the East
Indian railway, but trade has declined since the Ganges aban-
doned its old bed; and Sahibganj has taken its place. Rajmahal
has given its name to a range of hills, almost the only hills in
XXII. 28
Bengal proper, which here come down close to the bank of the
Ganges. They cover a total area of 1366 sq. m., and their
height never exceeds 2000 ft. They are inhabited by an ab-
original race, known as Paharias or "hill-men," of whom two
tribes may be distinguished: the Male Sauria Paharias and the
Mai Paharias; total pop. (1901) 73,000. The former, if not the
latter also, are closely akin to the larger tribe of Oraons. Their
language, known as Malto, of the Dravidian family, was spoken
by 60,777 persons in 1901. The Paharias have contributed an
element to the administrative history of Bengal. Augustus
Clevland, a civilian who died in 1784 and whose name is still
honoured, was the first who succeeded in winning their con-
fidence and recruiting among them a corps of hill-rangers. The
methods that he adopted are the foundation of the " non-
regulation " system, established in 1796; and the hills were
exempted from the permanent settlement. The Santals, a
different aboriginal race, have since immigrated in large numbers
into the Daman-i-koh, or " skirts of the hills "; but the Paharias
alone occupy the plateaux on the top, where they are per-
mitted to practise the privilege of shifting cultivation, which
renders scientific forestry impossible. The approach from the
plains below to each plateau is guarded by a steep ladder of
boulders.
See E. W. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta,
1872); F. B. Bradley-Birt, The Story of an Indian Upland (1905).
RAJPIPLA, a native state of India, in the Rewa Kantha
agency, Bombay, occupying a hilly tract between the rivers
Nerbudda and Tapti; area, 1517 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 117,175,
showing a decrease of 32% in the decade, due to the results of
famine; estimated revenue, 60,000; tribute (to the Gaekwar
of Baroda), 3000. The chief, whose title is maharana, is a
Gohel Rajput, of the same family as the thakor saheb of Bhau-
nagar. A light railway, constructed at the cost of the state,
connects Nandod with Anklesvar in Broach district. The old
fort of Rajpipla, in the hills, is now deserted. The modern
capital is Nandod, situated on the river Karjan, 32 m. from
Surat. Pop. (1901) 11,236.
RAJPUT, a race of India, not confined to Rajputana, but
spread over the N. of the country. According to the census of
1901 there were 9,712,156 Rajputs in all India, of whom only
620,229 lived in Rajputana. The great majority adhere to the
Hindu religion, but 1,875,387 are entered as Mahommedans.
The Rajputs form the fighting, landowning and ruling caste.
They claim to be the modern representatives of the Kshatriyas
of ancient tradition; but their early history is obscure, and
recent research supports the view that they include descendants
of more than one wave of immigrant invaders. Linguistic
evidence supports tradition in proving that their unity was
broken up by the Mahommedan conquest, for the Inhabitants
of the Himalayan valleys still speak a language akin to those of
Rajputana proper, though separated from them by the wide
Gangetic valley.
The Rajputs are fine, brave men, and retain the feudal instinct
strongly developed. Pride of blood is their chief characteristic,
and they are most punctilious on all points of etiquette. The
tradition of common ancestry permits a poor Rajput yeoman to
consider himself as well born as any powerful landholder of his
clan, and superior to any high official of the professional classes.
No race in India can boast of finer feats of arms or brighter deeds
of chivalry, and they form one of the main recruiting fields for
the Indian army of to-day. They consider any occupation
other than that of arms or government derogatory to their
dignity, and consequently during the long period of peace which
has followed the establishment of the British rule in India they
have been content to stay idle at home instead of taking up any
of the other professions in which they might have come to the
front. Those who are not zamindars have, therefore, rather
dropped behind in the modern struggle for existence. As
cultivators they are lazy and indifferent, and they prefer pastoral
to agricultural pursuits. Looking upon all manual labour as
humiliating, none but the poorest class of Rajput will himself
hold the plough.
866
RAJPUTANA
Within the limits of Rajputana the Rajputs form a vast body
of kindred, and any Rajput can marry any Rajput woman who
does not belong to his own clan. The most numerous of the
clans is the Rahtor, to which the chiefs of Marwar, Bikanir and
Kishangarh belong. Its strength in 1901 was 122,160. Next
comes the Kachwaha clan, which is strong in Jaipur and Alwar,
both chiefs belonging to its members. It numbers 100,186.
The Chauhan follows with an aggregate of 86,460, among whom
are the chiefs of Bundi, Kotah and Sirohi. The Jadu or Jadon,
which includes in its ranks the chiefs of Karauli and Jaisalmer,
numbers 74,666. The Sisodhyias, who include the ancient and
illustrious house of Udaipur, number 51,366. The Ponwar clan,
to which Vikramaditya, the celebrated king of Ujjain, from whom
the Hindu Era is named, is said to have belonged, numbers
43.435- The Solanki and Parihar clans, once powerful, are now
only 18,949 an d 9448 respectively.
RAJPUTANA, a collection of native states in India, under
the political charge of an agent to the governor-general, who
resides at Abu in the Aravalli Hills. It lies between 23 and
30 N. and between 69 30' and 75 15' E., and includes
1 8 states and 2 estates or chief ships. For political purposes
these are subdivided into eight subordinate groups, consisting
of three residencies and five agencies. These are as follow:
(i) Mewar residency, with headquarters at Udaipur, comprising
the states of Udaipur (Mewar), Dungarpur, Partabgarh and
Banswara; (2) Jaipur residency, with headquarters at Jaipur,
comprising the states of Jaipur and Kishangarh, with the estate
of Lawa; (3) Western Rajputana states residency, with head-
quarters at Jodhpur, comprising the states of Jodhpur, Jaisalmer
and Sirohi; (4) Bikanir agency, with headquarters at Bikanir;
(5) Alwar agency, with headquarters at Alwar; (6) Eastern
Rajputana states agency, with headquarters at Bharatpur,
comprising the states of Bharatpur, Dholpur, and Karauli;
(7) Haraoti-Tonk agency, with headquarters at Deoli, com-
prising the states of Tonk and Bundi, with the estate of Shah-
pura; (8) Kotah-Jhalawar agency, with headquarters at
Kotah, comprising the states of Kotah and Jhalawar. All of
these states are under Rajput rulers, except Tonk, which is
Mahommedan, and Bharatpur and Dholpur, which are Jat.
The small British province of Ajmere-Merwara is also included
within the geographical area of Rajputana.
Physical Features. The total area of Rajputana is about 127,541
sq. m. It is bounded on the west by Sind, and on the north-west
by the Punjab state of Bahawalpur. Thence its northern and north-
eastern frontier marches with the Punjab and the United Provinces
until it touches the river Chambal, where it turns south-eastward
for about 200 m., dividing the states of Dholpur, Karauli, Jaipur
and Kotah from Gwalior. The southern boundary runs in a very
irregular line across the central region of India, dividing the Rajputana
states from a number of native states in Central India and Gujarat.
The most striking physical feature is the Aravalli range of mountains,
which intersects the country almost from end to end in a line running
from south-west to north-east. Mount Abu is at the south-western
extremity of the range, and the north-eastern end may be said to
terminate near Khetn in the Shaikhawati district of Jaipur, although
a series of broken ridges is continued in the direction of Delhi. About
three-fifths of Rajputana lies north-west of the range, leaving two-
fifths on the east and south. The tract lying to the north-west
contains the states of Bikanir, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. With the
exception of the sub-montane districts of Jodhpur, which lie im-
mediately below the Aravallis, this division is sandy, ill-watered
and unproductive, improving gradually from a desert in the north-
west and west to comparatively fertile land on the east. The
country to the east and south-east of the Aravallis affords a striking
contrast to the sandy plains on the north-west of the range, and is
blessed with fertile lands, hill-ranges and long stretches of forest,
where fuel and fodder are abundant.
The chief rivers of Rajputana are the Luni, the Chambal and
the Banas. The first of these, the only river of any consequence
in the north-western division, flows for 200 m. from the Pushkar
valley, close to Ajmere, to the Runn of Cutch. In the south-
eastern division the river system is important. The Chambal is
by far the largest river in Rajputana, through which it flows for
about one-third of its course, while it forms its boundary for another
third. The source of the river is in the highlands of the Vindhyas,
upwards of 2000 ft. above the sea; it soon becomes a considerable
stream, collecting in its course the waters of other rivers, and finally
discharging itself into the Jumna after a course of 560 m. Next
in importance ranks the Banas, which rises in the south-west near
Kankroli in Udaipur. It collects nearly all the drainage of the
Udaipur plateau with that of the eastern slopes and hill-tracts of
the Aravallis, and joins the Chambal a little beyond the north-
eastern extremity of the Bundi state, after a course of about 300 m.
Other rivers are the W. Banas and the Sabarmati, which rise among
the south-west hills of Udaipur and take a south-westerly course.
The river Mahi, which passes through the states of Partabgarh and
Banswara, receiving the Som, drains the south-west corner of
Rajputana through Gujarat into the Gulf of Cambay. Rajputana
possesses no natural freshwater lakes, but there are several important
artificial lakes, all of which have been constructed with the object
of storing water. The only basin of any extent is the Sambhar
salt lake, of about 50 m. in circuit.
Geology. Geologically considered, the country may be divided
into three regions a central, and the largest, comprising the whole
width of the Aravalli system, formed of very old sub-metamorphic
and gneissic rocks; an eastern region, with sharply defined boundary,
along which the most ancient formations are abruptly replaced by
the great basin of the Vindhyan strata, or are overlaid by the still
more extensive spread of the Deccan trap, forming the plateau of
Malwa; and a western region, of very ill-defined margin, in which,
besides some rocks of undetermined age, it is more or less known
or suspected that Tertiary and Secondary strata stretch across from
Sind, beneath the sands of the desert, towards the flanks of the
Aravallis. Rajputana produces a variety of metals. Ore of cobalt
is obtained in no other locality in India, and although zinc blende
has been found elsewhere it is known to have been extracted only
in this province. Copper and lead are found in several parts of
the Aravalli range and of the minor ridges in Alwar and Shaik-
hawati, and iron ores abound in several states. Alum and blue
vitriol (sulphate of copper) are manufactured from decomposed
schists at Khetri in Shaikhawati. Good building materials are
obtained from many of the rocks of the country, among which the
Raialo limestone (a fine-grained crystalline marble) and the Jaisalmer
limestone stand pre-eminent.
Climate. The climate throughout Rajputana is very dry and
hot during the summer; while in the winter it is much colder in
the north than in the lower districts, with hard frost and ice on
the Bikanir borders. The rainfall is very unequally distributed : in
the western part, which comes near to the limits of the rainless
region of Asia, it is very scanty, and scarcely averages more than
5 in. ; in the south-west the fall is more copious, sometimes exceed-
ing 100 in. at Abu; but, except in the south-west highlands of the
Aravallis, rain is most abundant in the south-east. Notwith-
standing all its drawbacks, Rajputana is reckoned one of the
healthiest countries in India, at least for the native inhabitants.
Population. In 1901 the population was 9,723,301, showing
a decrease of 20% in the decade owing to the great famines
of 1897-1898 and 1900-1901. The greatest mortality was caused
by virulent malarial fever, which raged during the autumn
months of 1900 and the early months of 1901. Epidemics of
cholera, which occurred during the years of scarcity and famine,
also swept away large numbers.
It is commonly supposed that, because nearly the whole
country is ruled by Rajputs, therefore the population consists
mainly of Rajput tribes; but these are merely the dominant
race, and the territory is called Rajputana because it is politic-
ally possessed by Rajputs. The whole number of this race
is 620,229, an d nowhere do they form a majority of the whole
population in a state; but they are strongest, numerically,
in the northern states and in Udaipur. By rigid precedence
the Brahmans occupy the first rank; they are numerous and
influential, and with them may be classed the peculiar and
important caste of Bhats, the keepers of secular tradition and
of the genealogies. Next come the mercantile castes, mostly
belonging to the Jain sect; these are followed by the powerful
cultivating tribes, such as the Jats and Gujars, and then come
the so-called aboriginal tribes, chief of whom are the Minas,
Bhils and Meos. Rajasthani is the chief language of the
country, one or other of its dialects being spoken by 7,035,093
persons or more than 72 % of the total population. The gross
revenue of all the states is estimated at 2j millions sterling.
The mass of the people are occupied in agriculture. In the large
towns banking and commerce flourish to a degree beyond what
might be expected. In the north the staple products for export
are salt, grain, wool and cotton, in the south opium and cotton;
while the imports consist of sugar, hardware and piece goods.
Rajputana is very poor in industrial production. The principal
manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, carvings in ivory
and working in metals, &c., all of which handicrafts are chiefly
carried on in the eastern states. The system of agriculture is
RAJSHAHI RAKOCZY
867
very simple; in the country west of the Aravallis only one crop
is raised in the year, while in other parts south and east of the
Aravallis two crops are raised annually, and various kinds of
cereals, pulses and fibres are grown. In the desert tracts fine
breeds of camels, cattle, horses and sheep are to be found
wherever there is pasturage. Irrigation, mostly from wells,
is almost confined to the N. portion. The country is traversed
throughout by the Rajputana railway, with its Malwa branch
in the south, and diverging to Agra and Delhi in the north.
Jodhpur, Udaipur and Bikanir have constructed branch
railways at their own cost, the first of which was extended in
1901 to Hyderabad in Sind. In 1909 another line was opened
running N. near the E. boundary from Kotah to Bharatpur.
History. Only faint outlines can be traced of the condition
of Rajputana previous to the invasion of Upper India by the
Mahommedans, and these indicate that the country was subject
for the most part to two or three powerful tribal dynasties.
Chief of these were the Rahtors, who ruled at Kanauj; the
Chauhans of Ajmere; the Solankis of Anhilwara, in Gujarat;
the Gehlots with the Sisodhyias sept, still in Mewar or Udaipur;
and the Kachwaha clan, still in Jaipur. These tribal dynasties
of Rajputs were gradually supplanted by the Moslem invaders
of the nth century and weakened by internal feuds. At the
beginning of the i6th century the Rajput power began to revive,
only to be overthrown by Baber at Fatehpur Sikri in 1527.
The clans were finally either conquered, overawed or conciliated
by Akbar all except the distant Sisodhyia clan, which, how-
ever, submitted to Jehangir in 1616. From Akbar's accession
to Aurangzeb's death, a period of 151 years, the Mogul was
India's master. Aurangzeb's death and the invasion of Nadir
Shah led to a triple alliance among the three leading chiefs,
which internal jealousy so weakened that the Mahrattas, having
been called in by the Rahtors to aid them, took possession of
Ajmere about 1756; thenceforward Rajputana became in-
volved in the general disorganization of India. By the end of
the century nearly the whole of Rajputana had been virtually
subdued by the Mahrattas. The victories of Generals Wellesley
and Lake, however, saved the Rajputs; but on Lord Wellesley "s
departure from India the floodgates of anarchy were reopened
for ten years. On the outbreak of the Pindari War in 1817 the
British government offered its protection. The Pindaris were
put down, Amir Khan submitting and signing a treaty which
constituted him the first ruler of the existing state of Tonk.
By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed by the
other Rajput states with the paramount power. Sindhia gave
up the district of Ajmere to the British, and the pressure of the
great Mahratta powers upon Rajputana was permanently
withdrawn. Since then the political history of Rajputana has
been comparatively uneventful. The great storm of the
Mutiny of 1857, though dangerous while it lasted, was short.
Most of the rajas remained loyal; and the capture of the town
of Kotah, which had been held by the mutineers of that state,
in March 1858, marked the extinction of armed rebellion.
Rajputana is of great archaeological interest, possessing
some fine religious buildings in ruins and others in excellent
preservation. Among the latter are the mosques at Ajmere
and the temples on Abu. But the most characteristic features
of architecture in the country are shown in the forts and
palaces of the chiefs and in their cenotaphs.
See J. Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan (1829, 1832);
W. W. Webb, Currencies of the Hindu States of Rajputana (1893);
Chiefs and Leading Families of Rajputana (1903); and Rajputana
Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908).
RAJSHAHI, a district and division of British India, in the
province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The administrative
headquarters are at Rampur Boalia. The area of the district
is 2593 sq. m., comprising an alluvial plain seamed with old
river-beds and studded with marshes. The Ganges and the
Mahananda are its principal rivers; the former constitutes a
great -natural boundary-line to the south and south-west, and
the latter, which rises in the Himalayas, borders the district
on the west for a few miles before joining the Ganges. Other
rivers are the Narad and Baral, important offshoots of the
Ganges; the Atrai, a channel of the Tista; and the Jamuna,
a tributary of the Atrai. Both the Atrai and the Jamuna
belong to the Brahmaputra system and are navigable throughout
the year for small cargo boats. The drainage of Rajshahi is
not carried off by means of its rivers, but through the chains of
marshes and swamps, the most important of which is the Chalan
bhil or lake, which discharges itself into the Brahmaputra.
In 1001 the population was 1,462,407, showing an increase of
1-6% in the decade. Rice is the staple crop, with pulses,
oilseeds and jute. Indigo has disappeared. Sericulture has
received a stimulus from the efforts of the agricultural depart-
ment, supported by private enterprise, to improve the breed
of silkworms. The hemp grown on a small tract in the north
of the district supplies all the ganja that is consumed in Bengal.
The district is traversed from south to north by the main line
of the Eastern Bengal railway to Darjeeling, with a branch to
Bogra. Most of the permanent buildings in the district were
severely damaged by the earthquake of the 1 2th of June 1897.
When the East India Company took over the administration of
Bengal in 1765, the zamindari of Rajshahi or Nattor was one
of the largest and most important in the province. It appears
to have extended from Bhagalpur on the west to Dacca on the
east, and to have included an important subdivision called Nij-
Chakla Rajshahi on the south of the Ganges. The total area
was estimated at 13,000 sq. m., or more than five times the size
of the present district. Having been found much too large
to be effectually administered by one central authority, Rajshahi
was stripped in 1793 of a considerable portion of its outlying
territory, and a natural boundary-line was drawn to the west,
south and east along the Ganges and Brahmaputra. Its
north-western limits were reduced in 1813, when the present
district of Malda was constituted. The erection of Bogra into
a separate jurisdiction in 1821 still further reduced its area;
and in 1832 the limits of Rajshahi were fixed by the constitution
of Pabna into an independent jurisdiction.
The DIVISION or RAJSHAHI is coextensive with northern
Bengal, from the Ganges to the mountains. It comprises the
seven districts of Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri, Malda,
Rangpur, Bogra and Pabna. Total area, 18,091 sq. m. Pop.
(1901) 9,130,072.
RAKE (O.E. raca, cognate with Du. rack, Ger. Rtchett,
from a root meaning to scrape together, heap up), an agricultural
and horticultural implement consisting of a toothed bar fixed
transversely to a handle, and used for the collection of cut hay,
grass, &c., and, in gardening, for loosening the soil, light weeding
and levelling, and generally for purposes performed in agri-
culture by the harrow. The teeth of the hand-rake are of wood
or iron. For the horse-drawn rake, a bar with long curved
steel teeth is mounted on wheels (see HAY AND HAYMAKING).
The word " rake " has been used since the i7th century in the
sense of a man of a dissolute or dissipated character. This is a
shortened form of the earlier " rake-hell," apparently in
common use in the i6th century. In military and naval use
" to rake " means to enfilade, to fire so that the shot may pass
lengthwise along a ship, a line of soldiers, entrenchments, &c.
In the nautical sense of the projection or slope of a ship's bows
or stern or the inclination of a mast, the word is apparently
an adaptation of the Scandinavian raka, to reach, in the sense
of reach forward.
RAK6CZY, the name of a noble Hungarian family, which in
the loth century was settled in the county of Zemplen, and
members of which played an important part in the history
of Hungary during the I7th century.
GEORGE I., prince of Transylvania (1591-1648), who began
his career as governor of Onod, was the youngest son of Sigis-
mund Rakoczy (1544-1608), who shared in the insurrection of
Stephen Bocskay against the Emperor Rudolph II., and was for
a short time prince of Transylvania. In 1616 he married his
second wife, the highly gifted zealous Calvinist, Susannah
Lorantffy, who exercised a great influence over him. He then
took a leading part in the rebellion of Gabriel Bethlen, who
868
RAKOCZY
made him commandant of Kassa, and was elected prince of
Transylvania on the 26th of November 1630 by the diet of
Segesvar. He followed the policy of Gabriel Bethlen, based
on the maintenance of the political and religious liberties of the
Hungarians. His alliance with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
for that purpose was no secret at Vienna, where the court
estimated at their right value Rakoczy's hypocritical assurances
of pacific amity. On the 2nd of February 1644, at the solicita-
tion of the Swedish and French ambassadors, and with the
consent of the Porte, he declared war against the Emperor
Ferdinand III. Nearly the whole of imperial Hungary was
soon in his hands, and Ferdinand, hardly pressed by the Swedes
at the same tune, was compelled to conclude (Sept. 16, 1645)
with Rak6czy the peace of Linz, which accorded full religious
liberty to the Magyars, and ceded to Rakoczy the fortress of
Regec and the Tokaj district. On the death of Wladislaus IV.
(1648) Rak6czy aimed at the Polish throne also, but died before
he could accomplish his design. His capital, Gyula Fehervar,
was a great Protestant resort and asylum.
See Secret Correspondence of the Age of George Rdkoczy I. (Hung.),
ed. Agoston Otvos (Klausenburg, 1848); Rakoczy's Correspondence
with Pdzmdny, Esterhazy, &c. (Hung.), ed. Antal Beke (Budapest,
1882); Sandor Szilagyi, The Rdkoczy Family in the l8th Century
(Hung.) (Pest, 1861).
GEORGE II., prince of Transylvania (1621-1660), was the
eldest son of George I. and Susannah Lorantffy. He was
elected prince of Transylvania during his father's lifetime
(Feb. 19, 1642), and married (Feb. 3, 1643), Sophia Bathory,
who was previously compelled by his mother to reject the
Roman faith and turn Calvinist. On ascending the throne
(Oct. ii, 1648), his first thought was to realize his father's
Polish ambitions. With this object in view, he allied himself,
in the beginning of 1649, with the Cossack hetman, Bohdan
Chmielnicki, and the hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia.
It was not, however, till 1657, as the ally of Gustavus Adolphus,
that he led a rabble of 40,000 semi-savages against the Polish
king, John Casimir. He took Cracow and entered Warsaw
with the Swedes, but the moment his allies withdrew the
whole scheme collapsed, and it was only on the most humiliating
terms that the Poles finally allowed him to return to Tran-
sylvania. Here (Nov. 3, 1657) the diet, at the command of the
Porte, deposed him for undertaking an unauthorized war, but
in January 1658 he was reinstated by the Medgyes Diet. Again
he was deposed by the grand vizier, and again reinstated as
if nothing had happened, but all in vain. The Turks again
invaded Transylvania, and Rakoczy died at Nagyvarad of the
wounds received at the battle of Gyula (May 1660).
See Imre Bethlen, Life and Times of George Rdkoczy II. (Hung.)
(Nagy-Enyed, 1829); Life (Hung.) in Sandor Szilagyi's Hungarian
Historical Biographies (Budapest, 1891).
FRANCIS I., prince of Transylvania (1645-1676), was the only
son of George Rdkoczy II. and Sophia Bathory. He was elected
prince of Transylvania during his father's lifetime (Feb. 18,
1652), but lost both crown and father at the same time, and
withdrew to the family estates, where, at Patak and Makovica,
he kept a splendid court. His mother converted him to
Catholicism, and on the ist of March 1666 he married Helen
Zrinyi. In 1670 he was implicated in the Zrinyi-Frangepan
conspiracy, and only saved his life by the interposition of the
Jesuits on the payment of an enormous ransom.
See Sandor Szilagyi, The Rdkoczy Family in the i?th Century (Hung.)
(Pest, 1861).
FRANCIS II., prince of Transylvania (1676-1735), was born
at Borsi, Zemplen county, on the 27th of March 1676. Having
lost his father during infancy, he was educated under the
guardianship of his heroic mother, Helen Zrinyi, in an ultra-
patriotic Magyar environment, though the Emperor Leopold I.
claimed a share in his tutelage. In 1682 his mother wedded
Imre Thokoly, who took no part in the education of Rak6czy,
but used him for his political purposes. Unfortunately his
stepfather's speculations suffered shipwreck, and Rakoczy lost
the greater part of his estates. It is said that the imperialists
robbed him of 1,000,000 florins' worth of plate and supported
a whole army corps out of his revenues (1683-85). As a child
of twelve he witnessed the heroic defence by his mother of
his ancestral castle of Munkacs against Count Antonio Caraffa
(d. 1693). On its surrender (Jan. 7, 1688) the child was
transferred to Vienna that he might be isolated from the
Hungarian nation aud brought up as an Austrian magnate.
Cardinal Kollonics, the sworn enemy of Magyar separatism,
now became his governor, and sent him to the Jesuit college
at Neuhaus in Bohemia. In 1690 he completed his course at
Prague, and in 1694 he married Maria Amelia of Hesse-Rhein-
fels, and lived for the next few years on his Hungarian estates.
At this time Rakoczy's birth, rank, wealth and brilliant
qualities made him the natural leader of the Magyar nation,
and his name was freely used in all the 'insurrections of the
period, though at first he led a life of the utmost circumspec-
tion (1697-1700). Hungary was then regarded at Vienna as a
conquered realm, whose naturally rebellious inhabitants could
only be kept under by force of arms. Kollonics was the supreme
ruler of the kingdom, and his motto was " Make of the Magyar
first a slave, then a beggar, and then a Catholic." It was a
matter of life or death for the Magyars to resist such a reign of
terror and save the national independence by making Hungary
independent of Austria as heretofore. Rak6czy and a few
other patriotic magnates deeply sympathized with the suffer-
ings of the nation, and on the eve of the war of the Spanish
Succession they entered into correspondence with Louis XIV.
for assistance through one Longueval, a Belgian general in
the Austrian service, who professed to be a friend of the
Rakoczyans, who initiated him into all their secrets. Longueval
betrayed his trust, and Rak6czy was arrested and imprisoned
at Eperjes. His wife saved him from certain death by enabling
him to escape to Poland in the uniform of a dragoon officer.
On the i8th of June 1703 he openly took up arms against the
emperor, most of whose troops were now either on the Rhine
or in upper Italy; but, unfortunately, the Magyar gentry
stood aloof from the rising, and his ill-supported peasant levies
(the Kuruczes) were repeatedly scattered. Yet at first he had
some success, and on the 26th of September was able to write
to Louis XIV. that the whole kingdom up to the Danube was
in his power. He also issued his famous manifesto, Recrudescunt
iiulnera indytae gentis Hungariae, to justify himself in the eyes
of Europe. The battle of Blenheim made any direct help
from France impossible, and on the I3th of June 1704 his
little army of 7000 men was routed by the imperialists at
Koronco and subsequently at Nagyszombat. Want of arms,
money, native officers and infantry, made, indeed, any per-
manent success in the open field impossible. Nevertheless, in
May 1705, when the Emperor Leopold I. was succeeded by
Joseph I., the position of Rakoczy was at least respectable.
With the aid of several eminent French officers and engineers
he had drilled his army into some degree of efficiency, and had
at his disposal 52 horse and 31 foot regiments. Even after the
rout of Pudmerics (Aug. n, 1705), he could put 100,000
men in the field. In September 1705 he was also able to hold
a diet at Sz6cs6ny, attended by many nobles and some prelates,
to settle the government of the country.
Rakoczy, who had already been elected Prince of Transyl-
vania (July 6, 1704), now surrounded himself with a council
of state of 24 members. The religious question caused him
especial difficulty. An ardent Catholic himself, nine-tenths
of his followers were nevertheless stern Calvinists, and in his
efforts to secure them toleration he alienated the pope, who
dissuaded Louis XIV. from assisting him. Peace negotiations
with the emperor during 1705 came to nothing, because the
court of Vienna would not acknowledge the independence of
Transylvania, while France refused to recognize the rebels
officially till they had formally proclaimed the deposition of
the Habsburgs, which last desperate measure was actually
accomplished by the Onod diet on the i3th of June 1707. This
was a fatal mistake, for it put an end to any hope of a com-
promise, and alienated both the emperor's foreign allies and the
RALEIGH, SIR WALTER
869
majority of the Magyar gentry, while from Louis XIV. Rak6czy
only got 100,000 thalers, the Golden Fleece, and a promise
(never kept) that the Hungarians should be included in the
general peace. But into a direct alliance with R4k6czy the
French king would not enter, and Laszl6 Vet6si, Rak6czy's
envoy at Versailles, in 1708 advised his master to place no
further reliance on the French court. Shortly afterwards, at
Trencsen (Aug 3, 1708), Rak6czy's army was scattered to
the winds. The rout of Trencsen was followed by a general
abandonment. The remnant of the host, too, was now thor-
oughly demoralized and dared not face the imperialists. A
fresh attempt to renew the war in 1710 was speedily ruined by
the disaster of Romhany (Jan. 22), and a desperate effort
to secure the help of Peter the Great also failing, Rak6czy gave
up everything for lost, and on the 2ist of February 1711 quitted
his country for ever, refusing to accept the general amnesty
conceded after the peace of Szatm&r (see HUNGARY, History).
He lived for a time in France on the bounty of Louis XIV.,
finally entering the Carmelite Order. In 1717, with forty
comrades, he volunteered to assist the Turks against the
Austrians, but on arriving at Constantinople discovered there
was nothing for him to do. He lived for the rest of his life
at the little town of Rodost6, where he died on the 8th of April
1735. His remains were solemnly transferred to Hungary in
1907 at the expense of the state.
See Autobiography of Prince Francis Rdkoczy (Hung.) (Miskolcz,
1903) ; E. Jurkovich, The Liberation Wars of Prince Francis Rdkoczy
(Hung.) (Beszterczebanya, 1903); S. Endrodi, Kurucz Notes, 1700-
1720 (Hung.) (Budapest, 1897). (R. N. B.)
RALEIGH, SIR WALTER (c. 1552-1618), British explorer,
poet and historian, was born probably in 1552, though the date
is not quite certain. His father, Walter Raleigh of Fardell, in
the parish of Cornwood, near Plymouth, was a country gentle-
man of old family, but of reduced estate. Walter Raleigh the
elder was three times married. His famous son was the child
of his third marriage with Catherine, daughter of Sir Philip
Champernown of Modbury, and widow of Otho Gilbert of
Compton. By her first marriage she had three sons, John,
Humphrey and Adrian Gilbert. Mr. Raleigh had been com-
pelled to give up living in his own house of Fardell. His son
was born at the farmhouse of Hayes near the head of Budleigh
Salterton Bay, on the coast of Devonshire between Exmouth
and Sidmouth. The name is written with a diversity excep-
tional even in that age. Sir Walter, his father, and a half-
brother used different forms. The spelling Raleigh was adopted
by Sir Walter's widow, and has been commonly used, though
there has been a tendency to prefer " Ralegh " in recent times.
It was almost certainly pronounced " Rawley."
In 1568 he was entered as a commoner of Oriel College, Oxford,
but he took no degree, and his residence was brief. In 1569 he
followed his cousin Henry Champernown, who took over a body of
English volunteers to serve with the French Huguenots. From
a reference in his History of the World it has been supposed that
he was present at the battle of Jarnac (i3th of March 1569),
and it has been asserted that he was in Paris during the Massacre
of St Bartholomew in 1572. Nothing, however, is known with
certainty of his life till February 1575, when he was resident in
the Temple. During his trial in 1603 he declared that he had
never studied the law, but that his breeding had been " wholly
gentleman, wholly soldier." In June 1578 his half-brother Sir
Humphrey Gilbert obtained a patent for six years authorizing
him to take possession of " any remote barbarous and heathen
lands not possessed by any Christian prince or people." The
gentry of Devon had been much engaged in maritime adventure
of a privateering or even piratical character since the reign of
Henry VIII. In the reign of Elizabeth they were the leaders in
colonial enterprises in conflict with the Spaniards in America.
During 1578 Humphrey Gilbert led an expedition which was a
piratical venture against the Spaniards, and was driven back
after an action with them and the loss of a ship in the Atlantic.
Raleigh accompanied his half-brother as captain of the " Falcon,"
and was perhaps with him in an equally unsuccessful voyage of
the following year. Gilbert was impoverished by his ventures,
and Raleigh had to seek his fortune about the court. In the
course of 1580 he was twice arrested for duels, and he attached
himself to the queen's favourite, the earl of Leicester, and to
the earl of Oxford, son-in-law of Burghley, for whom he carried
a challenge to Sir Philip Sidney. By the end of 1580 he was
serving as captain of a company of foot in Munster. He took
an active part in suppressing the rebellion of the Desmonds,
and in the massacre of the Spanish and Italian adventurers at
Smerwick in November. His letters prove that he was the
advocate of a ruthless policy against the Irish, and did not
hesitate to recommend assassination as a means of getting rid
of their leaders.
In December 1581 he was sent home with despatches, as his
company had been disbanded on the suppression of the Desmonds.
His great fortune dates from his arrival at court where he was
already not unknown. Raleigh had been in correspondence with
Walsingham for some time. The romantic stories told by Sir
Robert Naunton in the Fragmenta Regalia, and by Fuller in his
Worthies, represent at least the mythical truth as to his rise into
favour. It is quite possible that Raleigh, at a time when his
court clothes represented " a considerable part of his estate,"
did (as the old story says) throw his mantle on the ground to
help the queen to walk dry-shod over a puddle, and that he
scribbled verses with a diamond on a pane of glass to attract
her attention, though we only have the gossip of a later genera-
tion for our authority. It is certain that his tall and handsome
person, his caressing manners and his quick wit pleased the
queen. The rewards showered on him were out of all proportion
to his services in Ireland, which had not been more distinguished
than those of many others. In March 1582 he was granted a
reward of 100, and the command of a company, nominally
that he might be exercised in the wars, but in reality as a form
of pension, since he was allowed to discharge his office by deputy
and remained at court. In February 1583 he was included in the
escort sent to accompany the duke of Anjou from England to
Flanders. In 1583 the queen made him a grant of Durham
House in the Strand (London), the property of the see of Durham,
which had however been used of late as a royal guest-house.
In the same year the queen's influence secured him two beneficial
leases from All Souls, Oxford, which he sold to his advantage,
and a patent to grant licences to " vintners," that is, tavern
keepers. This he subleased, and when his agent, one Browne,
cheated him, he got the grant revoked, and reissued on terms
which allowed him to make 2000 a year. In 1584 he had a
licence for exporting woollen cloths, a lucrative monopoly which
made him very unpopular with the merchants. He was knighted
in 1584. In 1585 he succeeded the earl of Bedford as Warden
of the Stannaries. Raleigh made a good use of the great powers
which the wardenship gave him in the mining districts of the
west. He reduced the old customs to order, and showed him-
self fair to the workers. In 1586 he received a grant of 40,000
acres of the forfeited lands of the Desmonds, on the Blackwater
in Ireland. He was to plant English settlers, which he en-
deavoured to do, and he introduced the cultivation of the potato
and of tobacco. In 1587 he received a grant in England of
part of the forfeited land of the conspirator Babington.
During these years Raleigh was at the height of his favour.
It was the policy of Queen Elizabeth to have several favourites
at once, lest any one might be supposed to have exclusive
influence with her. Raleigh was predominant during the
period between the predominance of Leicester and the rise of
the earl of Essex, who came to court in 1587. It is to be noted
that Elizabeth treated Raleigh exclusively as a court favourite,
to be enriched by monopolies and grants at the expense of her
subjects, but that she never gave him any great office, nor did
she admit him to the council. Even his post of captain of the
Guard, given in 1587, though honourable, and, to a man who
would take gifts for the use of his influence, lucrative, was
mainly ornamental. His many offices and estates did not
monopolize the activity of Raleigh. The patent given to his
half-brother Sir Humphrey Gilbert was to run out in 1584. To
870
RALEIGH, SIR WALTER
avert this loss Raleigh, partly out of his own pocket and partly
by securing the help of courtiers and capitalists, provided the
means for the expedition to Newfoundland in 1583, in which
Gilbert, who had been reduced to sell " the clothes off his
wife's back " by his previous misfortunes, finally perished. Sir
Humphrey's patent was renewed in favour of Sir Walter in
March 1584.
Raleigh now began the short series of ventures in colonization
which have connected his name with the settlement of Virginia.
It has often been said that Raleigh showed a wise originality
in his ideas as to colonization. But in truth the patent granted
to him, which gave him and his heirs the proprietary right
over all territory they occupied subject to payment of one-fifth
of the produce of all mines of precious metals to the crown,
is drawn closely on Spanish precedents. Nor was there any
originality in his desire to settle English colonists, and encourage
other industries than mining. The Spaniards had pursued
the same aim from the first. In April 1584 Raleigh sent out
two captains, Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe, on a voyage
of exploration. They sailed by the Canaries to Florida, and
from thence followed the coast of North America as far as
the inlet between Albemarle and Pamlico sounds in the modern
state of North Carolina. The name of Virginia was given to
a vast and undefined territory, but none of Raleigh's captains
or settlers reached the state of Virginia. In the same year
he became member of parliament for Devonshire, and took
the precaution to secure a parliamentary confirmation of his
grant. His first body of settlers, sent out in 1585 under Sir
Richard Grenville, landed on what is now Roanoke Island
in North Carolina Sir R. Grenville showed himself mainly
intent on taking prizes, going and coming. The settlers got
on bad terms with the natives, despaired, and deserted the
colony when Sir Francis Drake visited the coast in 1586.
Attempts at colonization at the same place in 1586 and 1587
proved no more successful (see NORTH CAROLINA), and in
1589 Raleigh, who represented himself as having spent 40,000
on the venture, resigned his rights to a company of merchants,
preserving to himself a rent, and a fifth of whatever gold might
be discovered.
After 1587 Sir Walter Raleigh was called upon to fight for
his place of favourite with the earl of Essex (see ESSEX, 2nd
EARL OF). During the Armada year 1588 he was more or less
in eclipse. He was in Ireland for part of the year with Sir R.
Grenville, and was employed as vice-admiral of Devon in
looking after the coast-defences and militia levy of the county.
During this year he received a challenge from Essex which did
not lead to an encounter. In 1589 he was again in Ireland.
He had already made the acquaintance of Edmund Spenser
and now visited him at his house at Kilcolman. It was by
Raleigh's help that Spenser obtained a pension, and royal aid
to publish the first three books of the Faerie Queen. The
exact cause of Raleigh's partial disgrace at court is not known,
but it was probably due to the queen's habitual policy of check-
ing one favourite by the promotion of another. In 1589 he
accompanied the expedition to the coast of Portugal, which
was intended to cause a revolt against King Philip II., but
failed completely. In 1591 he was at the last moment forbidden
to take part in the voyage to the Azores, and was replaced by his
cousin Sir R. Grenville, whose death in action with the Spaniards
was the subject of one of Sir Walter's most vigorous pieces of
prose writing. In 1592 he was again at sea with an expedition
to intercept the Spanish trade, but was recalled by the queen.
The cause of his recall was the discovery that he had seduced
one of her maids of honour, Elizabeth Throgmorton. Raleigh
denied in a letter to Robert Cecil that there was any truth in
the stories of a marriage between them. On his return he was
put into the Tower, and if he was not already married was
married there. To placate the queen he made a fantastic
display of despair at the loss of her favour. It must be remem-
bered that the maids of honour could not marry without
the consent of the queen, which Elizabeth was always most
reluctant to give and would be particularly unwilling to give
when the husband was an old favourite of her own. Raleigh
proved a good husband and his wife was devoted to him through
life. As the ships of the expedition had taken a valuable prize,
the Portuguese carrack " Madre de Dios," and as there was a
dispute over the booty, he was released to superintend the
distribution. He had been a large contributor to the cost of
the expedition, but the queen, who sent only two ships, took
the bulk of the spoil, leaving him barely enough to cover his
expenses.
Raleigh now retired from court to an estate at Sherborne in
Dorsetshire, which just before his disgrace he had extorted from
the bishop of Salisbury, to whose see it belonged, by a most
unscrupulous use of the royal influence. A son was born to him
here in 1594, and he kept up a friendly correspondence with Sir
Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, the secretary of state.
But a life of constant retirement was uncongenial to Raleigh,
and as his profuse habits, together with the multiplicity of
his interests, had prevented him from making any advantage
out of his estates in Ireland, he was embarrassed for money.
In 1595 he therefore sailed on a voyage of exploration with a
view to conquest, on the coast of South America. The object
was undoubtedly to find gold mines, and Raleigh had heard the
wild stories of El Dorado which had been current among the
Spaniards for long. His account of his voyage, The Discoverie
of Guiana, published on his return, is the most brilliant of all the
Elizabethan narratives of adventure, but contains much manifest
romance. It was received with incredulity. He was now the
most unpopular man in England, not only among the courtiers,
but in the nation, for his greed, arrogance and alleged scepticism
in religion. In 1590 he was named with the poet Marlowe and
others as an atheist. At court he was not at first received.
The share he took in the capture of Cadiz in 1 596, where he was
seriously wounded, was followed by a restoration of favour at
court, and he was apparently reconciled to Essex, whom he
accompanied on a voyage to the Azores in 1597. This co-
operation led to a renewal of the quarrel, and Raleigh, as the
enemy of Essex who was the favourite of the soldiers and the
populace, became more unpopular than ever. In 1600 he
obtained the governorship of Jersey, and in the following year
took a part in suppressing the rebellion of Essex, at whose
execution he presided as captain of the Guard. In 1600 he sat
as member for Penzance in the last parliament of Elizabeth's
reign. In parliament he was a steady friend of religious tolera-
tion, and a bold critic of the fiscal and agrarian legislation of the
time.
The death of the queen and the accession of James I. were
ruinous to Raleigh. James, who looked upon Essex as his
partisan, had been prejudiced, and Raleigh's avowed desire for
the prolongation of the war with Spain was utterly against the
peace policy of the king. Raleigh was embarrassed for money,
and had been compelled to sell his Irish estates to Richard
Boyle, afterwards ist earl of Cork, in 1602. He was expelled
from Durham House, which was reclaimed by the bishop,
dismissed from the captaincy of the Guard, deprived of his
monopolies, which the king abolished, and of the government of
Jersey. In his anger and despair he unquestionably took some
part in the complication of conspiracies which arose in the first
months of James's reign, and was committed to the Tower on
the igth of July 1603. Here he made what appears to have
been an insincere attempt to stab himself, but only inflicted a
small wound. His trial at Winchester, November 1603, was
conducted with such outrageous unfairness as to shock the
opinion 'of the time, and his gallant bearing in face of the
brutality of the Attorney-General, Sir Edward Coke, turned
public opinion in hi favour. It is now impossible to reach the
truth, but on the whole it appears probable that Raleigh was
cognizant of the conspiracies, though the evidence produced
against him was insufficient to prove his guilt. Much was kept
back by the council, and the jury was influenced by knowing
that the council thought him guilty.
The sentence of death passed on Raleigh, aud others tried
at about the same time, was in most cases not carried out.
RALEIGH RALPH
871
Raleigh was sent to the Tower, where he remained till the
I9th of March 1616. His estate of Sherborne, which he had
transferred to his son, was taken by the king, who availed
himself of a technical irregularity in the transfer. A sum of
8000 offered in compensation was only paid in part. Raleigh's
confinement was easy, and he applied himself to chemical
experiments and literature. He had been known as one of
the most poetical of the minor lyric poets of an age of poetry
from his youth. In prison he composed many treatises, and
the only volume of his vast History of the World published.
He also invented an elixir which appears to have been a very
formidable quack stimulant. Hope of release and of a renewal
of activity never deserted him, and he strove to reach the ear
of the king by appealing to successive ministers and favourites.
At last he secured his freedom in a way discreditable to all
concerned. He promised the king to find a gold mine in Guiana
without trenching on a Spanish possession. It must have been
notorious to everybody that this was impossible, and the
Spanish ambassador, Gondomar, warned the king that the
Spaniards had settlements on the coast. The king, who was
in need of money, replied that if Raleigh was guilty of piracy
he should be executed on his return. Raleigh gave promises
he obviously knew he could not keep, and sailed on the 17th of
March 1617, relying on the chapter of accidents, and on vague
intrigues he had entered into in Savoy and France. The expedition,
on which the wreck of his fortune was spent, was ill-appointed
and ill-manned. It reached the mouth of the Orinoco on the
last day of 1617. Raleigh was ill with fever, and remained at
Trinidad. He sent five small vessels up the Orinoco under his
most trusted captain, Lawrence Keymis, with whom went his
son Walter and a nephew. The expedition found a Spanish
settlement on the way to the supposed mine, and a fight ensued
in which Sir Walter's son and several Spaniards were killed.
After some days of bush fighting with the Spaniards, and
of useless search for the mine, Keymis returned to Sir Walter
with the news of his son's death and his own utter ruin. Stung
by Raleigh's reproach Keymis killed himself, and then after
a miserable scene of recriminations, hesitations and mutiny,
the expedition returned home. Raleigh was arrested, and in
pursuance of the king's promise to Gondomar was executed
under his old sentence on the 2gth of October 1618. During his
confinement he descended to some unworthy supplications and
devices, but when he knew his end to be inevitable he died with
serenity and dignity. His wife survived him, and he left a son,
Carew Raleigh. His enmity to Spain made him a popular hero.
AUTHORITIES. An edition of his Works in eight volumes was
published in London in 1829. It contains a Ltfe by Oldys and
Birch, written with all the knowledge then available. A Life of
Sir Walter Raleigh (London, 1806, 2nd ed.) was much used by
Southey in his biography of Sir Walter Raleigh in vol. iv. of The
British Admirals in the Cabinet Cyclopaedia (London, 1837). Two
biographies appeared simultaneously, Life of Sir Walter Raleigh by
J. A. Saint John, and Life of Sir Walter Raleigh by E. Edwards
(London, 1868). Mr Edwards's work is in two volumes, of which
the second contains the correspondence, and is still the best authority.
Smaller lives, which in some cases contain new matter, are those
by E. W. Gosse, " Raleigh " in English Worthies (1886) ; W.
Stebbing, Sir W. Raleigh (London, 1891, and 1899) ; Martin Hume,
Sir Walter Raleigh (London 1897) ; and H. de Selincourt, Great
Ralegh (1908). For special episodes see Sir John Pope Hennessy,
Sir Walter Raleigh in Ireland (London, 1883), and T. N. Brushfield,
Raleghana (Ashburton, 1896). Two separate editions of Raleigh's
poems have been published, Poems, with biography and critical
introduction by Sir F. Bryd^es (London, 1813), and Poems of Raleigh
with those of Sir H. Walton, &c., edited by J. Hannah (London, 1892).
S. R. Gardiner made a careful examination of the events of Raleigh's
life after 1603 in his History of England from the Accession of James I.
to the Outbreak of the Civil War (1883-84). (D. H.)
RALEIGH, the capital of North Carolina, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Wake county, about 145 m. N. by W. of Wil-
mington. Pop. (1800) 12,678; (1900) 13,643, of whom 5721
were negroes; (1910, census) 19,218. Area 4 sq. m. It is
served by the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, the Raleigh &
Southport, and the Norfolk Southern railways. The city
lies about 360 ft. above sea-level on ground sloping gently
in all directions from its centre, where there is a beautiful park
of 4 acres known as Union Square, in which is the State
Capitol and from which extend four broad streets. On the
western border of the city is Pullen Park (about 40 acres),
including the campus of the College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts; it was named in honour of the donor, R. Stanhope Pullen,
who was also a benefactor of the college. The State Capitol
(1840) is surmounted by a dome and modelled to some extent
after the Parthenon and other buildings of ancient Greece;
the first Capitol (begun in 1794) was burned in 1831. In the
vicinity are the Governor's Mansion, the Supreme Court Build-
ing, the State Library, the building" of the State Department of
Agriculture, housing the State Museum (of geology, mineralogy,
agriculture and horticulture, botany, zoology, ethnology, &c.),
and the Post Office. Elsewhere are the County Court House,
the State Hospital for the Insane (1856), founded through the
efforts of Dorothea Lynde Dix, situated on Dix Hill and having
in connexion with it a colony for epileptics; a state school for
white blind, deaf and dumb (1845), and a state institute foi
negro deaf mutes and blind (1867); the state penitentiary (with
a department for the criminal insane) ; a National Cemetery and
a Confederate Cemetery; a Methodist Orphanage (1900) and a
Roman Catholic Orphanage, the St Luke's Home for old ladies
(1895; under the King's Daughters), a State (Confederate)
Soldiers' Home (1891), and three private hospitals and the Rex
public hospital (1909). Raleigh is the seat of the North Carolina
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (1889), in connexion
with which is an agricultural experiment station; of three
schools for girls Peace Institute (Presbyterian, 1857), St Mary's
School (Protestant Episcopal, 1842) and Meredith College
(Baptist, 1891); of the medical department of the University
of North Carolina; and of two schools for negroes Shaw
University (Baptist, 1865), with 530 students in 1908-1909,
and St Augustine's School (Protestant Episcopal, 1868), a
training school, with 466 students in 1908-1909. In 1908 the
State Library (founded 1841) contained 39,000 volumes, the
Supreme Court Library (founded 1870) about 17,000 volumes
and the Olivia Raney public library (founded 1001) 9250
volumes. The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop.
The principal industrial interests are trade in leaf tobacco and
cotton raised in the vicinity, and the manufacture of cotton
goods, phosphate fertilizers, foundry and machine-shop products,
wooden-ware, &c. The Seaboard Air Line and the Raleigh &
Southport railways have repair shops here. In 1905 the factory
product was valued at $1,086,671, 14-7% more than in 1900.
Electric power is conveyed to the city from Buckhorn Falls, on
the Cape Fear river, about 26 m. south of Raleigh, and from
Milburnie on the Neuse river, 6 m. distant.
In 1788 the site of the city, then known as Wake Court House,
was chosen for the capital of the state; and in 1792 the city was
laid out and named in honour of Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1794
the state legislature met here for the first time. Raleigh was
incorporated in 1795 and was reincorporated in 1803; its
present charter dates from 1899. General William T. Sherman's
army, on its march through the Carolinas, passed through the
city on the I3th of April 1865. Raleigh was the birthplace of
President Andrew Johnson; the house in which he was born
has been removed to Pullen Park. By_ an extension of its
boundaries the city nearly doubled its area and increased its
population in 1007.
RALPH (d. 1122), archbishop of Canterbury, called Ralph
de Turbine, or Ralph d'Escures from his father's estate of
Escures, near Seez in Normandy, entered the abbey of St
Martin at Seez in 1079, and ten years later became abbot of this
house. Soon afterwards he paid a visit to England, where his
half-brother, Seffrid Pelochin, was bishop of Chichester, and
in 1 100 he took refuge in England from the violence of Robert
of Belesme, passing some time with his friends St Anselm and
Gundulf. In March 1108 he succeeded Gundulf as bishop of
Rochester. After Anselm's death in April 1109 Ralph acted as
administrator of the see of Canterbury until April 1114, when
he himself was chosen archbishop at Windsor. In this capacity
he was very assertive of the rights of the archbishop of Canter-
872
RALPH DE GUADER RAMBAUD
bury and of the liberties of the English church. He claimed
authority in Wales and Scotland, and he refused to consecrate
Thurstan as archbishop of York because the latter prelate
declined to profess obedience to the archbishop of Canterbury.
This step involved him in a quarrel with the Papacy, and he
visited Rome, but was unable to obtain an interview with pope
Paschal II., who had left the city. In spite of peremptory
orders from Paschal's successors, Gelasius II. and Calixtus II.,
the archbishop still refused to consecrate Thurstan, and the
dispute was unsettled when he died on the zoth of October 1122.
RALPH DE GUADER, earl of Norfolk (fl. 1070), was the son
of a Norman who had held high positions in East Anglia,
perhaps that of earl, in the reign of Edward the Confessor
(c. 1055). His son Ralphfought on the Norman side at Hastings,
and was made earl of Norfolk by William the Conqueror. In
1075 the king's refusal to sanction his marriage with the sister
of Roger, earl of Hereford, caused the two earls to revolt. They
were easily defeated, though Ralph sent to Denmark for ships
and went there himself to fetch them. Ralph forfeited his
English lands, and took refuge in Brittany on his wife's estate.
In 1076, having plotted against Duke Hoel of Brittany, he was
besieged at Dol, and the Conqueror came to Hoel's aid; but
Ralph finally made his peace. Both he and his wife took part
in the first crusade (1099), and died on the road to Palestine.
RALPH OF COGGESHALL (d. after 1227), English chronicler,
was at first a monk and afterwards sixth abbot (1207-1218) of
Coggeshall, an Essex foundation of the Cistercian order. Ralph
himself tells us these facts; and that his resignation of the
abbacy was made against the wishes of the brethren, in conse-
quence of his bad health. He took up and continued a Chronicon
Anglicanum belonging to his house; the original work begins
at 1066, his own share at 1187. He hoped to reach the year
1227, but his autograph copy breaks off three years earlier.
Ralph makes no pretensions to be a literary artist. Where he
had a written authority before him he was content to reproduce
even the phraseology of his original. At other times he strings
together in chronological order, without any links of connexion,
the anecdotes which he gathered from chance visitors. Unlike
" Benedictus " and Roger of Hoveden, he makes little use of
documents; only three letters are quoted in his work. On
the other hand, the corrections and erasures of the autograph
show that he took pains to verify his details; and his inform-
ants are sometimes worthy of exceptional confidence. Thus
he vouches Richard's chaplain Anselm for the story of the
king's capture by Leopold of Austria. The tone of the chronicle
is usually dispassionate; but the original text contained some
personal strictures upon Prince John, which are reproduced
in Roger of Wendover. The admiration with which Ralph
regarded Henry II. is attested by his edition of Ralph Niger's
chronicle; here, under the year 1161, he replies to the in-
temperate criticisms of the original author. On Richard I.
the abbot passes a judicious verdict, admitting the great
qualities of that king, but arguing that his character degener-
ated. Towards John alone Ralph is uniformly hostile; as a
Cistercian and an adherent of the Mandeville family he could
hardly be otherwise. Ralph refers in the Chronicon (s.a. 1091)
to a book of visions and miracles which he had compiled, but
this is no longer extant. He also wrote a continuation of
Niger's chronicle, extending from 1162 to 1178 (printed in R.
Anstruther's edition of Niger, London, 1851), and short annals
from 1066 to 1223.
The autograph manuscript of the Chronicon Anglicanum is to be
found in the British Museum (Cotton, Vespasian D. X.)- The same
volume contains the continuation of Ralph Niger. The Chronicon
Terrae Sanctae, formerly attributed to Ralph, is by another hand ;
it was among the sources on which he drew for the Chronicon
Anglicanum. The so-called Libellus de motibus anglicanis sub rege
Johanne (printed by Martene and Durand, Ampl. Cottectio, \.
pp. 871-882) is merely an excerpt from the Chronicon Anglicanum.
This latter work was edited for the Rolls series in 1875 by J.
Stevenson. (H. W. C. D.)
RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (1804-1865),
Belgian churchman and historian, was born at Louvain in
1804. He took orders early, and was appointed professor of
poetry at the seminary of Malines, and archiviste of the diocese.
During the years immediately before the revolution of 1830,
Ram, who was much influenced by Lamennais, was active in
bringing about a coalition of Liberals and Catholics against the
Dutch government established by the Powers on the fall of
Napoleon, and in endeavouring to give a democratic character
to the policy of his church. He declined to stand as a member
of the Belgian assembly, and applied himself wholly to teaching
and to editing or composing historical books. As professor of
philosophy at Malines he succeeded in bringing about the
foundation of the Catholic university, which was transferred to
Louvain in 1834. He was rector of the university till his death
in 1865.
The best known of his publications is the Documents relatifs aux
troubles du pays de Liege 1455-1505, published by the Commission
royale de I'Histoire de Belgique (Brussels, 1844). A Notice sur la vie
et les travaux de Mgr P. F. X. de Ram, by J. J. Thonissen, will be found
in the Annuaire de I'Academie royale de Belgique (Brussels, 1866).
RAM, a male sheep, one kept for breeding purposes in domes-
tication and not castrated, as opposed to the castrated " wether "
(see SHEEP). For the ram as one of the signs of the zodiac,
see ARIES. The word may be connected with O.Nor. ramme,
strong, or with Sansk. ram, to sport. The butting propensities
of the ram have given rise to the many transferred senses of the
word, chief and earliest of which is that of a battering imple-
ment used before the days of cannon for beating in the gates
and breaching the walls of fortified places (see BATTERING
RAM). Many technical uses of the term have been developed
from this, e.g. the weight of a pile-driving machine, the piston
of a hydraulic press and other machines or portions of .machines
worked by water power (see HYDRAULICS). The ancient war-
vessels were fitted with a beak (Lat. rostrum, Gr. eK/SoXov),
projecting from the bows, and used to ram or crush in the
sides of an opposing vessel; for the development of this in the
modern battleship, see SHIP.
RAMADAN, the month of the Mahommedan year in which
absolute fasting from dawn to sunset is required. The law
is laid down in Koran ii. 170-184, and is as follows: A fast
had always been a part of religion. In Islam it was to fall
in this month because in it the Koran was revealed, and it
was holier than the others. It was to begin when the new
moon was actually seen, and last until sight of the next new .
moon; to extend each day from the time when a white thread
could be distinguished from a black one and until nightfall;
to be absolute in that time as to food, drink, women. The
daytime should be passed, by preference, in retreat (i 'tikdf)
in the mosque in pious exercises; during the night all other-
wise lawful things to be lawful. The sick and those on a
journey might be excused, but should fast thereafter an
equivalent number of days. Unexcused breaking of the fast
might be atoned for by feeding of the poor. The last ten days
of the month are regarded as especially sacred; these Mahomet
himself used to pass in retreat. In the course of them falls the
" Night of Decree," or " of Power " (Koran xc. i), but its
exact date is not known. On it intercourse between heaven
and earth is peculiarly open, and many wonders take place.
Fasting in Ramadan is reckoned one of the five pillars, or
absolute requirements, of Islam. It is followed by the Lesser
Festival, the first three days of the month Shauwal (see
BAIRAM). Naturally, during it all the activities of life are
reduced to a minimum, and those who can afford it turn night
into day as much as possible.
For details see Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, 533 ff. ; Sell, Faith of
Islam, 279 ff. ; Sprenger, Leben Mohammads, lii. 56 ff. ; Snouck
Hurgronje, Mekka, 51, 77 ff.; Meakin, The Moors, 247 ff.; Juynboll,
De Mohammedaansche Wet, 108 ff. (D. B. MA.)
RAMBAUD, ALFRED NICOLAS (1842-1905), French his-
torian, was born at Besancon on the 2nd of July 1842. After
studying at the Ecole normale superieure, he completed his
studies in Germany. He was one of that band of young
scholars, among whom were also Ernest Lavisse, Gabriel
Monod and Gaston Paris, whose enthusiasm was aroused by
RAMBERT RAMBOUILLET, MARQUISE DE
873
the principles and organization of scientific study as applied
beyond the Rhine, and who were ready to devote themselves
to their cherished plan of remodelling higher education in
France. He was appointed " rtpttiteur " at the Ecole
des Hautes Etudes on its foundation in 1868. His researches
were at that time directed towards the Byzantine period of
the middle ages, and to this period were devoted the two
theses which he composed for his doctorate in letters, De
byzantino hippodromo el circensibus factionibus (revised in French
for the Revue des Deux Mondes, under the title of " Le monde
byzantin; le sport et 1'hippodrome," 1871), and L'Empire grec
au X' siecle, Constant Porphyrogenete (1870). This latter
work is still accepted as a good authority, and caused Rambaud
to be hailed as a master on the Byzantine period; but with
the exception of one article on Digenis Akritas, in the Revue
des Deux Mondes (1875), and one other on Michael Psellos,
in the Revue historique (vol. iii., 1876), Rambaud's researches
were diverted towards other parts of the East. The Franco-
German War inspired him with the idea for some courses of
lectures which developed into books: La domination fran^aise
en Allemagne; les Franc.ais sur le Rhin, 1792-1804 (1873)
and L' 'Allemagne sous Napoleon I. 1804-1811 (1874). He
watched attentively the r61e played by Russia, and soon
observed how much to the interest of France, a good entente
with this power would be. He accordingly threw himself
into the study of Russian history, staying in Russia in order
to learn its language, institutions and customs. On his return,
he published La Russie epique, a study of the heroic songs
(1876), a short but excellent Hisloire de la Russie depuis les
origines jusqu'd I'annie 1877 (1878; 5th ed., 1900), Franc.ais
et Russes, Moscou et Sevastopol 1812-1854 (1876; and ed.,
1881), and finally the two important volumes on Russian
diplomatic history in the Recueil des Instructions donnies aux
ambassadeurs (vols. vii. and ix., 1890 and 1891). He was not
improbably moved by considerations of foreign policy to
publish his Russes et Prussiens, guerre de Sept Ans (1895), a
popular work, though based on solid research. After teaching
history in the Faculties of Arts at Caen (1871) and Nancy
(1873), he was called to the Sorbonne (1883), where he was
the first to occupy the chair of contemporary history. By
this time he had already entered into politics; he had been
chef du cabinet of Jules Ferry (1870-1881), though this did not
distract him from his literary work. It was under these
conditions that he composed his Hisloire de la civilisation
franqaise (2 vols., 1885, 1887; gth ed., 1901) and his Histoire
de la civilisation contemporaine en France (1888; new ed.
entirely revised, 1906), and undertook the general editorship
of the Hisloire ginerale du IV' siecle jusqu'd, nos jours. The
plan of this great work had been drawn up with the aid of Ernest
Lavisse, but the entire supervision of its execution was carried
out by Rambaud. He contributed to it himself some interesting
chapters on the history of the East, of which he had a thorough
knowledge. In 1885 Rambaud published, in collaboration
with J. B. Bailie, a French translation of J. R. Seeley's
Expansion of England, and in the preface he laid great emphasis
on the enormous increase of power brought to England by
the possession of her colonies, seeing in this a lesson for France.
He was anxious to see the rise of a " Greater France," on the
model of " Greater Britain," and it was with this idea that he
undertook to present to the public a series of essays, written
by famous explorers or political men, under the title of La
France coloniale, histoire, g6ographie, commerce (1886; 6th ed.,
1893). Having become senator for the department of Doubs
(1895-1902), Rambaud held the position of minister of Public
Instruction from 1896 to 1898, and in that capacity endeavoured
to carry on the educational work of Jules Ferry, to whose
memory he always remained faithful. He dedicated to his
former chief a book (Jules Ferry, 1903), which is a valuable
testimony to the efforts made by France to organize public
education and found a colonial empire; but this fidelity also
won him some enemies, who succeeded for some time in pre-
venting him from becoming a member of the Institute. He
was finally elected a member of the Academic des Sciences
morales et politiques on the nth of December 1897, in place
of the due d'Aumale, of whose life he wrote an account (vol. xxii.,
2nd series, of the Mtmoires of this academy). His many
interests ended by wearing out even his robust constitution,
and he died at Paris on the icth of November 1005.
See the notices by Ernest Lavisse in the Revue de Paris for
January isth, 1906, and Gabriel Monod in the Revue historique
(vol. xc., pp. 344-348).
RAHBERT, EUGENE (1830-1886), Swiss author, was born
at Sales near Swiss Clarens on the 6th of April 1830, the eldest
son of a Vaudois schoolmaster, from whom he received his
education. When in 1845 his father lost his post, owing to
the religious disputes, Rambert became a teacher in Paris,
and later a tutor in England and at Geneva. When the affairs
of the family improved, Rambert was able to pursue his studies
for the ministry, but he was more attracted by literature, and
in 1845 became professor of French literature at the academy
of Lausanne, and in 1860 at the Federal polytechnic school at
Zurich, where he remained till 1881, when he again became
professor at Lausanne. His principal work, Les Alpes suisses
(5 vols., 1866-1875; republished with large additions, according
to his own scheme, in 6 vols., 1887-1889), is a mine of miscellaneous
information on the subject. He also published several volumes
of poetry, as well as a volume entitled Ecrivains nalionaux
(1874, republished 1889), and biographies of the pietist Vinet
(1875), of the poet Juste Olivier (1879) and of the artist Alexandre
Calame (1883). He died on the 2ist of November 1886.
Rambert's Dernieres Poesies were edited (1903) by Henri Warnery,
whose Eugene Rambert (Lausanne, 1890) contains a critical estimate.
(W. A. B. C.)
RAMBOUILLET, CATHERINE DE VIVONNE, MARQUISE
DE (1588-1665), a lady famous in the literary history of France,
was born in 1588. She was the daughter and heiress of Jean de
Vivonne, marquis of Pisani, and her mother Giulia was of the
noble Roman family of Savelli. She was married at twelve
years old to Charles d'Angennes, vidame of Le Mans, and after-
wards marquis of Rambouillet. The young marquise found the
coarseness and intrigue that then reigned in the French court
little to her taste, and after the birth of her eldest daughter,
Julie d'Angennes, in 1607, she began to gather round her the
circle afterwards so famous. She established herself at the
Hotel Pisani, called later the Hotel de Rambouillet, the site of
which is close to the Grands Magasins du Louvre. Mme de
Rambouillet took great trouble to arrange her house for purposes
of reception, and devised suites of small rooms where visitors
could move easily, and could find more privacy than in the large
reception rooms of the ordinary house. The h6tel was rebuilt
on these lines in 1618. It maintained its importance as a social
and literary centre until 1650. Almost all the more remarkable
personages in French society and French literature frequented
it, especially during the second quarter of the century, when it
was at the height of its reputation. There is abundant testi-
mony to Mme de Rambouillet's beauty, though no portrait of
her is known to exist. Her success as a hostess was due to many
causes. Her natural abilities had been carefully trained, but
were not extraordinary. Many people were, however, like
herself, disgusted with the intrigues at court, and found the
comparative austerity of the H6tel de Rambouillet a welcome
change. The marquise had genuine kindness and a lack of
prejudice that enabled her to entertain on the same footing
princes and princesses of the blood royal, and men of letters,
while among her intimate friends was the beautiful Angflique
Paulet. The respect paid to ability in her salon effected a great
advancement in the position of French men of letters. More-
over, the almost uniform excellence of the memoirs and letters
of 17th-century Frenchmen and Frenchwomen may be traced
largely to the development of conversation as a fine art at the
H6tel Rambouillet, and the consequent establishment of a
standard of clear and adequate expression. Mme de Rambouillet
was known as the " incomparable Arth6nice," the name being
an anagram for Catherine, devised by Malherbe and Racan.
8 74
RAMBOUILLET RAMESES
Among the more noteworthy incidents in the story of the Hotel
are the sonnet war between the Uranistes and the Jobistes
partisans of two famous sonnets by Voiture and Benserage and
the composition by all the famous poets of the day of the
Guirlande de Julie, a collection of poems on different flowers,
addressed in 1641 to Julie d'Angennes, afterwards duchesse de
Montausier. Julie herself was responsible for a good deal of
the preciosity for which the Hotel was later ridiculed. Charles
de Sainte Maure, who become in 1664 due de Montausier, had
been wooing her for seven years when he conceived the idea
of the famous garland, and she kept him waiting for four years
more.
The Precieuses, who are usually associated with Moliere's
avowed caricatures and with the extravagances of Mile, de
Scudery, but whose name, it must be remembered, Madame de
Sevigne herself was proud to bear insisted on a ceremonious
gallantry from their suitors and friends, though it seems from
the account given by Tallemant des Reaux that practical jokes
of a mild kind were by no means excluded from the H&tel de
Rambouillet. They especially favoured an elaborate and
quintessenced kind of colloquial and literary expression, imitated
from Marini and Gongora, and then fashionable throughout
Europe. The immortal Precieuses ridicules of Moliere was no
doubt directly levelled not at the H6tel de Rambouillet itself,
but at the numerous coteries which in the course of years had
sprung up in imitation of it. But the satire did in truth touch
the originators as well as the imitators, the former more closely
perhaps than they perceived. The H6tel de Rambouillet
continued open till the death of its mistress, on the and of
December 1665, but the troubles of the Fronde diminished its
influence.
The chief original authorities respecting Madame de Rambouillet
and her set are Tallemant des R6aux in his Historiettes, and Antoine
Baudeau de Somaize in his Grand Dictionnaire des Precieuses (1660).
Many modern writers have treated the subject, notably Victor
Cousin, La Societe franfaise au xvii' siecle (2 vols., 1856), and C. L.
Liyet, Precieux et Precieuses . . . (1859). There is an admirable
edition (1875) of the Guirlande de Julie by O. Uzanne.
RAMBOUILLET, a town of northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 30 m. S.W.
of Paris on the railway to Chartres. Pop. (1906) town, 3965;
commune, 6165. Rambouillet derives its whole interest from
the associations connected with the ancient chateau, dating
originally from the I4ch century, but often rebuilt. A great
machicolated tower is all that remains of the medieval building;
some apartments with good woodwork are also of interest. The
chateau is surrounded by a beautiful park of 3000 acres and by
an extensive forest. The gardens, partly in French, partly in
English style, are picturesque, and have an avenue of Louisiana
cypress unique in Europe. The park contains the national
sheep-farm, where in the i8th century the first flock of merino
sheep in France was raised, a school of sheep-farming, and, close
to the latter, a small dairy built by Louis XVI. The shooting
of the famous coverts of Rambouillet is reserved for the presi-
dents of the Republic. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect
and has a tribunal of first instance and a preparatory infantry
school. Trade is in grain, wool, flour and wood. Watch-
springs are manufactured.
Originally a royal domain, the lands of Rambouillet passed in
the I4th century to the D'Angennes family, who held them for
three hundred years and built the chateau. Francis I. died
there in 1547; and Charles IX. and Catherine de Medicis found
a refuge there in the Wars of Religion, as Henry III. did after
them. The title became a marquisate in 1612, at which time
it was held by Charles d'Angennes, husband of Catherine de
Vivonne (q.v.), the famous marchioness of Rambouillet. Created
a duchy and peerage in favour of the duke of Toulouse, son
of Louis XIV., Rambouillet was subsequently bought and
embellished by Louis XVI., who erected a model farm and other
buildings. The place was a hunting-seat of Napoleon I. and
Charles X., and it was here that in 1830 the latter signed his
abdication.
RAMEAU, JEAN PHILIPPE (1683-1764), French musical
theorist and composer, was born at Dijon on the 23rd of
October 1683. His musical education, partly in consequence of
his father's desire that he should study law, still more through
his own wayward disposition, was of a desultory character. In
1701 his father sent him to Milan to break off a foolish love-
match. But he learned little in Italy, and soon returned, in
company with a wandering theatrical manager, for whom he
played the second violin. He next settled in Paris, where he
published his Premier livre de pieces de clavecin, in 1706. In
1717 he made an attempt to obtain the appointment of organist
at the church of St Paul. Deeply annoyed at his unexpected
failure, he retired for a time to Lille, whence, however, he soon
removed to Clermont-Ferrand. Here he succeeded his brother
Claude as organist at the cathedral.
Burning with desire to remedy the imperfections of his early
education, Rameau diligently studied the writings of Zarlino,
Descartes, Mersenne, F. Kircher and other theorists. He not
only mastered their views but succeeded in demonstrating their
weak points and substituting for them a system of his own.
His keen insight into the constitution of certain chords, which
in early life he had studied only by ear, enabled him to propound
a series of hypotheses, many of which are now accepted as
established facts. While the older contrapuntists were per-
fectly satisfied with the laws which regulated the melodious
involutions of their vocal and instrumental parts, Rameau
demonstrated the possibility of building up a natural harmony
upon a fundamental bass, and of using that harmony as an
authority for the enactment of whatever laws might be con-
sidered necessary for the guidance either of the contrapuntist
or the less ambitious general composer. And in this he first
explained the distinction between two styles, which have been
called the " horizontal and vertical systems," the " horizontal
system " being that by which the older contrapuntists regulated
the onward motion of their several parts, and the " vertical
system " that which constructs an entire passage out of a single
harmony. From fundamental harmonies he passed to inverted
chords, to which he" was the first to call attention; and the value
of this discovery fully compensates for his erroneous theory
concerning the chords of the eleventh and the great (Angl.
" added ") sixth (see HARMONY).
Rameau first set forth his new theory in his Traite de I' harmonic
(Paris, 1722), and followed it up in his Nouveau systeme (1726),
Generation harmonique (1737), Demonstration (1750) and Nou-
velles reflexions (1752). But it was not only as a theorist that
he became famous. Returning to Paris in 1722 he first attracted
attention by composing some light dramatic pieces, and then
showed his real powers in his opera, Hippolyte et Aricie, founded
on Racine's Phedre and produced at the Academic in 1733.
Though this work was violently opposed by the admirers of
Lulli, whose party spirit eventually stirred up the famous
" guerre des bouffons," Rameau's genius was too brilliant to be
trampled under foot by an ephemeral faction and his ultimate
triumph was assured. He afterwards produced more than
twenty operas, the most successful of which were Dardanus,
Castor et Pollux, Les Indes galantes and La princesse de Navarre.
Honours were showered upon him. He was appointed con-
ductor at the Opera Comique, and the directors of the opera
granted him a pension. King Louis XV. appointed him com-
poser to the court in 1745, and in 1764 honoured him with a
patent of nobility and the order of St Michael. But these last
privileges were granted only on the eve of his death at Paris on
the 1 2th of September 1764.
See biographies in Charles Poisset (1864), Nisard (1867), Pougin
(1876).
RAMESES, or RAMESSES (Gen. xlvii. n; Exod. xii. 37;
Num. xxxiii. 3), or, with a slight change in the vowel points,
RAAMSES (Exod. i. n), the name of a district and town in Lower
Egypt, is notable as affording the mainstay of the current
theory that King Rameses II. was the pharaoh of the oppression
and his successor Minephthas the pharaoh of the exodus. The
actual facts, however, hardly justify so large an inference. The
RAMESWARAM RAMIE
first three passages cited above are all by the priestly <post-exile)
author and go together. Jacob is settled by his son Joseph in
the land of Rameses and from the same Rameses the exodus
naturally takes place. The older narrative speaks not of the
land of Rameses but of the land of Goshen; it seems probable,
therefore, that the later author interprets an obsolete term by
one current in his own day, just as the Septuagint in Gen. xlvi. 28
names instead of Goshen Heroopolis and the land of Rameses.
Heroopolis lay on the canal connecting the Nile and the Red Sea,
and not far from the head of the latter, so that the land of
Rameses must be sought in Wadi Tumilat near the line of the
modern fresh- water canal. In Exod. i. n, again, the store-
cities or arsenals which the Hebrews built for Pharaoh are
specified as Pithom and Raamses, to which the Septuagint adds
Heliopolis. Pithom also takes us to the Wadi TOmilat. But
did the Israelites maintain a continuous recollection of the
names of the cities on which they were forced to build, or were
these names rather added by a writer who knew what fortified
places were in his own time to be seen in Wadi Tumilat ? The
latter is far the more likely case, when we consider that the old
form of the story of the Hebrews in Egypt is throughout de-
ficient in precise geographical data, as might be expected in a
history not committed to writing till the Israelites had resided
for centuries in another and distant land. The post-exile or
priestly author indeed gives a detailed route for the exodus
(which is lacking in the older story), but he, we know, was a
student of geography and might supplement tradition by what
he could gather from traders as to the caravan routes. l And at
all events to argue that, because the Hebrews worked at a city
named after Rameses, they did so in the reign of the founder, is
false reasoning, for the Hebrew expression might equally be
used of repairs or new works of any kind.
It appears, however, from remains and inscriptions that
Rameses II. did build in Wadi Tumilat, especially at Tell
Maskhuta, which Lepsius therefore identified with the Raamses
of Exodus. This identification is commemorated in the name
of the adjacent railway station. But Naville's excavations
found that the ruins were those of Pithom and that Pithom was
identical with the later Heroopolis. Petrie found sculptures of
the age of Rameses II. at Tel Rotab, in the Wadi Tumilat west
of Pithom, and concludes that this was Rameses. The Biblical
city is probably one of those named Prameses, " House of
Ramesses," in the Egyptian texts.
See PITHOM ; and W. M. F. Petrie, Hyksos and Israelite Cities,
p. 28etsqq. (W. R. S., F. LL. G.)
RAMESWARAM, a town of British India, in the Madura
district of Madras, on the island of Pambam in Palk Straits. It
contains one of the most venerable Hindu shrines, founded,
according to tradition, by Rama himself, which for centuries has
been the resort of thousands of pilgrims from all parts of India.
The great temple, with its pillared corridors 700 ft. long, is
perhaps the finest example of Dravidian architecture.
RAMIE (RHEA, CHINA-GRASS), the product of one or more
species of the genus Boehmeria, a member of the order Urticaceae
and nearly allied to the stinging nettle genus (Urtica), from
which, however, it differs in absence of stinging hairs. Some
confusion has arisen in the use of the various terms China-
grass, Ramie and Rhea. Two plants are concerned. One,
Boehmeria nivea, China-grass, has been cultivated by the
Chinese from very early times under the name Tschou-ma. The
other, probably a variety of the same species (Boehmeria nivea,
var. tenacissima) , though sometimes regarded as a distinct
species (B. tenacissima), is the Ramie (Malay zdmf) of the Malay
Islands and the Rhea of Assam.
. Boehmeria nivea is a shrubby plant with the growth of the
common nettle but without stinging hairs, sending up each
season a number of straight shoots from a perennial under-
ground rootstock. The long-stalked leaves recall those of the
nettle in their shape and serrated margin, but their backs are
1 From the position of the words it is even not unlikely that
" Pithom and Raamses " may be the addition of a redactor, and that
the first author of Exod. i. 1 1 only spoke generally of store-cities.
clothed with a downy substance and have a silvery appearance.
The minute greenish flowers are closely arranged along a slender
axis. This variety has been cultivated by the Chinese for many
years, and the fibre, which is obtained from it by a tedious
hand-process, has been used more or less as a substitute for silk.
The variety lenacissima differs in its more robust habit and
larger leaves, which are pale green on the face and a very much
paler green on the bark. They are not downy, however, and
this affords a ready means of distinction from true China-grass.
Boehmeria nivea is sometimes found wild in India, Malaya,
China and Japan, and is probably a. native of further India and
Malaya. China-grass and ramie are widely cultivated not only
in China, Formosa, Japan, India and Malaya, but also in
Queensland, Mauritius, the Cameroons, the West Indies, Brazil,
Mexico and the southern states of North America, and also
in south Europe.
The plant, which attains a height of from 3 to 8 it.,
is grown from seed, cuttings or layers, or by division of the
roots. It is easy to cultivate, and thrives in almost any soil,
but especially in a naturally rich, moist, light, loamy soil.
For the best growth a good and equally distributed rainfall is
necessary. Sudden changes of weather result in irregularities
in growth, and these have a tendency to produce plants the
fibres of which vary in strength. Liberal manuring is necessary,
as the plant withdraws a large quantity of valuable constituents
from the soil. The plants should be cut when the flower is
beginning to fall and the seed to form.
It is stated that two to four crops per season may be obtained
on suitable ground, each crop yielding about 4 tons of stems
per acre. With only two crops per year, and a 4% yield of fibre,
the resulting product would nearly reach one-third of a ton per
acre. When proper attention is given to the choice of ground,
and to planting, there is not much difficulty in the way of
raising a good crop; the trouble arises in the extraction of the
fibre.
The stems when ripe are cut down, and after the leaves and
small branches have been removed, the outer cover and the
layers of fibre are stripped off in the form of ribbons. These
ribbons contain the bark, the fibre and a quantity of very
adhesive gum. The Chinese remove this bark and as much of
the gum as possible before the plant has dried. This hand-
process is naturally a slow and tedious one, and many decorti-
cators have been invented to supplant it. The action of all
these decorticators is very similar. The ramie stalks are fed
into the machine, and during their passage are beaten by 12 to
20 rapidly revolving blades. These break the stalks into small
pieces, and leave the bark and fibre in long ribbons. At the
same time, part of the gum is squeezed out between the beaters
and the anvil. Up to the present, however, these machines have
not been very successful. They usually bruise or otherwise
injure the fibre, and they do not squeeze out the gum thoroughly.
If the gum be allowed to dry on the ribbons it is difficult to
remove it, and the chemicals employed in the degumming, if not
thoroughly removed by washing, often injure the fibre to such
an extent that the ultimate fabric or article is soon decomposed.
If, however, the ribbons be degummed immediately, or soon
after the plants are cut down, the gum will be much more easily
extracted indeed it might be possible to remove it then by
boiling water or steam. The fibre cannot be expected to
make much headway until the operations of decorticating and
degumming are successfully carried out on or near the growing
grounds; and, until a proficient decorticator is made, the fibre
should be stripped by hand and the degumming operation begun
immediately. By this method the least possible damage would
result to the fibre, no waste material would be shipped, and a
clean fibre would be placed on the market.
The fibre possesses some very valuable properties; it is not
only much stronger than any other known fibre, but almost
equals silk in its brilliance. This latter property, however, is
now challenged by mercerized cotton. It successfully resists
atmospheric changes, is easily dyed and is affected but little by
moisture. On the other hand, articles manufactured from it are
8 7 6
RAMILLIES RAMMELSBERG
said to crack and break easily when sharply bent, and on account
of their hairy character have not the same smart appearance
as those made from flax. Although the fibre is in some cases
12 in. long, it varies considerably in length. This is one of the
drawbacks in the preparing and spinning. It is impossible to
make perfect yarns from fibres of various lengths; hence it is
necessary either to separate the fibres into reasonable groups,
or to cut them into satisfactory lengths. The latter method
appears, on the whole, to be the better, and it is the method
adopted by Messrs Greenwood & Batley Limited, Leeds,
who make special machinery for the dressing, preparing and
spinning of ramie and China-grass. If no special machinery be
employed, the length of the fibre will decide the class of machinery
to be used. The fibre has been prepared and spun on flax, wool
and silk-waste machinery, but it must be understood that none
of these systems are really suitable for the process. A fibre
with special characteristics requires special machinery for its
manufacture.
When so many different opinions obtain as to which existing
machinery is best adapted for the preparing and spinning of ramie,
it is not surprising to find that different methods are employed in
the process of manufacture. In general, however, we may say that,
after decortication, the first process is that of degumming. This is
usually done by immersing the fibre in a caustic soda solution, which
is then heated in a closed vessel. The fibre is laid on galvanized
trays, of which as many as forty-four can be fitted in a cage, which is
then placed inside the boiling keir, the lid of which is screwed down
and the necessary pressure of steam admitted. After having been
boiled a sufficient time to remove the gum, the material is lifted out,
the alkali neutralized, and the fibre thoroughly washed to remove
all traces of chemicals. The bulk of the water is removed by a
hydro-extractor, and the fibre is then hung up or laid on perforated
plates to dry.
To facilitate the subsequent processes, the fibre is softened by
passing it through a machine fitted with fluted rollers. Then follow
the operations of dressing, roving, wet spinning and doubling, and
finally the twisted thread is passed rapidly through a gas flame in
order to remove all superfluous hairs.
In spite of the many disappointments which have been experienced
in connexion with the treatment of this fibre, we are of the opinion
that it will ultimately hold a good place amongst commercial fibres.
It is at present spun in several European countries, but its use is
still very limited. This is due, not to any imperfection of the fibre,
but to its price and to the limited supply of raw material. It is at
present chiefly used for gas mantles, for which it is particularly well
adapted. It has also been used for paper-making, ropes, lines, nets,
underwear, and for canvas and several other fabrics. If only a good
supply of clean fibre could be obtained, there is not the least doubt
that manufacturers and machine-makers would quickly provide
means for dealing with it. ( T . Wo.)
RAMILLIES, a village of Belgium, in the province of Brabant,
13 miles N. by E. of Namur, between the sources of the Little
Gheete and of the Mehaigne. It is famous for the victory of the
Allies under the duke of Marlborough over the French com-
manded by Marshal Villeroy on the I2th/23rd of May 1706.
The position of the French on the high ground about Ramillies
was marked by the villages of Autreglise (Anderkirch) on the
left, Offuz on the left centre, Ramillies on the right centre and
Taviers on the right close to the river Mehaigne. In front of the
last was a smaller village, Franquenay, which was held as an
advanced post. Between these points d'appui the ground was
mostly open upland, and the position as a whole was defective
in so far that the villages were barely within cannon-shot of each
other. It was particularly strong on the flanks, which were
protected by the marshy beds of the Mehaigne and the Little
Gheete. Ramillies stands almost on the watershed of these
adjacent valleys, and here Marlborough decided to deliver his
main attack. The forces were about equal, and were at first
equally distributed along the whole line of either party. Marl-
borough's local concentration of force at the spot where the
attack was to be pressed home was made not before, but after
the action had opened (cf. NEERWINDEN). Villeroy 's left wing
of cavalry and infantry was secure and at the same time im-
mobilized behind the upper course of the Little Gheete, and
the French commander allowed himself to be imposed upon by
a demonstration in this quarter, convinced perhaps by the
presence of the British contingent that a serious attack was
intended. The morning was spent in arraying the lines of
battle, and it was about 1.30 when the cannonade opened.
Soon the first lines of infantry of the Allied centre and left
(Dutch) opened the attacks on Franquenay and Taviers and on
Ramillies, and, when after a severe struggle Taviers fell into the
hands of the Dutch, their commander, Marshal Overkirk, led
forward the whole of the left wing cavalry and fiercely engaged
the French cavalry opposed to it. The ground was open, both
parties had placed the greater part of their horse on this side,
and it was only after a severe and prolonged engagement (in
which Marlborough himself took part like a trooper and was
unhorsed) that the Allies were definitely victorious, thanks to
the arrival of a force of cavalry brought over from the Allied
right wing. Meanwhile the principal attack on Ramillies had
been successfully pressed home, the necessary concentration
of force being secured by secretly and skilfully withdrawing some
British battalions from the right wing. While Villeroy was
trying to bring up supports from the 'left to take part in the
cavalry battle, the French in Ramillies were driven out into the
open, where the Allied cavalry, having now gained the upper
hand, rode down many battalions. Most of the French cavalry
from the other wing, having to force its way through the baggage
trains of the army (these had been placed too near the fighting
lines), arrived too late, and once Ramillies had fallen the whole
line of the Allies gradually took up the offensive. It was not
long before the French line was rolled up from right to left, and
the retreat of the French was only effected in considerable
confusion. Then followed for once a relentless pursuit, carried
on by the British cavalry (which had scarcely been engaged)
to Louvain, 20 m. from the field of battle. Marlborough's
unequalled tactical skill and judgment thus sufficed not merely
to win the battle, but to win it with so large a margin of force
unexpended that the fruits of his victory could be gathered.
The French army lost, in killed, wounded and missing, some
15,000 men, the Allies (amongst whom the Dutch had borne
the brunt of the fighting) scarcely one-third as many.
RAMLER, KARL WILHELM (1725-1798), German poet, was
born at Kolberg on the 25th of February 1725. After com-
pleting his studies in Halle, he went to Berlin, where, in 1748,
he was appointed professor of logic and literature at the cadet
school. In 1 786 he became associated with the author, Johann
Jakob Engel, in the management of the royal theatre, of which,
after resigning his professorship, he became (1790-96) sole
director. He died at Berlin on the nth of April 1798. Ramler
was a skilful but cold and uninspired versifier; and the reputa-
tion he enjoys as poet and critic is mainly due to his skill in
imitating and reproducing in German, classical (mostly Horatian)
metrical forms; and he had a reputation, not unfounded, of
correcting his friends' writings out of recognition. His Tod
Jesu, a cantata, is well known owing to its musical setting by
Karl Heinrich Graun.
Ramler published Geistliche Cantaten (1760) and Oden (1767). A
collection of his works was published by L. F. G. von Gockingk
(2 vols., 18001801). See also Heinsius, Versuch einer biographischen
Skizze Ramlers (1798); and K. Schiiddekopf, Karl Wilhelm Ramler,
bis zu seiner Verbindung mit Lessing (1886).
RAMMELSBERG, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1813-
1899), German mineralogist, was born at Berlin on the ist of
April 1813. He was educated for the medical profession and
graduated in 1837 at Berlin University. In 1841 he became
privatdozent in the university, and in 1845 professor extra-
ordinary of chemistry. This post he relinquished in 1851 to
take the chair of chemistry and mineralogy at the Royal In-
dustrial Institute. In 1874 he was appointed professor of
inorganic chemistry, and director of the second chemical labora-
tory at Berlin. Distinguished for his researches on mineralogy,
crystallography and analytical chemistry, he laboured also
at metallurgy, and yet found time for a series of important
textbooks, in which his learning and sound judgment were
combined with a lucid and accurate statement of facts. He
was author of Handworterbuch des chemischen Teils der Miner-
alogie (2 vols., 1841; supp. 1843-53); Lehrbuch der chemischen
RAM MOHAN ROY RAMPUR
877
Metallurgic (1850); Handbuch der Krystdlographischen Chemie
(1855); Handbuch der Minerakhemie (1860); Handbuch der
Krystallographisch-physikalischen Chemie (2 vols., 1881-82),
some of the earlier works being incorporated in later and more
comprehensive volumes with different titles. He died at Gross
Lichterfelde, near Berlin, on the 28th of December 1899.
RAM MOHAN ROY (1774-1833), Indian religious reformer,
and founder of the Brahma Samaj (q.v.) or Theistic Church,
was born at Radhanagar, in the district of Hugli, Bengal, in
May 1774. He was the son of a small landowner, and in his
early life acquired a knowledge of Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit,
besides his own vernacular, Bengali. At the age of sixteen he
first assailed idolatry in his Bengali work, entitled The Idolatrous
Religious System of the Hindus. This gave offence to his ortho-
dox father, and Ram Mohan left home and spent some years
in travel. At the age of twenty-two he began his study of the
English language, and he also acquired a knowledge of other
modern and ancient European languages. On the death of his
father he obtained an appointment under the British govern-
ment in 1800, from which he retired in 1814, settled down in
Calcutta, and devoted himself to religious reform. He had
already inaugurated a circle for discussing the absurdities of
idol worship, and published a striking book in Persian called
Tuhfat-al-Muwahhiddin (" A Gift to Monotheists "). On his
settlement in Calcutta he established a little friendly society
(Almiya Sabha), which met weekly to read the Hindu scriptures
and to chant monotheistic hymns. In 1820 he issued a selection
from the Christian Gospels entitled The Precepts of Jesus the
Guide to Peace and Happiness. He also wrote Bengali works
on the Vedanta philosophy, translated some of the Upanishads,
entered into controversies with Christian missionaries, and on
the 23rd of January 1830 definitely established the Brahma
Samaj " for the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Un-
searchable, Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver
of the Universe." He gave his support to the governor-general,
Lord William Bentinck, for the abolition of the suttee rite, i.e.
the custom of permitting Hindu widows to burn themselves on
the funeral pyre of their husbands. He also worked hard to
spread education among his fellow-countrymen, and to improve
the quality and the prestige of the native press. In 1830 the
emperor of Delhi bestowed on Ram Mohan the title of raja, and
sent him to England as his agent. Raja Ram Mohan Roy gave
his evidence before the Select Committee of the House of
Commons on the judicial and revenue systems of India. He
presented petitions to the House of Commons in support of the
abolition of the suttee rite, and had the satisfaction of being
present in the House when the appeal against such abolition
was rejected on the i ith of July 1832. As the first educated and
eminent Indian who had come to England, he received a cordial
welcome from learned men; and Bentham addressed him as an
" intensely admired and dearly beloved collaborator in the
service of mankind." Ram Mohan also visited France and
contemplated a voyage to America, but a sudden attack of
brain fever led to his death on the 27th of September 1833. He
was buried at Bristol, where a tomb was erected by his friend
Dwarka Nath Tagore.
RAMNAD, a town of British India, in the Madura district
of Madras, at the base of the spit of land that projects towards
the island of Pamban in Palk strait. Pop. (1901) 14,546.
It is the residence of a raja of old family, head of the Maravar
caste, whose title is setupathi, or lord of Adam's Bridge. The
estate covers an area of 2104 sq. m., and pays a permanent
land revenue of 25,000. It is a desolate and generally unfertile
tract, traversed by the South Indian railway.
RAMNICU SARAT (Rtmnicu Sarat), the capital of the
department of Ramnicu Sarat, Rumania; on the railway from
Buzeu to Focshani, and on the left bank of the Ramnicu, a
tributary of the Sereth. Pop. (1000) 13,134, about 1500
being Jews. The town rises from a marshy plain, east of the
Carpathians, and west of the cornlands of southern Moldavia.
Salt and petroleum are worked in the mountains, and there
is a considerable trade in agricultural produce and preserved
meat. Ramnicu Sarat was the scene of battles between the
Moldavians and the Walachians in 1434 and 1573, and between
the Walachians and Turks in 1634. Here also, in 1789, an
Austro-Russian army defeated the Turks. In 1854 the town was
almost destroyed by fire and was rebuilt.
RAMNICUVALCEA(/?Jmn/cw Vdlcea), or Rymnik, an episco-
pal city and the capital of the department of VSIcea, Rumania;
situated at the foot of the Carpathians, on the right bank of
the river Olt, and on the railway from Caracal to Hermann-
stadt in Transylvania. Pop. (1900) 7317. Three monasteries
in the Valcea department, those of Bistritza, Cozia and
Horezu, are among the finest in Walachia. Besides wine,
fruit, grain and timber, the surrounding uplands yield
petroleum and salt. Within a few miles are the thermal
springs of Olanestzi and the salt mines of Ocnele Mari. The
city is said to be the ancient Castra Traiana, and many traces
of old encampments bear evidence of this.
RAMPOLLA, COUNT MARIANO DEL TINDARO (1843- ),
Italian cardinal, was born on the I7th of August 1843, at
Polizzi, in the Sicilian diocese of Cefalu. Having completed
his studies in the Capranica College at Rome, and having
taken holy orders, he studied diplomacy at the College of
Ecclesiastical Nobles, and in 1875 was appointed councillor
to the papal nunciature at Madrid. Two years later he was
recalled to Rome and appointed secretary of the Propaganda
for Eastern Affairs, and for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical
Affairs. Consecrated titular archbishop of Heraclea in 1885,
he returned to Madrid as nuncio, but was shortly afterwards
created cardinal and appointed to the papal secretaryship of
state. New to the Sacred College and free from traditional
preconceptions, he was admirably fitted to carry out the papal
policy under Leo XIII. (see PAPACY). Rightly or wrongly, he
was held personally responsible for the rapprochement with
France and Russia and the opposition to the Powers of the
Triple Alliance; and this attitude had its effect on his career
when Leo XIII. died. Rampolla was undoubtedly the
favourite among the papabili cardinals; but the veto of Austria
was interposed (see CONCLAVE), and the votes of the Sacred
College fell to Cardinal Sarto, who on the 4th of August 1903
became pope as Pius X. Cardinal Rampolla at once resigned
his office as secretary of state, being succeeded by Cardinal
Merry del Val, and ceased to play any conspicuous part in
the Curia.
RAMPUR, a native state of India, in subordination to the
United Provinces. It lies in Rohilkhand, between the British
districts of Moradabad and Pilibhit. Area, 893 sq. m. The
country is level and generally fertile; being watered in the
north by the rivers Kosila and Nahul, and in the south by the
Ramganga. The chief crops are maize, rice and sugar cane.
Pop. (1901) 533,212, showing a decrease of 3-3% in the decade.
Estimated revenue, 234,000; military force, 2556 men, including
two squadrons of Imperial Service lancers. The chief, whose
title is nawab, is a Rohilla Pathan, representing the family
which established their power over this part of the country
in the i8th century. When the Rohillas were subjugated by
the nawab of Oudh, with the assistance of a force lent by
Warren Hastings, one of their number, Faiz-ullah Khan, from
whom the present nawab traces his descent, was permitted
to retain possession of Rampur. During the Mutiny of 1857
the nawab of Rampur rendered important services to the
British, for which he received a grant of land 'assessed at 0000
in perpetuity, besides other honours. The state is crossed
by the main line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway from
Bareilly to Moradabad. The town of Rampur is on the left
bank of the river Kosila, 620 ft. above the sea, with a railway
station 39 m. N.W. of Bareillji Pop. (1001) 78,758. There
are manufactures of damask, pottery, sword-blades and sugar.
It is partially, and was once completely, surrounded by a broad
bamboo hedge, which formed a strong defence. In addition
to a modern fort and several fine buildings, it contains an
Arabic college, which attracts students from all parts of India.
There are two other towns in India called Rampur, one
8 7 8
RAMPUR BOALIA RAMSAY, ALLAN
of which, the capital of the state of Bashahr in the Punjab,
has given its name to the fine woollen shawls, widely known as
Rampur chadars.
RAMPUR BOALIA, or BETJLEAH, a town of British India,
the administrative headquarters of Rajshahi district in Eastern
Bengal and Assam; on the left bank of the Ganges. Pop.
(1901) 21,589. It was originally chosen as a commercial
factory for the silk trade, which is again being officially
encouraged by the agricultural department. The town
contains a government college, and an industrial school for
sericulture. Most of the public buildings were severely damaged
by the earthquake of the I2th of June 1897. There is a daily
steamer service on the Ganges.
RAMSAY, ALLAN (1686-1758), Scottish poet, was born at
Leadhills, Lanarkshire, on the isth of October 1686. He was
educated at the parish school of Crawford, and in 1701 was
apprenticed to a wig-maker in Edinburgh. He married
Christian Ross in 1712; a few years after he had established
himself as a wig-maker (not as a barber, as has been often
said) in the High Street, and soon found himself in comfortable
circumstances. His first efforts in verse-making were inspired
by the meetings of the Easy Club (founded in 1712), of which
he was an original member; and in 1715 he became the Club
Laureate. In the society of the members he assumed the
name of " Isaac Bickerstaff," and later of " Gawin Douglas,"
the latter partly in memory of his maternal grandfather Douglas
of Muthill (Perthshire), and partly to give point to his boast
that he was a " poet sprung from a Douglas loin." The choice
of the two names has some significance, when we consider his
later literary life as the associate of the Queen Anne poets and
as a collector of old Scots poetry. By 1718 he had made some
reputation as a writer of occasional verse, which he published
in broadsheets, and then (or a year earlier) he turned book-
seller in the premises where he had hitherto plied his craft of
wig-making. In 1716 he had published a rough transcript of
Christ's Kirk on the Green from the Bannatyne MS., with some
additions of his own. In 1718 he republished the piece with
more supplementary verses. In the following year he printed
a collection of Scots Songs. The success of these ventures
prompted him to collect his poems in 1722. The volume was
issued by subscription, and brought in the sum of four hundred
guineas. Four years later he removed to another shop, in the
neighbouring Luckenbooths, where he opened a circulating
library (the first in Scotland) and extended his business as a
bookseller. Between the publication of the collected edition
of his poems and his settling down in the Luckenbooths, he had
published a few shorter poems and had issued the first instal-
ments of The Tea-Table Miscellany and The Ever Green (both
1724-1727). The Tea-Table Miscellany is " A Collection of
Choice Songs Scots and English," containing some of Ramsay's
own, some by his friends, several well-known ballads and songs,
and some Caroline verse. Its title was suggested by the pro-
gramme of the Spectator : and the compiler claimed the place
for his songs " e'en while the tea's fill'd reeking round," which
Addison sought for his speculations at the hour set apart " for
tea and bread and butter." In The Eoer Green, being a Cot-
lection of Scots Poems wrote by the Ingenious before 1600,
Ramsay had another purpose, to reawaken an interest in the
older national literature. Nearly all the pieces were taken
from the Bannatyne MS., though they are by no means ver-
batim copies. They included his version of Christ's Kirk (u.s.)
and a remarkable pastiche by the editor entitled the Vision.
While engaged on these two series, he produced, in 1725, his
dramatic pastoral The Gentle Shepherd. In the volume of
poems published in 1722 Ramsay had shown his bent to this
genre, especially in " Patie "and Roger," which supplies two
of the dramatis personae to his greater work. The success of
the drama was remarkable. It passed through several edi-
tions, and was performed at the theatre in Edinburgh; its
title is still known in every corner of Scotland, even if it be no
longer read. Ramsay wrote little afterwards, though he pub-
Mshed a few shorter poems, and new editions of his earlier
work. A complete edition of his Poems appeared in Londor>
in 1731 and in Dublin in 1733. With a touch of vanity he
expressed the fear lest " the coolness of fancy that attends
advanced years should make me risk the reputation I had
acquired." He was already on terms of intimacy with the
leading men of letters in Scotland and England. He cor-
responded with Hamilton of Bangour (q.v.), Somerville (q.v.),
Gay (q.v.) and Pope. Gay visited him in Edinburgh, and Pope
praised his pastoral compliments which were undoubtedly
responsible for some of Ramsay's unhappy poetic ventures
beyond his Scots vernacular. The poet had for many years
been a warm supporter of the stage. Some of his prologues
and epilogues were written for the London theatres. In 1736
he set about the erection of a new theatre, " at vast expense,"
in Carrubber's Close, Edinburgh; but the opposition was too
strong, and the new house was closed in 1737. In 1755 he
retired from his shop to the house on the slope of the Castle
Rock, still known as Ramsay Lodge. In this house, called by
his friends " the goose-pie," because of its octagonal shape, the
poet died on the 7th of January 1758.
Ramsay's importance in literary history is twofold. As a
pastoral writer (" in some respects the best in the world,"
according to Leigh Hunt) he contributed, at an early stage,
to the naturalistic reaction of the i8th century. His Gentle
Shepherd, by its directness of impression and its appreciation of
country life, anticipates the attitude of the school which broke
with neo-classical tradition. It has the " mixed " faults which
make the greater poem of his Scots successor, Thomson, a
" transitional " document, but these give it an historical, if
not an individual, interest. His chief place is, however, as
an editor. He is the connecting-link between the greater
" Makars " of the I5th and i6th centuries, and Fergusson
(q.v.) and Burns. He revived the interest in vernacular litera-
ture, and directly inspired the genius of his greater successors.
The preface to his Ever Green is a protest against " imported
trimming " and " foreign embroidery in our writings," and a
plea for a return to simple Scottish tradition. He had na
scholarly interest in the past, and he never hesitated to trans-
form the texts when he could give contemporary " point " to>
a poem; but his instinct was good, and he did much to stimulate
an ignorant public to fresh enjoyment. In this respect, too,
he anticipates the reaction in England which followed securely
on the publication of Percy's Reliques.
The Tea-Table Miscellany was reprinted in 1871 (2 vols., Glasgow;
John Crum); The Ever Green in 1875 (2 vols., Glasgow; Robert
Forrester); The Poems of Allan Ramsay in 1877 (2 yols., Paisley;
Alex. Gardner). These volumes are uniform in size' and binding,
though issued by different publishers, u.s. A selection of the Poems
appeared in 1887 (i vol. i6mo, London; Walter Scott). There are
many popular reprints of The Gentle Shepherd. (G. G. S.)
RAMSAY, ALLAN (1713-1784), Scotch portrait-painter, the
eldest son of the author of The Gentle Shepherd, was born at
Edinburgh in 1713. Ramsay manifested an aptitude for art
from an early period, and at the age of twenty we find him
in London studying under the Swedish painter Hans Huyssing,
and at the St Martin's Lane Academy; and in 1736 he left
for Rome, where he worked for three years under Solimena
and Imperiali (Fernandi). On his return he settled in Edin-
burgh; and, having attracted attention by his head of Forbes
of Culloden and his full-length of the duke of Argyll, he
removed to London, where he was patronized by the duke
of Bridgewater. His pleasant manners and varied culture,
not less than his artistic skill, contributed to render him popular.
In 1767 he was appointed to succeed Shakelton as principal
painter to the king; arid so fully employed was he on the
royal portraits which the king was in the habit of presenting
to ambassadors and colonial governors, that he was forced to
take advantage of the services of a host of assistants of whom
David Martin and Philip Reinagle are the best known. His
life !n London was varied by frequent visits to Italy, where
he occupied himself more in literary and antiquarian research
than with art. But this prosperous career came to an end,
his health being shattered by an accidental dislocation of the
RAMSAY, SIR A. C. RAMSAY, R.
879
right arm. With unflinching pertinacity he struggled till he
had completed a likeness of the king upon which he was
engaged at the time, and then started for his beloved Italy,
leaving behind him a series of fifty royal portraits to be com-
pleted by his assistant Rcinagle. For several years he lingered
in the south, his constitution finally broken. He died at
Dover on the loth of August 1784.
Among his most satisfactory productions are some of his
earlier ones, such as the full-length of the duke of Argyll, and
the numerous bust-portraits of Scottish gentlemen and their
ladies which he executed before settling in London. They are
full of both grace and individuality; the features show excellent
draughtsmanship; and the flesh-painting is firm and sound in
method, though frequently tending a little to hardness and
opacity. His full-length of Lady Mary Coke is remarkable
for the skill and delicacy with which the white satin drapery
is managed; while in the portrait of his brown-eyed wife,
the eldest daughter of Sir Alexander Lindsay of Evelick, in
the Scottish National Gallery, we have a sweetness and tender-
ness which shows the painter at his highest. This last-named
work shows the influence of French art, an influence which
helped greatly to form the practice of Ramsay, and which
is even more clearly visible in the large collection of his
sketches in the possession of the Royal Scottish Academy
and the Board of Trustees, Edinburgh.
RAMSAY, SIR ANDREW CROHBIE (1814-1891), British
geologist, was born at Glasgow on the 3ist of January 1814,
being the son of William Ramsay, manufacturing chemist.
He was for a time actually engaged in business, but from spend-
ing his holidays in Arran he became interested in the study of
the rocks of that island, and was thus led to acquire the rudi-
ments of geology. A geological model of Arran, made by him
on the scale of two inches to the mile, was exhibited at the
meeting of the British Association at Glasgow in 1840, and
attracted the notice of Sir R. I. Murchison, with the result that
he received from De la Beche an appointment on the Geological
Survey, on which he served for forty years, from 1841 to 1881.
He was first stationed at Tenby, and to that circumstance may
be attributed the fact that so much of his geological work dealt
with Wales. His first book, The Geology of the Isle of Arran,
was published in 1841. In 1845 he became local director for
Great Britain, but he continued to carry on a certain amount
of field-work until 1854. To the first volume of the Memoirs of
the Geological Survey (1846) he contributed a now classic essay,
" On the Denudation of South Wales and the Adjacent Counties
of England,'.' in which he advocated the power of the sea to form
great plains of denudation, although at the time he under-
estimated the influence of subaerial agents in sculpturing the
scenery. In 1866 he published The Geology of North Wales.
(vol. iii. of the Memoirs), of which a second edition was pub-
lished in 1881. He was chosen professor of geology at Uni-
versity College, London, in 1848, and afterwards lecturer in the
same subject at the School of Mines in 1851. EleVen years
later he was elected to the presidential chair of the Geological
Society, and in 1872 he succeeded Murchison as director-
general of the Geological Survey. In 1880 he acted as president
of the British Association at Swansea, and in the following year
retired from the public service, receiving at the same time the
honour of knighthood. In 1860 he published a little book
entitled The Old Glaciers of Switzerland and North Wales. The
study of this subject led him to discuss the Glacial Origin of
Certain Lakes in Switzerland, the Black Forest, &c. He dealt
also with the origin of The Red Rocks of England (1871) and
The River Courses of England and Wales (1872). He was
especially interested in tracing out the causes which have
determined the physical configuration of a district, and he
devoted much attention to the effects produced by ice, his
name being identified with the hypothesis, which, however, has
never commanded general assent, that in some cases lake basins
have been scooped out by glaciers. A master in the broader
questions of stratigraphy and physical geology, he was a clear
exponent of facts, but rather impatient of details, while his
original and often bold theories, expressed both in lectures and
in writings, stirred others with enthusiasm and undoubtedly
exercised great influence on the progress of geology. His
lectures to working men, given in 1863 in the Museum of
Practical Geology, formed the nucleus of his famous Physical
Geology and Geography of Great Britain (5th ed., 1878; 6th ed.,
by H. B. Woodward, 1894). He received a Royal medal in
1880 from the Royal Society, of which he became a fellow in
1862; he was also the recipient of the Neill prize of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh in 1866, and of the Wollaston medal of
the Geological Society of London in 1871. He died at Beau-
maris on the 9th of December 1891.
See Memoir, by Sir A. Geikie, 1895.
RAMSAY, ANDREW MICHAEL (1686-1743), French writer,
of Scottish birth, commonly called the" Chevalier Ramsay," was
born at Ayr on the 9th of January 1686. Ramsay served with
the English auxiliaries in the Netherlands, and in 1710 visited
Fenelon, who converted him to Roman Catholicism. He re-
mained in France until 1724, when he was sent to Rome as tutor
to the Stuart princes, Charles Edward and Henry, the future
cardinal of York. He was driven by intrigue from this post,
and returned to Paris. He was in England in 1 730, and received
an honorary degree from the university of Oxford. The claim
was nominally his discipleship to Fenelon, but in reality beyond
doubt his connexion with the Jacobite party. He died at
St Germain-en-Laye (Seine-et-Oise) on the 6th of May 1743.
Ramsay's principal work was Les voyages de Cyrus (London,
1728; Paris, 1727), a book composed in avowed imitation of
Telemaque. He also edited Teltmaque itself (Paris, 2 vols., 1717)
with an introduction, and wrote a Histoire delaine el des ouvrages
de Fenelon (The Hague, 1723), besides a partial biography
(Paris, 1735) of Turenne, some poems (Edinburgh, 1728) in
English, and other miscellaneous works.
RAMSAY, DAVID (1749-1815), American physician and
historian, the son of an Irish emigrant, was born in Lancaster
county, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of April 1 749. He graduated
at Princeton in 1765, and M.B. at the University of Penn-
sylvania in 1773, and then settled as a physician at Charleston,
South Carolina, where he had a large practice. During the
War of Independence he served as a field-surgeon (1780-1781),
and from 1776 to 1783 he was a member of the South Carolina
legislature. Having acted as one of the " council of safety "
at Charleston, he was, on the capture of that city in 1780,
seized by the British as a hostage, and for nearly a year was
kept in confinement at St Augustine. From 1782 to 1786 he
served in the Continental Congress, and from 1801 to 1815 in
the state Senate, of which he was long president. In 1785 he
published in two volumes History of the Revolution of South
Carolina, in 1789 in two volumes History of the American Revolu-
tion, in 1807 a Life of Washington, and in 1809 in two volumes
a History of South Carolina. He was also the author of several
minor works. He died at Charleston on the 8th of May 1815
from a wound inflicted by a lunatic. His History of the United
States in 3 vols. was published posthumously in 1816-1817,
and forms the first three volumes of his Universal History
Americanised, published in 12 vols. in 1819.
RAMSAY, ROBERT (1842-1882), Australian statesman, was a
native of Hawick, Roxburghshire, but his parents emigrated to
Victoria when he was a child of four, and he was educated at the
Scottish college in Melbourne. He studied law at Melbourne
University, and subsequently became a member of a well-known
firm of solicitors in the city. He married in 1868 Isabella
Catherine Urquhart, and in 1870 entered the assembly for East
Bourke in the Conservative and free trade interest. He was a
member of the government of James Goodall Francis in 1872-
74. He was subsequently postmaster-general (1874-75) in
the administration of George Biscoe Kerferd; he held the same
office in conjunction with the ministry of education (1875-77)
under Sir James M'Culloch; and for a short term in 1880 he
was chief secretary and minister of education in the first
administration of James Service. He died on the 23rd of
May 1882.
88o
RAMSAY, SIR W. RAMSEY
RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM (1852- ), British chemist,
nephew of Sir A. C. Ramsay, was born at Glasgow on the and of
October 1852. From 1866 to 1870 he studied in his native city,
and then went to work under R. Fittig at Tubingen. Returning
to Glasgow in 1872 he became assistant in the Young laboratory
of technical chemistry at Anderson's College, and from 1874
acted as tutorial assistant in chemistry at the university. In
1880 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at University
College, Bristol, becoming principal in the following year, and in
1887 he succeeded A. W. Williamson as professor of chemistry
at University College, London. His earlier work was mainly
concerned with organic chemistry, and he published researches on
picoline and its derivatives in 1876-78 and on quinine and
its decomposition products in 1878-79. Later his attention was
taken up with questions of physical and inorganic chemistry.
With Sydney Young and others he investigated the critical
state and properties of liquids and the relationship between their
vapour pressures and temperature, and with John Shields he
applied measurements of the surface tension of liquids to the
determination of their molecular complexity. In 1894 he was
associated with Lord Rayleigh in the discovery of argon, an-
nounced at that year's meeting of the British Association in
Oxford, and in the following year he found in certain rare
minerals such as cleveite the gas helium which till that time had
only been known on spectroscopic evidence as existing in the
sun. In 1898 his work with Morris William Travers (b. 1872),
who from 1894 had assisted him at University College, London,
and in 1903 was appointed professor of chemistry at University
College, Bristol, enabled him to announce the existence in the
atmosphere of three new gases, neon, krypton and xenon.
Turning to the study of radioactivity, he noticed its association
with the minerals which yield helium, and in support of the
hypothesis that that gas is a disintegration-product of radium
he proved in 1903 that it is continuously formed by the latter
substance in quantities sufficiently great to be directly recogniz-
able in the spectroscope. Among the books written by Sir
William Ramsay, who was created K.C.B. in 1902, are A System
of Chemistry, 1891, The Gases of the Atmosphere, 1896, and
Modern Chemistry, vol. i. Theoretical, vol. ii. Systematic, 1901,
and he edited a series of " Textbooks of Physical Chemistry."
RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL (1851- ), British
archaeologist, was born on the isth of March 1851. He was
educated at the universities of Aberdeen, Oxford and Gottingen,
and was a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford (1882; honorary
fellow 1898), and Lincoln College (1885 ; honorary 1899). In 1885
he was elected professor of classical art at Oxford, and in the next
year professor of humanity at Aberdeen. From 1880 onwards
he travelled widely in Asia Minor and rapidly became the re-
cognized authority on all matters relating to the districts associ-
ated with St Paul's missionary journeys and on Christianity in
the early Roman Empire. He received the honorary degrees of
D.C.L. Oxford, LL.D.St Andrews and Glasgow, D.D. Edinburgh,
and was knighted in 1906. He was elected a member of learned
societies in Europe and America, and has been awarded medals
by the Royal Geographical Society, the Royal Scottish Geo-
graphical Society and the University of Pennsylvania. His
numerous publications include: The Historical Geography of
Asia Minor (1890); The Church in the Roman Empire (1893);
The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia (2 vols., 1895, 1897);
St Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (1895; Germ,
trans., 1898); Impressions of Turkey (1897); Was Christ born
at Bethlehem? (1898); Historical Commentary on Galatians
(1899); The Education of Christ (1902); The Letters to
the Seven Churches of Asia (1905); Pauline and other Studies
in Early Christian History (1906); Studies in the History and
Art of the Eastern Provinces of the Roman Empire (1906);
The Cities of St Paul (1907); Luc an and Pauline Studies
(1908); The Thousand and One Churches (with Miss Gertrude L.
Bell, 1909) ; and articles in learned periodicals and the 9th, loth
and nth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. His wife,
Lady Ramsay, granddaughter of Dr Andrew Marshall of Kirk-
intilloch, accompanied him in many of his journeys and is the
author of Everyday Life in Turkey (1897) and The Romance of
Elisavet (1899).
RAMSBOTTOM, an urban district in the Heywood parlia-
mentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. N. of Bury,
on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 15,920.
It has iron and brass foundries, machine factories and textile
establishments.
RAMSDEN, JESSE (1735-1800), English astronomical
instrument maker, was born at Salterhebble near Halifax,
Yorkshire, on the 6th of October 1735. After serving his
apprenticeship with a cloth-worker in Halifax, he went in
1755 to London, where in 1758 he was apprenticed to a mathe-
matical instrument maker. About four years afterwards he
started business on his own account and secured a great
reputation with his products. He died at Brighton on the
5th of November 1800. Ramsden's speciality was divided
circles, which began to supersede the quadrants in observatories
towards the end of the i8th century. His most celebrated
work was a 5-feet vertical circle, which was finished in 1789
and was used by G. Piazzi at Palermo in constructing his
well-known catalogue of stars. He was the first to carry out
in practice a method of reading off angles (first suggested in
1768 by the duke of Chaulnes) by measuring the distance of
the index from the nearest division line by means of a micro-
meter screw which moves one or two fine threads placed in
the focus of a microscope. Ramsden's transit instruments
were the first which were illuminated through the hollow
axis; the idea was suggested to him by Prof. Henry Ussher
in Dublin. He published a Description of an Engine for dividing
Mathematical Instruments in 1777.
RAMSEY, a market-town in the Northern or Ramsey
parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the
south-western border of the Fen country, on branch lines
of the Great Northern and the Great Eastern railways, 13 m.
S.S.E. of Peterborough. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4823.
The fine church of St Thomas a Becket is transitional between
Norman and Early English, and has a beautiful Norman east
end. The tower was built in 1672 of stone from Ramsey Abbey.
An old oak lectern, dating from the middle of the isth century,
carries a chained copy, in a Tudor binding of brass, of Dean
Comber's (1655-99) book on the Common Prayer, and a
black-letter copy of Erasmus's Paraphrase of the Gospels.
There are many interesting tombs in the churchyard, and
the church register contains several entries relating to the
Cromwell family, who removed hither from Huntingdon and
owned the abbey estates till 1674. Of the ancient Benedictine
abbey, the only remains are a part of a gateway, a lodge (a
beautiful Perpendicular relic) and some buttresses, while some
broken stone arches and . walls remain of the conventual
buildings. The modern mansion of Ramsey Abbey contains
many documentary relics of the abbey, as well as an early
monument representing the founder.
According to a 12th-century chronicle of one of the monks,
the name Ramsey is derived from the words " ram," referring
to the tradition of a solitary ram having taken up its abode
here, and " ey " meaning an island. Ramsey, however,
was not completely insulated, b'ke some of the monasteries of
the Fen district. The abbey was founded by Ailwin, earl of
the East Angles, in 969, and a charter of King Edgar granted
lands and privileges for the purpose. Ramsey Abbey was
noted for the school established within its walls, and for its
library of Hebrew works. Its abbot was mitred. The lands
were granted after the dissolution to Sir Richard Cromwell.
RAMSEY, a seaport and watering-place on the north-east
coast of the Isle of Man, 15 m. N.N.E. of Douglas. Pop.
(1901) 4729. It lies on the wide Ramsey Bay, at the mouth
of the Sulby river, the estuary of which forms a small harbour.
To the north and west the country is flat, but to the south the
lower slopes of the North Ballure hill rise sharply. A creek
of the Sulby river on the north side of the town is formed
into a picturesque lake. The Queen's pier permits of the
landing of passengers at all times, and Ramsey is served by
RAMSGATE RAMUS
881
frequent steamers from Liverpool and other ports. The
shore of the bay is sandy and gently sloping, and excellent
bathing is afforded. A golf links, a geological and antiquarian
museum, the Mooragh Park by the side of the lake, and the
palace or concert hall, are among the attractions to visitors.
Ramsey is connected with Laxey, the summit of Snaefell, and
Douglas by electric tramway, and has connexion with the
western part of the island by the Manx Northern railway. The
Albert tower, on a wooded hill above the town, commemorating
a visit of the Prince Consort in 1847, is a favourite view-point.
The harbour has some coasting and fishing trade.
RAMSGATE, a municipal borough, watering-place, seaport
and member of the Cinque Port of Sandwich, in the Isle of
Thanet parliamentary division of Kent, England, 79 m. E. by
S. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1001) 27,733. This is one of the most popular resorts
on the Kent coast, well situated on the east coast of Thanet,
practically contiguous with Broadstairs to the north, with
which and Margate to the north-west it is united by an electric
tramway. During the season steamers connect it with London
and the intermediate watering-places on the north coast, and
with Calais and Boulogne. The harbour has an area of 42 acres,
and a considerable coasting and fishing trade is carried on.
There is a fine sea front, and the beach is of firm sand. The
promenade pier was erected in 1881. Near it an obelisk
commemorates the departure of George IV. to Hanover from
here, and his return, in 1821. . The church of St George
was built in 1826, its tower forming a conspicuous landmark,
and the Roman Catholic church of St Augustine was built
from the designs and at the expense of A. W. Pugin, who
was long a resident here. The neighbouring Pegwell Bay,
famed for its shrimps, is supposed to have been the scene
of the landing of Hengist and Horsa, and at Cliff's End (Ebbs
Fleet) a monolithic cross marks the landing-place of St Augustine
in 596. On the summit of Osengal Hill, about a mile to the
west of the town, a graveyard of early Saxon settlers was
discovered during the cutting of the railway. The remains
proved it to belong to the 5th and 6th centuries. Ramsgate
was incorporated in 1884, and is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2304 acres.
Ramsgate (Ramesgate) was originally a small but com-
paratively prosperous place united until 1827 to the parish
of St Lawrence. The charter of Charles II. mentions it as
having been " time out of mind " a member of Sandwich.
In 1884 it was incorporated by royal charter, under the title
of mayor, aldermen and councillors. A commission of the
peace was granted in 1893. Since then the jurisdiction of
the Cinque Ports' justices has ceased within its limits, which
include the parishes of Ramsgate and St Lawrence Intra. A
daily market was obtained in 1784 by grant from George III.
No fair was then held, but from 1792 onwards there has been
one yearly on the loth of August. Under Elizabeth, Ramsgate
was still unimportant though possessed of a fair before the
reign of Henry VIII. After 1668 the growth of trade increased
its prosperity, and at the beginning of the reign of George I.
the pier was enlarged and pier-wardens appointed to collect
the droits. In 1749, having been selected as a Harbour of
Refuge for the Downs, it underwent great improvements, and
henceforward paid 200 yearly to Sandwich out of the droits
for clearing the Channel and repairing the banks of the river
Stour within the Liberty; but by 1790 the harbour was of
small account.
RAMSONS, in botany, the popular name for Attium ursinum,
a bulbous plant 6 to 18 in. high, with ovate-lanceolate stalked
leaves tapering at the apex, surrounding a naked stalk bearing
a flat-topped umbel of small white flowers. A rather pretty
plant, common in woods and in hedgebanks in spring, but with
a pungent garlic-like smell, which is characteristic of the genus
(see ALLIUM).
RAMUS, PETRUS, or PIERRE DE LA RAMEE (1515-1572),
French humanist, was born at the village of Cuth in Picardy
in 1515, a member of a noble but impoverished family; his
father was a charcoal-burner. Having gained admission, in a.
menial capacity, to the college of Navarre, he worked with his
hands by day and carried on his studies at night. The reaction
against scholasticism was still in full tide; it was the transition
time between the old and the new, when the eager and forward-
looking spirits had first of all to do battle with scholastic Aris-
totelianism. Ramus outdid his predecessors in the impetuosity
of his revolt. On the occasion of taking his degree (1536) he
actually took as his thesis " Everything that Aristotle taught
is false." This tour de force was followed up by the publication
in 1543 of Aristotelicae Animadversiones and Dialectical Par-
litiones, the former a criticism on the old logic and the latter
a new textbook of the science. What are substantially fresh
editions of the Partitiones appeared in 1547 as Institutions
Dialecticae, and in 1548 as Scholae Dialecticae; his Dialectique
OSSS). a French version of his system, is the earliest work on
the subject in the French language. Meanwhile Ramus, as
graduate of the university, had opened courses of lectures;
but his audacities drew upon him the hostility of the con-
servative party in philosophy and theology. He was accused
of undermining the foundations of philosophy and religion,
and the matter was brought before the parlement of Paris,
and finally before Francis I. By him it was referred to a com-
mission of five, who found Ramus guilty of having " acted
rashly, arrogantly and impudently," and interdicted his
lectures (1544). He withdrew from Paris, but soon afterwards
returned, the decree against him being cancelled through the
influence of the cardinal of Lorraine. In 1551 Henry II.
appointed him professor of philosophy and eloquence at the
College de France, where for a considerable time he lectured
before audiences numbering as many as 2000. He published
fifty works in his lifetime and nine appeared after his death.
In 1561, however, the enmity against him was fanned into
flame by his adoption of Protestantism. He had to flee from
Paris; and, though he found an asylum in the palace of
Fontainebleau, his house was pillaged and his library burned
in his absence. He resumed his chair after this for a time, but
in 1568 the position of affairs was again so threatening that he
found it advisable to ask permission to travel. Returning to
France he fell a victim to his opponents in the massacre of St
Bartholomew (157^2).
The logic of Ramus enjoyed a great celebrity for a time, and there
existed a school of Ramists boasting numerous adherents in France,
Germany and Holland. As late as 1626 F. Burgersdyk divides the
logicians of his day into the Aristotelians, the Ramists and the
Semi- Ramists, who endeavoured, like Goclenius of Marburg, to
mediate between the contending parties. Ramus's works appear
among the logical textbooks of the Scottish universities, and he
was not without his followers in England in the 1 7th century. There
is even a little treatise from the hand of Milton, published two years
before his death, called Artis Logicae Plenior Institutio ad Petri
Kami Methodum concinnata. It cannot be said, however, that
Ramus's innovations mark any epoch in the history of logic. His
rhetorical leaning is seen in the definition of logic as the ars dis-
serendi " ; he maintains that the rules of logic may be better learned
from observation of the way in which Cicero persuaded his hearers
than from a study of the Organon. The distinction between natural
and artificial logic, i.e. between the implicit logic of daily speech
and the same logic made explicit in a system, passed over into the
logical handbooks. Logic falls, according to Ramus, into two
parts invention (treating of the notion and definition) and judg-
ment (comprising the judgment proper, syllogism and method).
This division gave rise to the jocular designation of judgment or
mother-wit as the " secunda Petri." He is, perhaps, most suggestive
in his emendations of the syllogism. He admits only the first three
figures, as in the original Aristotelian scheme, and in his later works
he also attacks the validity of the third figure, following in this
the precedent of Laurentius Valla. Ramus also set the modern
fashion of deducing the figures from the position of the middle
term in the premises, instead of basing them, as Aristotle does,
upon the different relation of the middle to the so-called major and
minor term. On the whole, however, though Ramus may be
allowed to have advanced logical study by the wholesome fermenta-
tion of thought which he caused, there is little ground for his pre-
tentious claim to supersede Aristotle by a new and independent
system.
See Waddington-Kastus, De Petri Kami vita, scriptis, philosophic.
(Paris, 1848); Charles Desmaze, Petrus Ramus, professeur au Coui-ge-
de France, sa vie, ses tcrits, sa mart (Paris, 1864) ; P. Lobstein,
882
RAMUSIO
P. Ramus als Theolog (Strassburg, l878);E. Saisset, Les precurseurs
de Descartes (Paris, 1862) ; J. Owen, French Skeptics of the Renaissance
(London, 1893); K. Prantl, " Cber P. Ramus' in Mitnchener
Siblings berichte (1878) ; H. Hoffding, Hist, of Mod. Phil. (Eng.
trans., 1900), vol. i. 185; Voigt, l)ber den Rarmsmus der Universitat
Leipzig (Leipzig, 1888).
RAMUSIO. The noble Italian family of Ramusio the
spelling adopted in the publication of the Navigalioni, though
it is also written Ramnusio, Rhamnusio, Rannusio, &c. was
one of note for literary and official ability during at least four
generations. Its original home was in Rimini, and the muni-
cipality of that city has within the last few years set up a
tablet on the town hall bearing an inscription which may be
thus rendered: " The municipality of Rimini here records the
claim of their city to the family of the Ramusios, adorned
during the isth and i6th centuries by the illustrious jurist
and man of letters Paolo the elder, who rendered the work of
Valturius, our fellow-citizen, 4nto the vernacular; by the
physician Girolamo, a most successful student of Oriental
tongues, and the first to present Europe with a translation of
Avicenna; and by Giovanni Battista, cosmographer to the
Venetian republic and secretary to the Council of Ten, who
bequeathed to the world that famous collection of voyages and
travels, regarded in his own day as a marvellous work, and
still full of authority among all civilized nations."
PAOLO THE ELDER (c. 1443-1506), the first of those thus
commemorated, migrated in 1458 from Rimini to Venice,
where he obtained full citizenship, studied law and became
a member of the magistracy, filling the offices of incario, of
judicial assessor, and of criminal judge under various adminis-
trators of the Venetian provinces on the continent. He con-
tinued, however, to maintain relations with the Malatesta
princes of his native city, and in 1503 negotiated with them
the cession of Rimini to the republic. The wife of Paolo,
bearing the singular name of Tomyris Macachio, bore him
three sons and four daughters. Paolo died at Bergamo on
1 9th August 1506 at the age of sixty-three, and was buried
in S. Agostino at Padua. Paolo was the author of a variety
of legal treatises and the like, and also published at Verona in
1483 both a corrected edition and an Italian translation of a
once famous book, Valturius, De re mililari, dedicating both to
Pandolfo Malatesta of Rimini. 1
GIROLAMO (1450-1486), younger brother of Paolo, had a
notable history. After he had studied medicine at Padua
public suspicion was roused against him in connexion with the
death of a lady with whom he had had some love passages, and
this ran so high that he was fain, by help of his brother Paolo,
to whom he transferred his property, to make his escape (about
1481-1483) to Syria and to take up his abode at Damascus. In
1486 he removed to Beyrout, and died the same year, killed,
as the family chronicler relates, by a surfeit of " certain fruit
that we call armellini and albicocche, but which in that country
are known as mazzafranchi," a title which English sailors in
southern regions still give to apricots in the vernacular para-
phrase of killjohns. During his stay in Syria Girolamo studied
Arabic and made a new translation of Avicenna, or rather, we
may assume, of some part of that author's medical works (the
Canon?). It was, however, by no means the first such trans-
lation, as is erroneously alleged in the Rimini inscription, for
the Canon had been translated by Gerard of Cremona (d. 1187),
and this version was frequently issued from the early press.
Girolamo's translation was never printed, but was used by
editors of versions published at Venice in 1579 and 1606. Other
works of this questionable member of the house of Ramusio
consisted of medical and philosophical tracts and Latin poems,
some of which last were included in a collection published at
Paris in i7gi. 2
GIAN BATTISTA (1485-1557), the eldest son of Paolo Ramusio
and Tomyris Macachio, was born at Treviso in 1485 (June 20).
Having been educated at Venice and at Padua, at an early
1 Both works are in the British Museum.
" Ramusii Ariminensis Carmina," in Quinque Ittustrium Poetarum
. . . Lusus in Venerem. Girolamo's are grossly erotic.
age he entered the public service (1505), becoming in 1515
secretary of the senate and in 1533 secretary of the Council
of Ten. He also served the republic in various missions to
foreign states, e.g. to Rome, to Switzerland and to France,
travelling over much of the latter country by special desire
of the king, Louis XII. He also on several occasions filled
the office of cancellier grande. In 1524 he married Franceschina,
daughter of Francesco Navagero, a noble a papal dispensation
being required on account of her being cousin to his mother
Tomyris. By this lady he had one son, Paolo. In his old
age Ramusio resigned the secretaryship and retired to the
Villa Ramusia, a property pn the river Masanga, in the province
of Padua, which had been bestowed on his father in 1504
in recognition of his services in the acquisition of Rimini the
year before. The delights of this retreat are celebrated in the
poems and letters of several of Gian Battista's friends. He
also possessed a house at Padua in the Strada del Patriarcato,
a mansion noted for its paintings and for its collection of ancient
sculpture and inscriptions. These, too, are commemorated
by various writers. A few days before his death Ramusio
removed to this house in Padua, and there died, loth of July
I 5S7> a t the age of seventy-two. He was, by his own desire,
buried at Venice, in the tomb which he had made for his
mother, in Santa Maria dell' Orto. His wife's death had
occurred in 1 536. In the work called Museum Mazzuchellianum
(Venice, 1761, vol. i. pi. Ixiv. No. 6) there is represented a
16th-century medal of Ramusio, which looks a genuine like-
ness, and a bronze example of which, without the reverse, 3 is
preserved in St Mark's Library. There was a portrait of him,
represented as in conversation with Andrea Gradenigo, in
the Sala del Maggior Consiglio, but in 1577 this perished in a
fire, as did also a portrait of his father, Paolo. A professed
portrait of Gian Battista by Francesco Grisellini, in the Sala
dello Scudo, appears to be, like the companion portrait of
Marco Polo, a work of fancy. A public nautical school at
Rimini received from the government the title of the Istituto
Ramusio.
Ramusio was evidently a general favourite, as he was free
from pushing ambition, modest and ingenuous, and, if it be
safe to judge from some of the dissertations in his Navigationi,
must have been a delightful companion; both his friend
Giunti and the historian Giustiniani 4 speak of him with the
strongest affection. He had also a great reputation for
learning. Before he was thirty Aldus Manutius the elder
dedicated to him his edition of Quintilian (1514); a few years
later (1519) Francesco Ardano inscribed to him an edition of
Livy, and in 1528 Bernardino Donati did the like with his
edition of Macrobius and Censorinus. To Greek and Latin
and the modern languages of southern Europe he is said to
have added a knowledge of " Oriental tongues," but there
is no evidence how far this went, unless we accept as such a
statement that he was selected in 1530 on account of this
accomplishment to investigate the case of one David, a Hebrew,
who, claiming to be of the royal house of Judah, wished to
establish himself at Venice outside of the Ghetto. 6 But
Ramusio had witnessed from his boyhood the unrolling of
that great series of discoveries by Portugal and Spain in East
and West, and the love of geography thus kindled in him
* The reverse is an amorphous map. The book is in the British
Museum.
4 Rerum Venetarum . . . Historia, bk. xiv.
6 Ramusio's report pn this Hebrew is preserved in the diaries of
Marcus Sanudo, and is printed by Cigogna. It is curious. David
represented himself as a prince of the Bedouin Jews who haunt the
caravan-road between Damascus and Medina ; he claimed to be not
only a great warrior covered with wounds but great also in the law
and in the cabala, and to have been inspired by God to conduct the
dispersed tribes to the Holy Land and to rebuild the temple. In
this view he had visited Prester John and the Jews in his kingdom,
and then various European countries. David was dark in complexion,
" like an Abyssinian, lean, dry and Arab-like, well dressed and
well attended, full of pretensions to supernatural cabalistic know-
ledge, and with enthusiastic ideas about his mission, whilst the Jews
regarded him as a veritable Messiah.
RAMUSIO
883
made that branch of knowledge through life his chief study
and delight. He is said, with the assistance of friends touched
by the same flame, to have opened a school for geography
in his house at Venice. And it appears from a letter addressed
to him by his friend Andrea Navagero, that as early as 1523
the preparation of material for his great work had already
begun. The task had been suggested and encouraged, as
Ramusio himself states in a dedicatory epistle to the famous
Girolamo Fracastoro, by that scholar, his lifelong friend;
an address to the same personage indeed introduced each of
the three volumes, and in the first the writer speaks of his
desire to bequeath to posterity, along with his labours, " a
testimony to the long and holy friendship that had existed
between the two." They were contemporaries in the strictest
sense (Ramusio 1485-1557, Fracastorius 1483-1553). His
correspondence, which was often devoted to the collection
of new material for his work, was immense, and embraced
many distinguished men. Among those whose names have
still an odour of celebrity were Fracastoro, just mentioned,
Cardinal Pietro Bembo, Damiano de Goez, and Sebastian Cabot;
among lesser lights, Vettor Fausto, Daniel Barbaro, Paolo
Manuzio, Andrea Navagero, the cardinals Gasparo Contarini
and Gregorio Cortese, and the printer Tommaso Giunti, editor
after Ramusio's death of the Navigalioni.
Two volumes only of the Navigationi e Viaggi were published
during the life of Gian Battista, vol. i. in 1550, vol. iii. in 1556;
vol. ii. did not appear till 1559, two years after his death,
delayed, as his friend and printer T. Giunti explains, not only
by that event but by a fire in the printing-office (November
!557)> which destroyed a part of the material which had been
prepared. It had been Ramusio's intention to publish a fourth
volume, containing, as he mentions himself, documents relating
to the Andes, and, as appears from one of the prefaces of
Giunti, others relating to explorations towards the Antarctic. 1
Ramusio's collection was by no means the first of the kind,
though it was, and we may say on the whole continues to be,
the best. Even before the invention of the press such col-
lections were known, of which that made by a certain Long
John of Ypres, abbot of St Berlin, in the latter half of the
I4th century was most meritorious, and afforded in its tran-
scription a splendid field for embellishment by the miniaturists,
which was not disregarded. The best of the printed collections
before Ramusio's was the Novus Orbis, edited at Basel by
Simon Grynaeus in 1532, and reissued in 1537 and 1555. This,
however, can boast of no disquisitions nor of much editorial
judgment. Ramusio's collection is in these respects far
superior, as well as in the variety and fulness of its matter.
He spared no pains in ransacking Italy and the Spanish
peninsula for contributions, and in translating them when
needful into the racy Italian of his day. Several of the pieces
are very rare in any other shape than that exhibited in
Ramusio's collection; several besides of importance e.g.
the invaluable travels of Barbosa and Pigafetta's account of
Magellan's voyage were not publicly known in any complete
form till the present century. Of two important articles
at least the originals have never been otherwise printed or
discovered; one of these is the Summary of all the Kingdoms,
Cities, and Nations from the Red Sea to China, a work translated
from the Portuguese, and dating apparently from about 1535;
the other, the remarkable Ramusian redaction of Marco Polo
(q.v.). The Prefatione, Espositione and Dichiarazione, which
precede this version of Marco Polo's book, are the best and
amplest examples of Ramusio's own style as an editor. They
are full of good sense and of interesting remarks derived from
his large reading and experience, and few pictures in words
were ever touched more delightfully than that in which he
sketches the return of the Polo family to their native city, as
he had received it in the tradition of the Venetian elders.
There were several editions of the Navigationi e Viaggi, and
1 See in vol. iii. the end of Ramusio's Discorso on the conquest
of Peru, and Giunti's " Alii Lettori " in the 3rd edition of the first
volume.
as additions continued to be made to the several volumes a
good deal of bibliographical interest attaches to these various
modifications. 2 The two volumes (i. and iii.) published in
Ramusio's lifetime do not bear his name on the title-page,
nor does it appear in the addresses to his friend Fracastorius
with which these volumes begin (as does also the second and
posthumous volume). The editions of vol. i. are as follows:
1550. 1554, i5 6 3. !588, 1606, 1613.* The edition of 1554
contains the following articles which are not in that of 1550:
(i) copious index; (2) " Narr. di un Compagno di Barbosa";
(3) " Information! del Giapan "; (4) " Alii Lettori di Giov. de
Barros "; (5) " Capitoli estratti da di Barros." The edition
of 1563 adds to these a preliminary leaf concerning Ramusio,
" Tommaso Giunti alii Lettori." After 1563 there is no change
in the contents of this volume, only in the title-page. It
should be added that in the edition of 1554 there are three
double-page woodcut maps (Africa, India and India extra
Gangem), which do not exist in the edition of 1550, and which
are replaced by copperplate maps in subsequent editions.
These maps are often missing. The editions of vol. ii. are
as follows: 1559, 1574, 1583, 1606. There are important
additions in the 1574 copy, and still further additions in that
of 1583. The additions made in 1574 were: (i) " Herberstein,
Delia Moscovia e della Russia "; (2) " Viaggio in Persia di
Caterino Zeno "; (3) " Scoprimento dell' Isola Frislanda,
&c., per due fratelli Zeni "; (4) " Viaggi in Tartaria per alcuni
frati Minori "; (5) " Viaggio del Beato Odorico " (two versions).
Further additions made in 1583 were: (i) " Navigatione di
Seb. Cabota"; (2) at the end 90 ff. with fresh pagination,
containing ten articles on " Sarmatia, Polonia, Lithuania,
Prussia, Livonia, Moscovia, and the Tartars by Aless. Guagnino
and Matteo di Micheovo." The two latest " editions " of
vol. ii. are identical, i.e. from the same type, with a change of
title-page only, and a reprint of the last leaf of the preface
and of the last leaf of the book. But the last circumstance
does not apply to all copies. In one, whilst the title bears
1606, the colophon bears " Appresso i Giunti, 1583." Vol. iii.
editions are of 1556, 1565 and 1606.* There is no practical
difference between the first two, but that of 1606 has forty-five
pages of important new matter, which embraces the Travels
of Cesare Fedrici or Federici in India, one of the most valuable
narratives of the i6th century, and Three Voyages of the
Hollanders and Zealanders to Nova Zembla and Greenland.
Vol. iii. also contains (omitting maps and figures inserted in
the text, or with type on the reverse) a two-page topographical
view of Cuzco, a folding map of Terra Nova and Labrador, a
two-page map of Brazil, a two-page map of Guinea, &c., a
two-page map of Sumatra, a two-page pictorial plan of the
town of Hochelaga in New France, and a general map of the
New World in a hemisphere. Brunei's stalemenl mentions
issues of vol. ii. in 1564, and of vol. iii. in 1613; but these seem
to have no existence. It would thus appear that a set of
Ramusio, to be as complete as possible, should embrace
for vol. i., 1563 or any subsequent edition; for vol. ii., 1583
or 1606; for vol. iii., 1606.
PAOLO (GIROLAMO GASPARE)* (1532-1600) was the only
child of Gian Battista, and was born on the 4th of July 1532.
Like his father, he maintained a large correspondence with many
persons of learning and note. In 1541 Francesco Contarini,
procurator of St Mark's, brought from Brussels a MS. of Ville-
hardouin's History of the Conquest of Constantinople, which
he presented to the Council of Ten. In 1556 they publicly
ordered its translation into Latin, and gave the commission
to Paolo Rannusio. His father also seems to have taken
much interest in the work, for a MS. vernacular translation by
him exists in the Marciana. Paolo's book was not completed
1 Brunei's statements on the subject are borrowed, and not quite
accurate. The detail in Cigogna seems to be accurale, but it is
vague as lo the deficiencies of the earlier editions.
1 All of ihese are in the British Museum.
4 All at the British Museum.
* This person and his son affected the spelling Rannusio.
88 4
RANADE RANG
till 1573, many years after the father's death, and was in fact
a paraphrase enlarged from other sources, thus, according to
Cigogna's questionable judgment, " converting the dry story
of Villehardouin into an elegant (fiorita) historical work."
It was not published till 1609, nine years after Paolo's death;
nor was it ever really reprinted, though it became the subject
of a singular and unintelligible forgery. For Jacopo Gaffarelli,
who was sent to Venice to buy books for Richelieu, having
apparently procured the " remainder " copies, removed the
title and preliminary pages and substituted a fresh title with
the date 1634, and a dedication to his master the cardinal. 1
GIROLAMO GIUSEPPE (1555-1611), the son of Paolo, was
born at Venice in 1555. He entered the public service in
1577, and was employed in connexion with various foreign
missions. In 1601 he published at Lyons the French text of
Villehardouin; and, besides an Italian translation of this old
historian (who seems thus to have furnished occupation for
three generations of Ramusios), he left behind him a Storia o
Cronaca di Casa Ramusia, a folio MS still in St Mark's Library.
He died at Padua in 1611, and his posterity did nothing to
continue the reputation of the family, official or literary.
Besides the circumstances to be gathered from the Navigationi
regarding the Ramusio family, see the Iscrizioni Venete of Emanuele
Cigogna. There is also in the British Museum Monografia letta il
14 Marzo 1883 . . . by Guglielmo Carradori (Rimini, 1883); but
hardly-anything has been found in this except the inscription quoted
at the beginning of this article. (H. Y.)
RANADE, MAHADEO GOVIND (1842-1901), Indian lawyer,
reformer and author, was born on the i6th of January 1842 at
Niphad, in Nasik district, of a Chitpavan Brahman family.
When his father was minister at Kolhapur he attended the
Anglo-vernacular school in that town, and joined the Elphin-
stone Institute in Bombay at the age of fourteen. He was one
of the first graduates of the Bombay University, taking the B.A.
in 1862 and the LL.B. in 1866. Having entered government
service he became presidency magistrate and then fourth judge
of the small cause court at Bombay in 1871, first-class sub-judge
at Poona in 1873, and judge of the Poona small cause court in
1884, after which, as special judge under the Deccan Agricul-
turists' Relief Act from 1887, he came into close contact with the
difficulties of the agrarian classes. In 1886 he was a member of
the finance committee appointed to report on the expenditure,
both imperial and provincial, with a view to retrenchment. This
service won him the decoration of C.I.E. He became a member
of the legislative council of Bombay in 1885, and occupied that
position until raised to the high court in 1893. Being an
energetic social reformer, he directed his efforts against infant
marriages, the shaving of widows, the heavy cost of marriages
and other social functions, and the caste restrictions on travelling
abroad. He strenuously advocated widow remarriage and
female education. He was the founder of the social conference
movement, which he supported till his death. In the political
sphere he founded the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, through which
he frequently helped the government with sound advice. He
was also one of the originators of the Indian National Con-
gress. In Bombay University, where he held the offices of
syndic and dean in arts, he displayed much organizing power
and great intimacy with the needs of the student class. Him-
self a thorough Mahratti scholar, he encouraged the translation
of standard English works, and tried, with some success, to
introduce vernacular languages into the university curriculum.
Though reared in the strictest tenets of Hinduism, his deep
religious feeling and trained intellect craved something higher
and broader than he could find in the traditional forms and
orthodox teaching of his race. The same spiritual want being
felt by many enlightened Hindus, he joined with his friends, Dr
Atmaram Pandurang, Bal Mangesh Wagle and Vaman Abaji
Modak, in founding a new sect in Bombay known as the " Par-
thana Samaj." This community resembles, in all essential
points, the Brahma Samaj of Bengal. Its principles of en-
lightened theism are based on the ancient Vedas. He published
1 In the British Museum.
books on Indian economics and on Mahratta history. He died
on the 1 6th of January 1901. He left no children, but his widow
continued his work of social and educational reform at Poona.
See G. A. Mankar, Justice M. G. Remade (Bombay, 1902).
RANAVALO (RANAVALONA) III. (1864- ), the last queen
of Madagascar, born in 1864, was a great-niece of Radama I.
Her name originally was Razafindrahety, but on succeeding to
the throne of Madagascar after the death of Queen Ranavalo II.,
on the I4th of July 1883, she assumed the style of Ranavalo III.
Although nominally queen, she took no share in the government,
which her prime minister, Rainilaiarivony, had controlled
since 1864. After placing her on the throne, he married her
before the close of the year. Ranavalo became queen just after
the French had revived their claim to a protectorate over the
island. The Hova government refusing to admit the claim, war
broke out, and several sharp engagements took place. The
French bombarded the coast towns, but were unable to reach the
interior of the island, where the strength of the Hova lay. In
December 1885 a treaty was concluded by which it was agreed
that the government of the French Republic should represent
Madagascar in all foreign relations, but that in internal matters
the Hova government should be independent, as formerly.
During the next ten years French influence was quietly extended
over the island, in spite of the efforts of Rainilaiarivony, who
pursued an anti-French policy, encouraging English and Ameri-
can planters and traders. In 1894 differences on commercial
and territorial questions arose between the Hova government
and the French, which terminated in war. In 1895 a well-
organized expedition was despatched from France to subjugate
the island. Many of the inhabitants sympathized with the
invaders, and even the Hova themselves were divided. Al-
though Ranavalo endeavoured to arouse a martial spirit in her
subjects, the French advanced on the capital without encounter-
ing any effective opposition. On the 3Oth of September they
captured Antananarivo. Rainilaiarivony was sent into exile,
where he died in the following year; but Ranavalo was suffered
to remain as nominal head of the government, under a strict
French protectorate. In August 1896, to avoid commercial
difficulties with foreign powers, the island was declared a French
colony; but no change was made in the internal administration.
Later in the year, however, the civil governor was replaced by
a military resident, General Gallieni. A formidable insurrection
broke out, which Gallieni suppressed, executing or exiling several
prominent members of the Hova administration. Finding that
the court had been a centre of intrigue, he abolished the sover-
eignty by proclamation in February 1897, and exiled Ranavalo
to Reunion. In March 1899 she was removed to Algiers. Her
exile there was relieved by occasional visits to Paris.
RANC, ARTHUR (1831-1908), French politician and writer,
was born at Poitiers on the 2oth of December 1831, and was
educated for the law. Implicated in a plot against Napoleon
III. in 1853, he was acquitted, but shortly afterwards was im-
prisoned for belonging to a secret society; for his share in anti-
imperialist conspiracies in 1855 he was arrested and deported to
Algeria without a trial. The amnesty of 1859 permitted him to
return to Paris, where he soon drew the attention of the police
to his presence by his violent articles. During the siege of
Paris he left the city in a balloon and joined Gambetta, for whom
he organized a system of spies through which General Trochu
was kept informed of the strength and disposition of the
Prussians around Paris. He was elected to the National
Assembly in February 1871, but resigned rather than subscribe
to the peace. He had been elected mayor of the ninth arron-
dissement of Paris in the autumn of 1870, and in March was sent
by the same district to the Commune, from which he resigned
when he found no reconciliation was possible between the
mayors and the Commune. In July he became a member of
the municipal council of Paris, and in 1873 was returned to the
National Assembly for the department of the Rhone, and took
his place on the extreme Left. A month after his election the
governor of Paris demanded his prosecution for his share in the
Commune. The claim being granted by a large majority, he
RANGE RANDERS
885
escaped to Belgium, where he issued a pamphlet defending his
action during the Commune. On his failure to appear before
the court he was condemned to death, and remained in Belgium
until 1879, when he was included in the amnesty proclaimed by
Grevy. During his exile he continued his active collaboration
on La Rtpublique franfaise. In 1873 he fought a duel with Paul
de Cassagnac, and he acted as second to C16menceau more
than once. He energetically defended the republic against the
Boulangist agitation, and took an equally courageous part in the
Dreyfus affair. In the Picquart-Henry duel he was second to
Colonel Picquart. He succeeded Cle'menceau as editor of the
Aurore, in which Zola's letter " J'accuse " had appeared, and
was president of the Association of Republican Journalists. In
1903 he became senator for Corsica, and died on the loth of
August 1008.
In addition to his purely political writings, Arthur Ranc published
political novels of the Second Empire, Sous I'empire (1872) and Le
roman d'une conspiration (1868).
RANGE, ARMAND JEAN LE BOUTHILLIER DE (1626-
1700), founder of the Trappist Cistercians. He was born in
Paris of a noble and influential family of Normandy; hence,
being destined to the ecclesiastical state, he was when ten years
old commendatory abbot of La Trappe and two other abbeys,
prior of two priories, and canon of N6tre Dame, Paris. At
twelve he published a translation of Anacreon. He went
through his course of theological studies with great distinction,
defeating Bossuet at the Baccalaureat in theology. He was
ordained in 1651, and embarked on the ambitious and worldly
career of a court abb6 in the days of Louis XIV. But after a
few years he underwent a complete change of life, and in 1662
he retired to his abbey of La Trappe, of which he became
regular abbot in 1664 and introduced an austere reform (see
TRAPPISTS). The best known episode of his subsequent life
was the " Contestation " with Mabillon on the lawfulness of
monks devoting themselves to study, which De Ranc6 denied.
He resigned his abbacy in 1695, owing to declining health, and
died in 1700.
The best of the early lives is that of P. le Nain, his sub-prior
(1715) J the most recent is by M. Serrant, L'Abbe de Rand et Bossuet
(1903). A sufficient sketch is given by Helyot, Histoire des ordres
religieux (1718), vi. c. I. On the " Contestation " on Monastic
Studies, see Maitland, Dark Ages, x. (E. C. B.)
RANCH, a term in current usage among the English-speaking
peoples for a large farm, particularly one for cattle or horse-
breeding. The word came into use in this application in the
western states of North America, and was an adaptation of
the Spanish- American rancho, herdsmen's huts; in Spanish a
gathering of people having their meals in common, a mess.
RANCHI, a town and district of British India, in the Chota
Nagpur division of Bengal. The town, which is situated on
the Chota Nagpur plateau, about 2100 ft. above sea-level, is
the headquarters of both the division and the district. Pop.
(1901) 25,970. It is an important centre of local trade and
the headquarters of the German Lutheran mission. There are
a high school and an industrial school, and it is proposed to
found here a residential college for all Bengal. The canton-
ments, formerly called Doranda, accommodate a detachment
of native infantry.
The DISTRICT OF RANCHI, formerly called Lohardaga after
the town which was its headquarters, has an area of 7128 sq. m.
It consists of two tablelands, of which the higher rises to about
2000 ft. The whole area is broken by hills and undulations,
which are terraced for rice. The steep slopes are covered
with a dense forest, where wild animals still abound, but no
profit is derived from the timber. The principal rivers are the
Subanarekha and the North and South Koel. In 1001 the
population was 1,187,925, showing an increase of 5-2% in the
decade. Christians form 10% of the total. The district was
affected by the famine of 1896-1897, and still more severely by
that of 1900. Rice is everywhere the staple crop, with some
millets and pulses. Tea cultivation has been introduced, but
does not flourish. The only industry on a large scale is the
manufacture of shellac. Myrobalans are also exported. Iron
and soapstone are worked in small quantities. Hopes of pro-
fitable gold-mining in the quartz veins of the schist formation
have proved abortive. There is no railway in the district,
though surveys have been made to connect with the Bengal-
Nagpur line.
See F. B. Bradley-Birt, Chota Nagpur (1903).
RAND, a Dutch word meaning border, edge, used in South
Africa to designate a low rounded range of hills; specifically
it is an abbreviated form of Witwatersrand, an elevated ridge
in the southern Transvaal, forming the water-parting between
the basins of the Orange and Limpopo. The Rand is famous
for its gold-bearing reefs (see GOLD), and the word is often
used as a synonym for the mining industry carried on over a
great part of its area, or for Johannesburg (q.v.), the city which
that industry created.
RANDALL, SAMUEL JACKSON (1828-1800), American
politician, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the
loth of October 1828. He was educated in the public schools
and in the University Academy, Philadelphia. In 1858-1859
he was a Democratic member of the state Senate. During the
Civil War he served as a private in the Union army for ninety
days in 1861, and two years later took part in the Gettysburg
campaign as a volunteer. From 1863 until his death he was
a Democratic representative in Congress. During the session of
1874-1875 he first gained a national reputation by the masterful
manner in which he prevented the Republican majority from
passing the Force Bill or Federal Election law. Under his
leadership discipline and party harmony were established
among the Democrats for the first time after the Civil War.
He was speaker of the House from December 1876 to March
1881, during a period marked by rancorous debates concerning
the disputed Hayes-Tilden presidential election. With the
disappearance of the Reconstruction questions and the emer-
gence of the tariff issue, however, his influence began to wane.
As the leader of the Protectionist wing of the party he was
superseded by the tariff reform advocates, such as John G.
Carlisle, William R. Morrison, and Roger Q. Mills, Carlisle
defeating him for the speakership in 1883. He died in Washing-
ton, D.C., on the I3th of April 1890.
RANDAN, a name for a boat rowed by three persons, stroke
and bow using a single oar each and the central person a pair of
sculls. The word is of unknown origin, and can hardly be con-
nected with a slang term for a row or spree, which is found as
early as the beginning of the 1 8th century and is generally taken
as a variation of " random," haphazard.
RANDAZZO, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, at
the N. foot of Mount Etna, 43 m. N. by W. of Catania by rail,
and 26 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 11,798. It has considerable
remains of architecture of the i3th and I4th centuries, including
three Norman churches . and some interesting palaces. The
former contain some fine sculptures and goldsmith's work
(Mauceri in L'Arle, 1906, 185). It is the nearest town to the
summit of Etna (9 m.), and is one of the points from which the
ascent may be made.
RANDERS, a town of Denmark, capital of the ami (county)
of its name in Jutland, on the Gudenaa at the point where it
begins to widen into Randers Fjord, an inlet of the Cattegat.
Pop. (1901) 20,057. The town is 15 m. from the open
Cattegat and the harbour has 15 ft. depth on the bar. The
chief exports are butter and eggs; the chief imports sugar,
petroleum, coal and iron. Two railways run north to Aalborg,
continuing the main East Jutland line from the south, and an
eastward branch serves Grenaa and Aebeltoft on the coast.
Though a place of considerable antiquity being mentioned in
1086 as the meeting-place of insurgents against Knud, the saint
Randers has few remains of old buildings and bears the stamp
of a compact, modern manufacturing town that owes its im-
portance to its distilleries, manufactories of gloves, railway
carriages, &c. St Marten's church dates from the I4th century,
but was frequently altered and enlarged down to 1870. It has
good woodwork of the i7th century. The high school is housed
886
RANDOLPH, E. RANDOLPH, J.
in a medieval monastery, which was restored in 1894-97.
There is a statue to Steen S. Blicher (1782-1848), the national
poet and novelist of Jutland.
Randers is best known in history as the scene of the assassina-
tion of Count Gerhard by Niels Ebbeson in 1340. In the middle
ages it had six churches and four monastic establishments, the
oldest a Benedictine nunnery (1170). The Grey Friars' building
was turned into a castle (Dronningborg) after the Reformation ;
its church was burned down in 1698.
RANDOLPH, EDMUND [JENNINGS] (1753-1813), American
statesman, was born on the loth of August 1753, at Tazewell
Hall, Williamsburg, Virginia, the family seat of his grandfather,
Sir John Randolph (1693-1737), and his father, John Randolph
(1727-84), who (like his uncle Peyton Randolph) were king's
attorneys for Virginia. Edmund graduated at the College of
William and Mary, and studied law with his father, who felt
bound by his oath to the king and went to England in 1775.
In August-October 1775 Edmund was aide-de-camp to General
Washington. In 1776 he was a member of the Virginia Con-
vention, and was on its committee to draft a constitution. In
the same year he became the first attorney-general of the state
(serving until 1786). He served in the Continental Congress in
1779 and again in 1780-82. He had a large private practice,
including much legal business for General Washington. In 1786
he was a delegate to the " Annapolis convention," and in 1 787-88
was governor of Virginia. He was a delegate to the Consti-
tutional Convention of 1787, and on the 29th of May presented
the " Virginia plan" (sometimes called the " Randolph plan" ).'
In the Convention Randolph advocated a strongly centralized
government, the prohibition of the importation of slaves, and a
plural executive, suggesting that there should be three executives
from different parts of the country, and refused to sign the con-
stitution because too much power over commerce was granted
to a mere majority in Congress, and because no provision was
made for a second convention to act after the present instrument
had been referred to the states. In October 1787 he published
an attack on the Constitution; but in the Virginia convention
he urged its ratification, arguing that it was too late to attempt
to amend it without endangering the Union, and thinking that
Virginia's assent would be that of the necessary ninth state. In
1788 he refused re-election as governor, and entered the House
of Delegates to work on the revision and codification of the state
laws (published in 1794). In September 1789 he was appointed
by President Washington first attorney-general of the United
States. He worked for a revision of Ellsworth's judiciary act
of 1789, and especially to relieve justices of the supreme court
1 The plan was not drafted by Randolph, but he presented it
because he was governor. It called for a legislature of two branches,
one chosen by the people and based on free population (or on wealth)
and the other chosen by the first out of candidates nominated by the
state legislatures; a majority vote only .was required in each house;
and Congress was to have a negative on such state legislation as
seemed to the Congress to contravene the articles of the Union.
There was to be, under this plan, an executive chosen by the national
legislature, to be ineligible for a second term, to have general
authority to execute the national laws and to have the executive
rights vested in Congress by the Confederation; and the executive
with a convenient number of the national judiciary was to compose
a Council of Revision, with a veto power on acts of the national
legislature and on the national legislature's vetoes of acts of state
legislatures- but the national legislature might pass bills (or vetoes
of state legislation) over the action of the Council of Revision. The
plan provided for a Federal judiciary, the judges to be appointed by
the national legislature, to hold office during good behaviour, and
to have jurisdiction over cases in admiralty and cases in which
foreigners or citizens of different states were parties. The Virginia
plan was opposed by the smaller states, Connecticut, New Jersey,
Delaware and Maryland, which demanded equal representation in
the legislature. It was too radically different from the Articles of
Confederation. A draft of a constitution in Randolph's handwriting,
discovered in 1887, seems to have been the report (6th August) of
a Committee of Detail of five members (John Rutledge, Edmund
Randolph, Nathaniel Gorham, Oliver Ellsworth and James Wilson).
It is reproduced in facsimile in W. M. Meigs's The Growth of the
Constitution (Philadelphia, 1900). Conway, who discovered it,
exaggerated its importance and thought it had been drawn by
Randolph alone and before the Convention.
of the duties of circuit judges, and advocated a Federal code;
in 1791 he considered Hamilton's scheme for a national bank,
unconstitutional; and in 1792-93, in the case Chisolm v.
Georgia before the supreme court, argued that a state might be
sued by a citizen of another state. On the 2nd of January 1794
he succeeded Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state. In 1795
he wrote thirteen letters (signed " Germanicus" ) defending the
President in his attack on the American Jacobin or democratic
societies. He was the only cabinet member who opposed the
ratification of the Jay treaty (his letters to the President on the
subject are reprinted in The American Historical Review, vol.
xii. pp. 587-590), and before it was ratified the delicate task of
keeping up friendly diplomatic relations with France fell to
him. Home despatches of the French minister, Joseph Fauchet,
intercepted by a British man-of-war and sent to the British
minister to the United States, accused Randolph of asking for
money from France to influence the administration against Great
Britain. Although this charge was demonstrably false, Ran-
dolph when confronted with it immediately resigned, and
subsequently secured a retractation from Fauchet ; he published
A Vindication of Mr Randolph's Resignation (1795) and
Political Truth, or Animadversions on the Past and Present State
of Public Affairs (1796). He was held personally responsible
for the loss of a large sum of money during his administration of
the state department, and after years of litigation was judged by
an arbitrator to be indebted to the government for more than
$49,000, which he paid at great sacrifice to himself. He re-
moved to Richmond in 1803, and during his last years was a
leader of the Virginia bar; in 1807 he was one of Aaron Burr's
counsel. He died at Carter Hall, Millwood, Clarke county,
Virginia, on the I2th of September 181.3.
Moncure D. Conway, in his Omitted Chapters of History disclosed
in the Life and Papers of Edmund Randolph (New York, 1888; 2nd
ed., 1889), greatly exaggerates Randolph's work in the Constitutional
Convention ; the commoner view underrates him and makes him a
" hair-splitter," and a man of no decision of character.
RANDOLPH, JOHN (1773-1833), of Roanoke, American
statesman. He was a member of an influential and wealthy
Virginian family, and was the third and youngest son of John
Randolph of Cawsons, Chesterfield county, where he was born
on the 2nd of June 1773. He was a descendant of John Rolfe
and his wife Pocahontas. His father having died in 1775, his
early years were passed under the care of his mother and his
stepfather, Mr St George Tucker, from whom, however, he
eventually became estranged, as he did from almost every one
with whom he was intimately associated. He attended a
school at Williamsburg, Virginia, and for a short time studied
at Princeton and at Columbia; but, although well read in
modern works bearing on politics and philosophy, his own
statement, " I am an ignorant man, sir," was in other respects
not inaccurate. Both his religious and his political views were
radical and extreme. At an early period he imbibed deistical
opinions, which he promulgated with eagerness. He was also,
though a mere boy when the new Federal government was
organized in 1789, strongly opposed to the new Constitution
of the United States. In order to assist in asserting the right
of resistance to national laws, and to withstand the " encroach-
ments of the administration upon the indisputable rights " of
Virginia, he was in 1799 elected as a Republican to the national
House of Representatives, of which he was a member, with
the exception of two terms (1813-15 and 1817-19), until 1825,
and again in 1827-29. After the accession of Jefferson to the
presidency in 1801, Randolph was appointed chairman of the
Committee of Ways and Means, and as such was naturally the
leader of the Republican majority in the House. He took an
active part in agitating for the reform of the judiciary, and in
1804 moved the impeachment of Judge Samuel Chase (q.v.),
acting as the leader of prosecution in the trial before the Senate.
Though an avowed Republican, he was far from being sub-
servient to his party, and for several years after 1805 led a
small faction, called " Quids," which sharply criticized Jefferson
and attempted to prevent the selection of Madison as the
RANDOLPH, P. RANDOLPH, T.
887
presidential candidate of his party. In March 1807 he lost
the chairmanship of the Ways and Means Committee. Pos-
sessing considerable wit, great readiness, and a showy if some-
what bombastic eloquence, he would undoubtedly have risen
to high influence but for his strong vein of eccentricity and his
bitter and ungovernable temper. The championship of state's
rights was carried by him to an extreme utterly quixotic, inas-
much as he not only asserted the constitutional right of Virginia
to interpose her protest against the usurpation of power at
Washington, but claimed that the protest should be supported
by .force. From December 1825 to March 1827 he served in
the United States Senate, and in April 1826 he was forced to
fight a duel with Henry Clay, on account of his violent abuse
of that statesman in the course of a debate. In 1830 he was
sent by President Jackson on a special mission to Russia, but
remained in St Petersburg only ten days, then spent almost
a year in England, and on his return in October 1831 drew
$21,407 from the United States Treasury for his services. He
died of consumption at Philadelphia on the 24th of June 1833.
Though his political life was full of inconsistencies he was even
capable of advocating the passage of a bill on one day and of
opposing the passage of the same bill on the next he generally
adhered to the principles enunciated by the Republican party
in its earliest years, and throughout his later career, in numerous
speeches, he laboured to bring about the identification of slavery
with the theory of states' rights. In this he was the natural
precursor of Calhoun. His last will was disputed in the law
courts, and the jury returned a verdict that in the later years
of his life he was not of sane mind. He was always in theory
opposed to slavery, and by the will which was accepted by the
courts, freed his own slaves.
The best biography is that by Henry Adams, John Randolph
(Boston, 1882), in the " American Statesmen Series." There is also
a biography, which, however, contains many inaccuracies, by Hugh
A. Garland (2 vols., New York, 1851).
RANDOLPH, PEYTON (1721-1775), American politician,
was born at Tazewell Hall, Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1721, a
son of Sir John Randolph (1693-1737), the king's attorney for
Virginia. He graduated at the College of William and Mary,
studied law at the Inner Temple, London, and in 1748 was
appointed the king's attorney for Virginia. 1 Randolph wrote
the address of remonstrance to the king in behalf of the Bur-
gesses against the suggested stamp duties in 1764. His policy
was conservative and moderate, and in May 1765 he opposed
Patrick Henry's radical " Stamp Act Resolutions." In 1766
he resigned as king's attorney and was succeeded by his brother
John (1727-1784). In 1769 he acted as moderator of the
privately convened assembly which entered into the non-
importation agreement, and in May 1773 he became chairman
of the first Virginia intercolonial committee of correspondence.
He presided over the provincial convention of August 1774,
and was a member of the First Continental Congress, of which
he was president from the sth of September to the 22nd of
October 1774. He was re-elected to Congress in March 1775,
and on the loth of May was again chosen to preside, but on
the 24th he left to attend a meeting at Williamsburg of the
Virginia Burgesses. He then returned to Congress, of which
John Hancock had meanwhile been made president. Randolph
died of apoplexy in Philadelphia on the 22nd of October 1775.
He was provincial grand-master of the Masons of Virginia,
and was an intimate friend of Washington.
RANDOLPH, THOMAS (1523-1590), English diplomatist, son
of Avery Randolph, a Kentish gentleman, was educated at
Christ Church, Oxford, and in 1549 became principal of Pem-
broke College, Oxford, then known as Broadgates Hall. During
1 I" 1754 the Burgesses sent him to London to argue against
the governor's demand for a fee of one pistole on every land patent ;
his plea was successful, but the governor superseded him with George
Wythe, who resigned in Randolph's favour upon his return from
England. The Burgesses voted Randolph 2500 with the grant of
20,000 to Governor Dinwiddie for Indian warfare; the governor
would not approve this appropriation, however, until Randolph
apologized for leaving his office without the governor's permission.
the reign of Mary, Randolph, who was a -zealous Protestant,
sought refuge in Paris, where he cultivated the society of
scholars. Returning to England after the accession of Eliza-
beth, he was soon employed as a confidential diplomatic agent
of the English queen in Scotland. Here he succeeded in gaining
the confidence of the Protestant party, with whom he became
a person of great influence. Randolph's despatches from
Scotland between 1560 and 1585 supply important materials
for the history of the political intrigues of that period.
Randolph, who had hitherto remained ostensibly on terms of
friendship with Mary Queen of Scots, exerted his influence on
instructions from Elizabeth to prevent Mary's marriage with
Darnley; but in 1566 he was driven from Scotland on the
charge of having fomented Murray's rebellion, and he then
obtained government employment of secondary importance in
England. In 1568 he undertook a mission to Russia which
resulted in the concession by Ivan the Terrible of certain
privileges to English merchants; and in 1570 he returned to
Scotland, where, after the murder of the regent Murray in
January of that year, he " succeeded," says Andrew Lang,
" in making civil war inevitable; he himself was in high spirits,
as always when mischief was in hand." After carrying through
certain diplomatic business in France in 1573 and 1576, Ran-
dolph returned in January 1581 to Scotland, where the earl of
Morton, the regent, had been arrested a few days previously.
Randolph, acting on Elizabeth's instructions, intrigued with
Angus and the Douglases in favour of a plot to seize the person
of the young King James, and to save Morton by laying violent
hands on the earl of Lennox. Douglas of Whittingham, who
was employed in the intrigue, on being arrested made revela-
tions which imperilled Randolph, and the latter prudently
withdrew to Berwick before the execution of Morton in June
1581. In 1585, when he next visited Scotland, he was more
successful, being instrumental in arranging a treaty between
England and Scotland. For the next four years he was chan-
cellor of the exchequer in England, and he died in London in
June 1590. Randolph married, in 1571, Anne, daughter of
Thomas Walsingham. He was a personal friend of George
Buchanan, in whose History of Scotland he took a lively interest,
and he has been credited, though on doubtful evidence, with
the authorship of a Life of the historian in Latin.
See J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London, 1881);
Andrew Lang, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (4 vols., London, 1902-7) ;
Calendar of State Papers relating to Scotland (1509-1603), edited by
M. J. Thorpe (2 vols.); Calendar of State Papers, Foreign Series of
the Reign of Elizabeth; Anthony a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses and
Fasti, edited by P. Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813-20).
RANDOLPH, THOMAS (1605-1635), English poet and
dramatist, was born near Daventry in Northamptonshire, and
was baptized on the isth of June 1605. He was educated at
Westminster and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He took
his B.A. degree in 1628, proceeded M.A. in 1632 and became
a major fellow of his college in the same year. He soon gave
promise as a writer of comedy. Ben Jonson, not an easily
satisfied critic, adopted him as one of his " sons." He
addressed three poems to Jonson, one on the occasion of his
formal " adoption," another on the failure of The New Inn,
and the third an eclogue, describing his own studies at
Cambridge. He lived with his father at Little Houghton in
Northamptonshire for some time, and afterwards with William
Stafford of Blatherwick, at whose house he died before com-
pleting his thirtieth year. He was buried in Blatherwick
church on the i7th of March 1634-35, and his epitaph was
written by Peter Hausted, the author of The Rival Friends.
Randolph's reputation as a wit is attested by the verses
addressed to him by his contemporaries and by the stories
attached to his name. His earliest printed work is Aristippvs,
Or, The Joviall Philosopher. Presented in a private shew,
To which is added, The Conceited Pedlar (1630). It is a gay
interlude burlesquing a lecture in philosophy, the whole piece
being an argument to support the claims of sack against small
beer. The Conceited Pedlar is an amusing monologue delivered
by the pedlar, who defines himself as an " indiniduum vagum,
888
RANDOM RANGE-FINDER
or the primunt mobile of tradesmen, a walking-burse or movable
exchange, a Socratical citizen of the vast universe, or a peri-
patetical journeyman, that, like another Atlas, carries his
heavenly shop on's shoulders." He then proceeds to display
his wares with a running satirical comment. The Jealous
Lovers was presented by the students of Trinity College,
Cambridge, before the king and queen in 1632. The Muse's
Looking-Glass is hardly a drama. Roscius presents the
extremes of virtue and vice in pairs, and last of all the " golden
mediocrity " who announces herself as the mother of all the
virtues. Amyntas, or The Impossible Dowry, a pastoral printed
in 1638, with a number of miscellaneous Latin and English
poems, completes the list of Randolph's authenticated work.
Hey for Honesty, down with Knavery, a comedy, is doubtfully
assigned to him.
His works were edited by W. C. Hazlitt in 1875.
RANDOM (older forms randon, randoun; from the French,
cf. randir, to run quickly, impetuously; generally taken to
be of Teutonic origin and connected with Ger. Rand, edge,
brim, the idea being possibly of a brimming river), an adjective
originally meaning impetuous, hasty, hence done without
purpose or aim, haphazard. The term " random work " is
used, in architecture, by the rag-stone masons, for stones
fitted together at random without any attempt at laying them
in courses. " Random coursed work " is a like
term applied to work coursed in horizontal beds,
but the stones are of varying height, and fitted
to one another (see MASONRY).
RANELAGH, formerly a popular resort by the Thames in
Chelsea, London, England. About 1690 the land lying east
of Chelsea Hospital, and bordering the river about the point
where Chelsea Bridge now stands, was acquired by Richard,
Viscount Ranelagh, later earl of Ranelagh (d. 1711). He
built a mansion and laid out fine gardens, which, in 1742,
were thrown open as a proprietary place of entertainment.
A building called the Rotunda was erected for concerts, and
the gardens quickly became a favourite resort of fashionable
society. Balls and masquerades, exhibitions of fireworks,
regattas and many other forms of amusement were provided ;
but by the close of the iSth century Ranelagh was ceasing to
attract the public, and in 1803 the Rotunda was closed. The
buildings were removed, and the grounds became the property
of Chelsea Hospital. They are still included in the pleasant
gardens belonging to that foundation, but no traces of the
popular Ranelagh are preserved. There is, however, a
fashionable modern club of the same name.
See Warwick Wroth, London Pleasure Gardens of the Eighteenth
Century (London, 1896).
RANGE-FINDER, TELEMETER or POSITION-FINDER (Fr.
telemetre; Ger. Distanzmesser; It. Telemelro; Russ. Dalnomier;
Span. Telemetro; in the United States the word telemeter is
sometimes applied to the stadia used in connexion with the
tacheometer), an instrument, of which many varieties have
been invented, for assisting the gunner and the infantry soldier
in determining the distance or "range" 1 to their objective.
Nearly all range-finders may be described as instruments
which automatically solve a triangle. Usually it is a right-
angled triangle, the length of the base of which is known, and
one of the sides is the range it is desired to find. They are,
in fact, goniometers, but the angle which they measure, whether
it may be at the end of the measured base, or that subtended
by it, is usually expressed as a function of the angle in terms
of the measured base. Thus the range is recorded directly
in metres or yards without calculation. It is proposed here
1 The word " range," from O.Fr. range, from ranger, to place in a
row or rank (rang being a variant of rone, whence Eng. rank "),
meant properly a row or line of objects, as still in " mountain-
range " ; the secondary meanings of an area or space of ground,
sphere of action, compass, extent, distance, are derived from the
verb " to range," to stretch out in a line, to extend, to move about
over a given area.
to describe principally the range-finding instruments in the
British services (i) as used in the fleet; (2) by the army in
the field; (3) in harbour defence; and (4) to refer briefly to
range-finders, not under these heads, of English and foreign,
design.
i. The necessity for a range-finder afloat caused the British-
Admiralty in 1891 to issue an advertisement in the press
inviting inventors to produce an instrument which would,
amongst other conditions, record ranges with an accuracy of
within 3% at 3000 yds. The resulting competition was de-
clared in favour of a range-finder which is the joint invention
of Professor Barr of the Glasgow University and Professor
Stroud of the Yorkshire College.
The naval range-finder consists of a tube 2 which contains two
telescopes. It is carried on a frame by bearings, in which the tube
is free to revolve about its longer axis. To the frame Rarraad
is attached a weight capable of movement within a tank. _< a
This weight balances the range-finder and frame upon
knife-edges. By means of the handle on the left of the
instrument and an altitude worm beneath it, the motion of
the tube is governed, and the line of sight is directed on
the objective. By partially filling the tank with water, the
swinging of the weight in a seaway can be checked. The frame is
supported on a pedestal and can rotate in azimuth upon it (fig. i).
,PlliKT ICARIHC
/ _,XI1I HUB
FIG. I. Barr and Stroud.
A rubber guard is fitted round the eye-pieces. Its functions are to
guide the eyes of the observer into the correct position, and to
protect them from side light and the distressing effect of wind. It
also guards the forehead against the jar occasioned by firing heavy
guns. The upper portion of the field presented to the left eye is
used as a finder, the lower portion is occupied by the scale upon
which the ranges are engraved. The finder is a tow-power telescope
of large field, to the centre of which the objective is brought. When
the telescope is thus correctly aligned, the objective will be seen
with the right eye largely magnified, but as two_ partial images
separated by a thin black horizontal line. When coincidence of the
images is effected by means of the working head, the range can be
2 The length of tube varies from 3 ft. in the smaller to 9 ft. in the
larger instruments
RANGE-FINDER
read off against a pointer from the scale seen with the left eye. For
night use, means are provided for illuminating the scale. The range
to lights may be ascertained by the use of the astigmatizer, an optical
device by which a point of light is drawn out into a vertical streak.
A beam of light from the objective falls on each reflector (fig. 2),
or on different parts of the same objective, and thus inaccuracy in the
recorded range must result. The instruments are expected to give an
accuracy of less than
A
ijictln
SUWJKT
TINDER OBJECT CLASi
FRAMI nt Piece mtSMS-ca
IOBJ
<CI CUtU CASI
FIG. 2. Barr and Stroud.
and passing through the object-glasses, each is received by an arrange-
ment of prisms about the centre of the tube, and reflected through
the right eye-piece. Two partial images are thus seen. The images
could be united by the rotation of one of the reflectors, but owing
to the small base used the necessary movement would be so extremely
small that it would be practically impossible to measure it. The
difficulty has been surmounted by utilizing fixed reflectors and effect-
ing coincidence by means of a prism of small angle. The deflecting
prism is situated in the line of the beam of light from the reflector
at the right-hand end of the tube. Its multiplying action is of
great delicacy. The angle available for subdivision, to measure
ranges between infinity and 250 yds., is only one-third of a degree.
In a travel of 6 in. the prism renders accurate measurements possible
within the required limits. To bring images of distant objectives
into coincidence, the prism must be moved towards the eye-piece,
and for near objectives in the opposite direction. The range scale
is attached to the prism. A consequent advantage is that the
accuracy of the instrument is not affected by back lash arising from
wear, or irregularity in the actuating mechanism. When once
installed, the instrument is always ready for use. Should adjust-
ment be required it is readily and easily applied. It is not within
the sphere of this article to enter into the detail of the adjusting
mechanism. For further particulars the reader is referred to the
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, joth January
1896. The working of the range-finder is so simple that its use is
quickly learnt by any man who can read, and with little instruction
and practice he can " take a range " in 8 to 12 seconds. Besides
its principal purpose, in connexion with gunnery, there are minor
uses in navigation and nautical surveying to which the range-finder
can be applied.
With the high speeds of modern war-vessels, guns and their
objective approach each other so quickly that unless ranges can
be communicated from the instrument to the guns with rapidity
and accuracy the range-finder is deprived of much of its value.
In connexion with the naval range-finder an apparatus is provided,
which though not part of the range-finder is sufficiently important
to claim passing notice. The apparatus consists of a transmitting
and a receiving instrument of clockwork mechanism electrically
controlled. In appearance they resemble the ordinary engine-room
telegraph, on the dials of which ranges take the place of orders.
The transmitter can communicate with a number of receiving
instruments, disposed as required in different parts of the ship.
2. Before the introduction of the Marindin range-finder
described below, the British army in the field used the " meko-
meter." The instruments used by the cavalry and infantry
are smaller and lighter than those of the artillery pattern,
but the principle involved is identical.
The mekometer is practically a box sextant. Two instruments
are used simultaneously at the ends of a base of fixed length. One
sextant, called the right-angle instrument, is fitted with index and
horizon glasses permanently inclined at 45. It consequently
measures a right angle. In the other sextant, called the reading
instrument, a graduated drum takes the place of the usual index
arm and scale. The drum is graduated spirally with a scale of
ranges. Both reading and right-angle instruments are fitted with
a vane of gun metal with a white strip down the centre to facilitate
observations. Telescopes of low power can be fitted to the instru-
ments, and two cords of 50 (or 25$) yds. are provided with which
to measure the base.
Two observers attach the ends of the cord of fixed length (usually
50 yds.) to their instruments and separate until it is taut. The
observer with the right-angle instrument moves into such
a position that coincidence of image will be given between
the objective and the vane of the instrument at the other
end of the base, i.e. he makes ABC a right angle (fig. 3).
When the right angle is established, the observer at C turns the
graduated drum of the reading instrument until the image of the
vane of the right angle instrument coincides with the direction of
the objective. The range AC is then read on the drum. The
ranges on the drum are measures of the angle BAG when the base
BC is 50 yds.
The mekometer is open to the objection which is common to all
range-finders requiring more than one observer. There is always a
danger that observers may cause coincidence on different objectives
2 % at 2000 yds. For
ranges over that dis-
tance, i.e. for usual
' artillery ranges, it is
I io- desirable to use a
^"double base (100 yds.
ruelo "in length), in which
case the range regis-
tered on the drum must
be doubled. This opera-
tion, although slight,
is a distinct disadvant-
age, since it adds to the
time of taking a range
and is a possible source '""jj--
of error. For field
artillery, however, a
range-finder is only an
auxiliary adjunct. The true range can be found by a process
of trial and error (see ARTILLERY) in as short a time as the
mekometer observers take to report it. It must further be
Meko-
meter.
remembered that as shrapnel is the principal projectile of field
artillery, not only the correct elevation but also the true length of
time fuse has to be found. This the range-finder cannot do. Hence
it is 'that the range-finder for field artillery, although a valuable
auxiliary, is not of the same importance as in purely defensive
positions, such as batteries for harbour defence, and land forts.
The Marindin range-finder was from 1908 gradually intro-
duced in the infantry to replace the mekometer. It was the
invention of Captain A. H. Marindin, of the Black Watch
(Royal Highlanders).
^ The principle of the instrument is that of coincidence, as in the
Gautier Christie, Le Cyre, Souchier, and Barr and Stroud. But
it differs from the last mentioned in that the right prism is made
movable, and this movement (necessarily extremely small) is a
function of the recorded range.
The steel tube, forming the base of the instrument, which carries the
prisms.is supported inside an aluminium outer tube in sucha
way that no direct shock is communicated to it. The M" rl '"" a
appearance of the outside of the instrument, together p?"?*'
with the names of the various parts, is shown in fig. 4.
The instrument can be used in two main positions, viz. horizontally.
Instrument closed.
l/CKTCUtt
Instrument ready for use.
FIG. 4. Marindin Range-Finder.
for ranging on upright objects, or vertically, for ranging on horizontal
targets.
For instance, in the diagram (fig. 5) of a road running uphill,
the instrument could be held in any of the three positions indicated,
and would give good ranges, but probably the best range would
be obtained if held as at c. If it is required to use the instrument
890
RANGE-FINDER
at night, the two caps of the night-glasses should be opened. On
looking through the instrument, any lamp or other light will
appear like a fine, bright line, and the range can be taken in the
ordinary way.
This range-finder possesses the superlative advantage of the
one-man instrument, and it is claimed for it that it can range on
horizontal objects, such as the crest of a hill, which has no detail
suitable for use with a mekometer, and that it can be adjusted on
service with no greater difficulty than the setting of a watch.
3. For harbour defence, owing to the long range of naval
guns, and the fast targets which war-vessels present, an accurate
range-finder is of first importance. This is largely the case
because " ranging " cannot be resorted to in the same manner
as in the field, where the targets are comparatively motionless
and the effective ranges are less. Successful artillery practice
therefore depends, in a great measure, upon the range-finder.
The instrument used in harbour forts is known as the depression
range-finder. As its name suggests, it solves a triangle in the
vertical plane, of which the base is the height of the instrument
above sea-level. Its appearance resembles some forms of theodolite
(fig. 6). A framework, capable of rotating in azimuth on a vertical
FIG. 6. Depression Range-Finder.
pivot, is supported on a plate carried by levelling screws, L, L, L.
To the framework are pivoted two arms DC and FE, at C and E
respectively. The arm EF is supported at F by a vertical screw H
ending in a drum, upon which, in a spiral scale, the ranges are
graduated. Motion in altitude is thus given to the telescope. The
arm CD is supported by a slider G. This slider is set by a rack and
pinion to the height above sea-level (represented on a scale of feet
on EF) at which the instrument may be used. A telescope AB is
suitably fitted in jaws at the top of the frame. There are spirit-
levels at M and Q for adjusting purposes. The telescope is provided
with cross wires which can be illuminated for night use. An
azimuth circle X and pointer Y enable the direction of any vessel
to be indicated, the range of which it is desired to know. The
instrument rests on a base plate R, to which it is locked by the
top-plate O. The observer directs the cross wires of the telescope
upon the water-line of the objective, by means of the drum I and
the azimuth handle P, the top of which just appears in the diagram.
The reader watches the arrow on the drum and calls out the ranges
as the figures arrive beneath it. The ranges are communicated
to the officers at the guns by various devices, which differ according
to local requirements.
Position-Finder. The range-finding instrument known in
the British service as the Position-Finder (invented by Colonel
Watkin, C.B., R.A.) is practically a large depression range-
finder. It posesses, however, certain additional appliances
which render it capable of automatically recording, upon an
oriented chart, the position or course of a vessel. And further,
by electrical means it automatically records to a distant
battery the range and bearing of the desired objective. The
position-finder can therefore, from a concealed and safe position,
Coast automatically control the fire of a group of guns,
Defence whose detachments need not necessarily see the
target engaged. As the observer follows the objec-
tive with the telescope of the instrument the range
and bearing is simultaneously shown in the battery on convenient
dials. The distance and direction thus communicated are the
range and bearing from the guns, not as measured from the
range-finder. The correction due to the displacement between
gun and instrument is automatic. In localities where the
height does not admit of using the depression system, an
alternative arrangement is provided, known as the Horizontal
Position-Finder. It is open to the objections common to
two-man range-finders, and is only employed where necessity
compels its use. Briefly, there are two observing stations at
either end of a measured and electrically connected base.
One is known as the transmitting and the other the receiving
station; the latter contains the principal instrument, which
usually is capable of independent use for medium and short
ranges as a depression instrument.
It will be seen that the difference between the two systems is,
that the first described solves the range triangle in the vertical, and
the latter in the horizontal plane. There have been various methods
proposed for using the position-finder. The best results are obtained
by placing range and bearing dials on the gun-mounting in a position
where they can be easily seen by the men elevating and
ft training the gun. The gun is kept directed upon the
II objective and fired as quickly as it can be loaded. A
|| position-finder can be used for firing mines in a mine field,
and instruments are issued to the Royal Navy for this
purpose.
In the United States of America the term " position-
finder " is applied to a range-finder which gives direction
as well as distance. This is substantially correct, but cus-
tom, in the British service, confines the use of the expression
as defined above.
4. Various appliances, not strictly range-finders, are
sometimes used to assist in estimating distance. The
following examples are not without interest:
Acoustic telemeters, depending upon the velocity of
sound, are obviously unsuited to the requirements of
modern warfare. The names of Thouvenin, Redier and
Le Boulenge are connected with such instruments that of
the last-named is perhaps the most convenient. It con-
sists of a graduated glass tube filled with liquid, of suitable
density, and containing a small metal traveller. At the
flash of discharge of a gun or rifle the instrument is brought
to a vertical position, and the traveller starts from zero;
at the detonation, it is turned to a horizontal position
and the traveller stops at the point on the scale indicating
the range.
On this principle is the rough method of ascertaining the distance,
in yards, of a thunderstorm, viz. multiply the number of seconds
elapsing between the perception of the lightning and that of the
thunder by the number of days in the year.
Optical or perspective telemeters determine the distance to any
point by observing the size of some object of known dimensions,
as seen in a graduated telescope. Porro's telemeter, Elliott's other
telescope and Nordenfelt's macrometer illustrate the prin- Tele-
ciple. The chief defect of the system is that the objects meters.
most conveniently observed men and horses vary con-
siderably in size, so that the assumption of a constant dimension may
be productive of error.
On the continent of Europe the perspective telemeter for military
purposes has attracted more attention than in England. The
French in their precise terminology call such an instrument " Stadia
militaire," a term which at once distinguishes it from a " telemetre,"
and describes its nature. In rapid military sketching, in locating
positions upon maps, &c., perspective telemeters find a use. The
telescopes issued to field batteries and to coast forts in France are
provided with a scale in the field of view. By comparing this scale
with known heights, such as the average height of a man on foot,
or the known height of funnels, masts, turrets, &c., of a war-vessel,
distance can be estimated with fair accuracy.
The " jumelle Souchier," which can be used as an ordinary field-
glass, is constructed on the stadia principle. By its means ranges
can be estimated within an accuracy of 10%. A stand or rest,
however, is necessary for good results.
General Percin of the French army has shown, in an interesting
pamphlet, that a piece of wood or card cut to a known fraction of
the distance between the eye and the end of the thumb, when the
arm is fully extended, can be used to estimate distances. Thus it is
easy to find a penny in good condition of which the thickness is
iforth part of the arm-length in a man of average height. Provided
with such a coin an observer finds its rim to exactly cover a distant
man 6 ft. (or 2 yds. high). The range therefore is 400X2 =800 yds.
Similarly, if the man's height appeared to be but half the thickness
of the coin the range would be 4X400 = 1600 yds. With a little
practice the eye estimates the proportion between the object of
RANGER RANGOON
891
known height and the stadia used. General Percin gives many
useful applications of this simple device.
Various range-finders have been produced in countries outside
the British Isles which, as they are the outcome of similar necessity
and required for identical purposes, naturally resemble, more or
less, the instruments already described.
Field artillery officers of all countries usually claim their gun to
be their best range-finder. This may be another way of saying that
a durable, one-man range-finder, capable of instantaneously finding
modern artillery ranges with accuracy, has yet to be invented. In
France the " te'le'metre Goutier " for field artillery, a two-man
instrument, corresponds with the Watkin mekometer.
The " Gautier, used by the Italian field artillery, is a one-man
instrument, but requires a measured base-line. The " Aubry "
telemeter, used by some of the Russian batteries in Manchuria, is
very portable, but requires a measured base-line, and a slide rule to
find the range. In the French and Russian infantry the " prisme-
te'lemetre," the invention of Colonel Souchier, is used. It is small,
very light, and can be carried in the same manner as field-glasses.
French machine guns are ranged by the " te'16metre instantand,"
an instrument of the Barr and Stroud type, with an aluminium base
I metre in length.
For work in the field the modern tendency abroad is to follow Barr
and Stroud. In Germany, Hahn, Goerz and Zeiss have produced
handy and fairly light short base range-finders, in outward appear-
ance more or less similar to Marindin's instrument.
The Zeiss range-finder, however, depends on the stereoscopic
principle. It is open to the objection that best results can only be
obtained with it by persons who are capable of seeing stereoscopically,
and also, in individuals possessing this particular gift (a com-
paratively small proportion of the human race), stereoscopic vision
may vary in power from day to day. Nevertheless the Zeiss range-
finder has found favour in many countries, notably as the infantry
range-finder in Italy. For naval and harbour defence .purposes
the Barr and Stroud range-finder is very largely used throughout the
world. In Italy a Barr and Stroud instrument, with the large base
of 5 metres, was in 1908 under trial for coast artillery.
Of the depression range-finder type in France, " le t616metre
D6v6 " is used at all heights of about 70 ft. and upwards.
Brazil possesses, in the invention of Captain Mario Netto, an
excellent range-finder. It is supplied to the harbour defences of
that country. It is accurate, handy, easily transported and re-
erected where required, and is not affected by the concussion of
heavy gun-fire. The German coast range-finder of Hahn closely
resembles the earlier Watkin instruments. In Italy the Amici
instrument is being replaced by the Braccialine. The latter inventor
has also supplied his country with a horizontal base instrument.
After extended competitive trials in the U.S.A. the Lewis de-
pression range-finder has been found superior to others presented
to the Range-Finding Committee, and is recommended for adoption.
It is a neat, workmanlike instrument, and gave an average mean
error of 24 yds. in the ranges recorded during the trials. The
maximum range was 12,000 yds. and the height of base 135$ ft.
The details of position-finders abroad, as in the British service,
are confidential, and but little is published of the " te'USmetre par
recoupement " of the French coast batteries, or the " telegonio-
metro Sollier " of Italy. In the United States, B. A. Fiske has
ingeniously adapted the principle of the Wheatstone bridge in the
construction of the position-finder which bears his name.
SeedeMarre', Instruments pour la mesure de distances (Paris, 1880);
Abridgments of Specifications, Class 97, Patent Office, London;
Handbooks and Instructions for Range- Finder, published by the
British War Office; Barr and Stroud, Proc. Inst. Meek. Eng.,
3Oth Jan. 1896; Zeiss pamphlet by Carl Zeiss of Jena, which gives
a candid statement of the difficulty attending the stereoscopic
principle, &c. (F. M. L.*)
RANGER, HENRY WARD (1858- ), American artist, was
born at Syracuse, New York, in January 1858. He became a
prominent landscape and marine painter, much of his work
being done in Holland, and showing the influence of the modern
Dutch school. He became a National Academician (1906), and
a member of the American Water Color Society. Among his
paintings are, " Top of the Hill," Corcoran Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C.; and " East River Idyll," Carnegie Institute,
Pittsburg.
RANGOON, the capital of Burma, situated on the left bank
of the Hlaing or Rangoon river, 21 m. from the sea, in 16 47' N.
and 96 13' E. In 1880 the city was detached from the main
district, called Hanthawaddy, and formed into a separate
district, with an area of 19 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 234,881,
of whom just half were immigrants from India. Rangoon,
from being a comparatively insignificant place, has within
less than half a century risen to be the third seaport in British
India, being surpassed only by Calcutta and Bombay in the
volume of its trade. During the busy season of rice-export,
which lasts from the end of December to the middle of May, the
pool forming the port of Rangoon presents almost as crowded
a scene as the Hugli at Calcutta. Rangoon has the double
advantage of being situated near the sea and being served by a
great river navigable for 900 m. behind it. The approach
to the port is not difficult at any season of the year. With
flat and shelving shores, the shoal-banks off the main mouths
of the delta form the chief danger to shipping, and this is
guarded against by a good service of lighthouses and lightships.
For a length of seven or eight miles the river is from a mile to a
mile and a quarter in breadth, so that there is plenty of accommo-
dation for shipping. Here is concentrated the whole of the rich
trade of the delta of the Irrawaddy. Great part of the river front-
age is occupied with rice-mills, teak wharves and similar build-
ings. The rice exported from Rangoon in 1004-5 amounted to
28 million cwt. with a value of nearly 7 million sterling.
The city is dominated by the great golden pile of the Shwe
Dag6n pagoda, the centre of Burmese religious life. Rising to a
height of 368 ft., this magnificent building is loftier than St
Paul's Cathedral in London, and its size is greatly enhanced by
the fact that it stands on an eminence that is itself 168 ft. above
the level of the city. It is covered with pure gold from base
to summit, and once in every generation this gold is renewed by
public subscription. Moreover, benefactions to this pagoda are
one of the favourite methods of acquiring religious merit among
the Burmese. The pagoda itself has no interior. It is a solid
stupa of brick, in the form of a cone, raised over a relic chamber;
and the place of worship is the surrounding platform with a
perimeter of nearly 1400 ft.
Though traditionally a site of great sanctity, Rangoon owes
its first importance to its rebuilding in 1753 by Alompra, the
founder of the Burmese monarchy, who gave it the present name
of Van Kon, "the end of the war." An English factory was
opened here about 1700. On the outbreak of the first Burmese
War, in 1824, it was taken by the British, but subsequently
restored. It was captured a second time in 1852, and passed
along with the province of Pegu into the hands of the British.
It was destroyed by fire in 1850, and serious conflagrations
occurred again in 1853 and 1855. Since the last devastation
Rangoon has undergone considerable improvements. Until
1874, when the existing municipality was constituted, the
administration was in the hands of the local government,
which devoted itself to raising the centre of the town above the
river level, providing land fit for building purposes from the
original swamp, which was flooded at spring-tides, and making
roads, bridges, culverts and surface drains. In 1892 was intro-
duced the sewage system, which now includes 6 m. of mains,
22 m. of gravitating sewers, 4! m. of air mains and 44
Shone's ejectors. The water supply, drawn from the Victoria
Lake, 5 m. distant, has recently been supplemented by an
additional reservoir, 10 m. farther off. The city proper of
Rangoon with the Kemmendine suburb is laid out on the block
system, each block being 800 by 860 ft., intersected with
regular streets. In the extensions to the east and west it has
been decided to have no streets less than 50 ft. wide. The
roads are still lighted by kerosene oil lamps, but electric lighting
is in comtemplation. Electric tramways run to Pazundaung in
one direction and to A16n and Kemmendine in the other, as well
as to the foot of the Shwe Dag&n Pagoda hill. Latterly the
erection of masonry buildings, instead of plank houses, has been
insisted on in the central portion of the city, with the result that
fires have decreased in number. There are two large maidans,
or commons, which are used as military parade grounds and for
racing, as well as for golf links and other purposes of amusement.
There is a garden round the Phayre Museum, managed by the
Agri-Horticultural Society, and an extremely pretty and well-
kept garden in the cantonments under the pagoda. Beyond
these lie the Royal Lake and Dalhousie Park, with
1 60 acres of water and 205 acres of well-laid-out and well-
timbered park land. Dalhousie Park has recently been greatly
extended, and the new Victoria Park, declared open on the
892
RANGPUR RANK
occasion of the visit of the prince of Wales in 1906, is quite the
finest in the East. There are two cathedrals, Church of England
and Roman Catholic, and a Presbyterian church, besides the
cantonment church buildings for worship. Religious buildings
and lands, indeed, occupy an area in Rangoon out of all propor-
tion to its size. Buddhists, Hindus, Mussulmans, Parsees,
Armenians and Jews all own lands and pagodas, temples,
mosques, churches and synagogues. The Buddhist monasteries,
in particular, occupy wide spaces in very central portions of the
town and cantonments. Burial-grounds are equally extensive,
and exist in every direction in what were once the outskirts, but
are now fast becoming central parts of the city. The chief
educational institutions are the Government Rangoon college,
the Baptist college and St John's college (S.P.G.). Besides the
general hospital, a female hospital in connexion with the Dufferin
Fund has recently been built, and there are hospitals for con-
tagious diseases and for lepers in the suburbs. The staple
industries are mills for husking rice and for sawing timber, and
petroleum refineries. Carving in wood and ivory, and embossed
silverwork are also carried on. There are three municipal and
eight private markets, which are being improved and extended.
Everything, from sacking to jewelry, is sold in them. The
introduction of pure water and the establishment of compulsory
vaccination have greatly improved the health of Rangoon. But
the death-rate is still high, due partly to the swampy nature of
the outskirts of the city proper, and still more to the mortality
among Hindu immigrants from the Madras presidency. The
total rainfall in 1905 was 104-96 in. Rangoon is the head-
quarters of a brigade in the Burma command of the Southern
army. (J. G. Sc.)
RANGPUR, or RUNGPORE, a town and district of British
India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
The town is situated on the little river Ghaghat. Pop. (1901)
15,960. There are a high school, a normal school and an
industrial school. The earthquake of the I2th of June 1897
destroyed many of the public buildings and diverted the
drainage channels.
The DISTRICT OF RANGPUR, with an area of 3493 sq. m., is
one vast plain. The greater part of it, particularly towards
the east, is inundated during the rains, and the remainder is
traversed by a network of streams which frequently break
through their sandy banks and plough for themselves new
channels over the fields. The river system is constituted by
the Brahmaputra and its tributaries, chief of which are the
Tista, Dharla, Sankos and Dudhkumar. The climate is
generally malarious, owing to the numerous stagnant swamps
and .marshes filled with decaying vegetable matter. The annual
rainfall averages 82 in. About three-fourths of the district
is under continuous cultivation. Spare land can hardly be
said to exist even the patches of waste land yield a valuable
tribute of reeds and cane. The staple crops are rice, oil-seeds,
jute and tobacco. In 1901 the population was 2,154,181,
showing an increase of 4.3% in the decade. Nearly two-thirds
are Mahommedans. The Eastern Bengal railway has two
branches, one of which crosses the district to the Brahmaputra,
and the other runs north towards Assam.
The tract comprised within the district of Rangpur was for-
merly the western outpost of the ancient Hindu kingdom of
Kamrup, which appears to have attained its greatest power and
prosperity under Raja Nilambar, who was treacherously over-
thrown by Ala-uddin Hosain of Bengal at the close of the isth
century. Rangpur passed to the East India Company in 1765
under the firman of the emperor Shah Alam. Since then a great
number of changes have taken place in the jurisdiction, in con-
sequence of which the district area has been much diminished.
RANJIT SINGH, MAHARAJA (1780-1839), native Indian ruler,
was born on the 2nd of November 1780, the son of Sirdar
Mahan Singh, whom he succeeded in 1792 as head of the Sukar-
chakia branch of the Sikh confederacy. By birth he was only
one of many Sikh barons and owed his rapid rise entirely to
force of character and will. At the age of seventeen he seized
the reins of government. He is said to have poisoned his
mother, though it is more probable that he merely imprisoned
her to keep her out of his way. At the age of twenty he obtained
from Zaman Shah, the king of Afghanistan, a grant of Lahore,
which he seized by force of arms in 1799. Subsequently he
attacked and annexed Amritsar in 1802, thus becoming master
of the two Sikh capitals. When Jaswant Rao Holkar took
refuge in the Punjab in 1805, Ranjit Singh made a treaty with
the British, excluding Holkar from his territory. Shortly
afterwards acute difficulties arose between him and the British
as to the Cis-Sutlej portion of the Punjab. It was Ranjit
Singh's ambition to weld the whole of the Punjab into a single
Sikh empire, while the British claimed the territory south of
the Sutlej by right of conquest from the Mahrattas. The
difference proceeded almost to the point of war; but at the
last moment Ranjit Singh gave way, and for the future faith-
fully observed his engagements with the British, whose rising
power he was wise enough to gauge. In 1808 Charles Metcalfe
was sent to settle this question with Ranjit Singh, and a treaty
was concluded at Amritsar on the isth of April 1809. At this
period a band of Sikh fanatics called " akalis," attacked Sir
Charles Metcalfe's escort, and the steadiness with which the
disciplined sepoys repulsed them, so impressed the maharaja
that he decided to change the strength of his army from cavalry
to infantry. He organized a powerful force, which was trained
by French and Italian officers such as Generals Ventura, Allard
and Avitabile, and thus forged the formidable fighting instru-
ment of the Khalsa army, which afterwards gave the British
their hardest battles in India in the two Sikh wars. In 1810
he captured Multan after many assaults and a long siege, and
in 1820 had consolidated the whole of the Punjab between the
Sutlej and the Indus under his dominion. In 1823 the city and
province of Peshawar became tributary to him. In 1833 when
Shah Shuja, flying from Afghanistan, sought refuge at his
court, he took from him the Koh-i-nor diamond, which subse-
quently came into the possession of the British crown. Though
he disapproved of Lord Auckland's policy of substituting Shah
Shuja for Dost Mahomed, he loyally supported the British in
their advance on Afghanistan. Known as " The Lion of the
Punjab," Ranjit Singh died of paralysis on the 27th of June
1839.
In his private life Ranjit Singh was selfish, avaricious, drunken
and immoral, but he had a genius for command and was the
only man the Sikhs ever produced strong enough to bind them
together. His military genius showed itself not so much in
actual generalship as in the organization of his plans, the
selection of his generals and his ministers, the tenacity of his
purpose and the soundness of his judgment. The British
were the one power in India that was too strong for him, and
as soon as he realized that fact he was unwaveringly loyal to
his engagements with them. His power was military aristo-
cracy resting on the personal qualities of its founder, and after
his death the Sikh confederacy gradually crumbled and fell
to pieces through sheer want of leadership; and the rule of
the Sikhs in the Punjab passed away completely as soon as it
incurred the hostility of the British.
See Sir Lepel Griffin, Ranjit Singh (Rulers of India Series), 1892;
General Sir John Gordon, The Sikhs, 1904; and S. S. Thorburn,
The Punjab in Peace and War, 1904.
RANK (O.Fr. ranc or renc, mod. rang, generally connected
with the O.E. and O.H.G. hring, a ring), a row or line, as of
cabs or carriages, but especially of soldiers drawn up abreast
in a line; in " rank and file " the " rank " is the horizontal
line of soldiers, the " file " the vertical. From the sense of
orderly arrangement " rank " is applied to grades or classes
in a social or other organization, and particularly to a high
grade, as in such expressions as a " person of rank." This
word must be distinguished from the adjective " rank," over-
luxuriant, coarse, strong, generally connected with the Low
Ger. rank, thin, tall (cf. Du. rank, upright). The O.E. rinc,
warrior, i.e. full-grown man, may be also connected with the
word; Skeat refers also to " rack," to pull out straight.
RANKE
893
RANKE, LEOPOLD VON (1795-1886), German historian,
was born on the zoth or the zist of December 1795, in the
small town of Wiehe, in Thuringia, which then formed part of
the electorate of Saxony. His father, Gottlob Israel Ranke,
was an advocate, but his ancestors, so far back as the family
can be traced, had been ministers of religion. Leopold received
his education first at Donndorf, a school established in an old
monastery near his home, and then at the famous school of
Schulpforta, whence he passed to the university of Halle and
later to that of Berlin. His studies, both at school and
university, were classical and theological. The great political
events which occurred during his boyhood and youth seem to
have had less effect on him than on many of his contemporaries,
and he was not carried away either by enthusiastic admiration
for Napoleon or by the patriotic fervour of 1813. Nor was
he implicated in the political movements which during the
following years attracted so many students; on the contrary,
he already displayed that detachment of mind which was to
be so characteristic of him. In 1818 he became a master in a
school at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, thereby entering the service
of the Prussian government. The headmaster of this school
was Ernst Friedrich Poppo (1794-1866), a celebrated Grecian,
and Ranke was entrusted with the teaching of history.
With the scholar's dislike of textbooks, he rapidly acquired
a thorough knowledge of the ancient historians, quickly passed
on to medieval times, and here it was that he formed as the
ideal of his life the study of universal history, the works of
God as displayed in the history of the human race. Here,
too, he composed his first work, which deals with the period
to which most of his life was to be devoted, Geschichte der
romanischen und germanischen Volker 1494-1514 (Berlin,
1824). To this was appended a critical dissertation on the
historians who had dealt with the period (Zur Kritik neuerer
Geschichtschreiber), which, showing as it did how untrustworthy
was much of traditional history, was to be for modern history
as epoch-marking as the critical work of Niebuhr had been in
ancient history. A copy of the book was sent to the Prussian
minister of education, Karl Albert Kamptz (1769-1849), the
notorious hunter of democrats. Within a week Ranke received
the promise of a post at Berlin, and in less than three months
was appointed supernumerary professor in the university of
that city, a striking instance of the promptitude with which
the Prussian government recognized scientific merit when,
as in Ranke's case, it was free from dangerous political opinions.
The connexion thus established in 1825 was to last for fifty
years. At the Berlin Library Ranke found a collection of
MS. records, chiefly Italian, dealing with the period of the
Reformation; from a study of them he found how different
were the real events as disclosed in contemporary documents
from the history as recorded by most writers; and the result
of his researches was embodied in his second work, Fiirsten und
Volker von Siideuropa im 16 und 17 Jahrhundert (1827). In
later editions the title of this book was altered to Die Osmanen
und die spanische Monarchic. It was now his ambition to
continue his exploration of the new world thus opened to him.
The Prussian government provided the means, and in
September 1827 he started for Italy. His first sojourn was
in Vienna, where the friendship of Gentz and the protection
of Metternich opened to him the Venetian archives, of which
many were preserved in that city a virgin field, the value of
which he first discovered, and which is still unexhausted.
He found time, in addition, to write a short book on Die Serbische
Revolution (1829), from material supplied to him by Wuk
Stephanowich, a Servian who had himself been witness of the
scenes he related. This was afterwards expanded into Serbien
und die Tiirkei im 19 Jahrhundert (1879). In 1828 he at last
crossed the Alps, and the next three years were spent in Italy.
The recommendations of Metternich opened to him almost
every library except the Vatican; and it was during these
three years of study in Venice, Ferrara, Rome, Florence and
other cities, that he obtained that acquaintance with European
history which was to make him the first historian of his time.
At Rome, as he said, he learned to see events from the inside.
He wrote nothing but a critical examination of the story of
Don Carlos, but he returned to Germany a master of his craft.
For a time Ranke was now engaged in an occupation of a
different nature, for he was appointed editor of a periodical
in which Friedrich Perthes designed to defend the Prussian
government against the democratic press. Ranke, contemptu-
ous in politics, as in history, of the men who warped
facts to support some abstract theory, especially disliked
the doctrinaire liberalism so fashionable at the time. He
hoped, by presenting facts as they were, to win the adhesion
of all parties. We need not be surprised that he failed; men
desired not the scientific treatment of politics, but satire and
invective. Exposed thus to attack, his weakness, if not his
venality, was long an article of faith among the liberals. He
did not satisfy the Prussian conservatives, and after four
years the Historische PolUische Blatter came to an end. Two-
thirds of the matter had been contributed by the editor, and
the two stout volumes in which the numbers were collected
contained the best political thought which had for long
appeared in Germany. For Ranke the failure was not to
be regretted; the rest of his life was to be wholly devoted to
that in which he excelled. During 1834-36 appeared the
three volumes of his Die romischen Papste, ihre Kirche und
ihr Staat im 16 und 17 Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1834-36, and
many other editions), in form, as in matter, the greatest of
his works, containing the results of his studies in Italy. Hence-
forth his name was known in all European countries; the
English translation by Mrs Austin was the occasion of one of
Macaulay's most brilliant essays. Before it was completed
he had already begun the researches on which was based the
second of his masterpieces, his Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitaller
der Reformation (Berlin, 1830-47), a necessary pendant to
his book on the popes, and the most popular of his works in
his own country. In 1837 he became full professor at Berlin;
in 1841 Frederick William IV., always ready to recognize
intellectual eminence, appointed him Prussian historiographer.
Stimulated by this, he brought out his Neun Bilcher preussischer
Geschichte (1847-48), a work which, chiefly owing to the
nature of the subject, makes severe demands on the attention
of the reader he is the " Dryasdust " of Carlyle's Frederick;
but in it he laid the foundation for the modern appreciation
of the founders of the Prussian state. The nine books were
subsequently expanded to twelve (Leipzig, 1874). He took
no immediate part in the movements of 1848, but in the
following years he drew up several memoranda for the king,
whom he encouraged in his efforts to defend the character
and identity of the Prussian state against the revolutionaries.
Though never admitted into the inner circle of the king's
associates, he found the king the most appreciative of readers
and stimulating of companions, and the queen one of the
most faithful of his friends; in biographical works and on
other occasions he always defended the memory of the un-
fortunate monarch. A friend even more sympathetic he
found in Maximilian II. of Bavaria, whom he advised in his
expansive schemes for the promotion of learning and letters.
In the quieter years that followed he wrote the third of his
masterpieces, Franzosische Geschichte, vornehmlich im 16 und
17 Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1852-61), which was followed
by his Englische Geschichte, vornehmlich im 16 und 17 Jahr-
hundert (1859-68). This, the longest of his works, added
much to existing knowledge, especially as to the relations
between England and the continent, but it lacked something
of the freshness of his earlier books; he was over seventy
when it was completed, and he was never quite at home in
dealing with the parliamentary foundations of English public
life. In his later years his small alert figure was one of the
most distinguished in the society of Berlin, and every honour
open to a man of letters was conferred upon him. He was
ennobled in 1865, and in 1885 received the title of Excellenz.
When the weakness of his eyes made it necessary for him to
depend almost entirely on the service of readers and secretaries,
8 94
RANKINE RANNOCH
in his eighty-first year he began to write the W eltgeschichte
(9 vols., Leipzig, 1883-88). Drawing on the knowledge ac-
cumulated during sixty years, he had brought it down to
the end of the isth century before his death in Berlin on the
23rd of May 1886.
Ranke's other writings include Zur deutschen Geschichte.
Vom Religionsfrieden bis zum 30 jahrigenKriege (Leipzig, 1868);
Geschichte Wallensteins (Leipzig, 1869; 5th ed., 1896); Abhand-
lungen und Versuche (Leipzig, 1877; a new collection of these
writings was edited by A. Dove and T. Wiedemann, Leipzig,
Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. mil
Bunsen (Leipzig, 1873); Die deutschen Machle und der Fursten-
bund. Deutsche Geschichte 1780-90 (1871-72); Historisch-
biographische Studien (Leipzig, 1878); Ursprung und Beginn der
Revolutionskriege 1701-92 (Leipzig, 1875); and Zur Geschichte
von Oesterreich und Preussen zwischen den Friedensschlilssen
zu Aachen und Huberlusberg (Leipzig, 1875). He also wrote
biographies of Frederick the Great and Frederick William IV.
for the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic.
Ranke married, at Windermere, in 1843, Miss Clara Graves,
daughter of an Irish barrister. She died in 1870, leaving two
sons and one daughter.
At the time of his death Ranke was, not in his own country
alone, generally regarded as the first of modern historians.
It is no disparagement to point out that the recognition he
obtained was due not only to his published work, but also to
his success as a teacher. His public lectures, indeed, were
never largely attended, but in his more private classes, where
he dealt with the technical work of a historian, he trained
generations of scholars. No one since Heyne has had so great
an influence on German academical life, and for a whole genera-
tion the Berlin school had no rival. He took paternal pride
in the achievements of his pupils, and delighted to see, through,
them, his influence spreading in every university. While his
own work lay chiefly in more modern times, he trained in his
classes a school of writers on German medieval history. As
must always happen, it is only a part of his characteristics
which they learnt from him, for his greatest qualities were
incommunicable. The critical method which has since become
almost a formal system, aiming at scientific certainty, was
with him an unexampled power, based on the insight acquired
from wide knowledge, which enabled him to judge the credi-
bility of an author or the genuineness of an authority; but
he has made it impossible for any one to attempt to write
modern history except on the " narratives of eye-witnesses and
the most genuine immediate documents " preserved in the
archives. From the beginning he was determined never to
allow himself to be misled, in his search for truth, by those
theories and prejudices by which nearly every other historian
was influenced Hegelianism, Liberalism, Romanticism, re-
ligious and patriotic prejudice; but his superiority to the
ordinary passions of the historian could only be attained by
those who shared his elevation of character. " My object is
simply to find out how the things actually occurred." " I
am first a historian, then a Christian," he himself said. In
another way no historian is less objective, for in his greatest
works the whole narrative is coloured by the quality of his
mind expressed in his style. An enemy to all controversy and
all violence, whether in act or thought, he had a serenity of
character comparable only to that of Sophocles or Goethe.
Apt to minimize difficulties, to search for the common ground
of unity in opponents, he turned aside, with a disdain which
superficial critics often mistook for indifference, from the base,
the violent and the common. As in a Greek tragedy, we hear
in his works the echo of great events and terrible catastrophes;
we do not see them. He also made it a principle not to relate
that which was already well known, a maxim which necessarily
prevented his works attaining a popularity with the unlearned
equal to their reputation among historians. But no writer has
surpassed him in the clearness and brevity with which he could
sum up the characteristics of an epoch in the history of the
world, or present and define the great forces by which the world
has been influenced. His classicism led to his great limitations
as an historian. He did not deal with the history of the people,
with economic or social problems the dignity of history was
to him a reality. He belonged to the school of Thucydides and
Gibbon, not to that of Macaulay and Taine; he deals by pre-
ference with the rulers and leaders of the world, and he strictly
limits his field to the history of the state, or, as we should say,
political history; and in this he is followed by Seeley, one of
the greatest of his adherents. The leader of modern historians,
he was in truth a man of the ancien rtgime.
Many of Ranke's works have been translated into English. Among
these are Civil Wars and Monarchy in France, by M. A. Garvey
(1852); History of England, principally in the ijih Century (Oxford,
1875); History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations, 1494-1514, by
P. A. Ashworth (1887) and again by S. R. Dennis (1909); History
of the Reformation in Germany, by S. Austin (1845-47); History of
Seroia and the Servian Revolution, by Mrs A. Kerr (1847); Fer-
dinand I. and Maximilian II. of Austria; State of Germany after
the Reformation, by Lady Duff Gordon (1853); Memoirs of the House
of Brandenburg and History of Prussia during the ijth and i8th
Centuries, by Sir Alexander and Lady Duff Gordon (1849); and
History of the Popes during the i6ih and 1 7th Centuries, by S. Austin
(1840; new eds., 1841 and 1847), by W. K. Kelly (1843), and by E.
Foster (1847-53). A collected edition of Ranke's works in fifty-four
volumes was issued at Leipzig (1868-90), but this does not contain
the Weltgeschichte.
For details of Ranke's life and work see his own Zur eigenen
Lebensgeschichte, edited by A. Dove (Leipzig, 1890); and the article
by Dove in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic. Also Winckler,
Leopold von Ranke. Lichtstrahlen aus seinen Werken (Berlin, 1885);
W. von Giesebrecht, Geddchtnisrede auf Leopold von Ranke (Munich,
1887); Guglia, Leopold von Rankes Leben und Werke (Leipzig, 1893);
M. Ritter, Leopold von Ranke (Stuttgart, 1895); Nalbandian,
Leopold von Rankes Bitdungsjahre und Geschichtsauffassung
(Leipzig, 1901); and Helmolt, Leopold Ranke (Leipzig, 1907).
RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN (1820-1872),
Scottish engineer and physicist, was born at Edinburgh on the
5th of July 1820, and completed his education in its university.
He was trained as an engineer under Sir J. B. Macneill, working
chiefly on surveys, harbours and railroads, and was appointed
in 1855 to the chair of civil engineering in Glasgow, vacant by
the resignation of Lewis Gordon, whose work he had undertaken
during the previous session. He was a voluminous writer on
subjects directly connected with his chair, and, besides con-
tributing almost weekly to the technical journals, such as the
Engineer, brought out a series of standard textbooks on Civil
Engineering, The Steam-Engine and other Prime Movers,
Machinery and Millwork, and Applied Mechanics, which have
passed through many editions, and have contributed greatly
to the advancement of the subjects with which they deal. To
these must be added his elaborate treatise on Shipbuilding,
Theoretical and Practical. These writings, however, corre-
sponded to but one phase of Rankine's immense energy and
many-sided character. He was an enthusiastic and most useful
leader of the volunteer movement from its beginning, and a
writer, composer and singer of humorous and patriotic songs,
some of which, as " The Three Foot Rule " and " They never
shall have Gibraltar," became well known far beyond the
circle of his acquaintance. Rankine was the earliest of the
three founders of the modern science of Thermodynamics
(q.v.) on the bases laid by Sadi Carnot and J. P. Joule respect-
ively, and the author of the first formal treatise on the subject.
His contributions to the theories of Elasticity and of Waves
rank high among modern developments of mathematical
physics, although they are mere units among the 150 scientific
papers attached to his name in the Royal Society's Catalogue.
The more important of these were collected and reprinted in a
handsome volume (Rankine's Scientific Papers, London, 1881),
which contains a memoir of the author by Prof. P. G. Tail.
Rankine died at Glasgow on the 24th of December 1872.
RANNOCH, a district of north-west Perthshire, Scotland,
partly extending into Argyllshire. It measures 32 m. E. and
W. and from 10 to 12 m. N. and S. and is surrounded by the
districts of Badenoch, Atholl, Breadalbane, Lome and Loch-
aber. Much of it is wild, bleak and boggy, and, saving on the
E., it is shut in by rugged mountains. The chief rivers are
RANSOM RANUNCULACEAE
895
the Tummel and the Ericht, and the principal lakes Loch
Rannoch and Loch Lydoch, or Laidon (about 6 m. long, } m.
wide and 924 ft. above the sea). Loch Rannoch lies E. and
W., measures pj m. long by fully i m. broad, is 668 ft. above
the sea, covers an area of nearly 7$ sq. m., and has a greatest
depth of 440 ft. It receives the Ericht and many other
streams, and discharges by the Tummel, draining a total area
of 243! sq. m. At the head of the lake is Rannoch Barracks, so
named because it was originally built to accommodate a detach-
ment of troops, under ensign (afterwards Sir) Hector Munro,
stationed here to maintain order after the Jacobite rising of 1745.
Two miles east is Carie, which was the residence of Alexander
Robertson, I3th baron of Struan (1670-1749), the Jacobite
and poet, who was "out" with Dundee (1689), Mar (1715)
and Prince Charles Edward (1745), and yet managed to escape
all punishment beyond self-imposed exile to France after the
first two rebellions. Kinloch Rannoch, at the foot of the loch,
is the principal place in the district, and is in communication
by coach with Struan station (13 m. distant) on the Highland,
and Rannoch station (6 m.) on the West Highland railway.
Dugald Buchanan (1716-1768), the Gaelic poet, was school-
master of the village for thirteen years, and a granite obelisk
has been erected to his memory.
RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. ran(on), the price
for which a captive in war redeemed his life or his freedom, a
town secured immunity from sack, and a ship was repurchased
from her captors. The practice of taking ransom arose in the
middle ages, and had perhaps a connexion with the common
Teutonic custom of commuting for crimes by money payments.
It may, however, have no such historic descent. The desire to
make profit out of the risks of battle, even when they were
notably diminished by the use of armour, would account for it
sufficiently. The right to ransom was recognized by law. One
of the obligations of a feudal tenant was to contribute towards
paying the ransom of his lord. England was taxed for the
ransom of Richard the Lion Hearted, France for King John
taken at Poitiers, and Scotland for King David when he was
captured at Durham. The prospect of gaining the ransom of
a prisoner must have tended to diminish the ferocity of medieval
war, even when it did not reduce the fighting between the
knights to a form of athletic sport in which the loser paid a
forfeit. Readers of Froissart will find frequent mention of this
decidedly commercial aspect of the chivalrous wars of the time.
He often records how victors and vanquished arranged their
" financing." The mercenary views of the military adventurers
were not disguised. Froissart repeats the story that the English
" free companions " or mercenaries, who sold their services to
the king of Portugal, grumbled at the battle of Aljubarrota in
1385, because he ordered their prisoners to be killed, and would
not pursue the defeated French and Spaniards, whereby they
lost lucrative captures. The ransom of a king belonged to the
king of the enemy by whom he was taken. The actual captor
was rewarded at the pleasure of his lord. King Edward III.
paid over instalments of the ransom of the king of France to the
Black Prince, to pay the expenses of his expedition into Spain
in 1367. Occasionally, as in the notable case of Bertrand du
Guesclin, the ransom of a valuable knight or leader would be
paid by his own sovereign. To trade in ransoms became a form
of financial speculation. Sir John Fastolf in the time of King
Henry V. is said to have made a large fortune by buying
prisoners, and then screwing heavy ransoms out of them by
ill-usage. The humane influence of ransom was of course con-
fined to the knights who could pay. The common men, who
were too poor, were massacred. Thus Lord Grey, Queen Eliza-
beth's lord deputy in Ireland, spared the officers of the Spaniards
and Italians he took at Smerwick, but slaughtered the common
men. Among the professional soldiers of Italy in the isth
century the hope of gaining ransom tended to reduce war to a
farce. They would not lose their profits by killing their opponents.
The disuse of the practice was no doubt largely due to the
discovery that men who were serving for this form of gain could
not be trusted to fight seriously.
Instances in which towns paid to avoid being plundered are
innumerable. So late as the war in the Peninsula, 1808-14, it
was the belief of the English soldiers that a town taken by storm
was liable to sack for three days, and they acted on their con-
viction at Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz. and San Sebastian. It was
a question whether ransoms paid by merchant ships to escape
were or were not among the commercia belli. In the early i8th
century the custom was that the captain of a captured vessel
gave a bond or " ransom bill," leaving one of his crew as |a
hostage or " ransomer " in the hands of the captor. Frequent
mention is made of the taking of French privateers which had
in them ten or a dozen ransomers. The owner could be sued on
his bond. At the beginning of the Seven Years' War ransoming
was forbidden by act of parliament. But it was afterwards at
least partially recognized by Great Britain, and was generally
allowed by other nations. In recent times for instance in the
Russo-Japanese War no mention was made of ransom, and with
the disappearance of privateering, which was conducted wholly
for gain, it has ceased to have any place in war at sea, but the
contributions levied by invading armies might still be accurately
described by the name.
RANTERS, an antinomian and spiritualistic English sect in
the time of the Commonwealth, who may be described as the dregs
of the Seeker movement. Their central idea was pantheistic, that
God is essentially in every creature, but though many of them
were sincere and honest in their attempt to express the doctrine
of the Divine immanence, they were in the main unable to hold
the balance. They denied Church, Scripture, the current
ministry and services, calling on men to hearken to Christ within
them. Many of them seem to have rejected a belief in immor-
tality and in a personal God, and in many ways they resemble
the Brethren of the Free Spirit in the I4th century. Their
vague pantheism landed them in moral confusion, and many of
them were marked by fierce fanaticism. How far the accusation
of lewdness brought against them is just is hard to say, but they
seem to have been a really serious peril to the nation. They
were largely recruited from the common people, and there is
plenty of evidence to show that the movement was widespread.
The Ranters came into contact and even rivalry with the early
Quakers, who were often unjustly associated with them. The
truth is that the positive message of the Friends helped to save
England from being overrun with Ranterism. Samuel Fisher, a
Friend, writing in 1653, gives a calm and instructive account of
the Ranters, which with other relevant information, including
Richard Baxter's rather hysterical attack, may be read in
Rufus M. Jones's Studies in Mystical Religion (1009), xix. In
the middle of the igth century the name was often applied to the
Primitive Methodists, with reference to their crude and often
noisy preaching.
RANUNCULACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Dicoty-
ledons belonging to the subclass Polypetalae, and containing
27 genera with about 500 species, which
are distributed through temperate and
cold regions but occur more especially
beyond .the tropics in the northern hemi-
sphere. It is well represented in Britain,
where n genera are native. The plants
are mostly herbs, rarely shrubby, as in
Clematis, which climbs by means of the
leaf-stalks, with alternate leaves, opposite
in Clematis, generally without stipules,
and flowers which show considerable
variation in the number and development permission of Swan/'son 1
of parts but are characterized by free f em
. , FIG. I. Gynoecium
hypogynous sepals and petals, numerous of R anun c U i US : x,
free stamens, usually many free one-celled
carpels (fig. 2) and small seeds containing
a minute straight embryo embedded in a
copious endorsperm. The parts of the
flower are generally arranged spirally on
a convex receptacle. The fruit is one-seeded, an achene (fig. 3),
or a many-seeded follicle (fig. 4), rarely, as in Actaea, a berry.
receptacle with the
points of insertion
of the stamens,
which have been
removed.
RANUNCULACEAE
The order falls into several well-defined tribes which are
distinguished by characters of the flower and fruit; all are
"From Strasburger's Lehr-
tuch da Bolanik, by per-
mission of Gustav Fischer.
PIG. 2. Ranunculus
arvensis. Carpel in
longitudinal section.
(After Baillon, en-
larged.)
FIG. 3. Single
follicle show-
ing dehiscence
by the ventral
suture.
FlG. 4. Fruit of Col-
umbine (Aquilegia)
formed of five fol-
licles.
represented among British native or commonly grown garden
plants.
Tribe I. Paeonieae, peony group, are mostly herbs with deeply
cut leaves and large solitary showy flowers in which the parts are
spirally arranged, the sepals, generally five in number, passing
gradually into the large coloured petals. The indefinite stamens
are succeeded by 2-5 free carpels which bear a double row of ovules
along the ventral suture. Honey is secreted by a ring-like swelling
round the base of the carpels, which become fleshy or leathery in
the fruit and dehisce along the ventral suture. There are only three
genera, the largest of which, Paeonia, occurs in Europe, temperate
Asia and western North America. P. officinalis is the common
peony.
Tribe II. Helleboreae are almost exclusively north temperate
or subarctic; there are 15 genera, several of which are represented
in the British flora. The plants are herbs, either annual, e.g. Nigella
(love-in-a-mist), or perennial by means of a rhizome, as in Aconitum
or Erantkis (winter aconite). The leaves are simple, as in Caltha,
but more often palmately divided as in hellebore (fig. 6), aconite
{fig. 5) and larkspur. The flowers are solitary (Eranthis) or in
FIG. 5. Five-partite leaf FIG. 6. Pedateleafof StinkingHelle-
of Aconite. bore (Helleborus foetidus). It is a
palmately-partite leaf, in which the
lateral lobes are deeply divided.
When the leaf hangs down it re-
sembles the foot of a bird, and hence
the name.
cymes or racemes, and are generally regular as in Caltha (king-cup,
marsh marigold), Trollius (globe-flower), Helleborus, Aquilegia
(columbine); sometimes medianly zygomorphic as in Aconitum
(monkshood, aconite) and Delphinium (larkspur). The carpels,
generally 3 to 5 in number, form in the fruit a many-seeded follicle,
except in Actaea (baneberry), where the single carpel develops to
form a many-seeded berry, and in Nigetta, where the five carpels
unite to form a five-chambered ovary. There is considerable
variety in the form of the floral envelopes and the arrangement of
the parts. The outer series, or sepals, generally five in number, is
generally white or bright-coloured, serving as an attraction for
insects, especially bees, as well as a protection for the rest of the
flower. Thus in Caltha and Trollius the sepals form a brilliant
golden-yellow cup or globe, and in Eranthis a pale yellow star which
contrasts with the green involucre of bracts immediately below it;
in Nigella thev are blue or yellow, and also coloured in Aquilegia.
In Hellebore the greenish sepals persist till the fruit is ripe. A conitum
and Delphinium differ in the irregular development of the sepals.
the posterior sepal being distinguished from the remaining four by
its helmet-shape (Aconitum) or spur (Delphinium). In Caltha there
are no petals, but in the other genera there are honey-secreting and
storing structures varying in number and in form in the different
genera. In Trollius they are long and narrow with a honey-secreting
pit at the base, in Nigella and Helleborus (fig. 7) they form short-
FIG. 7. Helleborus niger. I, vertical section of flower;
2, nectary, side and front view (nat. size).
stalked pitchers, in Aquilegia they are large and coloured with a
showy petal-like upper portion and a long basal spur in the tip of
which is the nectary. In Delphinium they are also spurred, and in
Aconitum form a spur-like sac on a long stalk (fig. 8). The parts
of the flower are gene-
^~^-v**t\\ ra !'y arranged in a
^=i. s X^A\ spiral (acyclic), but are
sometimes hemicyclic,
the perianth forming
a whorl as in winter
aconite; rarely is the
flower cyclic, as in
Aquilegia (fig. 9) where
FlG. 9. Floral dia-
gram of Columbine
(Aquilegia) showing
regular cyclic ar-
rangement.
FIG. 8. Part of the flower of Aconite
(Aconitum Napellus), showing two
irregular horn-like petals p, supported
on grooved stalks o. These serve as
nectaries, s, the whorl of stamens
inserted on the thalamus, and surround-
ing the pistil.
the parts throughout are arranged in alternating whorls. In Caltha,
where there are no petals, honey is secreted by two shallow de-
pressions on the side of each carpel.
Tribe III. Anemoneae, with 8 genera, are chiefly north temperate,
arctic and alpine plants, but also pass beyond the tropics to the
southern hemisphere. They differ from the two preceding tribes
in the numerous carpels, each with only one ovule, forming a fruit of
numerous achenes. They are annual or perennial herbs, erect as in
Anemone, Thalictrum (meadow-rue) and many buttercups, orcreeping
as in Ranunculus repens; the section Batrachium of the genus
Ranunculus (q.v.) contains aquatic plants with submerged or floating
stems and leaves. The flowers are solitary, as in Anemone Pulsa-
tilla (Pasque flower) and the wood anemone, or cymose as in species
of Ranunculus, or in racemes or panicles as in Thalictrum. The
parts are spirally arranged throughout as in Myosurus (mouse- tail),
where the very numerous carpels are borne on a much elongated
receptacle, or Adonis (pheasant's eye), or the perianth is whorled
as in Anemone and Ranunculus. In Anemone there is a whorl (
foliage leaves below the flower, as in Eranthis. In Anemone and
Thalictrum there is only one series of perianth leaves, which are
petaloid and attractive in Anemone where honey is secreted by
modified stamens, as in A. Pulsatilla, or, as in A. nemorosa (wood
anemone), there is no honey and the flower is visited by insects for
the sake of the pollen; in Thalictrum the perianth is greenish or
RANUNCULUS RAO, SIR T. M.
897
Fii;. io. Petal of
Crowfoot (Ranun-
culus), bearing at
the base a honey
gland protected
by a scale, s.
slightly coloured and the flower is wind-pollinated (T. minus) or
vittttti for its pollen. In Ranunculus and Adonis a calyx of green
protective sepals is succeeded by a corolla of showy petals; in
Ranunculus (fig. io) there is a basal honey-secreting gland which
is absent in Adonis. In Anemone the achenes
bear the persistent naked or bearded style
which aids in dissemination; the same pur-
pose is served by the prickles on the achenes
of Ranunculus arvensis.
Tribe IV, Clematideae comprise the genus
Clematis (..), characterized by its shrubby,
often climbing habit, opposite leaves and the
valvate, not imbricate as in the other trills,
aestivation of the sepals. The usually four
sepals are whorled and petaloid, the numerous
stamens and carpels are spirally arranged; the
flowers are visited by insects for the sake of the
abundant pollen. The fruit consists of numer-
ous achenes which are generally prolonged into the long feathery style,
whence the popular name of the British species, old man's beard
(Clematis fitalba). The genus, which contains about 170 species,
has a wide distribution, but is rarer in the tropics than in temperate
regions.
Special articles will be found on the more important genera of
Riuninculaceae, e.g. Aconitum, Adonis, Anemone, Baneberry (Actaea),
Clematis, Columbine, Hellebore, Ranunculus.
RANUNCULUS, familiarly known as " buttercup," or crow-
foot, a characteristic type of the botanical order Ranunculaceae.
The Lat. name, which means a little frog or tadpole (dim. of
rana, frog), was also given to a medicinal plant, which has
been identified by some with the crowfoot. The Ranunculi
are more or less acrid herbs, sometimes with fleshy root-fibres,
or with the base of the stem dilated into a kind of tuber (R.
bulbosus). They have tufted or alternate leaves, dilated into
a sheath at the base, and very generally, but not universally,
deeply divided above. The flowers are solitary, or in loose
cymes, and are remarkable for the number and distinctness
(freedom from union) of their parts. Thus there are five
sepals, as many petals, and numerous spirally arranged stamens
and carpels. The petals have a little pit or honey-gland at
the base, which is interesting as foreshadowing the more fully
developed tubular petals of the nearly allied genera Aconitum
and Helleborus. The fruit is a head of " achenes " dry, one-
seeded fruits. The genus contains a large number of species
(about 250) and occurs in most temperate countries in the
northern and southern hemispheres, extending into arctic
and antarctic regions, and appearing on the higher mountains
in the tropics. About twenty species are natives of Great
Britain. R. acris, R. repens, R. bulbosus, are the common
buttercups. R. arvensis, found in cornfields, has smaller pale
yellow flowers and the achenes covered with stout spines.
R. Lingua, spearwort, and .R. Flammula, lesser spearwort,
grow in marshes, ditches and wet places. R. Ficaria is the
pilewort or lesser celandine, an early spring flower in pastures
and waste places, characterized by having heart-shaped entire
leaves and clusters of club-shaped roots. The section
Batrachium comprises the water-buttercups, denizens of pools
and streams, which vary greatly in the character of the foliage
according as it is submersed, floating or aerial, and when
submersed varying in accordance with the depth and strength
of the current. The ranunculus of the florist is a cultivated
form of R. asiaticus, a native of the Levant, remarkable for
the range of colour of the flowers (yellow to purplish black 1 *
and for the regularity with which the stamens and pistils are
replaced by petals forming double flowers. R. asiaticus is one
of the older florists' flowers, which has sported into numberless
varieties, but was formerly held in much greater esteem than
it is at the present time. According to the canons of the florists,
the flowers, to be perfect, should be of the form of two-thirds
of a ball, the outline forming a perfect circle, with the centre
close, the petals smooth-edged, the colour dense, and the
marking uniform.
The ranunculus requires a strong and moist soil, with a fourth of
rotten dung. The soil should be from 18 in. to 2 ft. deep, and at
about _5 in. below the surface there should be placed a stratum
6 or 8 in. thick of two-year-old rotten cow-dung, mixed with earth,
the earth above this stratum, where the roots are to be placed, being
xxii. 29
perfectly free from fresh dung. The tubers are planted in rows 5 or
6 in. apart, and 3 or 4 in. apart in the rows, the turban sorts in October,
the more choice varieties in February. They should be so close
that the foliage may cover the surface of the bed. The autumn-
planted roots must be sheltered from severe frost. The plants when
in flower should be screened from hot sunshine with an awning;
when the leaves wither, the roots are to be taken up, dried, and
stored. The ranunculus is readily propagated from seed obtained
from semi-double sorts, which are often of themselves very beautiful
flowers. It is generally sown in boxes in autumn or spring. The
young plants thus raised flower often in the second, and always in
the third year.
The turban varieties, which are very showy for the borders, are
of a few positive colours, as scarlet, yellow, brown, carmine, and
white. The florists' varieties have been bred from the Persian
type, which is more delicate.
Other species known in gardens are R. aconitifolius (white bachelor's
buttons), with leaves recalling aconite, and white flowers; the
double-flowered form is known in gardens as fair maids of France
or fair maids of Kent. A double-flowered form of R. acris is grown
under the name yellow bachelor's buttons. R. bulbosus also has
a pretty double- flowered variety. Of dwarfer interesting plants
there are R. alpestris, 4 in., white; R. gramineus, 6 to io in., yellow;
R. parnassifohus, 6 in., white; and R. rutaefolius, 4 to 6 in., white
with orange centre. Of the taller kinds mention may be made of
R. cortusaefolius, a fine buttercup, 3-5 ft. high, from Teneriffe, and
hardy in the mildest parts of Britain; and R. hyalli, known as the
New Zealand water lily. It is a handsome species, 2 to 4 ft. high,
with large peltate leaves often a foot in diameter, and with waxy-
white flowers about 4 in. across. It is not quite hardy, and even
under the best conditions is a difficult plant to grow well.
RAO, SIR DINKAR (1819-1896), Indian statesman, was
born in Ratnagiri district, Bombay, on the zoth of December
1819, being a Chitpavan Brahmin. At fifteen he entered the
service of the Gwalior state, in which his ancestors had served.
Rapidly promoted to the responsible charge of a division, he
displayed unusual talents in reorganizing the police and revenue
departments, and in reducing chaos to order. In 1851 Dinkar
Rao became dewan. The events which led to the British
victories of Maharajpur and- Panniar in 1844 had filled the
state with mutinous soldiery, ruined the finances, and weakened
authority. With a strong hand the dewan suppressed disorder,
abolished ruinous imposts, executed public works, and by a
reduction of salaries, including his own, turned a deficit into a
surplus. When the contingent mutinied in 1857, he never
wavered in loyalty; and although the state troops also mutinied
in June 1858 on the approach of Tantia Topi, he adhered to
the British cause, retiring with Maharaja Sindhia to the Agra
fort. After the restoration of order he remained minister
until December 1859. In 1873 he was appointed guardian to
the minor Rana of Dholpur, but soon afterwards he resigned,
owing to ill-health. In 1875 the viceroy selected him as a
commissioner, with the Maharajas Sindhia and Jaipur, and
three British colleagues, to try the Gaekwar of Baroda on a
charge of attempting to poison the British resident. He also
served in the legislative council of India, and was frequently
consulted by viceroys on difficult questions. An estate was
conferred upon him, with the hereditary title of Raja, for his
eminent services, and the decoration of K.C.S.I. He died on
the 9th of January 1896. No Indian statesman of the igth
century gained a higher reputation, yet he only commenced
the study of English at the age of forty, and was never able to
converse fluently in it; his orthodoxy resented social reforms;
he kept aloof from the Indian Congress, and he had received no
training in British administration.
RAO, SIR T. MADHAVA (1828-1891), Indian statesman, was
born at Combaconum in Madras in 1828. Madhava Rao created a
new type of minister adapted to the modern requirements of a
progressive native state, and he grafted it upon the old stock.
He linked the past with the present, using the advantages of
heredity, tradition and conservatism to effect reforms in the
public administration and in Indian society. Sprung from a
Mahratta Brahmin stock long settled at Tanjore, the son of a
dewan of Travancore, he was educated in the strictest tenets of
his sacred caste. But he readily imbibed the new spirit of the
age. To mathematics, science and astronomy he added a study
of English philosophy and international law, and a taste for art
RAOUL DE CAMBRAI RAPALLO
and pictures. Although a devout student of the Shastras, he
advocated female education and social reform. Refusing to
cross the sea and so break caste by appearing before a parlia-
mentary commission, he yet preached religious toleration. A
patron of the Indian Congress, he borrowed from the armoury
of British administration every reform which he introduced
into the native states. He was respected alike by Europeans
and natives, and received titles and honours from the British
government. As tutor of the maharaja of Travancore, and
then as revenue officer in that state, he showed firmness and
ability, and became diwan or prime minister in 1857. He
found the finances disorganized, and trade cramped by mono-
polies and oppressive duties. He co-operated with the Madras
government in carrying out reforms, and when his measures
led to misunderstandings with the maharaja, he preferred
honourable resignation to retention of a lucrative office in which
he was powerless for good. In 1872 he was engaged at Indore
in laying down a plan of reform and of public works which he
bequeathed to his successor, when a grave crisis at Baroda
demanded his talents there. The Gaekwar had been deposed
for scandalous misrule, and an entire reorganization was needed.
Aided by Sir Philip Melvill, Madhava Rao swept away the
corrupt officials, privileged sirdars and grasping contractors
who had long ruined Baroda. Hewrote able minutes defending
the rights and privileges of the Gaekwar from fancied encroach-
ment, and justifying the internal reforms which he introduced.
He resigned office in 1882, and in his retirement devoted his
leisure to reading and writing upon political and social questions.
He died on the 4th of April 1891.
RAOUL DE CAMBRAI, the name of a French chanson de
geste. The existing romance is a 13th-century recension of a
poem by a trouvere of Laon called Bertholais, who professed
to have witnessed the events he described. It presents, like
the other provincial geste of Garin le Loherain, a picture of the
devastation caused by the private wars of the feudal chiefs.
A parallel narrative, obviously inspired by popular poetry, is
preserved in the chronicle of Waulsort (ed. Achery, Spicilegium,
ii.p. iooseq.),and probably corresponds with the earlier recension.
Raoul de Cambrai, the posthumous son of Raoul Taillefer,
count of Cambrai, by his wife Alais, sister of King Louis
(d'Outre-Mer), whose father's lands had been given to another,
demanded the fief of Vermandois, which was the natural in-
heritance of the four sons of Herbert, lord of Vermandois. On
King Louis's refusal, he proceeded to war. The chief hero on
the Vermandois side was Bernier, a grandson of Count Herbert,
who had been the squire and firm adherent of Raoul, until he
was driven into opposition by the fate of his mother, burned
with the nuns in the church of Origny. Bernier eventually
slew the terrible Raoul in single fight, but in his turn was slain,
after an apparent reconciliation, and the blood-feud descended
to his sons. The date of these events is exactly ascertainable.
Flodoard (Annales, Anno 943) states that Count Herbert died
in that year, and was buried by his sons at St Quentin, that
when they learnt that Raoul, son of Raoul de Gouy, was about
to invade their father's territory, they attacked him and put
him to death. The identity of other of the personages of the
story has also been fixed from historical sources. The second
part of the poem, of which Bernier is the hero, is of later date,
and bears the character of a roman d'aventures.
See Li Romans de Raoul de Cambrai et de Bernier, ed. E. le Glay
(Paris, 1840) ; Raoul de Cambrai, ed. P. Meyer and A. Longnon
(Soc. des anc. lextes fr., Paris, 1882); J. M. Ludlow, Popular Epics
of the Middle Ages (London and Cambridge, 1865); H. Grober,
Grundriss d. roman. Phil. (ii. pp. 567 seq.).
RAOUL ROCHETTE, DESIRE (1790-1854), French archaeo-
logist, was born on the gth of March 1790 at St Amand in the
department of Cher, and received his education at Bourges.
He was made professor of history in the College de Louis-le-
Grand at Paris (1813) and in the Sorbonne (1817). His His-
toire critique de I'etablissement des colonies grecques (4 vols.,
1815) is now out of date. He was superintendent of anti-
quities in the Bibliotheque at Paris (1819-48), and professor of
archaeology at the Bibliotheque (from 1826), a result of which
may be seen in his Cours d'archeologie (1828). In 1829 appeared
his Monuments inedits, a work of great value at the time. Still
valuable are his Peintures inedites (1836) and his Peintures de
Pompei(iS44). He contributed to the Annali of the Roman
Institute, the Journal des savants and the Academic des in-
scriptions. At his death on the 3rd of July 1854 Raoul Rochette
was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts and a
corresponding member of most of the learned societies in
Europe.
RAOULT, FRANCOIS MARIE (1830-1901), French chemist,
was born at Fournes, in the Departement du Nord, on the loth
of May 1830. He became aspirant repetiteur at the lycee of
Rheims in 1853, and after holding several intermediate positions
was appointed in 1862 to the professorship of chemistry in Sens
lycee, where he prepared the thesis on electromotive force
which gained him his doctor's degree at Paris in the following
year. In 1867 he was put in charge of the chemistry classes
at Grenoble, and three years later he succeeded to the chair
of chemistry, which he held until his death on the ist of April
1901. Raoult's earliest researches were physical in character,
being largely concerned with the phenomena of the voltaic
cell, and later there was a period when more purely chemical
questions engaged his attention. But his name is best known
in connexion with the work on solutions, to which he devoted
the last two decades of his life. His first paper on the depression
of the freezing-points of liquids by the presence of substances
dissolved in them was published in 1878; and continued investi-
gation and experiment with various solvents, such as benzene
and acetic acid, in addition to water, led him' to believe in a
simple relation between the molecular weights of the substances
and the freezing-point of the solvent, which he expressed as the
" loi g6nerale de la congelation," that if one molecule of a
substance be dissolved in 100 molecules of any given solvent,
the temperature of solidification of the latter will be lowered
by 0-63 C. (See, however, the article SOLUTION.) Another
relation at which he worked was that the diminution in the
vapour-pressure of a solvent, caused by dissolving a substance
in it, is proportional to the molecular weight of the substance
dissolved at least when the solution is dilute. These two
generalizations not only afforded a new method of determining
the molecular weights of substances, but have also been utilized
by J. H. van't Hoff and W. Ostwald, among other chemists,
in support of the hypothesis of electrolytic dissociation in
solutions. An account of Raoult's life and work was given by
Professor van't Hoff in a memorial lecture delivered before the
London Chemical Society on the 26th of March 1902.
RAOUX, JEAN (1677-1734), French painter, was born at Mont-
pellier in 1677. After the usual course of training he became
a member of the Academy in 1717 as an historical painter. His
reputation had been previously established by the credit of
decorations executed during his three years in Italy on the
palace of Giustiniani Sclini at Venice, and by some easel paint-
ings, the Four Ages of Man (National Gallery), commissioned
by the grand prior of Vend6me. To this latter class of subject
Raoux devoted himself, nor did he even paint portraits except
in character. The list of his works is a long series of sets of the
Seasons, of the Hours, of the Elements, or of those scenes of
amusement and gallantry in the representation of which he was
immeasurably surpassed by his younger rival Watteau. After
his stay in England (1720) he lived much in the Temple, where
he decorated several rooms. He died in Paris in 1734. His
best pupils were Chevalier and Montdidier. His works, of
which there is a poor specimen in the Louvre, were much
engraved by Poilly, Moyreau, Dupuis, &c.
RAPALLO, a seaport and winter resort of Liguria, Italy,
in the province of Genoa. Pop. (1901) 5839 (town); 10,343
(commune). It occupies a beautiful and well-sheltered situa-
tion on the east side of the Gulf of Rapallo, 185 m. E. by S.
from Genoa by rail. It has a fine church, a medieval castle
(now used as a prison) and a Roman Bridge, known as " Hanni-
bal's Bridge." On the hills above the town is situated the
RAPE
899
church and abbey of the Madonna de Montallegro, whose
miraculous picture attracts pilgrims from all parts of Italy.
Olives and other fruit are grown, and a brisk trade is done in
olive oil. A mile to the south is Santa Margherita Ligure
(pop. 7051), another winter resort, with a large 16th-century
ihurch. Both places are also frequented for sea-bathing in
summer. Lace is made, while the men go in May to the coral
fisheries off the Sardinian coast. To the south again is the
small seaport of Portofino (the Roman Portus Delphini) under
the south-east extremity of the promontory of Portofino
(2010 ft.). On the way from S. Margherita to Portofino is the
suppressed monastery of Cervara, in which Francis I. of France
was confined after the battle of Pavia on his way to Madrid.
At all these places are beautiful villas.
RAPE (Lat. rapum or rapa, turnip), in botany. Several
forms of plants included in the genus Brassica are cultivated for
the oil which is present in their ripe seeds. The one most
extensively grown for this purpose is known as colza, rape or
coleseed, in Germany as Raps (Brassica napus, var. okifera):
its seeds contain from 30 to 45% of oil. The leaves are glaucous
and smooth like those of a swede turnip. For a seed-crop
rape is sown in July or early August in order that the plants
may be strong enough to pass the winter uninjured. The
young plants are thinned out to a width of 6 or 8 in. apart,
and afterwards kept clean by hoeing. The foliage may be
eaten down by sheep early in autumn, without injuring it
for the production of a crop of seed. In spring the horse and
hand hoe must be used, and the previous application of i cwt. or
2 cwt. of guano will add to the productiveness of the crop. On
good soil and in favourable seasons the yield sometimes reaches
to 40 bushels per acre. The haulm and husks are either used
for litter or burned, and the ashes spread upon the land. It
makes good fuel for clay-burning. There is a " summer "
variety of colza which is sown in April and ripens its seed in
the same year. It does not yield so much oil as the " winter "
kind, but it will grow on soil in poorer condition. Neither of
these is much grown in Great Britain for the production of
oil, but the " winter " variety is very extensively grown as green
food for sheep. For this purpose it is generally sown at short
intervals throughout the summer to provide a succession of
fodder. It is peculiarly adapted for peaty soils, and is accord-
ingly a favourite crop in the fen lands of England, and on
recently reclaimed mosses and moors elsewhere. Its growth
is greatly stimulated by the ashes resulting from the practice
of paring and burning. Its highly nutritious leaves and stems
are usually consumed by folding the sheep upon it where it
grows, there is no green food upon which they fatten faster.
Occasionally it is carried to the homestead, and used with
other forage in carrying out the system of soiling cattle.
The wild form Brassica campestris, the wild coleseed, colza
or kohlsaat, of the fields of England and many parts of Europe,
is sometimes cultivated on the European continent for its seed,
which, however, is inferior in value to rape as an oil-yielding
product.
In addition to the previously mentioned rape, a variety of
another species (or subspecies) of Brassica, namely, Brassica
rapa, var. okifera (Rtibsen in Germany), is grown for its oil-
yielding seeds. The leaves in a young state are not glaucous,
but sap-green in colour and rough, being very similar to those
of the turnip, to which the plant is closely related. Both
winter and summer varieties are grown; they are rarely culti-
vated in Britain. The oil is similar to that in the true colza
seeds but the plants do not yield so much per acre as the latter:
they are, however, hardier and more adapted for cultivation
on poor sandy soils.
RAPE (from Lat. rapere, to seize), in law, the crime of having
carnal knowledge of a woman by a man, not her husband,
forcibly and unlawfully against her will. Under the Mosaic
law, rape was punished with death, if the damsel was betrothed
to another man, and with a fine of fifty shekels if not so be-
trothed, while in this case, also, She was to be the wife of the
ravisher all the days of his life (Deut. xxii. 25). The Roman
civil law punished rape with death and confiscation of goods
(Cod. L. IX. tit. 13). In England, under the Saxon law
adopted, probably, from a Teutonic code death was also the
penalty, but under the Normans this was changed to the loss
of both eyes and castration; this punishment remained in
force until after the time of Bracton (de Corond, f. 147). The
statute of Westminster I. (1275) reduced the offence to a tres-
pass, with a penalty of two years' imprisonment and a fine at
the king's will. This lenity, it is said, produced terrible con-
sequences, and, accordingly, the statute of Westminster II.
(1285) again declared the offence a felony, with, however,
benefit of clergy. This was the state of the law until 1575,
when the punishment was made more severe by taking away
the benefit of clergy. The offence remained capital until the
Offences against the Person Act 1861, by which and subsequent
amending acts it is now regulated. The present punishment
is penal servitude for life or for not less than three years or
imprisonment with or without hard labour for not over two
years.
The law of England (differing in this respect from the civil law)
regards as immaterial whether the woman is chaste or unchaste,
married or single, provided the offence has been committed forcibly
and without her consent. The offence is complete if consent is
extorted by means of threats of death or immediate bodily harm,
by fraud or by false pretences or representation, such as the im-
personation of a woman's husband (Criminal Law Amendment
Act 1885).
Since the passing of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885,
it is a felony, entailing the same punishment as rape, to have carnal
knowledge of a girl under 13 years, whether she consent or not.
Between 13 and 16 years of age it is a criminal offence
punishable by two years' imprisonment, whether consent is given
or not, and even if there be solicitation; but if the jury is satisfied
that the person charged has reasonable cause to believe the girl
to be over 16 years, the accused is entitled to be acquitted.
Prosecution must be within three months of the offence. The
administration of any drug or matter, with intent, by producing
stupor, to facilitate the accomplishment of the crime, is an offence
punishable by two years' imprisonment. On indictment for rape
there may be an acquittal on the actual charge, but a conviction
either of the attempt or of an indecent assault.
In charges of rape, from the nature of the offence, the important
witness is the woman, and it is essential, apart from medical evidence
(see MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE), that her story be corroborated by
evidence implicating the accused. The following points have, of
necessity, to be considered. (l) As to the general credibility of
the witness and how far her story is to be believed; evidence,
therefore, may be given to show that she is of immoral character.
(2) As to whether she has made complaint immediately after the
alleged outrage and to whom. (3) As to the place where the outrage
was alleged to have been committed and the possibility of her being
heard if she cried out.
In the United States, rape is universally treated as a felony,
and the punishment is either death, imprisonment for life,
or imprisonment for a number of years, varying in the different
states. In the case of offences against young girls, there is a
divergence in the various states as to the age of consent, though
the trend of legislation has been to raise it. In North and
South Carolina, and Georgia, the age of consent is as low as
10 years, and in Kentucky and Louisiana, 12 years. In
nineteen states the age of consent is 14 years. In one (Texas)
15 years. In six, it is 16 years. In Wyoming, New York,
Colorado and Kansas it is as high as 18 years.
The essential facts to be proven in order to constitute this
crime are the same as in England, but in many of the states
the uncorroborated evidence of the woman is sufficient to sustain
a conviction. This is so in California, Arizona, Idaho, Missouri,
Kentucky, Michigan, Illinois, Oklahoma, &c. [1904; Brenlon
v. Territory, 78 Pac. Rep. 83]. In New York corroboration is
required [Penal Code 283]. In Nebraska also evidence corro-
borating the prosecutrix is necessary [1007; Burk v. State,
112 N.W. Rep. 573]. In Texas it is no defence for accused to
prove that he believed the prosecutrix to be over 15 years of
age, the age of consent [1007; Robertson v. State, 102 So. W. Rep.
1130], and the crime is punishable with death [1903; Reyiia v.
State, 75 So. W. Rep. 25], as also apparently it is in the Indian
country [U.S. v. Partello, 48 Fed. R. 670 U.S. Rev. Stats. 5345],
also in Alabama [Criminal Code, 5444].
goo
RAPE RAPHAEL SANZIO
In Hawaii there is no age of consent for rape, which is punish-
able by $1000 fine and imprisonment at hard labour for life;
the carnal knowledge of females under 10 years is punishable
with death or imprisonment for life [Rev. L. 1905, 2927,
2928]. In Porto Rico the 'age of consent is 14 years and the
punishment not less than five years [Pen. Code 1902, 255].
AUTHORITIES. Stephen, Digest of Criminal Law; Russell, On
Crimes: Archbold, Criminal Pleading; and for American law, May,
The Law of Crimes, and Clark and Marshall, Treatise on the Law of
Crimes.
RAPE, a territorial division of the county of Sussex, England,
formerly used for various administrative purposes. There are
now six of these divisions, Hastings, Pevensey, Lewes, Bramber,
Arundel and Chichester, but the latter two apparently formed a
single rape at the date of the compilation of Domesday Book.
The word, which in England is peculiar to Sussex, is usually said
to be closely related to the Icelandic hrepp, a small territorial
division which in most, but not in all, cases is identical with the
parish; but this explanation, which is unsatisfactory on insti-
tutional grounds, has also been declared impossible for philo-
logical reasons. As an alternative explanation it has been
suggested, that " rape " is an early form of the word " rope ";
and that the divisions were so called because they were measured
and allotted by the rope. Some confirmation of this is to be
found in the words of the Norman chronicler, Dudo of St
Quentin, who states that Rollo in distributing Neustria " suis
fidelibus terram funiculo divisit " (J. P. Migne, Patrologiae
Ciirsits completus, torn. cxli. p. 652). It is possible that the
rapes represent the shires of the ancient kingdom of Sussex,
especially as in the 1 2th century they had sheriffs of their own.
But there is no evidence of the existence of the rape before the
Norman Conquest, except such as may be gathered from
Domesday Book, and this is far from convincing. After the
Conquest each rape had its own lord, and all the land within it,
save that which belonged to the king or to ecclesiastical tenants,
was held of the lord. Thus the rape as a lordship only differed
from other honours and baronies by the fact that the lands of
its knights were not scattered over England, but lay together in
a continuous tract. In form the rapes were parallel bands of land
running north and south, and each of them contained a different
number of hundreds. The place in which the lord's castle was
situate ultimately gave its name to the rape; but in Domesday
Book the rapes are often described by the names of their lords,
and this is always so in that work in the case of Bramber, which
belonged to William de Briouze (rapam Willelmi de Braoza).
See the Victoria County History, Sussex, vol. i.; New English
Dictionary; and M. A. Lower, History of Sussex (Lewes, 1870).
(G. J. T.)
RAPE OIL, an important fatty oil, known also as " sweet oil,"
either expressed or extracted from the crushed seeds of culti-
vated varieties of the cruciferous genus Brassica, the parent
form of the whole apparently being the wild navew, B. campes-
tris. Under the general name " rape oil " is included the pro-
duce of several plants having distinct and fairly constant
characters, and one of these oils colza (q.v.) is a very well-
known commercial variety. In Germany, where the produc-
tion of rape oil centres, two principal oil-seeds rape and
Rubsen are well recognized. (See RAPE.)
The oil yielded by these seeds is, in physical and chemical
properties, practically the same, the range of fluctuations not
being greater than would be found in the oil of any specific seed
under similar varying conditions of production; the winter
varieties of all the seeds are more productive than the summer
varieties. Newly pressed rape oil has a dark sherry colour
with, at first, scarcely any perceptible smell; but after resting
a short time the oil deposits an abundant mucilaginous slime,
and by taking up oxygen it acquires a peculiar disagreeable
odour and an acrid taste. Refined by the ordinary processes
(see OILS), the oil assumes a clear golden yellow colour. In
specific gravity it ranges between 0-9112 and 0-9117 in the raw
state, and from 0.9127 to 0.9136 when refined; the solidifying
point is from -4 to -6 C.
The principal uses of rape oil are for lubrication and lighting -
but since the introduction of mineral oils for both these purposes'
the importance of rape has considerably decreased. It is but little
employed in soap-making, as it saponifies with difficulty and yields
only an indifferent product. In Germany it is very considerably
used as a salad oil under the name of Schmalzol, being for that
purpose freed from its biting taste by being mixed with starch
heated till the starch is carbonized, and filtered after the oil has
cooled. The offensive taste of rape oil may also be removed by
treatment with a small proportion of sweet spirit of nitre (nitrous
ether). In the East Indies rape oil and its equivalents, known
under various names, are the most important of oils for native use
They are largely consumed as food instead of ghi under the name
of metah " or sweet oil, but for all other purposes the same sub-
stance is known as " kurwah " or bitter oil. Most natives prefer it
for the preparation of their curries and other hot dishes. Rape oil
is the subject of extensive adulteration, principally with the cheaper
hemp oil, rosin oil and mineral oils. These sophistications can be
most conveniently detected, first by taste and next by saponifica-
tion, rosin oil and mineral oil remaining unsaponified, hemp oil
giving a greenish soap, while rape oil yields a soap with a yellow
tinge. With concentrated sulphuric acid, fuming nitric acid,
nitrous acid, and other reagents rape oil gives also characteristic
colorations; but these are modified according to the degree of
purity of the oil itself. The presence of sulphur in rape and other
cruciferous oils also affords a ready means for their identification.
Lead plaster (emplaslrum lithargyri) boiled in rape oil dissolves,
and, sulphide of lead being formed, the oil becomes brown or
black. Other lead compounds give the same black coloration from
the formation of sulphide.
RAPHAEL (Hebrew Wt, " God heals "), an angel who in
human disguise and under the name of Azarias (" Yahweh
helps ") accompanies Tobias in his adventurous journey and
conquers the demon Asmodaeus (Book of Tobit). He is said
(Tob. xii. 15) to be " one of the seven holy angels [archangels]
which present the prayers of the saints and go in before the
glory of the Holy One." In the Book of Enoch (c. xx.) Raphael
is " the angel of the spirits of men," and it is his business to
" heal the earth which the angels have defiled." In later
Midrash Raphael appears as the angel commissioned to put down
the evil spirits that vexed the sons of Noah with plagues and
sicknesses after the Flood, and he it was who taught men the
use of simples and furnished materials for the " Book of Noah,"
the earliest treatise on materia medica.
RAPHAEL SANZIO (1483-1520), the great Italian painter,
was the son of Giovanni Sanzio or Santi, a painter of some
repute in the ducal city of Urbino, situated among the Apen-
nines on the borders of Tuscany and Umbria. 1 For many years
both before and after the birth of Raphael (6th of April 1483)
the city of Urbino was one of the chief centres in Italy of intel-
lectual and artistic activity, thanks to its highly cultured rulers,
Duke Federigo II. of Montefeltro and his son Guidobaldo, who
succeeded him in 1482," the year before Raphael was born.
Giovanni Santi was a welcome guest at this miniature but
splendid court, and the rich treasures which the palace contained,
familiar to Raphael from his earliest years, were a very im-
portant item among the various influences which formed and
fostered his early love for art. It may not perhaps be purely
fanciful to trace Raphael's boyish admiration of the oil-paintings
of Jan Van Eyck and Justus of Ghent in the miniature-like care
and delicacy with which some of his earliest works, such as the
" Apollo and Marsyas," were executed.
Though Raphael lost his father at the age of eleven,
yet to him he certainly owed a great part of that early training
which enabled him to produce paintings of apparently mature
beauty when he was scarcely twenty years of age. The altar-
piece painted by Giovanni for the church of Gradara,
and a fresco, now preserved in the Santi house 3 at Urbino,
are clearly prototypes of some of Raphael's most graceful
'See Pungileoni, Elogio Storico di Raffaello (Urbino, 1829); for
a valuable account of Raphael's family and his early life, see also,
Id., Vita di Gioy. Santi (Urbino, 1822), and Campori, Notizie e Docu-
menti per la Vita di Giov. Santi e di Raffaello (Modena, 1870).
2 See an interesting account of the court of Urbino by Delaborde,
Etudes stir les B. Arts . . ,en Italie (Paris, 1864), vol. i. p. 145.
3 The house of Giovanni Santi, where Raphael was born, still
exists at Urbino in the Contrada del Monte, and, being the property
of the municipality, is now safe from destruction.
RAPHAEL SANZIO
901
paintings of the Madonna and Child. On the death of his
father in 1494 Raphael ^vas left in the care of his stepmother (his
own mother, Magia Ciarla, having died in 1491) and of his uncle,
a priest called Bartolomeo. 1
First or Perugian Period. In what year Raphael was appren-
ticed to Perugino and how the interval before that was spent
are matters of doubt. Vasari's statement that he was sent
to Perugia during his father's lifetime is certainly a mistake.
On the whole it appears most probable that he did not enter
Perugino's studio till the end of 1499, as during the four or five
years before that Perugino was mostly absent from his native
city. 2 The so-called Sketch Book of Raphael in the academy of
Venice contains studies apparently from the cartoons of some
of Perugino's Sistine frescoes, possibly done as practice in
drawing.
This celebrated collection of thirty drawings, now framed or
prr-crved in portfolios, bears signs of having once formed a bound
nook, and has been supposed to be a sketch-book filled by Raphael
during his Perugian apprenticeship. Many points, however, make
this tempting hypothesis very improbable; the fact that the draw-
ings were not all originally on leaves of the same size, and the
miscellaneous character of the sketches varying much both in
style and merit of execution seem to show that it is a collection
ol studies by different hands, made and bound together by some
subsequent owner, and may contain but very few drawings by
Raphael himself. 8
Before long Raphael appears to have been admitted to
share in the execution of paintings by his master; and his touch
can with more or less certainty be traced in some of Perugino's
panels which were executed about 1502. Many of those who,
like Crowe and Cavalcaselle, adopt the earlier date of Raphael's
apprenticeship, believe that his hand is visible in the execution
of the beautiful series of frescoes by Perugino in the Sala del
Cambio, dated 1500; as does also M. Miintz in his excellent
Raphael, sa vie, Paris, 1881, in spite of his accepting the end of
1499 as the period of Raphael's first entering Perugino's studio,
two statements almost impossible to reconcile. Considering
that Raphael was barely seventeen when these frescoes were
painted, it is hardly reasonable to attribute the finest heads to
his hand; nor did he at an early age master the difficulties
of fresco buono. The Resurrection of Christ in the Vatican
and the Diotalevi Madonna in the Berlin Museum are the
principal pictures by Perugino in parts of which the touch of
Raphael appears to be visible, though any real certainty on
this point is unattainable. 4
About 1502 Raphael began to execute independent works;
four pictures for churches at Citta di Castello were probably
the earliest of these, and appear to have been painted in the
years 1502-4. The first is a gild-banner painted on one side
with the Trinity, and below, kneeling figures of S. Sebastian
and S. Rocco; on the reverse is a Creation of Eve, very like
Perugino in style, but possessing more grace and breadth of
treatment. These are still in the church of S. Trinita. 5 Also
1 The administration of Giovanni Santi's will occasioned many
painful family disputes and even appeals to law; see Pungileoni, El.
Star, di Rafaello.
2 Crowe and Cavalcaselle (Life of Raphael, vol. i., London, 1882)
adopt the notion that Raphael went to Perugia in 1495, but the
reasons with which they support this view appear insufficient.
* See an excellent critical examination of the Sketch Book by
Morelli, Italian Masters in German Galleries, translated by Mrs
Richter (London, 1882) ; according to Morelli, only two drawings
are by Raphael. Schmarsow, " Raphael's Skizzenbuch in Venedig,"
in Preussische Jahrbiicher, xlviii. pp. 122-149 (Berlin, 1881), takes
the opposite view. But Kahl, Das venezianische Skizzenbuch
(Leipzig, 1882), follows Morelli's opinion, which has been generally
adopted.
4 Parts of Perugino's beautiful triptych of the Madonna, with the
archangels Raphael and Michael, painted for the Certosa near Pavia
and now in the National Gallery of London, have been>attributed to
Raphael, but with little reason. Perugino's grand altar-piece at
Florence of the Assumption of the Virgin shows that he was quite
capable of painting figures equal in beauty and delicacy to the St
Michael of the Certosa triptych. See Frizzioni, L'Arte Ilaliana
nella Gal. Nat. di Londra (Florence, 1880).
* For an account of processional banners painted by distin-
guished artists, see Mariotti, Lettere pittoriche Perugine, p. 76 seq.
for Citti di Castello were the coronation of S. Niccolo Tolentino,
now destroyed, though studies for it exist at Oxford and Lille
(Gaz. d. B. Arts, 1878, i. p. 48), and the Crucifixion, now in the
Dudley collection, painted for the church of S. Domenico, and
signed RAPHAEL VRBINAS P. It is a panel 8 ft. 6 in. high
by S ft. 5 in. wide, and contains noble figures of the Virgin,
St John, St Jerome and St Mary Magdalene. The fourth
painting executed for this town, for the church of S. Francesco,
is the exquisitely beautiful and highly finished Sposalizio, now in
the Brera at Milan, signed and dated RAPHAEL VRBINAS
MDIIII. This is closely copied both in composition and detail
from Perugino's painting of the same subject now at Caen, but
is far superior to it in sweetness of expression and grace of
attitude. The Temple of Jerusalem, a domed octagon with
outer ambulatory in Perugino's picture, is reproduced with
slight alterations by Raphael, and the attitudes and grouping
of the figures are almost exactly the same in both. The Con-
nestabile Madonna is one of Raphael's finest works, painted
during his Perugian period; it is a round panel; the motive, the
Virgin reading a book of hours, is a favourite one with him, as
it was with his father Giovanni. This lovely picture was lost to
Perugia in 1871, when Count Connestabile sold it to the emperor
of Russia for 13,200.
Second or Florentine Period, 1504-1508. From 1504 to
1508 Raphael's life was very stirring and active. In the first
half of 1504 he visited Urbino, where he painted two small
panels for Duke Guidobaldo, the St George and the St Michael
of the Louvre. His first and for him momentous visit to
Florence was made towards the end of 1 504, when he presented
himself with a warm letter of recommendation 6 from his patroness
Joanna della Rovere to the gonfaloniere Pier Soderini. In
Florence Raphael was kindly received, and, in spite of his
youth (being barely of age), was welcomed as an equal by the
majority of those great artists who at that time had raised
Florence to a pitch of artistic celebrity far above all other cities
of the world. At the time of his arrival the whole of artistic
Italy was being excited to enthusiasm by the cartoons of the
battle of Anghiari and the war with Pisa, on which Leonardo
da Vinci and Michelangelo were then devoting their utmost
energies. To describe the various influences under which
Raphael came, and the many sources, from which he drank in
stores of artistic knowledge, would be to give a complete history
of Florentine art in the ijth century. 7 With astonishing
rapidity he shook off the mannerisms of Perugino, and put one
great artist after another under contribution for some special
power of drawing, beauty of colour, or grace of composition
in which each happened to excel. Nor was it from painters
only that Raphael acquired his enlarged field of knowledge and
rapidly growing powers. Sculptors like Ghiberti and Donatello
must be numbered among those whose works helped to develop
his new-born style. 8 The Carmine frescoes of Masaccio and
Masolino taught this eager student long-remembered lessons of
methods of dramatic expression." Among his contemporaries
it was especially SignorelJi and Michelangelo who taught him the
importance of precision of line and the necessity of a thorough
knowledge of the human form. 10 From da Vinci he learnt
subtleties of modelling and soft beauty of expression," from
Fra Bartolommeo nobility of composition and skilful treatment
of drapery in dignified folds. 12 The friendship between Raphael
and the last of these was very close and lasted for many years.
The architect Baccio d'Agnolo was another of his special friends,
at whose house the young painter enjoyed social intercourse
6 This letter, which still exists, was sold in Paris in 1856, and is
now in private hands.
7 See Minghetti, " I Maestri di Raffaello," in the Nuova Antologia,
1st August 1 88 1.
8 See his sketch of St George and the Dragon, in the Uffizi, largely
taken from Donatello's pedestal relief outside Or San Michele.
See his cartoon of St Paul preaching at Athens (Victoria and
Albert Museum).
10 See many of his life-studies, especially the one he sent to Albert
Diirer, now at Vienna.
11 See the portrait of Maddalena Don! in the Pitti.
a See the Madonna del Baldacchino in the Pitti.
902
RAPHAEL SANZIO
with a large circle of the chief artists of Florence, and probably
learned from him much that was afterwards useful in his practice
as an architect.
The transition in Raphael's style from his first or Perugian
to his second or Florentine manner is well shown in the large
picture of the Coronation of the Virgin painted for Maddalena
degli Oddi, now in the Vatican, one of the most beautiful that
he ever produced, and especially remarkable for its strong
religious sentiment in this respect a great contrast to the
paintings of his last or Roman manner which hang near it. The
exquisite grace of the angel musicians and the beauty of the
faces show signs of his short visit to Florence, while the general
formality of the composition and certain details, such as the
fluttering ribands of the angels, recall peculiarities of Perugino
and of Pinturicchio, with whose fine picture of the same subject
hung close by it is interesting to compare it. Raphael's paint-
ing, though by far the more beautiful of the two, is yet inferior
to that of Pinturicchio in the composition of the whole; an
awkward horizontal line
divides the upper group
of the Coronation from
that below, the apostles
standing round the Vir-
gin's tomb, filled with
roses and lilies (Dante,
Par. xxiii. 73), while the
older Perugian has skil-
fully united the two groups
by a less formal arrange-
ment of the figures. The
predella of this master-
piece of Raphael is ako
in the Vatican; some
of its small paintings,
especially that of the
FIG. i. Silver-point study for the main Annunciation to the Vir-
figures in the Coronation of the Vir- gin are interesting as
gin (Vatican). In the Lille museum. showing his care f u l study
Illustrating Raphael s use of draped , .,
models during his early period. of the rules of perspec-
tive. 1 Several prepara-
tory sketches for this picture exist: fig. i shows a study,
now at Lille, for the two principal figures, Christ setting
the crown on His mother's head (see fig. 2). It is drawn
from two youths in the ordinary dress of the time; and
it is interesting to compare it with his later studies from
the nude, many of which are for figures which in the future
picture were to be draped. It was at Florence, as Vasari says,
that Raphael began serious life studies, not only from nude
models but also by making careful anatomical drawings from
dissected corpses and from skeletons.
His first visit to Florence lasted only a few months; in
1 505 he was again in Perugia painting his first fresco, the Trinity
and Saints for the Camaldoli monks of San Severo, now a mere
wreck from injury and restorations. The date MDV and the
signature were added later, probably in 1521. Part of this
work was left incomplete by the painter, and the fresco was
finished in 1521 (after his death) by his old master Perugino. 2
It was probably earlier than this that Raphael visited Siena
and assisted Pinturicchio with sketches for his Piccolomini
frescoes. 3 The Madonna of S. Antonio was also finished in
1505, but was probably begun before the Florentine visit. 4 A
1 While at Florence he is said to have taught the science of per-
spective to. his friend Fra Bartolommeo, who certainly gave his
young instructor valuable lessons on composition in return.
2 The fresco of the Last Supper, dated 1505, in the refectory of
S. Onofrio at Florence, is not now claimed as a work of Raphael's,
in spite of a signature partly introduced by the restorer.
3 Raphael probably had no hand in the actual execution of the
paintings; see Schmarsow, Raphael und Pinturicchio in Siena
(Stuttgart, 1880), and Milanesi, in his edition of Vasari, iii. p. 515 seq.,
appendix to life of Pinturicchio.
4 This fine altar-piece, with many large figures, is now the property
of the heirs of the duke of Ripalta, and is stored in the basement
of the National Gallery, London.
record of his visit to Siena exists in a sketch of the antique
marble group of the Three Graces, then -in the cathedral library,
,jye*>f '.- .,^*i*, -~~ -iga-ana^ ,-^-.?*^-:-n,-*. *j
FIG. 2. The group for which fig. i is a study.
from which, not long afterwards, he painted the small panel of
the same subject now in Lord Dudley's collection.
In 1506 Raphael was again in Urbino, where he painted for
the duke another picture of St George, which was sent to England
as a present to Henry VII. The bearer of this and other gifts
was Guidobaldo's ambassador, the accomplished Baldassare
Castiglione (q.v.), a friend of Raphael, whose noble portrait
of him is in the Louvre. At the court of Duke Guidobaldo
the painter's ideas appear to have been led into a more secular
direction, and to this stay in Urbino probably belong the Dudley
Graces, the miniature " Knight's Dream of Duty and Pleasure "
in the National Gallery (London), 6 and also the " Apollo and
Marsyas," sold in' 1882 by Morris Moore to the Louvre for
10,000, a most lovely little panel, painted with almost Flemish
minuteness, rich in colour, and graceful in arrangement. 6
Towards the end of 1506 Raphael returned to Florence, and
there (before 1 508) produced a large number of his finest works,
carefully finished, and for the most part wholly the work of his
own hand. Several of these are signed and dated, but the date
is frequently very doubtful, owing to his custom of using Ronr>an
numerals, introduced among the sham Arabic embroidered on
the borders of dresses, so that the I.'s after the V. are not always
distinguishable from the straight lines of the ornament. The
following is a list of some of his chief paintings of this period:
the " Madonna del Gran Duca " (Pitti) ; " Madonna del Giardino,"
1506 (Vienna); "Holy Family with the Lamb," 1506 or 1507
(Madrid); the " Ansidei Madonna," 1506 or 1507 (National
Gallery); the Borghese "Entombment," 1507; Lord Cowper's
"Madonna" at Panshanger, 1508; "La bella Giardiniera,"
5 This missal-like painting is about 7 in. square; it was bought
in 1847 for 1000 guineas. The National Gallery also possesses its
cartoon, in brown ink, pricked for transference.
6 In spite of some adverse opinions, frequently expressed with
extreme virulence, the genuineness of this little gem can hardly be
doubted by any one who carefully studies it without bias. Sketches
for it at Venice and in the Uffizi also appear to bear the impress of
Raphael's manner. See Delaborde, Etudes sur les B. Arts . . . en
Italic, i. p. 236; Gruyer, Raphael et I'antiquite, ii. p. 421; Eitel-
berger, Rafael's Apollo nnd Marsyas (Vienna, 1860); Batte, Le
Raphael de M. Moore (Paris, 1859); and also various pamphlets
on it by its former owner, Mr. Morris Moore.
RAPHAEL SANZIO
903
1508 (Louvre); the " Eszterhazy Madonna," probably the same
year; as well as the " Madonna del Cardellino " (Uffizi), the
" Tempi Madonna " (Munich), the " Colonna Madonna "
(Berlin), the " Bridgewater Madonna " (Bridgewater House),
and the " Orleans Madonna " (due d'Aumale's collection).
The " Ansidei Madonna " was bought in 1884 for the National
Gallery from the duke of Marlborough for 70,000, .more than
three times the highest price ever before given for a picture. 1
It was painted for the Ansidei family of Perugia as an altar-
piece in the church of S. Fiorenzo, and is a work of the highest
beauty in colour, well preserved and very large in scale. The
Virgin with veiled head is seated on a throne, supporting the
Infant with one hand and holding a book in the other. Below
stands S. Niccolo da Tolentino, for whose altar it was painted;
he holds a book and a crozier, and is clad in jewelled mitre
and green cope, under which appear the alb and cassock. On
the other side is the Baptist, in red mantle and camel's-hair
tunic, holding a crystal cross. The rich jewellery in this picture
is painted with Flemish-like minuteness. On the border of the
Virgin's robe is a date, formerly read as MDV by Passavant
and others; it really is MDVI or MDVII. If the later date is
the true one, the picture was probably begun a year or two
before. A. favourite method of grouping his Holy Families is
that seen in-the " Madonna del Cardellino " and the " Bella Giar-
diniera," in which the main lines form a pyramid. This arrange-
ment is also used in the " Madonna del Giardino " and in the larger
group, including St Joseph and St Elizabeth, known as the
" Canigiani Holy Family, " now at Munich, one of the least
graceful of all Raphael's compositions. The " Entombment
of Christ," now in the Galleria Borghese in Rome, was painted
during a visit to Perugia in 1507 for Lady Atalanta Baglioni, in
memory of the death of her brave and handsome but treacherous
son Grifonetto, who was killed in 1 500 by his enemies the Oddi
party. 2 The many studies and preliminary sketches 3 for this
important picture which exist in various collections show that
it cost Raphael an unusual amount of thought and labour in its
composition, and yet it is quite one of his least successful paint-
ings, especially in colour. It is, however, much injured by
scraping and repainting, and appears not to be wholly by his
hand. The " Madonna del Baldacchino," one of the finest
compositions of the Florentine period, owing much to Fra
Bartolommeo, is also unsatisfactory in execution; being left
unfinished by Raphael, it was completed by Ridolfo Ghirlandajo,
by whom the ungraceful angels of the upper part and the canopy
were wholly executed, and even designed. It was painted for
the Dei family as an altar-piece for their chapel in S. Spirito,
Florence. The " St Catherine " of the National Gallery was pro-
bably painted in 1507; its cartoon, pricked for transference,
is in the Louvre. In colouring it much resembles parts of the
Borghese " Entombment," being quiet and grey in tone. To the
Florentine period belong some of his finest portraits, and it
is especially in these that da Vinci's influence appears. The
portraits of Angelo Doni and his wife Maddalena (Pitti) are vivid
and carefully executed paintings, and the unknown lady with
hard features (now in the Uffizi) is a masterpiece of noble
realism and conscientious finish. The Czartoriski portrait,
a graceful effeminate-looking youth with long hair and tapering
hands, now moved to Cracow, is probably a work of this period;
though worthy to rank with Raphael's finest portraits, its
authenticity has been doubted. Very similar in style is the
Herrenhausen portrait, once attributed to Giovanni Bellini,
but an undoubted work of Raphael, in his second manner;
it also represents a young man with long hair, close-shaven chin,
a wide cloth hat and black dress, painted in half-length. The
1 It is engraved at p. 53, vol. ii., of Dohme, Kunsl und Kilnstier
des Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1878), a work which has many good repro-
ductions of Raphael's paintings and sketches.
2 See Symonds, Sketches in Italy, the chapter on Perugia, mainly
taken from the contemporary chronicle of Matarazzo.
3 These show that Raphael at first intended to paint a Deposition
from the Cross, and afterwards altered his scheme into the Entomb-
ment; an excess of study and elaboration partly account for the
shortcomings of this picture.
so-called Portrait of Raphael by himself at Hampton Court is
a very beautiful work, glowing with light and colour, which
may possibly be a genuine picture of about 1506. It represents
a pleasant-looking youth with turned-up nose, not bearing
the remotest resemblance to Raphael, except the long hair
and black cap common to nearly all" the portraits of this time.*
A fine but much-restored portrait of Raphael by himself, painted
at Florence, exists in the Uffizi; it represents him at a very
early age, and was probably painted during the early part of his
stay in Florence.
Third or Roman Period, 1508-1520. In 1508 Raphael was
painting several important pictures in Florence; in September
of that year we find him settled in Rome, from a letter addressed
in the warmest terms of affectionate admiration to Francia, to
whom he sent a sketch for his " Adoration of the Shepherds," and
promised to send his own portrait in return for that which
Francia had given him. 6 Raphael was invited to Rome by his
fellow-citizen (not relation, as Vasari says) BramaDte, who was
then occupied in the erection of the new church of St Peter,
the foundation-stone of which had been laid by Julius II.
on the i8th of April 1506. At this time the love of the popes
for art had already attracted to Rome a number of the chief
artists of Tuscany, Umbria and North Italy, among whom were
Michelangelo, Signorelli, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Lorenzo Lotto,
Peruzzi, Sodoma, and many others, and it was among this
brilliant assembly that Raphael, almost at once, took a leading
position. 6 Thanks to Bramante's friendly intervention, Julius
II. (Delia Rovere) soon became Raphael's most zealous patron
and friend, as did also the rich bankers Agostino Chigi (the
Rothschild of his time) and Bindo Altoviti, whose portrait, at
the age of twenty, now at Munich, is one of the most beautiful
that Raphael ever produced.
A series of rooms in the Vatican, over the Appartamenti
Borgia, were already decorated with frescoes by Bonfigli,
FIG. 3. Plan showing position of Raphael's frescoes in the stanze.
A. Stanza della Segnatura (1509-11); I, Disputa; 2, School of
Athens; 3, Justinian giving his code to Trebonian; 4, Gregory IX.
giving decretals to a jurist; 5 (over the window), Three Virtues;
6 (over the other window), Apollo and a group of poets on Mount
Parnassus; vault with medallions of Poetry, Theology, Science,
and Justice, and other paintings. B. Stanza d'Eliodoro (1511-14):
7, Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple; 8, Mass of Bolsena;
9, St Peter freed from prison; 10, Attila repulsed by Leo I.; vault
with scenes from Old Testament, by pupils. C. Stanza dell' Incendio
(1517). nearly all painted by pupils: n, Burning of the Borgo;
12, Victory of Leo IV. over the Saracens at Ostia; 13, Coronation
of Charlemagne by Leo III. in St Peter's; 14, Oath of Leo III.
before Charlemagne. D. Sala di Costantino, painted by pupils
(1520-24): 15 and 16, oil-paintings of Comitas and Justitia attri-
buted to Raphael; 17, 17, great fresco of the Defeat of Maxentius.
E E. Part of Raphael's loggia, by his pupils. F. Chapel of Nicholas
V., painted by Fra Angelico. G. Cortile of Bramante.
Perugino, Piero della Francesca, Andrea del Castagno, Signorelli
and Sodoma; but so rapidly had the taste of the time changed
that Julius II. decided to sweep them all away and re-cover the
4 To judge of the authorship of a portrait from internal evidence is
especially difficult, as in so many cases the strong individuality of
the person represented obscures that of the painter.
' Malvasia, Felsina pittrice (Bologna, 1678), was the first to publish
this letter; see also Miintz, Raphael, sa vie, &c., p. 315 (Paris, 1881).
Minghetti (Nuova Antologia, 1883) throws doubt on the date of this
letter.
Miintz, " Michel-Ange et Raphael a la cour de Rome," Cmz. des
B. Arts, March and April 1882, and Les arts a la cour des popes,
vol. iii. (Paris, 1884)
94
RAPHAEL SANZTO
walls with paintings in the more developed but less truly decora-
tive style of Raphael. It was not without regret that Raphael
saw the destruction of this noble series of frescoes. One vault,
that of the Stanza dell' Incendio, painted by his master Perugino,
he saved from obliteration; it still exists, well preserved, a
most skilful piece of decorative work; and he also set his
pupils to copy a number of portrait-heads in the frescoes of
Piero della Francesca before they were destroyed. 1 Fig. 3
shows the positions of Raphael's frescoes in the stanze, which,
both from their size and method of lighting, are very unsuited
for the reception of these large pictures. The two most im-
poitant rooms ( A and B) are small, and have an awkward cross-
light from opposite windows. 2
Stanza della Segnatura (papal signature room), painted in 1509-11
(A on fig. 3). The first painting executed by Raphael in the stanze
was the so-called Disputa, finished in 1509. It is very unlike the
later ones in style, showing the beginning of transition from his
Florentine to his "Roman manner"; as a decorative work it
is very superior to the other frescoes; the figures are much smaller
in scale, as was suited to the very moderate size of the room, and
the whole is arranged mainly on one plane, without those strong
effects of perspective which are so unsuited to the decorative treat-
ment of a wall-surface. In its religious sentiment, too, it far excels
any of the later stanze paintings, retaining much of the sacred
character of earlier Florentine and Umbrian art. As a scheme of
decoration it appears to have been suggested by some of the early
apsidal mosaics. Fig. 4 shows the disposition of its main masses,
which seem to indicate the curved re-
cess of an apse. Gold is largely used,
with much richness of effect, while
the later purely pictorial frescoes have
little or none. The subject of this
magnificent painting is the hierarchy
of the church on earth and its glory
in heaven. 3 The angels in the upper
tier and the nude cherubs who carry
the books of the Gospels are among the
most beautiful figures that Raphael
ever painted.
The painting on the vault of this
room is the next in date, and shows
further transition towards the " Roman
manner." In his treatment of the whole
Raphael has, with much advantage, been
partly guided by the painting of Perugino's vault in the next room
(C). Though not without faults, it is a very skilful piece of decora-
tion; the pictures are kept subordinate to the lines of the vault,
and their small scale adds greatly to the apparent size of the whole.
A great part of the ground is gilt, marked with mosaic-like squares,
a common practice with decorative painters not intended to de-
ceive the eye, but simply to give a softer texture to the gilt surface
by breaking up its otherwise monotonous glare. The principal
medallions in each cell of this quadripartite vault are very graceful
female figures, representing Theology, Science, Justice, and Poetry.
Smaller subjects, some almost miniature-like in scale, are arranged
in the intermediate spaces, and each has some special meaning in
reference to the medallion it adjoins; some of these are painted
in warm monochrome to suggest bas-reliefs. The fine painting
of the " Flaying of Marsyas " is interesting as showing Raphael's study
of antique sculpture: the figure of Marsyas is a copy of a Roman
statue, of which several replicas exist. The very beautiful little
picture of the " Temptation of Eve " recalls Albert Dtirer's treatment
of that subject, though only vaguely. Much mutual admiration
existed between Raphael and purer: in 1515 Raphael sent the
German artist a most masterly life study of two nude male figures
(now at Vienna) ; on it is written in Albert Diirer's beautiful hand
the date and a record of its being a gift from Raphael. It is executed
in red chalk, and was a study for two figures in the " Battle of Ostia "
(see below).
On the wall opposite the Disputa is the so-called School of Athens. 4
1 How fine these portrait-heads probably were may be guessed
from Piero's magnificent frescoes at Arezzo, in the retro-choir of
S. Francesco.
2 See Brunn, Die Composition der Wandgemalde Raphaels int Vatican
(Berlin), and Gruyer, Lesfresques de Raphael au Vatican (Paris, 1859).
3 It need hardly be said that the name Disputa is a misnomer;
there could be no dispute among the saints and doctors of the church
about so well-established a dogma as the real presence: the mon-
strance with the Host below and the figure of Christ above indicate
His double presence both on earth and in heaven. Dr Braun,
Springer, and Hagen have published monographs in German on
this painting.
4 See Trendelenburg, Vber Rafael's Schule von Athen (Berlin, 1843),
and Richter (same title) (Heidelberg, 1882) ; the title " School of
Athens " is comparatively modern.
FIG. 4 Diagram to show
main lines of the Dis-
puta, suggesting an apse,
with mosaic decoration.
In this and the succeeding frescoes all notion of decorative treat-
ment is thrown aside, and Raphael has simply painted a magnifi-
cent series of paintings, treated as easel pictures might have been,
with but little reference to their architectural surroundings.' The
subject of this noble fresco, in contrast to that opposite, is " Earthly
Knowledge," represented by an assembly of the great philosophers,
poets and men of science of ancient Greece. The central figures
are Plato and Aristotle, while below and on each side are groups
arranged with the most consummate skill, including the whole
" filosofica famiglia " of Dante (Infer, iv. 133-144), and a number of
other leaders of thought, selected in a way that shows no slight
acquaintance with the history of philosophy and science among the
ancient Greeks. Many interesting portraits are introduced
Bramante as the aged Archimedes, stooping over a geometrical
diagram; a beautiful fair-haired youth on the left is Francesco
Maria della Rovere, duke of Urbino; and on the extreme right
figures of Raphael himself and Sodoma are introduced (see fig. 5,
below). The stately building in which these groups are arranged is
taken with modifications from Bramante's first design for St Peter's.
Over the window (No. 6 on fig. 3) is a group of poets and musicians
on Mount Parnassus, round a central figure of Apollo; it contains
many heads of great beauty and fine portraits of Dante and Petrarch.
The former, as a theologian, appears also in the Disputa. Over
^he opposite window (No. 5) are graceful figures of the three chief
Virtues, and at one side (No. 4) Gregory IX. (a portrait of Julius
II.) presenting his volume of decretals to a jurist; beside him is
a splendid portrait of Cardinal de' Medici (afterwards Leo X.)
before his face was spoiled by getting too stout. This painting shows
the influence of Melozzo da Forli. 6 On the other side Justinian
presents his code to Trebonianus (No. 3) ; this is inferior in execution,
and appears to have been chiefly painted by pupils.
The next room (B), called La Stanza d'Eliodpro, was painted in
I5II-I4; 7 it is so called from the fresco (No. 7 in fig. 3) represent-
ing the expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple (2 Mace. Hi.), an
allusion to the struggles between Louis XII. of France and Julius
II. The whole spirit of the subjects in this room is less broad and
tolerant than in the first: no pagan ideas are admitted, and its
chief motive is the glorification of the pontificate, with insistence
on the temporal power. The main incident of this picture is the
least successful part of it : the angel visitant on the horse is wanting
in dignity, and the animal is poorly drawn, as is also the case with
the horses of Attila's army in the fresco opposite. The group
of women and children on the left is, however, very beautiful, and
the figures of Julius II. and his attendants are most nobly designed
and painted with great vigour. The tall standing figure of Marc
Antonio Raimondi, as one of the pope's bearers, is a marvellous
piece of portrait-painting, as is also the next figure who bears
his name on a scroll 10 . PETRO . DE . FOLIARHS . CREMONlN.
Behind, Giulio Romano is represented as another papal attendant.
This picture was completed in 1512. Over the window (No. 8) is
the scene of the Miracle at Bplsena of 1264, when the real presence
was proved to a doubting priest by the appearance of blood-stains
on the Corporal (see ORVIETO). Julius II. is introduced kneeling
behind the altar; and the lower spaces on each side of the windows
are filled with two groups, that on the left with women, that on
the right with officers of the papal guard. The last group is one
of the most masterly of all throughout the stanze : each face, a
careful portrait, js a marvel of expression and power, and the
technical skill with which the whole is painted to the utmost
degree of finish, almost without any tempera touches, is most
wonderful. The next fresco in date (No. 10) is that of the Repul-
sion of Attila from the walls of Rome by Leo I., miraculously aided
by the apparitions of St Peter and St Paul; it contains another
allusion to the papal quarrels with France. It was begun in the
lifetime of Julius II., but was only half-finished at the time of his
death in 1513; thus it happens that the portrait of his successor,
the Medici pope Leo X., appears twice over, first as a cardinal
riding behind' the pope, painted before the death of Julius II., and
again in the character of S. Leo, instead of the portrait of Julius
which Raphael was about to paint. 8 Attila with his savage-looking
6 He has shown great skill in the way in which he has fitted his
end frescoes into the awkward spaces cut into by the windows,
but they are none the less treated in a purely pictorial manner.
6 Compare his fresco of Sixtus IV., now in the picture-gallery of
the Vatican.
7 The vault of this room is painted with scenes from the Old
Testament on a harsh blue ground, much restored; they are prob-
ably the work of Giulio Romano, and in a decorative way are very
unsuccessful a striking contrast to the beautiful vaults of Perugino
and Raphael in rooms C and A. The deep blue grounds so much
used by Raphael's school are very liable to injury from damp, and
in most cases have been coarsely restored. Those in the Villa
Madama are untouched, and in parts the damp has changed the
ultramarine into emerald green.
8 A pen sketch in the Louvre by Raphael shows Julius II. in the
place afterwards occupied by Leo X.; another difference in this
sketch is that the pope is borne in a chair, not on horseback as in
the fresco.
RAPHAEL SANZIO
905
army is not the most successful part of the fresco: the horse-, arc-
very wooden in appearance, and the tight-fitting scale armour, put
on in some impossible -way without any joints, gives a very unreal
and theatrical look to the picture. 1 art is the work of pupils.
In 1514 he painted the " Deliverance of St Peter from Prison," with
a further political allusion (No. 9). It is very skilfully arranged
to fit in the awkward space round the window, and is remarkable
for an attempt, not much suited for fresco-painting, to combine
and contrast the three different qualities of light coming from the
moon, the glory round the angel, and the torches of the sentinels.
For room C Raphael designed and partly painted the " Incendio del
Borgo" (No. n.i, a fire in the Bongo or Leonine City, which was
miraculously stop|>ed by Leo IV. appearing and making the sign
of the cross at a window in the Vatican. On the background is
shown the facade of the old basilica of St Peter, not yet destroyed
when this fresco was painted. One group on the left, in the fore-
ground, is remarkable for its vigour and powerful drawing; the
motive is taken from the burning of Troy; a fine nude figure of
/Eneas issues from the burning houses bearing on his back the old
Anchises and leading the boy Ascanius by the hand. Some of the
female figures are designed with much grace and dramatic power.
Many studies for this picture exist. This is the last of the stanze
frescors on which Raphael himself worked. Others designed by
him and painted by Giulio Romano, Gianfranccsco Penni, and other
pupils were the " Battle of Ostia " (No. 12), a very nobly composed
picture, and the " Oath of Leo III. before Charlemagne " (No. 14).
The other great picture in this room (No. 13), the Coronation of
Charlemagne " (a portrait of Francis I. of France), is so very inferior
in composition that it is difficult to believe that Raphael even made
a sketch for it. The enormous fresco of the " Defeat, of Maxentius
by Constantino " (room D, No. 17) was painted by Giulio Romano,
soon after Raphael's death, from a sketch by the latter; it is even
more harsh and disagreeable in colour than most of Giulio Romano's
early frescoes. 1 Among the other very inferior frescoes in this great
hall are two female figures (Nos. 15 and 16) representing Comitas
and Justitia, painted on the wall in oil colours, very harmonious
and rich in tone; they are usually, though wrongly, attributed to
Raphael himself.
Technical Methods employed in Raphael's Frescoes. Having
made many studies, both nude and draped, for single figures and
groups, the painter made a small drawing of the whole composition,
which was enlarged by his pupils with the help of numbered squares,
drawn all over it, to the full size required, 2 on paper or canvas.
Holes were then pricked along the outlines of the cartoon, and the
design pounced through on to an undercoat of dry stucco on the
wall, with pounded charcoal and a stiff brush. Over this, early
in the morning, a patch of wet stucco was laid, about enough to
serve for the day's painting; this of course obliterated the out-
line on the wall, and the part covered by the patch was again
sketched in by freehand, with a point on the wet stucco, so as to
be a guide for the outline traced with the brush and the subsequent
painting. A line impressed on the wet stucco was easily smoothed
out, but a touch of the brush full of pijgment sank deeply into the
moist stucco, and could not easily be effaced. It will thus be seen
that in fresco painting the only use of pouncing the whole design
on to the wall was to keep the general positions of the figures right,
and was no guide as to the drawing of each separate part. Fig. 5
shows the portrait-heads of himself and Perugino (?), at the extreme
right of the School of Athens; on this are visible many of the
impressed sketch-lines, and also part of the " fresco edge " of the
patch on which this part is painted. The heads in this figure are
less than one day's work. It will be seen that there is no attempt
at any accuracy of drawing in the impressed lines. Raphael,
especially in his later frescoes, worked with wonderful rapidity:
three life-sized busts, or half a full-length figure, more than life-size,
was a not unusual day's work. In some of the frescoes the edges
of each day's patch of stucco can easily be traced, especially in the
Incendio del Borgo, which has a strong side light. In the Disputa
much use was made of tempera in the final touches, but less was
used in the subsequent frescoes, owing to his increasing mastery of
the difficulties of the process.
The paintings in the stanze were only a small part of Raphael's
work between 1509 and 1513. To this period belong the
Madonna of Foligno (Vatican), painted in 1511 for Sigismondo
Conti; it is one of his most beautiful compositions, full of
the utmost grace and sweetness of expression, and appears to
be wholly the work of his hand. It has suffered much from
repainting. Of about the same date are the gem-like Garvagh
Madonna (National Gallery, bought for 9000; once in the
possession of the Aldobrandini family), the Diademed Virgin
'See Montagnani, Sola di Costantino (Rome, 1834). Though he
was never a good colourist, the great frescoes by Giulio Romano
in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua, show some improvement as compared
with his Roman work.
'These three stages were usually distinguished as study, sketch
and cartoon.
of the Louvre, and the Madonna del Pesce at Madrid. The last
is a very noble picture but the design is more pleasing than the
FIG. 5. Heads of Raphael and Perugino (?), from the School of
Athens, showing incised lines and " fresco edges."
colour, which, like .other paintings of Raphael's at Madrid,
suggests the inferior touch of a pupil; it was executed in
1513 for S. Domenico in Naples. In addition to other easel
pictures a number of his finest portraits belong to this period
that of Julius II. (Uffizi), 3 of which a good replica or con-
temporary copy exists in the National Gallery, the so-called
Fornarina in the Palazzo Barberini, the Baldassare Castiglione
of the Louvre, and the unfinished portrait of Federigo Gonzaga
of Mantua.
When Giovanni de' Medici, at the age of thirty-eight, became
pope as Leo X., a period of the most glowing splendour and
reckless magnificence succeeded the sterner rule of Julius II.
Agostino Chigi, the Sienese financier, was the chief of those
whose lavish expenditure contributed to enrich Rome with
countless works of art. For him Raphael painted, in 1513-14,
the very beautiful fresco of the Triumph of Galatea in his
new palace by the Tiber bank, the Villa Farnesina, and also
made a large series of magnificent designs from Apuleius's
romance of Cupid and Psyche, which were carried out by a
number of his pupils. 4 These cover the vault and lunettes of a
large loggia (now closed in for protection) ; in colouring they are
mostly harsh and gaudy, 6 as is usually the case with the works
of his pupils, a great contrast to the fresco of the Galatea, the
greater part of which is certainly the master's own work. 6 For
the same patron he painted (also in 1513) his celebrated Sibyls
1 A very fine ancient copy of this portrait is in the Pitti Palace;
certain peculiarities in its execution show it to be by some Venetian
painter, as was pointed out to Professor Middleton by Mr Fairfax
Murray.
* Chiefly by Giulio Romano, Gianfrancesco Penni and Giovanni
da Udine; much injury has been done to these frescoes by re-
painting, especially in the coarse blue of the ground.
6 These and other frescoes by his pupils are much disfigured by
the disagreeable hot tone of the flesh,- very unlike the pearly tone
of the flesh of Galatea.
' Dorigny, Psychis et Amoris fabula a Raphaele, (fc. (Rome, 1693) ;
and Gruner, Fresco Decorations in Italy (London, 1854), pis. 16-18.
The group of the Triton and Nymph on the left of the composition
was probably executed by Giulio Romano.
906
RAPHAEL SANZIO
in S. Maria della Pace, figures of exquisite grace, arranged
with perfect skill in an awkward space. It is not without
reason that Vasari
gives these the
highest position
among his fresco-
paintings. 1 Agos-
tino Chigi also
employed Raphael
to build for him
a private chapel
in S. Maria del
Popolo, and to
make a series of
cartoons to be exe-
cuted in mosaic
on the inner dome. 2
The central medal-
lion has a figure of
God among clouds
and angel boys,
FIG. 6. Mosaic of God creating the stars,
from the Chigi chapel, in centre of dome,
designed by Raphael.
such as Raphael
drew with un-
rivalled grace (fig.
6), and around are the eight planets, each with its pagan
deity and directing angel. 3 He has not hampered himself
by any of the usual rules which should apply to the design-
ing of mosaic; they are simply treated as pictures, with almost
. deceptive effects of perspective. The execution of these
brilliant mosaics was carried out by the Venetian Luigi della
Pace, whose signature is introduced on the torch of Cupid in
the panel representing the star Venus (Ludovico
della Pace Veneziano fecit, 1516). These
mosaics are still as perfect and brilliant as if they
were the work of yesterday. Probably in the early
years of Leo X.'s reign were painted the Madonna della Seg-
giola (Pitti), the S. Cecilia at Bologna (not completed till 1516),
the miniature Vision of Ezekiel (Pitti) and three important
pictures at Madrid. The latest of these, known as Lo Spasimo,
from the church at Palermo, for which it was painted, is one
of Raphael's finest compositions, representing Christ bearing
His Cross. It bears signs of Giulio Romano's hand in its heavy
colouring with unpleasant purple tones. The Madonna called
Delia Perla has much changed from the darkening of the pig-
ments; in design it recalls Leonardo da Vinci. 4 The small
Madonna della Rosa is the most perfect in colour of all the
master's pictures in the Madrid Gallery, and is usually rather
undervalued; it is a most graceful little picture. The portrait
of Leo X. with Cardinals de' Rossi and de' Medici, in the Pitti,
is one of his finest portrait-pictures, especially as regards the
figure of the pope. 6 Little is known about the Madonna di
S. Sisto, the glory of the Dresden Gallery; no studies or sketches
for it exist. In style it much resembles the Madonna di Foligno;
it is less injured by restoration than the latter.
Among the latest works of Raphael are the large " St Michael
and the Devil," in the Louvre, signed " Raphael Urbinas pinge-
bat, MDXVIH.," and the very beautiful portrait of the Violin-
player, in the Sciarra-Colonna Palace in Rome, also dated
1518; this last bears much resemblance to the painter himself.
The British Museum possesses one of Raphael's finest portraits,
1 Thanks to Michelangelo's generous intervention, Raphael was
paid the large sum for that time of 900 gold ducats for this fresco.
2 Gruner, Mosaici in S. Maria del Popolo (Rome, 1839).
3 In accordance with Dante's scheme in the Paradise.
4 La Perla, " the pearl " of the Spanish royal collection, was
originally painted for Bishop Louis of Canossa; it was sold by
Cromwell with the greater part of Charles I.'s collection at Hampton
Court. The composition, though not the execution, of this picture,
belongs to Raphael's early years in Rome; it is very remarkable
for its delicacy of touch and high finish.
6 The magnificent portrait-heads of the Venetian scholars Nava-
gero and Beazzano, now in the Doria Gallery in Rome, are worthy
of Raphael at his best, and have for lone been attributed to him.
There are good contemporary copies at Madrid.
though only a chalk drawing, that of his friend the painter
Timoteo della Vite, a masterpiece of expression and vigour;
it is executed in black and red, and is but little inferior in
chromatic effect to an oil-painting; it is life size, and is exe-
cuted with wonderful skill and evident keen interest in the
subject.
The tapestry cartoons, seven of which are in the Victoria
and Albert Museum, were painted by pupils from Raphael's
designs. They are part of a set of ten, with scenes from the
Acts of the Apostles, intended, when copied in tapestry, to
adorn the lower part of the walls of the Sistine chapel. The
tapestries themselves, worked at Brussels, are now, after
many vicissitudes, hung in a gallery in the Vatican; the set
is complete, thus preserving the design of the three lost cartoons.
The existing seven, after being cut up into strips for use
on the looms, were bought by Rubens for Charles I. 6 The
tapestry copies are executed with wonderful skill, in spite of
Raphael's having treated the subjects in a purely pictorial
way, with little regard to the exigencies of textile work. The
designs are reversed, and the colours far more brilliant than
those of the cartoons, much gold and silver being introduced.
The noble figure of Christ in the Delivery of the Keys to St
Peter is in the tapestry much disfigured by the addition of a
number of large gold stars all over the drapery, which spoil
the simple dignity of the folds. The rich framework round
each picture, designed by Raphael's pupils, probably by Penni
and Giovanni da Udine, exists in the tapestries and adds greatly
to their decorative effect. The cartoons were executed in
1515 and 1516, and the finished tapestries were first exhibited
in their place in the Sistine chapel on the 26th of December
1519 a very short time for the weaving of such large and
elaborate pictures. The three of which the cartoons are lost
represent the Martyrdom of St Stephen, the Conversion of
St Paul, and St Paul in Prison at Philippi. Probably no
pictures are better known to have been more often engraved
and copied than these seven cartoons. 7
The Transfiguration* In 1519 Cardinal Giuliano de' Medici
(afterwards Clement VII.), as bishop of Narbonne, ordered
two altar-pieces for his cathedral the one by Raphael, the
other by Raphael's Venetian rival Sebastiano del Piombo.
That by the latter painter is the noble Resurrection of Lazarus,
now in the National Gallery, in the drawing of which the
Venetian received important aid from Michelangelo. Several
studies for Raphael's picture exist, showing that he at first
intended to paint a Resurrection of Christ as a pendant to
Sebastiano's subject, but soon altered his scheme into the
Transfiguration. The eight or nine existing studies are scat-
tered through the Oxford, Lille, Windsor and sorne private
collections. A great part of the lower group was unfinished
at the time of the painter's sudden death in 1520, and a good
deal of the heavy colouring of Giulio Romano is visible in
it. On the death of Raphael the picture became too precious
to send out of Rome, and Cardinal de' Medici contented himself
with sending the Resurrection of Lazarus to Narbonne. The
Transfiguration was bequeathed by him to the monks of
S. Pietro in Montorio, in whose church it remained till it was
stolen by Napoleon I. It now hangs in the Vatican Gallery.
Architectural Work? Though he designed but few buildings,
Raphael's great repute even in this branch of art is shown by the
6 Fortunately they were not sold with the bulk of Charles's
collection, and remained at Hampton Court till a few years ago.
See Koch, Rafael's Tapeten im Vatican (Vienna, 1878), and Miintz,
Hist, de la tapisserie italienne (Paris, 1880).
7 The name " arazzi " given by Italians to these tapestries is
derived from Arras, where they were erroneously thought to have
been woven; they were made at Brussels. It is much to be re-
gretted that visitors to the Vatican are no longer allowed to see
these priceless examples of textile work.
8 See Morgenstern, Vber Rafael's Verkldrung (Leipzig, 1822), and
Justi, Die Verklarung Christi (Leipzig, 1870).
'See Ojetti, Discorso su Ra/aello Architetto (Rome, 1883), but
more especially Geymuller's work mentioned in the text, and his
Projets primitifs pour la Bas. de S. Pierre (Paris, 1875-80); also the
works of Hofmann and Bloch (Dresden, 1900).
RAPHAEL SANZIO
907
fact that Bramante, before his death in March 1514, specially
requested that Raphael should be made his successor as chief
architect of St Peter's. To this most important post he was ap-
pointed by a brief of Leo X., dated the 1st of August 1514. The
progress of St Peter's was, however, too slow for him to leave much
mark on its design. Another work of Bramante's completed, by
Raphael, was the graceful Cortile di S. Damaso in the Vatican,
including the loggie, which were decorated with stucco- reliefs and
paintings of sacred subjects by his pupils under his own supervision,
but only very partially from his designs. 1 The Palazzo dell'
Aquila, built for Giovanni Battista Branconio, and destroyed in
the 1 7th century during the extension of St Peter's, was one of
Raphael's chief works as an architect. He also designed the little
cross church, domed at the intersection like a miniature St Peter's,
called S. Eligio degli Orefici, which still exists near the Tiber,
almost opposite the Farnesina gardens, a work of but little merit.
According to M. Geymiiller, whose valuable work, Raffaello come
Architetto (Milan, 1883), has done so much to increase our knowledge
of this subject, the Villa Farnesina of Agostino Chigi, usually attri-
buted to Peruzzi, was, as well as its palace-like stables, designed by
Raphael; but internal evidence makes this very difficult to believe.
It has too much of the delicate and refined character of the isth
century for Raphael, whose taste seems to have been strongly
inclined to the more developed classic style, of which Palladio
afterwards became the chief exponent. The Palazzo Vidoni, near
S. Andrea della Valle, also in Rome, is usually attributed to Raphael,
but an original sketch for this in Peruzzi's own hand has recently
been identified among the collection of drawings at Siena; this,
however, is not a certain proof that the design was not Raphael's.
M. Geymiiller has, however, shown that the Villa Madama, on
the slopes of Monte Mario above Rome, was really designed by
him, though its actual carrying out, and the unrivalled stucco-
reliefs which make its interior one of the most magnificent palaces
in the world, are due to Giulio Romano and Giovanni da Udine, as
mentioned in Vasari's life of the latter. 2 The original design for
this villa made by Raphael himself has been discovered by M.
Geymuller. Anotherarchitectural work was the little Chigi chapel
in S. Maria del Popolo, built in 1516, for the dome of which the
above-mentioned mosaics were designed (see fig. 6). At the time
of his death he was preparing to build himself a handsome palace
near the church of S. Eligio; the deed for the purchase of its site
was signed by him only a few days before his last short illness.
Though not completed till 1530, the Palazzo Pandolfini at Florence
was also designed by him; it is a dull scholastic building without
any special beauty either in proportion or treatment of the mass;
it is illustrated by Montigny and Famin, Architecture Toscane
(Paris, 1815), pis. 33-36.
A sober criticism of Raphael's architectural works must force
one to refuse him a high position in this branch of art. In the
church of S. Eligio and the Chigi chapel he is merely a copyist of
Bramante, and his more original works show but little power of
invention or even mastery of the first principles of architectural
design. His details are, however, often delicate and refined
(especially in the Palazzo Pandolfini), and he was supremely success-
ful in the decorative treatment of richly ornamented interiors when
he did not, as in some of the Vatican stanze, sacrifice the room to
the frescoes on its walls.
Sculpture. That Vasari is right in attributing to him the model
for the beautiful statue of Jonah in the Chigi chapel (fig. 7) is
borne witness to by two important documents, which show that
his almost universal talents led him to attempt with success the
preliminary part of the sculptor's art, though there is no evidence
to show that he ever worked on marble.' One of these is a letter
written to Michelangelo to warn him that Raphael had been in-
vading his province as a sculptor by modelling a boy, which had
been executed in marble by a pupil, and was a work of much beauty.
Again, after his death his friend Baldassare Castiglione, in a letter
1 See Mariani, La Bibbia nelle Loggie del Vaticano (Rome) ; Anon.,
Dipinti nelle Loggie del Vaticano (Rome, 1841); and Gruner, Fresco
Decorations (London, 1854), pis. 1-5. Too great a share in the
decoration of the loggie is usually given to Raphael; not only the
harsh colour but also the feebleness of much of the drawing shows
that he can have had but little to do with it.
1 See Gruner, Fresco Decorations, &c. (London, 1854), pis. 6-12,
and Raffaelle Santi, Ornati della Villa Madama, fire. (Rome, 1875).
Two other little known but very beautiful architectural works,
executed under Raphael's influence by his pupils, are the bathroom
of Cardinal Bibbiena in the Vatican and the bathroom of Clement VII.
in the castle of S. Angclo, both richly decorated with delicate
stucco-reliefs and paintings, treated after a classical model.
' See note on p. 369, vol. iv., of Milanesi's edition of Vasari
(Florence, 1870). To one branch of the sculptor's art, practised
under Raphael's supervision, belong the elaborate and delicately
executed stucco-reliefs of the loggie and elsewhere. Among these
occur many panels with figure-subjects, large in scale and important
in composition; those executed during his lifetime are free from
the too pictorial character which is an obvious fault in the very
magnificent reliefs of the Villa Madama.
dated the 8th of May 1523, asks his steward in Rome " if Giulio
Romano still possesses a certain boy in marble by Raphael and
what his lowest price for
it would be," " s'egli
[Giulio Romano] ha piu
quel puttino di marmo
di mano di Raffaello c
per quanto si daria all'
ultimo." A group in
marble of a Dead Boy on
his Dolphin Playfellow,
now in the St Petersburg
Hermitage, has been
erroneously supposed to
be Raphael's " puttino,"
which has also been
identified with a statu-
ette of a child formerly
at Florence in the pos-
session of Signer Mohni. 4
The statue of Jonah was
executed in marble by
Lorenzetto, a Florentine
sculptor; and it re-
mained in his studio for
many years after Ra-
phael's death. The Vic-
toria and Albert Museum
possesses a small clay
sketch for this beautiful
group, slightly different
from the marble; it is
probably the original
design by the master's
own hand. The whole
feeling of the group a
beautiful youth seated
on a sea-monster is
purely classical, and the
motive is probably taken
from some antique statue
FIG. 7. Statue of Jonah in the Chigi
chapel, designed by Raphael, sculptured
by Lorenzetto; heroic size.
representing Arion or Taras on a dolphin.* Being intended for a
church it was necessary to give the figure a sacred name, and
hence the very incongruous title that it received. There is no
trace of Raphael's hand in the design of the other statue, an Elijah
by Lorenzetto, though it also is ascribed to him by Vasari.
Lesser Arts practised by Raphael. Like other great artists,
Raphael did not disdain to practise the lesser branches of art: a
design for a silver perfume-burner with female caryatids is preserved
in an engraving by Marco da Ravenna; and he also designed two
handsome reppuss6 salvers for Agostino Chigi, drawings for which
are now at Dresden. In designs for tarsia-work and wood-carv-
ing he was especially skilful; witness the magnificent doors and
shutters of the stanze executed by his pupil Giovanni Barile of
Siena.' The majolica designs attributed to him were by a name-
sake and relation called Raffaello di Ciarla;' and, though many
fine dishes and ewers of Urbino and other majolica are decorated
with Raphael's designs, they are all taken from pictures or engrav-
ings, not specially done by him for ceramic purposes. With the
frivolity of his age Leo X. occasionally wasted Raphael's skill on
unworthy subjects, such as the scenery of a temporary theatre; and
in 1516 the pope set him to paint in fresco the portrait life-size
of a large elephant, the gift of the king of Portugal, after the animal
was dead. 8 This elephant is also introduced among the stucco
reliefs of the Vatican loggie, with the poetaster Barrabal sitting
in mock triumph on its back.
Though Raphael himself does not appear to have practised the
art of engraving, yet this formed one of the many branches of art
which were earned on under his supervision. A large number of his
designs were engraved by his pupils Marcantonio Raimondi and
Agostino Veneziano. These valuable engravings are from Raphael's
sketches, not from his finished pictures, and in some cases they show
4 See Appendix, p. 406, vol. iv., of Milanesi's edition of Vasari;
Rembadi, Del putto . . . di Raffaello (Florence, 1872); Gennarelli,
Sopra una Scultura di Raffaello (Florence, 1873). The evidence
which would attribute this piece of sculpture to Raphael is almost
worthless. See on the St Petersburg group, Gu&leonoff, Ober
die dem Raphael zugeschr. Marmorgruppe (St Petersburg, 1872).
* Compare this latter subject on reverses of the beautiful di-
drachms of Tarentum, c. 300 B.C.
* The very beautiful and elaborate choir-stalls of the church of S.
Pietrode' Casinensi at Perugia, with panels carved in relief, executed
'" '535 by Stefano da Bergamo, are mainly adapted from Raphael's
designs.
1 Campori, Notizie Star. d. Maiolica di Ferrara (3rd ed., Pcsaro,
1879), PP- I32-I33-
1 Under it was inscribed " Raphael Urbinas quod natura ab-
stulerat arte restituit."
RAPHAEL SANZIO
important alterations made in the execution of the picture.
Raimondi's engraving of the S. Cecilia of Bologna in design is very
inferior to that of the actual painting. Several of Raphael's most
important compositions are known to us only by these early
engravings, e.g. the Massacre of the Innocents (engraved by
Raimondi), which is one of his finest works, both for skilful com-
position and for masterly drawing of the nude. Another magnifi-
cent design is the Judgment of Paris, containing a large number of
figures; the nude figure of Minerva is a work of especial force
and beauty. A standing figure of Lucretia 1 about to stab herself
is also one of his most lovely figures. Many of Raphael's studies for
Marcantonio's engravings still exist.
Archaeology. As an antiquary Raphael deserves to take the
highest rank. His report 2 to Leo X. in 1518 is an eloquent plea
for the preservation of ancient buildings. In 1515 he had been
appointed by Leo X. inspector of all excavations in Rome and
within 10 miles round. His careful study of the antique, both
statues and modes of decoration, is clearly shown in many of his
frescoes, and especially in the graceful stucco reliefs and painted
grotteschi, of which he and his pupils made such skilful use in
the decorations of the Vatican loggie, the Villa Madama and
elsewhere. 3
Raphael's Fame. Among all the painters of the world none has
been so universally popular as Raphael, or has so steadily main-
tained his pre-eminent reputation throughout the many changes
in taste which have taken place in the last three and a half
centuries. Apart from his combined merits as a draughtsman,
colourist and master of graceful composition, he owes the constancy
of admiration which has been felt for him partly to the wide range
of his subjects, but still more to the wonderful varieties of his
style. If the authorship of his paintings were unknown, who
would guess that the Sposalizio of the Brera, the Madonna del
Baldacchino of the Pitti, and the Transfiguration could possibly
be the work of one painter? In the seventeen or eighteen
years which composed his short working life he passed through
stages of development for which a century would not have
seemed too long, while other painters lived through the same
changeful time with but little alteration in their manner of
work. Perugino, who outlived his wonderful pupil, completed
in 1521 Raphael's San Severe fresco in a style differing but little
from his paintings executed in the previous century.
In versatility of power Raphael (as a painter) remains almost
without a rival; whether painting an altar-piece for a church,
a large historical fresco, a portrait or decorative scenes from
classical mythology, he seems to excel equally in each; and
the widely different methods of painting in tempera, oil or
fresco are employed by him with apparently equal facility.
His range of scale is no less remarkable, varying from a miniature,
finished like an illuminated MS., to colossal figures in fresco
dashed in with inimitable breadth and vigour.
His personal beauty, charm of manner and deep kindliness of
heart endeared him to all who knew him. 4 His sincere modesty
was not diminished by his admission as an equal by the princes
of the church, the distinguished scholars and the world-famed
men of every class who formed the courts of Julius II. and
Leo X. In accordance with the spirit of the age he lived with
considerable display and luxury, and was approached with the
utmost deference by the ambassadors of foreign princes,
whether their master desired a picture, or, as the duke of Ferrara
did, sent to consult him on the best cure for smoky chimneys.
To his pupils he was as a father, and they were all, as Vasari
says, " vinti dalla sua cortesia"; they formed^ round him a
sort of royal retinue, numbering about fifty youths, each
talented in some branch of the arts. 5 Giuiio Romano and
Gianfrancesco Penni, his two favourite pupils, lived with him
in the Palazzo di Bramante, a house near St Peter's, where he
resided during the greater part of his life in Rome. This fine
1 On a pedestal is inscribed in Greek " Better to die than live
basely."
2 Published by Visconti, Lettera di Raffaello a Leone X. (Rome,
1840); see also Muntz, " Raphael Archeologue," &c., Gaz. des B.
Arts, October and November 1880.
3 See Gruyer, Raphael et I'antiquite (Paris, 1864).
4 See the eloquent eulogy of his character at the end of Vasari's
Life.
6 See Minghetti, " Gli Scolari di Raffaello," Nuova Antologia
(June 1880).
palace, designed by Bramante, was destroyed in the iyth century
at the same time as Raphael's Palazzo dell' Aquila.
It is difficult to realize the grief and enthusiasm excited by
the master's death on Good Friday (April 6th) 1520, at the age
of thirty-seven exactly, after an attack of fever which lasted
only ten days. His body was laid out in state in his studio,
by the side of the unfinished Transfiguration, and all Rome
flocked to the place for a last sight of the " divino pittore." His
property amounted to about 30,000; his drawings and MSS.
he left to Giuiio Romano and Gianfrancesco Penni; his newly
bought land to Cardinal Bibbiena, the uncle of the lady to whom
he had been betrothed; there were liberal bequests to his
servants; and the rest was mostly divided among his relatives
at Urbino. He desired to be buried in the Pantheon, under
the noble dome which he and Bramante had dreamed of rival-
ling. His body is laid beside an altar, which he endowed with
an annual chantry, and on the wall over it is a plain slab, with
an inscription written by his friend Cardinal Bembo. Happily
his grave has as yet escaped the disfigurement of a pretentious
monument such as those erected to Michelangelo, Dante and
other great Italians; it has not, however, remained undis-
turbed: in 1833 it was opened and the bones examined. 6 In
March 1883 a festival was held at Urbino, on the occasion of the
4th centenary of his birth, and on this occasion many interesting
articles on Raphael were published, especially one by Gey-
miiller, " Le IV me centenaire de la naissance de Raphael,"
1483-1883, in the Gaz. de Lausanne, March 1883.
LITERATURE. Comolli, Vita inedita di Raffaello (1790); Duppa,
Life of Raphael (London, 1816); Braun, Raphael ... Leben und
Werke (Wiesbaden, 1819); Fea, Raffaello . . . ed alcune di lui
Opere (Rome, 1822); Rehberg, Rafael Sanzio aus Urbino (Munich,
1824); Quatremere de Quincy, Vita ed Opcre di Raffaello, trans, by
Longhena .(Milan, 1829) (a work marred by many inaccuracies);
Rumohr, Vber Raphael und sein Verhaltniss (Berlin, 1831); Rip,
Michelange et Raphael (Paris, 1863); Gruyer, Raphael et I'antiquile
(Paris, 1864), Les vierges de Raphael (Paris, 1878) and Raphael,
peintre de portraits (Paris, 1880); Grimm, Das Leben Raphaels von
Urbino (Berlin, 1872) (intended specially to point out the errors of
Vasari and Passavant, and not written in a very fair spirit) ; Gher-
ardi, Delia Vita di Raffaello (Urbino, 1874); Anton Springer, Raffael
und Michelangelo (Leipzig, 1878) ; C. C. Perkins, Raphael and Michel-
angelo (Boston, 1878); Dohme, Kunst und Kunstler des Mitlelalters
(Leipzig, 1878) (vol. ii. of this valuable work, with many illustrations,
is devoted entirely to Raphael and Michelangelo); Alippi, II
Raffaello (Urbino, 1880); Clement, Michelange et Raphael (sth ed.,
improved) (Paris, 1881); Eug. Milntz, Raphael, sa vie, son ceuvre,
&c. (Paris, 1881) (with numerous well-chosen illustrations); Passa-
vant, Rafael und sein Voter (Leipzig, 1839-58) (a valuable book,
especially for its list of Raphael's works; a new edition translated
by Guasti into Italian was published at Florence in 1882, but
this edition is in no way superior to the French one of Lacroix
(Paris, 1860), which is a great advance on the original German text) ;
Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Life and Works of Raphael (London, 1882
85) ; Eug. Miintz, Les historiens et les critiques de Raphael (Paris,
1883) (contains a good bibliography of the subject) ; Morelli, Italian
Masters (in German, 1880; in English, 1882, and subsequently
republished), practically the starting-point of modern technical
criticism; B. Berenson, Central Italian Painters (1897) (expert
characterization and list of works).
Reproductions of Raphael's Works. From the time of Raimondi
downwards no painter's works have been so frequently engraved.
The Calcografia Camerale (now called Regia) of Rome possesses
an enormous number of copper-plates of his pictures by a great
many good (and bad) engravers of the I Sth and igth centuries.
Electrotypes of the old coppers are still worked, and are published
by the Stamperia at very moderate prices; in the catalogue Nos.
736 to 894 are the works of Raphael, including several books of
engravings containing whole sets, such as the Vatican loggie, &c.
A very complete collection of photographs from these and other
engravings was published by Gutbier and Lilbke, Rafael's Werke,
sdmmtliche Tafelbilder und Freshen (Dresden, 1881-82), in three large
volumes, divided into classes, pictures of the Madonna, frescoes,
stanze of the Vatican, tapestry cartoons, &c. The descriptive text
and life of Raphael are by Lubke. The Malcolm, Oxford, British
Museum, Lille, Louvre, Dresden and other collections of Raphael's
drawings have mostly been published in photographic facsimile,
and an enormous number of illustrated monographs on single
pictures exist. Braun's autotypes of the stanze and Farnesina
frescoes are especially good. (J. H. M.)
6 See " Ritrovamento delle ossa di Raffaello," Soc. Virtuosi
al Panteone (Rome, 1833) ; other pamphlets on this were pub-
lished in the same year by Fea, Falconieri and Odescalchi.
RAPIER RARE EARTHS
909
RAPIER, the name given to two distinct types of sword.
Originally the " rapier " (Fr. rapi'ere) was a long two-edged and
pointed weapon with a wide cup hilt, used together with the
dagger in fencing and duelling chiefly as a thrusting weapon,
the cut taking a secondary position. This was the typical
duelling sword of the i6th and iyth centuries. In the i8th
century the " small-sword " took its place; this was a pointed
weapon only, the " cut " having entirely dropped out, and the
dagger being discarded. The word rapier is of doubtful origin.
Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. " Rapparia ") quotes an example
of the word used as an adjective to qualify espfe as early as
1474, and gives as a conjectural derivation Gr. f>am^fiv = Lal.
caedcre, to cut. Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1910) follows the suggestion
of Diez that rapi'ere is from raspiere, a rasper or poker, and was
a name given in contempt by the old cut-and-thrust fencers to the
new weapon. Spanish has raspadera, a raker, and there are
several i6th and i;th century quotations alluding to the con-
tempt with which the rapier was greeted, and to its Spanish
origin (see FENCING and SWORD).
RAPIN, PAUL DE (1661-1725), sieur of.Thoyras, French
historian, was the son of Jacques de Rapin, avocat at Castres
(Tarn), where he was born on the 25th of 'March 1661. He
was educated at the Protestant academy of Saumur, and in 1679
became an advocate, but soon afterwards entered the army.
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and the death of
his father led him to come to England; but, unable to find
employment there, he crossed to Holland and enlisted in the
company of French volunteers at Utrecht commanded by
Daniel de Rapin, his cousin-german. He accompanied the
prince of Orange to England in 1688, and during the Irish
campaign he took part in the siege of Carrickfergus and the
battle of the Boyne, and was wounded at the battle of Limerick.
Soon afterwards he was promoted captain; but in 1693 he
resigned in order to become tutor to the earl of Portland's son.
After travelling with his charge, he settled with his family in
Holland, first at the Hague, then, for economy's sake, at Wesel,
in 1707, where he began his great work, L'Histoire d'Angleterre.
Though he was of a strong constitution, the seventeen years'
application ruined his health. He died in 1725.
Rapin was also the author of a Dissertation sur les Whigs et les
Torys (1717). L'Histoire d'Angleterre, embracing the period from
the invasion of the Romans to the death of Charles I., was printed
at the Hague in 1724 in 8 yols. It was translated into English
and improved with notes by Tindal, in 2 vols. folio, 1725-31. Rapin's
history of England was almost the only one available in France in
the first half of the i8th century-
RAPOPORT, SAMUEL JUDAH L0B (1700-1867), Jewish
scholar, was born at Lemberg in 1 790. After various experiences
in business, Rapoport became successively rabbi of Tarnopol
(1837) and of Prague (1840). He was one of the founders of the
new learning in Judaism. His chief work was the first part of
an (unfinished) encyclopaedia ('Erekh Millin, 1852). Equally
notable were his biographies of the Gaon Saadiah, Nathan
author of the Arnkh, the Gaon Hai, Eleazar Kalir and others.
He died at Prague in 1867. (I. A.)
RAPPAREE, properly a short pike (Irish, rapaire) ; the term
being hence applied in the war in Ireland from 1688-92 to the
Irish irregular soldiers armed with this weapon. It thus
became synonymous with robber or freebooter, and in 1707
appears in the title of an act (6 Anne, cap. n) " for the more
effectual suppression of ... robbers and rapparees."
RAPPOLTSWEILER (French Ribcauville), a town of Germany,
in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine. Pop. (1905) 5986.
It lies at the entrance of the valley of the Strengbach, under
the eastern slope of the Vosges mountains, 33 m. S.W. of Strass-
burg on the railway to Basel, being connected with its station
on that line, 2j m. distant, by a tramway. It is in part sur-
rounded by ancient walls, and has many picturesque medieval
houses, and two old churches, of St Gregory and St Augustine,
both fine Gothic buildings. The town hall contains a valuable
collection of antiquities. The Carolabad, a saline spring with
a temperature of 64 F., which had a great repute in the middle
ages, was rediscovered in 1888, and made Rappoltsweiler a
watering-place. The industries include the spinning and
weaving of cotton and wool, printing, dyeing and tanning,
while there is a brisk trade in wine.
Rappoltsweiler, known in the 8th century as Rathaldovilare,
passed from the bishops of Basel to the lords of Rappoltstein,
who were among the most famous nobles in Alsace. The lord
of Rappoltstein was the king or protector of the wandering
minstrels of the land, who purchased his protection by paying
him a tax. When the family became extinct in 1673 this
office of king of the pipers (Pfeiferkonig) passed to the counts
palatine of Zweibriicken-Birkenfeld. The minstrels had a
pilgrimage chapel near Rappoltsweiler, dedicated to their
patron saint, Maria von Dusenbach, and here they held an
annual feast on the 8th of September. Near the town are the
ruins of three famous castles, Ulrichsburg, Girsberg and Hoh-
rappoltstein, which formerly belonged to the lords of Rappolt-
stein. '
See Bernhard, Recherches sur I'histoire de la ville de Rappolts-
weiler (Colmar, 1888); and Kube, Rappoltsweiler, das Carolabad
und Umgebung (Strassburg, 1905). For the lords of Rappoltstein,
see Brieger, Die Herrschaft Rappoltstein (Strassburg, 1907).
RARE EARTHS, in chemistry, the name given to a group
of oxides of certain metals which occur in close association
in some very rare minerals. Although these metals resemble
each other in their chemical relationships, it is convenient to
subdivide them into three groups: the cerium, terbium and
ytterbium groups. The first includes scandium (Sc, 441-1),
yttrium (Y, 89-0), lanthanum (La, 139-0), cerium (Ce, 140-25),
praseodymium (Pr, 140-6), neodymium (Nd, 144-3), and sam-
arium (Sa, 150-4); the second includes europium (Eu, 152-0),
gadolinium (Gd. 157-3), and terbium (Tb, 159-2); and the third
includes dysprosium (Dy, 162-5), holmium (Ho, ?) erbium
(Er, 167-4), thulium (Tm, 168-5), ytterbium or neoytterbium
(Yb, 172-0), and lutecium (Lu, 174-0); the letters and numbers
in the brackets are the symbols and atomic weights (inter-
national). Although very rare, a large number of minerals
contain these metals; they are chiefly found in Scandinavia,
parts of the Urals, America and Australia, generally associated
with Archean and eruptive rocks, and more rarely with sedi-
mentary deposits. They are usually silicates, but many
complex tantalates, niobates, phosphates, uranates and fluorides
occur. The chief mineral species are monazite, a phosphate
of the cerium metals, containing thorium (this mineral supplies,
the ceria and thoria employed in making incandescent gas
mantles) ; cerite, a hydrated silicate of calcium and the cerium
metals; gadolinite, a silicate of beryllium, iron, and the
yttrium metals; samarksite, a niobate and tantalate of both
the cerium and yttrium metals, with uranium, iron, calcium,
etc.; and keilhauite, a titanosilicate of yttrium, iron, calcium
and aluminium; other species are fergusonite, orthite, aeschy-
nite, euxenite and thorianite.
The chemistry of this group may be regarded as beginning
with Cronstedt's description of the mineral cerite from Bastnaes
in 1751, and the incorrect analyses published by T. O. Bergman
and Don Fausto d'Elhuyar in 1784. Ten years later Gadolin
investigated the mineral subsequently named gadolinite. which
had been found at Ytterby in 1788 by Arrhenius. This dis-
covery of a new earth was confirmed by A. G. Ekeberg in 1 799,
who named the base yttria. Cerite was examined simultane-
ously by Klaproth in Germany and by Berzelius and Hisinger
in Sweden; and a new base was discovered in 1803 which the
Swedish chemists named ceria. Both these oxides have proved
to be mixtures. In 1839 Mosander separated " ceria " into true
ceria and an earth which he termed lanthana (Gr. \av6&.i>tii> ,
to lie hidden), and in 1841 he showed that his lanthana con-
tained another base, which he called didymia (Gr. St5iyx,
twins). This didymia was separated in 1879 by Lecoq de Bois-
baudran into a new base, samaria, and a residual didymia
which was shown by Auer von Welsbach in 1885 to consist of
a mixture of two bases, praseodidymia and neodidymia; more-
over, samaria was split by Demarcay in 1900 into true samaria
and a new base named europia. In 1843 Mosander also split
910
RARE EARTHS
yttria into two new bases which he called " erbia " and " terbia,"
and a true yttria, but in 1860 N. J. Berlin denied the existence
of Mosander's "erbia," and gave this name to his "terbia." The
new erbia has itself proved to be a mixture. Marignac in 1878
separated an ytterbia which was split by Nilson in 1879 into
scandia (the metal of which proved to be identical with Mendele-
eff's predicted eka-boron)and a new ytterbia, which, in turn, was
separated by Urbain in 1907 into neoytterbia and lutecia
(C. A. von Welsbach proposed for these elements the names alde-
barianum and cassiopeium). Berlin's erbia was also examined
by Soret in 1878 and by Cleve in 1879; the new base then
isolated, Soret's X or Cleve's holmia, was split by Lecoq de
Boisbaudran in 1886 into a true holmia and a new oxide dys-
prosia. The same erbia also yielded another base, thulia, to
Cleve, in 1879, in addition to true erbia. The original erbia
of Mosander was confirmed by M. A. Delafontaine in 1878 and
renamed terbia; this base was split by Marignac in 1886 into
gadolinia and true terbia. These relations are schematically
shown below; the true earths are in italics, mixtures in Roman.
Ceria
I
Ceria
Lanthana
I
Lanthana
Didymia
I
\
Samaria
_L
Didymia
I
Samaria Europia Praseodidymia
Yttria
Neodidymia
Yttria
Erbia
(Mosander)
Terbia
(Delafontaine)
Terbia
(Mosander)
Erbia
(Berlin)
ladolini(
I
Terbia Gadolinia Ytterbia Thulia
Scandia Ytterbia
I
Soret's X
I
Holmia
I
bin
Erbia
Holmia Dysprosia
Neoytterbia Lutecia
Methods of Separation. The small proportions in which the
rare earths occur in the mineral kingdom and the general inter-
mixture of several of them renders their efficient separation
a matter of much difficulty, which is increased by their striking
chemical resemblances. While it is impossible to treat the
separations in detail, a general indication of the procedure may
be given. The first step is to separate the rare earths from the
other components of the mineral. For this purpose the mineral
is evaporated with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, or fused with
potassium bisulphate, and the residue extracted with water.
The solution of chlorides or sulphates thus obtained is treated
with sulphuretted hydrogen, to remove copper, bismuth and
molybdenum, and the filtrate, after the ferrous iron has been
oxidized with chlorine, is precipitated with oxalic acid. The
oxalates (and also thorium oxalate) may be converted into
oxides by direct heating, into nitrates by dissolving in nitric
acid, or into hydroxides by boiling with potash solution. The
thorium may be removed by treating the nitrate solution with
hydrogen peroxide, and warming, whereupon it separates as
thorium peroxide. The next step consists in neutralizing the
nitric acid solution and then saturating with potassium sulphate.
Double salts of the general formula R 2 (S04) 3 . 3K 2 S0 4 are formed,
of which those of the cerium group are practically insoluble,
of the terbium group soluble, and of the ytterbium group very
soluble. The sulphates thus obtained may be reconverted
into oxalates or oxides and the saturation with potassium
sulphate repeated.
To separate the individual metals many different methods have
been proposed; these, however, depend on two principles, one, on
the different basicities of the metals, the other, on the different
solubilities of their salts. Bahr and Bunsen worked out a process
of the first type, which utilized the fractional decomposition of the
nitrates into oxides on heating. The mixed oxalates are converted
into nitrates, which are then mixed with an alkali nitrate to lower
the melting-point, and the mixture fused. The nitrates decompose
in order of the basicities of the metals, and after a short fusion the
residue is extracted with boiling water, and the basic salt which
separates when the solution is cooled is filtered off. This contains
the most negative metal; and the filtrate, after evaporation and a
repetition of the fusion and extraction, may be caused to yield the
other oxides. A second method, based on the same principle, con-
sists in the fractional precipitation by some base, such as ammonia,
soda, potash, aniline, &c. The neutral nitrates are dissolved in
water, and the base added in such a quantity to precipitate the
oxides only partially and very slowly. Obviously the first deposit
contains the least basic oxide, which by re-solution as nitrate and
re-precipitation yields a purer product. To the filtrate from the
first precipitate more of the base is added, and the second less basic
oxide is thrown down. By repeating the process all the bases can
be obtained more or less pure.
Many processes depending upon the different solubilities of certain
salts have been devised. They consist in forming the desired salt
and fractionally crystallizing. The mother liquor is concentrated
and crystallized, the crystals being added to the filtrate from a re-
crystallization of the first deposit. These operations are repeated
after the manner shown in the following scheme; the letter C
denotes crystals, the M.L mother liquor, whilst a bracket means
mixing before re-crystallization.
Original Solution
1.
1
M.L
1
f
1
M!L
C M.L
1
1
M.L
> r-
I
j
M.L C M.L
M.L
r~
M.L
1 III
C M.L C M.
Obviously the fractions contain salts which increase in solu-
bility as one passes from the left to right, and with sufficient
care and patience this method permits a complete separation.
The salts which have been used include the sulphates, nitrates,
chromates, formates, oxalates and malonates. R. J. Meyer (Zeit.
anorg. Chem., 1904, 41, p. 97) separates the cerium earths by forming
the double potassium carbonates, e.g. KiCei(COa)i . 12H 2 O, which
are soluble in potassium carbonate solution, being precipitated
in the order lanthanum, praseodymium, cerium and neodymium
on diluting the solution; C. A. von Welsbach (Chem. News, 1907,
95, p. 196; 1908, 98, pp. 223, 297) separates the metals of the
ytterbium group by converting the basic nitrates into double
ammonium oxalates and fractionating; C. James (ibid., 1907, 95,
p. 181; 1908, 97, pp. 61, 205) formed the oxalates of the yttrium
earths and dissolved them in dilute ammonia saturated with
ammonium carbonate; by boiling this solution the earths are
precipitated in the order yttrium, holmium and dysprosium, and
erbium; he also fractionally crystallized the bromates (see, e.g.
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1910, 32, p. 517, for thulium). Complex
organic reagents are also employed. Neish (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.,
1904, 26, p. 780) used meta-nitrobenzoic acid ; O. Holmberg sepa-
rates neodymium, praseodymium and lanthanum (and also thorium)
with meta-nitrobenzene sulphonic acid, and has investigated many
other organic salts (see Abs. J. C. S., 1907, ii. p. 90), whilst H.
Erdmann and F. Wirth (Ann., 1908, 361, p. 180) employ the 1-8
naphthol sulphonates.
In order to determine whether any chosen method for separating
these earths is really effective, it is necessary to analyse the frac-
tions. For this purpose two processes are available. We may
convert the salt into the oxalate from which the oxide is obtained
by heating. A weighed quantity of the oxide is now taken and
converted into sulphate by evaporating with dilute sulphuric acid.
The sulphate is gently dried until the weight is constant, and from
this weight the equivalent of the earth can be calculated. When
repeated fractionation is attended by no change in the equivalent
we may conclude that only one element is present. This process,
however, is only rough, for the elements with which we are dealing
have very close equivalents. A more exact method employs the
RAS RASHI
911
spectra spark, arc, phosphorescence and absorption ; the evidence,
however, cannot in all cases be accepted as conclusive, but when
taken in conjunction with chemical tests it is the most valuable
method.
Chemical Relations. The rare earth metals were at first
regarded as divalent, but determinations of the specific heats
of cerium by Mendeleeff and Hillebrand and of lanthanum and
didymium by Hillebrand pointed to their trivalency; and this
view now has general acceptance. They are comparatively
reactive: they burn in air to form oxides of the type MezOj;
combine directly with hydrogen at 2oo-3oo to form hydrides
of the formula MHz or MH; nitrides of the formula MN are
formed by passing nitrogen over the oxides mixed with mag-
nesium; whilst carbides of the type MC are obtained in the
electrolytic reduction of the oxides with carbon. In addition
to the oxides MjOs, several, e.g. cerium, terbium and neodymium,
form oxides of the formula MOj. The sesquioxides are bases
which form salts and increase in basicity in the order Sc, Yb,
Tm, Er, Ho, Tb, Gd, Sm, Y, Ce, Nd, Pr, La; the latter hissing
with water like quicklime.
The placing of these elements in the periodic table has attracted
much attention on account of the many difficulties which it
presented. The simplest plan of regarding them all as trivalent
and placing them in the third group is met by the fact that there
is not room for them. Another scheme scatters them in the
order of their atomic weights in the last four groups of the
system, but grave objections have been urged against this plan.
A third device places them in one group as a bridge between
barium and tantalum. This was suggested by Benedick in
1904 (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1904, 39, p. 41), and adopted in Werner's
table of 1905 (Ber. 38, p. 914), whilst in 1902 Brauner (ibid. 32,
p. 1 8) placed the group as a bridge on a plane perpendicular to
the planes containing the other elements, thus expanding the
table into a three-dimensional figure. The question has also
been considered by Sir William Crookes (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1888,
53, p. 487; 1889, 55, pp. 257 et seq.), whose inquiries led him to
a new conception of the chemical elements.
REFERENCES. For the general chemistry see R. Bohm, Seltene
Erden (1905); Abegg, Handbuch der anoreanischen Chemie (1906),
vol. iii. (article by R. T. Meyer) ; H. Moissan, TraM de chimie
minerals (1904), vol. iii. (article by G. Urbain) ; Roscoe and
Schorlemmer, Treatise on Chemistry (1908), vol. ii.; P. E. Browning,
Introduction to the Rarer Elements (1909); see also A. W. Stewart,
Recent Advances in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry (1909). For
the rare earth minerals see J. Schilling, Das Vorkommen der seltenen
Erden im Mineralreiche (1904).
RAS, the Arabic for a " head," hence a cape, promontory
or headland; a common word in place names.
RASCAL, a term originally used in the sense of a rabble,
especially descriptive of camp-followers or the dregs of an
army, or of the lowest of the people; now only of a single
person, in the sense of a rogue or knave. The origin of
O.Fr. rascaille, modern racaille, from which the word came into
English, is uncertain. The word was early used, in hunting,
for the weaker or poorer male deer of a herd; the word has
been connected with O.Fr. rascler, mod. racier, to scrape, rake,
in the sense of the off-scourings of the herd.
RASHBAH (1085-1174), Jewish scholar, so called from the
initials of his full name, RABBI SAMUEL BEN MEIR, was a leading
member of the French school of Biblical exegesis. He was a
grandson of Rashi (q.v.), but differed in his method of inter-
pretation. He wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch and
some other parts of the Scriptures. Rashbam adopts a natural
(as distinct from a homiletical and traditional) method; thus
(in agreement with the modern school) Rashbam (on Gen. i. 5)
maintained that the day began at dawn and not from the
previous sunset (as later Jewish custom assumed). Another
famous interpretation was Rashbam 's view that the much
disputed phrase in Gen. xlix. 10 must be rendered " Until he
cometh to Shiloh," and refers to the division of the kingdom
of Judah after Solomon's death. Rashbam's notes on the
Bible are remarkable for brevity, but when he comments on
the Talmud he wrote explanations on several tracts he is
equally noted for prolixity. (I. A.)
RASHI (1040-1105), Jewish scholar. RABBI SOLOMON
IZHAQI (son of Isaac), usually cited as Rashi from the initials
of those words, was born at Troyes in 1040 and died in the
same town in 1 105. Legends concerning him are many. Isaac's
wife, shortly before the birth of their famous son, was walking
one day down a narrow street in Worms, when two vehicles
moving in opposite directions seemed about to crush her.
As she leant hopelessly against a wall, it miraculously fell in-
wards to make a niche for her. So with his education. Legend
sends the student to southern France, and even on a tour
of the world. At an inn in the Orient he cured a sick monk,
who later on, as bishop of Olmtitz, returned the kindness by
saving the Jews from massacre. In fact, Rashi never went
farther than from the Seine to the Rhine; the utmost limit
of his travels were the academies of Lorraine. Situated between
France and Germany, Lorraine was more French than German,
and French was the common language of Jew and Christian.
This is shown by the glosses in Rashi 's works, almost in variably
in French. He seems to have passed the decade beginning
with 1055 in Worms, where the niche referred to above is
still shown. Within this, it is said, Rashi was wont to teach.
A small edifice on the east of the synagogue is called the
" Rashi Chapel," and the " Rashi Chair," raised on three
steps in the niche, is one of the objects of the pious admiration
of pilgrims. At Worms Rashi worked under Jacob ben Yaqar,
and at Mainz under Isaac ben Judah, perhaps combining at
the same time the functions of teacher and student. Besides
the oral tuition that he received, the medieval schools habitu-
ally kept the notes of former teachers. From these Rashi
learned much, and probably he incorporated some of these
notes in his Own works. In the middle ages there was a com-
munism in learning, but if Rashi used some of the stones quarried
and drafted by others, it was to his genius that the finished
edifice was due.
Rashi was twenty-five years of age when he returned to
Troyes, which town thenceforward eclipsed the cities of
Lorraine and became the recognized centre of Jewish learning.
Rashi acted as rabbi and judge, but received no salary. Not
till the I4th century were Jewish rabbis paid officials. Rashi
and his family worked in the vines of Troyes (in the Cham-
pagne); in his letters he describes the structure of the wine-
presses. His learning and character raised him to a position
of high respect among the Jewries of Europe, though Spain
and the East were long outside the range of his influence.
As was said of him soon after his death: " His lips were the
seat of wisdom, and thanks to him the Law, which he examined
and interpreted, has come to life again." His posterity in-
cluded several famous names, those of his grandchildren.
Rashi had no sons, but his three daughters were women of
culture, and two of the sons of Jochebed (see RASHBAM and TAM),
as well as others of his descendants, carried on the family
'tradition for learning, adding lustre to Rashi's fame. The latter
part of Rashi's life was saddened by the incidents connected
with the first Crusade. Massacres occurred in the Rhine-
lands. According to legend, Rash,! and Godfrey of Bouillon
of the foremost leaders of the Crusade were intimate friends.
Rashi died peacefully in Troyes in 1105.
Rashi was the most conspicuous medieval representative
of the Jewish spirit. A century later Maimonides was to
give a new turn to Jewish thought, by the assimilation of
Aristotelianism with Mosaism, but Rashi was a traditionalist
pure and simple. He was in. no sense a philosopher, but he
exemplified in his person and in his works the stored up wisdom
of the Synagogue. Yet through all that he wrote there runs
a vein of originality. Besides minor works, such as a recension
of the Prayer-Book (Siddur), the Pardes and ha-Orah, Rashi
wrote two great commentaries on which his fame securely
rests. These were the commentaries on the whole of the
Hebrew Bible and on about thirty treatises of the Talmud.
His commentary on the Pentateuch, in particular, has been
printed in hundreds of editions; it is still to Jews the most
beloved of all commentaries on the Mosaic books. More than a
RASHTRAKUTA RASPBERRY
hundred supercommentaries have been written on it. Rashi
unites homily with grammatical exegesis in a manner which
explains the charm of the commentary. His influence in
Christian circles was great, especially because of the use made
of the commentary by Nicolaus de Lyra (q.v.), who in his turn
was one of the main sources of Luther's version. Even mo^e
important was Rashi's commentary on the Talmud, which
became so acknowledged as the definitive interpretation that
Rashi is cited simply under the epithet of " the Commentator."
It is no exaggeration to assert that the modern world owes its
power to understand the Talmud to Rashi. In this field
the " Commentator " is supreme. He practically edited the
text of the Talmud besides explaining it, and the Talmud is
never printed without Rashi's commentary on the margin.
An important feature of Rashi's commentaries is the frequency
of French translations of words. These glosses (lo'azim) have
now been in part edited from the manuscripts of the late Arsene
Darmesteter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. M. Liber, Rashi (1906), published as a memorial
of Rashi on the Sooth anniversary of his death. Rashi's commentary
on the Bible has been translated into Latin by Breithaupt (1710-
1714); and into German (Pentateuch) by Dukes (1833-38) and
others. The foundation of recent investigation into Rashi's life
is Zunz's Salomon b. Isaac (1823), to which I. H. Weiss added much
in his (Hebrew) biography (in Bet Talmud ii., Nos. 210. See also
Graetz, History of the Jews (Engl. trans., vol. iii. ch. ix.). A
critical edition of Rashi's Pentateuch commentary was published
by A Berliner (2nd ed., 1905). (I. A.)
RASHTRAKUTA, an Indian dynasty which ruled in the
Deccan (q.v.) from about A.D. 750 to 973. The Rashtrakuta
or Ratta clan are supposed to have held power during the
historical blank before the 6th century; but they came to the
front in A.D. 750, when Dantidurga overthrew the Chalukya
dynasty and made himself ruler of the Deccan. He was
succeeded by his uncle Krishna I. (c. 760), who completed his
conquests, and whose reign is memorable for the execution of
the Kailasa, the rock-cut temple at Ellora. His grandson
Govinda III. (780-815) extended the power of the family from
the Vindhya Mountains and Malwa on the north to Kanchi on
the south. The next king, Amogavarsha, reigned for sixty-two
years. The reign of Krishna III. was remarkable for a war
with the Cholas, in which the Chola king was killed on the
field of battle in 949. The last of the Rashtrakuta kings was
Karka II., who was overthrown by the Chalukyas in 973.
See R. G. Bhandarkar, Early History of the Deccan (Bombay,-
1884).
RASK, RASMUS CHRISTIAN (1787-1832), Danish scholar
and philologist,- was born at Brandekilde in the island of Fiinen
or Fyen in Denmark in 1787. He studied at the university of
Copenhagen, and at once showed remarkable talent for the
acquisition of languages. In 1808 he was appointed assistant
keeper of the university library, and some years afterwards
professor of literary history. In 1811 he published, in Danish,
his Introduction to the Grammar of the Icelandic and other Ancient
Northern Languages, from printed and MS. materials accumu-
lated by his predecessors in the same field of research. The
reputation which Rask thus acquired recommended him to
the Arna-Magnaean Institution, by which he was employed
as editor of the Icelandic Lexicon (1814) of Bjorn Haldorson,
which had long remained in manuscript. Rask visited Iceland,
where he remained from 1813 to 1815, mastering the language
and familiarizing himself with the literature, manners and
customs of the natives. To the interest with which they in-
spired him may probably be attributed the establishment at
Copenhagen, early in 1816, of the Icelandic Literary Society,
of which he was the first president.
. In October 1816 Rask left Denmark on a literary expedition,
at the cost of the king, to prosecute inquiries into the languages
of the East, and collect manuscripts for the university library
at Copenhagen. He proceeded first to Sweden, where he
remained two years, in the course of which he made an excursion
into Finland to study the language. Here he published, in
Swedish, his Anglo-Saxon Grammar in 1817. In 1818 there
appeared at Copenhagen, in Danish, an Essay on the Origin oj
the Ancient Scandinavian or Icelandic Tongue, in which he
traced the Affinity of that idiom to the other European lan-
guages, particularly Latin and Greek. In the same year he
brought out the first complete editions of Snorro's Edda and
Saemund's Edda, in the original text, along with Swedish
translations of both Eddas. From Stockholm he went in
1819 to St Petersburg, where he wrote, in German, a paper on
" The Languages and Literature of Norway, Iceland, Sweden
and Finland," in the sixth number of the Vienna Jahrbiichcr.
From Russia he proceeded through Tartary into Persia, and
resided for some time at Tabriz, Teheran, Persepolis and
Shiraz. In about six weeks he made himself sufficiently master
of Persian to be able to converse freely. In 1820 he embarked
at Bushire for Bombay; and during his residence there he
wrote, in English, " A Dissertation on the Authenticity of the
Zend Language" (Trans. Lit. Soc. of Bombay, vol. iii., re-
printed with corrections and additions in Trans. R. As.
Soc.). From Bombay he proceeded through India to Ceylon,
where he arrived in 1822, and soon afterwards wrote, in English,
" A Dissertation respecting the best Method of expressing the
Sounds of the Indian Languages in European Characters,"
in the Transactions of the Literary and Agricultural Society of
Colombo. Rask returned to Copenhagen in May 1823, bringing
a considerable number of Oriental manuscripts, Persian, Zend,
Pali, Sinhalese and others, with which he enriched the collec-
tions of the Danish capital. He died at Copenhagen on the
1 4th of November 1832.
During the period between his return from the East and his
death Rask published in his native language a Spanish Grammar
(1824), a Fnsic Grammar (1825), an Essay on Danish Orthography
(1826), a Treatise respecting the Ancient Egyptian Chronology and
an Italian Grammar, (1827), and the Ancient Jewish Chronology
pervious to Moses (1828). He also edited an edition of Schneider's
Danish Grammar for the use of Englishmen (1830), and superintended
the English translation of his Anglo-Saxon Grammar by Thorpe
(1830). He was the first to point out the connexion between the
ancient Northern and Gothic on the one hand, and the Lithuanian,
Sclavonic, Greek and Latin on the other, and he also deserve^
credit for having had the original idea of " Grimm's Law " for the
transmutation of consonants in the transition from the old Indo-
European languages to Teutonic, although he only compared
Teutonic and Greek, Sanskrit being at the time unknown to him.
In 1822 he was master of no less than twenty-five languages and
dialects, and is stated to have studied twice as many. His numerous
philological manuscripts were transferred to the king's library at
Copenhagen. Rask's Anglo-Saxon, Danish and Icelandic Grammars
were brought out in English editions by Thorpe, Repp and Dascnt
respectively.
RASPBERRY, known botanically as Rubus Idaeus (nat. ord.
Rosaceae, q.v.), a fruit-bush found wild in Great Britain and in
woods throughout Europe, North Africa and in north and west
Asia. The raspberry was known to classic writers, and is
mentioned by Pliny as one of the wild brambles known to the
Greeks as Idea, from Mt. Ida in Asia Minor on which it grew.
Parkinson (Paradisus, 1629) speaks of red, white and thornless
varieties as suitable for the English climate, and Gerarde
(Herbal, 1597) figures and describes the Raspis or Framboise
bush as one of the four kinds of bramble. It is propagated
from suckers, which may be taken off the parent stools in
October, and planted in rows 5 or 6 ft. apart, and at 3 ft. asunder
in the rows. It is the habit of the plant to throw up from the
root every year a number of shoots or canes, which bear fruit
in the subsequent year, and then decay. In dressing the plants,
which is done immediately after the crop is gathered, all these
exhausted stems are cut away, and of the young canes only
three or four of the strongest are left, which are shortened about
a third. The stems, being too weak to stand by themselves,
are sometimes connected together by the points in the form of
arches, or a stake is driven in midway between the plants, and
half the canes are bent one way and half the other, both being
tied to the stake. Sometimes they are tied upright to stakes
fixed to each stool. The best support, however, is obtained
by fastening the points of the shoots to a slight horizontal
rail or bar, placed a foot and a half on the south side of the rows,
RASPE RASTATT
9 r 3
by which means the bearing shoots are deflected from the per-
pendicular to the sunny side of the row, and are not shaded, by
the annual wood. When this mode of training is adopted, the
plan of planting i foot apart in the row and leaving one or two
canes only to each shoot is preferable. The ground between
the rows should never be disturbed by deep digging; but an
abundant supply of g_ood manure should be given annually in
autumn as a dressing, which should be forked in regularly to a
depth of 4 or 5 inches. All surplus suckers should be got away
early in the summer before they have robbed the roots five or
six, to be reduced to the four best, being reserved to each root.
Fresh plantations of raspberries should be made every six or
* veil years. The double- bearing varieties, which continue to fruit
during autumn, require light soils and warm situations. These
should be cut close down in February, as it is the strong young
shoots of the current year which bear the late autumnal crops.
The other varieties may be made to bear in autumn by cutting
the stems half-way down at an early period in spring; but, as
with all other fruits, the flavour of the raspberry is best when
it is allowed to ripen at its natural season.
The following are some of the finer sorts now in cultivation :
Baumforth's Seedling a large summer-bearing red.
Curler's Prolific a large summer-bearing red.
Fastolf or Filbya. large summer-bearing red.
M'Laren's Prolific a Targe double-bearing red.
. Northumberland Fillbasket a large summer red.
October Red a fine autumn-bearing red.
October Yellow a fine autumn-bearing yellow.
Prince of Wales a large summer-bearing red.
Red Antwerp -a large summer-bearing red.
Rogers's Victoria a large autumn-bearing red.
Round Antwerp a large summer-bearing red.
Semper Fidelis an excellent bright red variety ; heavy cropper.
Superlative fruits rich red; perhaps the best raspberry in
cultivation.
Sweet Yellow Antwerp a large summer-bearing yellow.
The European raspberry, though admittedly of better quality,
has been largely displaced in the United States of America by
a closely allied native species, R. strigosus, the numerous varieties
of which are hardier than the varieties of the European species
and ripen their crop much more rapidly. The stems are more
slender and flexible than in R. Idacus, usually brown or reddish-
brown in colour and beset with stiff straight prickles. The
most important raspberry of cultivation in America is R. occi-
dentalis, the black raspberry or thimbleberry, which is at once
distinguished by its firm black, rarely yellow, fruit. The purple-
cane raspberry, ./?. neglectus, with fruit varying in colour from
dull purple to dark red or sometimes yellowish, is perhaps a
hybrid between R. strigosus and R. occidentalis.
For a detailed account of the American species of Rubus see
F. W. Card, Bush-fruits (1898).
The Loganberry is a hybrid between the raspberry (Rubus
Idaeus) and the blackberry or bramble (R. fruticosus), and
derives its name from its raiser, Judge Logan of the American
Bar. It is a strong-growing plant, partaking more of the habit
of the blackberry than the raspberry, and making shoots often
10 to 15 ft. long in the course of the year. These bear leaves
with 5 leaflets, and fruit the following year. The fruiting shoots
have leaves with only 3 leaflets; but young and old stems are
densely covered with sharp crimson prickles. The fruits are
borne profusely in loose trusses, and are ripe in southern
localities in July, and about early August in northern parts.
They are at first reddish like raspberries in a half-ripened state,
but when fully ripe are deep purplish red, and much more
palatable, each fruit being about ii in. long, and shaped like
a raspberry.
The Loganberry flourishes in heavy loamy soil, and is a useful
plant for old fences or trellises, or even in waste places, where it is
fully exposed to the sunshine. The old fruiting shoots should be
cut away each winter, and in the spring the young shoots should
have a foot or two taken off the ends, to induce the better and riper
buds lower down to throw masses of white flowers, to be succeeded
in due course by the fruits. Propagation is by means of suckers
from the base.
RASPE, RUDOLF ERICH (1737-1794), the original author
of the Adventures of Baron Munchausen (see MUNCHAUSEN),
was born in Hanover in 1737, and studied at Gottingen and
Leipzig. In 1762 he became a clerk in the university library
at Hanover, and in 1764 secretary to the university library at
Gottingen. He had become known as a versatile scholar and
a student of natural history and antiquities, and he published
some original poems and also translations, among the latter
of Leibnitz's philosophical works and of Ossian's poems; he
also wrote a treatise on Percy's Reliques. In 1767 he was
appointed professor in Cassel, .and subsequently librarian.
He contributed in 1769 a zoological paper to the S9th volume
of the Philosophical Transactions, which led to his being selected
an honorary member of the Royal Society in London, and he
wrote voluminously on all sorts of subjects. In 1774 he started
a periodical called the Cassel Spectator. But having gone to
Italy in 1775 to buy curios for the landgrave of Hesse, to whom
he was keeper of the gems, he was found to have sold the land-
grave's valuables for his own profit; and, on orders being issued
for his arrest, he decamped to England. In London he employed
his knowledge of English and his learning to secure a living
by publishing books on various subjects, and English transla-
tions of German works, and there are allusions to him as " a
Dutch savant " in 1780 in the writings of Horace Walpole,
who gave him money and helped him to publish an Essay on
the Origin of Oil-painting (1781). But he remained poor, and
the Royal Society expunged his name off its list. He went to
Cornwall in 1782, and till about 1788 was assay-master and
storekeeper at the Dolcoath mine, where memories of his
ingenuity remained to the middle of the igth century. While
there, he seems to have written the original version of Mun-
chausen, which was subsequently elaborated by others. Be-
tween 1785 and 1790 he compiled a descriptive catalogue of
James Tassie's collection of pastes and casts of gems, in two
quarto volumes (1791) of laborious industry and bibliographical
rarity. Raspe then went to Scotland, and in Caithness found
a patron in Sir John Sinclair of Ulbster, whose mineralogical
proclivities he proceeded to impose upon by pretending to
discover valuable and workable veins on his estates; but
Raspe had " salted " the ground himself, and on the verge of
exposure, he absconded. He next betook himself to Ireland,
but died at Muckross in 1794, when he was only beginning some
mining operations in Donegal. His career is interesting because
of his connexion with the famous book of stories of Baron
Munchausen (q.v.). His authorship was not known in his
lifetime, except to his friend Gottfried August Burger and
possibly a few of his other intimates (such as Kastner and
Lichtenburg) in his student days at Gottingen; and it was
not till 1824 that the biographer of Burger (who had been
credited with writing Munchausen instead of only translating
it, as he did in 1786) revealed the truth about the book.
RASSAM, HORMUZD (1826-1910), Assyriologist and traveller,
was born at Mosul of native Christian parents. His first work
was done as assistant to Sir A. H. Layard in his first expedition
(1845-47). He subsequently came to England, studied at
Oxford, and was again sent by the British Museum trustees to
accompany Layard in his second expedition (1849-51). Layard
having entered upon a political career, Rassam continued the
work (1852-54) in Assyria under the direction of the British
Museum and Sir Henry Rawlinson at Nimrud and Kuyunjik.
In 1866 he was sent by the British government to Abyssinia,
where, however, he was imprisoned for two years until freed
by the victory of Sir Robert Napier. From 1876 to 1882 he
was again in Assyria conducting important investigations,
especially at Nineveh, and during the Russo-Turkish War he
was sent on a mission of inquiry to report on the condition of
the Christian communities of Asia Minor and Armenia. His
archaeological work resulted in many important discoveries
and the collection of valuable epigraphical evidence.
See The Times, Sept. 17, 1910.
RASTATT, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden,
on the Murg, 4 m. above its junction with the Rhine and 15 m.
914
by rail S.W. of Karlsruhe. Pop. (1905) 14,404. The old
palace of the margraves of Baden, a large Renaissance edifice
in red sandstone, is now partly used for military purposes and
contains a collection of pictures, antiquities and trophies from
the Turkish wars. The chief manufactures are stoves, beer
and tobacco. Until the end of the lyth century Rastatt was
unimportant, but after its destruction by the French in 1689
it was rebuilt on a larger scale by Louis William, margrave of
Baden, the imperial general in the Turkish wars. It was then
the residence of the margraves until 1771. The Baden revolu-
tion of 1849 began with a mutiny of soldiers at Rastatt in May
1849, and ended here a few weeks later with the capture of the
town by the Prussians. For some years Rastatt was one of
the strongest fortresses of the German empire, but its forti-
fications were dismantled in 1890.
See Schuster, Rastatt, die ehemalige badische Residenz und Bundes-
festung (Lahr, 1902) ; and Lederle, Rastatt und seine Umgebung
(Rastatt, 1905).
Rastatt has been the scene of two congresses. At the first
congress, which was opened in November 1713, negotiations
were carried on between France and Austria for the purpose
of ending the war of the Spanish succession. These culminated
in the treaty of Rastatt signed on the 7th of March 1714. The
second congress, which was opened in December 1797, was
intended to rearrange the map of Germany by providing com-
pensation for those princes whose lands on the left bank of the
Rhine had been seized by France. It had no result, however,
as it was ended by the outbreak of the European war, but it
had a sequel of some interest. As the three French repre-
sentatives were leaving the town in April 1799 they were
waylaid, and two of them were assassinated by some Hungarian
soldiers. The origin of this outrage remains shrouded in
mystery, but the balance of evidence seems to show that the
Austrian authorities had commanded their men to seize the
papers of the French plenipotentiaries in order to avoid damag-
ing disclosures about Austria's designs on Bavaria, and that
the soldiers had exceeded their instructions. On the other
hand, some authorities think that the deed was the work of
French emigrants, or of the party in France in favour of war.
For fuller particulars of the two sides of this controversy see
K. Mendelssohn-Barthpldy, Der Rastadter Gesandtenmord (Heidel-
berg, 1869); J. A. Freiherr von Helfert, Der Rastadter Gesandten-
mord (Vienna, 1874) ; Bohtlingk, Napoleon und der Rastadter Gesand-
tenmord (Leipzig, 1883); and Zum Rastadter Gesandtenmord (Heidel-
berg, 1895); H. Hiiffer, Der Rastadter Gesandtenmord (Bonn,
1896) ; and H. von Sybel, in Band 39 of the Historische Zeitschrift.
RASTELL (or RASTALL), JOHN (d. 1536), English printer
and author, was born in London towards the end of the isth
century. He is vaguely reported by Anthony a Wood to have
been " educated for a time in grammatical and philosophical "
at Oxford. He became a member of Lincoln's Inn, and
practised successfully as a barrister. He was also M.P. for
Dunheved, Cornwall, from 1529 to the time of his death. He
began his printing business some time before 1516, for in his
preface to the undated Liber Assisarum he announced the
forthcoming publication of Sir A. Fitzherbert's Abbreviamentum
librorum legum Anglorum, dated 1516. Among the works
issued from the " sygne of the meremayd at Powlysgate,"
where he lived and worked from 1520 onwards, are The Mery
Gestys of the Wydow Edyth (1525), and A Dyaloge of Syr Thomas
More (1529). The last of his dated publications was Fabyl's
Ghoste (1533), a poem. In 1530 he wrote, in defence of the
Roman doctrine of Purgatory, A New Boke of Purgatory (1530),
dialogues on the subject between " Comyngs and Almayn a
Christen man, and one Gyngemyn a Turke." This was
answered by John Frith in A Disputacion of Purgatorie. Ras-
tell replied with an Apology against John Fryth, also answered
by the latter. Rastell had married Elizabeth, sister of Sir
Thomas More, with whose Catholic theology and political views
he was in sympathy. More had begun the controversy with
John Frith, and Rastell joined him in attacking the Protestant
writer, who, says Foxe (Actes and Monuments, ed. G. Townsend,
vol. v. p. 9), did so " overthrow nd confound " his adversaries
RASTELL, J. RASTELL, W.
that he converted Rastell to his side. Separated from his
Catholic friends, Rastell does not seem to have been fully
trusted by the opposite party, for in a letter to Cromwell, written'
probably in 1536, he says that he had spent his time in uphold-
ing the king's cause and opposing the pope, with the result
that he had lost both his printing business and his legal practice,
and was reduced to poverty. He was imprisoned in 1536,
perhaps because he had written against the payment of tithes.
He probably died in prison, and his will, of which Henry VIII.
had originally been appointed an executor, was proved on
the i8th of July 1536. He left two sons: William, noticed
below, and John. The Jesuit, John Rastell (1532-1577), who
has been frequently confounded with him, was no relation.
Rastell's best-known work is The Pastyme of People, the Chrony-
cles of dyvers Realmys and most specially of the Realme of England
(1529), a chronicle dealing with English history from the earliest
times to the reign of Richard III., edited by T. F. Dibdin in 1811.
His Expositiones terminorum legum Angliae (in French, translated
into English, 1527; reprinted 1629, 1636, 1641, &c., as Les Termes
de la Ley), and The Abbreviation of Statutis (1519), of which fifteen
editions appeared before 1625, are the best known of his legal works.
Rastell was also the author of a morality play, A new Interlude
and a Mery of the nil Elements, written about 1519, which is no
doubt the " large and ingenious comedy " attributed to him by
Wood. The unique copy in the British Museum is incomplete,
and contains neither the date nor the name of the author, identi-
fied with John Rastell on the authority of Bale, who catalogues
Natura Nalurata among his works, adding a Latin version of the
first line of the piece. This interlude was printed in W. C. Hazlitt's
edition of Dodsley's Old English Plays, by J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps
for the Percy Soc. (Early English Poetry, vol. 22, 1848), and by Julius
Fischer (Marburger Studien zur englischen Philologie, vol. v., 1903).
See also an article on " John Rastell and his Contemporaries "
in Bibliographica, vol. n, 437 seq., by Mr. H. R. Plomer, who
unearthed in the Record Office an account of a law-suit (1534-35)
in connexion with Rastell's premises at the " Mermaid." For the
books issued from his press see a catalogue by R. Proctor, in Hand-
Lists of English Printers (Bibliographical Soc., 1896).
RASTELL, WILLIAM (c. 1508-1565), English printer and
judge, son of the preceding, was born in London about 1508.
At the age of seventeen he went to the university of Oxford,
but did not take a degree, being probably called home to super-
intend his father's business. The first work which bears his
own imprint was A Dyaloge of Sir Thomas More (153^), a reprint
of the edition published by his father in 1529. He also brought
out a few law-books, some poetry, an edition of Fabyan's
Cronycle (1533), and The Apologye (1533) and The Supply-
cacyon of Soidys of his uncle Sir Thomas More. His office was
" in Fletestrete in saynt Brydys chyrche yarde." He became
a student at Lincoln's Inn on i2th September 1532, and gave
up the printing business two years later. In 1547 he was
appointed reader. On account of his Catholic convictions he
left England for Louvain; but upon the accession of Mary
he returned, and was made serjeant-at-law and treasurer of
Lincoln's Inn in 1555. His patent as judge of the Queen's
Bench was granted on the 27th of October 1558. Rastell
continued on the bench -until 1562, when he retired to Louvain
without the queen's licence. By virtue of a special commission
issued by the barons of the Exchequer on the occasion an
inventory of his goods and chattels, was taken. It furnishes
an excellent idea of the modest nature of the law library (con-
sisting of twenty-four works) and of the chambers of an
Elizabethan judge (see Law -Magazine, February 1844). He
died at Louvain on the 27th of August 1565.
It is difficult to distinguish between the books written by him
and those by his father. The following are believed to be his: A
Collection of all the Statutes (1559), A Table collected of the Yeares
of the Kynges of Englande (1561), both frequently reprinted with
continuations, and A Collection of Entrees, of Declarations, &c.
(1566), also frequently reprinted. The entries are not of Rastell's
own drawing, but have been selected from printed and MS. collec-
tions; their " pointed brevity and precision " are commended by
Story. He supplied tables or indexes to several law-books, and
edited La novel natura brevium de- Monsieur Anton. Fitzherbert
(1534) and The Workes of Sir T. More in the English Tonge (1557).
He is also stated to have written a life of Sir T. More, but it has not
come down to us.
RASTENBURG RATEL
RASTENBURG, a town of Germany, in the province of
East Prussia, lying in a flat sandy plain on the Guber, 64 m.
S.E. of Konigsberg by the railway to Prostken. Pop. (1905)
11,889. Its principal manufactures are flour, sugar, oil, beer
and machinery. In the vicinity is Karlshof, a celebrated
establishment for the cure of epileptic diseases.
See Beckherrn, Mitthtilungen aus Rastenburgs VergangenKeit
(Rastenburg, 1891); and Schaffer, Chronik von Rastenburg (Rasten-
burg, 1889).
RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably
first adopted in Teut. ; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat sug-
gests the rootrad; to scratch ; cf . Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.),
probably in its original sense the designation of the British rodent
mammal commonly known as the black rat (Mus rattus), but also
applied indifferently to the brown or Norway rat (M. norvegicus),
and in a still wider sense to ? 11 the larger representatives of the
genus M us, as to many other members of the family Muridae.
In fact, as mentioned in the article MOUSE, there is no possi-
bility of denning the term " rat " when used in a sense other
than as relating to the two species above mentioned; while
there is also no hard-and-fast limit between the terms " rats "
and " mice " when these are likewise employed in their now
extended sense, " rats " being merely larger " mice, " and
vice versa. Rats have, however, generally more rows of scales
on the tail (reaching
to 210 or more) than
mice, in which the
number does not
exceed 180. For the
distinctive character-
istics of the family
Muridae and the
genus Mus, to which
true rats and true
mice alike belong, see
RODENTIA. Of the
two British species
the brown, or Nor-
way rat (M . norvegi-
cus) is distinguished
by its large size,
brownish grey colour,
short tail and ears,
stout skull, and the
possession of from 10 to 12 teats. It is fierce and cunning,
and easily overcomes all allied species with which it is
brought in contact. Its original home would seem to have
been some part of Central Asia, an indigenous species from
China, Af. humiliatus, being so like it that in all prob-
ability the latter is the original race from which it has
sprung. Thence it has spread to all parts of the world,
driving out the house-haunting species everywhere, as it has
in England all but exterminated the black rat. The brown
rat migrated westwards from Central Asia early in the i8th
century, and is believed to have first reached Great Britain
about 1730. Its already evil reputation has been increased
of late years by the fact that it is one of the chief disseminators
of bubonic plague. Black phases are not uncommon. The
black rat (Af . ratlus) is distinguishable from the brown rat by
its smaller size, longer ears and tail, and glossy black colour.
It shares the roving habits of the latter, frequenting ships and
by these means reaching various' parts of the world. On this
account either the typical form or the tropical M. ratlus alex-
andrinus is common in many places to which the brown species
has not yet penetrated, for instance in South America. This
long-tailed rat, originally a native of India, would seem to have
first penetrated to all parts of the world and to have nearly
or quite exterminated the indigenous rats. After this fol-
lowed the advance of the more powerful brown rat. The
black rat first reached Europe in the I3th century; but of
late years another and still darker phase of the species, the
Black Sea black rat (M. rattus ater) made its appearance in
Brown Rat (Af. norvegicus)'.
England. The Isle of Dogs and Yarmouth, in Norfolk, are
reported to be the chief of the English strongholds of the black
rat. Both species agree in their predaceous habits, omnivorous
diet and great fecundity. They bear, four or five times in the
year, from four to ten blind and naked young, which are in their
turn able to breed at an age of about six months; the time of
gestation being about twenty days.
See J. G. Millais, " The True Position of Mus rattus and its Allies,"
Zoologist, June 1905. (R. L.*)
RATAFIA, a liqueur or cordial flavoured with peach or
cherry kernels, bitter almonds, or other fruits; many different
varieties are made. The same name is given to a flavouring
essence resembling bitter almonds, and also to a light biscuit.
The word is adapted from the French of the i;th century.
Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1910) quotes as a possible origin a combina-
tion of Malay araq, arrack, and tafia, rum.
RATE, a general term for proportion, standard, allowance,
tax (Med. Lat. rata, from pro rata parte, ratus being the participle
of reri, to think, judge). In England the term is specially
applied to the levying of public money contributions for local
purposes, as distinguished from the " taxes " raised for what are
treated as general state purposes. The money required for
local administration in England is raised (when the ordinary
revenues are insufficient) by assessments on lands and buildings
based on their annual rental value. The financial authority
estimates what additional amount beyond revenue is required
for the expenses of administration, and levies a rate to meet it.
The earliest rate levied in England was that for poor relief, and
of the great variety of rates now existing, the majority are based
on the poor rate and levied with it, under the term of precept
rates. Next to the poor rate came that for highways, and other
special rates have been authorized from time to time, as for
police, education, public lighting, cemeteries, libraries, sanitary
purposes, &c. To distinguish the rate the name of the pre-
cepting authority is frequently added or the purpose for which
it is levied specified} as county rate, watch rate, &c. The
valuation list of a parish is the basis on which the poor rate is
levied. This valuation list contains the gross estimated rental
and rateable value of all rateable property in the parish. The
gross estimated rental is the rent at which a property might
reasonably be expected to let from year to year, the tenant
paying tithes, rates and taxes. From this is deducted the
average annual cost of repairs, insurance and renewals, the
balance constituting the rateable value. The rateable value
of the parish being known, so much on each pound of the rateable
value as will equal the amount required to be raised is levied,
and is known as the " rate." See further ENGLAND, Local
Government; TAXATION.
Rating, in maritime vocabulary, is the classification of men
according to rank, and was formerly employed to class ships of
a navy according to strength. A sailor is said to be " rated
A.B.," or in the navy " rated petty officer," " seaman,"
"gunner," and so on. The rating of ships began in the lyth
century, and was at first done roughly by size and number of
crew. Later the rating was by guns. Thus in 1741 in the
British navy there were six rates: ist. too guns; 2nd, 90;
3rd, 70 to 80; 4th, 50 to 60; jth, 40; and 6th, 20. Sloops, fire-
ships, bomb- vessels and royal yachts were said to be not rated.
The classification of ships into six rates, and into rated and
non-rated ships, continued during the existence of the old sailing
fleets, with modifications in detail. The practice of other navies
was similar to the British.
RATEL, or HONEY-BADGER, the name of certain Indian and
African small clumsy-looking creatures of about the size and
appearance of badgers, representing the genus Mdlivora in the
family Mustelidae (see CARNTVORA). Two species of ratel
are commonly recognized, the Indian (M. indica), and the
African (A/, ratel), which ranges over Africa, but a black ratel
from the Ituri forest has been separated as M. cottoni. Both
the two former are iron-grey on the upper parts, and black
below, a style of coloration rare among mammals, as the upper
side of the body is in the great majority darker than the lower.
916
RATH RATIONALISM
The body is stout and thickly built; the legs are short and strong,
and armed, especially the anterior pair, with long curved claws;
the tail is short; and the ears are reduced to rudiments. The
skull is conical, stout and heavy, and the teeth, although
sharper and less rounded than those of badgers, are less suited
to a carnivorous diet than those of stoats, weasels and martens.
The two ratels may be distinguished by the fact that the African
species has a distinct white line round the body at the junction
of the grey of the upper side with the black of the lower, while
in the Indian this line is absent; the teeth also of the former
are larger, rounder and heavier than those of the latter. The
two are, however, so nearly allied that they might almost
be considered geographical races of a single species. Dr T. C.
Jerdon states that the Indian ratel is found throughout the
The African Ratel (MeUivora ratel).
whole of India, from the extreme south to the foot of the
Himalaya, chiefly in hilly districts, where it has greater facilities
for constructing the holes and dens in which it lives; but also
in the north of India in alluvial plains, where the banks of large
rivers afford equally suitable localities wherein to make its lair.
It is stated to live usually in pairs, and to eat rats, birds, frogs,
white ants and various insects, and in the north of India it is
accused of digging out dead bodies, and several of the native
names mean " grave-digger. " Dr W. T. Blanford, in the
Fauna of British India, is of opinion that the reproach is without
foundation. Like its Cape congener it occasionally partakes
of honey, and is often destructive to poultry. In confinement
the Indian ratel becomes tame and even playful, displaying a
habit of tumbling head over heels. (R. L.*)
RATH, GERHARD VOM (1830-1888), German mineralogist,
was born at Dinsburg in Prussia, on the 2oth of August 1830.
He was educated at Cologne, at Bonn University, and finally
at Berlin, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1853. In 1856 he
became assistant to Noggerath in the mineralogical museum
at Bonn, and succeeded to the directorship in 1872. Mean-
while in 1863 he was appointed extraordinary professor of
geology, and in 1872 he became professor of geology and miner-
alogy in the university at Bonn. He was distinguished for
his accurate researches on mineralogy and crystallography;
he described a great many new minerals, some of which were
discovered by him, and he contributed largely to our know-
ledge of other minerals, notably in an essay on tridymite. He
travelled much in southern Europe, Palestine and the United
States, and wrote several essays on petrology, geology and
physical geography, on earthquakes and on meteorites. He
died at Coblenz on the 23rd of April 1888.
His separate publications included Ein Ausflug nach Kalabrien
(1871); Der Monzoni itn sudostlichen Tirol (1875); an d Durch
Italien und Griecltenland nach dent Heiligen Land (2 vols., 1882).
See Obituary with bibliography by Professor H. Laspeyres, in
Sitzimgsbericht des nat. Vereins der preussisclien Rtieinlande (1888).
RATHENOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Havel, 45 m. N.W. of Berlin on the main
railway to Hanover. Pop. (1905) 23,095, including the garrison.
The Protestant church of St Mary and St Andrew, originally
a basilica, and transformed to the Gothic style in 1517-1589,
and the Roman Catholic church of St George, are noteworthy.
Rathenow is known for its " Rathenow stones, " bricks made
of the clay of the Havel, and for its spectacles and optical
instruments, which are exported.
Rathenow received its incorporation as a town in 1295. In
1394 it was taken and partly destroyed by the archbishop of
Magdeburg. It suffered much from the ravages of the Thirty
Years' War, being occupied in turn by the Saxons and the
Swedes, from whom in 1675 it was taken by the Brandenburgers,
when most of the garrison were put to the sword.
See Wagener, Denkwilrdigkeiten der Stadt Rathenow (Berlin,
1903).
RATIBOR (Polish Radborz), a town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Silesia, pleasantly situated on the left
bank of the Oder at the point where the river becomes navig-
able, 13 m. from the Austrian frontier and 97 m. by rail S.E.
of Breslau, on the main line to Oderberg. Pop. (1905) 32,690.
The most prominent buildings are the handsome law-courts by
Schinkel and the imposing chateau of the dukes of Ratibor,
which occupies a commanding position on the right bank of the
Oder. The town is the seat of various industries, the chief
products of which are machinery, railway gear, iron wares,
tobacco, cigars, paper, sugar, furniture and glass. Trade is
carried on in these and in coal, wood and agricultural produce,
while hemp and vegetables are largely grown in the environs.
'Ratibor, which received municipal privileges in 1217, was
formerly the capital of an independent duchy, 380 sq. m. in
extent, which existed from 1288 to 1532, and afterwards passed
successively into the hands of Austria and Prussia. In 1821
a small mediate principality was formed out of the old lordship
of Ratibor and certain ecclesiastical domains, and was con-
ferred upon Victor Amadeus, landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg,
as compensation for some Hessian territory absorbed by Prussia.
The title of duke of Ratibor was revived in 1840 for his heir,
Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst (1818-1893).
See A. Weltzel, Geschichte der Stadt und Herrschaft Ratibor (and
ed., Ratibor, 1881).
RATIONALISM (from Lat. rationalis, pertaining to reason,
ratio), a term employed both in philosophy and in theology
for any system which sets up human reason as the final criterion
and chief source of knowledge. Such systems are opposed
to all doctrines which rest solely or ultimately upon external
authority; the individual must investigate everything for
himself and abandon any position the validity of which cannot
be rationally demonstrated. The rationalist spirit is, of course,
coeval with human evolution; religion itself began with a
rational attempt to maintain amicable relations with unknown
powers, and each one of the dead religions succumbed before
the development of rationalist inquiry into its premises. But
the term has acquired more special connotations in modern
thought. In its commonest use it is applied to all who decline
to accept the authority of the Bible as the infallible record of
a divine revelation, and is practically synonymous with free-
thinking. This type of rationalism is based largely upon the
results of modern historical and archaeological investigation.
The story of the Creation in the book of Genesis is shown,
from the point of view of chronology, to be a poetic or symbolic
account by the discovery of civilizations of much greater anti-
quity. Again, the study of comparative religion (e. g. the study
of the Deluge (q.v.), showing as it does that similar stories
are to be found in primitive literature, both oriental and other)
has placed the Bible in close relation with other ancient litera-
ture. The Bible, especially the Old Testament, is thus regarded
even by orthodox Christians from a rationalist standpoint,
RATISBONNE RATITAE
9*7
very different from that of the early and medieval Church.
Rationalism within the Christian Church differs, however,
from that which is commonly understood by the term, inas-
much as it accepts as revealed the fundamental facts of its
creed. Thoroughgoing rationalism, on the other hand, either
categorically denies that the supernatural or the infinite;
whether it exist or not can be the object of human know-
ledge (see AGNOSTICISM), or else, in the mouth of a single person,
states that he at least has no such knowledge. In addition
to the difficulties presented by the Bible as an historical record,
;md the literary problems which textual and other critics have
investigated, the modern freethinker denies that the Chris-
tianity of the New Testament or its interpretation by modern
theologians affords a coherent theory of human life and duty.
Apart from the general use of the term for a particular attitude
towards religion, two more technical uses require notice: (i)
the purely philosophical, (ii) the theological.
(i) Philosophical rationalism is that theory of knowledge
which maintains that reason is in and by itself a source of
knowledge, and that knowledge so derived has superior
authority over knowledge acquired through sensation. This
view is opposed to the various systems which regard the mind
as a tabula rasa (blank tablet) in which the outside world as it
were imprints itself through the senses. The opposition between
rationalism and sensationalism is, however, rarely so simple
and direct, inasmuch as many thinkers (e.g. Locke) have ad-
mitted both sensation and reflection. Such philosophies are
called rationalist or sensationalist according as they lay emphasis
specially on the function of reason or that of the senses. More
generally, philosophic rationalism is opposed to empirical
theories of knowledge, inasmuch as it regards all true know-
ledge as deriving deductively from fundamental elementary
concepts. This attitude may be studied in Descartes, Leibnitz
and Wolff. It is based on Descartes' fundamental principle
that knowledge must be clear, and seeks to give to philosophy
the certainty and demonstrative character of mathematics,
from the a priori principle of which all its claims are derived.
The attack made by David Hume on the causal relation led
directly to the new rationalism of Kant, who argued that it
was wrong to regard thought as mere analysis. A priori
concepts there are, but if they are to lead to the amplification
of knowledge, they must be brought into relation with em-
pirical data.
(ii) The term " rationalism " in the narrow theological
sense is specially used of the doctrines held by a school of
German theologians and Biblical scholars which was prominent
roughly between 1740 and 1836. This rationalism within the
Church was a theological manifestation of the intellectual
movement known as the Enlightenment (Aujkldrung), and
must be studied in close connexion with the purely philosophical
rationalism already discussed. It owed much to the English
deists, to the Pietistic movement, and to the French esprits
forts who had already made a vigorous attack on the super-
natural origin of the Scriptures. The crux of the difficulty
was the doctrine of the supernatural, the relation between
revealed and natural religion. The first great rationalist leader
was J. S. Semler (q.v.), who held that true religion springs from
the individual soul, and attacked the authority of the Bible in
a comprehensive spirit of criticism. He ultimately reached a
point at which the Bible became for him simply one of many
ancient documents. At the same time he did not impugn the
authority of the Church, which he regarded as useful in main-
taining external unity. Among those who followed in Semler's
path were Gruner Ernesti, J. D. Michaclis, Griesbach, J. G.
Eichhorn. This spirit was exhibited on the philosophical side
by Kant who in his Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der
blossen Vernunft (1793) set forth his doctrine of rational
morality (Veniiinftglauben) as the only true religion. These
two great rationalist movements, the critical and the philo-
sophical, ultimately led to, or were accompanied by, the gradual
reduction of religion to a system of morals based at the most
on two or three fundamental religious principles. This is the
rationalism known as rationalismus vulgaris, the period of
which is practically from 1800 to 1833. Among its exponents
were Wegscheider, Bretschneider and H. E. G. Paulus (qq.v.).
The general attitude of German theology, however, became
gradually more and more hostile, and the works of Schleier-
macher, though in a sense themselves rationalist, renewed
the general desire for a positive Christianity. Hase's Hutterus
Redivivus, an exposition of orthodoxy in the light of modern
development, called forth a final exposition of the rationalist
position by Rohr. From that time the school as such ceased
to have a real existence, though the results of its work acre
traceable more or less in all modern Biblical criticism, and its
influence upon the attitude of modern theologians and Biblical
critics can scarcely be overestimated.
See Standlin, Geschichte des Rationalismus (Gottingen, 1826);
Hase, Theologische Streitschriften in Gesammelte Werke, viii. (1892);
Riickert, Der Rationalismus (1859); Tholuck, Voreeschichte des
Rat. (1853-1861) and Geschichte des Rat. (1865); Ritschl, Christ.
Lehre von der Rechtfertigung, &c. (1870), vol. i.; Benn, History of
Rationalism (1906). See also histories of philosophy and theology
in the igth century, and the valuable article s.v. by O. Kirn in
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. xvi. (1905).
RATISBONNE, LOUIS GUSTAVE FORTUNE (1827-1900),
French man of letters, was born at Strassburg on the 29th of
July 1827. He studied at the school of his native town and at
the College Henry IV. in Paris. He was connected with the
Joufnal des Debats from 1853 to 1876; became librarian of
the palace of Fontainebleau in 1871, and three years later to the
Senate. Louis Ratisbonne's most important work was a verse
translation of the Divina Commedia, in which the original is
rendered tercet by tercet into French. L'Enfer (1852) was
crowned by the Academy; Le Purgaloire (1857) and Le Paradis
1859) received the prix Bordin. He is also the author of some
charming fables and verses for children: La Comedie enfantine
(1860), Lcs Figures jeunes (1865) and others. He was literary
executor of Alfred de Vigny, whose Destinies (1864) and Journal
d'un poete (1867) he published. Ratisbonne died in Paris on
the 24th of September 1900.
RATITAE (from Lat. ratis, a raft), the name given by B.
Merrem (Abh. Ak. Wiss., Berlin, 1812-1813; Phys. Kl., p. 259) to
the " flat-breasted birds," in opposition to the Carinatae,or those
which normally possess a keeled sternum. In thus dividing the
birds into two great equivalent groups, he was followed only
by C. L. Nitzsch (1829), T. H. Huxley (1867), P. L. Sclater
(1880), A. Newton (1884), R. B. Sharpe (1891), whilst in most
of the other numerous classifications the Ratitae (vicariously
named Struthiones, Cursores, Brevipennes, Proceres) were
treated as of much lower rank.
A diagnosis covering all the Ratitae (struthio, rhea, casuarius,
dromaeus, apteryx and the allied fossils dinornis and aepyornis)
would, be as follows (i) terrestrial birds without keel to the
sternum, absolutely flightless; (ii) quadrate bone with a single
proximal articulating knob; (iii) coracoid and scapula fused
together and forming an open angle; (iv) normally without a
pygostyle; (v) with an incisura ischiadica; (vi) rhamphotheca
compound; (vii) without apteria or bare spaces in the plumage;
(viii) with a complete copulatory organ, moved by skeletal
muscles.
The separation of the Ratitae from the other birds, and their
seemingly fundamental differences, notably the absence of the
keel and of the power of flight, induced certain authors to go
so far as to derive the Ratitae from the Dinosaurian reptiles,
whilst Archaeopteryx (q.v.) and the Ca$natae were supposed to
have sprung from some Pterosaurian or similar reptilian stock.
Such vagaries require no refutation. But it is quite another
question, whether the " Ratitae " form a natural group. Sir
R. Owen was the first (Comp. Anat. and Physiol. of Vertebrates,
ii. 1866) to indicate that the various Ratitae might be referable
to various natural groups of the Carinatae. A. W. Forbes
likewise had doubts about them. B. Lindsay (P. Z. S., 1885,
pp. 684-716, pis. lii.-lv.) found vestiges of a keel in a young
rhea, and apteria in the embryonic ostrich, and she concluded
that they were descendants of birds which originally possessed
9 i8
RATKE RATON
the power of flight. This has been settled by M. Fiirbringer
(Untersuchungen . . . 1888), and there is now no doubt that
the absence of the power of flight is a secondary, not primitive,
feature in the Ratitae as well as in the flightless bona fide
Carinatae, e.g. Didus, and penguins. It had already been
understood that the various genera of the Ratitae were the
representatives of so many different groups, each of which
was at least equivalent to ordinal rank, and that therefore, if
the Ratitae were still to be considered a natural group, this
common ancestry must be referred to a remote geological epoch.
Furbringer, however, separated Apteryx with Dinornis from the
rest, combining his " Apteryges " with Crypturi and Galli
as Alectorornithes, the latter being practically A. H. Garrod's
Galliformes, of which his " Struthiones " form part together
with the Tinamidae or Crypturi. Relationship of this other-
wise typically carinate, neotropical family with the Ratitae
had already been insisted upon by T. H. Huxley; hence
his term Dromaeognathae for the Crypturi. L. Stejneger
(Standard Nat. Hist., iv., Boston, 1885) applied this term
in a new wider sense to all the Ratitae, and recently W. P.
Pycraft has revived this notion by his division of the
Neornithes into Dromaeo- and Neognathae. At any rate we
begin to see that some of the Ratitae, namely the Rheidae, may
possibly be an early and then much modified offshoot of such
of the Carinatae as are now represented by the Crypturi,
whilst in another part of the world, and at a much later time,
kiwis and moas have sprung from a somewhat more Galliform
stock, which points to a descent from a still undivided Galliform-
Tinamiform mass. Further, it is the opinion of competent
ornithologists that there is affinity of the Australian emeus and
cassowaries with the New Zealand moas and with the Malagasy
Aepyornis. Struthio alone still stands aloof, possibly because
it is the oldest and most specialized form. This genus was
already typically developed in late Miocene times, and with a
very wide geographical distribution (see BIRD, Fossil), but of
the affinities of the other mid- and early tertiary flightless birds
we know nothing, and it must be emphasized that we should
probably not be able to classify a truly ancestral Ratite, namely,
a bird which is still to a certain extent carinate and not
yet ratite. It is impossible to give a satisfactory diagnosis of
such intermediate forms.
All the recent Ratitae still possess a considerable number of
rather primitive characters, e.g. they are typically nidifugous;
the simple structure of their neossoptiles; quintocubital;
compound rhamphotheca; holorhinal nares imperviae; basi-
pterygoid processes; simple articular facet of the quadrate;
configuration of the palatal bones, including the large vomer;
incisura ischiadica; simple hypotarsus; the thigh muscles;
the copulatory organ.
We restrict the origin of the Ratitae to that great branch of
still primitive Carinatae which, after separation of the Ratitae,
has further developed into the legion of the Alectoromorphae,
notably Tinami- and Galliformes, together with still low Grui-
formes (see BIRD, Classification). From such a rudis indiges-
taque moles, after it had attained an almost world-wide dis-
tribution, have arisen the various Ratitae, independently at
various epochs and in various countries. Most of them are
now restricted to widely separated countries of the southern
hemisphere. Although loss of flight (correlated with more or
less reduction of the wings and the sternal keel, and often com-
pensated by stronger hind limbs) has occurred, and is still taking
place in various groups of birds, it is quite impossible that a new
Ratite can still come into existence, because the necessary
primitive substratum, whence arose the true Ratitae, is no
longer available. Consequently we are justified in retaining
" Ratitae " in our classification, although they are a hetero-
geneous, not strictly monophyletic, assembly. (H. F. G.)
RATKE (RATCHIUS), WOLFGANG (1571-1635), German
educationist, was born at Wilster, Holstein, on the i8th of
October 1571, and educated at the university of Rostock.
His system of education was based upon Bacon's philosophy,
the principle being that of " proceeding from things to names,"
from the particular to the general, and from the mother tongue
to foreign languages. In 1618 he opened schools at Augsburg
and elsewhere, but at Kothen difficulties with the clergy led to
his imprisonment for eight months, and after starting another
school at Magdeburg in 1620 which failed, he became a wanderer
and died at Erfurt on the 27th of April 1635. His ideas were
far in advance of his time, but he lacked executive ability.
RATLAM (or RUTLAM), a native state of central India, in the
Malwa agency. Area, 902 sq. m. Its territory is closely
interlaced with that of Sailana. It is held as tributary to
Sindhia; but in 1819 an arrangement was made by which
Sindhia engaged never to send any troops into the country or
to interfere with the internal administration, and in 1861 the
tribute was assigned to the British government in part payment
of the Gwalior contingent. The population in 1901 was 83,773,
showing a decrease of 6% in the decade; estimated revenue,
34,000; tribute, 2850. The chief, whose title is raja, is a
Rahtor Rajput of the Jodhpur family. The chief Sujjan
Singh succeeded in 1893, and attained full powers in 1898. The
town of Ratlam is 1577 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 36,321.
It is a junction on the Rajputana-Malwa railway, and an
important centre of trade, especially in opium.
RATNAGIRI, a town and district of British India, in the
southern division of Bombay. The town is on the seacoast,
136 m. S. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 16,094. A leading industry
is the sardine fishery, which usually takes place in January and
February, and engages fleets of canoes.
The DISTRICT OF RATNAGIRI has an area of 3998 sq. m. It
forms a strip between the western Ghats and the sea, and its
general character is rugged; nearly all the fertile land lies on
the banks of the streams which intersect the country. The
coast, about 150 m. in length, is almost uniformly rocky and
dangerous. At intervals of about 10 m. a river or bay opens,
sufficiently large to form a secure harbour for native craft, and
the promontories at the river mouths are almost invariably
crowned with the ruins of an old fort. The rivers and creeks
are generally navigable for about 20 m., and afford facilities for
a coasting trade. At the beginning of British rule there were
no roads, and traffic was confined to places where there was
water carriage; but a network of roads has been made, opening
communication by hill passes with the Deccaji. Ratnagid
formed part of the dominions of the peshwa, and was annexed
by the British government in 1818 on the overthrow of Baji
Rao. In 1901 the population was 1,167,927, showing an
increase of 6% in the decade. Ratnagiri is the home of the
influential class of Chitpavan Brahmans. It also supplies
factory hands to Bombay and sepoys to the native army.
RATNAPURA (i.e. " The City of Gems "), the chief town in
the province of Sabaragamuwa, Ceylon. It is the centre of a
long established industry in digging for precious stones rubies,
sapphires, cat's-eyes, &c. There is also much rice and fruit
cultivation and planting of tea in the district. . Pop. of town
(1901) 4084; of district 132,964.
RATON, a city and the county seat of Colfax county, New
Mexico, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, and about
193 m. by rail N.E. of Santa Fe. Pop. (1890) 1255; (1900)^540
(337 foreign-born); (1910 census) 4539. Raton is served by the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Saint Louis, Rocky Mountain
& Pacific, and the Santa Fe, Raton & Eastern railways. The
city lies immediately W. of the Raton Mountains, from which it
derives its name, and has an elevation of 6400-6650 ft. above
the sea. Among its institutions are a miners' hospital, main-
tained by the state, and a picturesque public park. The
city lies within the Raton coal field, a southern continuation of
the field of the same name in Colorado, and the richest coal-
producing area in New Mexico. In 1907 70% of the total coal
product of New Mexico came from Colfax county, in which this
field is situated. Ores of gold, silver and lead have been mined
in Colfax county. South and east of the city there is good
farming land. Raton is a place of railway origin, and owes its
development to its extensive railway shops, as well as to the
proximity of mines. It was incorporated in 1891.
RATRAMN US RATTLESNAKE
919
RATRAMNUS (d. c. 868), a theological controversialist of
the second half of the 9th century, was a monk of the Benedictine
abbey of Corbie near Amiens, but beyond this fact very little
of his history has been preserved. He is best known by his
treatise on the Eucharist (De corpore et sanguine Domini liber),
in which he controverted the doctrine of transubstantiation
as taught in a similar work by his contemporary Radbertus
Paschasius. Ratramnus sought in a way to reconcile science
and religion, whereas Radbertus emphasized the miraculous.
Ratramnus's views failed to find acceptance; their author was
soon forgotten, and, when the book was condemned at the
synod of Vercelli in 1050, it was described as having been
written by Johannes Scotus Erigena at the command of Charle-
magne. In the Reformation it again saw the light; it was
published in 1532 and immediately translated. In the con-
troversy about election, when appealed to by Charles the Bald,
Ratramnus wrote two books De praedestinatitme Dei, in which
he maintained the doctrine of a twofold predestination; nor
did the fate of Gottschalk deter him from supporting his view
against Hincmar as to the orthodoxy of the expression " trina
Deltas. " Ratramnus perhaps won most glory in his own day
by his Contra Graecorum opposita, in four books (868), a valued
contribution to the controversy between the Eastern and
Western Churches which had been raised by the publication
of the encyclical letter of Photius in 867. An edition of De
corpore et sanguine Domini was published at Oxford in 1859.
See the article by G. Steitz and Hauck in Hauck's Realency-
klopadie fur protest. Theologie, Band xvi. (Leipzig, 1905); Naegle,
Ratramnus ttnd die heilige Rucharistie (Vienna, 1903); Schnitzer,
Berengar von Tours; and A. Harnack, History of Dogma, v., pp.
309-322 (1894-9).
RATTAZZI, URBANO (1808-1873), Italian statesman, was
bprn on the 2pth of June 1808 at Alessandria, and from 1838
practised at the bar. In 1848 he was sent to the chamber of
deputies in Turin as representative of his native town. By
his debating powers he contributed to the defeat of the Balbo
ministry, and for a short time held the portfolio of public in-
struction; afterwards, in the Gioberti cabinet, he became
minister of the interior, and on the retirement of the last-named
in 1849 he became practically the head of the government.
The defeat at Novara compelled the resignation of Rattazzi
in March 1849. His election as president of the chamber in
1852 was one of the earliest results of the so-called " connubio "
with Cavour, i. e. the union of the moderate men of the Right
and of the Left; and having become minister of justice in 1853
he carried a number of measures of reform, including that for
the suppression of certain of the monastic orders. During a
momentary reaction of public opinion he resigned office in 1858,
but again entered the cabinet under La Marmora in 1859 as
minister of the interior. In consequence of the negotiations
for the cession of Nice and Savoy he again retired in January
1860. He was entrusted with the formation of a new ministry
in March 1862, but in consequence of his policy of repression
towards Garibaldi at Aspromonte he was driven from office
in the following December. He was again prime minister in
1867, from April to October. He died at Frosinone on the 5th
of June 1873. His wife, whom he married in 1863, was a remark-
able woman. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Wyse, British
plenipotentiary at Athens, and Laetitia Bonaparte, niece of
Napoleon I. Born in Ireland in 1833, she was educated in Paris,
and in 1848 married a rich Alsatian named Solms; but the prince-
president refused to recognize her, and in 1852 she was expelled
from Paris. Her husband died soon after; and calling herself the
Princesse Marie de Solms, she spent her time in various fashion-
able places and dabbled in literature, Eugene Sue and Francois
Ponsard being prominent in her court of admirers. She pub-
lished Les Chants de I'exUte (1859) and some novels. After
Rattazzi's death, she married (1877) a Spaniard named Rule;
she died in February 1002.
See Madame Rattazzi, Rattazzi el son temps (Paris, 1881); Bolton
King, History of Italian Unity (London, 1899).
| RATTLESNAKE. Rattlesnakes are a small group of the
sub-family of pit- vipers (Crotalinae, see SNAKES; Viperidae),
characterised by a tail which terminates in a chain of horny,
loosely connected rings, the so-called " rattle. " The " pit "
by which the family is distinguished from the ordinary vipers
is a deep depression in the integument of the sides of the snout,
between the nostrils and the eye; its physiological function
is unknown. The rattle is a complicated and highly specialized
organ, developed from the simple conical scale or epidermal
spine, which in the majority of snakes forms the termination
of the general integument of the tail. The bone by which the
root of the rattle is supported consists of the last caudal verte-
brae, from three to eight in number, which are enlarged, dilated,
compressed and coalesced (fig. i, o). This bone is covered
W^ ** 4"
FIG. i . Rattle of Rattlesnake (after Czermak).
I. Caudal vertebrae, the last coalesced in a single bone a.
2. End of tail (rattle removed); a, cuticular matrix covering
terminal bone. 3. Side view of a rattle; c and d the oldest, a and
b the youngest joints. 4. A rattle with joints disconnected; x fits
into b and is covered by it; z into d in like manner.
with thick and vascular cutis, transversely divided by two
constrictions into three portions, of which the proximal is
larger than the median, and the median much larger than the
distal. This cuticular portion constitutes the matrix of a horny
epidermoid covering which closely fits the shape of the under-
lying soft part and is the beginning of the rattle, as it appears
in young rattlesnakes before they have shed their skin for the
first time. When the period of a renewal of the skin approaches
a new covering of the extremity of the tail is formed below
the old one, but the latter, instead of being cast off with the
remainder of the epidermis, is retained by the posterior swelling
of the end of the tail, forming now the first loose joint of the
rattle. This process is repeated on succeeding moultings
the new joints being always larger than the old ones as long as
the snake grows. Perfect rattles therefore taper towards the
point, but generally the oldest (terminal) joints wear away in
time and are lost. As rattlesnakes shed their skins more than
once every year, the number of joints of the rattle does not
indicate the age of the animal but the number of exuviations
which it has undergone. The largest rattle in the British
Museum has twenty-one joints. The rattle consists thus of
a variable number of dry, hard, horny cup-shaped joints,
each of which loosely grasps a portion of the preceding, and all
of which are capable of being shaken against each other. If the
interspaces between the joints are filled with water, as often
happens in wet weather, no noise can be produced. The motor
power lies in the lateral muscles of the tail, by which a vibrator)'
motion is communicated to the rattle, the noise produced being
similar to that of a child's rattle and perceptible at a distance
of from 10 to 20 yds.
The habit of agitating the tail is not peculiar to the rattlesnake,
but has been observed in other venomous and innocuous snakes
with the ordinary tail, under the influence of fear or anger. It
is significant that the tip of such snakes is sometimes rather
conspicuously coloured and covered with peculiarly modified
920
RAU
scales, notably in Acanthophls. The use of such a tail probably
consists in attracting or fixing the attention of small animals,
by slightly raising and vibrating the tip. The rattle no doubt
acts as a warning, every snake preferring being left alone to
being forced to bite. Many a man has been warned in time by
the shrill sound, and this principle applies undoubtedly to other
FIG. 2. Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus s. durissus).
mammals. Moreover, rattlesnakes are rather sluggish, and
comparatively not vicious. First they try to slink away;
when overtaken or cornered they use every means of frightening
the foe by swelling up, puffing, rattling and threatening atti-
tudes; it is as a rule not until they are touched, or provoked
by a rapid movement, that they retaliate, but then they strike
with fury. They are viviparous, and as destroyers of rats, mice
and other small rodents they are useful. The surest way of
clearing a ground of them and any other snakes is to drive in
pigs, which are sure to find and to eat them, without harm to
themselves. They inhabit localities to which the sun has free
access, prairies, rough stony ground, &c. Specimens of 5 ft.
in length are not rare. Formerly common in the eastern parts
of the United States, and still so in thinly inhabited districts,
rattlesnakes, like the vipers of Europe, have gradually succumbed
to the persecution of man.
Rattlesnakes are confined to the New World. North-American
authors distinguish a great number of different kinds, S. W. Carman
(" Reptiles and Batrachians of North America," Harvard Mus.
Zool. Mem., 1883, 410) enumerating twelve species and thirteen
additional varieties. E. D. Cope has split them into twenty; but
all these species or varieties fall into two groups. One, Sistrurus,
has the upper side of the head covered with the ordinary'nine shields;
only three species, of comparatively small size, in North America
(Sistrurus miliarius from Florida to Sonora; 5. catenalus in many
of the middle states of the Union, and elsewhere, as far north as
Michigan; S. ravus in Mexico).
The second group forms the genus Crotalus, in which the shields
between and behind the eyes are broken up and replaced by small
scales. This genus ranges throughout the United States through
Central and South America into Patagonia, but is not represented
on any of the West Indian islands. C. horridus, with the tail uni-
formly black, from Maine to Kansas and Louisiana to Florida.
C. adamanteus, tail light, with black crossbands, body with a hand-
some pattern of rhombs with lighter centres and yellowish edges;
chiefly south-eastern states, to Arizona and Mexico; the largest
of rattlers, giants of 8 ft. in length having been recorded. C. con-
fluentus, tail with brown or indistinct bands; with a continuous
series of large brown or reddish rhomboidal spots on the back;
Texas to California. C. cerastes, with a pair of horns above the
eyes; the " sidewinder " of Arizona and California to Nevada.
C. terrificus, easily distinguished by the possession of three pairs
of symmetrical shields on the top of the muzzle, ranging from Arizona
into Argentina. It is the only kind of rattlesnake in Central and
South America. C. triseriatus, a small species, with a feebly
developed rattle, on Mexican mountains, on the pic of Orizaba
up to 12,500 ft. (Si G. M. ; H. F. G.)
RAU, KARL HEINRICH (1792-1870), German political
economist, was born at Erlangen on the 2pth of November 1792.
He studied from 1808 to 1812 at the university there, where he
afterwards remained as a Privatdozent. In 1814 he obtained
the prize offered by the academy of Gottingen for the best
treatment of the question how the disadvantages arising from
the abolition of trade gilds might be removed. His memoir,
greatly enlarged, was published in 1816 under the title Uber das
Zunftuiesen und die Folgen seiner Aufhebung. In the same
year appeared his Primae lineae historiae politices. In 1818 he
became professor at Erlangen. In 1822 he was called to the
chair of political economy at Heidelberg where the rest of his
life was spent, in the main, in teaching and research. He took
some part, however, in public affairs: in 1837 he was nominated
a member of the first chamber of the duchy of Baden, and in
1851 he was one of the commissioners sent to England on the
part of the Zollverein to study the Industrial Exhibition. A
result of this mission was his account of the agricultural imple-
ments exhibited at London (Die landwirthschaftlichen Geriithe
der Londoner Ausstellung, 1853). He was elected a correspond-
ing member of the French Institute in 1856. He died at
Heidelberg on the i8th of March 1870.
His principal work is the Lehrbuch der politischen Okonomie
(1826-37), an encyclopaedia of the economic knowledge of his
time, written with a special view to the guidance of prac-
tical men. The three volumes are respectively occupied with
(i) political economy, properly so called, or the theory of
wealth, (2) administrative science (Volkswirthschaftspolitik) and
(3) finance. The two last he recognizes as admitting of varia-
tions in accordance with the special circumstances of different
countries, whilst the first is more akin to the exact sciences, and
is in many respects capable of being treated, or at least illustrated,
mathematically. This threefold division marks his close
relation to the older German cameralistic writers, with whose
works he was familiarly acquainted. It is a consequence in
part of his conformity to their method and his attention to-
administrative applications that his treatise was found peculiarly
adapted for the use of the official class, and long maintained its
position as their special text-book. He was the economic
teacher, says Roscher, of the well-governed middle states of
Germany from 1815 to 1848. The book has passed through
many editions; in that of 1870 by Adolf Wagner it was trans-
formed into a new book.
In the earlier part of his scientific life Rau tended strongly
towards the relative point of view and an historical method in
economics, but he never actually joined the historical school.
To the end he occupied a somewhat indeterminate position with
respect to that school; on the whole, however, he more and more
subordinated historical investigation to immediate practical
interests, and in his economic politics moved in the direction of
limiting rather than extending the sphere of state action. His
general merits are thoroughness of treatment, accuracy of state-
ment, and balance of judgment; he shows much industry in the
RAUCH RAUPACH
921
collection and skill in the utilization of statistical facts; and his
exposition is orderly and clear.
Besides the publications already mentioned, lie was author of
the following: Ansichten der Volkswirthschaft, 1821; Muttlm*
und Say iiber die Ursaclien der jetzigen Handelsstockung, 1821;
Grundriss der Kameralwissenschaft oder Wirthschaftslehre, 1823;
Obcr die Kameralwissenschaft, Eniwichelunf ihres Wesens und ihrer
Theile, 1825; Vber die Landwirthschaft der Rheinpfalz, 1830; and
Geschichle des Pfiuf.es, 1845.
Rau founded in 1834 the Archiv der politischen Okonomie und
Polizeiwissenschaft, in which he wrote a number of articles, after-
wards issued in separate form : amongst them may be named those
on the debt of Baden, on the accession of Baden to the Zollverein,
on the crisis of the Zollverein in the summer of 1852, on the American
banks, on the English poor law, on List's national system of political
economy and on the minimum size of a peasant property.
RAUCH, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (1777-1857), German
sculptor, was born at Arolsen in the principality of Waldeck on
the 2nd of January 1777. His parents were poor and unable to
place him under efficient masters. His first instructor taught
him little else than the art of sculpturing gravestones, and
Professor Ruhl of Cassel could not give him much more. A
wider field of improvement opened up before him when he
removed to Berlin in 1797; but he was obliged to earn a
livelihood by becoming a royal lackey, and to practise his art in
spare hours. Queen Louisa, surprising him one day in the act of
modelling her features in wax, sent him to study at the Academy
of Art. Not long afterwards, in 1804, Count Sandrecky gave
him the means to complete his education at Rome, where
William von Humboldt, Canova and Thonvaldsen befriended
him. Among other works, he executed bas-reliefs of " Hippo-
lytus and Phaedra," " Mars and Venus wounded by Diomede,"
and a " Child praying." In 1811 Rauch was commissioned
to execute a monument for Queen Louisa of Prussia. The
statue, representing the queen in a sleeping posture, was
placed in a mausoleum in the grounds of Charlottenburg, and
procured great fame for the artist. The erection of nearly all
public statues came to be entrusted to him. There were, among
others, Billow and Scharnhorst at Berlin, Bliicher at Breslau,
Maximilian at Munich, Francke at Halle, Diirer at Nuremberg,
Luther at Wittenberg, and the grand-duke Paul Frederick at
Schwerin. At length, in 1830, he began, along with Schinkel
the architect, the models for a colossal equestrian monument at
Berlin to Frederick the Great. This work was inaugurated with
great pomp in May 1851, and is regarded as one of the master-
pieces of modern sculpture. Princes decorated Rauch with
honours and the academies of Europe enrolled him among their
members. A statue of Kant for Konigsberg and a statue of
Thaer for Berlin occupied his attention during some of his last
years; and he had just finished a model of " Moses praying
between Aaron and Hur " when he was attacked by his last
illness. He died on the 3rd of December 1857.
RAUCOURT, MLLE (1756-1815), French actress, whose
real name was Franchise Marie Antoinette Saucerotte, was
born in Nancy on the 3rd of March 1756, the daughter of an
actor, who took her to Spain, where she played in tragedy at the
age of twelve. By 1770 she was back in France at Rouen, and
her success as Euphemie in Belloy's Gaston el Bayard caused
her to be called to the Comdie Francaise, where in 1772 she
made her debut as Dido. She played all the classical tragedy
parts to crowded houses, until the scandals of her private life
and her extravagance ended her popularity. In 1776 she
suddenly disappeared. Part of the ensuing three years she was
in prison for debt, but some of the time she spent in the capitals
of northern Europe, followed everywhere by scandal. Under
protection of the queen she reappeared at the Theatre Fransais
in 1779, and renewed her success in Phedre, as Cleopatra, and
all her former r6ks. At the outbreak of the Revolution she
was imprisoned for six months with other royalist members of
the Come'die Francaise, and she did not reappear upon that
stage until the close of 1793, and then only for a short time.
She deserted, with a dozen of the best actors in the company,
to found a rival colony, but a summons from the Directory
brought her back in 1797. Napoleon gave her a pension, and
in 1806 she was commissioned to organize and direct a company
that was to tour Italy, where, especially in Milan, she was
enthusiastically received. She returned to Paris a few months
before her death on the I5th of January 1815. Her funeral
was the occasion of a riot. The clergy of her parish having
refused to receive the body, the crowd broke in the church
doors, and were only restrained from further violence by the
arrival of an almoner sent post-haste by Louis XVIII. She is
buried at I 'ere Lachaise.
RAUDNITZ (Czech Roudnice nad Labem), a town of Bohemia,
Austria, 44 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7986, mostly
Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and its chief attraction
lies in the interesting and valuable collections in its chateau,
which has belonged to the princely family of Lobkowitz since
the beginning of the I7th century. These include a library
with a large number of the earliest specimens of printing and
valuable MSS., together with a series of pictures from the
time of Charles V. to the Thirty Years' War. In 1350 Cola di
Rienzi, " the last of the tribunes," was confined by the emperor
Charles IV. in the castle, which occupied the site of the present
chateau, previous to his despatch under arrest to the pope at
Avignon. In 1184 Raudnitz is mentioned as belonging to the
see of Prague. The title of duke of Raudnitz was conferred on
the head of the family of Lobkowitz by the emperor Joseph II.
in 1786.
RAUMER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG GEORG VON (1781-1873),
German historian, was born at Worlitz in Anhalt on thei4th of
May 1781. His father (d. 1822), as Kammerdirektor in Anhalt,
did excellent service to agriculture. After studying at the
Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin, and at the universities of
Halle and Gottingen, Raumer began to practise law, and rose
in the civil service under Hardenberg, the chancellor. He was
made a professor at the university of Breslau in 1811, and
in 1819 he became professor of political science and history
at Berlin, holding the chair until 1847, and giving occasional
lectures until 1853. In 1815 he had carried on historical investi-
gations in Venice, and in the two following years he had
travelled in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. In 1848 he was
elected a member of the German parliament at Frankfort,
where he associated himself with the right centre, supporting
the proposal for a German empire under the supremacy of
Prussia; and he was one of the deputation which offered the
imperial crown to Frederick William IV. After the break-
down of the German parliament, Raumer returned to Berlin,
where he was made a member of the first chamber of the Prussian
parliament. He died at Berlin on the I4th of June 1873.
Raumer's style is direct, lucid and vigorous, and in his day
he was a popular historian, but judged by strictly scientific
standards he does not rank among the first men of his time.
His first work, published anonymous! v in 1806, was entitled
Seeks Dialoge liber Krieg und Handel. This was followed by Das
brilische Besteuerungssystem (1810), Handbuch merkwurdiger Stellen
aus den lateinischen Geschichtschreibern des Mittelalters (1813),
Herbstreise nach Venedig (1816) and other books. His most famous
works are Geschichle der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeil (1823-25;
5th ed., 1876) and Geschichle Europas seil dent Ende des i$ten Jalir-
hunderls (1832-50). In 1831 appeared Briefe aus Paris und Frank-
reich im Jahre jSjo and Briefe aus Paris zur Erlaulerung der
Geschichle des idten und i?len Jahrhunderls. He went to England
in 1835, to Italy in 1839 and to America in 1843, and these visits
led to the publication of various works England in 1835 (1836),
Beitrage zur neuern Geschichte aus dent Brilischen Museum und Reichs-
archive (1836-39), Italien, Beitrage zur Kennlniss dieses Landes
(1840), Die Vereinigten Slaaten von Nordamerika (1845). Among
his later books mav be mentioned Antiquarische Briefe (1851),
Historisch-politische Briefe uber die geselligen Verhaltnisse der tfen-
schen (1860), Lebenserinnerungen und Briefwechsel (1861) and Hand-
buch zur Geschichte der Literatur (1864-66). In 1830 Raumer
began the Hislorisches Taschenbuch published by Brockhaus, which
from 1871 was continued by Rich).
RAUPACH, ERNST BENJAMIN SALOMO (1784-1852),
German dramatist, was born on the 2ist of May 1784 at
Straupitz, near Liegnitz in Silesia, a son of the village pastor.
He attended the gymnasium at Liegnitz, and studied theology
at the university of Halle. In 1804 he obtained a tutorship
922
RAVAILLAC RAVEN
in St Petersburg. He preached at times in the German
Lutheran church, wrote his first tragedies, and in 1817 was
appointed professor of German literature and history at a
training college in connexion with the university. Owing to
an outburst of jealousy against Germans in Russia, culminating
in police supervision, Raupach left St Petersburg in 1822 and
undertook a journey to Italy. The literary fruits of his travels
were Hirsemenzels Briefe aus und iiber Italien (1823). He
next visited Weimar, but, being coldly received by Goethe,
abandoned his idea of living there and settled in 1824 in Berlin.
Here he spent the remainder of his life, writing for the stage,
which for twenty years he greatly influenced, if not wholly
controlled, in the Prussian capital. He died at Berlin on the
i8th of March 1852.
Raupach was a prolific writer of both tragedies and comedies;
of the former, Die Fiirsten Chawansky (1818), Der Liebe Zau-
berkreis (1824), Die Leibeigenen, oder Isidor und Olga (1826),
Rafaele (1828), Der Nibelungenhort (1834) and Die Schule des
Lebens (1841), and of the latter Die Schleichhandler (1828) and
Der Zeitgeist (1830) are pieces which have enjoyed great popu-
larity owing to their skilful dramatic handling. On the other
hand, the historical dramas with which his name is chiefly
associated, Die Holienstaufen (1837-38), a cyclus of 15 dramatic
pieces founded on Friedrich von Raumer's Geschichte der Hohen-
staufen, as also the trilogy Cromwell (1841-44), are superficial
in treatment. Raupach had a great knowledge of theatrical
effect and situations, but he contorts historical facts in order
to suit his political hobby, which was the separation of church
and state.
Raupach's collected dramas appeared under the title Dramatische
Werke ernster Gattung (16 vols.,' 1830-43) and Dramatische Werke
komischer Gattung (4 yols., 1829-35). For his life see Pauline
Raupach, Raupach, eine biographische Skizze (1853); also K.
Goedeke, Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, 2nd ed.
(1905), vol. viii., pp. 646-668.
RAVAILLAC, FRANCOIS (1578-1610), the assassin of
Henry IV. of France, was born near Angouleme. He was of
humble origin and began life as a valet de chambre, but after-
wards became a lawyer and also teacher of a school. After
having been imprisoned by his creditors, he sought admission
to the recently founded order of Feuillants, but after a short
probation was dismissed as a visionary. An application for
admission to the Society of Jesus was equally unsuccessful in
1606. His disappointments fostered a fanatical temperament,
and rumours that the king was intending to make war upon
the pope suggested to him the idea of assassination, which he
carried out on the i4th of May 1610. In the course of his trial
he was frequently put to the torture, but persistently (and it is
now believed truly) denied that he had been prompted by any
one or had any accomplices. Sentence of death was carried out
on the 27th of May following.
See Jules Loiseleur, Ravaillac et ses complices (1873), and E.
Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome vi. (Paris, 1905).
RAVAISSON-MOLLIEN, JEAN 6ASPARD FELIX (181,5-
1900), French philosopher and archaeologist, was born at Namur
on the 23rd of October 1813. After a successful course of study
at the College Rollin, he proceeded to Munich, where he attended
the lectures of Schelling, and took his degree in philosophy
in 1836. In the following year he published the first volume of
his famous work Essai sur la metaphysique d'Aristole, to which
in 1846 he added a supplementary volume. This work not
only criticizes and comments on the theories of Aristotle and
the Peripatetics, but also deduces from them a modern philo-
sophical system. In 1838 he received the degree of doctor,
and became professor of philosophy at Rennes. From 1840
he was inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1860 became
inspector-general in the department of higher education. He
was also a member of the Academy, and of the Academy of Moral
and Political Science, and curator of the Department of Anti-
quities at the Louvre (from 1870). He died in Paris on the
i8th of May 1900. In philosophy, he was one of the school of
Cousin, with whom, however, he was at issue in many important
points. The act of consciousness, according to him, is the basis
of all knowledge. These acts of consciousness are manifesta-
tions of will, which is the motive and creative power of the
intellectual life. The idea of God is a cumulative intuition
given by all the various faculties of the mind, in its observation
of harmony in nature and in man. This theory had considerable
influence on speculative philosophy in France during the later
years of the igth century.
Ravaisson's chief philosophical works are: " Les Fragments
philosophiques de Hamilton " (in the Revue des Deux Mondes,
November, 1840); Rapport sur le stoicisme (1851); La Philosophic
en France au dix-neuvieme siecle (1868; 3rd ed., 1889); Morale et
metaphysique (1893). Eminent as a philosopher, Ravaisson was
also an archaeologist, and contributed articles on ancient sculpture
to the Revue A rcheologique and the Memoires de I' Academic des
Inscriptions. In 1871 he published a monograph on the Venus of
Milo.
See Renouvier, in L'Annee philosophique (Paris, 1868); Dawriac,
" Ravaisson philosophe et critique " (La Critique philosophique, 1885,
vol. ii.).
RAVANASTRON, an Indian stringed instrument played with
a bow, used by wandering pilgrims. A Hindu tradition affirms
that the musical bow was invented before 3000 B.C. by Ravanon,
king of Ceylon, and that the instrument for which he invented
it was named after him Ravanastron. 1 Judging from precedent,
it is probable that the ravanastron of the present day has
changed little, if at all, for many centuries. It consists of
half a round gourd, over which is fixed a sound-board of skin
or parchment; to this primitive body without incurvation is
attached a neck about twice the length of the body. The strings
are either one or four in number, the pegs being set in the sides
of the neck. The bridge is primitive and either straight or
slightly arched, so that in bowing more than one string sounds
at once.
The ravanastron is regarded by some writers as the first ancestor
of the violin, on account of the alleged invention of the bow for use
with it. This theory can only be accepted by those who consider
the bow, which after all was common to such inferior instruments
as the rebec, as of paramount importance, and the structural features
of the instrument itself, the box sound-chest with ribs, which have
always belonged to the most artistic types of instruments, such as
the cithara and the guitar-fiddle, as of secondary importance.
(K. S.)
RAVELLO, a village of Campania, Italy, in the province of
Salerno, about 3 m. N.N.E. of Amalfi by road, 1227 ft. above
sea-level. It commands a magnificent view. Pop. (1901)
1851. The history of Ravello cannot be traced beyond the
9th century. In the nth it was called Rebellum, because
it refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of Amalfi, and in
the I3th, when at the height of its prosperity, it had 36,000
inhabitants. The Palazzo Rufolo, begun in the nth century,
has two lofty towers and beautiful Saracenic decoration in
the courtyard. The ex-cathedral of S. Pantaleo, almost
entirely modernized, has fine bronze doors by Barisanus of
Trani (1179), and two pulpits in Cosmatesque work. The
larger, supported by six columns resting on the backs of lions,
was made in 1272 by Nicolaus of Foggia; the bust over the
entrance to it is said to be a portrait of Sigilgaita Rufolo. The
smaller, of the same date, is simpler, and has curious repre-
sentations of Jonah and the whale. The parish church of
S. Giovanni in Toro, spoilt by restorations in the i8th century,
contains a splendid pulpit in Cosmatesque work, supported on
four pillars, and the crypt some 14th-century frescoes. In
front of it is the porch of the Palazzo dell' Afflitto, composed
of ancient fragments. S. Maria Immacolata is another Roman-
esque church.
See A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Arle Meridionale (Naples, 1902), i.
349 sqq.
RAVEN (O.E. hrafn, Icel. hrafn, Dan. ram, Du. raaf,
Ger. Rabe), the largest of the birds of the order Passeres, and
a member of the family Corvidae, probably the most highly
developed of all birds. Quick-sighted, sagacious and bold, the
raven preys on the spoils of fishers and hunters, as also on weakly
1 An illustration appears in Sonnerat's Voyages aux Indes orien-
tates (Paris, 1806), vol. i. p. 182.
RAVEN-HILLRAVENNA
923
animals among flocks and herds. A sentiment of veneration
or superstition has from remote ages and among many races
attached to it. The raven is associated with various characters
of history, sacred or profane Noah and Elijah, Odin and
Flokki, the last of whom by its means discovered Iceland.
It is said to have played its part in the mythology of the Red
Indian; and it has often figured in prose and verse, from the
time of Shakespeare to that of Poe and Dickens. Superstition
has been generally succeeded by persecution, which in many
districts has produced extirpation.
The raven breeds very early in the year, in England resorting
to its nest, which is usually an ancient if not an ancestral
structure, about the middle or towards the end of January.
Therein are laid from five to seven eggs of the common Corvine
coloration (see CROW), and the young are hatched before the
end of February. In more northern countries the breeding
season is naturally delayed, but everywhere this species is
almost, if not quite, the earliest breeder. The raven measures
about 26 in. in length, and has an expanse of wing consider-
ably exceeding a yard. Its bill and feet are black, and the same
may be said of its whole plumage, but the feathers of the upper
parts as well as of the breast are glossy, reflecting a bright
purple or steel-blue. The species (Coruus corax) inhabits the
whole of Europe, and the northern if not the central parts
of Asia; but in the latter continent its southern range is not
well determined. In America it is, or used to be, found from
the shores of the Polar Sea to Guatemala if not to Honduras,
but is said hardly to be found of late years in the eastern part of
the United States. In Africa its place is taken by three alfied
but well-differentiated species, two of which (Corvus umbrinus,
readily distinguished by its brown neck, and C. affinis, having
its superior nasal bristles upturned vertically) also occur in
south-western Asia, while the third (C. leptouyx or C. tingitanus,
a smaller species characterized by several slight differences)
inhabits Barbary and the Atlantic Islands. Farther to the
southward in the Ethiopian region three more species appear
whose plumage is varied with white C. scapulatus, C. albicollis,
and C. crassirostris the first two of small size, but the last
rivalling the real raven in that respect. (A. N.)
RAVEN-HILL, LEONARD (1867- ), English artist and
illustrator, was born on the loth of March 1867. He was
educated at Bristol grammar school and the Devon county
school, and studied art at Lambeth and then in Paris under
MM. Bougereau and Aime Morot. He began to exhibit at the
Salon in 1887, and in the Royal Academy in 1889. In 1893 he
founded, with Arnold Golsworthy, the humorous and artistic
monthly The Butterfly (1893-94, revived in 1899-1900). He
contributed to many illustrated magazines, and began to work
for Punch, with which he was afterwards prominently associ-
ated, in 1896. He illustrated Sir Walter Besant's East London
(1901) and J. H. Harris's Cornish Saints and Sinners; he
published the impressions of his visit to India on the occasion
of the tour of the prince and princess of Wales as An Indian
Sketch-Book (1903); and his other published sketch-books
include Our Battalion (1902) and The Promenaders (1894).
RAVENNA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy,
capital of the province of Ravenna, standing in a marshy plain
13 ft. above sea-level, 6 m. from the sea and 45 m. by rail east
of Bologna. Pop. (1906) 35,543 (town), 67,379 (commune) a
considerable increase, as the population of 1881 was only 34,270
(commune). The industries are few, the growing of wine,
breeding of silkworms, making of agricultural instruments,
printing and the manufacture of laces being the chief. The
town is connected with the sea by the Corsini Canal, the two
small rivers Ronco and Montone no longer serving as means
of communication. Ravenna has railway communication with
Bologna (via Castel Bolognese), Ferrara and Rimini, and by
steam tram with Forli. At the mouth of the canal is a small
harbour.
No other city in the world offers so many and such striking
examples of the ecclesiastical architecture of the centuries from
the 5th to the 8th. The style is commonly called Byzantine;
Church.
Builder.
Date.
i. Metropolitan Church, or
Kcclcsia Ursiana, and
baptistery adjoining
2. S. Giovanni Evangelista .
S. I'rsus .
Galla Placidia .
37-390(?)
425
3. S. Agata ....
Gemellus .
about 430
4. S. Pier Crysologo (chapel)
S. Peter Chrysologus
about 450
5. S. Giovanni Battista .
Baduarius
6. SS. Nazario e Celso .
Galla Placidia .
7. S. Pier Maggiore (now S.
Francesco)
Bishop Neon (?) .
about 458
' 8. S. Teodoro (now Santo
Spirito) A.
9. S.Maria in Cosmodin(Arian
Theodoric (?) .
493-526
baptistery) A.
10. S. Martino in Coelo Aureo
n
(now S. Apollinare Nuovo)
n. S. Vitale ....
Julianus Argentarius
about 530
12. S. Maria Maggiore .
Bishop Ecclesius
13. S. Apollinare in Classe
Julianus Argentarius
about 535
(The churches marked A. were originally erected for the
Arian worship.)
but some of the most striking features of the churches of
Ravenna the colonnades, the mosaics, perhaps the cupolas
are not so much Byzantine as representative of early Christian
art generally. The following are the most important churches
of Ravenna, arranged in the order of the dates generally attri-
buted to them:
Almost the only sacred building previous to the 5th century
of which we have any record is unfortunately lost. The
cathedral of Ravenna, built by S. Ursus in 370-300, which had
a nave and four aisles, was destroyed in 1734-44, only the
(inaccessible) crypt and the round campanile remaining from
the earlier structure; there are fragments of reliefs from
a pulpit erected by Archbishop Agnellus (556-569) in the
interior. A rare work on the earlier church (Buonamid, La
Metropolitana di Ravenna) gives details of its construction.
The present cathedral contains several early Christian marble
sarcophagi, a silver cross of the 6th century (that of Agnellus),
and the so-called throne of the Archbishop Maximian (546-
552), adorned with reliefs in ivory, which, however, was really
brought to Ravenna in 1001 by John the Deacon, who recorded
the fact in his Venetian chronicle, as a present from the Doge
Pietro Orseolo to the Emperor Otho III.
The period from the transference of the imperial residence
to Ravenna to the death of Valentinian III. (404-455) was
the first period of great building activity in Ravenna, when the
archiepiscopal see of Ravenna attained great importance. It
was to it that we owe the erection of the Basilica Petriana
at Classe (396-425), which has entirely disappeared, of the
churches of S. Giovanni Evangelista (425), of S. Agata (425-
432), of the chapel of S. Pier Crisologo (433-449), of the tomb
of Galla Placidia (440), the church of S. Pier Maggiore (now
S. Francesco) (433-458), the baptistery of Neon (440-458),
S. Giovanni Battista and S. Croce.
Rivoira, in the book cited below, shows that many of the
characteristic architectural details can be traced back to a
classical and in particular a Roman origin, and were not derived
from the East, e.g. the use of blind arches as an external
decoration, and of brick cornices with the points of the bricks
projecting like the teeth of a saw, the use of pulvini (cushions)
above the capitals of columns and under the spring of an arch,
&c. &c., the use of round arches springing direct from these
cushions, spherical pendentives, &c.
Of this group of churches, S. Giovanni Evangelista, erected
by Galla Placidia in fulfilment of a vow made on her voyage
from Constantinople, has been entirely rebuilt, though the
columns are ancient (the Corinthian capitals are probably
from a classical building), and the crypt may be original. The
Gothic portal is fine, and the church contains a mosaic pave-
ment of 1213 with curious representations and some frescoes
by Giotto, painted during a visit to Dante between 1317 and
1320. S. Agata was almost entirely rebuilt in 1476-94. The
924
RAVENNA
chapel of S. Pier Crisologo in the archiepiscopal palace pre-
serves its original mosaics, and so also does the tomb of Galla
Placidia (SS. Nazario e Celso), a small structure in the form of
a Latin cross with a dome (in which, as in the baptistery of
Neon, the old cathedral, &c., the constructional use of amphorae
is noteworthy), with a plain brick exterior, and rich mosaics
on a dark blue ground within. The sarcophagus of Galla
Placidia has, like the two others that stand here, been despoiled
of its contents. The altar, like that at S. Vitale, is made of
thin slabs of alabaster, behind which lamps were intended to
be placed.
S. Francesco, as it has been called since 1261, when it came
into the possession of the Franciscans, has been almost entirely
modernized, except for the crypt and campanile (nth century).
The baptistery adjacent to the cathedral was, according to
Ricci, originally part of the Roman baths, converted to a
Christian baptistery by the Archbishop Neon (440-452), though
according to other authorities it is a Christian building dating
from before A.D. 396. It is an octagon, with a dome; in the
interior are two arcades one above the other. The mosaics
of the 5th century, in the dome, are the earliest and perhaps the
finest at Ravenna for their splendid decorative effect and rich
colouring, and are less stiff and conventional than the later
mosaics.
Of S. Giovanni Battista, also erected in this period, hardly
anything remains after the restoration of 1683, and S. Croce
has been overtaken by a similar fate.
After the death of Valentinian III. the activity in building
for which Ravenna had been so remarkable suffered a check;
but the reign of Theodoric (493-526) marks another era of
magnificence. In the eastern part of the city he built for himself
a large palace, which probably occupied about a sixth of the
space now enclosed within the city walls, or nearly the whole of
the rectangle enclosed by Strada di Porta Alberoni on the south,
Strada Nuova di Porta Serrata on the west and the line of the
city walls on the north and east. There still remains close to the
first-named street and fronting the Corso Garibaldi a high wall
built of square Roman bricks, with pillars and arched recesses
in the upper portion, which goes by the name of Palazzo di
Teodorico. Freeman, on account of the Romanesque character
of the architecture, thought it probable that it really belongs to
the time of the Lombard kings, and his opinion is shared by
Ricci and Rivoira, who consider it to be a guardhouse erected
by the exarchs, recent explorations having made it clear that
it was an addition to the palace, while mosaic pavements and
an atrium once surrounded by arcades really belonging to the
latter were found in 1870 behind S. Apollinare Nuovo and in
1908 behind the so-called Palazzo at a lower level and a different
orientation. A mosaic in the church of S. Apollinare Nuovo
gives some faint idea of the palace. A more memorable and
clearly authentic monument of Theodoric is furnished by his
tomb, a massive mausoleum which stands still perfect outside
the walls near the north-east corner of the city. It is circular
internally and decagonal externally, in two storeys, built of
marble blocks, and surmounted by an enormous monolith,
brought from the quarries of Istria and weighing more than
300 tons. The plan is no doubt derived from that of a Roman
tomb. In this mausoleum Theodoric was buried, but his body
was cast forth from it, perhaps during the troublous times of
the siege of Ravenna by the imperial troops, and the Rotunda
(as it is now generally called) was converted into a church
dedicated to the Virgin.
S. Apollinare Nuovo, the most important basilica in the
town, was built by Theodoric to be the largest of Arian churches,
and originally called S. Martino in Coelo Aureo (a name which it
lost in the 9th century). The exterior is uninteresting, and the
church lost both atrium and apse in the i6th century. The
interior has twenty-four columns of marble (from Constantinople
according to some, from Rome according to others), with almost
uniform capitals. The walls of the nave are adorned with
mosaics of the 6th century; the scenes from the New Testament
above the windows date from the time of Theodoric, while the
somewhat stiff processions below, of virgins on one side and of
saints on the other, are substitutions of the latter half of the
6th century for representations which probably contained some
allusion to Arianism or episodes in the life of Theodoric (so Ricci).
The mosaics have been in parts much restored; but the earlier
ones still show, like those which preceded them in Ravenna,
classical forms, variety of treatment and freedom of colouring,
while the processions are monotonous and inferior in execution,
intended rather to produce a decorative effect than beauty of
form. The pulpit appears to be of Byzantine origin (Rivoira).
The campanile (850-878) is circular, and has perhaps the earliest
example of the use of disks of coloured majolica as a decoration.
This, like the other campanili of Ravenna, is later than the
church to which it belongs. Those of the cathedral of S.
Apollinare in Classe, S. Maria Maggiore and S. Agata, also
circular, probably belong also to the 9th century, while the two
square campanili of S. Giovanni Evangelista and S. Francesco
probably belong to the early nth century. The other churches
erected by Theodoric are: S. Teodoro (or S. Spirito), erected
by Theodoric for the Arian bishops, but entirely modified: the
baptistery of this church (afterwards the oratory of S. Maria in
Cosmedin) formed out of the octagonal hall of a Roman bath (?)
unless it is an originally Christian building with mosaics of
the 6th century imitating those of the baptistery of Neon, and
freely restored; S. Maria Maggiore, founded by the Archbishop
Ecclesius (521-534), but almost entirely rebuilt; and S. Vittore,
which has suffered a similar fate. To the same period probably
belong a few columns of the so-called Basilica of Heracles in the
Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, with capitals like those of S. Apolli-
nare in Classe.
The impulse given by Theodoric was continued by his
successors, and during the regency of Amalasuntha and the
reigns of Theodatus and Vitiges (526-539), S. Vitale and S.
Apollinare in Classe were constructed by Julius Argentarius
contemporaneously with S. Lorenzo in Milan and the cathedral
of Parenzo also S. Michele in Africisco, nothing of the original
structure of which now exists. The former, well restored by
Ricci in 1898-1900 (except for the dome with its baroque frescoes
which has not been altered), is a regular octagon, with a vestibule,
originally flanked by two towers on the west, a choir added on the
east, triangular outside and circular within; it is surrounded
within by two galleries interrupted at the presbytery, and
supported by eight large pillars, the intervals between which are
occupied by open exedrae. The mosaics of the choir (547) are
due to Justinian, and, though inferior in style, are remarkable
for their splendour of colouring and the gorgeous dresses of the
persons represented, and also for their historical interest, especi-
ally the scenes representing the emperor and the empress
Theodora presenting offerings. The marble screens of the
altar are wonderfully finely carved. The marble mosaic pave-
ment (nth century) is very effective. Remains of the original
marble wall lining and stucco decoration also exist. The
capitals are, in the lower order, the characteristic funnel-shaped
rectangular Byzantine capitals, some of them with open work,
bearing cushions; this is a type probably derived from the
cushion itself, and developed in the East about the second half
of the 5th century*
The architecture of S. Vitale (for plan see ARCHITECTURE, sect.
Early Christian), according to Rivoira, was inspired not by
Byzantium, where similar churches S. Sofia and SS. Sergio and
Bacco are slightly later in date, but by the churches of
Salonica (A.D. 495), while the plan is derived from a Christian
baptistery, or from such a building as the so-called temple of
Minerva Medica at Rome.
S. Apollinare in Classe, erected at the same time outside the
walls of Classis, and now standing by itself in the lonely marshes,
is the largest basilica existing at Ravenna. It has a nave and
aisles with a closed vestibule on the west, and a fine round
campanile of the 9th (?) century. The exterior brick walls are
divided by shallow arches and pilasters, as in other churches of
Ravenna. It has twenty-four columns of Carystian (cipollino)
marble, with capitals probably of Byzantine work with swelling
RAVENNA
925
acanthus leaves; but the rest of the church is due to native
architects. The lofty presbytery and the crypt under it belong
to the 1 2th century. The walls of the interior were stripped
of their marble panelling by Sigismondo Malatesta in 1449, for
the adornment of his church at Rimini. The apse has mosaics
of the 6th and 7th centuries. The iSth-century series of por-
traits of the archbishops of Ravenna is no doubt copied from
an earlier original. There are a number of fine carved sarcophagi
in the church (5th to 8th century). The building activity of
the Gothic kings was continued by Justinian, to whose time we
owe the completion of S. Vitale and S. Apollinare in Classe, and
some of the mosaics in S. Appollinare Nuovo.
The buildings of a subsequent period are of minor im-
portance, but the basilica of S. Maria in Porto near the
ancient harbour (1096 sqq.), a basilica with open roof, with
frescoes by masters of the Rimini school, may be noticed. The
massive concrete substructures of the campanile are attributed
to an old lighthouse. The tomb of Dante, who died at Ravenna
in 1321, is close to S. Francesco; it is a square-domed structure,
with a relief by Pietro Lombardo (1482) representing the poet,
and a sarcophagus below, in an urn within which lie the poet's
remains. Close by is a small court with early Christian sarco-
phagi, containing the remains of the Braccioforte family. The
secularized monastery of Classe, in the town, built by the monks
of S. Apollinare in Classe in 155 sqq. as a refuge from the malaria,
which prevailed at Classe itself, with fine 17th-century cloisters,
contains the important museum, which has Roman and By-
zantine antiquities, inscriptions, sculptures, jewelry, &c.
including the possible remains of a suit of gold armour of
Theodoric and a collection of Italian woodcuts; also the
library with rare MSS. and incunabula (among the former the
best extant MS. of Aristophanes). The Accademia, close by,
has a few pictures by local masters, e.g. N. Rondinelli (end of
1 5th century), of no great importance, and a fine recumbent
statue of Guidarello Guidarelli, a condottiero of Ravenna, and
a partisan of Caesar Borgia (d. 1501), by Tullio Lombardo (?)
or Severe da Ravenna (?).
In the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele are two granite columns
erected by the Venetians, in 1483, with statues of SS. Apollinaris
and Vitalis. The cloisters of S. Maria di Porto erected in the
town in the i6th century (owing to malaria, as in the case of those
of Classe), and of S. Vitale, are pleasing 16th-century structures.
The 15th-century castle in the north-east corner of the town
erected by the Venetians is a picturesque brick building. The
famous pineto or pinewood of Ravenna, which already existed
in Odoacer's time, and has been sung by poets since Dante, lies
some 5 m. south of Ravenna.
History. Strabo mentions a tradition that Ravenna was
founded by Thessalians, who afterwards, finding themselves
pressed by the Etrurians, called in their Umbrian neighbours
and eventually departed, leaving the city to their allies. Pliny,
on the other hand, calls it Sabine. Throughout the valley of
the Po the Gauls took the place of the Etrurians as a conquering
power; but Ravenna may possibly have retained its Umbrian
character until, about the year 191 B.C., by the conquest of the
Boii,the wholeof this region passed definitely under the dominion
of Rome. Either as a colonia or a municipium, Ravenna re-
mained for more than two centuries an inconsiderable city of
Gallia Cisalpina, chiefly noticeable as the place in which Caesar
during his ten years' command in Gaul frequently resorted in
order to confer with his friends from Rome, and from which
he started for his advance into Italy. At length under Augustus
it suddenly rose into importance, when that emperor selected
it as the station for his fleet on " the upper sea." Two hundred
and fifty ships, said Dion (in a lost passage quoted by Jordanes),
could ride at anchor in its harbour. At the same time Augustus
conducted a branch of the Po (the fossa Augusta) through the
city into the sea. It also became important for the export
of timber from the Alps. Strabo, writing probably a few
years after Ravenna had been thus selected as a naval arsenal,
gives us a description of its appearance which certainly corre-
sponds more closely with modern Venice than with modern
Ravenna. " It is the largest of all the cities built in the lagoons,
but entirely composed of wooden houses, penetrated in all
directions by canals, wherefore bridges and boats are needed
for the wayfarer. At the flow of the tide a large part of the sea
comes sweeping into it; and thus, while all the muddy deposit
of the rivers is swept away, the malaria is at the same time
removed, and by this means the city enjoys so good a sanitary
reputation that the government has fixed on it as a place for
the reception and training of gladiators." On the other hand,
good water was proverbially difficult to obtain at Ravenna
dearer than wine, says Martial, who has two epigrams on the
subject. Trajan, however, built an aqueduct nearly 20 miles long,
which was restored by Theodoric in 503. Of this some traces
still exist in the bed of the Ronco above Ravenna. Flies and
frogs were also complained of, and Sidonius, writing in the
5th century, complains bitterly of the " feculent gruel " (cloac-
alis puls) which filled the canals of the city, and gave forth fetid
odours when stirred by the poles of the bargemen. The port
of Ravenna, situated about 3 miles from the city, was named
Classis. A long line of houses called Caesarea connected it
with Ravenna, and in process of time there was such a con-
tinuous series of buildings that the three towns seemed like
one. It was a municipium under the Empire, as the inscrip-
tions show, but it seems to have had magistrates rather suited
to a vicus or village, its importance being due entirely to the
naval station (cf. the state of things at Mediolanum, Milan).
It had large gilds oljabri (smiths and carpenters) and centonaril
(firemen).
Of Roman Ravenna nothing remains above ground, though
a little has been found by excavation, including a mosaic
pavement at Classe near S. Severo (Ricci, op. cit. p. 50). Among
the tombs many of the poorer under the Empire were simply
formed of amphorae, in which the body was placed. A pre-
historic station was found in 1894 at S. Zaccaria near Ravenna,
belonging to a Terramare (E. Brizio in Notizie degli Scam, 1896,
85). In A.D. 339 it is spoken of as having previously been the
chief town of Picenum, but having recently been assigned to
Aemilia. It was connected with Ariminum, 33 miles to the
south by the coast road, the Via Popillia, which ran on north
to Hatria, and joined the road between Patavium and Altinum
at Ad Portum.
The great historical importance of Ravenna begins early in
the 5th century, when Honorius, alarmed by the progress of
Alaric in the north of Italy, transferred his court hither. From
this date (404) to the fall of the Western Empire in 476 Ravenna
was the chief residence of the Roman emperors. Here Stilicho
was slain; here Honorius and his sister Placidia caressed and
quarrelled; here Valentinian III. spent the greater part of his
life; here Majorian was proclaimed; here the little Romulus
donned his purple robe; here in the pinewood 1 outside the city
his uncle Paulus received his decisive defeat from Odoacer.
Through all these changes Ravenna maintained its character
as an impregnable " city in the sea," not easily to be attacked
even by a naval power on account of the shallowness and devious
natureofthe channels by which it had to be approached. Odoacer,
like the emperors who had gone before him, made Ravenna his
chief place of residence, and here he shut himself up when
Theodoric the Ostrogoth had invaded Italy and defeated him
in two battles. Theodoric's siege of Ravenna lasted for three
years (489-492), and was marked by one bloody encounter in the
pinewood on the east of it. The Ostrogoth collected a fleet and
established a severe blockade, which at length caused Odoacer
to surrender the city. The terms, arranged through the inter-
vention of John, archbishop of Ravenna, were not observed by
1 The great pinewood to the east of the city, which is still one
of the great glories of Ravenna, must therefore have been in exist-
ence already in the 5th century. Byron's description,
" [The] immemorial wood
Rooted where once the Adrian wave flowed o'er,"
is probably true; but there is no evidence that it was in historic
time that this change took place. It may be conjectured that the
Pinela grew on a large peninsula somewhat resembling the Lido
of Venice.
926
RAVENNA
Theodoric, who, ten days after his entry into the city, slew his
rival at a banquet in the palace of the Laurel Grove (March 15,
493). Ravenna was Theodoric's chief place of residence, and
his reign (493-526) may be considered the time of its greatest
splendour.
Nine years after the death of Theodoric Justinian sent an army
to destroy the Gothic monarchy and restore Italy to the empire.
Long after the Goths had lost Rome they still clung to Ravenna,
till at length, weary of the feebleness of their own king, Vitiges,
and struck with admiration of their heroic conqueror, they offered
to transfer their allegiance to Belisarius on condition of his
assuming the diadem of the Western Empire. Belisarius dallied
with the proposal until he had obtained an entrance within the
walls of the capital, and proclaimed his inviolable fidelity to
Justinian. Thus in the year 539 was Ravenna re-united to
the Roman empire. Its connexion with that empire or, in
other words, its dependence upon Constantinople lasted for
more than 200 years, during which period, under the rule of
Narses and his successors the exarchs, Ravenna was the seat
of Byzantine dominion in Italy. In 728 the Lombard king
Luitprand took and destroyed the suburb Classis; about 752
the city itself fell into the hands of his successor Aistulf, from
whom a few years after it was wrested by Pippin, king of the
Franks. By this time the alteration of the coast-line and the
filling up of the lagoons had probably commenced, and no
historical importance attaches to its subsequent fortunes. It
formed part of the Prankish king's donation to the pope in the
middle of the 8th century, though the archbishops, as a fact,
retained almost independent power. It was an independent
republic, generally taking the Guelph side in the i3th century,
subject to rulers of the house of Polentani in the I4th, Venetian
in the ijth (1441), and papal again in the i6th, Pope Julius
II. having succeeded in wresting it from the hands of the
Venetians. St Romuald and St Peter Damian were both
natives of Ravenna. From this time (1509) down to our own
days, except for the interruptions caused by the wars of the
French Revolution, Ravenna continued subject to the papal
see and was governed by a cardinal legate. In 1849 Garibaldi's
wife Anita, who had accompanied him on his retreat from Rome,
succumbed to fatigue in the marshes near Ravenna. In 1859
it was one of the first cities to give its vote in favour of Italian
unity, and it has since then formed a part of the kingdom of
Italy.
Charles the Great carried off the brazen statue of Theodoric
and the marble columns of his palace to his own palace at
Aix-la-Chapelle. More than five centuries later (1320) Dante
became the guest of Guide Novello di Polenta, lord of Ravenna,
and here he died on the i4th September of the following year.
The marble urn containing the body of the poet still rests at
Ravenna, where what Byron calls " a little cupola more neat
than solemn" has been erected over it. In 1512 (see below)
the French army under Gaston de Foix fought a fierce battle
with the Spanish, Venetian, and papal troops on the banks of
the Ronco about two miles from Ravenna. The French were
victorious, but Gaston fell in the act of pursuing the enemy.
His death is commemorated by the Colonna dei Frances! erected
on the spot where he fell. Lord Byron resided at Ravenna
for eighteen months in 1820-21, attracted by the charms of
the Countess Guiccioli.
AUTHORITIES. The most important authority for the history
of Ravenna is Bishop Agnellus, who wrote, about 840, the Liber
Pontifical-is Ecclesiae Ravennatis. The best edition is that by Holder-
Egger in the Monumenta Germaniae Hislorica (1878). See also E.
Bormann, in Corpus Inscript. Latin, xi. (Berlin, 1888), p. I sqq.;
G. T. Rivoira, Origini dell' Architettura Lombarda, I. (Rome, 1901);
C. Ricci, Ravenna (Bergamo, 1902). To the careful restorations of the
last named the buildings of Ravenna owe much. (T. H. ; T. As.)
Battle of 1512. This battle, one of the principal events of
the long Italian wars of Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I.
of France, is, like Marignano, interesting in a tactical sense,
from the fact that the feudalism of the past and the expert
soldiership of the future were strangely mingled. It arose out
of the attempt of the Spanish and Italian forces to relieve
Ravenna, besieged by Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours. The
most celebrated captains of these wars were present on either
side under Gaston de Foix were Bayard, Yves d'Allegre, La
Palisse; and under Cardona the Spanish viceroy of Naples, Pedro
Navarro the great engineer, and Pescara the originator of the
Spanish tactical system. After some preliminary manoeuvres
the two armies drew up face to face on the left bank of the
Roneo, the Spanish left and the French right resting on this
river. The Spaniards were entrenched, with their heavy
artillery distributed along the front, but, thanks to Navarro,
they had a more mobile artillery in the shape of 200 arquebuses
a croc mounted in groups upon carts, after the German fashion,
and this was held ready to move wherever its services might be
needed. The left wing was composed of the papal contingent,
6000 infantry and 800 gendarmes under Fabrizio Colonna;
the centre, of half the Spanish contingent, 4000 infantry and 600
lancers under the viceroy; the right, of 1000 light horse under
Pescara. Behind the centre was the rest of the Spanish con-
tingent, 600 lancers and 4000 infantry. On the other side the
right wing was commanded by the duke of Ferrara, who had like
Navarro organized a mobile field artillery (the artillery material
of this prince was thought to be the best conditioned in Europe).
It consisted besides of 800 French gendarmes under Louis de
Breze and 5000 German landsknechts under Jakob Empser.
In the centre were 8000 French infantry (the ancestors of the
later Picardie and Piedmont regiments) under the seigneur
de Molart, and 5000 Italian infantry. On the left were the
light horse. A reserve of 600 gendarmes under La Palisse was
behind the centre. The battle opened with a prolonged cannon-
ade from the Spanish lines. For three hours the professional
regiments of all sorts in the French lines rivalled one another
in enduring the fire unmoved, the forerunners of the military
systems of to-day, landsknechts, Picardie and Piedmont, show-
ing the feudal gendarmerie that they too were men of honour.
There was no lying down. The captains placed themselves in
the front, and in the centre 38 out of 40 of them were struck
down. Molart and Empser, drinking each other's health in the
midst of the cannonade, were killed by the same shot. Sheltered
behind the entrenchments, the Spaniards scarcely suffered,
for they were lithe active troops accustomed to lie down and
spring up from the ground. But after three hours, Pescara's
light horse having meantime been driven in by the superior
light horse of the enemy, the artillery-loving duke of Ferrara
conceived the brilliant plan of taking his mobile field-guns to
the extreme right of the enemy. This he did, and so came in
sight of the prone masses of the Spaniards. Disciplined troops
as they were, they resisted the temptation to escape Ferrara's
fire by breaking out to the front; but the whole Spanish line
was enfiladed, and on the left of it the papal troops, who were
by no means of the same quality, filled up the ditch in front
of their breastworks and charged forward, followed by all the
gendarmerie. Once in the plain they were charged by the
French gendarmes under Gaston himself, as well as by the lands-
knechts, and driven back. The advantage of position being
thus lost, the Spanish infantry rose and flung itself on the
attackers; the landsknechts and the French bands were dis-
ordered by the fury of the counterstroke, being unaccustomed
to deal with the swift, leaping, and crouching attack of swords-
men with bucklers. But La Palisse's reserve wheeled in upon
the rear of the Spaniards, and they retreated to the entrench-
ments as fast as they had advanced. The papal infantry, the
gendarmes, and the light horse had already vanished from the
field in disorder; but the Spanish regulars were of different
mettle, and it was only after a long struggle that the lands-
knechts and the French bands broke into the entrenchments.
A captain of landsknechts, Fabian by name, holding his long
pike crosswise, brought it down with all his force upon the
opposing spears, and at the cost of his life made a narrow gap
through which the French broke into the mass of the enemy.
Still the conflict continued, but at last La Palisse, with all the
gendarmerie still in hand, rode completely round the entrench-
ments and charged the Spaniards' rear again. This was the
RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF RAVENSCROFT
927
end, but the remnant of the Spanish infantry retreated in order
along the river causeway, keeping the pursuers at bay with their
arquebuses. Gaston de Foix, recklessly charging into the
midst of them, was killed. (C. F. A.)
RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF, the official name of that part
of Italy which remained in the allegiance of the Roman
emperors at Constantinople from the closing years of the 6th
to the middle of the 8th century. The civil and military head
of these possessions, the exarch (<?..), was stationed at Ravenna.
The territory round the town, from the southern border of
the modern Venetia to the beginning of the Pentapolis at
Rimini, was under his direct administration and formed in
a limited sense the exarchate. The other provinces were
governed by dukes and magistri mililum, titles which were
generally, but not always, borne by the same person. But as
all were subject to his authority, they were included in the
exarchate of Ravenna, which was therefore another name for
the province of Italy. The borders of these dominions varied
according to the fortunes of the imperial authority in its long
struggle with the Lombards. Sicily formed a separate govern-
ment. Corsica and Sardinia belonged to the exarchate of
Africa. The reorganization of the province of Italy into
the exarchate was forced on the emperors by the Lombard
invasion, which began in 568, and their permanent settlement.
The Lombards thrust a wedge into Italy. Its base was in
Venetia, and its point was advanced to the Tiber. From the
early days of the conquest they spread to the south, and estab-
lished the duchies of Spoletum and Beneventum in the modern
kingdom of Naples. They may thus be said to have hollowed
out the imperial, or Byzantine, possessions in Italy, the interior
being under their power, and the coast remaining to the imperial
officers. This illustration, however, is subject to two serious
exceptions. As the Lombards spread they came into pos-
session of many parts of the coast. Then a belt of imperial
territory stretching from Rimini on the Adriatic, S.W. to the
mouth of the Tiber, and including the duchies of Perugia and
Rome, served to unite the immediate territory of Ravenna
with the duchy of Naples, and to separate the two bodies
under Lombard dominion, the kingdom in the north, and
the southern duchies Spoletum and Beneventum. The
organization of the exarchate is placed by modern investi-
gators under the reign of the emperor Maurice (582-602), when
the imperial government began to recognize the necessity of
providing for a new and a long struggle. At the end of the
6th century the exarchate included Istria; the maritime
part of Venetia as distinct from the interior which was in the
hands of the Lombard kings at Pa via; the exarchate proper,
or territory around Ravenna on the eastern side of the
Apennines, to which was added Calabria, which at that period
meant the heel and not the toe of the boot; the Pentapolis,
or coast from Rimini to Ancona with the interior as far as the
mountains; the duchy of Rome, or belt of territory connecting
the Pentapolis with the western coast, the coast of Naples,
w'th Bruttium the toe of the boot, the modern Calabria, and
Liguria, or the Riviera of Genoa. The Piedmont, Lombardy,
mainland of Venetia, Tuscany and the interior of Naples be-
longed to the Lombards. The advance of these barbarians
was for a time checked during the anarchy which followed
the death of Alboin, and was subject to other suspensions.
The superior organization of the imperial government enabled
it to regain lost territory and delay complete ruin. In 500
the empire regained much of Venetia. But these revivals were
not permanent. The superiority of the empire was a mechanical
one, and during the two centuries or so that the exarchate
lasted it lost ground. In 640 the Ligurian seacoast fell under
the power of the Lombards, and ceased to be an imperial pro-
vince. About a century later the exarchate had been greatly
reduced, though the imperial officials endeavoured to conceal
the fact by retaining and transferring names when the reality
of possession was lost. About 740 it consisted of Istria,
Venetia (the maritime portion of which was ceasing to be a
province and was becoming a protected state, the forerunner
of the future republic of Venice), Ferrara, Ravenna (the
exarchate in the limited sense), Pentapolis, Perusia, Rome,
the coast of Naples and Calabria (in the sense of the toe and
not the heel of the boot) which was being overrun by the Lom-
bards of the duchy of Beneventum, which with Spoletum held
the interior. In Rome the pope was the real master. These
fragments of the " province of Italy," as it was when recon-
quered by Justinian, were almost all lost either to the Lom-
bards, who finally conquered Ravenna itself about 750, or by
the revolt of the pope, who separated from the empire on
account of the iconoclastic reforms. The intervention of Pippin
the Carolingian, who was called in by the popes to protect them
against the Lombards and the Eastern emperors alike, made a
revival of the exarchate impossible. It disappeared, and the
small remnants of the imperial posseasions on the mainland,
Naples and Calabria, passed under the authority of the " patri-
cius " of Sicily, and when Sicily was conquered by the Arabs
in the loth century were erected into the themes of Calabria
and Langobardia. Istria was attached to Dalmatia.
In its internal history the exarchate was subject to the
influences which were everywhere, in central and western
Europe at least, leading to the subdivision of sovereignty
and the establishment of feudalism. Step by step, and in
spite of the efforts of the emperors at Constantinople, the
great imperial officials became landowners, the owners of land
kinsmen or at least associates of these officials intruded on
the imperial administration, while the necessity for providing
for the defence of the imperial territories against the Lombards
led to the formation of local militias, who at first were attached
to the imperial regiments, but gradually became independent.
These armed men formed the exercilus romanae militiae, who
were the forerunners of the free armed burghers of the Italian
cities of the middle ages. The exercilus of Rome was divided
into scholae, and had a chief or palronus, and its banner. Other
cities of the exarchate were organized on the same model.
Diehl is of opinion that the exercilus was formed of the ancient
" possessores," or landowners and free townsmen, who were
of a less rank than the ordo senatorius. The great landowners
who were developing into feudal lords, and the smaller freemen
who were becoming independent burghers, broke the imperial
administration to pieces, and prepared the way for the final
ruin of the exarchate.
See Eludes sur I' administration Bvsanlinf dans I'txarchat de
Ravenne (568-751), by Charles Diehl (Paris, 1888).
RAVENSBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, pleasantly situated amid vine-clad hills on the
river Schussen, 12 m. N. of Friedrichshafen on the lake of
Constance, by the railway of Ulm. Pop. (1905) 14,614, the
great majority of whom are Roman Catholics. Its aspect is
medieval; it still retains its walls and nine picturesque towers,
the most prominent of which, dating from the isth century,
is known as the " Mehlsack," or sack of flour. The town hall
is a handsome isth-century building. The manufactures
include linen, cotton, embroidered muslins, pottery, glass and
playing-cards. The fruit market is important, and there is
trade in cattle, grain and timber. Ravensburg was founded
in the nth century by the Guelphs, and in their ancestral
castle on the Veitsburg, which was partially restored in 1892,
the Saxon duke, Henry the Lion, was born. In 1180 the town
passed to the Hohenstaufens, and a century later it became
a free town of the Empire. In the isth century it was a
flourishing commercial place, its chief industry being the
manufacture of paper. Annexed to Bavaria from 1803 to 1810,
it was ceded to Wurttemberg in the latter year.
See Hafncr. Gcschichte von Ravensburg (Ravensburg, 1887).
RAVENSCROFT, EDWARD ffl. 1671-1697), English dra-
matist, belonged to an ancient Flintshire family. He was
entered at the Middle Temple, but devoted his attention mainly
to literature. Among his pieces are Mamamouchi, or The
Citizen turned GenUeman (Dorset Garden, 1671, pr. 1675);
The Careless Lovers (Dorset Garden, 1673, pr. 1673),' a comedy
928
RAVI RAWLINSON, SIR H. C.
of intrigue; Scaramouch a Philosopher, Harlequin a Schoolboy,
Bravo a Merchant and Magician (Theatre Royal, 1677);
English Lawyer (Theatre Royal, 1678), an adaptation of George
Ruggle's Latin play of Ignoramus, presented before James I.
at Cambridge in March 1615; The London Cuckold (Dorset
Garden, 1683), which became a stock p : ece, but was struck out
of the repertory by Garrick in 1751; and The Italian Husband
(Lincoln's Inn Fields, 1697). He wrote in all twelve plays, in
which he adapted freely from Moliere and others, confessing on
one occasion that he " but winnowed Shakespeare's corn."
He ventured to decry the heroic drama, and Dryden retaliated
by satirizing his Mamamouchi, a foolish adaptation from Moliere 's
Bourgeois Gentilhomme and Monsieur de Pourceaugnac, in the
prologue to the Assignation (Dryden, Works, ed. Scott, iv.
345 seq.).
RAVI, a river of India, one of the " Five Rivers " of the
Punjab. It rises in the Kulu subdivision of Kangra district,
flows through Chamba state, and enters British territory again
in Gurdaspur district. At Madhupur the head works of the
Bari Doab canal draw off a large portion of its waters. Thence
it flows through the plains of the Punjab, passing within a mile
of Lahore, and finally falls into the Chenab after a course of
about 450 m.
RAVINE, a deep, narrow gorge, cleft or valley in a mountain,
worn by the violent rush of water, whence the name, which
comes through Fr. from Lat. rapina, violent robbery or plunder
(rapere, to seize). The doublet " ravin " or " raven," robbery,
greed, has given place to the more learned form "rapine," but
is still seen in " ravenous," greedy, voracious.
RAWALPINDI, a town of British India, which gives its
name to a district and a division in the Punjab. The town is
situated on the north bank of the little river Leh, 1726 ft. above
the sea, mm. E. by S. of Peshawar, and 1443 m. N.W. of
Calcutta. Pop. (1901) 87,688. It is chiefly notable as the
largest military station, in India, and the key to the British
system of defence upon the North-West Frontier. Railways
radiate to Peshawar, Kohat, and the Malakand Pass, and a
road runs to the Abbotabad frontier. It is also the starting-
point of the cart-road to the hill-station of Murree and of the
route into Kashmir. It is protected by a strong chain of forts,
connected by the Circular Road. It is the headquarters of the
second division of the northern army with a strong force of all
arms, and contains an arsenal. Besides the locomotive works
of the North-Western railway, there are gas-works, a tent
factory, an iron foundry, and a brewery. An annual horse
fair is held in April.
The DISTRICT OF RAWALPINDI has an area of 2010 sq. m.,
Attock having been separated from it and formed into a separate
district in 1904. It is situated on the southern slopes of the
north-western extremities of the Himalayas, including large
mountain tracts with rich valleys traversed by mountain
torrents. It contains the Murree hills with the sanatorium of
that name, the chief hill-station in the Punjab. The Indus
and the Jhelum are the chief rivers, and the climate is noted
for its healthiness. The principal crops are wheat, barley,
maize, millets, and pulses. The district is traversed by the
main line of the North-Western railway, crossing the Indus at
Attock, and also by a branch towards the Indus at Kushalgarh.
The population in 1901 was 558,699, showing an increase of
4-7% in the decade.
The DIVISION OF RAWALPINDI lies in the north-west of the
Punjab. It consists of the five districts of Gujrat, Attock,
Shahpur, Jhelum, and Rawalpindi. The total area is 15,736
sq. m. and the population in 1901 was 2,799, 3-
RAWENDIS, a Persian sect that took its name from a town
Rawend near Isfahan. Its origin is unknown, but they held
ultra-Shiite doctrines (see SHIITES). Under the year 158
(A.D. 775) Tabari says that a man of the Rawendis, called al-Ablaq
(because he was leprous), asserted that the spirit that was in
Jesus was in 'AH, then in the imams one after the other to
Ibrahim ibn Mahommed, and that thus these were gods. Asad
ibn 'Abdallah, then governor of Khorasan, put many of them to
death. Under the year 135 (A.D. 752-3) the historian again
mentions a rising of the Rawendis of Talaqan, and its suppression.
Under 141 (A.D. 758-9) he gives a fuller account of them. They
believed in metempsychosis, or the transmigration of souls, and
asserted that the spirit of Adam was in Othman ibn Nahik, that
the Lord who fed them and gave them drink was Abu Ja'far
ul-Mansur, and that al-Haitham ibn Moawiya was Gabriel.
Accordingly they came to the palace of Mansur in Hashimlya
and began to hail him as Lord. Mansur, however, secured their
chiefs and threw them into prison. By means of a mock
funeral they succeeded in reaching the prison and delivering
their leaders. They then turned in wrath against Mansur and
almost succeeded in capturing him, but were defeated and
slain by al-Haitham. (G. W. T.)
RAWITSCH (Polish Ravicz), a town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Posen, lying near the Silesian frontier,
37 m. N. of Breslau, at the junction of railways to Posen and
Liegnitz. Pop. (1905) 11,403. It contains a handsome Pro-
testant church and a medieval town hall. The principal industry
is the manufacture of snuff and cigars, and for the former it
enjoys a considerable reputation. Trade is carried on in grain,
wool, cattle, hides, and timber. Rawitsch was founded by
Protestant refugees from Silesia during the Thirty Years'
War. It passed to Prussia at the second partition of Poland
in 1793.
RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812-1902), English scholar and
historian, was born at Chadlington, Oxfordshire, on the 23rd
November 1812, being the younger brother of Sir Henry
Rawlinson (q.v.). Having taken his degree at Oxford (from
Trinity College) in 1838, he was elected to a fellowship at Exeter
College in 1840, of which from 1842 to 1846 he was fellow and
tutor. He was ordained in 1841; was Bampton lecturer in
1859, and Camden professor of ancient history from 1861 to
1889. In 1872 he was appointed canon of Canterbury, and
after 1888 he was rector of All Hallows, Lombard Street. In
1873 he was appointed proctor in Convocation for the Chapter
of Canterbury. He married Louisa, daughter of Sir R. A.
Chermside, in 1846. His chief publications are his translation
of the History of Herodotus (in collaboration with Sir Henry
Rawlinson and Sir Gardner Wilkinson), 1858-60; The Five
Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, 1862-67; The
Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy (Parthian), 1873; The Seventh
Great Oriental Monarchy (Sassanian), 1875; Manual of Ancient
History, 1869; Historical Illustrations of the Old Testament, 1871 ;
The Origin of Nations, 1877; History of Ancient Egypt, 1881;
Egypt and Babylon, 1885; History of Phoenicia, 1889; Parlhia,
1893; Memoir of Major-General Sir H. C. Rawlinson, 1898.
He was a contributor to the Speaker's Commentary, the Pulpit
Commentary, Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, and various similar
publications; and he was the author of the article " Herodotus "
in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. He died on the 7th of
October 1902.
RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE (1810-1895),
English soldier and orientalist, was born at Chadlington, Oxford-
shire, on the nth of April 1810. In 1827 he went to India as
cadet under the East India Company; and after six years' life
with his regiment as subaltern, during which time he had
become proficient in the Persian language, he was sent to Persia
in company with some other English officers to drill and
reorganize the Shah's troops. It was at this time that he was
first attracted to the study of inscriptions, more particularly
those in the hitherto undeciphered cuneiform character. In
the course of the two years during which he was in its immediate
neighbourhood he transcribed as much as he was able of the
great cuneiform inscription at Behistun (q.v.); but the friction
between the Persian court and the British government ended in
the departure of the British officers.
He was appointed political agent at Kandahar in 1840. In
that capacity he served for three years, his political labours
being as meritorious as was his gallantry during various engage-
ments in the course of the Afghan War; for these he was rewarded
by the distinction of C.B. in 1844. A fortunate chance, by which
RAWLINSON, R. RAWMARSH
he became personally known to the governor-general, led to his
being appointed, at his own desire, as political agent in Turkish
Arabia; thus he was enabled to settle in Bagdad, where he
devoted much time to the cuneiform studies which attracted
him. He was now able, under considerable difficulties and
with no small personal risk, to make a complete transcript of the
Behistun inscription, which he was also successful in deciphering
and interpreting. Having collected a large amount of invaluable
information on this and kindred topics, in addition to much
geographical knowledge gained in the prosecution of various
explorations (including visits with Layard to the ruins of
Nineveh), he returned to England on leave of absence in 1849.
He remained at home for two years, published in 1851 his
memoir on the Behistun inscription, and was promoted to the
rank of lieutenant-colonel. He disposed of his valuable collec-
tion of Babylonian, Sabaean, and Sassanian antiquities to the
trustees of the British Museum, who also made him a consider-
able grant to enable him to carry on the Assyrian and Babylonian
excavations initiated by Layard. In 1851 he returned to
Bagdad. The excavations were carried on under his direction
with valuable results, among the most important being the
discovery of material that greatly contributed to the final
decipherment and interpretation of the cuneiform character.
An accident with which he met in 1855 hastened his determina-
tion to return to England, and in that year he resigned his
post in the East India Company. On his return to England the
distinction of K.C.B. was conferred upon him, and he was
appointed a crown director of the East India Company. The
remaining forty years of his life were full of activity political,
diplomatic, and scientific and were mainly spent in London.
In 1858 he was appointed a member of the first India Council,
but resigned in 1859 on being sent to Persia as envoy extra-
ordinary and minister plenipotentiary. The latter post he held
only for a year, owing to his dissatisfaction with circumstances
connected with his official position there. Previously he
had sat in Parliament as M.P. for Reigate from February to
September 1858; he sat again as M.P. for Frome, 1865-68. He
was appointed to the Council of India again in 1868, and con-
tinued to serve upon it until his death. He was a strong
advocate of the forward policy in Afghanistan, and counselled
the retention of Kandahar. His views were more particularly
expressed in England and Russia in the East, 1875. He was a
trustee of the British Museum from 1876 till his death. He was
created G.C.B. in 1889, and a Baronet in 1891; was president
of the Geographical Society from 1874 to 1875, and of the
Asiatic Society from 1878 to 1881; and received honorary
degrees at Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh. He married,
in September 1862, Louisa Caroline Harcourt Seymour, who
bore him two sons and died in 1889. He died in London on
the 5th of March 1895. His published works include (apart
from minor contributions to the publications of learned societies)
four volumes of cuneiform inscriptions, published under his
direction between 1870 and 1884 by the trustees of the British
Museum; The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun,
1846-51, and Outline of the History of Assyria, 1852, both re-
printed from the Asiatic Society's journals; A Commentary
on the Cuneiform Inscriptions of Babylon and Assyria, 1850;
Notes on the Early History of Babylonia, 1854; England and
Russia in the East, 1875. He contributed to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica foth edition) the articles on Bagdad, the Euphrates
and Kurdistan, and several other articles dealing with the East;
and assisted in editing a translation of Herodotus by his brother,
Canon George Rawlinson.
See G. Rawlinson, Memoir of Henry Creswicke Rawlinson (1898).
RAWLINSON, RICHARD (1690-1755), English antiquary
and divine, was a younger son of Sir Thomas Rawlinson (1647-
1708), lord mayor of London in 1705-6, and a brother of Thomas
Rawlinson (1681-1725), the bibliophile. Born on the 3rd of
January 1690, he was educated at St Paul's school, at Eton,
and at St John's College, Oxford. In 1716 he was ordained,
but as he was a nonjuror and a Jacobite the ceremony was per-
formed by a nonjurinR bishop, Jeremy Collier. Rawlinson then
xxii. 30
929
travelled in England and on the continent of Europe, where he
passed several years, making collections of manuscripts, coins
and curiosities. In 1728 he became a bishop among the non-
jurors, but he hardly ever appears to have discharged episcopal
functions, preferring to pass his time in collecting books and
manuscripts, pictures and curiosities. He died at Islington
on the 6th of April 1755. Rawlinson left his manuscripts, his
curiosities, and some other property to the Bodleian Library;
he endowed a professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, and was
a benefactor to St John's College.
RAWLINSON, SIR ROBERT (1810-1898), English engineer
and sanitarian, was born at Bristol on the 28th of February
1810. His father was a mason and builder at Chorley, Lanca-
shire, and he himself began his engineering education by working
in a stonemason's yard. In 1831 he obtained employment
under Jesse Hartley in the engineer's office at the Liverpool
docks, and for four years from 1836 he was engaged under
Robert Stephenson as assistant resident engineer for the Blis-
worth section of what is now the London & North-Western
main line from London to the North. Returning to Liverpool,
he spent some years as assistant-surveyor to the corporation,
and then in 1844 accepted an engineering post on the Bridgewater
Canal. Three years later he returned to Liverpool, to super-
intend the design and construction of the famous brick-arched
ceiling in the St George's Hall, in succession to his friend
H. L. Elmes. During this period Rawlinson's reputation as a
sanitarian had been growing, and when the Public Health Act
was passed in 1848 he was appointed one of the first inspectors
under it. He inspected many of the chief towns of England,
and his reports on the sanitary conditions he found brought
him in many cases into great unpopularity with the municipal
rulers. Early in 1855 popular feeling was so aroused by the
waste of life that was going on among the British troops in the
Crimea through disease, and by the mismanagement of the
campaign, that the Aberdeen ministry was forced to resign.
Lord Palmerston, who then became prime minister, sent a
sanitary commission, consisting of Rawlinson and two medical
members (Dr John Sutherland and Dr H. Gavin), with full
powers from the War Office, to do whatever it thought would
lead to better hygienic conditions in camp and hospital. The
commission reached Constantinople in March, and, by insisting
on what now seem the most obvious precautions, succeeded
within a few weeks in reducing the death-rate in the Levantine
hospitals from 42 to 2|%. Passing on to the Crimea, it
effected a similar improvement there, and by the end of the year
the health of the whole British army in the field was even better
than it enjoyed at home. Rawlinson's next great public service,
for which he was made C.B. in 1865, was in connexion with the
distress caused in Lancashire by 'the collapse of the cotton-
manufacturing industry consequent on the American Civil War.
In 1863 it was suggested that, in order to provide employment
for the starving operatives, the government should start works
of " utility, profit and ornament," and Rawlinson being sent
to make an official investigation into the question, reported,
after visiting nearly 100 towns, that ij million sterling might
be advantageously expended in providing water-supply and
drainage, forming streets, &c., in those places. The result was
that the Treasury was authorized to advance 1,200,000 the
amount was afterwards increased) at 3!% for carrying out
such works, which proved of enormous public benefit. In
1866 he acted as chairman of the Royal Commission on the
Pollution of Rivers, and a few years later was appointed
chief engineering inspector to the Local Government Board;
on retiring from this position in 1888 he was promoted to
be K.C.B. In 1894 he served as president of the Institution
of Civil Engineers. He died in London on the 3ist of May
1898.
RAWMARSH, an urban district in the Rotherham parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
7i m. N.E. of Sheffield by the Midland railway. Pop. (1891)
n.983; (1001) 14,587- It is situated on the ridge of a hill above
the valley of the Don. The church of St Lawrence was rebuilt
930
RAWTENSTALL RAY
in 1839 with the exception of the Norman tower. Rawmarsh
has large iron-works, steel rolling-mills and potteries, and there
are collieries in the neighbourhood. At the time of the Conquest
the manor was granted to Walter d'Eyncourt, and in the i2th
century it was divided among the three daughters of his tenant
Ralph Paganel, who is supposed to have been the founder of the
church.
RAWTENSTALL, a municipal borough in the Rossendale
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 175 m. N. by W.
from Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway.
Pop. (1901) 31,053. This town is a modern creation of the
cotton industry; at the beginning of the igth century it was
a secluded village in the wild hilly district of Rossendale Forest.
The cotton and woollen industries employ the majority of the
inhabitants, and there are stone quarries in the neighbourhood.
The town was incorporated in 1891, and the corporation consists
of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 9535 acres.
RAY (Lat. mia). The rays (Baloidei) together with the
sharks (Selachoidei) form the suborder Plagiostomi of Elasmo-
branch fishes, and are divided into six families (see ICHTHYOLOGY).
The first family, Pristidae, contains only the saw-fishes
(Pristis), of which five species are known, from tropical and sub-
tropical seas. They frequent es-
pecially estuaries and river-mouths,
and in some cases make their way
over a hundred miles from the
sea. Although saw-fishes possess
all the essential characteristics of
the rays proper, they retain the
elongate form of the body of
sharks, the tail being excessively
muscular and the sole organ of
locomotion. The " saw " (fig. i)
is a flat prolongation of the snout,
with an endoskeleton which con-
sists of three to five cartilaginous
tubes; these are the rostral pro-
cesses of the cranial cartilage and
are found in all rays, though com-
monly much shorter. The in-
tegument of the saw is hard,
covered with shagreen; and a
series of strong teeth, sharp in
front and flat
behind, are em-
bedded in it, in
alveolar sockets,
on each side.
The saw is a for-
midable weapon
of offence, by
means of which
the fish tears
pieces of flesh
off the body of
its victim, or
rips open its
abdomen to feed
on the intes-
tines. The teeth
proper, with
which the mouth
is armed, are
extremely small
and obtuse, and
unsuitable for
wounding or
seizing animals.
Saw-fishes are
abundant in the
tropics; in their stomachs pieces of intestines and fragments
of cuttle-fish have been found. They grow to a large size,
FIG. i. Pristis perrotleti.
specimens with saws 6 ft. long and i ft. broad at the base being
common.
The rays of the second family, Rhinobatidae, bear a strong
resemblance to the saw-fishes, but lack the saw. Their teeth are
consequently more developed, flat, obtuse, and adapted for
crushing hard-shelled marine animals. There are about twenty
known species, from tropical and subtropical seas.
The third family, Torpedinidae, includes the electric rays.
For the peculiar organ (fig. 2) by which the electricity is pro-
duced, see ICHTHYOLOGY. The fish uses this power voluntarily
either to defend itself or to stun or kill the smaller animals on
FIG. 2. Torpedo narce (Mediterranean). A portion of the skin
on the left side has been removed to show the electric organ.
which it feeds. To receive the shock, the object must complete
the galvanic circuit by communicating with the fish at two
distinct points, either directly or through the medium of some
conducting body. The electric currents created in these fishes
exercise all the other known powers of electricity: they render
the needle magnetic, decompose chemical compounds and emit
the spark. The dorsal surface of the electric organ is positive,
the ventral negative. Shocks from a large healthy fish will
temporarily paralyse the arms of a strong man. The species of
the genus Torpedo are distributed, over the coasts of the Atlantic,
Pacific and Indian Ocean, and at least one reaches the coasts of
Great Britain (T. hebetans). On the west coast of North
America T. californica occurs, while on the Atlantic coast there
is found the black crampfish (T. occidentalis) . This latter is said
to reach a weight of 200 Ib, but such gigantic specimens
are scarce, and prefer sandy ground at some distance from the
shore, where they are not disturbed by the agitation of the
surface-water. Seven genera with about fifteen species have
been described, mostly from the warmer seas. All the rays of
this family have, like electric fishes generally, a smooth and naked
body.
The fourth family, Raiidae, comprises the skates and rays
proper, or Raia. More than thirty species are known, chiefly
from the temperate seas of both hemispheres, but much more
numerously from the northern than the southern. A few species
descend to a depth of nearly 600 fathoms, without, however,
essentially differing from their surface congeners. Rays, as is
indicated by their shape, are bottom-fishes, living on flat sandy
ground, generally at no great distance from the coast or the
surface. They lead a sedentary life, progressing, like the flat-
fishes, by an undulatory motion of the greatly extended pectoral
fins, the thin slender tail having lost the function of an organ of
locomotion, and acting merely as a rudder. They are carnivor-
ous and feed exclusively on molluscs, crustaceans and fishes.
Some of the species possess a much larger and more pointed
snout than the others, and are popularly distinguished as
" skates." The following are known as inhabitants of the
British seas. (a) short-snouted species: (i) the thornback
(R. davata), (2) the homelyn or spotted ray (R. maculata),
(3) the starry ray (R. radiata), (4) the cuckoo or sandy ray
(R. circularis); (b) long-snouted species: (5) the common skate
(R. batis), (6) theflapperskateorjumboskate(/J.ta<;ror/iyn<:Ai),
(7) the burton skate (R. alba), (8) and (9) the shagreen skates
(R. oxyrhynchus and R. fullonica). A few deep-sea species are
known, including R. abyssicola from 1588 fathoms off the coast
of British Columbia. Most of the skates and rays are eaten,
except during the breeding season; and even the young of the
former are esteemed as food. The skates attain to a much
larger size than the rays, viz. to a width of 6 ft. and a weight of
400 and 500 Ib.
The members of the fifth family, Trygonidae or sting-rays, are
distinguished from the rays proper by having the vertical fins
replaced by a strong spine attached to the upper side of the tail.
Some fifty species are known, which inhabit tropical more than
temperate seas, some species being found in great tropical rivers
over 1000 m. from the sea. The spine is barbed on the sides
and is a most effective weapon of defence; by lashing the tail
in every direction the sting-rays can inflict dangerous or at least
extremely painful wounds. The danger arises from the lacerated
nature of the wound rather than from any specially poisonous
property of the mucus inoculated. Generally only one or two
spines are developed. Sting-rays attain to about the same size
as the skates and are eaten on the coasts of the Mediterranean
and elsewhere. One species (Trygon pastinaca) is not rarely
found in the North Atlantic and extends northwards to the
coasts of Ireland, England and Norway.
The rays of the sixth and last family, Myliobatidae, are popu-
larly known under various names, such as " devil-fishes,"
" sea-devils " and " eagle-rays." In them the dilatation of the
body, or rather the development of the pectoral fins, is carried to
an extreme, whilst the tail is very thin and sometimes long like
a whip-cord (fig. 3). Caudal spines are generally present and
RAY, J. 931
perfectly flat molars, adapted for crushing hard substances. In
some of the eagle-rays the molars are large and tessellated (fig. 4),
FIG. 3. Aetdbaiis narinari (Indo- Pacific Ocean).
similar to those of the sting-rays. In the enormous " sea-devils,"
sometimes classed as a separate family (Mobulidae) , the anterior
part of the pectoral fin is detached and forms a " cephalic " lobe
or pair of lobes in front of the snout. The dentition consists of
FIG. 4. Jaws of an Eagle-Ray, Myliobatis aquila.
in others extremely small. Of the twenty-seven species which
are known, from tropical and temperate seas, the majority attain
a very large and some an enormous size: one mentioned by Risso,
which was taken at Messina, weighed 1250 Ib. A foetus taken
from the uterus of the mother (all eagle-rays are viviparous),
captured at Jamaica and preserved in the British Museum, is 5 ft.
broad and weighed 20 Ib. The mother measured 15 ft. in width
and as many in length, and was between 3 and 4 ft. thick. At
Jamaica, where these rays are well known under the name of
" devil-fishes, " they are frequently attacked for sport's sake,
but their capture is uncertain and sometimes attended with
danger. The eagle-ray of the Mediterranean and Atlantic
(Myliobatis aquila) is occasionally found off the British coasts.
(A. C. G.; J. G. K.)
RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-
1705), sometimes called the father of English natural history,
was the son of the blacksmith of Black Notley near Braintree
in Essex, where he was born on the zgth of November 1628,
or, according to other authorities, some months earlier. From
Braintree school he was sent at the age of sixteen to Catharine
Hall, Cambridge, whence he removed to Trinity College after
about one year and three-quarters. His tutor at Trinity was
Dr James Duport (1606-1679), regius professor of Greek, and
his intimate friend and fellow-pupil the celebrated Isaac Barrow.
Ray was chosen minor fellow of Trinity in 1649, and in due
course became a major fellow on proceeding to the master's
degree. He held many college offices, becoming successively
lecturer in Greek (1651), mathematics (i6s3),andhumanity(i655),
praelector (1657), junior dean (1657), and college steward (1659
and 1660); and according to the habit of the time, he was
accustomed to preach in his college chapel and also at Great
St Mary's before the university, long before he took holy orders.
Among his sermons preached before his ordination, which was
not till the 23rd of December 1660, were the famous discourses
on The Wisdom of God in the Creation, and on the Chaos, Deluge
and Dissolution of the World. Ray's reputation was high also
as a tutor; and he communicated his own passion for natural
history to several pupils, of whom Francis Willughby is by far
the most famous.
Ray's quiet college life dosed when he found himself
unable to subscribe to the Act of Uniformity of 1661, and was
obliged to give up his fellowship in 1662, the year after Isaac
Newton had entered the college. We are told by Dr Derham
in his Life of Ray that the reason of his refusal " was not (as
some have imagined) his having taken the ' Solemn League and
Covenant,' for that he never did, and often declared that he
ever thought it an unlawful oath; but he said he could not
declare for those that had taken the oath that no obligation
lay upon them, but feared there might." From this time on-
wards he seems to have depended chiefly on the bounty of his
pupil Willughby, who made Ray his constant companion while
he lived, and at his death left him 60 a year, with the charge of
educating his two sons.
932
RAYAH
In the spring of 1663 Ray started together with Willughby
and two other pupils on a tour through Europe, from which he
returned in March 1666, parting from Willughby at Montpellier,
whence the latter continued his journey into Spain. He had
previously in three different journeys (1658, 1661, 1662)
travelled through the greater part of Great Britain, and selec-
tions from his private notes of these journeys were edited by
George Scott in 1760, under the title of Mr Ray's Itineraries.
Ray himself published an account of his foreign travel in 1673,
entitled Observations topographical, moral, and physiological,
made on a Journey through part of the Low Countries, Germany,
Italy, and France. From this tour Ray and Willughby returned
laden with collections, on which they meant to base complete
systematic descriptions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Willughby undertook the former part, but, dying in 1672, left
only an ornithology and ichthyology, in themselves vast, for
Ray to edit; while the latter used the botanical collections for
the groundwork of his Methodus planlarum nova (1682), and
his great Historia generalis plantarum (3 vols., 1686, 1688,
1704). The plants gathered on his British tours had already
been described in his Catalogus planlarum Angliae (1670), which
work is the basis of all later English floras.
In 1667 Ray was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and
in 1669 he published in conjunction with Willughby his first
paper in the Philosophical Transactions on " Experiments
concerning the Motion of Sap in Trees." They demonstrated
the ascent of the sap through the wood of the tree, and supposed
the sap to " precipitate a kind of white coagulum or jelly,
which may be well conceived to be the part which every year
between bark and tree turns to wood and of which the leaves
and fruits are made." Immediately after his admission into
the Royal Society he was induced by Bishop John Wilkins to
translate his Real Character into Latin, and it seems he actually
completed a translation, which, however, remained in manu-
script; his Methodus plantarum nova was in fact undertaken as
a part of Wilkins's great classificatory scheme.
In 1673 Ray married Margaret Oakley of Launton (Oxford);
in 1676 he went to Sutton Coldfield, and in 1677 to Falborne
Hall in Essex. Finally, in 1679, he removed to Black Notley,
where he afterwards remained. His life there was quiet and
uneventful, but embittered by bodily weakness and chronic
sores. He occupied himself in writing books and in keeping
up a wide scientific correspondence, and lived, in spite of his
infirmities, to the age of seventy-six, dying at Black Notley on
the 1 7th of January 1705. The Ray Society, for the publica-
tion of works on natural history, was founded in his honour in
1844.
Ray's first book, the Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam
nascentium (1660, followed by appendices in 1663 and 1685), was
written in conjunction with his " amicissimus et individuus comes,"
John Nid. The plants, 626 in number, are enumerated alphabeti-
cally, but a system of classification differing little from Caspar
Bauhin's is sketched at the end of the book; and the notes contain
many curious references to other parts of natural history. The
stations of the plants are minutely described; and Cambridge
students still gather some of their rarer plants in the copses or
chalk-pits where he found them. The book shows signs of his
indebtedness to Joachim Jung of Hamburg, who had died in 1657,
leaving his writings unpublished; but a MS. copy of some of them
was sent to Ray by Samuel Hartlib in 1660. Jung invented or gave
precision to many technical terms which Ray and others at once
made use of in their descriptions, and which are now classical ; and
his notions of what constitutes a specific distinction and what
characters are valueless as such seem to have been adopted with
little change by Ray. The first two 'editions of the Catalogus
plantarum Angliae (1670, 1677) were likewise arranged alphabeti-
cally; but in the Synopsis stirpium Britannicarum (1690, 1696,
also re-edited by Dillemus, 1724, and by Hill, 1760) Ray applied
the scheme of classification which he had by that time elaborated
in the Methodus and the Historia plantarum. The Methodus plant-
arum nova (1682) was largely based on the works of Caesalpinus
and Jung, and still more on that of Robert Morison of Oxford. The
greatest merit of this book is the use of the number of cotyledons
as a basis of classification; though it must be remembered that
the difference between the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous
embryo was detected by Nehemiah Grew. After dividing plants
into flowerless and flowering, Ray says, " Floriferas dividemus in
Dicotyledones, quarum semtna sata binis foliis anomalis, seminal-
ibus dictis, quae cotyledonorum ustim praestant, e terra exeunt,
vel in binos saltern lobos dividuntur, quamvis eos supra terrem
foliorum specie non efferunt; et Monocotyledones, quae nee folia
bina seminalia efferunt nee lobos binos condunt. Haec divisio
ad arbores etiam extendi pptest ; siquidem Palmae et congeneres hoc
respectu eodem modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo Monocotyle-
dones a reliquis herbis." But a serious blemish was his persistent
separation of trees from herbs, a distinction whose falsity had been
exposed by Jung and others, but to which Ray tried to give scientific
foundation by denying the existence of buds in the latter. At this
time he based his classification, like Caesalpinus, chiefly upon the
fruit, and he distinguished several natural groups, such as the
grasses, Labiatae, Umbelliferae and Papilionaceae. The classifica-
tion of the Methodus was extended and improved in the Historia
planlarum, but was disfigured by a large class of Anomalae, to include
forms that the other orders did not easily admit, and by the separa-
tion of the cereals from other grasses. This vast book enumerates
and describes all the plants known to the author or described by
his predecessors, to the number, according to Adanson, of 18,625
species. In the first volume a chapter " De plantis in genere "
contains an account of all the anatomical and physiological know-
ledge of the time regarding plants, with the recent speculations
and discoveries of Caesalpinus, Grew, Malpighi and Jung; and
Cuvier and Dupetit Thouars, declaring that it was this chapter
which gave acceptance and authority to these authors' works, say
that " the best monument that could be erected to the memory of
Ray would be the republication of this part of his work separately."
The Stirpium Europaearum extra Britannias nascentium Sylloge
(1694) is a much amplified edition of the catalogue of plants collected
on his own European tour. In the preface to this book he first
clearly admitted the doctrine of the sexuality of plants, which, how-
ever, he had no share in establishing. Here also begins his long
controversy with Rivinus (Augustus Quirinus Bachmann) which
chiefly turned upon Ray's indefensible separation of ligneous from
herbaceous plants, and also upon what he conceived to be the mis-
leading reliance that Rivinus placed on the characters of the corolla.
But in the second edition of his Methodus (1703) he followed Rivinus
and J. P. de Tournefort in taking the flower instead of the fruit as
his basis of classification: he was no longer a fructicist but a
corollist.
Besides editing his friend Willughby's books, Ray wrote several
zoological works of his own, including Synopsis methodica Animalium
Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis (1693), that is to say, both
mammals and reptiles, and Synopsis methodica Avium et Piscium
( I 7'3)i the latter was published posthumously, as was also the
more important Historia Insectorum (1710), which embodied a
great mass of Willughby's notes.
Most of Ray's minor works were the outcome of his faculty for
carefully amassing facts; for instance, his Collection of English
Proverbs (1670), his Collection of Out-of-the-way English Words
(1674), his Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages (1693), and his
Dictionariolum trilingue (1675, 5th edition as Nomenclator classicus,
1706). The last was written for the use of Willughby's sons, his
pupils; it passed through many editions, and is still useful for
its careful identifications of plants and animals mentioned by
Greek and Latin writers. But Ray's influence and reputation
have depended largely upon his two books entitled The Wisdom
of God manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691), and Miscellane-
ous Discourses concerning the Dissolution and Changes of the World
(1692). The latter includes three essays on " The Primitive Chaos
and Creation of the World," " The General Deluge, its Causes
and Effects," and " The Dissolution of the World and Future
Conflagrations." The germ of these works was contained in
sermons preached long before in Cambridge. Both books obtained
immediate popularity, and the former, at least, was translated
into several languages. In The Wisdom of God, &c., Ray recites
innumerable examples of the perfection of organic mechanism,
the multitude and variety of living creatures, the minuteness and
usefulness of their parts, and many, if not most, of the familiar
examples of purposive adaptation and design in nature were
suggested by him, such as the structure of the eye, the hollowness
of the bones, the camel's stomach and the hedgehog's armour.
AUTHORITIES. Select Remains, Itineraries and Life, by Dr
Derham, edited by George Scott, 1740; notice by Sir J. E. Smith
jn Rees's Cyclopaedia; notice by Cuvier and A. Dupetit Thouars
in the Biographie universelle; all these were collected under the
title Memorials of Ray, and edited (with the addition of a complete
catalogue of his works) by Dr Edwin Lankester, 8vo (Ray Society),
1846; Correspondence (with Willughby, Martin Lister, Dr Robinson,
Petiver, Derham, Sir Hans Sloane and others), edited by Dr
Derham, 1718; Selections, with additions, edited by Lankester
(Ray Society), 1848. For accounts of Ray's system of classification,
see Cuvier, Lemons hist. s. Sci. Nat., p. 488; Sprengel, Gesch. d.
Botanik, ii. p. 40; Sachs, Gesch. d. Botanik; also Whewell, Hist.
Ind. Sci., iii. p. 332 (ed. 1847), and Wood, art. " Classification "
in Rees's Cyclopaedia. (D. W. T.)
RAYAH (Arabic ra'iyah, peasants, subjects, flock, herd,
ra'a, to pasture, cf. " ryot," an Indo-Persian variant of the same
word), the name given to the non-Moslem subjects of a
RAYLEIGH, LORD RAYMOND OF SABUNDE
Mahommedan ruler; all who pay the haraj or poll-tax levied
on unbelievers. Five classes of rayahs existed under Turkish
rule, (i) the Greek, or Roum milleti; (2) the Armenian, or
Emeni milleti; (3) the Catholic Armenians eremeni gatoliki
milleti; (4) the Latin Christians, or Roum gatoliki milleti; and
(5) the 'Jews, or ichondi milleti. The name rayah is most
commonly used of the peasants, but it does not apply only to the
agricultural populations. It depended on status, fixed by
religious faith.
RAYLEIGH, JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT, 3 rd baron
(1842- ), English physicist, was born in Essex on the I2th of
November 1842, being the son of the 2nd baron. 1 Going to
Trinity College, Cambridge, he graduated as senior wrangler in
1865, and obtained the first Smith's prize of the year, the second
being gained by Professor Alfred Marshall. He married in
1871 a sister of Mr A. J. Balfour, and succeeded to the title
in 1873. From 1879 to 1884 he was Cavendish professor of
experimental physics in the university of Cambridge, in
succession to Clerk Maxwell; and in 1887 he accepted the post
of professor of natural philosophy at the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, which he resigned in 1905. His early mathe-
matical and physical papers, written under the name of J. W.
Strutt, made him known over Europe; and his powers rapidly
matured until, at the death of Clerk Maxwell, he stood at the
head of British physicists, Sir George Stokes and Lord Kelvin
alone excepted. The special feature of his work is its extreme
accuracy and definiteness; he combines the highest mathe-
matical acumen with refinement of experimental skill, so that
the idea of ranking him as higher in one department than
another does not arise. His experimental investigations are
carried out with plain and usually home-made apparatus, the
accessories being crude and rough, but the essentials thought-
fully designed so as to compass in the simplest and most perfect
manner the special end in view. A great part of his theoretical
work consists in resurveying things supposed superficially to be
already known, and elaborating their theory into precision and
completeness. In this way he has gone over a great portion of
the field of physics, and in many cases has either said the last
word for the time being, or else started new and fruitful develop^
ments. Possessing an immense range of knowledge, he has
filled up lacunae in nearly every part of physics, by experiment,
by calculation, and by clear accurate thought. The following
branches have especially felt his influence: chemical physics,
capillarity and viscosity, theory of gases, flow of liquids, photo-
graphy, optics, colour vision, wave theory, electric and magnetic
problems, electrical measurements, elasticity, sound and
hydrodynamics. The numerous scientific memoirs in which his
original work is set forth were collected under his own editorship
in four large volumes, the last of which was published in 1903.
His most extensive single work is a book on Sound, which, in
the second edition, has become a treatise on vibrations in
general. His familiarity with the methods of mathematical
analysis and a certain refinement of taste in their application
have resulted in great beauty of form. His papers are often
difficult to read, but never diffuse or tedious; his mathematical
treatment is never needlessly abstruse, for when his analysis is
complicated it is only so because the subject-matter is com-
plicated. Of discoveries superficially sensational there are few
or none to record, and the weight of his work is for the most
part to be appreciated only by professed physicists. One
remarkable discovery, however, of general interest, was the
outcome of a long series of delicate weighings and minute
experimental care in the determination of the relative density
of nitrogen gas undertaken in order to determine the atomic
weight of nitrogen namely, the discovery of argon, the first of a
series of new substances, chemically inert, which occur, some
only in excessively minute quantities, as constituents of the
1 The barony was created at George IV.'s coronation in 1821 for
the wife of Joseph Holden Strutt, M.P. for Maldon (1790-1826)
and Okehampton (1826-1830), who had done great service during
the French War as colonel of the Essex militia. He died in 1845,
his wife, the baroness, predeceasing him in 1836. Their son
(d. 1873) was the 2nd baron.
933
earth's atmosphere. Lord Rayleigh had an interest in abnormal
psychological investigations, and became a member and vice-
president of the Society for Psychical Research. He was one of
the original members of the Order of Merit, instituted in con-
nexion with the coronation of King Edward VII. In 1904 he
was awarded a Nobel prize, and at the end of 1905 he became
president of the Royal Society, of which he had been elected
a fellow in 1873, and had acted as secretary from 1885 to 1896.
He remained president till 1908, in which year he was chosen to
succeed the 8th duke of Devonshire as chancellor of Cambridge
University.
For a popular but authentic account of some of Lord Rayleigh's
scientific work and discoveries, see an article by Sir Oliver Lodge
in the National Review for September 1898.
RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869), American journalist,
was born near the village of Lima, Livingston county, New
York, on the 24th of January 1820. He graduated from the
university of Vermont in 1840. After assisting Horace Greeley
(q.v.) in the conduct of more than one newspaper, Raymond in
1851 formed the firm of Raymond, Jones & Co., and the first
issue of the New York Times appeared on the i8th of September
1851; of this journal Raymond was editor and chief proprietor
until his death. Raymond was a member of the New York
Assembly in 1850 and 1851, and in the latter year was speaker.
He supported the views of the radical anti-slavery wing of the
Whig party in the North. His nomination over Greeley on the
Whig ticket for lieutenant-governor in 1834 led to the dissolution
of the famous political " firm " of Seward, Weed and Greeley.
Raymond was elected, and served in 1854-56. He took a
prominent part in the formation of the Republican party, and
drafted the famous " Address to the People " adopted by the
Republican convention which met in Pittsburg on the 22nd of
February 1856. In 1862 he was again a member, and speaker,
of the New York Assembly. During the Civil War he supported
Lincoln's policy in general, though deprecating his delays, and he
was among the first to urge the adoption of a broad and liberal
attitude in dealing with the people of the South. In 1865 he was
a delegate to the National Republican Convention, and was made
a member, and chairman, of the Republican National Committee.
He was a member of the National House of Representatives in
1865-67, and on the 22nd of December 1865 he ably attacked
Thaddeus Stevens's theory of the " dead " states, and, agreeing
with the President, argued that the states were never out of the
Union, inasmuch as the ordinances of secession were null. In
consequence of this, of his prominence in the Loyalist (or
National Union) Convention at Philadelphia in August 1866,
and of his authorship of the " Address and Declaration of
Principles," issued by the convention, he lost favour with his
party. He was removed from the chairmanship of the Re-
publican National Committee in 1866, and in 1867 his nomina-
tion as minister to Austria, which he had already refused, was
rejected by the Senate. He retired from public life in 1867 and
devoted his time to newspaper work until his death in New York
city on the i8th of June 1869. Raymond was an able and
polished public speaker; one of his best known speeches was a
greeting to Kossuth, whose cause he warmly defended. But his
great work was in elevating the style and general tone of
American journalism. He published several books, including a
biography of President Lincoln The Life and Public Services of
Abraham Lincoln (1865), which in substance originally appeared
as A History of the Administration of President Lincoln (1864).
See Augustus Maverick, Henry J. Raymond and the New York
Press for Thirty Years (Hartford, Conn., 1870); and "Extracts
from the Journal of Henry J. Raymond," edited by his son, Henry
H. Raymond, in Scribners' Monthly, vols. xix. and xx. (New York,
1879-80).
RAYMOND OF SABUNDE, or SABIENDE (fl. 1434), Spanish
scholar, was a teacher of medicine and philosophy and finally
regius professor of theology at Toulouse. His Liber naturae sine
creaturarum,&c. (written 1434-36), marks an important stage in
the history of Natural Theology. The book was directed
against the position then generally held, that reason and faith,
934 RAYMUND OF ANTIOCH RAYMUND OF TOULOUSE
philosophy and theology were antithetical and irreconcilable.
Raymond declares that the book of Nature and the Bible are
both Divine revelations, the one general and immediate, the
other specific and mediate. The Edilio Princeps of the book,
which found many imitators, is undated but probably belongs
to 1484; there are many subsequent editions, one by J. F. von
Seidel as late as 1852. In 1595 the Prologus was put on the
Index for its declaration that the Bible is the only source of
revealed truth. Montaigne (Essays, bk. ii. ch. xii., " An Apologie
of Raymond Sebond ") tells how he translated the book into
French and found " the conceits of the author to be excellent,
the contexture of his work well followed, and his project full of
pietie. . . . His drift is bold, and his scope adventurous, for he
undertaketh by humane and naturall reasons, to establish and
verifie all the articles of Christian religion against Atheists."
See D. Beulet, Un Inconnu cetebre: recherches historiques el
critiques sur Raymond de Sabunde (Paris, 1875).
RAYMUND, prince of Antioch (1099-1149), was the son of
William VI., count of Poitou. On the death of Bohemund II. of
Antioch (q.v.), the principality devolved upon his daughter,
Constance, a child of some three years of age (1130). Fulk,
the king of Jerusalem, and, as such, guardian of Antioch, was
concerned to find a husband for her, and sent envoys to England
to offer her hand to Raymund, who was then at the court of
Henry I. Raymund accepted the offer, and stealing in disguise
through southern Italy, for fear of apprehension by Roger of
Sicily, who claimed the inheritance of Antioch as cousin of
Bohemund I., he reached Antioch in 1 135. Here he was married
to Constance by the patriarch, but not until he had done him
homage and fealty. The marriage excited the indignation
of Alice, the mother of Constance, who had been led by the
patriarch to think that it was she whom Raymund desired to
wed; and the new prince had thus to face the enmity of the
princess dowager and her party. In 1137 he had also to face
the advent of the eastern emperor, John Comnenus, who had
come south partly to recover Cilicia from Leo, the prince of
Armenia, but partly, also, to assert his rights over Antioch.
Raymund was forced to do homage, and even to promise to cede
his principality as soon as he was recompensed by a new fief,
which John promised to carve for him in the Mahommedan
territory to the east of Antioch. The expedition of 1138, in
which Raymund joined with John, and which was to conquer
this territory, naturally proved a failure: Raymund was not
anxious to help the emperor to acquire new territories, when
their acquisition only meant for him the loss of Antioch; and
John had to return unsuccessful to Byzantium, after vainly
demanding from Raymund the surrender of the citadel of
Antioch. There followed a struggle between Raymund and the
patriarch. Raymund was annoyed by the homage which he
had been forced to pay to the patriarch in 1135; and the dubious
validity of the patriarch's election offered a handle for opposition.
Eventually Raymund triumphed, and the patriarch was deposed
(1139). In 1142 John Comnenus returned to the attack; but
Raymund refused to recognize or renew his previous submission;
and John, though he ravaged the neighbourhood of Antioch,
was unable to effect anything against him. When, however,
Raymund demanded from Manuel, who had succeeded John in
1143, the cession of some of the Cilician towns, he found that he
had met his match. Manuel forced him to a humiliating visit to
Constantinople, during which he renewed his oath of homage
and promised to receive a Greek patriarch. The last event of
importance in Raymund 's life was the visit to Antioch in 1148 of
Louis VII. and his wife Eleanor, Raymund's niece. Raymund
sought to prevent Louis from going south to Jerusalem, and to
induce him to stay in Antioch and help in the conquest of Aleppo
and Caesarea. Perhaps for this end he acquired an influence
over his niece, which was by some interpreted as a guilty
intimacy. At any rate Louis hastily left Antioch, and Raymund
was balked in his plans. In 1149 he fell in battle during
an expedition against Nureddin. Raymund is described by
William of Tyre (the main authority for his career) as handsome
and affable; pre-eminent in the use of arms and military experi-
ence; litteralorum, licet ipse illileralus esset, ctdtor (he caused the
Chanson des chelifs to be composed); a regular churchman and
a faithful husband; but headstrong, irascible and unreasonable,
with too great a passion for gambling (bk. xiv. c. xxi.).
For his career see Rey, in the Revue de V orient latin, vol. iv.
(E. BR.)
RAYMUND OF TOULOUSE (sometimes also called Raymund of
St Giles, after a town to the south of Nimes), count of Provence,
one of the leaders of the first Crusade. According to an Armenian
authority, he had lost an eye on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem
before the first Crusade; but the statement probably rests on
the fact that he was one-eyed, vir monoculus. He is also re-
corded to have fought against the Moors in Spain before 1096;
and it is certain that he was the first of the princes of the West
to take the cross after Pope Urban's sermon at Clermont. The
oldest and the richest of the crusading princes, the count of
Provence started, at the end of October 1096, with a large com-
pany, which included his wife, his son, and Adhemar, bishop of
Puy, the Papal Legate. His march lay by Ragusa and Scutari
to Durazzo, whence he struck eastward, along the route also
used by Bohemund, to Constantinople. At the end of April
1097 he was with difficulty induced to take a somewhat negative
oath of fealty to Alexius; for the obstinacy which was one of
his characteristics, coupled perhaps with some hope of acquiring
new territories, made him reluctant to submit like the other
crusaders to Alexius. He was present at Nicaea and Dory-
laeum; but he first showed his hand in October 1097, when,
as the army neared Antioch, and a rumour was spread that
Antioch had been deserted by the Turks, he sent a detachment in
advance to occupy the city an action which presaged his
future difficulties with Bohemund, the would-be prince of
Antioch. In the siege of Antioch (which was far from having
been deserted) Raymund played his part. When the city was
taken by Bohemund (June 1098), the count garrisoned the
palatium Cassiani (the palace of the emir, Yagi Sian) and the
tower over the Bridge Gate. He lay ill during the second siege
of Antioch by Kerbogha; but in his camp a great spiritualistic
activity culminated in the discovery of the Holy Lance by the
Provencals. The miracle stimulated the crusaders to defeat
Kerbogha: the Lance itself, discovered by the Provencals and
carried henceforward by their count, became a valuable asset in
Raymund's favour; and he began to put difficulties in the way
of Bohemund 's retention of Antioch, obstinately alleging the
oath to Alexius, and refusing to surrender the positions in the
city which he had occupied. A struggle thus arose between the
Provencals and the Normans, partly with regard to the genuine-
ness of the Lance, which the Normans naturally doubted, and
partly with regard to the possession of Antioch the real issue
at stake. Raymund was the first of the princes to leave Antioch,
moving southward in the autumn of 1098 to the siege of Marra,
but leaving a detachment of his troops in Antioch. With Bohe-
mund left behind in Antioch; with the possession of the Holy
Lance to give him prestige; and with the wealth which he had
at his disposal, the count of Provence now definitely began to
figure as the leader of the Crusade. If he could have consented
to leave Bohemund in possession of Antioch and push south-
ward, he might have achieved much. But he could not stomach
the greatness of Bohemund; and when the Normans turned
his troops out of Antioch in January 1099, he marched from
Marra (which had been captured in December 1098) into the
emirate of Tripoli, and began the siege of Area (February 1099),
evidently with the idea of founding a power in Tripoli which
would check the expansion of Bohemund's principality to the
south. The siege of Area was protracted; and the selfish policy
of the count, which thus deferred the march to Jerusalem,
lost him all support from the mass of the crusaders. A wave of
indignation in the ranks, and the inducements which the emir
of Tripoli offered to the other princes, forced Raymund to desist
from the siege (May 1098), and to march southwards to Jerusa-
lem. After the capture of Jerusalem, Raymund was offered,
but refused, the advocacy of the Holy Sepulchre. He alleged
bis reluctance to rule in the city in which Christ had suffered:
RAYMUND OF TRIPOLI RAYNAL
935
it is perhaps permissible to suspect that he hankered for the
principality of Tripoli and the renewal of hostilities with
Bohemund. As at Antioch, so at Jerusalem, he fell into strife
with the new ruler; and it was only with difficulty that Godfrey
was able to secure from him the possession of the Tower of
David, which he had originally occupied. The grasping nature
of Raymund again appeared after the battle of Ascalon, when
his eagerness to occupy Ascalon for himself prevented it from
being occupied at all; while Godfrey also blamed him for the
failure of his army to capture Arsuf. It almost seems as if the
count could not appear without becoming a centre of storms;
and when he went north, in the winter of 1090-1100, his first
act was one of hostility against Bohemund, from whom he
helped to wrest Laodicea. From Laodicea he went to Con-
stantinople, where he fraternized with Alexius, the great enemy
of his own enemy Bohemund. Joining in the ill-fated Crusade
which followed in the wake of the First, he was successful in
escaping from the deb&de, and returning to Constantinople. In
1 102 he came by sea from Constantinople to Antioch, where he
was imprisoned by Tancred, regent of Antioch during the cap-
tivity of Bohemund, and only dismissed upon promising not
to attempt any conquests in the country between Antioch and
Acre. He broke his promise, attacking and capturing Tortosa,
and beginning to build a castle for the reduction of Tripoli (on
the Mons Peregrinus). In this policy he was aided by Alexius,
who was naturally willing to see the erection of a tributary
county of Tripoli to the south of Bohemund's principality. In
1105 Raymund died. He was succeeded by his nephew William,
who in 1 109, with the aid of Baldwin I., captured the town
and definitely established the county of Tripoli. William was
ousted in the same year by Raymund's eldest son Bertrand;
and the county continued in the possession of his house during
the 1 2th century. 1
Raymund of Toulouse represents the Provencal element in
the first Crusade, as Bohemund represents the Norman, and
Godfrey and Baldwin the Lotharingian. Religiosity, obstinacy
and greed seem curiously blended in his composition. The first
quality appears in the episode of the Lance, and in his renuncia-
tion of the advocacy of Jerusalem: the second appears in the
whole of his attitude to Bohemund: the third appears again
and again, whenever the progress of the Crusades brought any
new conquest. If in temperament he is the least attractive
among the princes of the first Crusade, he was yet one of its
foremost leaders, and he left his mark upon history in the
foundation of the county of Tripoli.
Raymund of Agiles, a clerk in the Provencal army, gives the
history of the first Crusade from his master's point of view. For
a modern account of Count Raymund's part in the crusading
movement, one may refer to Rohricht's works (see CRUSADES).
(E. BR.)
RAYHUND OF TRIPOLI, the most famous of the descendants
of Raymund of Toulouse, was a great-grandson of his eldest son
Bertrand: his mother was Hodierna, a daughter of Baldwin II.,
and through her he was closely connected with the kings of
Jerusalem. He became count of Tripoli in 1152, on the
assassination of his father. In 1164 he was captured by Nur-
eddin, and was only released in 1172 after a captivity of eight
years. In 1 174 he claimed the regency on behalf of Baldwin IV.
(at once a minor and a leper), in virtue of his close relationship;
and the claim was acknowledged. After two years the regency
seems to have passed to Reginald of Chatillon; but Raymund,
who had married the heiress of the county of Tiberias, continued
to figure in the affairs of the kingdom. His great ability pro-
cured him enemies; for two years, 1180-1182, Baldwin IV. was
induced by "evil advisers to exclude him from his territories.
But as Saladin grew more threatening, Raymund grew more
indispensable; and in 1184 he became regent for Baldwin V.,
on condition that, if the king died before his majority, his
successor should be determined by the great powers of the West.
Raymund conducted the regency with skill, securing a truce from
1 For the future history of the county, see under RAYMUND OF
TRIPOLI and BOHEMUND iv.
Saladin in 1185; but when Baldwin V. died, in 1186, all went
wrong. Raymund summoned an assembly of the barons to
Naplous to deliberate on the situation; but while they deliber-
ated, the supporters of Guy de Lusignan (the husband of Baldwin
IV.'s sister, Sibylla) acted, and had him crowned, in defiance
of the stipulation under which Raymund had become regent.
The rest of the barons came over to Guy; and Raymund, left in
isolation, retired to Tiberias and negotiated a truce for himself
with Saladin. His ambiguous position led contemporaries to
accuse him of treasonable correspondence with Saladin; but his
loyalty to the Christian cause was nobly shown in 1187, when
he reconciled himself to Guy, and aided him in the battle of
Hattin, which was engaged, however, in the teeth of his earnest
advice. He escaped from the battle wounded, and ultimately
retired to Tripoli, where he died (1187).
In the corrupt society of the latter days of the kingdom of
Jerusalem, Raymund showed himself at least as disinterested as
any other man, and certainly more capable than the rest of his
contemporaries. He might have saved Jerusalem, if Jerusalem
could have been saved; but his was the vox damanlis in deserto.
" He is worthy of the throne," wrote a contemporary Arabic
chronicler: " he seems destined for it by nature, who has given
him pre-eminent wisdom and courage." (E. BR.)
RAYNAL, GUILLAUME THOMAS FRANCOIS (1713-1796),
French writer, was born at Saint-Geniez in Rouergue on the
i2th of April 1713. He was educated at the Jesuit school of
Pezenas, and received priest's orders, but he was dismissed for
unexplained reasons from the parish of Saint-Sulpice, Paris,
to which he was attached, and thenceforward he devoted
himself to society and literature. The Abbe Raynal wrote for
the Mercure de France, and compiled a series of popular but
superficial works, which he published and sold himself. These
L'Histoire du stathouderal (The Hague, 1748), L'Histoire du
parlement d'Angleterre (London, 1748), Anecdotes hisloriq-ues
(Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1753) gained for him access to the salons
of Mme. Geoffrin, Helvetius, and the baron d'Holbach. He had
the assistance of various members of the phUosophe coteries in
his most important work, L'Histoire philosophiquc et polilique
des ttablissements et du commerce des Europeens dans les deux
Indes (Amsterdam, 4 vols., 1770). Diderot indeed is credited
with a third of this work, which was characterized by Voltaire
as " du rfichauffe avec de la declamation." The other chief
collaborators were Pechmeja, Holbach, Paulze, the farmer-
general of taxes, the Abbe Martin, and Alexandre Deleyre. To
this piecemeal method of composition, in which narrative
alternated with tirades on political and social questions, was
added the further disadvantage of the lack of exact information,
which, owing to the dearth of documents, could only have been
gained by personal investigation. The "philosophic" decla-
mations perhaps constituted its chief interest for the general
public, and its significance as a contribution to democratic
propaganda. The Histoire went through many editions, being
revised and augmented from time to time by Raynal; it was
translated into the principal European languages, and appeared
in various abridgments. Its introduction into France was
forbidden in 1779; the book was burned by the public execu-
tioner, and an order was given for the arrest of the author, whose
name had not appeared in the first edition, but was printed on
the title page of the Geneva edition of 1780. Raynal escaped
to Spa, and thence to Berlin, where he was coolly received by
Frederick the Great, in spite of his connexion with the philosophe
party. At St Petersburg he met with a more cordial reception
from Catherine II., and in 1787 he was permitted to return to
France, though not to Paris. He showed generosity in assigning
a considerable income to be divided annually among the peasant
proprietors of upper Guienne. He was elected by Marseilles to
the States-general, but refused to sit on the score of age. Raynal
now realized the impossibility of a peaceful revolution, and, in
terror of the proceedings for which the writings of himself and
his friends had prepared the way, he sent to the Constituent
Assembly an address, which was read on the 3ist of May 1791,
deprecating the violence of its reforms. This address is said
936
RAYNALD OF CHATILLON RAYNOUARD
by Sainte-Beuve (Nouveaux lundis, xi.) to have been composed
chiefly by Clermont Tonnerre and Pierre V. Malouet, and it was
regarded, even by moderate men, as ill-timed. The published
Lettre de I' abbe Raynal A I' Assemble nationale (loth Dec. 1790)
was really the work of the comte de Guibert. During the Terror
Raynal lived in retirement at Passy and at Montlhery. On
the establishment of the Directory in 1795 he became a member
of the newly organized Institute of France. He died in the
next year on the 6th of March at Chaillot.
A detailed bibliography of his works and of those falsely attributed
to him will be found in Qu^rard's La France litteraire, and the same
author's Supercheries devoilees. The biography by A. Jay, prefixed
to Peuchet's edition (Paris, 10 vols, 1820-1821) of the Histoire . . .
des Indes, is of small value. To this edition Peuchet added two
supplementary volumes on colonial development from 1785 to 1824.
See also the anonymous Raynal demasque (1791) ; Cherhal Montreal,
Eloge . . . de G. T. Raynal (an. IV.); a notice in the Moniteur
(5 vendSmiaire, an. V.); B. Lunet, Biographie de I'abbe Raynal
(Rodez, 1866); and J. Morley, Diderot (1891).
RAYNALD OF CHATILLON (d. 1187), a knight in the service
of Constance, princess of Antioch, whom she chose for her
husband in 1153, four years after the death of her first husband,
Raymund (q.v.). One of Raynald's first acts was a brutal
assault on the patriarch of Antioch; while two years later he
made an unjustifiable attack on Cyprus, in the course of which
the island was ravaged. The act brought its punishment in
1159, when he had to humiliate himself before the emperor
Manuel, doing homage and promising to accept a Greek
patriarch; and when Manuel came to Antioch in the same
year, and was visited there by Baldwin III., Raynald led his
horse into the city. Later in the year he was captured by the
Mahommedans, during a plundering raid against the Syrian
and Armenian peasants of the neighbourhood of Marash, and
confined at Aleppo. His captivity lasted seventeen years.
Released in 1176, he married Stephanie, the widow of Humphrey
of Toron, and heiress of Krak and Mont Royal, to the S.E. of the
Dead Sea fortresses which controlled the trade-routes between
Egypt and Damascus, and gave him access to the Red Sea.
In November 1177, at the head of the army of the kingdom, he
won a victory over Saladin, who only escaped with difficulty
from the pursuit. But in 1181 the temptation of the caravans
which passed by his fortress proved too strong, and in spite of
a truce between Saladin and Baldwin IV. he began to plunder.
Saladin demanded reparations from Baldwin IV. Baldwin
could only reply that he was unable to coerce his unruly vassal.
The result was a new outbreak of war between Saladin and the
Latin kingdom (1182). In the course of the hostilities Raynald
launched ships on the Red Sea, partly for buccaneering, partly,
it seems, with the design of attacking Mecca, and of challenging
Mahommedanism in its own holy place. His ships were
captured by one of Saladin's officers; and at the end of the year
Saladin himself attacked Raynald in his fortress of Krak, at a
time when a number of guests were assembled to celebrate the
marriage of his stepson, Humphrey of Toron. The siege was
raised, however, by Count Raymund of Tripoli; and till 1186
Raynald was quiet. In that year he espoused the cause of
Sibylla and Guy de Lusignan against Count Raymund, and his
influence contributed to the recognition of Guy as king of
Jerusalem. His policy at this crisis was not conceived in the
best interests of the kingdom; and a step which he took at the
end of the year was positively fatal. Hearing of a rich caravan,
in which the sister of Saladin was travelling, he swooped down
from his fortress upon it. Thus, for the second time, he broke
a truce between the kingdom and Saladin. Guy could not
extort from him the satisfaction which Saladin demanded:
Raynald replied that he was lord in his lands, and that he had
no peace with Saladin to respect. Saladin swore that Raynald
should perish if ever he took him prisoner; and next year he
was able to fulfil his oath. He invaded the kingdom, and, at the
battle of Hittin, Raynald along with King Guy and many others
fell into his hands. They were brought to his tent; and Saladin,
after rebuking Raynald strongly for his treachery, offered him
his life if he would become a Mahommedan. He refused, and
Saladin either slew him with his own hands or caused him to be
slain (for accounts differ) in the presence of his companions.
The death of Raynald caused him to be regarded as a martyr;
his life only shows him to have been a brigand of great capacity.
He is the apotheosis of the feudal liberty which the barons of the
Holy Land vindicated for themselves ; and he shows, in his reckless
brigandage, the worst side of their character. Stevenson, Crusades
in the East (Cambridge, 1907), takes a most favourable view of
Raynald's career: cf. especially pp. 240-241. But his whole life
seems to indicate a self-willed and selfish temper. (E. BR.)
RAYNAUD'S DISEASE, a malady first described by P.
Edouard Raynaud in 1862 in a paper on " Local Asphyxia and
Symmetrical Gangrene of the Extremities." The condition is
said to be of central nervous origin, and cold, fright, or emotional
disturbances are predisposing causes. It is a disease of child-
hood or early adult life, and females are more frequently affected
than males. Raynaud attributed the symptoms to an arrest
of the passage of blood to the affected parts, and considered
this due to a spasm of the arterioles. If the spasm be suffi-
ciently prolonged and intense to completely close the arterial
channels gangrene of the part may be the result.
The local symptoms are divided into three well-marked
stages. The first is local syncope, in which the affected parts
become temporarily bloodless, white, cold, and anaesthetic.
The condition is familiar in what is termed a " dead finger,"
and is usually bilateral. After a variable time the circulation
may become restored with a tingling sensation, or the disease
may progress to the second stage, that of local asphyxia. In
this condition some part of the body, usually a finger, toe, or
the whole hand or foot, becomes painful to the touch and is
noticed to be dusky in colour, or bluish-purple or even mottled,
and the surface is cold. This discoloration may deepen until
the skin is almost black, the tactile sense being lost. After
several hours the pain may subside, the attack of lividity pass
off, and warmth return to the skin. Such attacks of local
asphyxia may return every day for a time. Sometimes severe
abdominal pain is present, accompanied by haematuria. The
frequency of haematuria in this connexion was first noticed by
Hutchinson in 1871. In the third stage, that of local gangrene,
the involved areas assume a black and shrivelled appearance,
livid streaks marking the course of the arteries; blebs may
form containing bloody fluid. The degree of destruction varies
from the detachment of a patch of soft tissue down to the loss
of even a whole limb, the part becoming separated by a line of
demarcation as in senile gangrene.
In Raynaud's disease the patients have been noticed to be
very susceptible to cold and low temperatures; every effort
should be made to keep the extremities warm; woollen
underclothing and stockings should be worn, and the activity
of the circulation roused by douches and exercise; by these
means an attack may be prevented. Should local asphyxia
have taken place, one of the best treatments to lessen pain and
obtain the return of the natural colour is the application of the
constant current. Sir T. Barlow directs its application, the
limb being placed in a bath of warm salt and water. Cushing's
method of inducing active hyperaemia has been attended with
much success. This treatment is only applicable when the
vascular spasm affects the extremities, and consists in the
artificial constriction of the limb by the application of a tourni-
quet or Esmarch's bandage for a few minutes daily. This is
followed by hyperaemia and increased surface temperature,
and affords much relief to the pain of the stage of asphyxia.
Drugs which dilate the peripheral vessels, such as amyl nitrite
and trinitrine, have also been recommended. When gangrene
occurs in the affected part it should be well wrapped in absor-
bent cotton and kept dry, and all active treatment should cease
until a line of demarcation has formed and the gangrenous
portion separated. The disease tends towards recovery with
more or less loss of tissue if the stage of gangrene has been
reached.
RAYNOUARD, FRANCOIS JUSTE MARIE (1761-1836),
French dramatist and savant, was born at Brignoles (Provence),
on the 8th of September 1761. He was educated for the bar
RAZGRAD RAZORBILL
937
and practised at ^Draguignan. In 1791 he went to Paris as
deputy to the Legislative Assembly, but after the fall of the
Girondists, to whose party he was attached, he had to go
into hiding. He was, however, discovered and imprisoned in
Paris. During his imprisonment he wrote his play Colon d'Utique
(1794). Eltonore de Bavieres and Les T emptier s were accepted
by the Comedie Francaise- Les Templiers was produced in 1805,
and, in spite of the protests of Geoffroy, had a great success
Raynouard was admitted to the Academy in 1807, and from
1817 to 1826 he was perpetual secretary. He wrote other
plays, in one of which, Les tats de Blots (acted 1810), he gave
offence to Napoleon by his freedom of speech, but, realizing
that the public taste had changed and that the romanticists
were to triumph, he abandoned the stage and gave himself up
to linguistic studies. He was admitted to the Academy of
Inscriptions in 1815. His researches into the Provencal
dialect were somewhat inexact, but his enthusiasm and per-
severance promoted the study of the subject. His chief works
are Choix de poesies originates des troubadours (6 vols., 1816-
1821), of which the sixth volume, Grammaire comparte des
langues de I' Europe latine dans leurs rapports avec la langue des
troubadours (1821), was separately published; Lexique reman
(6 vols., 1838-1844). He spent the last years of his life at
Passy, where he died on the 27th of October 1836.
RAZGRAD, the capital of the department of Razgrad,
Bulgaria, on the river Bieli-Lom, 40 m. S.E. of the Danubian
port of Rustchuk by the Varna-Rustchuk railway. Pop.
(1906) 13,783, about one-third being Moslems. The railway
station is at Inebektchi, 2 m. N. Razgrad possesses a fine
mosque, built by Ibrahim Pasha in 1614. Many Turkish
families emigrated after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, but
since then the population has again increased, and the town
has a thriving agricultural and general trade. Carpet-weaving
and viticulture are important local industries. On the I3th
of June 1810 and the I4th of August 1877 Razgrad was the
scene of battles between the Turks and Russians.
RAZIN, STEPHEN TIMOFEEVICH (d. 1671), Cossack hetman
and rebel, whose parentage and date and place of birth are
unknown. We first hear of him in 1661 on a diplomatic mission
from the Don Cossacks to the Kalmuck Tatars, and in the same
year we meet him on a pilgrimage of a thousand miles to the
great Solovetsky monastery on the White Sea " for the benefit
of his soul." After that all trace of him is lost for six years, when
he reappears as the leader of a robber community established
at Panshinskoe, among the marshes between the rivers Tishina
and Ilovlya, from whence he levied blackmail on all vessels
passing up and down the Volga. His first considerable exploit
was to destroy the " great water caravan " consisting of the
treasury-barges and the barges of the patriarch and the wealthy
merchants of Moscow. He then sailed down the Volga with a
fleet of thirty-five galleys, capturing the more important forts
on his way and devastating the country. At the beginning of
1668 he defeated the voivode Jakov Bezobrazov, sent against
him from Astrakhan, and in the spring embarked on a predatory
expedition into Persia which lasted for eighteen months. Sail-
ing into the Caspian, he ravaged the Persian coasts from Derbend
to Baku, massacred the inhabitants of the great emporium of
Resht, and in the spring of 1669 established himself on the isle
of Suina, off which, in July, he annihilated a Persian fleet sent
against him. Stenka, 1 as he was generally called, had now
become a potentate with whom princes did not disdain to treat.
In August 1669 he reappeared at Astrakhan, and accepted a
fresh offer of pardon from the tsar there; the common people
were fascinated by his adventures. The semi-Asiatic kingdom
of Astrakhan, where the whole atmosphere was predatory and
nine-tenths of the population were nomadic, was the natural
milieu for such a rebellion as Stenka Razin's. In 1670 Razin,
while ostensibly on his way to report himself at the Cossack
headquarters on the Don, openly rebelled against the govern-
ment, captured Cherkask, Tsaritsyn and other places, and on
the 24th of June burst into Astrakhan itself. After massacring
1 Steevy.
all who opposed him, and giving the rich bazaars of the city
over to pillage, he converted Astrakhan into a Cossack republic,
dividing the population into thousands, hundreds and tens, with
their proper officers, all of whom were appointed by a vyecka
or general assembly, whose first act was to proclaim Stephen
Timofeevich their gosudar (sovereign). After a three weeks'
carnival of blood and debauchery Razin quitted Astrakhan with
two hundred barges full of troops to establish the Cossack
republic along the whole length of the Volga, as a preliminary
step towards advancing against Moscow. Saratov and Samara
were captured, but Simbirsk defied all efforts, and after two
bloody encounters close at hand on the banks of the Sviyaga
(October ist and 4th), Razin was ultimately routed and fled
down the Volga, leaving the bulk of his followers to be extirpated
by the victors. But the rebellion was by no means over. The
emissaries of Razin, armed with inflammatory proclamations,
had stirred up the inhabitants of the modern governments of
Nizhniy-Novgorod, Tambov and Penza, and penetrated even so
far as Moscow and Great Novgorod. It was not difficult to
revolt the oppressed population by the promise of deliverance
from their yoke. Razin proclaimed that his object was to root
out the boyars and all officials, to level all ranks and dignities,
and establish Cossackdom, with its corollary of absolute equality,
throughout Muscovy. Even at the beginning of 1671 the issue
of the struggle was doubtful. Eight battles had been fought
before the insurrection showed signs of weakening, and it
continued for six months after Razin had received his quietus.
At Simbirsk his prestige had been shattered. Even his own
settlements at Saratov and Samara refused to open their gates
to him, and the Don Cossacks, hearing that the patriarch of
Moscow had anathematized Stenka, also declared against him.
In 1671 he was captured at Ragalnik, his last fortress, and
carried to Moscow, where, on the 6th of June, after bravely
enduring unspeakable torments, he was quartered alive.
See N. I. Kostomarov, The Rebellion of Stenka Razin (Rus.)
(2nd ed., Petersburg, 1859); S. M. Solovev, History of Russia
(Rus.), vol. ii. (Petersburg, 1895, &c.); R. N. Bain, The First
Romanovs (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)
RAZOR (O.F. rasor, mod. rasoir, from raser, to scrape, rase,
Late Lat. rasare, frequentative of radere, to scrape) , a sharp-edged
cutting instrument, used for shaving the hair and beard. The
typical razor consists of a blade, usually curving slightly back-
ward, folding into a handle, to which it is fastened by a tang and
rivet. The back of the blade is thick and the sides are hollowed
or slope to the fine edge (see CUTLERY). In modern times
various forms of safety-razor have been invented, in which the
blade fits into a fixed handle with a toothed or comb-like shield
which protects the face from cutting.
RAZORBILL, or RAZOR-BILLED AUK, known also on many parts
of the British coasts as the Marrot, Murre, Scout, Tinker or
Willock names which it, however, shares with the GUILLEMOT
(q.v.) and to some extent with the PUFFIN (q.v.) a common
sea-bird of the North Atlantic, 1 resorting in vast numbers to
certain rocky cliffs for the purpose of breeding, and returning
to deeper waters for the rest of the year. It is the Alca torda of
Linnaeus 2 and most modern authors, congeneric with the GARE-
FOWL (q.v.), if not with the true Guillemots, between which two
forms it is intermediate differing -from the former in its small
size and retaining the power of flight, which that extinct species
had lost, and from the latter in its peculiarly-shaped bill, which is
vertically enlarged, compressed, and deeply furrowed, as well as
in its elongated, wedge-shaped tail. A fine white line, running
1 Schlegel (Mus. des Pays-Bos, Urinatores, p. 14) records an
example from Japan ; but this must be in error.
1 The word Alca is simply the Latinized form of this bird's common
Teutonic name, Alk, of which Auk is the English modification.
It must therefore be held to be the type of the Linnaean genus
Alca, though some systematists on indefensible grounds have
removed it thence, making it the sole member of a genus named
by Leach, after Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, bk. xix. chap, xlix.),
ytamaniaa.n extraordinary word, that seems to have originated
in some mistake from the no less extraordinary Vuttamaria, given
by Belon (Observations, i. c. xi.) as the Cretan name of some diving
bird, which could not have been the present species.
RAZZIA READE, CHARLES
on each side from the base of the culmen to the eye, is in the
adult bird in breeding-apparel (with rare exceptions) a further
characteristic. Otherwise the appearance of all these birds may
be briefly described in the same words head, breast and upper
parts generally of a deep glossy black, and the lower parts and tip
of the secondaries of a pure white, while the various changes of
plumage dependent on age or season are alike in all. In habits
the razorbill closely agrees with the true guillemots, laying its
single egg (which is not, however, subject to the same variety of
coloration as in the guillemot) on the ledges of cliffs, but it is said
as a rule to occupy higher elevations, and when not breeding to
keep farther out to sea. On the east side of the Atlantic the
Razorbill has its breeding stations from the North Cape to
Brittany, besides several in the Baltic, while in winter it passes
much farther to the southward, and is sometimes numerous in
the Bay of Gibraltar, occasionally entering the Mediterranean,
but apparently never extending east of Sicily or Malta. On the
west side of the Atlantic it breeds from 70 N. lat. on the eastern
shore of Baffin's Bay to Cape Farewell, and again on the coast
of America from Labrador and Newfoundland to the Bay of
Fundy, while in winter it reaches Long Island. (A. N.)
RAZZIA (an adaptation of the Algerian Arabic ghaziah, from
ghasw, to make war), a foray or raid made by African Moslems.
As used by the Arabs, the word denotes a military expedition
against rebels or infidels, and razzias were made largely for
punishment of hostile tribes or for the capture of slaves. English
writers in the early years of the igth century used the form
ghrazzie, and Dixon Denham in his Travels (1826) styles the
raiding force itself the ghrazzie. The modern English form is
copied from the French, while the Portuguese variant is gazia,
gaziva.
RE, the Egyptian solar god, one of the most important
figures in the Pantheon. See EGYPT, section Egyptian Religion.
R, ILE DE, an island of western France, belonging to the
department of Charente-Inferieure, from the nearest mainland
point of which it is distant about 2 m. The island has an area
of nearly 33 sq. m., with a breadth varying from i to 45 m. and
a length of 15 m. It is separated from the coast of Vendee on
the N. by the Pertuis Breton, some 6 m. broad, and from the
island of Oleron on the S. by the Pertuis D'Antioche, 7 m.
broad. The coast facing the Atlantic is rocky and inhospitable,
but there are numerous harbours on the landward side, of which
the busiest is La Flotte. Towards the north-west extremity of
the island there is a deep indentation, the Fier d'Ars, which leaves
an isthmus only 230 ft. wide, strengthened by a breakwater.
The north coast is fringed by dunes and by the salt-marshes
which are the chief source of livelihood for the inhabitants.
Some of them are employed in fishing, oyster-cultivation and
the collection of seaweed for manure; the island has corn-lands
and vineyards, the latter covering about half its surface, and
produces good figs and pears. Apart from its orchards it is
now woodless, though once covered by forests. There are two
cantons, St Martin (pop. in 1906, 8362) and Ars-en-Re (pop.
4711) forming part of the arrondissement of La Rochelle. St
Martin, the capital, which has a secure harbour and trade in
wine, brandy, salt, &c., was fortified by Vauban in 1681 and used
to be the depdt for convicts on their way to New Caledonia. In
1627 it repulsed an English force after a siege of three months.
READE, CHARLES (1814-1884), English novelist and
dramatist, the son of an Oxfordshire squire, was born at Ipsden,
Oxfordshire, on the 8th of June 1814. He entered Magdalen
College, Oxford, proceeded B.A. in 1835, and became a fellow
of his college. He was subsequently dean of arts, and vice-
president of Magdalen College, taking his degree of D.C.L. in
1847. His name was entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1836; he was
elected Vinerian Fellow in 1842, and was called to the bar in
1843. He kept his fellowship at Magdalen all his life, but after
taking his degree he spent the greater part of his time in London.
He began his literary career as a dramatist, and it was his own
wish that the word " dramatist " should stand first in the
description of his occupations on his tombstone. He was
dramatist first and novelist afterwards, not merely chrono-
logically but in his aims as an author, always having an eye to
stage-effect in scene and situation as well as" in dialogue. His
first comedy, The Ladies' Bailie, appeared at the Olympic
Theatre in May 1851. It was followed by Angela (1851), A
Village Tale (1852), The Lost Husband (1852), and Gold (1853).
But Reade's reputation was made by the two-act comedy,
Masks and Faces, in which he collaborated with Tom Taylor.
It was produced in November 1852, and later was expanded
into three acts. By the advice of the actress, Laura Seymour,
he turned the play into a prose story which appeared in 1853 as
Peg Wojfington. He followed this up in the same year with
Christie Johnstone, a close study of Scottish fisher folk, an
extraordinary tour de force for the son of an English squire,
whether we consider the dialect or the skill with which he enters
into alien habits of thought. In 1854 he produced, in con-
junction with Tom Taylor, Two Loiies and a Life, and The
King's Rival; and, unaided, The Courier of Lyons well known
under its later title, The Lyons Mail and Peregrine Pickle.
In the next year appeared Art, afterwards known as Nance
Oldfield.
He made his name as a novelist in 1856, when he produced
It's Never Too Late to Mend, a novel written with the purpose of
reforming abuses in prison discipline and the treatment of
criminals. He described prison life with a fidelity which
becomes at times tedious and revolting; but the power of the
descriptions was undeniable, and the interest was profound.
The truth of some of his details was challenged, and the novelist
defended himself with vigour against attempts to rebut his
contentions. Five minor novels followed in quick succession,
The Course of True Love never did run Smooth (1857), Jack of
all Trades (1858), The Autobiography of a Thief (1858), Love Me
Little, Love Me Long (1859), and White Lies (1860), dramatized
as The Double Marriage. Then appeared, in 1861, his master-
piece, The Cloister and the Hearth, relating the adventures of
the father of Erasmus. He had dealt with the subject two years
before in a short story in Once a Week, but, seeing its capabilities,
expanded it; and the work is now recognized as one of the
finest historical novels in existence. Returning from the isth
century to modern English life, he next produced another
startling novel with a purpose, Hard Cash (1863), in which he
strove to direct attention to the abuses of private lunatic
asylums. Three more such novels, in two of which at least the
moral purpose, though fully kept in view, was not allowed to
obstruct the flow of incident, were afterwards undertaken,
Foul Play (1869), in which he exposed the iniquities of ship-
knackers, and paved the way for the labours of Samuel Plimsoll;
Put Yourself in his Place (1870), in which he grappled with
the tyrannous outrages of trades-unions; and A Woman-Hater
(1877), in which he exposed the degrading conditions of village
life. The Wandering Heir (1875), of which he also wrote a
version for the stage, was suggested by the Tichborne trial.
Outside the line of these moral and occasional works Reade
produced three elaborate studies of character, Griffith Gaunt
(1866), A Terrible Temptation (1871), A Simpleton (1873). The
first of these was in his own opinion the best of his novels, and
his own opinion was probably right. He was wrong, however,
in his own conception of his powers as a dramatist. At intervals
throughout his literary career he sought to gratify his dramatic
ambition, hiring a theatre and engaging a company for the
representation of his own plays. An example of his persistency
was seen in the case of Foul Play. He wrote this in 1869 in
combination with Mr Dion Boucicault with a view to stage
adaptation. The play was more or less a failure; but he
produced another version alone in 1877, under the title of A
Scuttled Ship, and the failure was pronounced. His greatest
success as a dramatist attended his last attempt Drink an
adaptation of Zola's L'Assommoir, produced in 1879. In that
year his friend Laura Seymour, who had kept house for him
since 1854, died. Reade's health failed from that time, and he
died on the nth of April 1884, leaving behind him a completed
novel, A Perilous Secret, which showed no falling off in the arts
of weaving a complicated plot and devising thrilling situations.
READING
939
Reade was an amateur of the violin, and among his works
is an essay on Cremona violins with the title, A Lost Art
Revived.
It was characteristic of Reade's open and combative nature
that he admitted the public freely to the secrets of his method
of composition. He spoke about his method in his prefaces;
he introduced himself into one of his novels " Dr Rolfe " in A
Terrible Temptation; and by his will he left his workshop and his
accumulation of materials open for inspection for two years after
his death. He had collected an enormous mass of materials for
his study of human nature, from personal observation, from
newspapers, books of travel, blue-books of commissions of
inquiry, from miscellaneous reading. This vast collection was
classified and arranged in huge ledgers and notebooks. He had
planned a great work on " the wisdom and folly of nations,"
dealing with social, political and domestic details, and it was
chiefly for this that his collection was destined, but in passing
he found the materials useful as a store of incidents and sugges-
tions. A collector of the kind was bound to be systematic,
otherwise his collection would have fallen into confusion, and
Reade's collection contains many curiosities in classification
and tabulation. On the value of this method for his art there
has been much discussion, the prevalent opinion being that his
imagination was overwhelmed and stifled by it. He himself
maintained the contrary; and it must be admitted that a priori
critics have not rightly understood the use that he made of his
laboriously collected facts. He did not merely shovel the
contents of his notebooks into his novels; they served rather
as an atmosphere of reality in which he worked, so that his novels
were like pictures painted in the open air. His imagination
worked freely among them and was quickened rather than im-
peded by their suggestions of things suited to the purpose in
hand; and it is probably to his close and constant contact with
facts, acting on an imagination naturally fertile, that we owe
his marvellous abundance of incident. Even in his novels of
character there is no meditative and analytic stagnation; the
development of character is shown through a rapid unceasing
progression of significant facts. This rapidity of movement was
perhaps partly the result of his dramatic studies; it was probably
in writing for the stage that he learned the value of keeping the
attention of his readers incessantly on the alert. The hankering
after stage effect, while it saved him from dullness, often be-
trayed him into rough exaggeration, especially in his comic
scenes. But the gravest defect in his work is a defect of temper.
His view of human life, especially of the life of women, is almost
brutal; his knowledge of frailties and vices is obtruded with
repellent force; and he cannot, with all his skill as a story-teller,
be numbered among the great artists who warm the heart and
help to improve the conduct. But as a moral satirist, which
was the function he professed over and above that of a story-
teller, he did good service, both indirectly in his novels and
directly in his own name.
See Charles L. Reade and Compton Reade, Charles Reade, a
Memoir (2 vols., 1887); A. C. Swinburne, Miscellanies (1886);
and some recollections by John Coleraan, Charles Reade as I knew
him (1903)-
READING, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
and the county town of Berkshire, England, 36 m. W. by S.
of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 72,217.
It is an important junction on the Great Western system, and
has communication southward by a joint line of the South-
western and South-Eastern and Chatham companies. The
Kennet and Avon canal, to Bath and Bristol, and the Thames,
afford it extensive connexions by water. It lies in the flat
valley of the Thames on the south (right) bank, where the
Kennet joins the main river. The population more than
doubled in the last thirty years of the ipth century, and the
town is of modern appearance. All the ancient churches are
much restored and in part rebuilt. Greyfriars church, formerly
monastic, was completed early in the I4th century; and after
the dissolution of the monasteries served successively as a town
hall, a workhouse and a gaol, being restored to its proper use
in 1864. St Mary's is said to have been rebuilt in 1551 from
the remains of a nunnery founded by ./Elfthryth in expiation of
the murder of her stepson Edward the Martyr. St Lawrence's
is a large Perpendicular building, and St Giles's, in various styles,
was much damaged during the siege of the town in 1643 by the
parliamentary forces, and is almost wholly rebuilt. A Bene-
dictine abbey was founded at Reading in 1121 by Henry I., and
became one of the richest in England, with a church among
the largest in the country. Its founder was buried here, but
his monument was destroyed in the time of Edward VI. The
church was the scene of John of Gaunt's marriage to Blanche
of Lancaster in 1359. By Henry VIII. the abbey was converted
into a royal palace, and was so used until its destruction during
the civil wars of the I7th century. Little remains of the founda-
tion; only a gateway and a fragment of the great hall, the
meeting-place of several parliaments, are of importance. The
greater part of the site is occupied by public gardens.
The educational establishments are important. The site of
an ancient hospice of St John is occupied by the University
Extension College. It was opened in 1892, is affiliated to
Oxford University, and has accommodation for 600 students,
of both sexes, giving instruction in every main branch of higher
university education, agriculture, &c. The grammar school,
founded in 1485, occupies modern buildings and ranks among
the lesser public schools. Archbishop Laud was educated here,
and became a generous benefactor of the school. There are also
a blue-coat school (1656), and other charitable schools of early
foundation. The municipal museum, besides an art gallery and
other exhibits, includes a fine collection of Romano-British
relics from Silchester, the famous site not far distant in Hamp-
shire. Besides the public grounds on the site of the abbey there
may be mentioned Prospect Park of 131 acres, purchased by
the Corporation, and Palmer Park, presented by a member
of the firm of Huntley & Palmer, together with extensive
recreation grounds.
The industry for which Reading is chiefly famous is the biscuit
manufacture, the principal establishment for which is that of
Messrs Huntley & Palmer, employing about 5000 hands. In
the town and its vicinity are large seed warehouses and testing-
grounds. There are also iron foundries, engineering works and
factories for agricultural implements, and manufactures of tin
boxes, sauces, velvet and silk, and sacking, together with river-
side boat-building yards. Reading gives title to a suffragan
bishopric in the diocese of Oxford. The parliamentary borough
returns one member. The municipal borough is under a mayor,
10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 5876 acres.
Reading (Redinges, Rading, Redding) early became a place
of importance. In 871 the Danes encamped here between the
Thames and the Kennet, and in 1006 it was burned by Sweyn.
It consisted of only thirty houses at the time of the Domesday
Survey. There is some reason to think that a fortification
existed there before the Conquest, and Stephen probably built a
masonry castle which Henry II. destroyed. On the foundation
of Reading abbey the town, hitherto demesne of the crown, was
granted to the abbey by Henry I. Henceforth, until the i6th
century, the chief feature of its history was the struggle as to
rights and privileges. This was carried on between the abbey
and the merchant gild which claimed to have existed in the time
of the Confessor, and the chief officer of which was from the
15th century styled warder or mayor.
A 16th-century account of the gild merchant shows that many
trades were then carried on, but Leland says the town" chiefly
stondith by clothing." The story of Thomas Cole, written by
Deloney (d. c. 1600) and purporting to refer to the reign of
Henry I., indicates that the industry was carried on at an early
date. Archbishop Laud was the son of a Reading clothier.
By the i7th century the trade was beginning to decline; the
bequest of Kendrich " the Phoenix of worthy Benefactors "
did little to revive it, and it was greatly injured by the Civil War.
In the 1 8th century the chief trade was in malt. The first town
charter is that given by Henry III. (1253) on behalf of the
" burgesses in the Gild Merchant," which was confirmed and
940
READING REAGAN
amplified by succeeding sovereigns. The governing charter
until 1835 was that of Charles I. (1639) incorporating the town
under the title of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses. Reading
returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1885, when it
was deprived of one; until 1832 the Scot-and-Lot franchise
was used. The town surrendered to the parliamentary troops,
after a siege, in 1643; it was occupied subsequently by the
forces of both parties: in 1688 a skirmish took place in the
town between some Irish soldiers of James II. and the troops of
William of Orange. The market, chiefly held on Saturday, can
be traced to the reign of Henry III.; four fairs granted by the
charter of 1562 are still held, that on the 25th of July dating
originally from a grant of Henry II. to Reading abbey.
See C. Coates, History of Reading (1806); Victoria County
History, Berks.
READING, a city and the county-seat of Berks county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, on the
E. bank of the Schuylkill river, and about 58 m. N.W.
of Philadelphia. Pop. (1880) 43,278; (189) 58,661; (1900)
78,961, of whom 5940 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 96,071.
Reading is served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia
& Reading railways, by the Schuylkill Canal, which carries
freight to Philadelphia, and by electric railways to several
villages in Berks county. The city occupies an irregular
tract of land gradually descending from the base of Mt. Penn
westward to the Schuylkill river, and therefore possesses
excellent drainage facilities. The river, which is unnavigable
and winding at this point, forms the western boundary of the
city for more than 4 m., and is spanned by three public bridges
and a number of railway bridges. Neversink Mountain (878 ft.
high), lying to the S. of the city, and Mt. Penn (800 ft.), are
pleasure resorts in the neighbourhood. On the neighbouring
mountains are several summer hotels and sanatoria. Within
the city is Penn Common, containing 50 acres, reserved by the
Penns for the use of the town when it was first laid out, and
since 1878 used as a public park. Mineral Spring Park, con-
taining 63 acres, lies on the outskirts of the city. Other parks
are maintained by the street railway companies. In Penn
Common are a monument erected to the "First Defenders,"
to commemorate the fact that the "Ringgold Light Infantry,"
the first volunteer company to report at Washington for
service in the Civil War, came from this city; a mon-
ument to President McKinley, and one to the volunteer fire
companies of the city. Among interesting landmarks are
the Federal Inn (1763), in which President Washington was
entertained in 1794, and which has been used as a banking
house since 1814; the old county gaol (1770), used as such
until 1848; and the site of the " Hessian Camp," where some
of the prisoners captured during the War of Independence
were confined. Charitable institutions are numerous; among
them are the Reading Hospital (1867), St Joseph's Hospital
(1873), Homoeopathic Hospital (1891), the Home for Widows
and Single Women (1875), the Hope Rescue Mission (1897) for
homeless men, the Home for Friendless Children (1888), St
Catharine's Female Orphan Asylum (1872), St Paul's Orphan
Asylum for Boys, and the House of the Good Shepherd (1889).
Other institutions: are the public library, which from 1808 to
1898 was a subscription library; the Berks County Law
Library; the Berks County Historical Society; and the
Harmonic Maennerchor, organized in 1847 and one of the
oldest singing societies in the United States.
Lying within the rich agricultural region of the Lebanon and
Schuylkill valleys and near vast fields of anthracite coal and
iron ore, Reading possesses unusual business and industrial
advantages. The chief industry is the manufacture of iron
and steel. There are large shops of the Philadelphia &
Reading railway here. The total value of factory products in
1905 was $30,848,175 (in 1900 it had been $32,682,061), and
the most important of these were the products of steel-works
and rolling-mills; the products of railway repair shops;
foundry and machine-shop products; hardware, hosiery and
knitted goods;, cigars and cigarettes, and felt hats. Other
important manufactures are bicycles, brick and other clay
products, brooms, brushes, and cotton and woollen goods.
Reading was surveyed and laid out as a town in 1748, in
accordance with the plans of Thomas and Richard Penn, sons
of William Penn, and was named Reading after the county
town of Berkshire, England. The first settlers were mostly
Germans, but the direction of municipal affairs until the out-
break of the War of Independence was in the hands of the
English-speaking inhabitants. As the latter were largely of
Loyalist sympathies during the war, the control of the local
government then fell into the hands of the German inhabitants.
German was long used in Reading; Pennsylvania German (or
" Dutch ") is still spoken in the surrounding country; and
several German periodicals are published in the city, including
among them the weekly Adler since 1796. During the War of
Independence Reading was an inland dep6t for supplies for
the American army, and prisoners of war were sent here in
large numbers. -The development of the town dates from the
opening in 1824 of the Schuylkill Canal, from Reading to
Philadelphia. This was followed in 1828 by the Union Canal,
running westward to Lebanon and Middletown, and in 1838
by the entrance into Reading of the Philadelphia & Reading
railway. The estabh'shment.of these means of communication
hastened the development of the natural resources of the
region, and Reading early became an industrial centre. A
system of water- works, established in 1821, was acquired by
the municipality in 1865. Reading was incorporated as a
borough in 1783, and was chartered as a city in 1847.
See M. L. Montgomery, History of Reading, Pennsylvania, and the
Anniversary Proceedings of the Sesqui- Centennial (Reading, 1898).
READING BEDS, in geology, a series of marine and estuarine
beds consisting of variegated plastic clays and bright-coloured
sands, which form, with the Woolwich beds, a subdivision of
the Lower Eocene (see WOOLWICH AND READING BEDS).
READYMONEY, SIR COWASJI JEHANGIR (1812-1878),
" the Peabody of Bombay." Early in the i8th century three
Parsee brothers moved from Nowsari, near Surat, in Gujarat,
to Bombay, and became the pioneers of a lucrative trade with
China. They gained the sobriquet of " Readymoney," which
they adopted as a surname. Only Hirji Jewanji Readymoney
left issue, two daughters, the elder of whom married a Banaji,
and the younger a Dady Sett. The son of the former, Jehangir
Hirji, married Mirbae, the daughter of the latter, and was
made the heir not only of his grandfather, but of his two grand-
uncles. The younger of their two sons was Cowasji Jehangir.
His only English education was at the then well-known school
kept by Serjeant Sykes in the Fort of Bombay. At the age of
15 he entered the firm of Duncan, Gibb & Co. as " godown
keeper," or warehouse clerk. In 1837 he was promoted to
the responsible and lucrative appointment of " guarantee
broker " to two of the leading European firms of Bombay. In
1846 he was able to begin trading on his own account. He was
made a J.P. for the town and island of Bombay, and a member
of the board of conservancy; and in 1866 was appointed a
commissioner of income tax, his tactful management being
largely responsible for the fact that this tax, then new to Bombay
and unpopular, was levied with unexpected financial success.
He was made C.S.I, in 1871; and in 1872 he was created a
Knight Bachelor of the United Kingdom, and his statue, by
T. Woolner, R. A., was erected in the town hall. His donations
to the institutions of Bombay amounted to close on 200,000.
His health broke down in 1871, and he died in 1878, being
succeeded by his son, Sir J. Cowasji Jehangir [Readymoney],
who was created a Knight Bachelor in 1895, and a Baronet in
1908.
See J. Cowasji Jehangir, Sir Cowasji Jehangir Readymoney (1890).
(M. M. BH.)
REAGAN, JOHN HENNINGER (1818-1905), American
politician, was born in Sevier county, Tennessee, on the 8th of
October 1818. He removed to Texas in 1839, was deputy
surveyor of public lands in 1839-1843, was admitted to the bar
in 1846, was a member of the state House of Representatives
REALGAR REAL PROPERTY
941
.n 1847-1848, served as district judge in 1852-1857, and in
1857-1861 was a representative in Congress. His political
views were determined by the ultra-democratic influence of
Andrew Jackson and the state-sovereignty philosophy of John
C. Calhoun. In 1861 he was a member of the Texas secession
convention, served in the Confederate provisional Congress,
and on the 6th of March was appointed postmaster-general in
President Davis's cabinet. He served in this capacity through-
out the war, and for a short time before its close was also acting
secretary of the treasury. He was captured with the Davis
party on the loth of May 1865, and was imprisoned in Fort
Warren, Boston Harbour, until the following October. While
in prison he wrote the "Fort Warren letter" (August nth),
in which he urged the people of Texas to recognize their defeat,
grant civil rights to the freedmen, and try to conciliate the
North. From 1875 to 1887, when he entered the U.S. Senate,
he was again a representative in Congress, and from 1877 almost
continuously to the close of his service he was chairman of the
Committee on Commerce, in which capacity he had a prominent
part in securing the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act of
1887. He was a member of the state constitutional convention
of 1876. In state politics his sympathies were with the Radicals.
In 1891, believing that his first duty was to his state, he resigned
from the Senate to accept the chairmanship of the newly estab-
lished state railway commission. In 1901 he retired from public
service. From 1899 until his death he was president of the
Texas State Historical Association. He died at his home, near
Palestine, Texas, on the 6th of March 1905.
See his Memoirs; with Special Reference to Secession and the
Civil War (New York, 1906), edited by W. F. McCaleb.
REALGAR, a mineral species consisting of arsenic mono-
sulphide (AsS) and occurring as monoclinic crystals of a bright
red colour. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of
symmetry (r in fig.)- The lustre is resinous, and the streak
has the same colour as the crystals,
namely, orange-red to aurora-red. The
hardness is iJ-2 and the specific gravity
3-55. On exposure to light the crystals
crumble to a yellow powder. The name
realgar is of Arabic origin, and was used
by the alchemists; the substance was
known to Theophrastus under the name
~La.vba.pa.Krj, and to Pliny as Sandaracha.
The mineral usually occurs in association
with the yellow arsenic sulphide, orpi-
ment. Good crystals are found with ores of silver and
lead in the mineral veins of Felsobanya, near Nagy-Banya,
Kapnik-Banya and Nagyag, near DeVa, in Hungary; with
blende in the white crystalline dolomite of the Binnenthal in
Switzerland; and in a bed of sandy clay at Mercur in Utah. It
is deposited by the solfataras near Naples and by the hot springs
of the Yellowstone National Park. Realgar has been used as a
pigment and in pyrotechny for producing a brilliant white fire;
but it is now replaced by the artificially prepared compound.
The other native arsenic sulphide, AsjSj, known as orpiment
(Lat. auripigmentum, meaning "golden paint"), occurs as
foliated masses of a lemon-yellow colour, the foliation being
parallel to a direction of perfect cleavage. It is sectile and
soft (H. = iJ-2), and has a specific gravity 3-4. Distinctly
developed crystals are rare; they have usually been considered
to be orthorhombic and isomorphous with stibnite (SbjSj), but
it is probable that they are really monoclinic. Orpiment is ex-
tensively mined near Julamerk in Asiatic Turkey. (L. J. S.)
REALISM (from Low Lat. reali s, appertaining to res, things,
as opposed to ideas and imaginations), a philosophical term used
in two opposite senses. The older of these is the scholastic
doctrine, traceable back to Socrates, that universals have
a more " real " existence than things. Universals are, in
scholastic language, ante res, in rebus and post res. Behind all
numerous types of chairs there is in the mind the ideal chair of
which particular chairs are mere copies. In the most extreme
form realism denies that anything exists in any sense except
universals. It is opposed to nominalism (q.v.) and concept ualism
(q.v.). For the history of the doctrine, see SCHOLASTICISM.
Realism in this sense has been called " an assertion of the
rights of the subject " (cf. the Protagonean maxim, " Man is
the measure of all things "). The modern application of the
term is to the opposing doctrine that there is a reality apart from
its presentation to co: sciousness. In this sense it is opposed
to idealism (q.v.), whether the purely subjective or that more
comprehensive idealism which makes subject and object
mutually interdependent. In its crude form it is known as
" Natural " or " Naive " Realism. It appears, however, in
more complex forms, e.g. as Ideal Realism (or Real Idealism),
which combines epistemological idealism with realism in meta-
physics. Again, Kant distinguishes " empirical " realism,
which maintains the existence of things in space independent of
consciousness, from " transcendental " realism, which ascribes
absolute reality to time and space.
In literature and art " realism " again is opposed to " ideal-
ism " in various senses. The realist is (i) he who deliberately
declines to select his subjects from the beautiful or harmonious,
and, more especially, describes ugly things and brings out
details of an unsavoury sort; (2) he who deals with individuals,
not types; (3) most properly, he who strives to represent the
facts exactly as they are.
REALM, the dominions of a king, a kingdom. The O.Fr.
reaume (mod. royaume) was the form first adopted in English,
and the modern spelling does not appear fixed till the begin-
ning of the 1 7th century. The word must be referred to a
supposed Med. Lat. regalitnen, from regalis, of or belonging to
a rex, king.
REAL PROPERTY. The land law of England and of countries
whose law is based upon that of England stands in a peculiar
position, which can be understood only by an outline of its
history.
History. Such terms as " fee " or " homage " carry us back
into feudal times. Rights of common and distress are based
upon still older institutions, forming the very basis of primitive
law. The conception of tenure is the fundamental ground of
distinction between real and personal estate, the former only
being strictly entitled to the name of estate (q.v.). The division
into real and personal is coincident to a great extent with that
into immovable and movable, generally used by systems of
law founded on the Roman (see PERSONAL PROPERTY.) That it
is not entirely coincident is due to the influence of the Roman
law itself. The Greeks and the Romans of the republic were
essentially nations of citizens; the Teutons were essentially
a nation of land-folk; the Roman empire bridged the gulf
between the two. It is probable that the English land law
was produced by the action of the policy adopted in the lower
empire, finally developed into feudalism, upon the previously
existing course of Teutonic custom. The distinguishing features
of the Teutonic system were enjoyment in common and the
absence of private ownership, except to a limited extent. The
principal features of the old English land law before the Con-
quest, from which the modern law has developed, were (i) liberty
of alienation, either by will or inter vivos, of such land as could be
alienated, chiefly, if not entirely, bocland, subject always to
the limits fixed by the boc; (2) publicity of transfer by enrolment
in the shire-book or church-book; (3) equal partition of the
estate of a deceased among the sons, and failing sons among
the daughters; (4) cultivation to a great extent by persons
in various degrees of serfdom, owing money or labour rents;
(5) variety of custom, tending to become uniform, through the
application of the same principles in the local courts; (6) sub-
jection of land to the trinoda necessitas, a burden imposed for
the purpose of defence of the realm. The rudiments of the
conceptions of tenure and of the crown as lord paramount were
found in the old English system, and Ixnland was an anticipation
of the limited interests which afterwards became of such import-
ance. 1 The connexion of political privileges with the ownership
1 The name has not remained as in Germany and Denmark.
A fief is still Lehm in Germany, Lehrt in Denmark.
942
REAL PROPERTY
of land is not peculiar to the pre-Conquest or any other period.
It runs through the whole of English history.
The elements of feudalism so far existed in England under the
Anglo-Saxon and Danish kings as to make it easy to introduce
it in full at the Norman Conquest. What the Norman Conquest
did was not to change all at once allodial into feudal tenure, but to
complete the association of territorial with personal dependence
in a state of society already prepared for it. 1 " Nulle terre sans
seigneur " was one of the fundamental axioms of feudalism.
There might be any number of infeudations and subinfeudations
to mesne lords, but the chain of seigniory was complete, depend-
ing in the last resort upon the king as lord paramount. Land
was not owned by free owners owing only necessary militia duties
to the state, but was held of the king by military service of a
more onerous nature. The folkland became the king's land;
the soldier was a landowner instead of the landowner being a
soldier. Free owners tended to become tenants of the lord, the
township to be lost in the manor. 2 The common land became
in law the waste of the manor, its enjoyment resting upon a
presumed grant by the lord. On the other hand, the whole
of England did not become manorial; the conflict between the
township and the manor resulted in a compromise, the result of
which affects English tenure to this day. But it was a com-
promise much to the advantage of the privileged class, for in
England more than in any other country the land law is the law
of the nobility and not of the people. One reason of this is that,
as England was never so completely feudalized as were some of
the European continental states, the burden of feudalism was not
so severely felt, and has led to less agitation for reform.
The land forfeited to the Conqueror was regranted by him to
be held by military service due to the king, not to the mesne
lord as in European continental feudalism. In 1086 at the
council of Salisbury all the landholders swore fealty to the crown.
In the full vigour of feudalism the inhabitants of England were
either free or not free. The free inhabitants held their lands
either by free tenure (liberum tenementum, franktenement) or
by a tenure which was originally that of a non-free inhabitant,
but attached to land in the possession of a free man. Franktene-
ment was either military tenure, called also tenure in knight
service or chivalry (including barony, the highest tenure known
to the law, grand serjeanty and the special forms of escuage,
castle-guard, cornage and others) or socage (including burgage
and petit serjeanty), or frankalmoign (liber a eleemosyna) or
divine service, by which ecclesiastical corporations generally
held their land. 3 The non-free inhabitants were in Domesday
Book servi, cotarii or bordarii, later nativi or villani, the last
name being applied to both free men and serfs. All these were
in a more or less dependent condition. The free tenures all exist
at the present day, though, as will appear later, the military
tenures have shrunk into the unimportant and exceptional
tenure of grand serjeanty. The non-free tenures are to a certain
extent represented by copyhold. The most important difference
between the military and socage tenures was the mode of descent.
Whether or not a feudal benefice was originally hereditary, it had
certainly become so at the time of the Conquest, and it descended
to the eldest son. This applied at once in England to land held
by military service as far as regarded the capital fief. The descent
of socage lands or lands other than the capital fief for some time
followed the old pre-Conquest rule of descent. Thus in the so-
called " Laws of Henry I." the lands other than the capital fief,
and in Glanvill, who wrote in the time of Henry II., socage lands,
if anciently partible (antiquitus divisum), were divided among all
the sons equally. But by the time of Bracton (Henry III.) the
course of descent of lands held by military service had so far
1 " The relation of vassalage, originally personal, became annexed
to the tenure of land " (Palgrave, Rise and Progress of the English
Commonwealth, vol. i. p. 505).
2 It is a disputed point whether the manor organization existed
before the Conquest; but its full development seems to have
been later than that event.
1 Frankalmoign was not always regarded as a distinct tenure.
Thus Littleton ( 118) says that all that is not tenure in chivalry
is tenure in socage.
prevailed that, though it was a question of fact whether the land
was partible or not, if there was no evidence either way descent
to the eldest son was presumed. Relics of the old custom still
remain in the case of gavelkind. The military tenant was sub-
ject to the feudal incidents, from which the tenant in socage
was exempt. These incidents, especially wardship and marriage,
were often oppressive. Alienation of lands by will, except in a
few favoured districts, became impossible; alienation inter
vivos was restrained in one direction in the interests of the heir,
in another in the interests of the lord. At the time of Glanvill
a tenant had a greater power of alienation over land which he had
purchased (terra acquietata) than over land which he had in-
herited. But by the time of Bracton the heir had ceased to have
any interest in either kind of land. The lords were more success-
ful. It was enacted by Magna Carta that a free man should not
give or sell so much of his land as to leave an amount insufficient
to perform his services to his lord. In spite of this provision, the
rights of the lords were continually diminished by subinfeuda-
tion until the passing of the Statute of Quia Emptores. Aliena-
tion by a tenant in chief of the crown without licence was a
ground of forfeiture until i Edw. III. st. 2, c. 12, by which a fine
was substituted. The modes of conveyance at this time were
only two, feoffment with livery of seisin for corporeal heredita-
ments, grant for incorporeal hereditaments. Livery of seisin,
though public, was not officially recorded like the old English
transfer of property. The influence of local custom upon the
land law must have become weakened after the circuits of the
judges of the King's Court were established by Henry II.
Jurisdiction over litigation touching the freehold was taken away
from the lord's courts by 15 Ric. II. c. 12.
The common law as far as it dealt with real estate had in the
main assumed its present aspect by the reign of Henry III. The
changes which have been made since that date have been
chiefly due to the action of equity and legislation, the latter
sometimes interpreted by the courts in a manner very different
from the intention of parliament. The most important influence
of equity has been exercised in mortgage and trusts in the
doctrine of specific performance of contracts concerning real
estate, and in relief from forfeiture for breach of covenant.
History of Real Estate Legislation. The reign of Edward I.
is notable for three leading statutes, all passed in the interests
of the superior lords. The Statute of Mortmain (7 Edw. I.
st. 2, c. 13) is the first of a long series directed against the
acquisition of land by religious and charitable corporations. The
statute De Donis Conditionalibus (13 Edw. I. c. i) forbade
the alienation of estates granted to a man and the heirs of his
body, which before the statute became on the birth of an heir
at once alienable (except in the case of gifts in frankmarriage),
and so the lord lost his escheat. The statute Quia Emptores
(18 Edw. I. c. i) preserved those rights of the lords which were
up to that time subject to be defeated by subinfeudation, by
enacting that in any alienation of lands the alienee should hold
them of the same lord of the fee as the alienor. 4 Since 1290 it
has been impossible to create an estate in fee-simple to be held
of a mesne lord, or to reserve a rent upon a grant of an estate in
fee (unless in the form of a rent-charge), or to create a new
manor. The statute, however, does not bind the crown. The
practical effect of the statute was to make the transfer of land
thenceforward more of a commercial and less of a feudal trans-
action. The writ of elegit was introduced by the Statute of
Westminster II. in 1285 as a creditor's remedy over real estate.
It has, however, been considerably modified by subsequent
legislation. From 1290 to the reign of Henry VIII., there is no
statute of the first importance dealing with real estate. The
reign of Henry VIII., like the reign of Edward I., is signalized
by three acts, the effects of which continue to this day. The
one which has had the most lasting influence in law is the
Statute of Uses, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 (see CONVEYANCING; TRUST).
The Statute of Uses was intended to provide against secrecy of
sales of land, and as a necessary sequel to it an act of the same
4 Tenants in chief of the crown were liable to a fine on alienation
until 12 Car. II. c. 24.
REAL PROPERTY
943
year (27 Hen. VIII. c. 16) enacted that all bargains and sales of
land should be duly enrolled. Bargain and sale was a form of
equitable transfer which had for some purposes superseded the
common law feoffment. It applied only to estates of inheritance
and not to terms of years. The unforeseen effect of 27 Hen. VIII.
c. 16 was to establish as the ordinary form of conveyance until
1841 the conveyance by lease and release. 1 Uses having become
legal estate by the Statute of Uses, and therefore no longer
devisable, 32 Hen. VIII. c. I (explained by 34 & 35 Hen. VIII.
c. 5) was passed to remedy this inconvenience. It is still law
as to wills made before 1838 (see WILL). In the reign of
Elizabeth the acts of 13 Eliz. c. 5 and 27 Eliz. c. 4 avoided
fraudulent conveyances as against all parties and voluntary
conveyances as against subsequent purchasers for valuable
consideration. Early in the reign of Charles II. the act of 1661
(i 2 Car. II. c. 24) turned all the feudal tenures (with the exception
of frankalmoign and grand serjeanty) into tenure by free and
common socage and abolished the feudal incidents. The Statute
of Frauds (29 Car. II. c. 3) contained provisions that certain
leases and assignments, and that all agreements and trusts
relating to land, should be in writing (see FRAUD). The land
registries of Middlesex and Yorkshire date from the reign of
Anne (see LAND REGISTRATION). Devises of land for charitable
purposes were forbidden by the Mortmain Act (9 Geo. II. c. 36).
In the next reign the first general Inclosure Act was passed,
41 Geo. III. c. 109 (see COMMONS). In the reign of William IV.
were passed the Prescription, Limitation and Tithe Commuta-
tion Acts; fines and recoveries were abolished and simpler
modes of conveyance substituted by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 74; and
the laws of inheritance and dower were amended by 3 & 4 Will.
IV. cc. 105, 106. In the reign of Victoria there was a vast mass
of legislation dealing with real estate in almost every conceivable
aspect. At the immediate beginning of the reign stands the
Wills Act. The transfer of real estate was simplified by 8 & 9
Viet. c. 106 and by the Conveyancing Acts of 1881 and 1882.
Additional powers of dealing with settled estates were given by
the Settled Estates Act 1856, later by the Settled Estates Act
1877, and the Settled Land Act 1882. Succession duty was
levied for the first time on freeholds in 1853. The strictness of
the Mortmain Act has been relaxed in favour of gifts and sales
to public institutions of various kinds, such as schools, parks
and museums. The period of limitation was shortened for
most purposes from twenty to twelve years by the Real Property
Limitation Act 1874. Several acts were passed dealing with
the enfranchisement and commutation of copyholds and the
preservation of commons and open spaces. The Naturalization
Act 1870. enabled aliens to hold and transfer land in England.
The Felony Act 1870, abolished forfeiture of real estate on
conviction for felony. The Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883
and 1900, and other acts, gave the tenant of a tenancy within
the acts a general right to compensation for improvements,
substituted a year's notice to quit for the six months' notice
previously necessary, enlarged the tenant's right to fixtures,
and limited the amount of distress. By the Intestate Estates
Act 1884 the law of escheat was extended to incorporeal here-
ditaments and equitable estates. Among other subjects which
have been dealt with by legislation in the igth century may
be mentioned land transfer, registration, mortgage, partition,
excambion, fixtures, taking of land in execution, declaration of
title and apportionment. Hardly a year passes in which the
land law is not altered to a greater or less degree.
Real estate at the present day is either legal or equitable, a
difference resting mainly upon historical grounds. The following
observations apply in general to both kinds of estate. The usual
classification of interests in real estate regards either the extent,
the time or the mode of enjoyment. The division according
to the extent is in the first instance into corporeal and incorporeal
hereditaments, a division based upon the Roman law division of
res into corporales and incorporates, and open to the same objection,
1 From the reign of Edward IV. at latest up to the Fines and
Recoveries Act of 1833 fines and recoveries were also recognized as
a means of conveyance. They are so regarded in the Statute of
Uses.
that it is unscientific as co-ordinating subjects of rights with the
rights themselves.* Corporeal hereditaments, says Blackstone,
" consist of such as affect the senses, such as may be seen and
handled by the body; incorporeal are not the objects of sensation,
can neither _ be seen nor handled, are creatures of the mind, and
exist only in contemplation." Corporeal hereditaments are all
necessarily freehold;* an interest in land less than freehold, such
as a term of years, is personalty only. There was no room for such
an interest in the feudal gradation of tenure; it was regarded as
mere personal contract and was incapable of the incidents of tenure.
By the Conveyancing Act 1881 the residue of a long term of years
could in certain cases be enlarged into the fee-simple. A copyhold
is in strict law only a tenancy at the will of the lord. Estates of
freehold are cither estates for life or in fee (called also estates of
inheritance), the latter being in fee-tail or in fee-simple. An
estate for life may be either for the life of the tenant or for the
life of another person, the latter called an estate pur autre vie. The
former kind of estate includes estates of dower and curtesy. An
estate in fee is called a fee simply, an obvious sign of its feuda)
origin. Estates tail are either general or special, the latter beiny;
in tail male or (rarely) in tail female. There may also be a quasi-
entail of an estate pur autre vie. An estate in fee-simple is th?
largest estate known to English law. Its ordinary incidents are
an oath of fealty (never exacted), escheat, and (in a manor) suit ol
the court baron, and occasionally a small quit-rent and relief. All
these are obviously relics of the once important feudal incidents.
Incorporeal hereditaments consist chiefly, if not wholly, of right*
in alienosolo. They are divided by Joshua Williams (Real Property,
pt. ii.) into (i) reversions, remainders and executory interests,
(2) hereditaments purely incorporeal, the last being either appendant,
appurtenant or in gross. Examples are profits a prendre (such as
rights of common), easements (such as rights of way), 4 seigniories,
advowsons, rents, tithes, titles of honour, offices, franchises.
Before 1845 corporeal hereditaments were said to lie in livery,
incorporeal in grant. But by the Real Property Act 1845 all
corporeal hereditaments are, as regards the conveyance of the
immediate freehold thereof, to be deemed to lie in grant as well
as in livery. With regard to the time of enjoyment, estates are
either in possession or in expectancy that is, in reversion or
remainder or executory interests (see REMAINDER). With regard
to the mode of enjoyment, estates are either joint, in common,
in coparcenary or in severally.
Exceptional Tenures. It has been already stated that there
are still to be found survivals of the old pre-Conquest customary
law. They are found both in the tenure and in the conveyance
of land. The only customs of which judicial notice is taken
are gavelkind (q.v.) and borough-English (q.v.). Any other local
customs, as in manors, must be proved by evidence. The tenures
of frankalmoign and grand serjeanty were specially preserved
by 12 Car. II. c. 24.
Title. This is the name given to the mode of acquisition of
rights over real estate. Title may arise either by alienation,
voluntary or involuntary, or by succession. Voluntary alienation
is either inter yivos or by will. The former branch is practically
synonymous with conveyance, whether by way of sale, settlement,
mortgage or otherwise. As a general rule alienation of real estate
inter vivos must be by deed since 8 & 9 Viet. c. 106. Since that
act a deed of grant has superseded the old forms of feoffment and
lease and release. Considerable alterations in the direction of
shortness and simplicity have been made in the law of transfer of
real estate by the Conveyancing Acts 1881, 1882 and the Land
Transfer Acts 1875 and 1897. The word " grant " is no longer
necessary for a conveyance, nor are the old words of limitation
" heirs ' and " heirs of the body." It is sufficient to use the words
" in fee-simple," " in tail," " in tail male," " in tail female."
Many provisions usually inserted in deeds, such as covenants for
title by a beneficial owner and powers of appointment of new
trustees, obtain statutory sanction. Forms of mortgage, con-
veyance and settlement are appended to the act. The Solicitors'
Remuneration Act 1881 was passed as a necessary sequel to the
Conveyancing Act, and the remuneration of solicitors now stands
upon a different and more satisfactory basis. For acquisition by
will and succession, see WILL; INHERITANCE. Involuntary aliena-
tion is by bankruptcy (q.v.) and by other means of enforcing the
rights of creditors over land, such as distress or execution. It
may also arise by the exercise by the state of its right of eminent
domain for public purposes, as under the Lands Clauses and other
acts.*
1 In spite of this objection the division is adopted by the legisla-
ture ; see, for instance, the Intestate Estates Act 1884.
* In the category of corporeal hereditaments are also included
certain accessories to corporeal hereditaments proper, such as
growing crops, fixtures, title-deeds, &c.
* It should be noticed that an easement in gross cannot exist.
* The right of the state to contribution from land for revenue
purposes and to stamp duties on deeds perhaps falls under this
head. These imposts are really involuntary alienations of part
of the profit of the land.
944
REAM REAPING
Restraints on Alienation. The alienation of real estate may be
subject to almost any conditions, provided that such conditions do
not contravene the law. As a general rule there can be no restric-
tions upon the alienation of an estate in fee-simple; the two ideas
are incompatible. In the case, however, of a married woman a
restraint on anticipation is allowed within certain limits (see
RESTRAINT). In another direction the imposition of a course of
devolution upon property is forbidden by the law against perpetu-
ities (see PERPETUITY), while the accumulation of income is also
forbidden with a few exceptions. Certain persons are by the general
policy of the law disabled from exercising full proprietary rights,
such as convicts, infants and lunatics.
Procedure. In some cases rights attaching to real estate are pro-
tected by peculiar remedies. At an early period it became more
conrenient to try the right to the possession of, rather than the
right to the property in, real estate. Possessory tended to super-
sede proprietary remedies, from their great simplicity and elasticity.
The general mode of trying the right to both property and posses-
sion was from the time of Henry II. the real action, die form called
" writ of right " (after Magna Carta gradually confined to the court
of common pleas) being used to determine the property, that called
" assise of novel disseisin " being the general means by which the
possession was tried. About the reign of Elizabeth the action of
ejectment became the ordinary form of possessory remedy. Real
actions existed until the Real Property Limitation Act 1833, by
which they were finally abolished, with the exception of writ of right of
dower, writ of dower unde nihil habet, quare impedit and ejectment.
Of these quare impedit (q.v.) appears to be the only one now in use.
The assise of novel disseisin, the action of ejectment in both its
original and its reformed stage, and finally the action for the
recovery of land in use since the Judicature Acts are all histori-
cally connected as gradual developments of the possessory action.
There are certain matters affecting real estate over which the
court of chancery formerly had exclusive jurisdiction, in most
cases because the principles on which the court acted had been the
creation of equity. The Judicature Act 1873 assigned to the chancery
division of the high court of justice all causes and matters for
(inter alia) the redemption or foreclosure of mortgages, the raising
of portions or other charges on land, the sale and distribution of
the proceeds of property subject to any lien or charge, the specific
performance of contracts between vendors and purchasers of real
estates, including contracts for leases, the partition or sale of real
estates, and the wardship of infants and the care of infants' estates.
In the case of rent a summary mode of remedy by act of the
creditor still exists (see DISTRESS, RENT).
Ireland. The law of real estate in Ireland is the English law,
which finally superseded the native law in James I.'s reign, as
modified by subsequent legislation. The main difference is in the
law of landlord and tenant, modified by the various land acts
(see IRELAND) and the operation of the Irish Land Commission.
United States. The law of real estate in the United States is the
law of England modified to suit a different state of circumstances.
The main point of difference is that in the United States the
occupiers of land are generally wholly or in part owners, not tenants,
as in England. This is to a great extent the effect of the home-
stead laws (see HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS). The traces
of the feudal origin of the law are, as might be expected, consider-
ably less prominent than in England. Thus estates tail are practically
obsolete; in some states they are specially forbidden by the state
constitutions. The law of descent is the same in real and personal
estate. Manors do not exist, except in the state of New York,
where they were created by the crown in colonial days (Bouvier,
Law Diet., " Manor "). Registration of deeds is general. In some
states forms of deed are prescribed by statute. Conveyancing is
for the most part simpler than in England. The holding of real
estate by religious or charitable corporations is generally restricted
by the act creating them rather than by anything like the English
law of mortmain. Perpetuities are forbidden in most states. The
right of eminent domain is at once acknowledged and limited by the
Constitution of the United States. By art. 5 of the Amendments
private property is not to be taken for public use without just com-
pensation. A similar provision is found in many of the state
constitutions. By an Act of Congress of 9th April 1866, c. 31, all
citizens of the United States have the same right in every state and
Territory as is enjoyed by white citizens thereof to inherit, purchase,
lease, sell, hold and convey real and personal property. In most
states aliens may hold land; but in some states they cannot do
so without becoming naturalized or at least filing in the specified
manner a declaration of intention to become naturalized.
International Law. The law of the place where real estate is
situated (lex loci rei sitae) governs its tenure and transfer. The laws
of England and of the United States are more strict on this point
than the laws of most other countries. They require that the for-
malities of the locus rei sitae must be observed, even if not necessary
to be observed in the place where the contract was made. The lex
loci rei sitae determines what is to be considered real estate. A
foreign court cannot as a general rule pass title to land situated in
another country. The English and United States courts of equity
have to a certain extent avoided the inconvenience which this in-
ability to deal with land out of the jurisdiction sometimes causes
by the use of the theory that equity acts upon the conscience of
the party and not upon the title to the foreign land. Thus in the
leading case of Penn. v. Lord Baltimore in 1750 (l Vesey, 444)
the court of chancery on this ground decreed specific performance
of articles for settling the boundaries of the provinces of Pennsyl-
vania and Maryland. The difficulty always arises that, although
the court professes to act upon the conscience, it must indirectly
act upon the property, and that it cannot carry its decision into
execution without the aid of the local tribunals.
REAM (either through Du. riem, or O.Fr. rayme, reyme, mod.
rame, Med. Lat. risma, from Arabic rizmah, bale or bundle), a
certain quantity of paper, viz. 20 quires containing 24 sheets
each or 480 sheets; a " printer's ream " contains 215 quires or
516 sheets. The word owes its introduction into Europe to the
Moors, who were the originators of the paper manufactured in
Spain. Its original meaning was simply bundle, applied either
to paper or clothes.
REAPING (from O.E. ripan, rypan, probably allied to " ripe,"
mature, i.e. " fit for reaping "; the cognate forms are found in
other languages), the action of cutting ripe grain crops. Till the
invention of the reaping machine, which came into practical use
only about the middle of the igth century, sickles and scythes
were the sole reaping implements. Of the two the sickle is the
more ancient, and indeed there is some reason to conclude that
its use is coeval with the cultivation of grain crops. Among the
remains of the later Stone period in Great Britain and on the
European continent curved flint knives have occasionally been
found, the form of which has led to the suggestion that they were
used as sickles. Sickles of bronze occur quite commonly among
remains of the early inhabitants of Europe. Some of these
are deeply curved hooks, flat on the under side, and with a
strengthening ridge or back on the upper surface, while others
are small curved knives, in form like the ordinary hedge-bill.
Among the ancient Egyptians toothed or serrated sickles of both
bronze and iron were used. Ancient Roman drawings show
that both the scythe and the sickle were known to that people,
and Pliny makes the distinction plain. 1 Although both imple-
ments have lost much of their importance since the general
introduction of mowing and reaping machinery, they are still
used very extensively, especially in those countries like France
where small agricultural holdings prevail. The principal modern
forms are the toothed hook, the scythe book, the Hainault
scythe and the common scythe.
The toothed hook, which was in general use till towards the middle
of the igth century, consisted of a narrow-bladed curved hook, having
on its cutting edge a series of fine close-set serratures cut like file-
teeth, with their edges inclined towards the heft or handle. The
curve is that known to mathematicians as the " cissoid," where
tangents at any point form equal angles with lines drawn to the middle
of the handle: it has been called the "curve of least exertion"
because experience has shown that it tires out the arm of the worker
less than any other curve. Sickles were formerly made of iron
edged with steel; but in recent times they came to be made of
cast steel entirely. Towards the middle of the igth century the
toothed hook was gradually supplanted by the scythe hook or
smooth-edged sickle, a somewhat heavier and broader-bladed
implement, having an ordinary knife edge. Both these implements
were intended for " shearing ' handful by handful, the crop being
held in the left hand and cut with the tool held in the right. A
heavy smooth-edged sickle is used for " bagging " or " clouting,"
an operation in which the hook is struck against the straw, the
left hand being used to gather and carry along the cut swath. The
Hainault scythe is an implement intermediate between the scythe
and the sickle, being worked with one hand, and the motion is
entirely a swinging or bagging one. The implement consists of a
short scythe blade mounted on a vertical handle, and in using it
the reaper collects the grain with a crook, which holds the straw
together till it receives the cutting stroke of the instrument. The
Hainault scythe was extensively used in Belgium. The common hay
scythe consists of a slightly curved broad blade varying in length from
28 to 46 in., mounted on a bent, or sometimes straight, wooden
sned or snathe, to which two handles are attached at such distances
1 " Of the sickle there are two varieties, the Italian, which is the
shorter and can be handled among brushwood, and the two-handed
Gallic sickle, which makes quicker work of it when employed on
their [the Gauls'] extensive domains; for there they cut their grass
only in the middle, and pass over the shorter blades. The Italian
mowers cut with the right hand only " (H. N. xviii. 67).
REAPING
945
as enable the workman, with an easy stoop, to swing the scythe
blade along the ground, the cutting edge being slightly elevated to
keep it clear of the inequalities of the surface. The grain-reaping
scythe is similar, but provided with a cradle or short gathering rake
attached to the heel and following the direction of the blade for
about 12 in. The object of this attachment is to gather the
stalks as they are cut and lay them in regular swaths against
the line of still-standing corn. The reaping scythe, instead of a
long sned, has frequently two helves, the right hand branching
from the left or main helve and the two handles placed about 2 ft.
apart. The best scythe blades are made from rolled sheets of
steel, riveted to a back frame of iron, which gives strength and
rigidity to the blade. On the continent of Europe it is still common
to mould and hammer the whole blade out of a single piece of steel,
but such scythes are difficult to keep keen of edge. There is a great
demand for scythes in Russia, chiefly supplied from the German
empire and Austria. The principal manufacturing centre of scythes
and sickles in the United Kingdom is Sheffield.
It was not until the beginning of the ipth century that any
attempt was made to invent a reaping machine on anything like
the lines that have been adopted since. In 1826 the Rev.
Patrick Bell of Carmylie in Fifeshire brought out the first success-
ful machine. He had worked at the making of it when a young
man on his father's farm, and the principle he adopted, that of a
series of scissors fastened on the " knife-board," was followed
for a long time. There had been many trials during the thirty
or forty years before his time both in this country and in America,
but his invention was the first practical success.
After many modifications, however, the present or recent
form of the common reaper was evolved by C. H. McCormick in
America in 1831. A truck or carriage is carried on two travelling
wheels some 30 to 36 in. high, with spuds or teeth on the
circumference to make them " bite " the ground and thus give
motion to the machinery without skidding; two horses are
yoked in front with a pole between, with martingale and
surcingle belts as part of their harness, to ease the backing of the
machine by the horses; the knife-board is fixed out at right
angles to the side of the carriage and in front, while the knives
consist of a series of triangular " sections " on a bar whkh
travels backwards and forwards in slots in the " fingers," as the
dividing teeth are called. The motion was given to the knives
by a connecting rod and crank driven by suitable gearing from
the truck wheels. The cutting was thus done by a straight
shearing action and not by clipping like scissors as in Bell's
machine.
There were many modifications tried before the favourite
form was ultimately adopted: thus the horses were yoked
behind the truck or carriage of the machine so that they pushed
it before them; a revolving web of cloth was placed behind the
knives so as to deliver the cut corn in a continuous swathe at
the side; revolving " sails " or " rakes " pushed the standing
grain against the knives as the machine advanced some of
which arrangements have been revived in our modern string-
binders and so on.
In the early days from about 1860 to 1870 machines were
fitted with a tilting board behind the cutting bar which caught
the corn as it fell, and it was held there until enough for a sheaf
was gathered, when the load was " tilted " off by a suitable rake
handled by a man who sat and worked the tilting board simul-
taneously with his foot and dropped the corn, to be lifted and
tied into a sheaf by hand afterwards. The same machine was
generally used for mowing (grass) by an interchange of parts,
and the " combined " reaper and mower was in common use in
the 'seventies and 'eighties. Later, various devices were adopted
to do the tilting or sheafing mechanically, and the self end-
delivery and self side-delivery have long been in use whereby
through the adoption of revolving rakes on frames the sheaf-lots
are delivered in sizes ready for tying up by hand. The subse-
quent tying or binding was done variously in different parts of
the country. In the south of England it was customary for
five men to make bands, lift the sheaf-lot, place in the band and
tie, and leave the sheaf lying on the ground to be set up after-
wards, the gang of five being expected to keep up on a reaper
cutting round the four sides of a field. In the north and in
Scotland the cutting was only done on one side at a time, the
machine riding back empty, and three boys made the bands
(" straps "), three women lifted the lots and laid them on the
bands, and three men bound the sheaves and set up in stooks.
Thus three gangs of three each were required to keep a machine
going, and only about five acres per day could be reaped Ln this
way.
FIG. I. The Hornsby String-binder.
The development of the modern binder to reduce all this
labour has been a very gradual process. There was no great
difficulty in cutting the corn and delivering the stuff, but the
tying of it into sheaves was the problem to be solved. As early
as 1858 Marsh in America designed and carried out an arrange-
ment whereby the cut grain crop was caught on revolving webs
of canvas and carried up on to a table, where two men stood
who made bands of its own material and bound it into sheaves
as it fell in front of them, dropping the sheaves off on to' the
ground as made, while the machine travelled along. The
invention of a tying apparatus was the next advance, and in the
'seventies the American firm of Walter A. Wood & Co. brought
out an arrangement for tying the sheaves up with wire. So
slow and expensive had been the process of evolution, however,
that it was reported at the time that the above firm had spent
20,000 in invention and experiment before they had even a
wire-binder fit to put on the market.
Binding with string,
however, was the aim of
all, and it was reserved
for J. F. Appleby, an
English inventor, to hit
on the arrangement now
in use, or whiqh was the
prototype of all the knot-
ters now to be met with
in different varieties of the string-binder throughout the
world.
While the string-binder is now in universal use in Great
Britain, the British Colonies, America and all countries where
farming and farm work are advanced, and hand labour is only
followed where peasant-farming or small fanning obtains, it
must be noted that in certain regions the system of reaping or
harvesting of corn crops has developed a good deal beyond
this. In Australia and some of the hotter districts in the west
of the United States the " stripper " is in use, an implement
which carries long grooved teeth which are passed through the
standing grain crop and strip off the heads, leaving the straw
standing. The heads are passed backwards to a thrashing
(rubbing) arrangement, which separates the corn from the
chobs, chaff, &c., and the grain is sacked up straight away. The
sacks are dropped off the machine as the work proceeds and are
picked up by wagon for transport afterwards. It is a significant
fact that strippers worked by hand, though pushed through
the crop by oxen, were in use on the plains of Gaul in the first
FIG. 2. The Hornsby Knot as tied by
the String-binder.
946
REAR REASON
century of our era, though this system seems to have been lost
sight of till re-invented by the Australians.
Again, in the Western states of America, where the climate
is not hot and dry enough for stripping purposes, the method
followed is to cut the straw as short as possible just below the
heads and these fall on to a travelling canvas and are carried
up into a thrasher and the grain separated and sacked as the
work proceeds. An immense combined implement is used for
this reaping and thrashing purpose, taking a width of up to
40 ft. of crop at a time, and being propelled by a so-horse-power
traction engine running on broad roller- wheels, though smaller
machines pulled by, say, 20 horses are also common. Some-
times the " heading " only is carried out, and the cut heads
carried on a canvas up into a wagon travelled alongside, and
then carted away for subsequent thrashing, the "header" thus
being the form of reaper adopted also in the Western states of
America. In these regions, as in many other places on the
prairies in general, the straw is of no value, and therefore the
whole is set fire to and burned off, thus returning a certain
amount of fertility to the soil in the ashes.
In the normal and ordinary system of reaping with the
string-binder in Great Britain the rule is to " open up " a field
by cutting " roads " round it: that is, a headland or roadway
is mowed by the scythe and tied up by hand. Then the string-
binder is started to cut around and continued till a finish is
made at the centre of the field. Sometimes the crop is partly
lodged and can only be cut on three sides of the field, and the
binder is " slipped " past the fourth side. It is customary in
some parts to yoke three horses to the machine and keep these
at work all day with an interval for the midday meal only, but
a better plan is to allow two men and four horses to each, and
stackyard, where they are built up sheaf by sheaf into round or
oblong stacks: that is, they are stored until required for thrash-
ing or foddering purposes. The drying may be a tedious affair,
and wet weather in harvest time is a national disaster from the
spoiling of the corn, both grain and straw.
The tremendous development in labour-saving in the matter
of reaping the corn crops is well exemplified in a comparison of
harvesting with the hand hook or sickle as compared with the
string-binder. With hand-reaping six men (or women) cut the
corn and laid it on the bands in sheaf-lots: one man came behind
and tied the sheaves and set them up in stocks. Thus a gang of
seven worked together and harvested about two acres per day.
With the binder three or four men handle say twelve or fourteen
acres daily: in other words, there is only one-tenth of the manual
labour required now in reaping that was necessary only a genera-
tion ago, for the string-binder has revolutionized farming as a
whole, and given the nations cheap bread. (P. McC.)
REAR, the back or hind portion of anything, particularly
a military or naval term for that part of a force which is placed
last in order, in opposition to " van." As the last word,
shortened from " van-guard," is an aphetic form of Fr. want, in
front, Lat. ab ante, so " rear " is an aphetic form of " arrear,"
O. Fr. arere, mod. arri&re, Med. Lat. ad retro, to the back, back-
ward. From this word must be distinguished the verb " to
rear," used in two main senses: of a horse, to stand up on its
hind legs, and to raise up or lift, of the construction of a building
or of the breeding and bringing to maturity of domestic or
FIG. 3. American Header and Thrasher.
put one couple on and one couple off for meals and resting
alternately. By this means the binder is kept going con-
tinuously without any stoppage for perhaps 14 hours daily in
fine harvest weather. With a six-feet cutting width an acre per
hour is fair work, but some have exceeded that, especially with
wider cutting widths. A ball of twine weighing 3 to 4 Ib is
the usual requisite per acre for binding the sheaves, and it ought
to be of Manilla hemp: " sizal " fibre (derived from the Ameri-
can agaves and named after the port on the coast of Yucatan)
is not so strong and good, though cheaper. Good twine is de-
sirable, as otherwise frequent breakages leave many sheaves
in a loose state.
The sheaves are dropped off on to the ground as tied, but
some farmers use the " sheaf-carrier," which catches these as
they are shot out from the binding apparatus, and dumps them
in lots of six or so sufficient to make a stook or shock. The
stocking that is, the setting up of the sheaves on end to dry
is a separate operation, and from two to three men can set up an
ordinary good crop as fast as the binder can cut it. In this work
the sheaves are set with their butts wide apart and the heads
leaning against one another like the two legs of the letter A:
a full-sized stook or " threave " is 24 sheaves a relic of the days
when the crop was all hand-reaped by piecework at so much per
threave but in practice now seldom more than 6 sheaves (3
each side) are put to each stook. When sufficiently dried or
" fielded " the sheaves are then carried by cart or wagon to the
other animals, often used also of young children. The O.E.
raran, of which it is the modern representative, is a doublet of
the Scandinavian reisa, which has given English " raise,"
both being causative verb forms of " rise."
REAR VAULT (Fr. arriere voussure), the term in architecture
employed for the vault of the internal hood of a doorway or
window to which a splay has been given on the reveal; some-
times the vaulting surface is terminated by a small rib known
as the scoinson rib (q.v.), and a further development is given
by angle shafts carrying this rib, known as scoinson shafts.
REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison), in philosophy,
the faculty or process of drawing logical inferences. Thus we
speak of man as essentially a rational animal, it being implied
that man differs from all other animals in that he can con-
sciously draw inferences from premises. It is, however,
exceedingly difficult in this respect to draw an absolute dis-
tinction between men and animals, observation of which un-
doubtedly suggests that the latter have a certain power of making
inferences. Between the higher animals and the lower types
of mankind the distinction is so hard to draw that many
psychologists argue that the difference is one of degree rather
than of kind (see also INSTINCT). There can be little doubt,
however, that inference by man differs from that of the brute
creation in respect of self-consciousness, and, though there
can be no doubt that some animals dream, it is difficult to
find evidence for the presence of ideal images in the minds of
REAUMUR REBAB
947
any but the highest animals. In the nature of the case satis-
factory conclusions as to the rationality which may be pre-
dicated of animals are impossible.
The term " reason " is also used in several narrower senses.
Thus reason is opposed to sensation, perception, feeling, desire,
as the faculty (the existence of which is denied by empiricists)
by which fundamental truths are intuitively apprehended.
These fundamental truths are the causes or " reasons " (cipxai)
of all derivative facts. With Kant, reason (Vernunjt) is the
power of synthesizing into unity, by means of comprehensive
principles, the concepts provided by the intellect (Vcrstand).
The reason which gives a priori principles Kant calls " Pure
Reason " (cf. the Kritik der reinen Vernunft), as distinguished
from the " Practical Reason " (praktische Vernunfl) which is
specially concerned with the performance of particular actions.
In formal logic the drawing of inferences (frequently called
" ratiocination," from Lat. ratiocinari, to use the reasoning
faculty) is classified from Aristotle downwards as deductive
(from generals to particulars) and inductive (from particulars
to generals); see LOGIC, INDUCTION, SYLLOGISM. In theology,
reason, as distinguished from faith, is the human intelligence
exercised upon religious truth whether by way of discovery or
by way of explanation. The Limits within which the reason
may be used have been laid down differently in different
churches and periods of thought: on the whole, modern
Christianity, especially in the Protestant churches, tends to
allow to reason a wide field, reserving, however, as the sphere of
faith the ultimate (supernatural) truths of theology.
The Greek words for reason are voOs and M-yos, both vaguely
used. In Aristotle the Xo-yos of a thing is its definition, in-
cluding its formal cause, while the ultimate principles of a
science are opxtu, the " reasons " (in a common modern sense)
which explain all its particular facts. 1 NoOs in Plato and
Aristotle is used both widely for all the meanings which " reason "
can have, and strictly for the faculty which apprehends in-
tuitively. Thus, in the Republic, voDs is the faculty which
apprehends necessary truth, while 56a (opinion) is concerned
with phenomena.
For the Stole and Neoplatonic uses of A6-yos, as also for those
of Philo Judaeus and the Fathers, see LOGOS.
RfiAUMUR, RENfi ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE (1683-1757),
French man of science, was born on the 28th of February 1683
at La Rochelle and received his early education there. He was
taught philosophy in the Jesuits' college at Poitiers, and in
1699 went to Bourges to study civil law and mathematics under
the charge of an uncle, canon of La Sainte-Chapelle. In 1703
he came to Paris, where he continued the study of mathematics
and physics, and in 1708, at the early age of twenty-four, was
elected a member of the Academic des Sciences. From this
time onwards for nearly half a century hardly a year passed in
which the Memoires de I' Academic did not contain at least one
paper by Reaumur. At first his attention was occupied by
mathematical studies, especially in geometry. In 1710 he
was appointed to the charge of a great government work the
official description of the useful arts and manufactures which
led him to many practical researches that resulted in the
establishment of manufactures new to France and the revival
of neglected industries. For discoveries regarding iron and
steel he was awarded a pension of 12,000 livres; but, being
content with his ample private income, he requested that the
money should be secured to the Acaddmie des Sciences for the
furtherance of experiments on improved industrial processes.
In 1731 he became interested in meteorology, and invented
the thermometer scale which bears his name. In 1735 family
arrangements obliged him to aocept the post of commander
and intendant of the royal and military order of Saint-Louis;
he discharged his duties with scrupulous attention, but declined
the emoluments. He took great delight in the systematic
study of natural history. His friends often called him the
1 The Schoolmen's distinction of ratio cugnoscendi (a reason for
acknowledging a fact) and ratio essendi (a reason for the existence
of this fact).
Pliny of the i8th century. He loved retirement and lived
much at his country residences, at one of which, La Bermon-
diere (Maine), he met with a fall from horseback, the effects of
which proved fatal on the ijth of October 1757. He bequeathed
his manuscripts, which filled 138 portfolios, and his natural
history collections to the Academic des Sciences.
Reaumur's scientific papers deal with nearly all branches
of science; his first, in 1708, was on a general problem in
geometry; his last, in 1756, on the forms of birds' nests. He
proved experimentally the fact that the strength of a rope is
less than the sum of the strengths of its separate strands. He
examined and reported on the auriferous rivers, the turquoise
mines, the forests and the fossil beds of France. He devised
the method of tinning iron that is still employed, and investi-
gated the differences between iron and steel, correctly showing
that the amount of carbon (sulphur in the language of the old
chemistry) is greatest in cast iron, less in steel, and least in
wrought iron. His book on this subject (1722) was translated
into English and German. The thermometer by which he is
now best remembered was constructed on the principle of
taking the freezing-point of water as o, and graduating the
tube into degrees each of which was one-thousandth of the
volume contained by the bulb and tube up to the zero mark.
It was an accident dependent on the dilatability of the par-
ticular quality of alcohol employed which made the boiling-
point of water 80; and mercurial thermometers the stems of
which are graduated into eighty equal parts between the freez-
ing- and boiling-points of water are not Reaumur thermometers
in anything but name.
Reaumur wrote much on natural history. Early in life he
described the locomotor system of the Echinodermata, and showed
that the supposed vulgar error of Crustaceans replacing their lost
limbs was an actual fact. In 1710 he wrote a paper on the
possibility of spiders being used to produce silk, which was so
celebrated at the time that the Chinese emperor Kang-he caused
a translation of it to be made. He treated also of botanical and
agricultural matters, and devised processes for preserving birds
and eggs. He elaborated a system of artificial incubation, and
made important observations on the digestion of carnivorous and
graminivorous birds. His greatest work is the Memoires pour
servir d I'histoire des insectes, 6 vols., with 267 plates (Amsterdam,
1734-42). It describes the appearance, habits and locality of all
the known insects except the beetles, and is a marvel of patient
and accurate observation. Among other important facts stated
in this work are the experiments which enabled Reaumur to prove
the correctness of Peyssonel's hypothesis, that corals are animals
and not plants.
REBAB, or RABAB (Persian rubab;* Arabic rabdb, rababa;*
Sp. rant, rabe, 4 rabel, arrabel, arrabilf Fr. rubebe; It. rubeba),
an ancient stringed instrument, having a body either pear-
shaped or boat-shaped and the characteristics of vaulted back
and the absence of neck; also a generic modern Arabic term
applied by the Mahommedans of northern Africa to various
stringed instruments played with a bow.
As the rebab exercised a very considerable influence on the
history of stringed instruments in Europe, and was undoubtedly
the means through which the bow was introduced to the West,
it is necessary to examine its construction before deciding
whether it may be accepted as the ancestor of the violin in
deference to the claim made for it by certain modern writers.'
1 F. Ruckert, Grammatik, Poetik und Rhetorik der Perser, nach
dem 7' Bande des Ileftes Kolzum (Gotha, 1874), p. 80. This
translation of the introduction to the Seven Seas contains a
reference to musical instruments; the one translated Laule (lute)
is rendered in Persian rubdb, a point ascertained through the
courteous assistance of Mr A. G. Ellis, of the Oriental Department,
British Museum.
1 Al-Farabi, loth century, translation into Latin by J. G. Kosc-
garten, Alii Ispahenensis Liber. Cantilenarum . . . arabice editur
adjectaque translatione adnotationibusque (Greifswald, 1840), vol. i.
pp. 36, 41, 105, 109, &c.
4 See poem by Juan Ruiz, archipreste de Hita, I4th century,
from MS. in library of the cathedral at Toledo, quoted by Mariano
Soriano Fuertes, Hist, de la Musita cspanola (Madrid), vol. i. p. 105.
' From the Arabic treatise of Mahamud Ibrain Axalchi, MS.
No. 69, Escorial.
See F. J. Fetis, Antoine Stradivari . . . Prfctdt de recherches
historiques el critiques sur I'origine et les transformations des instru-
REBAB
The two principal forms of rebab with which we are concerned
as prototypes of European instruments of the middle ages are:
(i) the long and narrow boat-shaped rebab, which may be traced
back to Persia in the 8th century B.C., and is still in use in that
country; and (2) the lute-shaped rebab, with rudimentary neck
consisting of the gradual narrowing of the body, which has the
outline of a longitudinal section of a pear. This variety became
very popular in medieval Europe under the names of rebec, gigue,
geige and lyra; the archetype has been traced back to 1000 B.C.
The most characteristic feature in the construction of the rebab,
and of all instruments derived from it, was the body, composed
of a back originally scooped out of a solid piece of wood, to which
was glued without the intermediary of ribs (an important struc-
tural feature of the violin) a flat sound-board of parchment or thin
wood.
The rebab-esh-sha'er, or " poet's rebab," had a body consisting
of an almost rectangular box covered with parchment and sup-
ported on an iron foot; the instrument was held like the modern
violoncello. No evidence has yet been brought forward that the
rebab-esh-sha'er was in use among the Arabs who conquered Spain
in the 8th century; if the instrument was indeed ever introduced
into Spain it has left no trace.
The bowed instruments of the middle ages fall naturally into
two distinct classes, according to the principles observed in con-
struction. One is the type' having a body formed on the model
of a Greek or a Roman cithara, from which it was evolved by
the addition of a neck and finger-board (see GUITAR and GUITAR-
FIDDLE). Instruments of this type were at all times recognized
as superior and belonging to the realm of art, whereas type 2,
derived from the Eastern rebab, never attained to any artistic
development, and at the time when the first type had nearly
reached its apogee the second was placed beyond the pale of art.
According to Al-Farabi, the rebab had either one string, two
strings or four, obtained by doubling these two; they were tuned
most often in minor thirds or in major thirds. 1 The Arab scholar
Ash-Shakandi, who flourished in Spain about A.D. 1200, states
that the rebab had been known for centuries in Spain, but was
not mentioned on account of its want of artistic merit. Juan
Ruiz, archipreste de Hita, in his enumeration* of the musical
instruments in use in his day (l4th century), mentions two rebabs,
and speaks of il rave gritador con su alia nota and U rabe mprisco;
the " shrill rebab " (or rather rebec) " with its high note " is thus
quoted somewhat contemptuously already in the I4th century.
The history of the origin of the rebab had until now not gone
back beyond the 7th century A.D., and has been a matter of con-
jecture founded on the word rubdb or rubab, which is of Persian
origin, and on the statement that the Arabs themselves declare
they obtained the instrument from the Persians. Recent archaeo-
logical discoveries, however, provide abundant evidence of arche-
types of both pear-shaped and boat-shaped rebabs in high antiquity.
We have at present no clue to the name of the archetype, but it
is clear that the el-Oud or lute of the Arabs and the wide pear-
shaped rebab were practically one and the same instrument, until
the advent of the bow, which had probably also been made known
to the Arabs through the Persians, since their word for the bow,
kaman, is borrowed from the Persian, but at what date is unknown.
Al-Farabi does. not mention the bow, 3 and his chapter on the
rabdba does not deal with the construction of the instrument so
much as with the production of sound and the divisions of the
scale.
As far as is known at present, the archetype of the rebab and
lute family is the instrument shown in fig. I. The terra-cotta
figure of the musician discovered in Egypt (1905-^3) by Professor
Flinders Petrie during the course of excavations in the cemetery
of Goshen 4 is Greek work of the post-Mycenaean age; it was
ments A archet (Paris, 1856); Edward Heron Allen, Violin-making
as it was and is (London, 1884); E. J. Payne, article "Violin"
in Grove's Dictionary of Music (ist eel.). See also The Instruments
of the Orchestra (London, 1910), part ii., " Precursors of the Violin
Family," by Kathleen Schlesinger, where the evolution of the violin
is traced from the cithara of the Greeks.
1 See J. P. N. Land's paper, " Recherches sur 1'histoire de la
gamme arabe," VI. Intern. Orient. Congress, part ii. (Leiden, 1884)
(Brit. Mus. press-mark, acad. 8806), p. 130, and also p. 56.
* See Mariano Soriano Fuertes, loc. cit.
1 The copy of Farabi's MS., used for their translations by Kose-
garten and Land, Escorial, No. 911, dates from the middle of the
I2th century. See Michael Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hisp., vol. i. p. 347,
and Forkel, Allgemeine Litteratur der Musik (Leipzig, 1792), p. 487;
also R. G. Kiesewetter, Die Musik der Araber nach Originalquellen
dargestellt (Leipzig, 1842), p. 64 and preface. Another MS. copy
of Al-Farabi, in the Bibliotheca Ambrosiana in Milan, is described
by Hammer von Purgstall in the Bibliotheca Italiana, torn. xciv.
(Milan, 1839), p. 44; cf. preface in Kiesewetter, p. viii.
4 Excavations carried out by the Brit. School of Archaeology
in Egypt and by the Egyptian Research Account. See " Hyksos
and Israelite Cities," by W. M. Flinders Petrie and J. Garrow
Duncan, Mem. Brit. Sch. of Arch., 1906.
found in surroundings assigned to the XXth Dynasty (c.' ipooXc.),
and shows the earliest pear-shaped instrument yet discovered.
This statuette clearly establishes the origin of the instruments
named by some lyra, 1 by others (including the present writer)
rebab or rebec, common all over western Europe from the nth
century, whose main characteristic is an almost entire absence
of neck. Two terra-cotta statuettes of musicians playing upon
ancient Persian rebabs (see fig. 2) have been excavated from the
FIG. i. Prototype of Lute
Pear-shaped Rebab.
1000 B.C. Discovered by
Professor Flinders Petne
in the cemetery at
Goshen.
FIG. 2. Boat-shaped
Rebab. 789 B.C.
FromJ.de Morgan,
Delegation en Perse,
by permission of
Ernest Leroux.
Tell at Suza 6 amongst objects referred to the reign of Shutruk-
Nakhounta, who was king of Elam c. 789 B.C. The pear-shaped
instrument, wide at the base and elongated to form a neck, with
the head bent back at right angles and the strings plucked by
the fingers, the lute of the 6th century A.D., is seen first on a
frieze from Afghanistan, forming one of the risers of steps to the
tope of Jamal-Garhi. These sculptures, preserved at the British
Museum, are assigned to the 2nd or 3rd century, and are said to
show traces of classical influence. The same instrument is found
engraved on a Sassanian silver dish in the British Museum, 7 of
workmanship assigned to a period not later than the 7th century
A.p., but probably earlier, as well as on other dishes of similar
origin; one in the Hermitage, St Petersburg, was found at Irbit
in 1880, on which Eros is depicted playing the lute and riding on a
lion. 8 A third, found at Perm, forms part of Count Stroganov's
collection. 9
Excavations carried out in ancient Khotan 10 or Ilchi (Turkestan,
on the caravan route to Kashgar) have brought to light further
evidence of the ubiquity of the rebab type in Asia. In addition
to the two principal types of rebab (fig. 3) mentioned above there
is also to be found the spoon-shaped instrument with no neck and
large round head (fig. 4), sometimes seen in European medieval
sculptures and MSS. of the nth and I2th centuries. 11
The pear-shaped rebab or lute appears also among the celebrated
paintings in the Buddhist cave temples of Ajanta, 12 assigned to
the 6th century A.D. A later example at the British Museum,
a fragment of a dish found at Rhajes or Ray, 18 in northern Persia,
6 See Laurent Grillet, Les ancetres du violon, &c. (Paris, 1901),
tome i. p. 29. " Portail occidental de 1'eglise de Moissac," I2th
century.
6 See Delegation en Perfe, by J. de Morgan (Paris, 1900), vol. i.
pi. 8, Nos. 8 and 9, text, pp. 130 and 131.
7 See Ormonde M. Dalton, The Treasures of the Oxus, catalogue
of the Franks bequest to the British Museum, 1905, pi. xxvi.
No. 190.
8 See for an illustration and description, Comptes rendus de la
commission imperiale d' archeologie pour I'annee 1881 (St Petersburg,
1883), text, p. 53, and atlas of the same date, pi. ii. No. 10.
"See J. R. Aspelin, Antiquites du nord, p. 141, No. 608.
10 See Ancient Khotan, a detailed report of archaeological explora-
tions in Chinese Turkestan, carried out by H.M. Indian govern-
ment, by Marc Aurel Stein (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907), vol. ii.
pi. xlvi. Nos. Yoonk, vooiid (spoon-shaped rebab), pi. xliii.
Nos. YOO28 and Yoogi.
11 See, for instance, Psalter of Labeo Notker, loth century, Bibl.
Stift St Gallen, on the top of left-hand gable pillar. Illustration in
Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra (London, 1910),
part ii., " Precursors," pi. iv. p. 154.
u See reproductions by John Griffiths (London, 1896), vol. ii.
pi. 105, cave I., 10, e.
11 Brit. Mus., Ceramic Gallery, case A, Henderson Bequest, 1891.
REBATE REBEC
949
destroyed by lenghiz Khan in the i$th century, has the four pegs
in the side of the head. Finally, we find the instrument on the
From Marc. Aurel. Stein, Ancient Kholan, by permission of the Clarendon Press.
FIG. 3. Pear-shaped rebab, FIG. 4. Spoon-shaped
from Khotan. rebab, from Khotan.
doorway of the H&pital du Moristan 1 (Cairo), carved work of the
I3th century.
In all these examples it is noteworthy that the strings are
vibrated by plucking them with the fingers, not by means of the bow,
the use of which, in conjunction with those structural features,
constitutes the violation of an acoustic principle, and therefore
accounts for the failure of the instrument as Rebab and its suc-
cessful development as Lute. There are, however, two early ex-
amples of bowed rebabs of Byzantine origin to be cited. A pear-
shaped rebab, held like a violoncello and played by means of a
very long and slender bow, is carved on one of the reliefs of an
ivory casket of Italo-Byzantine work of the 8th or gth century,
belonging to the Carrand Collection, Florence (see REBEC). Another
bowed instrument, of still earlier date, is to be seen among the
wonderful mural paintings of the necropolis and monastery of
Baouit,* assigned to the 8th century at the latest, but probably
dating from the 6th or 7th.
The examination of all these representations of the rebab,
ranging from 1000 B.C. to the I3th century A.D., tends to show
that the instrument had its origin in the East, and was widely
distributed over Asia Minor, India and Persia before the 6th
century A.D. Similar archaeological documents of the middle
ages suggest the possibility that we are not indebted to the
Arabs alone for the introduction of the rebab and bow and of
the lute into Europe by way of Spain, early in the 8th century,
but that they had probably already made their way into southern
and central Europe from the East through the influence of the
Byzantine Empire and of the Christian East generally.
It is clear also that the instruments of the rebab type were at
first twanged with the fingers, and the bow was apparently not
invented for the rebab but only applied to it. All arguments in
favour of including the rebab among the ancestors of the violin
on the score of the bow lose their force, and as the rebab possessed
no structural feature in common with the violin the question may
be considered settled negatively.
For the European development of the rebab, see REBEC. (K. S.)
REBATE (Fr. rabat, from rabattre, to beat back), a term used
in commerce, banking, &c. In banking, a rebate is an allowance
made to a drawee taking up a bill of exchange before it is due.
This allowance is the interest on the unexpired period of the bill,
and in practice may be either a fixed or arbitrary rate; more
often it is i%, about the usual bank deposit rate. In
commerce, rebate is sometimes used to mean a discount allowed
for prompt payment; it is often equivalent to drawback, i.e.
the repayment of part of the duty on imported goods when such
goods are subsequently exported in their original or in another
form. By the Customs Consolidation Act, 1853, a rebate or
deduction is allowed at the custom-house from the fixed duties
on certain kinds of goods, on account of damage or loss sustained
in warehouses.
1 See Prisse d'Avennes, L'Art arabe fapres les monuments du
Caire du vii' au xviii' siecle (Paris, 1877). The unnumbered
plates are to be identified by the list given at the beginning of the
work.
* For the illustration, see Jean Cl&lat, " Le monast&re et la
necropole de Baouit," Mem. de I'Inst. jr. d'archeol. orient, du Caire,
tome xii., 1904. Chapelle, xviii. pi. Ixiv. (2). Descriptive text, p. 92.
See also article " Baoutt " by the same author, descriptive of the
paintings in F. Cabrol's Diet, d'arch. chret. et de liturgie (Paris, 1907),
tasc. xii. B., p. 25ob.
REBEC, or REBECK (Med. Fr. rubebe, rebelle, rebec, gigtu;
Ger. Rubeba, Rebek, Geige, Lyra; Ital. ribeba, ribeca, lyra; Sp.
rabel, rabeca, rave, rabe), a medieval stringed instrument played
with a bow, derived from the Oriental rebab. Like the rebab
(q.v.), the rebec assumed at first one of two forms the pear-
shaped body with a wide base, strung with three strings, or the
long, narrow pear- or boat-shaped body with two strings and, in
addition, the other Oriental characteristics of the rebab, i.e. the
vaulted back, the absence of ribs and pegs set in the back of the
head. Except for the addition of a fingerboard, what is now
recognised as the rebec underwent no structural development
and never entered the domain of art. When the guitar-fiddle
and the oval vielle with five strings made their appearance in
Europe, apparently during the nth century, a number of
hybrids combining characteristics of both types of construction
spread rapidly over western Europe.
A spoon-shaped instrument, in most cases without neck, the
head being joined directly to the wide shoulders of the body,
must not be confounded with these hybrids; the compass and
capabilities of the instrument, which sometimes had but one
single string, must have been extremely limited. What the
name of the instrument was in the various ages is not known,
but it may be classed with the rebab and rebec, from which it
only differs in the outline of the body. The present writer
discovered an Oriental archetype on a small terra-cotta figure'
in the style of the Gandhara school, unearthed at Y6tkan on the
site of the ancient Khotan. The round head is fastened directly
to the shoulders, the three strings are thrown into relief by deep
indentations, the bridge tail-piece has three notches. The
instrument (assigned to some period between the sth and 8th
centuries A.D.) may be compared with the European medieval
type, such, for instance, as the bowed spoon-shaped rebec on the
capital of the left pillar in the miniature 4 of King David and his
musicians, belonging to the loth-century psalter of Labeo
Notker at St Gallen; also with the musicians' lyra on the
western doorway of the church at Moissan; 6 and with the
British Museum Add. MS. 17333, in which several of these
spoon-shaped, neckless instruments are to be found.
The pear-shaped rebec with wide base was in all probability intro-
duced into Europe through the Byzantine Empire, and the narrow
boat-shaped by the Moors byway of Spain. The first of these types
is represented on one of the sides of an ivory casket of Italo-
Byzantine workmanship preserved among the Carrand Collection
in the Palazzo del Podesta in Florence. It belongs to the same group
as the Veroli casket at the South Kensington Museum, all of which
are assigned to the gth century at the latest.
The pear-shaped rebec on the ivory casket, although like all rebecs
it'had no separate neck, was elongated to form one, and terminated
in a lozenge-shaped head all in one piece with back and neck, the
soundboard being cut to the same outline and glued to the back.
There were four strings to these rebecs, of which there are many
examples in English MSS. from the nth century. One of the best
known, sometimes described as the Anglo-Saxon fythele, is the one
played by Jeduthun in the usual illustration of King' David and
his musicians prefaced to the Psalms in an Anglo-Saxon psalter
(Cotton MS., Tib. C. VI., Brit. Mus.). Other examples are to be
found in a Latin psalter illuminated by an English artist at the be-
ginning of the I2th century (Lansd., 383, Brit. Mus.), in which the
rebec has but one string and resembles the lyra teutonica mentioned
above.'
Medieval documentary evidence points to the fact that the
long boat-shaped rebec had survived in Spain and spread by way
of France over western Europe. The much-quoted 14th-century
1 See Marc. Aurel Stein, Ancient Khotan : Detailed Report of
the Archaeological Explorations in Chinese Turkestan carried ou(
byH.M. Indian Government (Clarendon Press, 1907), vol. i. pi. xlvii.
No. Yoond.
'See Laurent Grillet, Les ancetres du molon (Paris, 1901), vol. i.
p. 29. The author calls these instruments lyra, which is a synonym
of rebab.
See Kathleen Schles'inger, The Instruments of the Orchestra,
part ii., " Precursors of the Violin Family " (London, 1910),
pi. iv. p. 154. The spoon-shaped instrument with a long neck
on pi. v. (gth century) must be referred to the pandoura family.
The casket has been reproduced by A. Venturi in Gallerie
Nat. Ital., vol. iii., 1897, p. 263; and L'Arte, vol. i. 1896, p. 24.
'See also English psalters of the I3th century in the British
Museum, Lansd. MS., 420, and Arundel, 157, fol. 7ib.
950
REBECCA RIOTS REBUS
poem by Juan Ruiz, archipreste de Hita, 1 containing an enumera-
tion of the musical instruments of his day, includes el rave gritador
con su alto, nota (the shrill rebec with its high note) and el robe
morisco. By a process of deduction we have no difficulty in identi-
fying the long, narrow, boat-shaped instrument as el rabe morisco,
since the instrument has survived almost unchanged among the
Arabs of the present day 2 from the I3th century, and probably
from the early centuries of our era. The shrill rebec (el rave
gritador) with thinner strings was the pear-shaped instrument. In
the magnificent MS. known as the Cantigas di Santa Maria, assigned
to the I3th century, 3 there are three of those boat-shaped rebecs
played with a bow and one twanged by the fingers; they have
finger-boards and two strings, and are held like the violoncello.
Rebabs of this type, but without bows, were in use in ancient
Persia, c. 789 B.C., as is demonstrated by some little terra-cotta
figures of musicians unearthed in a tell at Suza. 4 Two of the
instruments, held, however, like the violin, are unmistakably the
archetypes of this rebec.
The rebec did not escape the general tendency so noticeable in
Europe from the I2th to the I5th century towards the ornamentation
of musical instruments with grotesque heads. The socket of the
chaunter of the bagpipe, the heads of the cittern and ghittern, the
mandoline and the rebec, were all alike decorated with grotesque
human or animal heads, which in England became proverbial as
cittern-heads.
The boat-shaped rebec survived as the sordino or pochette,* an
instrument widely used by dancing masters until the igth century,
when it was abandoned for the kit, a diminutive violin. The
pochette, as its name in French and also in German (Taschengeige)
indicates, was small enough to be carried in the pocket ; it measured
from 15 to 18 in. and was played with a correspondingly small bow.
The 1 5th- and 16th-century rebec or geige, as the pear-shaped variety
was called in Germany {gigue in France), is figured by Sebastian
Virdung; 6 there were three strings tuned to G, D, A, and it had a
finger-board cut in one piece with the sound-board in some cases
and forming a step. Some writers consider that the addition of
the finger-board constituted the difference between the geige and
the rebec. Facts hardly support this theory, since the lyra teutonica
in the 9th or nth century already had a finger-board, and Farabi,
the Arabic scholar of the loth century, who was equally familiar
with the Greek, Persian and Arabic musical systems, distinctly
states that the rebab was also known as the lyra. The modern
Greek rebec with three strings is to this day played by rustic
musicians under the name of lyra. Moreover, in Germany, bowed
instruments of all kinds were at first known as geige, in contradis-
tinction to those whose strings were plucked, classed together as
cytharas or some word derived from it, the most modern example
of which is the zither. With the rise of the viols and later of the
violin, which represent the most perfect type of construction for
stringed instruments, the rebec tribe, inferior in every respect and
without artistic merit, was gradually relegated beyond the pale, 7
and by the i8th century had fallen into disuse except in certain
rural districts, where for outdoor music, their shrill, penetrating tone
continues to endear them to itinerant and village musicians. (K. S.)
1 See Mariano Soriano Fuertes, Historia de la Musica espanola
(Madrid, 1855), vol. i. p. 105. Aymeric du Peyrac, in his Vila
Caroli Magni (i3th century), mentions the rebec; see Du Cange,
Glossarium, s.v. " Baudosa." Hieronymus of Moravia mentions
the rubebe, and states that it has three strings, whereas the vielle
had five (MS. Fonds Latin, No. 16 [663 actuel], Paris Bibl. Nat.).
In the Minne Regel (" Rules of the Minnesingers "), 1404, line 415:
" Noch dan quinterna, gyge, videle, lyra, rubeba " ; see Der Minne
Regel von Eberhardus Cercne aus Minden, 1404, edited by Franz
Xaver Woeber (Vienna, 1861), p. 24.
* For an illustration see Carl Engel, Researches into the History
of the Violin Family, and E. Heron-Allen, The Violin, and how to
make it.
8 Edward Buhle is of opinion that the miniatures in these MSS.
are the work of a 14th-century artist. See Die Musik-instrumenle
in den Minaturhandschriften des Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1903).
4 See J. de Morgan, La Delegation en Perse (Paris, 1900), vol. i.
pi. viii., Nos. 8 and 9.
'There is a pochette in the Galpin Collection, c, 1700; for an
illustration see Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments of the
Orchestra, part ii., " Precursors of the Violin Family," p. 201 , fig. 158.
* Musica getutscht und ausgezogen, Basel, 1511, reprinted in
Publikationen d. Ges. f. Musikforschung, Berlin, 1883, Bd. xi.
_ 7 Antoine Vidal in La Lulherie et les luthiers, to show the contempt
with which the rebec was viewed in France in the isth century,
quotes from the charges of King Charles VIII., 1483, where the
following entry occurs: " On donna sur son ordre 35 sols & une
poure insensee qui jouoit du rebec." The lieutenant of Paris, in March
27, _i628, issued the following order: " Faisant defence a tous
musiciens de jouer dans les cabarets et mauvais lieux des dessus,
basses ou autres parties de violon ains seulement du rebec." A
well-known passage in Chaucer testifies to a similar contempt in
14th-century England: "Brother, quod he, here woneth an old
rebekke," &c. (Freres Tale, 7156).
REBECCA RIOTS, the name given to some disturbances which
occurred in 1843 in the counties of Pembroke, Carmarthen,
Glamorgan, Cardigan and Radnor, after a slight outbreak of the
same nature four years previously. During a period of excep-
tional distress the rioting was caused mainly by the heavy
charges at the toll-gates on the public roads in South Wales, and
the rioters took as their motto the words in Genesis xxiv. 60,
" And they blessed Rebekah, and said unto her, Thou art our
sister, be thou the mother of thousands of millions, and let thy
seed possess the gate of those which hate them." Many of the
rioters were disguised as women and were on horseback; each
band was led by a captain called " Rebecca," his followers being
known as " her daughters." They destroyed not only the gates
but also the toll-houses, and the work was carried out suddenly
and at night, but usually without violence to the toll-keepers,
who were allowed to depart with their belongings. Emboldened
by success, a large band of rioters marched into the town of
Carmarthen on the loth of June and attacked the workhouse, but
on this occasion they were dispersed by a troop of cavalry which
had hurried from Cardiff. The Rebeccaites soon became more
violent and dangerous. They turned their attention to other
grievances, real or fancied, connected with the system of land-
holding, the administration of justice and other matters, and
a state of terrorism quickly prevailed in the district. Under
these circumstances the government despatched a large number
of soldiers and a strong body of London police to South Wales,
and the disorder was soon at an end. In October a commission
was sent down to inquire into the causes of the riots. It was
found that the grievances had a genuine basis; measures of
relief were introduced, and South Wales was relieved from the
burden of toll-gates, while the few rioters who were captured were
only lightly punished.
REBELLION, the act or continuance in act of a rebel or rebels
(Lat. rebellio, rebellis, a compound of re-, against, and bellum,
war). A rebel is one who engages in armed resistance to the
government to which he owes allegiance. For the distinction
between Civil War and Rebellion, see WAR, LAWS or. Where
individuals as distinguished from groups of men are concerned
the character of rebel is easier to determine. That the alleged
act of war was done by order of another cannot be in principle an
excuse for a subject or citizen of any state taking arms against
it. Under .the rules of war adopted at the Hague in 1907,
moreover, any excuse for doing so is removed by the provision
that a belligerent is forbidden to compel nationals of the hostile
party to take part in operations of war against their own
country, " even if they were in the belligerent's service before
the commencement of the war " (art. 123). In the case of R. v.
Louw, known as the " Calvinia Flogging case " (Supreme Court
of the Cape Colony, Feb. 18, 1904), the question of the validity of
the excuse of acting under orders contrary to aUegiance was
discussed in an uncertain spirit, and in a previous case, the Moritz
case, tried before the Treason Court at Mafeking (Nov. 7, 1901),
the court held that insurgent nationals " who had joined the
burghers must be placed on the same footing as burghers fighting
against us." There may be special circumstances operating
to qualify the application of a principle, but the above stated
principle, as such, must be regarded as the only legal basis of
argument on the subject. (T. BA.)
REBUS (Lat. rebus, " by things "), a sort of riddle consisting
of the representation of some sentence or thing by means of
pictures or words, or a combination of both. Rebuses first
became popular in France, where they were at first called rebus
de Picardie, that province, according to G. Menage (1613-1692),
having been the scene of their origin, which he found in the
satires written by the students and young clerks on the foibles of
the day under the title " De rebus quae geruntur." Camden
mentions an instance of this kind of wit in a gallant who ex-
pressed his love to a woman named Rose Hill by painting in the
border of his gown a rose, a hill, an eye, a loaf and a well; this,
in the style of the rebus, reads " Rose Hill I love well." This
kind of wit was happily ridiculed by Ben Jonson in the humorous
description of Abel Drugger's device in the Alchemist and by
RECAMIER RECEIVER
the Spectator in the device of Jack of Newbeny. The
name is also applied to arrangements of words in which the
position of the several vocables is to be taken into account in
divining the meaning. Thus " I understand you undertake
to overthrow my undertaking " makes the rebus
stand take to taking
I you throw my;
or in French
pir vent vcnir
un vient d'un
may be read " un soupir vient souvent d'un souvenir." A
still simpler French rebus is expressed by the two letters G a,
which may be read, J'ai grand apptlil (G grand, a petit).
" Rebus " (or " allusive arms "), in heraldry, is a coat of arms
which bears an allusion to the name of the person, as three
castles for Castleton, three cups for Butler, three conies for
Coningsby.
RECAMIER, JEANNE FRANQOISE JULIE ADELAIDE (1777-
1849), a famous Frenchwoman in the literary and political
circles of the early igth century, was born on the 4th of
December 1777 at Lyons. Her maiden name was Bernard.
She was married at fifteen to the banker Jacques Recamier
(d. 1830), who was more than old enough to be her father.
Beautiful, accomplished, with a real love for literature, she
possessed at the same time a temperament which protected
her from scandal, and from the early days of the consulate to
almost the end of the July monarchy her salon in Paris was one
of the chief resorts of literary and political society that pretended
to fashion. The habitiUs of her house included many former
royalists, with others, such as Bernadotte and General Moreau,
more or less disaffected to the government. This circumstance,
together with her refusal to act as lady-in-waiting to the
Empress Josephine and her friendship for Madame de Stael,
brought her under suspicion. It was through Madame de Stael
that Madame Recamier became acquainted with Benjamin
Constant, whose singular political tergiversations during the
last days of the empire and the first of the restoration have been
attributed to her persuasions. Madame Recamier was eventu-
ally exiled from Paris by Napoleon's orders. After a short stay
at Lyons she proceeded to Rome, and finally to Naples, where
she was on exceedingly good terms with Murat and his wife, who
were then intriguing with- the Bourbons. She persuaded
Constant to plead the claims of Murat in a memorandum addressed
to the congress of Vienna, and also induced him to take up a
decided attitude in opposition to Napoleon during the Hundred
Days. Her husband had sustained heavy losses in 1805, and she
visited Madame de Stael at Coppet in Switzerland. There was a
project for her divorce, in order that she might marry Prince
Augustus of Prussia, but though her husband was willing it was
not arranged. In her later days she lost most of the rest of her
fortune; but she continued to receive visitors at the Abbaye-aux-
Bois, the old Paris convent to which she retired in 1814.
Here Chateaubriand was a constant visitor, and in a manner
master of the house; but even in old age, ill-health and reduced
circumstances Madame Recamier never lost her attraction.
She seems to have been incapable of any serious attachment,
and although she numbered among her admirers Mathieu de
Montmorency, Lucien Bonaparte, Prince Augustus of Prussia,
Ballanche, J. J. Ampere and Constant, none of them obtained
over her so great an influence as did Chateaubriand, though she
suffered much from his imperious temper. If she had any
genuine affection, it seems to have been for Prosper de Barante,
whom she met at Coppet. She died in Paris on the nth of
May 1849.
There are well-known portraits of her by Louis David in the
galleries of the Louvre, and by Francois Gerard in the possession of
the prefecture of the Seine. In 1859 Souvenirs et correspondences
tires despapiers de Madame Recamier was edited by Mme Lenor-
mant. See Mme Lenormant's Madame Recamier, les amis de sa
jeunesse et sa correspondance intime (1872); Mme Mohl, Madame
Recamier, with a sketch of the history of society in France (1829
and 1862); also Guizot in the Revue des deux mondes for December
1859 and February 1873; H. Noel Williams, Madame Recamier
and her Friends (London, 1901); E. Herriott (Enel. trans., by
Alvs Hallard), Madame Recamier et ses amis (1904) (elaborate and
exhaustive).
RECANATI, a city of the Marches, Italy, in the province of
Macerata, 8 m. direct N.N.E. of the city of that name. Pop.
(1001) 14,59 (town), 16,389 (commune). It has a station on
the railway 17$ m. S. of Ancona, and distant 4$ m. from the
town, which is built on a hill, 931 ft. above the sea, and retains
portions of its isth-century walls and gateways. It was the
birthplace of the poet Leopardi (1798-1837), whose monument
adorns the principal piazza and whose family has collected
in the town a very interesting museum of Leopardiana; it also
contains fine old mansions of the Leopardi, Mazzagalli, Massucci
and Carradori in the main street, and a Gothic cathedral, built
towards the close of the i4th century and dedicated to
S Flavianus, patriarch of Constantinople. The churches of
S Maria sopra Mercanti and San Domenico contain characteristic
examples of the work of Lorenzo Lotto, as also does the new
municipal palace, with a fine old battlemented tower, while the
palace of Cardinal Venier has a fine Renaissance loggia by
Giuliano da Maiano, who was probably responsible for the
designs for the portals of S Agostino and S Domenico. The
older buildings of the town are noteworthy for the curious
terra-cotta work which adorns the majority of them.
Recanati appears as a strong castle in the loth century or
earlier. Round this gathered a community whose petty wars
with Osimo (Auximum) called for the interference of Innocent
III. in 1198. From Frederick II. it obtained the right of having
a port on the Adriatic; and by Gregory IX. it was made a city
and the seat of the bishopric transferred from Osimo. This
oscillation between Guelf and Ghibelline continued character-
istic of Recanati. Urban IV. abolished the " city " and
bishopric; Nicholas IV. restored them. John XXII. again, in
1320, removed the bishopric and placed the city under interdict.
The interdict was withdrawn in 1328 on payment of a heavy
fine, but the bishopric remained in abeyance till 1357. Gregory
XII., who on his deposition by the council of Constance was
made papal legate of the sees of Macerata and Recanati, died in
this city in 1417. The assistance rendered by Recanati to the
popes in their struggles with the Sforza seems to have exhausted
its resources, and it began to decline. Considerable damage
was done by the earthquake of 1741; and the French, who were
twice in possession of the city in 1797, pillaged it in 1799.
RECEIPT (M.E. receite, derived through Fr. from Lat. recepta,
participle of recipere, to receive), in law, an acknowledgment in
writing that a sum of money or other valuable considered has
been received by the person signing the acknowledgment in
discharge of a debt or other obligation. Such a receipt is prima
facie evidence only of payment, and it may be shown, for
example, that it was signed by mistake, or obtained by fraud or
misrepresentation. By the Stamp Act of 1891, which repealed
and re-enacted other acts, a duty of id. is imposed on every
receipt or form of writing discharging a debt of 2 or upwards;
the payment of the duty is denoted by affixing a penny stamp to
the document, and the cancelling of the same by the person
giving the receipt. By 103 if a person gives a receipt, liable to
duty, not duly stamped, or refuses to give a receipt, liable to
duty, duly stamped or, on payment to the amount of 2 or
upward, gives a receipt for a less sum than 2 or divides the
amount paid with intent to evade the duty, he is liable to a fine
of 10. A receipt not duly stamped may be stamped at the
Inland Revenue Office within fourteen days on payment of a
fine of 5 or within one month on payment of 10.
RECEIVER, in English law, an officer or manager appointed
by a court to administer property for its protection, to receive
rent or other income and to pay authorized outgoings. Receivers
may be either appointed pendente lite or by way of equitable
execution, e.g. for the purpose of enabling a judgment creditor
to obtain payment of his debt, when the position of the real
estate is such that ordinary execution will not reach it. Formerly
receivers were appointed only by the court of chancery, but by
the Judicature Act 1873 it is now within the power of all
952
RECEPT RECHBERG-ROTHENLOWEN
divisions of the High Court to appoint receivers. Their powers
and duties are exhaustively set by Kerr, On Receivers (sth ed.,
1905), who classifies the cases in which they may be appointed
under the following heads: (a) infants; (6) executors and
trustees; (c) pending litigation as to probate; (d) mortgagor
and mortgagee; (e) debtor and creditor; (/) public companies;
(g) vendor and purchaser; (h) covenanter and covenantee;
(j) tenant for life and remainderman; (j) partners; (k) lunacy;
(/) tenants in common; (m) possession under legal title, and
(n) other cases. The appointment of receivers is entirely within
the discretion of the courts, and the power may be exercised " in
all cases in which it shall appear just and convenient." Applica-
tion for a receiver is usually made by motion, and the court
will appoint the fittest person, without regard to who may
propose him, the appointment of a receiver being for the benefit
of all parties. Under the Conveyancing Act 1881, when a
mortgagee has become entitled to exercise his powers of sale,
he may, by writing under his hand, appoint such person as he
think fit to be receiver. In bankruptcy practice a receiver,
termed official receiver, is an officer of the court who in this
capacity takes possession on the making of a receiving order,
of all a debtor's assets. He is also an officer of the Board of
Trade with the duty of taking cognisance of the conduct
of the debtor and administering his estates (see BANK-
RUPTCY).
Receiver-general is the title given to a chief receiver, more
especially as applied to the collection of public revenue. The
title survived in the Inland Revenue up to 1891, but it is now
only used as the designation of an officer of the duchy court of
Lancaster, who receives the revenues, &c., of the duchy.
RECEPT (from Lat. recipere, to take back), a philosophical
term, used by Romanes (Mental Evolution of Man, ii. 36, 37), on
the analogy of " concept and percept," for mental images
assumed to be produced by the simple repetition of percepts.
The process is supposed to be the gradual elimination of elements
in which the percepts disagree, and the emphasizing of those in
which they agree. Thus the final residuum is a unity in differ-
ence. Recepts are, in fact, " spontaneous associations, formed
unintentionally as what may be termed unperceived abstrac-
tions," i.e. what are generally known as " generic images."
RECESS (Lat. recessus, a going back, withdrawal, from
recedere, to withdraw), a term particularly used of a cessation of
work or relief from duty, e.g. of the periods during the life of a
parliament when it is not sitting. The word is also applied to
an indentation in a line, especially of a small alcove sunk in the
wall of a room. A particular use is the historical one for the
acts and decrees of the Imperial Diet, the recessus Imperil, and
also for those of the Hanseatic League. According to Du
Cange (s.ii. Recessus) the reason for the use of this word was that
these decrees, &e. (codex deliberationum), were written out
antequam a conventibus recedant proceres congregati.
RECHABITES, or SONS OF RECHAB, a sort of religious order
among the Israelites in some respects analogous to the NAZARITES
(q.v.), with whom they shared the rule of abstinence from wine.
They also eschewed the luxuries and pursuits of settled life, and
lived in tents, refusing to sow grain as well as to plant vineyards.
They represent a protest against the contemporary Canaanite
civilization and a reaction towards the simplicity of life which
was felt more strongly in Judah or to the east of the Jordan than
in the northern kingdom of Israel. Their " father," or founder,
was that Jehonadab or Jonadab, son of Rechab, who encouraged
Jehu to abolish the Tyrian Baal-worship (2 Kings x.). The
order founded by Jehonadab must from its constitution have
soon become a sort of hereditary clan, and as such the " house
of Rechab " appears in Judah after the fall of the northern
kingdom and continued to observe the ordinance of Jehonadab
till the approach of Nebuchadrezzar drove them for protection
into Jerusalem (Jer. xxxv.). Jeremiah promised them as a
reward of their obedience that they should never lack a man to
represent them (as a priest) before Yahweh, whence perhaps the
later Jewish tradition that the Rechabites intermarried with the
Levites and so entered the temple service.
Later references to them probably indicate that the term was
used as meaning merely ascetes (Euseb., H. E. ii. 23), the particular
form of asceticism (q.v.) being less essential. One may compare
the modern society of total abstainers known as the " Rechabites."
In I Chron. ii. 55 the " house of Rechab " is associated with the
KENITES (q.v.) as_ a family of scribes. Their origin is ascribed to
Hammath (conceivably the Naphtalite city, Josh. xix. 35), but in
i Chron. iv. 12 Rechab (so the LXX) is of Calebite descent.
RECHBERG - ROTHENLOWEN, JOHANK BERNHARD,
COUNT (1806-1899), Austrian statesman, was the second son
of the Bavarian statesman Count Aloys von Rechberg-Rothen-
lowen (1766-1849). Johann Bernhard was destined for the
Bavarian public service, his elder brother being a hereditary
member of the Upper House in the parliament of Wiirttemberg.
He was educated at the universities of Strassburg and Munich,
but he incurred the displeasure of King Louis I. by the part
he played as second in a duel, and in 1828 he transferred him-
self to the Austrian diplomatic service. After being attached
to the embassies in Berlin, London and Brussels, he was ap-
pointed envoy at Stockholm (1841) and at Rio de Janeiro (1843).
Returning to Europe in 1847, on the outbreak of the revolu-
tion of 1848 in Vienna he was of great service to Prince Metter-
nich, whom he accompanied and assisted in his flight to England.
In July 1848 he was appointed Austrian plenipotentiary in
the German federal diet at Frankfort, in 1851 became Austrian
internuncius at Constantinople, and in 1853 Radetzky's civilian
colleague in the government of Lombardo-Venetia. In 1855
he returned to Frankfort as Austrian representative and
president of the federal diet. As a pupil of Metternich he would
have wished to preserve the good understanding with Prussia
which seemed the necessary foundation for a conservative
policy; he was, however, made the instrument for the anti-
Prussian policy of Buol; this brought about constant disputes
with Bismarck, at that time Prussian envoy at the diet, which
were sharpened by Rechberg's choleric temper, and on one
occasion nearly led to a duel. Bismarck, however, always
expressed a high appreciation of his character and abilities. In
May 1859, on the eve of the war with Italy, he was appointed
Austrian minister of foreign affairs and minister president,
surrendering the latter post to the archduke Rainer in the
following year. < -
The five years during which Rechberg held the portfolio of
foreign affairs covered the war with Italy and France, the
insurrection in Poland, the attempted reform of the German
Confederation through the Frankfort Fiirstentag, and the
Austro-Prussian war with Denmark. After the defeat of
Magenta Rechberg accompanied the emperor to Italy, and he
had to meet the crisis caused by a war for which he was not
responsible. He began the concessions to Hungary and in the
Polish question, and was responsible for the adhesion of Austria
to the alliance of the Western Powers. In the German question
Rechberg's policy was one of compromise. To the project of
the Fiirstentag he was altogether opposed. The project had
been suggested to the emperor Francis Joseph by his son-in-law,
the hereditary prince of Turn and Taxis, and by a pamphlet of
Julius Frobel, and the preliminary arrangements were made
without Rechberg being informed. When at last he was told,
he tendered his resignation, which was not accepted, and he
accompanied the emperor to the abortive meeting at Frankfort
(August 1863). The attempt made by Rechberg at the subse-
quent ministerial conference at Nuremberg to establish a German
league without Prussia was equally unsuccessful, and he now
returned to the policy, which in opposition to Schmerling he
had throughout advocated, of a peaceful arrangement between
Prussia and Austria as the indispensable preliminary to a reform
of the Confederation.
At this juncture the death of King Frederick VII. of Denmark
(iSth of November 1863) opened up the whole Schleswig-Hol-
stein question (q.v.). In the diplomatic duel that followed
Rechberg was no match for Bismarck. It suited Austrian
policy to act in concert with Prussia against Denmark; but
Rechberg well knew that Bismarck was aiming at the annexation
of the duchies. He attempted to guard against this by laying
RECIDIVISM RECIFE
953
down as a condition of the alliance that the duchies should only
be separated from Denmark by common consent of the two
German powers. Bismarck, however, insisted that the question
of the ultimate destination of the duchies should be left open;
and, when he backed his argument with the threat that unless
Austria accepted his proposal Prussia would act alone, Rechberg
gave way. His action was made the object of violent attacks
in the Austrian Lower House (28-30 January 1864), and when
the war was victoriously concluded and Prussia's designs on
the duchies had become evident, public opinion turned more
and more against him, demanding that Austria should support
the duke of Augustenburg even at the risk of war. Rechberg
yielded so far as to assure the duke's representative at Vienna
that Austria was determined to place him in possession of the
duchies, but only on condition that he did not sign away any
of his sovereign rights to Prussia. The outcome of this was
that the duke refused the terms offered by King William and
Bismarck.
On the 22nd of August there was a meeting of the emperor
Francis Joseph and King William at Schonbrunn, both Rech-
berg and Bismarck being present. Rechberg himself was in
favour of allowing Prussia to annex the duchies, on condition
that Prussia should guarantee Austria's possession of Venice
and the Adriatic coast. On the first point no agreement was
reached; but the principles of an Austro-Prussian alliance in
the event of a French invasion of Italy were agreed upon. This
latter proposal was, however, received with violent opposition
in the ministry, where Rechberg's influence had Jong been over-
shadowed by that of Schmerling; public opinion, utterly dis-
trustful of Prussian promises, was also greatly excited; and on
the 27th of October Rechberg handed in his resignation, receiving
at the same time the order of the Golden Fleece from the
emperor as a sign of special favour. He had been made an
hereditary member of the Upper House of the Reichsrat in 1861,
and as late as 1879 continued occasionally to take part in
debates. He died at his chateau of Kettenhof near Vienna on
the z6th of February 1899. He had married, in 1834, Barbara
Jones, eldest daughter of the 6th Viscount Ranelagh, by whom
he had one son, Count Louis (b. 1835).
See the biography by Franz Ilwof in Allgemeine Deutsche Bio-
graphie, B. 53. Nachtrdge (Leipzig, 1907).
RECIDIVISM (from Fr. rtcidiver, to relapse and fall again
into the same fault, or repeat the same offence as one committed
before), a modern expression for " habitual crime." The
recidivist is now universally known to exist in all civilized
countries as one who has adopted wrong-doing and law-breaking
as a profession. His persistency is ceaseless and inextinguish-
able by the ordinary methods of combating crime. Penal
justice as generally exercised is unavailing, and is little better
than an automatic machine which draws in a vast number
within its wheels and casts them out again practically unchanged
in character to qualify again for the ineffective treatment.
This dangerous contingent is for ever on the move, into prison
and out of it and in again; a large proportion of it, the criminal
residuum, the very essence of the criminality of a country,
resists all processes devised for its regeneration and cure.
Nothing will mend it; neither severity nor kindness, neither
the most irksome restraints nor the philanthropic methods of
moral and educational persuasion. This failure has encouraged
some ardent reformers to recommend the system of indefinite
imprisonment or the indeterminate sentence, by which the
enemy once caught is kept perpetually or for a lengthy period,
and thus rendered innocuous. Habitual offenders, it is argued,
should be detained as hostages until they are willing to lay
down their arms and consent to make no further attempt to
attack or injure society. The theory is sound and has been
adopted in part in several countries, especially in the United
States.
It was not until 1909 that the system of preventive detention
was put into operation in the United Kingdom, when, by the
Prevention of Crime Act 1908, power was given to the courts
to pass on habitual criminals a sentence of preventive detention
in addition to one of penal servitude. This further period may
range within limits of from five to ten years, according to the
discretion of the court. The English system is hardly more
than tentative at present; the machinery is admittedly capable
of improvement. The charge of being an habitual criminal
has to be inserted in the indictment on which the offender is
to be tried, and this cannot be done without the consent of
the director of public prosecutions and after certain notice has
been given to the officer of the court trying the prisoner and to
the offender himself. The decision to charge a prisoner with
being an habitual criminal has hitherto rested on the local
police authorities, and it has been felt that a more even and a
more general application of such a drastic method of treatment
would result if the decision were transferred to one authority,
and some such reform was foreshadowed by the Home Secretary
in a speech in the House of Commons on prison reform on the
2oth of July 1910.
RECIFE, or PERNAMBUCO, a city and seaport of Brazil,
capital of the state of Pemambuco, in 8 3' S. and 34 55' W.,
near the extreme eastern point of South America. Pop. (1904
estimate) 186,000. Recife is frequently called the " Venice
of America "; it is at the mouths of the rivers Beberibe and
Capibaribe which unite to form a small lagoon or bay inside
the sea beach. In the angle between the two rivers is the delta
island of Antonio Vaz. The city is built on the southern
extremity of the sandy sea beach, on the island of Antonio Vaz,
and on the mainland to the westward, the river channels being
crossed by numerous bridges. With the exception of the hills
on which Olinda is built about 5 m. northward, the surrounding
country is low and flat, the general elevation averaging 10 ft.
As the tide rises about 6 ft., the general level of the city and
neighbouring coast, which is wet and swampy to the southward,
is too low to be generally healthy, and Pemambuco has a high
death-rate (52^ per 1000 in 1004), with malaria as one of
the principal causes of death. The climate is hot, although
agreeably tempered by the S.E. trade winds; the temperature
ranges from an absolute minimum of 61 to an absolute maxi-
mum of 99 (1904). The rainfall (1904) is 75-3 in. The three
principal parishes of the city are known as Sao Jose 1 do Recife,
occupying the sandy peninsula or beach north of the outlet of the
united rivers; Santo Antonio, on the island of Antonio Vaz,
which was called Mauritia or Mauritzstad during the Dutch
occupation; and Boa Vista, on the mainland to the westward,
which is the most modern and the most rapidly growing part.
The first is the oldest and most crowded section, and is now
devoted chiefly to the commercial and financial interests of the
port; here are the custom house, merchants' exchange (Praca
do Commercio), shipping offices, banks and wholesale houses.
Santo Antonio dates from the Dutch occupation. Prince
Maurice of Nassau, when governor-general, built here his private
residence (Fribourg House) and made it his capital. Its
business edifices and residences are largely of Dutch architec-
ture, with many storeys and steep roofs. The older part of
Boa Vista dates from the I7th century. Recife has few public
squares or gardens, and its streets are not usually well cared
for. The older buildings are of the Portuguese type, usually
plain, low and heavy, constructed of broken stone and mortar,
and plastered and coloured on the outside. The city has gas
and electric illumination, street and suburban railways, drainage
and a public water supply drawn from a small tributary of the
Beberibe about 7 m. to the N.W., in the direction of Caxanga.
Among its notable public buildings and institutions are the old
government palace in Santo Antonio built upon the foundations
of the official residence of Prince Maurice of Nassau, with a
pretty garden attached; a theatre facing upon the Praca da
Republica, dating from the second empire; the palace of the
Provincial Assembly in Boa Vista, built in 1860-66, sur-
mounted by a high dome; the municipal palace, or prefecture,
on Rua do Imperador, with the public library (Biblioteca
Publica) occupying its third floor and containing about 30,000
volumes; the Gymnasium, a large plain building of two floors
standing near the legislative palace; the Pedro II. hospital
954
RECIPE RECLAMATION OF LAND
built between 1847 and 1861; a large penitentiary, insane
asylum, orphans' asylum, and beggars' asylum; a law school,
artisans' school (Lyceu de Artes e Officios), and archaeological
institute; a normal school and school of engineering; and war
and naval arsenals. One of the most attractive churches is
that of Nossa Senhora da Penha, surmounted by two slender
spires and a dome.
The port of Recife is one of the most important of Brazil, on
account of its proximity to Europe and its convenience for
vessels passing around the east shoulder of the continent. It
is the landing-place for two transatlantic and one coastwise
cable lines. Its harbour consists of an outer and inner anchorage,
the former an open roadstead, which are separated by a re-
markable stone reef running parallel with the shore-line, leaving
an inside passage 400 to 500 ft. wide. The entrance to the
inner anchorage, which has a depth of about 20 ft., is opposite
Fort Brum in the northern part of the city, and is marked by a
small Dutch fort (Picao) and a lighthouse at the northern
extremity of the reef. This remarkable natural breakwater,
which is about 50 ft. wide on top and has been repaired with
masonry in some places, covers a considerable part of the coast-,
line in this part of Brazil. It is not a coral reef, as is sometimes
stated, but is a consolidated ancient beach, now as hard and
firm as stone. 1 In 1910 contractors were at work on improve-
ments to the port to cost about 1,666,000, under a decree of
the 3rd of December 1908. The exports include sugar, rum,
cotton, hides, skins, rubber, wax, fibres, dyewoods, cacau,
mandioca flour, pineapples and other fruits. Pernambuco is
the principal sugar-producing state of Brazil, and Recife is
therefore an important centre for this product. Its railway
communications with the interior are good, and include the
Sul de Pernambuco, Recife and Sao Francisco, Central de
Pernambuco, and the Recife to Limoeiro lines, the first three
now being under the management of the Great Western of
Brazil Co. There are also suburban lines to Olinda and Caxanga,
the latter providing communication with some of the prettiest
suburbs about the city.
Recife was settled about 1535, when Duarte Coelho Pereira
landed there to take possession of the captaincy granted him
by the Portuguese crown. The site of Coelho's capital was
Olinda, but Recife remained its port and did not become an
independent villa (town) until 1710. Down to the close of
the i8th century, when Rio de Janeiro became important,
Recife was the second city of Brazil, and for a time its most
important port. It was captured and plundered in 1595 by
the English privateer James Lancaster. It was also captured
by the Dutch in 1630 and remained in their possession till 1654,
during which time the island of Antonio Vaz was occupied and
the town greatly improved. At the end of the Dutch War
the capital was removed from Olinda to Recife, where it has
since remained.
RECIPE, a statement of the materials and ingredients used
in the making and preparation of a dish for cooking, a receipt.
This is the principal current use, which was first applied to
medieval prescriptions from the custom of placing the word,
meaning " take this " (imperative of Lat. recipere, to receive),
often abbreviated R or IJ , at the head of the formula.
RECIPROCITY (Lat. reciprocus, returning back the same
way, alternating, probably from re back and pro forward), the
condition or state of being reciprocal, i.e. where there is give
and take, mutual influence or correspondence between two
parties, persons or things. In a more particular sense, re-
ciprocity is a special arrangement between two nations under
which the citizens of each obtain advantages or privileges in
their trading relations with the other. This meaning of
reciprocity, however, bears a different interpretation in European
and in American usage. In the former, reciprocity between two
nations usually means little more than the extension by one to
the other of most favoured nation treatment, i.e. such advantages
as it extends to any third country (see COMMERCIAL TREATIES).
1 See J. C. Branner's The Stone Reefs of Brazil (Bui. Comp.
Zool., Harvard Univ., xliv., Cambridge, 1904).
But in the United States reciprocity is the term applied to the
concessions or arrangements made between that country and
another without reference to any third country. Thus in the
United States there are a maximum and minimum tariff, the
rates of the maximum tariff being enforced on the goods of
those countries which have no reciprocity treaty with the
United States, and the rates of the minimum on certain products
of those countries which have by a reciprocity treaty given
special advantages or concessions to certain products of the
United States.
RECITAL (from Lat. recitare, to read out, particularly of a
public document), an account or repetition of the details of some
act, proceeding, fact, &c., particularly, in law, that part of a
legal document, such as a lease, which contains a statement of
certain facts, e.g. the purport for which the deed is made. In
music, the word is used of an instrumental performance given
by a single person, and also of a performance of the works of a
single composer.
RECKLINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Westphalia, 22 m. by rail N.W. of Dortmund on
the railway to Miinster. Pop. (1905) 44,396. In the neighbour-
hood are extensive coal-mines and brick-works, and the industries
embrace the manufacture of linen, beer, spirits and tobacco.
The county of Recklinghausen belonged to the archbishopric
of Cologne until 1803, when it passed to the duke of Arenberg.
It was known as the Vest Recklinghausen. In 1810 it was
divided by Napoleon between the grand duchy of Berg and
France, but was, in 1815, restored to the duke of Arenberg
as a fief under Prussian sovereignty.
See Ritz, Die altere Geschichte des Veste und der Sladt Reckling-
hausen (Erzen, 1904).
RECLAMATION OF LAND. The boundaries between sea
and land are perennially changing. In many sheltered bays and
estuaries the sea is receding, while along other portions of the
sea-coast it is continuously encroaching. The same causes
operate to produce both results: the rivers carry down with
them detritus and sediment from the higher ground; the sea,
aided by wind and tide, is always eroding exposed portions of the
seaboard; and even such lesser influences as rain and frost
assist in disintegrating cliffs composed of softer strata.
The main object of reclaiming land from the sea is to increase
the area of ground available for cultivation. Land which has
been raised by accretion nearly to high-water level can be shut
off from the sea by works of a simple and inexpensive nature,
and the fresh alluvial soil thus obtained is generally very fertile.
Accretion in estuaries takes place very slowly under ordinary
conditions. Although at any one time the sheltered areas may
be large and the deposit of silt fairly rapid, not much permanent
accretion will take place owing to the frequent shifting of the
channels. Directly, however, a fixed channel is secured by
longitudinal embankments or training walls, accretion progresses
rapidly and uninterruptedly by the deposit of sediment in the
slack-water behind the embankments and at the sides of the
estuary; and this is especially the case if the training works
are raised to the level of high water, for this has the effect of
restricting the greater part of the scour of tide and fresh-water
discharge to the one fixed channel. The rate of accretion varies
with the shelter of the site and the amount of sediment carried
by the water; but by degrees the foreshores, in the upper
portion and at the sides of the embanked estuary, are raised
sufficiently for samphire to make its appearance, and, later on,
a coarse grass. Ultimately the time arrives when the water
may be altogether excluded by the construction of enclosing
embankments; these must be raised above the level of the
highest tide, and should have a flat slope on the exposed side,
protected, in proportion to exposure and depth of water, against
the face with clay, sods, fascines or stone pitching.
In the intermediate stages of the process outlined above much
may be done to promote the growth of accretion, or warping
as it is termed, and to ensure the fertility of the reclaimed land.
The deposit of warp is accelerated by anything which tends to
reduce the flow and consequent scour of the ebb-tide over the
RECLAMATION OF LAND
955
foreshore: thus considerable advantage will accrue from placing
rows of faggots or sods across the lines of flow; and banks,
enclosing the higher portions of the foreshore, may often be
constructed so as materially to increase the period of stagnation,
near high tide, of the silt-bearing water upon the lower adjacent
foreshore. The light, fertilizing alluvium only deposits in
shallow water at high tide, and where there are no tidal currents.
The final enclosure, therefore, should not be effected until this
deposit has taken place. The enclosing works, also, should be
so carried out that increasing shelter may favour the deposits
of this alluvium during construction. A final and rapid deposit
can sometimes be effected by making sluices in the banks:
the turbid water is admitted near high tide, and retained until
the whole of its silt has been deposited, the clear water being
allowed to escape slowly towards low tide. Premature enclosure
must be guarded against; it is more difficult, the cost greater,
the reclaimed land is less fertile and, being lower, less easy to
drain.
The practice of reclaiming land in British estuaries is a very
ancient one. The Romans effected reclamations in the Fen
districts; the enclosing of Sunk Island in the Humber was
begun in the i?th century, and now produces an annual revenue
of something like 10,000; large reclamations in the Dee estuary
took place in the i8th century; and, in recent times, works
have been carried out in the estuaries of the Seine, the Ribble
and the Tees.
In the reclamation of land adjoining the sea-coast, sites where
accretion is taking place are obviously the most suitable.
Marsh lands ad joining the sea, and more or less subject to inunda-
tion at high tides, can be permanently reclaimed by embank-
ments; but these, unless there is protection from sand dunes or
a shingle beach, require to be stronger, higher, with a less steeply
inclined and better protected slope than is required in estuaries.
The width of the bank will generally prevent percolation of
water at the base; but if there is any danger of infiltration,
owing to unsuitability of material, a central core of puddled clay
or a row of sheet-piling should be employed. Waves over-
topping the bank will quickly cause a breach, and produce
disastrous results; the height of the bank must, therefore,
be calculated to meet the case of the severest on-shore gale
coinciding with the highest spring tide. Undermining, caused
by the recoil of waves on the beach, is liable to occur in exposed
sites; this may be prevented by a line of sheet-piling along the
outer toe of the bank.
Sea-coast embankments should not generally be constructed
farther down the foreshore than half-tide level, as the cost of
construction and maintenance would increase out of all propor-
tion to the additional area obtained. It is, as a rule, more
economical to reclaim a large area at one time, instead of
enclosing it gradually in sections, as the cost varies with the
length of embankment; it is, however, more difficult to effect
the final closing of a bank, where a large area is thus reclaimed,
on account of the greater volume of tidal-water flowing in and out
of the contracted opening. The final closing of a reclamation
embankment is best accomplished by leaving a fairly wide
aperture, and by gradually raising a level bank across its entire
length. The enclosed area may be left full of water to the height
of the unfinished bank, or the tide-water may be allowed to
escape and enter again by sluices in the finished sections. The
embankments in Holland are closed by sinking long fascine
mattresses across the opening; these are weighted with clay
and stone, and effectually withstand the scour through the gap;
the two terminal slopes of the finished sections are similarly
protected.
There are many examples of sea-coast reclamation: Romney
marsh was enclosed long ago by the Dymchurch wall (see fig. i),
and a large portion of Holland has been reclaimed from the sea
by embankments (see fig. 2); the reclamation bank for the
Hodbarrow iron mines (see fig. 3) illustrates the use of puddled
clay to prevent infiltration.
The repair of a breach effected in a completed reclamation
embankment is a more difficult task than that of closing the
final gap during construction; this is owing to the channel
or gully scoured out upon the opening of the breach. When a
a so
IpoFX
FIG. I. Sea-wall at Dymchurch.
breach occurs which cannot be closed in a single tide, the forma-
tion of an over-deep gully may to some extent be prevented
H.W. 0..T-
SANO OR QUICKSAND. ,
SCALE 600.
Rio a e So
WK7
loon
FIG. 2. Dutch Reclamation Embankment.
by enlarging the opening. Breaches in embankments have been
closed by sinking barges across the gap, by piling and planking
FIG. 3. Reclamation Bank for the Hodbarrow Iron Mines.
up, by lowering sliding panels between frames erected to receive
them, and by making an inset wall or bank round the breach.
By the last-mentioned method the new connecting bank can be
formed on solid ground, and the necessary width of opening
obtained to obviate excessive scour during the influx and efflux
of the tide over the bank while it is being raised.
The gradual drying of reclaimed land lowers the surface some
two or three feet; the land therefore becomes more liable to
inundation after reclamation than before. Accordingly, it is
most important to prevent breaching of the bank by promptly
repairing any damage caused by storms; and if a breach should
occur, it must be closed at the earliest possible opportunity.
The protection of the coast-line from encroachment by the
sea is a matter of considerable importance and great difficulty:
the more rapid the erosion, the more exposed must be the site;
and, consequently, the more costly will be the construction and
maintenance of protective works. These are of two kinds:
sea-walls or banks, and groynes.
Upright sea-walls with some batter on the face have been
constructed along the frontage of many sea-side towns, with
the double purpose of making a promenade or drive, and of
affording protection to the town. A very sloping and also
a curved batter breaks the stroke of the wave by facilitating
its rising up the face of the wall, but the force of the recoil is
correspondingly augmented. A wall with a vertical face offers
more direct opposition to a wave, minimizes the tendency to rise,
and consequently the recoil; while a stepped face tends to
break up both the ascending and recoiling wave in proportion
to the recession of the steps, but there is a corresponding liability
to displacement of the blocks composing the wall. The concrete
sea-walls erected in front of Hove, Margate, and the north cliff
at Scarborough (see figs. 4, 5, 6) exhibit straight, stepped, and
curved forms of batter. The curvature of the last-named wall,
though diverting the coil at its base, did not prevent erosion of
the shale bed on which it was founded, and a protective apron
in front of the toe had to be added subsequently.
The Beaconsfield sea-wall at Bridlington (see fig. y) is stepped
and slightly curved; it has a stone face with concrete backing,
RECLAMATION OF LAND
strengthened at intervals by counterforts. The thickness of the
wall varies from n ft. 6 in. at the base to 3 ft. at the top, and is
FTio 5 o
i i i i i T i i i i t
SCALE
FIG. 4. Sea-wall at Hove. FIG. 5. Sea-wall at Margate. FiG.6.-
surmounted by a dressed cornice and coping; the length is 340
yards. The work was constructed, in 1888, at a cost of 10,000,
or 29, 8s. per lineal yard.
Walls with almost vertical faces, or slightly stepped, appear
to be the best. Unless, however, the foreshore consists of hard
rock, or a raised beach maintained by groynes, a wall of this
kind should be protected by an apron, in order to prevent the
FIG. 7. Sea-wall at Bridlington.
destructive undermining to which such forms of wall are
necessarily liable.
Where the coast is fringed with sand dunes, and the beach
protected from erosion by a regular series of groynes, as at Ostend
(Belgium), the sand dunes, or an embankment for a promenade
in front of them, may be sufficiently protected by a simple slope,
paved with brickwork or masonry, and having a maximum
inclination of two to one. The paving requires to be laid on a
bed of clay, rubble or concrete. Parts of the sea bank at Ostend
:ofl
FIG. 8. Sea Embankment at Ostend.
(see fig. 8) have been carried out beyond high-water mark to
gain a strip of land for the esplanade; and these portions have
had to be protected from undermining at the toe with piles and
planks, and an apron of concrete or pitching, laid on fascines,
extending down the foreshore. For
the parts above high-water mark a
short paved slope, with moderate
protection at the toe, has been found
sufficient. The top face of these
slopes is reflexed so as to protect the
esplanade from surf during storms.
Sea-walls are very costly and, while
temporarily resisting, do not dimin-
ish) but actually increase, the erosive
action of the sea. In short, sea-walls
are a most unsatisfactory type of
" protective work.
The protection afforded to the coast
by groynes is based on a totally dif-
3 O pr ferent principle, which may be sum-
I marized as that of promoting natural
Sea-wall at Scarborough. accretion by the construction of arti-
ficial shelter. Along most coasts there is a littoral drift of sand
or shingle; by means of groynes, projecting from the coast-line
down the beach, this drift may be intercepted so as to produce
accretion to the foreshore, where previously there has been
constant erosion. The problem, however, of coast protection
by this method presents difficulties. Littoral drift is the
product of erosion, and the fate of a large portion of this drift
is to be deposited in deep water. Any scheme, therefore, of
stopping erosion altogether by means of groynes would be
purely chimerical; in the same way, partial failure of groynes,
from lack of drift and inability to stop wastage, must be ex-
pected in many localities. Another difficulty may be illustrated
by the action of such natural projections as Dungeness: this
point, by completely arresting the easterly drift of shingle,
causes a rapid accretion to the beach on the one side, but a
corresponding denudation on the other. The old type of high
groyne, erected at Cromer and Hastings, has produced the
same undesirable result; moreover, the general effect of groyn-
ing certain portions of the foreshore is to render the adjacent
unprotected portions more liable to erosion. Nevertheless,
the benefit which may be derived locally from suitable groyn-
ing is very great. The timber groynes erected between
Lancing and Shoreham raised the shingle beach sufficiently
to cause high-water mark to recede 85 ft. seawards in the course
of a few years.
The eroding action of the river Scheldt in front of Blanken-
berghe has been arrested by carrying out groynes at right
angles to the coast-line, and down to below low water (see
NORTH
S A.
m
M
b <
1
1
a
3
Ml
H
lifti
~r' ; i'3li'Wfi;V-ii^
J rr.
000
500
SCALE
ZOOO FI
FIG. 9. Groynes on North Sea coast at Blankenberghe.
SCALE 200.
SOFT
FIG. 10. Sections of Groynes at Blankenberghe.
figs. 9, 10). These, on the average, are about 820 ft. long
and 680 ft. apart: they are made wide, with a curved top
raised only slightly above the beach, so as to minimize the
scour from currents and wave action, and facilitate the ever
RECLUS
957
distribution of drift over the protected area. They are
constructed with a foundation of fascines and concrete, faced
with brickwork or stone pitching. The result has been the
formation of a gently sloping beach which reduces wave
action; such loss, too, as is still occasioned by storms is speedily
made good by natural accretion in moderate weather. The
Blankenberghe groynes are too expensive a type for ordinary use.
The beach at Bridlington, which rests on boulder clay,
was rapidly disappearing owing to the increased scour due to
the sea-walls. Accordingly, groynes (see figs, n, 12) made
PL A .
SCALE fob.
looFZ
FIG. II. Groynes at Bridlington.
of 14 ft. X Q in. X 9 in. pitch-pine piles, and n in. X 4 in.
planking, were erected along the foreshore. The piles origin-
ally projected about 6 ft.; but, to prevent
heaping up of sand to windward with
denudation to leeward, the planking was
never raised more than two strakes above
sand-level, fresh planks being added as the
sand rose. The south-easterly gales are
said to be the most erosive here, and
prevalent during the winter months ; on
this account the groynes were given an
FIG. 12. Enlarged inclination of 10 south of east, that is
cross-section of IQ o from the perpen di cu l ar . J t may be
doubted whether this was the best
angle, but tbe result has been very satisfactory. The cost of
construction was from 125. 3d. to i8s. per lineal foot.
The sand-banks at the entrance to Poole Harbour have been
protected by groynes (see fig. 13) inclined at slightly varying
SCALE 253.
FIiooo o
Him 111 1 1
SCALE 30,000.
I i
4000 FT
FIG. 13. Groynes for Protecting the Sand-banks enclosing
Poole Harbour.
angles, some yielding better results than others. This is a
good example of the important work which may be accom-
plished by groyning. Unprotected, a breach would soon have
been effected in these sand-banks; with a double entrance to
the bay the present deep channel would have silted up, and
Poole Harbour would have been practically destroyed.
It is evident that the efficacy of groynes in collecting drift
is proportionate to the distance which they can be carried
out seawards, and that they should always be extended to
low- water mark; whilst, by raising them only slightly above
the beach, the accumulation of drift to leeward is promoted,
the passage of drift over the obstruction being facilitated
and the scour of the waves diminished. By this means, and
by gradually raising and extending the groynes as the drift
accumulates, the general elevation of the beach can be secured.
Drift generally travels in both directions along a coast, veering
with the wind; thus the prevailing wind determines the pre-
ponderating travel of the drift. Groynes are usually con-
structed at right angles to the shore, but it is believed that
increased benefit may be obtained by slightly inclining them
to leeward of the prevailing wind. Some engineers have
advocated the extension of groynes below low-water mark;
and as wood when permanently submerged is specially liable,
even when creosoted, to be attacked by the teredo and limnoria,
the use of reinforced or ferro-concrete has been suggested as
the most suitable material for submarine groyning. These
suggestions, however, and many other current theories on
groyning, require to be demonstrated by repeated experiments.
For a useful bibliography of the subject see British Parliamentary
Reports, Coast Erosion and the Reclamation of Tidal Lands, Cd.
3684, Appendix No. X. pp. 146-158. (L. W. V.-H.)
RECLUS, JEAN JACQUES ELISEE (1830-1905), French
geographer, was born at Sainte-Foy la Grande (Gironde).on the
1 5th of March 1830. He was the second son of a Protestant
pastor, who had a family of twelve children, several of whom
acquired some celebrity either as men of letters, politicians or
members of the learned professions. His education, begun in
Rhenish Prussia, was continued in the Protestant college of
Montauban, and completed at the university of Berlin, where
he followed a long course of geography under Karl Ritter.
Withdrawing from France in consequence of the events of
December 1851, he spent the next six years (1852-57) visiting
the British Isles, the United States, Central America, and
Colombia. On his return to Paris he contributed to the Revue
des deux mondes, the Tour du monde and other periodicals a
large number of articles embodying the results of his geographical
work. Among other works at this period was an excellent short
book, Histoire d'un ruisseau, in which he traces the development
of a great river from source to mouth. In 1867-68 he published
La Terre; description des phenomenes de la vie du globe, in two
volumes. During the siege of Paris, Reclus shared in the
aerostatic operations conducted by M. Nadar, and also served
in the National Guard, while as a member of the Association
Nationale des Travailleurs he published in the Cri du Peuple a
hostile manifesto against the government of Versailles in con-
nexion with the Communist rising of the i8th of March 1871.
Continuing to serve in the National Guard, now in open revolt,
he was taken prisoner on the 5th of April, and on the i6th of
November sentenced to transportation for life; but, largely
at the instance of influential deputations from England, the
sentence was commuted in January 1872 to perpetual banish-
ment. Thereupon, after a short visit to Italy, he settled at
Clarens, in Switzerland, where he resumed his literary labours,
and, after producing the Histoire d'une montagne (a companion
to Histoire d'un ruisseau), wrote nearly the whole of his great
work, La Nouvelle Geographic universelle, la terre et les hommes,
19 vols. (1875-94). This is a stupendous compilation, profusely
illustrated with maps, plans, and engravings, and was crowned
with the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 1892.
An English edition appeared simultaneously, also in 19 vols.,
the first four by E. G. Ravenstein, the rest by A. H. Keane.
Extreme accuracy and brilliant exposition form the leading
characteristics of all Reclus's writings, which thus possess
permanent literary and scientific value. In 1882 Reclus
initiated the " Anti-Marriage Movement," in accordance with
which he allowed his two daughters to marry without any civil
or religious' sanction whatever. This step caused no little
embarrassment to many of his well-wishers, and was followed by
government prosecutions, instituted in the High Court of Lyons,
against the anarchists, members of the International Association,
of which Reclus and Prince Kropotkin were designated as the
two chief organizers. The prince was arrested and condemned
to five years' imprisonment, but Reclus, being resident in
Switzerland, escaped. After 1892 he filled the chair of com-
parative geography in the university of Brussels, and con-
tributed several important memoirs to French, German and
English scientific journals. Among these may be mentioned
" The Progress of Mankind " (Contemp. Rev., 1896); " Attila de
Gerando " (Rev. Gtograpk., 1898); " A great Globe " (Geograph.
Journ., 1898); " L'Extreme-Orient " (Bui. Antwerp Geo. Soc.,
95 8
RECOGNIZANCE RECORD
1898), a thoughtful study of the political geography of the Far
East and its possible changes; " La Perse " (Bui. Soc.
Neuchatdoise, 1899); "La Phenicie et les Pheniciens " (ibid.,
1900); La Chine et la diplomatic europeenne (" L'Humanite
nouvelle " series, 1900); L , Enseignement de la geographic (Instit.
Geograph. de Bruxelles, No. 5, 1901). Shortly before his death
Reclus had completed L'Homme et la lerre, in which he set the
crown on his previous greater works by considering man in his
development relative to geographical environment. Reclus
died at Thourout, near Bruges, on the 4th of July 1905.
RECOGNIZANCE (from Lat. recognoscere, to acknowledge),
a term of English law usually employed to describe an obligation
of record, entered into before some court or magistrate duly
authorized, whereby the party bound acknowledges (recognizes)
that he owes a personal debt to the Crown, with a defeasance,
i.e. subject to a condition that the obligation to pay shall be
avoided if he shall do some particular act as if he shall appear
at the assizes, keep the peace, or the like. The system of taking
recognizances in favour of the Crown at an early date super-
seded the common law practice as to pledges and main-prize
(see re Nottingham Corporation, 1897, 2 Q.B. 502, 514).
Blackstone's definition extends the term recognizance to
bonds in favour of private persons. But at present it is rarely
if ever used in this sense. Recognizances are now used almost
solely with reference to criminal proceedings. In the Court of
Chancery it was the practice to require recognizances from the
guardian of a ward of court that the ward should not marry or
leave the country with the privity of the guardian and without
the leave of the court. The security given by a receiver
appointed by the High Court is still in the form of a recognizance
acknowledging a debt to named officers of the court, and securing
it on the real and personal estate of the receiver.
By an act of 1360 (34 Edw. III. c. i), extended to Ireland by
Poyning's Act, and by the terms of the commission of the peace,
justices of the peace have jurisdiction to cause to come before
them or any one of them " all those who to any one or more of
our people concerning their bodies or the firing of their houses
have used threats to find sufficient security for the peace or
their good behaviour towards us and our people; and if they
shall refuse to find such security, then there in our prisons until
they shall find such security to cause to be safely kept." The
security taken is by recognizance of the party and his sureties,
which can be forfeited on conviction of any offence which is
a breach of the conditions of the recognizance.
The procedure under the act of 1360 and the commission is
usually described as exhibiting articles of the peace or swearing
the peace. The High Court (King's Bench Division) has the same
power as justices in quarter sessions. This procedure is in practice
superseded in England, so far as concerns courts of summary
jurisdiction, by an equivalent but more modern procedure (42 &
43 Viet. c. 49, s. 25). Recognizances ordered under these enactments
cannot be forfeited or as it is termed estreated without an order
of court made upon proof of breach of the conditions, or of a
conviction involving such breach. The procedure for estreats
is governed by the Levy of Fines Acts 1822 and 1833, and by
1 6 & 17 Viet. c. 30, s. 2.
There is also a general jurisdiction on conviction of misdemeanour
to put the offender under recognizances to keep the peace and
(or) be of good behaviour in addition to or in substitution for other
punishment. This power is specifically applied by the Criminal
Law Consolidation Acts of 1861 to all indictable misdemeanours
punishable under these acts, and power is given to put persons
convicted of any felony (not capital) punishable under the acts
under a recognizance to keep the peace. On refusal to enter into
recognizances as above, the court may order imprisonment for
the refusal, limited in cases within the acts of 1861 to twelve
months, and in cases within the act of 1879 to six months.
The recognizances above described may be described as a form
of punishment or a judicial security for good conduct. Recogniz-
ances are, however, most used with reference to proceedings before
conviction and judgment. In preliminary inquiries into indictable
offences the inquiring justices take recognizances to ensure the
attendance of the accused if liberated during any adjournment,
and on committal for trial take the recognizances of the accused
(if allowed bail) to attend the court of trial and take his trial, and
of the prosecutor and the witnesses for the prosecution or defence
to attend and prosecute or give evidence. As to witnesses this
power was first given in 1554 (i Ph. & M. c. 13). The procedure
is regulated by the Indictable Offences Act 1848 (ll & 12 Viet,
c. 42) as amended in 1867 (30 & 31 Viet. c. 35) and the forms of
recognizance are scheduled to the act of 1848. In the case of
inquisitions of murder or manslaughter taken before a coroner a
similar procedure is followed (Coroners Act 1887, 50 & 51 Viet.
c. 71, s. 5). The recognizances taken are returnable under penalty
to the court of trial, which orders their estreat in the event of
breach of the conditions.
Similar powers as to the recognizances of persons prosecuted
summarily are given by the Summary Jurisdiction Acts 1848 and
1879; and in the event of appeals to quarter sessions or by special
case to the High Court from courts of summary jurisdiction,
recognizances or security are required from the appellant (42 &
43 Viet. c. 49, ss. 31, 33). On the transfer of indictments from
inferior to superior courts recognizances to pay the costs on con-
viction are also required (Crown Office Rules, 1906). In certain
cases the police have authority to give bail to accused persons on
their entering into a recognizance; and governors of prisons are
allowed to release prisoners on bail on compliance with the terms
on which it is allowed by the committing justices.
By the Land Charges Act 1900 (63 & 64 Viet. c. 26, s. 2 (i)
a recognizance, whether obtained or entered into on behalf of the
Crown or otherwise, does not operate as a charge on land or on
any interest on land or on the unpaid purchase money for any
land, unless a writ or order for the purpose of enforcing it is
registered under s. 5 of the Land Charges, &c., Act 1888 (51 &
52 Viet. c. 51) in the office of the Land Registry. This enactment
is clearly applicable to receivers' recognizances, supra; and on
purchases of land search is made for registered recognizances and
an official certificate can be obtained affirming or negativing the
existence of a registered entry (Conveyancing Act 1882, s. 2).
By s. 30 of the Bankruptcy Act 1883, a discharge in bankruptcy
does not release the debtor from debts on a recognizance unless
the Treasury certifies in writing its consent to the discharge.
By ss. 32, 34 of the Forgery Act 1861, it is made felony to forge
recognizances, and to acknowledge them in the name of another
without lawful authority is also felony (24 & 25 Viet. c. 98).
In Scotland the place of recognizances is filled by cautions;
a caution in " law-burrows " corresponds very nearly to a recog-
nizance to keep the peace.
In the United States recognizances are used for much the same
purposes as in England. (W. F. C.)
RECONNAISSANCE (from Fr. reconnattre, to recognize,
Lat. recognoscere), a military term denoting the reconnoitring
or examination of an enemy's position or movements, or of a
tract of ground. Reconnaissances naturally vary indefinitely
according to the purposes for which they are undertaken. A
topographical reconnaissance is practically a survey of a tract
of country or route, comprising both a map and a report as to
its advantages and disadvantages. All reconnoitring work of
this character is done by officers with small patrols, escorts or
assistants. Strategical reconnaissance is performed by contact
squadrons, which send forward officers and patrols to find the
enemy. Tactical reconnaissance falls to the lot of troops of all
arms, whether in contact with the enemy or for self-protection.
A reconnaissance by a large force of all arms with the idea of
provoking an enemy into showing his hand, if necessary by
fighting, is called a reconnaissance in force.
RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart
or mind), a verb or noun used in various senses, all derived
from the original one of preserving something permanently in
memory. In this article, however, we are only concerned
with documentary records, or archives. In its accurate sense
a record is a document regularly drawn up for a legal or ad-
ministrative purpose and preserved in proper custody to per-
petuate the memory of the transaction described in it; for the
most part it forms a link in a complicated process, and unless
the connexion between it and the other documents making
up the process has been preserved, a portion of its meaning will
have perished. The first care, therefore, of the custodian of
records should be to preserve this connexion, where it exists.
In the majority of countries a previous task awaits him; it
has been his duty to collect and arrange his documents. There
are few countries in which records have not passed through
a period of neglect; each office of state has kept or rather
neglected its own papers; each court of justice has been the
keeper of its own records; the student has been paralysed
by a multitude of repositories among which he vainly sought
the documents he required. To this stage two systems have
succeeded; the system of centralization both of records and of
RECORD
959
staff; and the system under which the records are left in local
repositories and the staff is centralized. There are of course
countries which cannot be brought under either of these for-
mulae. But for the most part it will be found that the second
system has prevailed; there arc a central office for records of
state, provincial offices for legal records and those of local
administration, town offices for municipal records, and a staff
of archivists depending more or less strictly upon the central
office. In England the first system has been preferred ; almost all
the records that can be collected have been gathered into the
central office. In the future, indeed, it is inevitable that collec-
tions of administrative records should grow up for each county;
but there is at present no means of ensuring their arrange-
ment and preservation. Many towns possess old and valuable
collections of municipal archives, and over these also the central
office has no control. It would be absurd to affirm that such
control is needed for the preservation of the documents; but it is
a curious fact that the English government, which has centralized
records more freely than any other, should have refrained from
establishing any system of administration for records in general.
The following article is intended to give a full account of the
administration and nature of the records of Great Britain, and
brief notices of those of other countries concerning which informa-
tion is obtainable. It may be noticed that the directory of the
learned world published by Trubner at Strassburg under the
title Minerva will be found a useful guide to the situation and
staff of repositories of records.
England.
The most important repository of English records is the Public
Record Office, Chancery Lane, London, established under the
Act i & 2 Viet., c. 94. The head of the office is the Master of
the Rolls for the time being; and the staff consists of the deputy-
keeper, secretary, assistant-keepers and clerks, with a subordinate
staff.
Until the establishment of this office, the records of the various
courts of law and government offices were stored in separate
places, mostly of an unsuitable nature, whose contents were
inaccessible and unknown. The Tower of London contained the
records of the Chancery, which were kept in fair order; the records
of the Exchequer were scattered in many places, chiefly unsuitable ;
and other collections were almost as unfortunately bestowed: the
only attempt to provide a special place of custody was made in the
1 7th century, when the State Paper Office was set up as a place of
deposit for the papers of the secretaries of state. From time to
time efforts were made, chiefly by means of committees of the
House of Lords, to procure reforms in the custody of documents
whose value was well understood. In the reign of Queen Anne,
an attempt was made by Thomas Rymer to publish in the Foedera
such documents as could be found bearing upon foreign politics;
and this drew fresh attention to the question of custody. In
1731 the disastrous fire in the Cottonian Library produced a
committee of the House of Commons and another report. But
it was not until 1800 that any serious steps were taken. In that
year a committee of the House of Commons presented a valuable
report dealing with all the public records in repositories in England
and Scotland. The result of this committee was the appointing
of a royal commission charged with the arrangement and publica-
tion of the public records and the control of all public repositories.
This commission was renewed from year to year and did not expire
until 1837. It fell partly because of internal dissensions, but
principally owing to gross extravagance and almost complete
neglect of its duty, so far as the arrangement and custody of the
records was concerned. The publications sanctioned by it are often
badly designed and badly executed; but their most prominent
characteristic was their expense. To this commission succeeded
the Public Record Office, whose constitution has already been
described. The first duty of the new office was the establishment
of a central repository into which the scattered collections of records
could be gathered; and the preparation of manuscript inventories
of the documents so obtained. In 1851 the construction of the
central repository was begun: and with the completion of each
portion ot it further groups of records were brought in. At first
only those collections specified in the act of parliament were dealt
with; but in 1852 the State Paper Office was placed under the
control of the Master of the Rolls, and its contents removed to the
Public Record Office. Other government departments in turn
transferred to the same keeping papers not in current use; and
at present the only important collections of papers not so treated
are those of the India Office and the Privy Council Office, which
are still kept apart.
The publications of the Record Office are of three kinds: reports,
lists and indexes, and calendars. The reports are the annual
reports of the Deputy Keeper, and now deal merely with the
administrative work of the office; up to 1889 they also contained,
in the form of appendices, inventories and detailed descriptions of
various classes of records. In the present article these reports are
referred to by number. The lists and indexes are either inventories
of special classes with more or less detail, or indexes to thecontents>
of certain documents grouped for that purpose; they are here
cited by their number. The calendars are volumes containing full
abstracts intended to make the consultation of the original docu-
ment unnecessary except for critical purposes; they areequipped
with full indexes. The contents of the Record Office are classified
for the most part under the collections in which they were found.
For a general account of the whole, see S. R. Scargill-Bird's Hand-
book to the Public Records (3rd ed. 1908). No student can afford
to neglect C. Gross's Sources and Literature of English History
from the Earliest Times to about 1483, which i contains much information
as to books and articles based upon English records.
We may now turn to the documents themselves, under the
following heads:
EXCHEQUER RECORDS. The records of the administrative and
judicial sides of the Exchequer (g..) are here described under, its
several divisions.
(i)UPPERExCHEQUER,ORExcHEQUER OF AUDIT. (a)Lord Treas-
urer's Remembrancer's Office, or office of final audit. The result of
the final audit is recorded in duplicate on the Pipe and Chan-
cellor's Rolls. These consist of a solitary (Pipe) roll for 31 Henry I.,
and a duplicate series extending from 2 Henry II. to 2 William IV.
The Record Commission has printed the following rolls: Pipe
Rolls, 31 Henry I., 2-4 Henry II., i Richard I.; Chancellor's RoUs,
3 John. The Pipe Roll Society has printed the Pipe Rolls for
5-24 Henry II.
Foreign Rolls or Rolls of Accounts. These contain the records
of the preliminary audit of accounts other than county accounts
of the sheriffs; they run from 42 Edward III. to modern times:
closely connected with them are the Enrolled Accounts, which deal
with the more important accountants separately. It should be noted
that the final audit is not recorded upon either Foreign Rolls or
Enrolled Accounts, but must be sought on the Pipe Roll, unless the
accountant is found to be quit or to have a balance due to him.
The Record Office has published a classified list (No. XI.) of the
Foreign and Enrolled Accounts taken from all the foregoing rolls
of audit, but omitting the accounts of Customs and Subsidies.
Declared Accounts. A list (No. II.) of these records with an
introduction has been published by the Record Office. The series
begins in the i6th century, and from the I7th century is fairly
complete.
Originalia Rolls (20 Henry III. to 1837), or extracts from the
Chancery Rolls communicated to the Exchequer for its information
and guidance. Latin abstracts of the rolls from Henry III. to
Edward III. were printed by the Record Commission as Abbreuiatio
Rotulorum Originalium (2 vols. folio).
Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer's Memoranda Rolls. These
contain the letters received and issued by the Exchequer and
notes of the general business of the department. They run from
i Henry III. to 1848. Edward Jones's Index to the Records
contains a few scattered references to them; and many extracts
will be found in the notes to Thomas Madox's History of the
Exchequer.
Judicial. The only judicial proceedings on the Lord Treasurer's
Remembrancer's side are in cases connected directly with the
revenue. These are enrolled upon the Memoranda Rolls; ami
for the period 35 Charles II. to William IV. there are Order Books.
(6) Ring's Remembrancer's Office, or office of preliminary
audit. The most important financial records of this branch of
the Exchequer are the class known as " Exchequer K. R. accounts,
&c.," which comprise vouchers and audited accounts of expendi-
ture. Of similar accounts relating to receipts, the Eschcator's
accounts have been listed in the loth Report; but the inquisitions
there described as filed with the accounts as vouchers are now
kept separately, and are described with the Chancery Inquisitions
in the calendars. Accounts and vouchers relating to Subsidies
and Customs are at present only described in manuscript (sec below
under SPECIAL COLLECTIONS).
King's Remembrancer's Memoranda Rolls (i Henry III. to 13
Victoria). These run parallel with those of the Lord Treasurer
and to a large extent contain the same matter. Adam Martin's
Index to Exchequer Records contains a certain number of references
to them.
In the reign of Edward VI., returns were made into the Exchequer
by commissioners appointed to take inventories of Church Goods.
olumes of these for several counties are being published by the
Alcuin Club (see M61y ct Bishop, Bibliographie gtntrale des inven-
taires imprimis, vol. i. p. 245).
_ Judicial. The court of Exchequer on the King's Remembrancer's
side was a court of equity held before the lord treasurer, the chan-
cellor of the exchequer and the barons. The usual records of a
court of equity, Bills and Answers, Decrees and Orders, Affidavits
and other subsidiary documents exist for it. Martin's Index to
Exchequer Records contains references to the Decrees and Orders.
960
RECORD
Of the proceedings under special commissions issuing from this
court a descriptive catalogue (Elizabeth to Victoria) has been
published in the 38th Report. Depositions taken by commission
(Elizabeth to George III.) are catalogued in the Reports 38-42
A catalogue of the later depositions exists in manuscript.
(2) LOWER EXCHEQUER, or EXCHEQUER OF RECEIPT. The
principal financial records of this department are the Receip
and Issue Rolls showing the payments made to and by the Ex-
chequer. The former consist of an exceptional roll for 14 John
and a series from Henry III. to George III. The latter run from
Henry III. to Edward IV. and from Elizabeth to George III.
translation of the issue rolls (2) for 44 Edward III. was publishec
by F. Devon; who also published a volume of extracts from the
issue rolls of the reign of James I., and another volume of extracts
from the rolls for the period 41 Henry III. to 39 Henry VI. The
other records of this department are very numerous.
(3) EXCHEQUER OF PLEAS. The barons of the Exchequer without
the lord treasurer had a court of their own, where process took place
by common law. A list of the Plea Rolls of this court (20 Henry
III. to 1855) will be found at p. 64 of the Record Office List of Plea
Rolls (No. IV.). A partial index to the tithe-suits on these roll
is contained in the 2nd Report.
(4) EXCHEQUER OF THE JEWS. Suits between Jews, or in which
Jews were concerned, were tried before a special subordinate court.
The Plea Rolls (3 Henry III. to 4 Edward I.) are listed in the Record
Office List of Plea Rolls. For specimens see Select Pleas, Starrs
and Records of the Jewish Exchequer, edited for the Selden Society
and the Jewish Historical Society of England by J. M. Rigg.
(5) FIRST FRUITS AND TENTHS. After the breach with Rome,
the crown obtained a new source of revenue in the first fruits due
to the pope from every holder of a benefice upon appointment,
and from the tenths payable during his tenure of it. For a few
years under Henry VIII. a special office administered this revenue.
At the accession of Mary the business was transferred to a depart-
ment of the Exchequer.. The principal records are the following:
Bishop's Certificates of Institutions to Benefices; Composition books
giving the names of incumbents and the sums paid by them in lieu
of first fruits; and documents relating to the valuation of livings.
The most important entries touching valuation were printed by
John Ecton in the Liber Decimarum (1711), which has passed through
many editions under the titles of Thesaurus Rerum Ecclesiasticarum
and Liber Regis. The first fruits and tenths are now transferred to
Queen Anne's Bounty, and are managed by that office.
(6) VALOR ECCLESIASTICUS. In 26 Henry VIII. a commission
was issued for a valuation of all ecclesiastical property. The re-
turns were made into the Exchequer and consist of eighteen volumes
and three portfolios of rolls. Of these abstracts were made in three
volumes known as Liber Valorum or King's Books, and a portion
was copied in two volumes known as Liber Regis. The original
returns for the diocese of Ely, most of that of London and part
of those of Salisbury, Lincoln, Durham and York are not now known
to exist, and are very imperfectly represented by the abstracts
and copies mentioned above. From these materials the Record
Commission compiled six volumes folio known as the Valor
Ecclesiasticus provided with maps and indexes. The introduction
and general map were published later (1834) > n a separate octavo
volume; but some copies were struck off in folio and inserted into
Vol. I., which was published in 1810.
(7) COURT OF AUGMENTATIONS. This office was instituted
to administer the property of the suppressed monasteries and the
revenues of the duchy of Cornwall. The records consist of the
muniments of the suppressed houses taken over with them and of
documents connected with their actual seizure and subsequent
administration (for the former, see SPECIAL COLLECTIONS below;
the latter are in great part calendared in the Letters and Papers
relating to the Reign of Henry VIII.).
There was also a judicial side of the office, in which the proceedings
were by bill and answer. In 38 Henry VIII. this court absorbed
an earlier one known as the Court of General Surveyors of the
King's Lands, which had been set up in 33 Henry VIII. A calendar
of the decrees of the court will be found in the 3Oth Report. The
court of augmentations was merged in the Exchequer in i Mary.
CHANCERY. The records of the chancery are here treated in
two divisions, administrative and judicial.
(i) Chancery Administrative. These are either enrolments of
letters issued under the great seal, documents forming part of the
process of issuing such letters, or documents drawn up for the
information of the chancery.
Enrolments. The Charter Rolls (i John to 8 Henry VIII.) contain
the enrolments of the most formal letters. The Record Commission
published one volume folio containing a transcript of the rolls for
the reign of John; and a badly designed and executed calendar
entitled Calendarium Rotulorum Chartarum. The Record Office
has published three volumes of a complete calendar of the Charter
Rolls from II Henry III. The Patent Rolls (3 John to the present
day) contain enrolments of less formal letters addressed generally.
The Record Commission published one volume folio containing
a transcript of the rolls for the reign of John, with a valuable
itinerary of that king. The Record Office has also printed in full
the rolls for the period 1-16 Henry III. From this point over 30
volumes of a Calendar have been published, and the remaining
gaps in the ( series are being closed. For these gaps the Record
Commission's Calendarium Rotulorum Patentium is still useful,
but only refers to a small proportion of the matter on the rolls.
The rolls for the reign of Henry VIII. are calendared in the Letters
and Papers of Henry VIII. The Close Rolls (6 John to the present
time) contain the enrolments of letters directed to specified persons
and also enrolments of deeds made according to statute or for
safe custody. The Record Commission published two volumes
folio containing a transcript of the rolls for the period from 6 John
to ii Henry III. The Record Office has also published several
volumes of rolls for the reign of Henry III. From the reign of
Edward I. eighteen volumes of a calendar have appeared. The
Fine Rolls (i John to 23 Charles I.) contain the record of judicial
writs issued under the great seal with a note of the fine or fee paid ;
also of letters of appointment to offices and letters relating to the
administration of the feudal incidents of tenure. The Record
Commission published a transcript of the rolls for the reign of John
under the title Rotuli de Oblatis et Finibus; for the reign of Henry
III. they also published two volumes of Excerpta e Rotulis Finium
consisting of the entries relating to the feudal incidents. There
were also other rolls containing letters issued under the great seal
relating to special countries and subjects. The most important
of these are here mentioned. French Rolls, Gascon Rolls, and Norman
Rolls deal with the affairs of the English dominions in France and
with relations with that country. A catalogue of many of the entries
on these rolls down to the reign of Edward IV. was published by
Thomas Carte in two volumes folio. Of the French Rolls (16 Edw.
III. to 26 Charles II.) those for the reign of Henry V. are briefly
calendared in the 44th Report; and those for the reign of Henry VI.
in the 48th Report. Of the Gascon Rolls (38 Henry III. to 7
Edw. IV.) the earlier rolls have been printed in full in the Documents
inedits published by the French government under the care of
MM. Francisque-Michel and Bemont. Of the broken series of
Norman Rolls (i John to 10 Henry V.) those for the reign of John
and that for 5 Henry V. have been printed in full in one volume
by the Record Commission; to the remainder a calendar will be
found in the 4ist Report. The books here mentioned deal with
some rolls now placed in other classes.
Other rolls contain letters under the great seal relating to Ireland,
Scotland and Wales. Of these the Record Commission printed the
Scottish Rolls (19 Edward I. to 8 Henry VIII.) in full, omitting the
numerous letters of protection contained in them. For the Welsh
and Irish Rolls there is only a very partial calendar in Ayloffe's
Calendar of Ancient Charters. The Roman and Almain Rolls have
been used in Foedera, and many entries from the other chancery
rolls will be found there. The Liberate Rolls (2 John to 14 Henry
VI.) contain the enrolments of writs for the issue of money out of
the Exchequer. The rolls for 2-4 John have been printed in full
by the Record Commission.
Documents forming Part of the Process of issuing Letters under
the Great Seal. These are known as Chancery warrants, and consist
of Privy Seals, Signed bills and other documents forming steps in
the process. Series I. of these documents extends to the end of
the reign of Richard III., and Series II. to the end of the reign of
Henry VIII.; Series III. ends with the reign of Anne, and Series IV.
with that of William IV., while Series V. is still in progress.
Series I. and II. are arranged in chronological order (Series I.
being also classified); the remainder are in monthly bundles.
The warrants for the reign of Henry VIII. are calendared in the
Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. ; those for the first seven years
of Charles I. are calendared in the 43rd Report. With these may be
placed the Inquisitions ad quod damnum. Of these the Record
Office has published a descriptive list (Nos. XVII. and XXII.) for
the period 28 Henry III. to 2 Richard III.
Documents drawn up for the Information of the Chancery. The
most important of these are the inquiries held under writs issued
from the chancery. The first series of these (Henry III. to
Richard III.) is now arranged in three classes, Inquisitions Post
Mortem including analogous documents relating to the feudal
tenure of land, Criminal Inquisitions and Miscellaneous In-
quisitions. The Record Office has published three volumes of
a calendar of Inquisitions Post Mortem. The Record Commission
calendars refer to the old arrangements of these inquiries into
two series, known as Inquisitions Post Mortem &fc. and Inquisitions
ad quod damnum &c., a distinction of title which concealed the
dentity of the documents described. Both calendars contain
many inaccuracies and omit much useful information. To supply
some of these defects for the period Henry III. to Edward I. the
Record Office published the Calendarium Genealogicum, but this
work does not attempt to deal with the lands mentioned in the
nquiries. In the second series of these inquiries the three classes
of inquisitions are all placed together. One volume of a calendar
to the Inquisitions Post Mortem for the reign of Henry VII. has
appeared. Certificates of Gilds are returns made under the statute
of 12 Richard II. Those in English have been printed by J. and L.
Poulmin Smith for the Early English Text Society. Charitable
Uses: a list (No. X.) of all inquisitions and decrees of commissioners
RECORD
961
appointed under two statutes of Elizabeth to examine and rectify
abuses of charitable bequests has been published by the Record
Office. Forests (Chancery) contain perambulations and proceedings
before the justices in eyre of the forest. The perambulations
for certain counties have been printed by G. J. Turner in Select
Pleas of the Forest (Selden Society).
Scottish Documents. Five rolls relating to the policy of Edward I.
towards Scotland. The first two contain the proceedings touching
the claims to the crown of Scotland and are printed in Foedera,
vol. ii. p. 762 (Record edition) ; the remaining three, known as
Ragman Rolls, contain in triplicate the submissions of the Scottish
nobility to Edward 1., and were printed by the Bannatyne Club
in 1834. Other chancery documents relating to Scotland are
described in J. Bain's Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland.
Most of these together with the earlier Forest proceedings are
included in the M iscellant a of the Chancery, which contains numerous
other detached documents and rolls. Many of those relating to
foreign affairs are printed in the Foedera.
(2) Chancery Judicial. These may be divided into Proceedings,
or Hills and Answers, &c., filed by the parties; Decrees and Orders
of the court; and Affidavits and other documents connected with
the course of the action. The series known as Early Chancery
Proceedings (Richard II. to Philip and Mary), comprising documents
of all three classes, is arranged roughly in chronological order.
The Record Office has published three volumes of a descriptive list
(Nos. XII., XVI. and XX.) of the whole of this series; and the first
two bundles have been printed in full in the Record Commission's
Calendar of Proceedings in Chancery, Elizabeth; other specimens
are printed in Select Pleas of the Chancery (Selden Society), edited
by W. P. Baildon. For the reign of Elizabeth the Proceedings
are arranged alphabetically under the plaintiff's name in two
. Series I. is calendared in the Record Commission volumes
already mentioned for Series II.; the Record Office has published a
drvriptivelist (Nos. VI Land VI 1 1.) covering the veal's 1 558 1621. To
the Bills and Answers of the reign of Charles II. Messrs Phillimore
and Fry have published in the Index Library of the British Record
Society an index taken from Topham's manuscript index in the
Record Office. The same society has reproduced in an alphabetical
form an index to the proceedings in Reynardson's division for the
years 1694-1714. These last indexes contain only the surnames
of the parties, without reference to the nature of the suit. Decrees
and Orders (36 Henry VIII. to the present time) are the entry-books
of the orders of the court; with them may be classed the Reports
and Certificates of the masters and chief clerks. The Affidavits, &c.,
date from 1611.
The chancellor formerly had a common law jurisdiction relating
to certain matters touching feudal incidents and tenures, to repeals
of letters patent, and to actions upon recognizances acknowledged
in chancery or concerning officers of the court. No printed
means of referring to these records exist.
COURT OF KING'S BENCH. The principal records of this court
are the rolls recording its proceedings and judgments, of which
classified lists are given in the Record Office List of Plea Rolls
(No. IV.), under the following heads. Curia Regis Rolls (5 Richard I.
to 56 Henry III.) include all the rolls of the king's court with the
exception of a few Eyre Rolls. Of these the Record Commission
printed those for 6, 9, ip Richard I. and I John; and also
published in the Abbreviatio Placitorum certain abstracts from a
portion of the pleas on these rolls made in the iyth century. For
specimens see Selden Society volumes, Select Civil Pleas, edited by
W. P. Baildon, and Select Pleas of the Crown, edited by F. W.
Maitland, who has also edited for the Pipe Roll Society four rolls
of the reign of Richard I. From the end of the reign of Henry III.
the rolls of the king's bench and those of the common pleas (see
below) have been separated. The former, named Coram Rege
Rolls (i Edward I. to 13 William III.), divide from I Anne into
two portions, Judgment Rolls, containing pleas between private
persons, and Crown Rolls, containing crown business. References
to some pleas on the Coram Rege Rolls will be found in the Abbreviatio
Placitorum; the complete roll for 25 Edward I. has been printed
by the British Record Society.
Assize Rolls, Sfc. Under this head are grouped rolls containing
the proceedings before justices in eyre, of assize, of oyer and
termmer, of gaol delivery (a few) and before justices sent on
special commission. References to some of these will be found in
the Abbreviatio Placitorum; and specimens in the Selden Society
volumes already mentioned. The Eyre Roll for Gloucestershire,
5 Henry HI., has been published by F. W. Maitland. The
pleadings taken under writs of Quo Warranto during the period
Edward I. to Edward III. were published by the Record Com-
mission. For specimens of Coroners Rolls (Henry III. to Henry VI.)
see the Selden Society's volume edited by C. Gross. Baga de
Secretis (since 17 Ed. IV.) contains the proceedings in trials
for treason or felony held before the court of king\ bench or
special commissioners. An inventory and calendar will be found
in the 3rd, 4th and 5th reports.
COURT OF COMMON PLEAS. The Plea Rolls of this court, known
as De Banco Rolls, run from I Edward I., before which date pleas
before justices of the common bench form part of the Curia Regis
xxil. 31
Rolls, to 24 Henry VII., from which date the Plea Rolls are known
as Common Rolls. But in 25 Elizabeth all common recoveries
and enrolments of deeds were transferred to a new roll called the
Recovery Roll, the series of which extends to 1837. In the Year
Books edited for the Rolls Series by L. O. Pike, and those edited
for the Selden Society by F. W. Maitland, the cases reported have,
when possible, been traced on to the De Banco Rolls and extracts
from those rolls printed. Feet of Fines (up to 1835) are the official
part of the triplicate document constituting the complete fine.
Those for the period J Richard I. to 16 John have been printed by
the Record Commission for the counties Bedfordshire to Dorset
in alphabetical order. Four volumes printed for the Pipe Roll
Society cover the years down to 10 Richard I. for all counties.
The feet of fines are arranged in counties year by year up to the
reign of Henry VIII. Afterwards they are arranged term by term
in counties. Notes of Fines (since Edward I.) are the records of
an earlier stage in the procedure; Concords of Fines (since 1559)
form another stage; but to neither of these are there printed
means of reference.
COURT OF STAR CHAMBER. The relation between the king's-
council sitting as a judicial body and the Court of Star Chamber
set up by the act of 3 Henry VII., c. I, is matter of controversy.
The records of this court are nearly all of later date than this act.
They consist of Bills, Answers, Depositions and similar documents,
with a very few Decrees and Orders. The Record Office has
published a descriptive list (No. XIII.) of a portion of these records;
for specimens see Selden Society, Select Cases in the Star Chamber,
147^-1509, edited by I. S. Lcadam.
COURT OF REQUESTS. The origin of this court and the manner
in which it died out at the time of the Civil War are alike uncertain.
The records that remain are of two kinds, Proceedings and Books.
Of the former the Record Office has published a descriptive list
(No. XXI.) ; and specimens will be found in Select Cases in the Court
of Requests, edited for the Selden Society by I. S. Leadam. The
Books contain among other matters the Decrees and Orders of the
court.
PARLIAMENTARY RECORDS. The proceedings of parliament were
recorded either on a roll prepared for each session, or on detached
documents and petitions made up into sessional files. The
files have now disappeared, although transcripts of some still exist,
and in many cases their constituents can be traced among thi-
Ancient Petitions (see below under SPECIAL COLLECTIONS). The
rolls known as Parliament Rolls form a broken series, 18 Edward 1.
to 48-49 Victoria. The rolls for Edward I. and Edward II. are
among the Exchequer records, and the remainder are in the chan-
cery. Of these rolls and files, and of certain pleadings found in the
records of the King's Remembrancer, the Record Commission
published what was meant to be a complete reprint. But the editors
relied partly upon transcripts and partly upon original documents,
and it is often difficult to determine the sources from which they
drew. So prepared, the Rolls of Parliament (6 vols.) cover the
period from 6 Edward I. to I Mary. The roll for 33 Edward I.,
unknown to them, has been edited (Rolls Series, vol. 98) by F. \V.
Maitland, with a valuable introduction and appendices; rolls
for 18 Edward I. and 12 Edward II. are printed in H. Coles' Docu-
ments Illustrative of English History. The Parliament Roll includes
enrolments of statutes among its contents. But from Edward I.
to Edward IV. the statutes after receiving the royal assent were
also enrolled upon the Statute Roll (chancery), of which only six
rolls now remain. From these rolls and other sources the Record
Commission prepared the volumes known as Statutes of the Realm
on principles described in the introduction to that work. Unfor-
tunately the editors made use of early printed texts, and trans-
lations based upon the inferior texts contained in Exchequer K.R.
Miscellaneous Books 9, 10 and n, and so diminished the value of
their work. The Statutes of the Realm extend to the end of the reign
of Queen Anne. Since then public general acts have been pub-
lished in many forms; private acts ceased to be enrolled upon
the Parliament Rolls during the l6th century; the originals are
preserved in the House of Lords. The Record Office contains
detached documents relating to parliamentary proceeding known
as Exchequer Parliamentary and Chancery Parliamentary, but neither
class has yet taken a final form.
STATE PAPERS. This class contains the documents belonging to
the offices of the secretaries of state, formerly deposited in the place
of custody called the State Paper Office. This office was estab-
lished about the year 1578, but the first attempt to arrange its
contents seems to have been due to Sir Thomas Wilson, who in the
reign of James I. divided the papers into two classes, Domestic
and Foreign, to which at a later date the class of Colonial Papers
was added. These series all come to an end at the year 1782, at
which date the modern history of the office of Secretary of State
begins.
Domestic. Calendars of these papers have been published for
the period 1547-1676, with special volumes dealing with the papers
of the Committee for Advance of Money (1642-1656), and of the
Committee for Compounding (1643-1660). Another series of volumes
begins with the year 1689, and a third extends from 1760 to 1775;
these last are called Home Office Papers, but are in no way different
962
RECORD
in character from the State Papers Domestic. The Domestic Papers
relating exclusively to Ireland have been calendared under the
title of State Papers, Ireland, for the years 1509-1601 and 1603-1665,
with a special volume dealing with the papers concerning Adven-
turers for Land. From 1670 these papers are calendared in the
Domestic volumes.
Scotland. Originally there were in the State Paper Office two
sets of papers relating to Scotland, State Papers Domestic, Border
Papers, containing papers concerning the Council of the North
and the Wardens of the Marches; and State Papers Foreign, Scotland,
before the union of the two crowns. The first calendar of these was
a Calendar of State Papers, Scotland, 1509-1603, containing brief
notes of all the State Papers Foreign, Scotland, and of many of the
Border Papers which were removed from their places without any
record of the removal. Next came the Calendar of State Papers
Foreign, in which were included apparently all the Border Papers
for the period covered which had escaped the previous raid;
notes, however, were made of the papers so taken. Out of the
original 75 volumes of Border Papers only 36 remained. At a later
date the papers drawn for the Foreign Calendar were restored
and now form the first 19 volumes of the series, while the 36 volumes
originally remaining have now become the final 23. At the same
time the State Papers Foreign, Scotland, were annexed, and became
State Papers Domestic, Scotland. In their present arrangement the
Border Papers have been calendared in the following volumes:
vols. 1-19 in the State Papers Foreign 1547-1560; vols. 20-42
in the Scottish General Register Office Calendar of Border Papers
1560-1603. The Slate Papers Domestic, Scotland, from 1547 on-
wards, are being fully calendared in the Scottish General Register
Office Calendar of Scottish Papers with other material. Those
from 1509 to 1547 are dealt with in the Letters and Papers of Henry
VIII. (see below, SPECIAL COLLECTIONS). A list of these three
Classes has been published (No. III.).
Foreign. Calendars of the State Papers Foreign have been
published for the period 15471580. A few of these papers are
also calendared in the first volume of the State Papers Spanish
(see below under SPAIN). The Record Office has published a list
of the State Papers Foreign (No. XIX.).
Colonial. These papers are calendared in two sets, an " East
Indies " (1513-1634, which has been continued to 1639 by the
India Office in Miss E. B. Sainsbury's Court Minutes of the East
India Company) and an " America and West Indies " (1574-1693,
in progress).
DEPARTMENTAL RECORDS. From time to time all the govern-
ment departments, with the exception of the India Office, deposit
such papers as they wish to preserve in the Public Record Office;
thus the Treasury, Home Office, Foreign Office, Colonial Office,
Admiralty, War Office, Local Government Board and Board of Trade
have all placed important papers in the care of the Master of the
Rolls. A calendar of the earlier Treasury Papers, which extends
from 1660 to 1668 and 1720 to 1745 has been published; also a
list of the Admiralty Records (No. XVII.). For each department
a limiting date is fixed from time to time; documents before that
time are open to students; later ones are only accessible under
special conditions.
SUBORDINATE AND INDEPENDENT JURISDICTIONS. Palatinate of
Durham. For the earlier records see G. T. Lapsley's County Pala-
tine of Durham (Harvard Historical Series, vol. viii.), pp. 327-337.
The letters sent out from the bishops' chancery are enrolled on the
Cursitors' Records, Nos. 29 to 184. They are calendared in Reports
31 to 37 and 40. One of the registers (Bishop Kellawe's) has been
printed in full in the Rolls series (No. 62) with additions from the
register of Bishop Bury. The Cursitors' Records also include seven
bundles of Inquisitions Post Mortem (Nos. 164-180), calendared in
the 44th Report; and a volume (No. 2) contains transcripts of
similar documents, calendared in the 45th Report. The records
of the Exchequer of Durham, though deposited in the Public Record
Office, are treated as the private records of the Ecclesiastical Com-
mission, and are only accessible with a special permit. To the
judicial records the only printed means of reference is the list of
Judgment Rolls (20 Henry VII. to 7-8 Victoria) in the Record
Office list of Plea Rolls (No. IV.)
Palatinate of Chester. The letters sent out from the chancery
are enrolled upon the Chester Recognizance Rolls (i Edward II. to
34 Charles II. with a few rolls down to I William IV.) calendared in
Reports 36-37 and 39. The financial records of the Exchequer
of Chester are listed among the Ministers' Accounts (List No. V.)
of the county of Chester. The Inquisitions post Mortem and ad
quod damnum (Edward III. to Charles I.) are indexed in the 25th
report. The judicial records consist of Pleas in the Exchequer,
a court of equity. Its records are Bills and Answers (Henry VIII.
to George IV.), calendared in the 25th Report up to Philip and Mary ;
and Decrees and Orders. The court of the justices of Chester was
at common law; its Plea Rolls (44 Henry III. to I William IV.),
with a separate series for Flint (from 12 Edward I.) are listed among
the Plea Rolls (List No. IV.). The Deeds, Inquisitions and Writs of
Dower upon these rolls for the period Henry III. to Henry VIII.
are calendared in the 26th-3Oth Reports without an index. The
Assize Rolls for the counties of Chester and Flint and for the
honour of Macclesfield are listed among the other -assize rolls (List
No. IV.).
Wales. The following are the principal records of the princi-
pality of Wales: Ministers' Accounts and Court Rolls, including
those of the principality and of the honours and manors of the
Lords Marchers, listed in Lists Nos. V. and VI. Of the judicial
records of the Great Sessions of Wales, set up by the act 34 &.35
Henry VIII., c. 26, the Plea Rolls are listed in the list of Plea Rolls
(No. IV). For an account of the Court of the Marches in Wales,
see C. A. Skeel's The Council in the Marches of Wales.
The Duchy and Palatinate of Lancaster. The duchy of Lancaster
comprises all the estates of the duke of Lancaster; the palatinate
is limited to the county of Lancaster. The records of the pala-
tinate, transferred to the Public Record Office from Lancaster castle,
related to the county and are either enrolments of writs or of a
judicial nature. The records of the duchy, transferred from the
office of the duchy at Westminster, include similar records and
others dealing with the manorial and financial records of all the
estates within and without the county. For the Duchy Records
see the detailed list (No. XIV.), where the means of reference to
this collection are fully described. Of the Palatinate Records the
enrolments of writs are classified as Patent and Close Rolls. The
former, a broken series from 5 John of Gaunt to 21 Henry VII.,
are calendared in the 4Oth Report; the latter (in 3 rolls, a broken
series, II Henry IV. to 9 Edward IV.) in the 37th Report; but
certain enrolments of the palatinate are among the duchy records.
The judicial records of the chancery are not calendared ; but the
proceedings by way of appeal from that court to the Duchy
Chamber at Westminster are dealt with in the duchy list. Pro-
ceedings under common law include Plea Rolls (2 Henry JV. to
1 1 Victoria) listed in the list of Plea Rolls (No. IV.) ; and for criminal
proceedings there are palatinate Assize Rolls (Henry VI. to 6
Victoria), of which there is a list in the same place. But certain
rolls which were among the Duchy Records will be found apart
at pages 139-140 of the same list.
Bishopric of Ely. The act I & 2 Victoria, c. 94, places the records
of this palatinate under the charge of the Master of the Rolls.
They have never been removed to the Record Office, but remain
at Ely with the episcopal records, where they can be inspected.
A valuable descriptive list has been published by Alfred Gibbons
for private circulation.
SPECIAL COLLECTIONS. For the classification of the records
hitherto described the knowledge preserved of their origin and
purpose has been used. There exist, however, masses of records
where this path is now inaccessible; these have been formed by
putting together records of a similar nature either in ignorance of
their history or without regarding it; the justification of this
course of action must be found in the special circumstances of
each case. These collections are as follows :
Ministers' Accounts are the accounts of bailiffs, receivers, and
other officers managing estates, including, first, those of the duchy
of Lancaster; second, accounts of crown lands filed as vouchers
in the King's Remembrancer's Office; third, accounts of monastic'
and other lands seized by the crown, or acquired by it by purchase,
inheritance or marriage. A list of these accounts has been
published by the Record Office (Nos. V. and VIII.) covering tht|
period down to 1485. For the accounts of the duchy of Lancaster
a list will be found in the 45th Report, extending to the reign of
George III.
Court Rolls are records of the proceedings and profits of manorial
and other private courts coming from the same sources as the
Ministers' Accounts, and closely connected with them. For a
list see Record Office, Lists and Indexes, No. VI.; and for specimens
Select Pleas in Manorial Courts, edited for the Selden Society by
F. W. Maitland.
Ancient Deeds. In this collection are placed all documents
which appear to have formed part of a title to land, some original
royal charters and other analogous records. There are five series,
A, B, C, D, and E, distinguished by their former place of custody.
Documents too large for the ordinary method of packing have a
double letter, e.g. A. A., and to those bearing fine seals the letter
S is added, e.g. AS or AAS. There are thus in all fifteen classes.
The A classes are derived from the Treasury of Receipt, or Chapter
House at Westminster, and are largely monastic; the B classes
are from the court of Augmentations; the C classes are chancery
deeds, probably deposited as exhibits in suits or for enrolments;
the D classes are from the King's Remembrancer's office; and the
E classes are from the Land Revenue office. In 1907 five volumes
of a descriptive catalogue had been published by the Record Office.
Ancient Correspondence consists of documents which in form are
rather of the nature of a letter than a writ or petition. Most of
them were found detached in the chancery records, but similar
documents from other sources have been added. The intro-
duction to the Record Office List (No. XV.) contains some account
of the formation of the class, and the list gives references to
printed collections based upon these documents. Vol. 53 contain?
letters of the Cely Family and is published (Camden Society,
3rd series, vol. i.).
Ancient Petitions. The history of the formation of this class
RECORD
9 6 3
is obscure; an account of it is in the Record Office Index to the
class (No. I.); but see also the Introduction to F. W. Maitland's
Memoranda de Parliamento (Rolls Series, vol. 98), in which
volume a number of these petitions arc printed in full.
Diplomatic Documents. In the Chapter House at Westminster
was a collection of treaties and other document;) connected with
foreign affairs, and to these have been added other similar docu-
ments found there. Of these there is a descriptive list in the
45th and 44 th Reports. A collection of so-called Diplomatic
Documents from the chancery forms part of the Chancery
Miscellanea.
Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry
VIII. This great collection of materials for the reign of Henry VIII.
(Calendar of 20 volumes in 30) at present extends to the year 1547,
and is intended to contain abstracts of all document! bearing
upon that reign in the Record Office, the British Museum and
other collections. Record Office documents dealt with in this
Calendar have sometimes been left in their original place of custody
and sometimes transferred to a series of bound volumes known
as Letters and Papers, Henry VIII. References will be found
in the Calendar to a previous series of State Papers of the Reign of
Henry VIII., printed by a Royal Commission for printing State
Papers.
Miscellaneous Books. The many Ixxjks and registers preserved
in the Record Office will be found described in the Handbook.
The following have been printed :
EXCHEQUER KING'S REMEMBRANCER
Vol. 2. The Red Book of the Exchequer (Rolls Series, No. 09).
Vol. 3. Book of Aids. (See Feudal Aids, published by Record
Office.)
Vol. 4. Book of Knight's Fees. (See Feudal Aids.)
Vols. 5 & 6. Testa de Nevill; printed by the Record Commission.
Vol. 12. Liber Niger Parvus, printed by Thomas Hearnc.
Vols. 13 & 14. Taxatio Ecclesiastica; printed by the Record Coin-
mission.
Vol. 17. A 16th-century transcript of an abstract of Kirkby's
Quest for certain counties; used in Feudal Aids.
Vol. 24. Chartulary of Malmesbury Abbey (Rolls Series, No. 72).
Vol. 28. Chartulary of Ramsey Abbey (Rolls Series, No. 79).
Vol. 32. The Book of Common Prayer deposited under the Act of
Uniformity.
Vols. 35 & 36. Accounts of the voyages of Martin Frobisher
(Hakluyt's Voyages).
EXCHEQUER TREASURY OF RECEIPT
Domesday Book. Indexes and supplementary matter were
printed by the Record Commission. Since then facsimiles of the text
for each county have been issued.
Miscellaneous Books.
Vols. 16-55. Certificates of Musters. (See Letters and Papers of
the Reign of Henry VIII.)
Vol. 69. Extents of Knights' Fees in the Honour of Richmond ;
printed in Gale s Registrum Honoris de Richemond.
Vol. 87. Abstracts of Placita Coram Rege, &c.; printed in Ai>-
breviatio Placitorum (Record Commission).
Vol 92. Statutes of the Order of the Garter. Cf. J. Anstis, Register
of the Order of the Garter.
EXCHEQUER AUGMENTATION OFFICE
Vol. 57. Rentals and Custumals of Battle Abbey (Camden Society,
Series 2, vol. 41).
Vols. 170-184. Copies of Leases. Indexed in 49th Report.
Vols. 495-515. Inventories of Church Goods. For details of those
printed, sec Mely et Bishop, Bibliographic Genfrale des
Inventaires Imprimfs.
The following accounts of other collections of records are
necessarily less detailed :
PRIVY COUNCIL OFFICE. The registers of the Privy Council
are still preserved in that office, with the exception of a few volumes
which have strayed into other places. J. R. Dasent has edited for
the Master of the Rolls a series of volumes containing The Acts of
the Privy Council, from 1 542 to 1 604. The Proceedings and Ordinances
of the Privy Council, 10 Rich. II.-33 Henry VIII. , edited for the
Record Commission by Sir N. Harris Nicolas, are from documents
in the Cotton MSS. and from transcripts made by Rymcr from
documents then at the Pells Office.
INDIA OFFICE. The records of the India Office are preserved
there. Complete printed lists exist for the whole collection, and
the following document! have been published: The First Letter Book
of the East India Company, edited by Sir G. Birdwood and \V.
Foster; Letters received by the East India Company from its Servants
in the East, edited by F. C. Danvers and W. Foster (6 vols.). The
records in India may be mentioned here. Each presidency and
each province keeps its own; and this is the case also with the
smaller subdi visions. No printed lists appear to exist for any of
the collections. The following volumes have been published :
letters. Despatches and other Papers of the Foreign Department of
the Government of India, 1772-8$, edited by G. W. Forrest (3 vols.,
Calcutta); Bengal 1756-1757, edited by S. C. Hill (3 vols. 1905);
and Old Fort William, edited by C. R. Wilson (3 vols., 1906-7).
Ireland.
The Public Record Office of Ireland was established in 1867 by
the Act 30 & 31 Viet. c. 70, when the records of the various
courts of law, all wills proved in Ireland, and certain financial
n lords, were collected into one building. The State Paper Office
rein. tins a separate, though subordinate, department in one of the
towers of Dublin Castle, whence the papers are only transferred to
the Record Office by special order. The Deputy Keeper of the
Irish Record Office publishes yearly reports with appendices. The
most important calendar published in these is that of Fiants or
warrants for the issue of letters under the Great Seal, Henry VIII.
to Elizabeth, contained in Reports 7-9, 11-13, '5-18, with indices
for each reign. A calendar of the Deeds of Christ Church, Dublin,
is contained in the 2oth, 23rd, 24th and 27th Reports. The Wills
of the diocese of Dublin, down to the year 1800, are indexed under
the names of the testators in the 26th and 3Oth Reports. The
series of Proclamations by the lord lieutenant and council, and by
the crown, which is among the records in the Record Tower of
Dublin Castle, is catalogued in the 23rd and 24th Reports. Of the
financial records very little has licen published. In the 33rd Report
there is a good account of the Booksof the Treasury ana Accounting
Departments from the reign of Henry VIII. Scattered entries
from the Pipe Rolls (13 Henry III.-33 Edward I.) are printed in
the 33rd and 35th-38th Reports. Before the establishment of the
Record Office the Irish Record Commission published a Latin
calendar of the Patent and Close Rolls from Henry II. to Henry VII.,
and an incomplete calendar in English for the years 5-35 Henry
VIII. Under the authority of the Master of the Rolls a calendar
was published for the period Henry VI II. to Elizabeth, upon which
some severe comments will be found in J.T. Gilbert's The History . . .
of the Public Records of Ireland.
An English calendar for the reign of James I. was published by
the Record Commission; and a calendar for the years 1-8 Charles
I., under the authority of the Master of the Rolls. Two large folio
volumes entitled Liber Hibernie should here be mentioned. The
history and contents of this astounding work can be gathered from
its introduction, and from an index to it in the gth Report. In-
quisitions post mortem and on attainder, for the provinces of Leinster
and Ulster only, are dealt with in the Record Commission's Inquisi-
tionum in officio Rotulorum Cancellarie Hibernie asservatarum Reper-
torium. Of strictly judicial records the Record Office has published one
volume of an admirable calendar of the Justiciary Rolls (1295-1303).
Scotland.
The records of the kingdom are deposited in several places in
Edinburgh. The principal repository is the General Register
House, at present governed by the Act 42 & 43 Viet. c. 44.
But certain records of the chancery and all the records of the couit
of teinds are in separate repositories. A general account of these
records is given in M. Livingstone's Guide to the Public Records of
Scotland deposited in H.M. General Register House, Edinburgh, with
appendices describing those contained in other repositories.
Parliamentary. The Record Commission of Great Britain
published The Acts of the Parliament of Scotland (1124-1707), a
text derived from many sources described in the introductory
volume; The Acts of the Lords Auditors of Causes and Complaints
(1466-1494), being the proceedings of the parliamentary' committee
for hearing petitions; and The Acts of the Lords of Council (1478-
'49S)i being proceedings of a similar body.
Privy Council. The register of the Privy Council of Scotland
from 1545 is in course of publication at the General Register House.
Exchequer. The Exchequer Rolls, corresponding to the Great
Roll of the English Exchequer, are being printed in full from 1264
at the General Register House; and the accounts of the Treasurer
of Scotland from 1473 are being published at the same office.
Chancery. The enrolments of letters issued under the Great
Seal of Scotland are contained in twelve rolls and a series of
volumes. The Record Commission printed these registers in full
for the period 1306-1424; and the General Register House is
continuing the publication in an abridged form.
Court of Chancery. Only the enrolments of letters under the Great
Seal are transferred to the General Register House; the remainder
are preserved in the court of chancery. The most important of
these are the Retours to Chancery. To these the only printed
means of reference is the Inquisitionum ad capettam Domini Regis
retornatarum abbreyiatio (i6th and I7th centuries), published by
the Record Commission.
Local Records.
To deal with the municipal and local records of Great Britain
in any detail is quite impossible in this article. Fortunately the
admirable work of C. Gross, entitled The Bibliography of Municipal
History (Harvard Historical Studies), contains a complete account
of the work done on municipal records up to 1897; while the
Report of the Committee appointed to inquire as to the existing
arrangements for the collection and custody of local records (1902)
affords a complete view of the questions dealt with by it.
9 6 4
RECORD
Private Collections. The publications of the Historical
Manuscripts Commission are in most cases the only printed means
of reference to private muniments. The 1 7th Report of the
Commission contains an index to all the collections of papers so
far dealt with by them.
Wills. Up to the date of the Probate Act (20 & 21 Viet,
c. 77) the proving of wills was under ecclesiastical jurisdiction,
and the wills themselves were scattered among peculiar courts
courts of the various bishops, and the prerogative court of Canter-
bury. By the passing of the act a general registry was established
at Somerset House, to which were transferred all the wills of the
prerogative court of Canterbury and of many of the other registries.
But even at the present time there remains much confusion and
uncertainty as to the place of deposit of the wills of any particular
court; and for accurate information on this point the inquirer
must be referred to the Handbook to the Ancient Courts of Probate
and Depositories of Wills, by G. W. Marshall.
British Colonies.
For the British colonies the most important records, historically
speaking, are the Colonial Office papers deposited in the Public
Record Office, London; and those colonies which have published
the records relating to their history have usually gone to that
source. In New South Wales, however, there is in the Colonial
Secretary's office at Sydney a collection of records dating from
1789, which are included in the volumes published by that State.
Cape Colony possesses records dating from 1652; G. McCall Theal,
historiographer of the colony, has also published important
series of volumes of documents drawn from the Public Record
Office and other European sources. Canada has recently cen-
tralized its records, of which a large part so far consists of
transcripts made in Europe. For an account see E. C. Burnett's
List of printed guides to and descriptions of Archives and other
repositories of Historical Manuscripts (American Historical Manu-
scripts Commission Report, 1897). The Dominion Archivist submits
yearly to the Minister for Agriculture a report, in which (in
Appendices) are given many lists and accounts of records.
European Countries.
In dealing with Great Britain it has seemed desirable to give
some account of publications dealing with the contents of the
repositories described. In the remainder of the article this will
not be attempted. For the most part the books mentioned are
in themselves bibliographies and guides, and do not contain even
abstracts or descriptions of actual documents. It is scarcely
necessary to explain that much of the following information is
based on the work of Langlois and Stein.
AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY. The records of Austria-Hungary,
Bohemia, and the other states under the same government, are
still preserved locally. There are repositories of government
records at Vienna, Budapest and Prague, and ten provincial
places of deposit. Even at Vienna there is nothing resembling
the English Public Record Office; the Kaiserliches und konigliches
Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv contains the papers of the imperial
1 family and the records of imperial administration and of that of
foreign affairs. Of other departmental papers those at the
Ministry of War are the most important. There is no complete
inventory of all these records. At Budapest since 1875 have been
collected the archives of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia and
the government of Fiume: for an account of the records in this
and other Hungarian and Transylvanian repositories see Fr.
Zimmermann's Uber Archiv in Ungarn; ein Fuhrer durch ungar-
Idndische und siebenburgische Archive.
BELGIUM. The records are numerous and valuable.
State Records comprise all those of the central governments,
of the modern kingdom, of the governments preceding it and of
the various states such as Brabant, Flanders, Gueldres and
Hainault out of which Belgium was formed. They are preserved
partly at Brussels as General Records of the Kingdom and partly
in provincial repositories. Thus at Ghent are archives of the
county of Flanders, at Liege of the principality of that name and
of the duchy of Limburg, at Mons of the county of Hainault, at
Bruges of the liberty of Bruges and other jurisdictions of eastern
Flanders; at Namur, Arlon, Hasselt and Tournai are repositories
of less importance: at the same time the repository at Brussels
contains many records of the same kind as those in the provincial
offices and is the chief one of the country; the collection there has
been formed from various collections in Belgium combined with
records restored by the Austrian government and other acquisitions.
Archives Provinciales, the records of provincial administrations
since 1794, are placed in the chief towns of each province: each
collection falls into three periods, French (1794-1814), Dutch
(1814-1830) and Belgian.
Municipal Archives. The most important are those of Antwerp,
Bruges, Ghent, Malines, Mons, Tournai and Ypres.
The best book of general bibliographical reference for Belgian
records is Pirenne's Bibliographie de I'histoire de Belgique.
DENMARK. At Copenhagen there has been, since 1889, a central
Record office (Rigsarchiv) containing all the previously existing
collections of records, and receiving those of the various ministries
and offices. There are also repositories there, and at Odense and
Viborg, for local records, municipal and others. The central
office is publishing a series of inventories of documents in its
charge.
FRANCE. The best general work is Les Archives de I'histoire de
France, by Langlois and Stein. The administration of the records
is attached to the Ministry of Public Instruction, acting through
a commission and inspectors.
Archives NatipnaleS, in the Hotel Spubise at Paris, are divided
into three sections, Historique, Administrative el Domaniale and
Legislative et Judiciaire, each including subsections distinguished
by letters or groups of letters. The classification is by subject,
not necessarily by origin or function; but some of the classes,
e.g. the archives of the Tresor des Charles, the Parliament of Paris
and the Ch&telet, represent real groups of records with a common
history.
Archives des Minisleres. In theory the Archives Nationales
should receive all government office records, except those in
current use: actually several offices retain their own. Thus the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs keeps its archives, divided into
Correspondance politique and Mempires et Documents : it also
publishes series of Inventaires analytiques des Archives du Ministere
des Affaires etrangeres, and Recueils des instructions donnees aux
ambassadeurs et ministres de France depuis les traites de Westphalie
jusqu'a la Revolution franc,aise. The Ministries of War and the
Marine likewise possess and administer their own archives.
Archives Departementales. Each department possesses a
special office for the custody of its records, which are in many
cases of great importance, consisting partly of the records of the
ancient provincial governments, private documents seized at the
Revolution, muniments of religious houses, &c., and partly of
modern administrative records. A system of uniform classification
by subjects has been applied to these, coupled with a rule that
documents having a common history and origin are not to be
separated; it is understood that the intelligence of the archivists
in charge has enabled them to disobey neither of these regulations.
For a general view of the Arrangement and contents of depart -
rnental repositories see Etat general par fonds des archives
departementales, ancien regime et periode revolutionnaire (1903),
and the Inventaires Sommaires for the several departments. For
the publication of local societies see Manuel de bibliographic de
I'histoire, by Ch. V. Langlois, (1901) p. 385 seq.
Archives Municipals et Communales : the value of these
arises largely from their having had an undisturbed history:
inventories of most of the collections exist in print. (See Langlois
and Stein, op. cit. pp. 278-442.)
Archives Jlospitalieres form an important body of records,
for the most part undisturbed. For their classification, and a
list of the repositories of them, see Langlois and Stein, p. 443 seq.;
the many other places in France where records exist are men-
tioned in the same work; note, however, that the archives of the
Bastille are now in the Bibliotheque de I' Arsenal at Paris. There
are in the English Public Record Office seventy-three volumes of
transcripts from French archives, taken partly from the Archives
Nalionales (Letters of Henrietta Maria, &c.) and partly from
Archives Departementales. The Record Office Calendar of Documents ,
France, edited by J. H. Round, containing early monastic charters,
is based on these.
GERMANY. Unfortunately lists of German State archives
(Geheimes Archiv) are not published. Repositories are very
numerous: for their localities, see the Hand- und Addressbuch
der deutschen Archive of C. A. H. Burkhardt (2nd ed., 1887).
In Prussia, besides the central repository at Berlin, there are
sixteen provincial ones of importance. The other kingdoms and
states forming part of the German empire have each their repository,
not always at the capital. Some account of their contents will be
found in Langlois and Stein (op. cit.) and in Fr. von Loher's
Archivlehre. Grundzuge der Geschichte, Aufgaben und Einrichtung
unserer Archive : for the publication of State Records see Dahl-
mann-Waitz, Quellenkunde zur deutschen .Geschichte; and for
Prussian archives in particular R. Koser's Uber den gegenwarligen
Stand der archivalischen Forschung in Preussen (1900). For the
numerous and valuable records of German towns reference may be
made to the works already mentioned. Many of the towns, e.g.
Cologne, publish volumes drawn from their archives, and even
include in them documents from other sources. Of special interest
to English students is Konstantin Hohlbaum's work upon the
Hanse towns. The Record Office has a volume of transcripts
from German archives.
HOLLAND. There is one repository- for each of the eleven states.
That at the Hague, for south Holland, serves also as a central
repository for the whole kingdom. This collection occupies a
special building, and includes the records of Foreign Affairs,
classed under the countries to which they relate, and certain
documents acquired from the collection of Sir Thomas Phillips.
There are many printed and manuscript lists, and access to the
documents is easy. This is also the case with th'e other provincial
archives, of which the most important are those at Arnheim.
RECORD
9 6 5
Hertogenbosch, Groningen, Haarlem, Maastricht, Middclburg
and Utrecht.
Town archives are for the most part well preserved. Printed
inventories generally exist, and in some cases, e.g. at Doesburg,
the archives contain information as to the relations between the
1 1. HIM- and England in the 14111 century.
Dutch repositories have no administrative inter-connexion.
Each archivist reports yearly to the archivist-in-chief of the
kingdom, and since 1878 these Verslagen omtrent Rijks oude
Archieven have been printed.
The English Public Record Office has four volumes of transcripts
from Dutch archives.
ITALY. The administration of the public records of the kingdom
is attached to the Ministry of the Interior, for which office Si^imr
Vazio published (1883) his Relazione sugli archivi di stato iialiani.
There are seventeen repositories, n presenting the ancient divisions
of the kingdom. The most important are the following:
Florence, containing records of the foreign correspondence of
the dukes of Tuscany and the Florentine republic.
Genoa, records of the republic.
Milan, records of the duchy, in particular the registers called
L' Archivio Panigarola.
Modena, records of the family of Este.
Naples, in particular the Cancetteria Angioina, records of the
Angevin kings of Naples, containing documents relative to their
extensive dominions in Provence, Anjou and elsewhere, for a
bibliographical account of which sec Les Archives angevines de
Naples; etudes sur les registres du Rot Charles I", by Paul Durrieu.
Naples also possesses the important Archivio Farnesiano, mainly
records of tne duke of Parma, brought there by Charles I. of Bourbon
on his accession to the throne of the Two Sicilies in 1735.
Palermo, the records of the island of Sicily.
Rome, the most important records of the Archivio di Stato are
those relating to the papal government which were not transferred
to the Vatican in 1871.
Turin, the archives of the house of Savoy, especially the letters
from envoys at foreign courts, a scries of very important reports.
Venice, the convent dei Frari contains probably the most
interesting collection of records in Italy. Rawdon Brown, G.
Cavendish Bentinck, and H. F. Brown have edited many of the
principal documents relating to England in the State Papers:
Venetian (Record Office), which are still in progress. The Record
Office also possesses two hundred and ten volumes of transcripts
from Venetian archives, mostly the reports and correspondence
of ambassadors, together with Rawdon Brown's large collection
of similar materials, mainly originals or early copies (see Report 46).
The Vatican. For the history of the papal archives the work
of H. Bresslau, Handbuch der Urkundenlehre fur Deutschland und
Italien (Leipzig, 1889), may be consulted. The best English
account is contained in an article in the American Historical Review
(October 1896), by C. H. Haskins. But certain of the prefaces
to the Record Office Calendar mentioned below may be consulted ;
and the description given by Langlois and Stein (op. cit.) is useful.
The Vatican archives have been open to students only since the
year 1881. The chief portion of the collection is that called the
Archivio Segreto, which may be divided into two heads, the original
Archivio Segreto and the archives added to it from Avignon, from
the castle of St Angelo and from special offices such as the Consistory,
Dataria Apostolica, Rota, Secretaria Brevium, Signatura Cratiae,
Penitentiary, and Master of the Ceremonies. The records of the
congregations of the Index, the Holy Office and the Propaganda
are not usually accessible to students.
Since 1881 the importance of the archives has attracted to Rome
many bands of students. Most European governments have
arranged for the publication of records dealing with their own
countries. The classes of documents that have received most
attention are the Regesta, or registers of bulls and briefs, issued
by the papal chancery; the Supplicationes, or petitions; and the
Nuntiaturae, or despatches received from the nuncios and instruc-
tions sent to them. An account of the numerous publications
will be found in the works already mentioned. Here it is only
possible to mention the English publications. .The Record Office
in London has published one volume of Petitions, 1342-1417,
and a Calendar from the Regesta, which covers the period 1 198-1431.
The French government is publishing a complete Calendar of the
Regesta up to the end of the 13th century'- There are in the English
Puolic Record Office one hundred and sixty-two volumes of transcripts
from the Vatican archives arranged in two series.
NORWAY. The records of Norway are preserved at Christiania,
and include a collection of papers of Christian II., king of Denmark.
For the contents of the collection, see Diplomatarium Norvegieum,
by Lange and linger (1840-1891); and Norske Rigsregistranter
lildeds i uddrag, dealing with the l6th and l?th centuries,
PORTUGAL. Portuguese royal records are in the monastery of
S5o Bento at Lisbon. The collection suffered much during the
earthquake of 1755. It includes the registers of the Chancery
since the I3th century, and a large number of documents subsidiary
to them. In addition to this repository there are collections at
the various ministries; from the records of the Ministry for Foreign
Affairs, Borges de Castro, and afterwards Judice Biker, published
their Collecfio dos Tratado: . . . entre a Corona de Portugal e as
mats potential. There are three volumes of transcripts from
Portuguese records in the English Public Record Office.
RUSSIA. The records of the Russian government are distributed
in various repositories in Moscow and St Petersburg. At the
former are preserved the records of the foreign relations of Russia
flown to 1801 ; permission to use them can be obtained from the
Minister for Foreign Affairs: there are no printed lists, but many
in manuscript. At Moscow are also preserved the records of the
Ministry of Justice. In vol. xliv. of the Revue historique (1890)
there is an article by J.-J. Chemko and L.-M. Balffol on Lei Archives
de I 'empire russe a Moscow. The records of government offices
.it St Petersburg are not open to students. There are minor re-
positories at various provincial capitals, and the records of the Grand
Duchy of Finland are at Helsingfors. There are three volumes
of transcripts from Russian records at the English Public Record
Office.
SPAIN. The nearest approach to a central Record Office for
Spain is the Archive General Central, established by a royal ordin-
ance of 1858 at Alcala de Henares, near Madrid. The collection
there includes, in addition to the general administrative records of
the kingdom, valuable historical matter concerning the Inquisition,
the Jesuits, and other subjects. There is also at Madrid a repository'
known astheArrhivoHistorico National, which contains the archives
of crown lands and suppressed monasteries, with a printed inventory.
The remaining records are distributed locally in separate reposi-
tories containing the archives of the old kingdoms. Those of
Castile are partly at Simancas and partly at Alcala de Henares.
Those of Aragon are at Barcelona in the Palacio de los Condes.
Those of Navarre are at Pamplona and difficult of access. The
remainder are of small importance.
In addition to the: there are two collections requiring notice,
the Archive general de Indias at Seville and the papers of the Con-
sulado del Mar at Bilbao.
The English Public Record Office is publishing a Calendar of the
papers relating to England in Spanish and other connected archives.
The introduction to the first volume, edited by C. Bergenroth,
contains a sketch of the records used by him ; and the series, under
the successive editorship of Bergenroth, Don Pasouale de Gayangos
and Major Martin Hume, now extends from the reign of Henry VIII.
to the year 1603. The Record Office possesses sixty-five volumes
of transcript from Spanish archives.
SWEDEN. The archives have not yet been centralized, and large
collections exist at the various ministries. The most important
records, however, are the Royal Archives (Rigsarchivet), pre-
served in the island of Riddarholmen, Stockholm. A great many
publications have been based on these: there are for instance an
inventory, Middlelanden fran Svenska Rigsarchivet ; a work bearing
generally on Scandinavian history, Handlingar rorande Scandin-
naviens historia ; and the Diplomatarium Suecicum, which is still
in progress. The English Record Office has seven volumes of
transcripts from the Stockholm archives, with a report.
Private collections are numerous and valuable, and a society for
exploring and publishing such records is supported by the state.
SWITZERLAND. The Swiss records are of two kinds: records of
the confederation, and records of the several cantons. The first
are in the Bundes-Archiv at Berne, and date from 1798; see General
Repertorium der Aden des hehetischen Centralarchivs in Bern,
1798-1803, and Schweizerisches Urkunden-Register, by B. Hidber,
vol. ii. (Berne, 1877). The Cantonal records, some of them of
very early date, are at the chief town of each canton, and for the
most part are provided with manuscript inventories. For those
of Geneva, see also Les Archives de Centre, edited by F. Turrettini
and A. C. Grivel (1877). For the records of the Abbey of St Gall,
see Urkundenbuch der Abtei St Gallen, edited by H. Wartmanne
(1863-1882); and for those of Zurich, Urkundenbuch der Stadt und
Landschaft Zurich, by P. Schweitzer and E. Escher (1889-1892).
There are in the English Public Record Office five volumes of tran-
scripts from the Bundes-Archiv.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The records, among which transcripts made in England, France,
and Holland hold an important place, may be divided into: Federal,
kept at Washington ; those in private collections ; and State Records
at the various state capitals. The publication and care of all
these arc often the work of private bodies subsidized or recognized
by government. Thus, although Federal archives are now centralized
under the charge of the head of the division of Manuscripts in the
Library of Congress, which office is acquiring important collections
of the papers of former presidents, and may also have transferred
to it departmental records not in current use, publication of guides
is the concern of the historical section of the Carnegie Institution
and of the Archives Commission of the Historical Association.
The same association explores private collections through its Histor-
ical Manuscripts Commission; and numerous societies publish
state records. Some states, however, have themselves published
American^ and European documents relating to their history;
and mention must be made of the large series of American Archives
and State Papers published from 1832 onwards by Congress.
9 66
RECORDE RECORDER
The best guide for Federal records is the work of Leland and
Valentine; for a general biblipgraphica 1 work of reference see E. C.
Burnett's List of Printed Guides . . . (Historical MSS. Commission
Report, 1897).
EXTRA VAGANTIA
In various ways records are apt to wander from their proper
custody and to lose their legal character. But in spite of this loss
the historian is bound to pursue them either into the hands of
private collectors or on to the shelves of some museum. No attempt
can be made to discuss private collections or the manuscripts of
foreign libraries. Even among English libraries it must be sufficient
to mention the British Museum as the principal destination of
wandering records. Of the collections in that library the most
important to the student of records are the Cottonian, the Harleian
and the Lansdowne, all catalogued by the Record Commission;
the Additional, catalogued from time to time as fresh matter
accrues; the Egerton, catalogued with the Additional; the Sloans
and the Stowe, both catalogued. No distinction is made between
documents that have been technically " records " and others.
The whole collection is divided technically into Manuscripts, by
which are meant volumes, and Charters and Rolls, meaning de-
tached documents. To the latter class an Index locorum, compiled
by H. F. Ellis and F. B. Bickley, has been printed. (C. G. CR.)
RECORDE, ROBERT (c. 1510-1558), Welsh physician and
mathematician, was descended from a respectable family of Tenby
in Wales. He entered the university of Oxford about 1525,
and was elected fellow of All Souls' College in 1531. Having
adopted medicine as a profession, he went to Cambridge, where
he took the degree of M.D. in 1545. He afterwards returned to
Oxford, where he publicly taught mathematics, as he had done
prior to his going to Cambridge. It appears that he afterwards
went to London, and acted as physician to Edward VI. and to
Queen Mary, to whom some of his books are dedicated. He
died in the King's Bench prison, Southwark, where he was con-
fined for debt, in 1558.
Recorde published several works upon mathematical subjects,
chiefly in the form of dialogue between master and scholar, viz. :
The Grounds of Artes, teachings the Worke and Practise of Arith-
meticke, both in whole numbers and fractions (1540) ; The Pathway
to Knowledge, containing the First Principles of Geometry . . .
bothe for the use of Instrumsntes Geometricall and Astronomicall,
and also for Projection of Platles (London, 1551); The Castle of Know-
ledge, containing the Explication of the Spliere both Celestiall and
Materiall, &c. (London, 1556); The Whetstone of Witte, which is
the second part of Arithmetike, containing the Extraction of Rootes,
the Cossike Practice, with the Rules of Equation, and the Woorkes
of Surde Numbers (London, 1557). This was the first English book
on algebra. He wrote also a medical work, The Urinal of Physic
(1548), frequently reprinted. Sherburne states that Recorde also
published Cosmographiae isagoge, and that he wrote a book De
Arte faciendi Horologium and another De Usu Globorum et de
Statu temporttm. Recorde's chief contributions to the progress
of algebra were in the way of systematizing its notation (see ALGEBRA,
History).
RECORDER, in its original sense, one who sets down or
records. Hence applied to a person with legal knowledge
who was appointed by the mayor and aldermen to " record "
or keep in mind the proceedings of their court, as well as the
customs of the city. The word is now chiefly used of the
principal legal officer of a city or borough having a separate
court of quarter sessions. He must be a barrister of five
years' standing, appointed by the crown and holding office
during good behaviour, and receiving " such yearly salary,
not exceeding that stated in the petition on which the grant of
a separate court of quarter sessions was made," as the sovereign
directs (Municipal Corporations Act 1882, s. 163). The re-
corder holds, once in every quarter of a year, or oftener, if he
thinks fit, a court of quarter sessions in and for the borough.
He is sole judge of the court, " having cognizance of all crimes,
offences, and matters cognizable by courts of quarter sessions
for counties in England," except that he may not allow or
levy any borough rate, or grant licences (s. 165). He is not
eligible to serve in parliament for the borough, or to be an
alderman or councillor, or stipendiary magistrate for the
borough, though he may be revising barrister and is eligible to
serve in Parliament except for the borough. He may be
appointed recorder for two or more boroughs conjointly. He
may, in case of sickness or unavoidable absence, appoint in
writing a barrister of five years' standing to act as deputy
recorder for him. A recorder is ex officio a justice for the
borough.
The recorder of London is judge of the lord mayor 's court,
and one of the commissioners of the central criminal court.
His salary is 4000 a year. He is appointed by the lord mayor
and aldermen, but by the Local Government Act 1888, s. 42,
sub-s. 14, after the vacancy next after the beginning of
the act, no recorder may exercise any judicial function unless
he is appointed by the sovereign to exercise such function.
See QUARTER SESSIONS, COURT OF.
RECORDER, FIPPLE FLUTE or ENGLISH FLUTE (Fr. flute-
a-bec, flute douce, flute anglaise or flute a neuf trous; Ger.
Block- or Plockflote, Schnabelflole, Langflote; Ital. flauto dolce,
flaulo diritto), a medieval flute, blown by means of a whistle
mouthpiece and held vertically in front of the performer like a
clarinet. The recorder only survives in the now almost obsolete
flageolet and in the so-called penny-whistle. The recorder
consisted of a wooden tube, which was at first cylindrical or
nearly so, but became, as the instrument developed and im-
proved, an inverted cone. The whistle mouthpiece has been
traced in almost prehistoric times in Egypt and other Oriental
countries. The principle of the whistle mouthpiece is based on
that of the simplest flutes without embouchure, like the Egyptian
nay, with this modification, that, in order to facilitate the
production of sound, the air current, instead of being directed
through ambient air to the sharp edge of the tube (or the lateral
embouchure in the modern flute), is blown through a chink
directly into a narrow channel. This channel is so constructed
within the mouthpiece that the stream of air impinges with
force against the sharp edge of a lip or fipple cut into the pipe
below the channel. This throws the air current into the state
of vibration required in order to generate sound-waves in the
main column of air within the tube. The inverted cone of the
bore has the effect of softening the tone of the recorder still
further, earning for it the name of flute douce. Being so easy
to play, the recorder always enjoyed great popularity in all
countries until the greater possibilities of the transverse flute
turned the tide against it. The want of character which dis-
tinguishes the timbre of the whistle-flute is due to the paucity
of harmonic overtones in the clang. The recorder had seven
holes in front and one at the back for the thumb. As long as
the tube was made in one piece the lowest hole stopped by the
little finger was generally made in duplicate to serve equally
well for right- and left-handed players, the unused hole being
stopped with wax. Being an open pipe, the recorder could
overblow the octave and even the two following harmonics
(i.e. the twelfth and second octave). The holes produced the
diatonic scale, and by means of harmonics and cross-fingering
the second and part of a third octave were obtained.
The recorder is described and figured by Sebastian Virdung,
Martin Agricola and Ottmar Luscinius in the l6th century, and
by Michael Praetorius and Marin Mersenne in the I7th century.
Praetorius mentions eight different sizes ranging from the small
flute two octaves above the cornetto to the great bass. The lowest
notes of the large flutes were provided with keys enclosed in per-
forated wooden or brass cases, which served to protect the mechan-
ism, as yet somewhat primitive; the keys usually had double
touch pieces to suit right- or left-handed players.
There are at least two fine sets of recorders extant : one is pre-
served in the Germanisches Museum at Nuremberg, consisting of
eight flutes in a case and dating from the i/th century; the other
is the Chester set of four 18th-century instruments, which are fully-
described and illustrated in a paper by Joseph C. Bridge. 1
The recorder has been immortalized by Shakespeare in the
famous scene in Hamlet (II. 3), which has been treated from the
musical point of view in an excellent and carefully written article
by Christopher Welch, the author of an equally valuable paper,
" The Literature of the Recorder." 2
The small whistle-pipe used to accompany the tabor (Fr. galoubel ;
Ger. Stamentienpfeiff or Schwegel), which had but three holes,
belongs to the same family as the recorder, but from its association
with the tabor it acquired distinctive characteristics (see PIPE AND
TABOR). (K. S.)
1 " The Chester Recorders " in Proc. Mus. Assoc., London, 1901.
" Hamlet and the Recorder," ibid., 1902 and 1898.
RECTOR REDBREAST
967
RECTOR (Lat. for "ruler," "guide," &c., from regere,
" rule "), a title given to the bearers of certain ecclesiastical
and academical offices; In the Roman empire, after Constan-
tine, the title rector was borne by governors of provinces
subordinate to the prefects or exarchs. In the middle ages it
was given to certain secular officials, e.g. the podestas of some
Italian towns, but more especially to the heads of the univer-
sities, the representatives and rulers of the universitas magis-
trurum et scholarium, elected usually for a very short time.
After the humanistic movement of the Renaissance the style
rector was also given to the chief masters of schools containing
several classes, and in some parts of Germany (e.g. Saxony,
Wilrttcmbcrg) it is still thus used instead of the more modern
title of Director. Rector is also still the title of the heads of
the Scottish universities (Lord Rector), who are elected for
three years, and of the German universities (Rector Magnificus),
in which the office is held for a year by a representative of each
faculty in turn. In those German universities where the
rectorship is held by the sovereign (Rector Magnificentissimus),
the acting head is known as Prorector. " Rector" is also the
title of the heads of Exeter and Lincoln Colleges, Oxford. The
heads of all Jesuit colleges are " rectors."
As an ecclesiastical title rector was once loosely used for
rulers of the Church generally, whether bishops, abbots or
parish priests (see Du Cange, Rectores ecclesiarum) . The Rectores
Apostolici Palrimonii were clerics of the Roman Curia charged
with the duty of looking after the interests of the patrimony
of St Peter. The ecclesiastical title rector, however, became
ultimately confined in certain parts of Europe (Poland, Spain
and notably England) to the office of a priest having a cure of
souls. In its English use it is thus synonymous with " curate"
in the sense used in the Prayer Book. In the middle ages
a large number of rectories were held by religious houses,
which drew the bulk of the tithes and appointed vicars to do
the work. Hence the modern distinction in England between
rectors and vicars. A rector is incumbent of a benefice never
held under a monastery, and he receives all the tithes; a vicar
(i.e. of an ancient benefice) draws only such tithes as were left
to the benefice by the religious house which held it. On the
suppression of the monasteries the " great tithes " were often
bestowed by the crown on laymen, who, as owning the rectorial
tithes, were and are known as " lay rectors." It follows that,
rectories being usually richer than vicarages, the style of
" rector " is in England slightly more dignified than that of
" vicar." In the American Protestant Episcopal Church the
incumbents of churches are called rectors.
RECUSANT (from Lat. recusare, to refuse), the name, in English
history, given in the i6th and iyth centuries to those persons
who persisted in refusing to attend the services of the English
Church, and particularly to those of the Roman Catholic
faith (see ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, English Law).
REDAN, in fortification, a work of V-shape presenting a salient
angle towards the expected attack. The gorge (rear) of a redan
is open. When unsupported by other works, it has the dis-
advantage that its fire is divergent and but few guns can be
brought to bear directly towards the front. Further, both its
faces are usually open to enfilade. Redans were therefore almost
always used in conjunction with other works, one of the most
common forms being the " lines of redans " used as field works.
These consisted of lengths of plain trenches facing the front,
with redans at intervals along the line. In the present day
the term redan is loosely applied to works merely possessing
saliency, as in the case of the celebrated bastions Nos. 3 and 2
at Sevastopol in 1854-55, usually called the " Redan " and
" Little Redan " respectively (see CRIMEAN WAR). The
" Redan " was a large work of irregular outline, generally
resembling a redan, but having the salient angle blunted or
rounded off and the side faces broken into several minor fronts
so as to obtain a field of fire in many directions. (See FORTI-
FICATION AND SlEGECRAFT.)
RED BANK, a borough of Monmouth county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on an estuary known as Navesink river, at the head of
navigation, about 6 m. W. of the Atlantic Ocean, and about
25 m. S. of New York City. Pop. (1905) 6263; (1910) 7398.
Red Bank is served by the Central of New Jersey and the
Pennsylvania railways, and by steamboats to New York, and is
connected with the neighbouring towns by electric lines. It is a
residential suburb of New York City and a summer resort. In
the winter ice-boating is a popular amusement, and Red Bank
has fish and oyster industries of some importance.
The name Red Bank was applied to this locality as early as
1734, and in 1781 there were several buildings within the limits
of the present borough. Red Bank was incorporated as a town
in 1870 and became a borough in 1908. Near Red Bank was
established in 1843 the North' American phalanx, a Fouricrile
community, with a capital of about $8000 and 112 members,
on about 673 acres; it was financially the most successful and
the longest lived of the Fourierist phalansteries in America,
but broke up in 1855 because of internal dissensions, following
a fire which destroyed the mills. 1
REDBREAST, 2 or ROBIN, perhaps the favourite among
English birds because of its pleasing colour, its sagacity and
fearlessness of man, and its cheerful song, even in winter.
In July and August the hedgerows of the southern counties of
England are beset with redbreasts, not in flocks, but each
individual keeping its own distance from the next 3 all, how-
ever, on their way to cross the Channel. On the European
continent the migration is still more marked, and the redbreast
on its autumnal and vernal passages is the object of bird-
catchers, since its value as a delicacy has long been recognized.
Even those redbreasts which stay in Britain during the winter
are subject to a migratory movement. The first sharp frost
makes them change their habitation, and a heavy fall of snow
drives them towards the homesteads for food. The redbreast
exhibits a curious uncertainty of temperament in regard to
its nesting habits. At times it will place the utmost confidence
in man, and at times show the greatest jealousy. The nest
is usually built of moss and dead leaves, with a moderate lining
of hair. In this are laid from five to seven white eggs, sprinkled
or blotched with light red.
Besides the British Islands, the redbreast (Motacitta rubecula
of Linnaeus and the Erilhatus rubecula of modern authors) is
generally dispersed over the continent of Europe, and is in
winter found in the oases of the Sahara. Its eastern limits
are not well determined. In northern Persia it is replaced by
a nearly allied form, Erithacus hyrcanus, distinguishable by its
1 The borough of Red Bank should be distinguished from a place
of the same name in Gloucester county, New Jersey, about 6 m.
below Camden, on the Delaware river, nearly opposite the mouth
of the Schuylkill river, which was the site of Fort Mercer in the
American War of Independence. Fort Mercer, with Fort Mifflin
(nearly opposite it on an island in the Delaware), prevented the
co-operation of the British navy with the army which had occupied
Philadelphia in September. On the 22nd of October Fort Mercer,
held by 600 men under Col. Christopher Greene (1737-1781), was
unsuccessfully attacked by a force of about 2500 men, mostly
Hessians, under Col. Carl Emil Kurt von Donop, the Hessian*
losing aboui 400 men, including Donop, who was mortally wounded.
The British naval force was prevented by the " Pennsylvania
navy " under John Hazelwqod (c. 1726-1800) from talcing part in
the attack; two British ships were destroyed; and the fire from
the American vessels added to the discomfiture of the Hessians.
On the I5th of November Fort Mifflin was destroyed after a five
days' bombardment from batteries on the Pennsylvania shore atid
from British vessels in the rear; and on the aoth Fort Mercer was
abandoned before Cornwallis's approach and was destroyed by
the British. Philadelphia was then put in touch with Admiral
I lime's fleet and with New York City. Near Red Bank a monu-
ment to Christopher Greene was erected in 1829.
1 English colonists in distant lands have applied the common
nkkname of the redbreast to other birds that are not immediately
allied to it. The ordinary " robin " of North America is a thrush,
Turdus migratorius (see FIELDFARE), and one of the bluebirds
of the same continent, Sialia sialis, is in ordinary speech the blue
"robin"; the Australian and Pacific "robins" of the genus
Pelroeca are of doubtful affinity and have not all even the red
breast; the Cape " robin " is Cossophya caffra, the Indian " robin "
THamnobia and the New Zealand " robin Uiro.
' It is a very old saying that Unum arbvstutn non altt duos eritka-
cos One bush does not harbour two redbreast ^.
9 68
REDCAR REDMOND
more ruddy hues, while in northern China and Japan another
species, E. akahige, is found of which the sexes differ somewhat
in plumage the cock having a blackish band below his red
breast and greyish-black flanks, while the hen closely resembles
the familiar British species but both cock and hen have the
tail of chestnut-red. The genus Erithacus, as well as that
containing the other birds to which the name " robin " has been
applied, with the doubtful exception of Petroeca, belong to the
sub-family Turdinae.of the thrushes (<?..).
REDCAR, a watering-place in the Cleveland parliamentary
division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. N.E.
of Middlesbrough, on a branch of the North-Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district (including the township of Coatham,
1901) 7695. Its long range of firm sands from Tees mouth to
Saltburn, a distance of 10 m., has made it a popular summer
resort. Race meetings are held here on Whit Monday and
Tuesday, a'nd in August. Redcar is close to the Cleveland
iron- working district of which the centre is Middlesbrough,
and is in great favour with the large industrial population of
that district.
REDDITCH, a town in the eastern parliamentary division
of Worcestershire, England, situated on an eminence near
the Warwickshire border, 155 m. S. of Birmingham by the
Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 13,493. It
is the centre of a district producing needles and fish-hooks.
There are also motor-engineering works. The town possesses
a literary and scientific institute (1850). In the modern church
of St Stephen (1854) are preserved tiles from the former
Cistercian abbey of Bordesley, founded in 1138, of which the
site may be traced at Bordesley Park, 2 m. N.
REDESDALE, JOHN FREEMAN-MITFORD, BARON (1748-
1830), English lawyer and politician, younger son of John
Mitford (d. 1761) and brother of the historian William Mitford,
was born in London on the i8th of August 1748. Having
become a barrister of the Inner Temple in 1777, he wrote
A Treatise on the Pleadings in Suits in the Court of Chancery by
English Bill, a work of great value, which has been reprinted
several times in England and America. In 1788 Mitford became
member of parliament for the borough of Beeralston in Devon,
and in 1791 he introduced the important bill for the relief of
Roman Catholics, which was passed into law. In 1793 he
succeeded Sir John Scott, afterwards Lord Eldon, as solicitor-
general for England, becoming attorney-general six years later,
when he was returned to parliament as member for East Looe,
in Cornwall. In February 1801 Sir John Mitford (as he was
now) was chosen speaker of the House of Commons. Exactly
a year later, he was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland and
was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Redesdale.
Being an outspoken opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation,
Redesdale was unpopular in Ireland. In February 1806 he
was dismissed on the formation of the ministry of Fox and
Lord Grenville. Although Redesdale declined to return to
official life, he was an active member of the House of Lords
both on its political and its judicial sides. In 1813 he
secured the passing of acts for the relief of insolvent debtors,
and later he was an opponent of the repeal of the Test and
Corporation Acts and of other popular measures of reform.
Redesdale, who was a fellow of the Royal Society and a member
of three commissions on the public records, died on the i6th of
January 1830. In 1803 he married Frances (d. 1817), daughter
of John, 2nd earl of Egmont. He took the additional name of
Freeman in 1809 on succeeding to the estates of Thomas Edwards
Freeman.
His only son, John Thomas Freeman Mitford (1805-1886),
succeeded to the title. In 1851 he was chosen chairman of
committees in the House of Lords, a position which he retained
until his death, and in 1877 he was created earl of Redesdale.
His chief interest was reserved for ecclesiastical questions,
and he won some repute as a Protestant controversialist. He
assisted to revive Convocation in 1853; was an active opponent
of the disestablishment of the Irish Church; and engaged in
controversy with Cardinal Manning on the subject of com-
munion in both kinds. On his death, on the 2nd of May 1886,
his titles became extinct. He wrote Thoughts on English
Prosody and Translations from Horace, and Further Thoughts
on English Prosody (Oxford, 1859), in addition to various pam-
phlets on ecclesiastical topics.
The earl bequeathed his estates to his kinsman, Algernon
Bertram Freeman-Mitford (b. 1837), a great-grandson of William
Mitford. He had been in the diplomatic service from 1858 to
1873, and had been secretary to the Office of Works from 1874
to 1886. From 1892 to 1895 he was member of parliament for
the Stratford-on-Avon division of Warwickshire, and he was
created Baron Redesdale in 1902. He was well known for his
writings on Japan, Tales of Old Japan (1871), The Attache at
Peking (1900), &c.
See O. J. Burke, History of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland (Dublin,
1879); J- R- O'Flanagan, Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland
(1870); Sir J. Barrington, Personal Sketches of His Own Times
(1869); Sir S. E. Brydges, Autobiography (1834); and C. Abbot,
Lord Colchester, Diary and Correspondence (London, 1861).
REDFERN, a municipality of Cumberland county, New
South Wales, Australia, adjoining the city of Sydney on the
S.S.W. Pop. (1901) 24,282. It is a busy manufacturing centre,
having numerous ironworks, coach factories, boot factories,
printing works, iron and brass foundries, soap factories and
extensive railway works.
REDGRAVE, RICHARD (1804-1888), English artist, was born
at Pimlico on the 3Oth of April 1804, and worked at first as a
designer. He became a student in the Royal Academy Schools
in 1826, and was elected an Associate in 1840 and an Acade-
mician in 1851 (retired, 1882). His " Gulliver on the Farmer's
Table " (1837) made his reputation as a painter. He began in
1847 a connexion with the Government Art Schools which lasted
for a long term of years, and among other posts he held those
of inspector-general of art in the Science and Art Department,
and art director of the South Kensington Museum. He was
greatly instrumental in the establishment of this institution,
and he claimed the credit of having secured the Sheepshanks
and Ellison gifts for the nation. He was also surveyor of the
royal pictures. He was offered, but declined, a knighthood
in 1869. Redgrave was an assiduous painter of landscape and
genre; his best pictures being " Country Cousins " (1848) and
" The Return of Olivia " (1848), both in the national collection,
" The Sempstress " (1844), " Well Spring in the Forest " (1865).
He died on the I4th of December 1888.
See the Memoir by F. M. Redgrave, 1891.
REDLANDS, a city of San Bernardino county, in southern
California, U.S.A., 67 m. (by rail) E. of Los Angeles. Pop. (1900)
4797J (i9 IQ ) io,449- It is served by the Southern Pacific and the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6 railways and by interurban
electric lines. The city lies at an altitude of 1350-1600 ft. at
the eastern end of the San Bernardino Valley, surrounded on
three sides by mountains. To the east Grayback (11,725 ft.)
and San Bernardino (11,600 ft.), to the south-east San Jacinto
(10,805 ft-), and to the north-west Cajon Pass (4119 ft.) and San
Antonio, of Old Baldy (10,142 ft.), are conspicuous landmarks.
The city is a well-known tourist and health resort, with beautiful
drives. Canyon Crest Park (Smiley Heights) contains about
300 acres, and Prospect Park 50 acres. The city has the
A. K. Smiley Public Library, the gift of A. K. Smiley, and
is the seat of the University of Redlands (Baptist; co-educa-
tional), incorporated in 1907 and opened in 1909. Redlands is
one of the most famous orange-growing and shipping centres
of California; it also ships other citrus fruits, olive oil, barley,
wheat and stone. Olive oil and jam, marmalade and preserved
fruits are manufactured. There are electric power plants in
the mountains (three in Mill Creek Canyon and two in Santa
Ana Canyon). A settlement called Lugonia was established
within the limits of the present city in 1874, but Redlands dates
from 1887, when it was settled by people from New England,
and was chartered as a city.
REDMOND, JOHN EDWARD (1851- ), Irish politician,
son of W. A. Redmond, M.P., was born at Waterford in 1851.
REDON RED RIVER
969
He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called
to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1886, and subsequently to the Irish
bar, though he never practised. He was a clerk in the vote
office of the House of Commons before he entered parliament
in 1 88 1 as member for New Ross. From 1885 to 1891 he
represented North Wexford. As party whip he rendered great
service to the Irish members by his thorough grasp of the
procedure of the House. At the time of the rupture of the Irish
party consequent on the Parnell scandals, Redmond was the
most eloquent member of the minority who continued to
recognize his leadership, and in 1891 he became the accredited
leader of the Parnellites. In 1900 the two Nationalist parties
were amalgamated under his leadership. He contested Cork
unsuccessfully in 1891, but was elected for Waterford, where
he was re-elected in 1906. (For the political events under his
leadership of the Irish parliamentary party up to 1910, see
IRELAND: History; ENGLISH HISTORY and allied articles.)
REDON. a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 45 m. S.S.W. of
Rennes by rail. Pop. (1006) 5170. Redon is situated on the
right bank of the Vilaine, above the confluence of the Oust and
on the canal from Nantes to Brest. The Church of St Sauveur,
formerly belonging to an abbey, has a Romanesque central
tower, square in form but with rounded angles. A fine tower
of the I4th century with a stone spire stands isolated from the
church, from which it was separated owing to the destruction
of part of the nave by fire in 1782. The choir, with ambulatory
and radiating chapels, forms one of the most remarkable
examples of 13th-century architecture in Brittany. The abbey
has been converted into an ecclesiastical college. Some 16th-
century timbered houses have interesting carvings. The
industries include the manufacture of emery and polish, agri-
cultural implements and boat-building, tanning, brewing and
flour-milling. The port is accessible at high tides for vessels
of 600 to 700 tons. Redon grew up round a monastery founded
in the first half of the 9th century. In the i4th century Jean
de Tr6al, one of the abbots, surrounded the town with walls,
of which a remnant is still to be seen. .
REDONDA, an island in the British West Indies. It is a
dependency of Antigua, and lies 25 m. S.W. of it, in 25 6' N.
and 61 35' W. Pop. (1001) 120. It is a rocky mountain,
rising abruptly from the sea to a height of 1000 ft., and
has an area of J sq. m. It is valuable for its phosphate of
alumina (discovered in 1865), of which 7000 tons are exported
every year to the United' States.
REDONDELA, a town of north-western Spain, in the pro-
vince of Pontevedra; 7 m. N.E. of Vigo, in a bend of the Vigo
estuary, and at the junction of the Tuy-Vigo and Vigo-Ponte-
vedra railways. Pop. (1000) 10,843. The river is only acces-
sible for small coasting vessels; it is the headquarters of a
prosperous fishing industry. In the neighbourhood are ruins
of several medieval castles, and the fine hall of the Marquess
Vega de Armijo.
REDOUBT (Fr. redoute, from Med. Lat. reduclus, a place of
retreat, refuge, reducere, lead back, retire; the intrusive b is
due to the O. Fr. redoubter, to fear, Lat. dubitare, to doubt), a
term in fortification for a small closed work of plain trace,
generally used in conjunction with lines of infantry trenches
(see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). The term " reduit "
(Fr. rlduit), often confused with " redoubt," is only used for a
keep or interior refuge for the garrison of a larger work, corre-
sponding, on a small scale, to the citadel of a fortress.
RED RIVER, the name of two American rivers, one emptying
into the Mississippi near its mouth, and the other emptying into
Lake Winnipeg.
i. The Red river, sometimes called the Red River of
Louisiana, is the southernmost of the large tributaries of the
Mississippi. It rises in northern Texas, in the northern part
of the Staked Plains, or Llano Estacado, flows E. by S. in Texas,
between Texas and Oklahoma, and to Fulton, in south-western
Arkansas, there turns S.E. and continues in a general south-
easterly direction through Louisiana to the bank of the Mississippi,
where it discharges partly into the Mississippi and partly into
the Atchafalaya. Its length is estimated at 1200 m. or more;
its drainage basin has an area of at least 90,000 sq. m.; and its
discharge ranges from 3500 cub. ft. to 180,000 cub. ft. per second.
It is somewhat saline in its upper course, and in its middle and
lower course is laden with a reddish silt from which it takes its
name. From an elevation on the Staked Plains of about
2450 ft., the river plunges into a canyon which is about 60 m.
long and has nearly perpendicular walls of sandstone and
gypsum formation 500 to 800 ft. high. Immediately below the
canyon the river spreads out over a broad and sandy bed and
flows for about 500 m. through a semi-arid plain. It narrows
on entering the alluvial bottom lands, through which it pursues
a sluggish and meandering course for the last 600 m. At high
stages, from December to June, it is continually shifting its
channel in this part of its course, by eroding one bank and
making deposits on the other, and as the upper portion is densely
wooded the falling trees, unless removed, become an obstruction
to navigation. In 1828 the trees which the river had felled
formed the great " Red River raft" extending from Loggy
Bayou, 65 m. below Shreveport, Louisiana, to Hurricane
Bluffs, 27 m. above Shreveport. Congress began in that year
to make appropriations for the removal of the raft, and by 1841
Henry M. Shreve had opened a channel. The river was neglected
from 1857 to 1872 and another raft, 32 m. in length, formed above
Shreveport. A channel was opened through this in 1872-73,
and the complete removal of the obstruction a few years later
so improved the drainage that a large tract of waste land was
reclaimed. In its course through Louisiana the river has built
up a flood-plain with silt deposits more rapidly than its tribu-
taries, with the result that numerous lakes and bayous have
been formed on either side, and Cypress Bayou was so flooded
that boats plied between Shreveport, Louisiana and Jefferson.
Texas, 45 m. apart; but with the improvement of the river these
lakes have become shallow or dry. For the improvement of
navigation here not only the removal of snags is necessary, but
there must be dredging, closure of outlets, building of levees to
narrow and deepen the channel, and revetment works to protect
the banks. The cost of these works has been great (up to July
1909 more than $2,360,000 below Fulton, Arkansas, and more
than $215,000 above Fulton), but they have rendered the river
navigable, except at very low stages, by vessels drawing 3 ft. of
water from its mouth to Fulton, Arkansas, a distance of 508-6 m.,
and at the highest stages, 1 in March and April, it is navigable
to Denison, Texas, 292 m. farther up. The Ouachita and
Black (one river), which is the principal tributary of the Red,
joins it near its mouth and is navigable at high stages to Arka-
delphia, Arkansas; and in 1910 a system of nine locks with
movable dams was under construction by the Federal govern-
ment for the purpose of securing a channel 6J ft. deep at all
stages to a point 10 m. above Camden, Arkansas, a distance of
360 m.
During the Civil War, in March and April 1864, Major-General
Nathaniel P. Banks conducted a combined military and naval
expedition up the Red river in an attempt to open a Federal
highway to Texas, but on the 8th of April the vanguard of his
army was repulsed with heavy loss at Sabine Cross-Roads by
the Confederates under Lieutenant-General Richard Taylor
and the expedition was abandoned; the gunboats commanded
by D. D. Porter were held above Alexandria by the lowness of
the river, but it was flooded by a hurriedly built dam, and they
escaped.
See R. B. Marcy and G. B. McClellan, Exploration of the Red River
of Louisiana (Washington, 1853), and the annual Reports of the
Chief of Engineers of the U.S. Army.
2. The Red river, commonly called the Red River of the
North, rises in the lake region of western Minnesota, not far from
the headwaters of the Mississippi, flows north between Minnesota
and North Dakota, continues northward through the Canadian
province of Manitoba, and discharges into Lake Winnipeg.
It has cut a gorge 20-50 ft. deep through clay deposits through-
1 The range between low water and high water at Fulton is 35-65 ft.
RED RIVER SETTLEMENT RED SEA
out the greater part of its course; it drains a region that is
famous for the production of wheat; and much water power has
been developed on its tributaries. The United States govern-
ment has improved its channel from the international boundary
to Breckenridge, Minnesota, a distance of 395-5 m., and occasion-
ally the water reaches a height which permits small steamboats
to ascend its S.W. branch to Lake Traverse and from there to
descend the Minnesota river to the Mississippi.
RED RIVER SETTLEMENT, a Scottish colony founded in
1811 near the present city of Winnipeg by a philanthropic
Scottish nobleman, Lord Selkirk, who at that time controlled
the Hudson's Bay Company. Quarrels soon arose with the
French and half-breed employes of the North- West Fur Company,
and were fostered by its officials. On June 19, 1816, in a
fight between the rivals, Governor Semple of the Hudson's
Bay Company and twenty of his twenty-seven attendants were
killed, an affair known as the Battle of Seven Oaks. New
settlers were sent by Selkirk, and founded the village of Kildonan,
now part of Winnipeg. In 1821 the rival companies united,
and in 1836 repurchased from Selkirk's heirs all rights to the
territory. In 1821 and in 1835 two forts, known as Lower and
Upper Fort Garry, were built to command the junction of the
Red and Assiniboine rivers, and around them grew up a mixed
population of Scots, French and Indians. The purchase in
1869 of the territorial rights of the Company by the Dominion
of Canada led to a rebellion, and the setting up of a provisional
government under Louis Riel, which was dispersed by a force of
British regulars under Colonel (later Lord) Wolseley.
See CANADA (History); also George Bryce, Remarkable History
of the Hudson's Bay Company (1900).
REDRUTH, a market town in the Camborne parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, 17 m. E.N.E. of Penzance, on
the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
10,451. It lies high, on the northward slope of the central
elevation of the county, with bare rocky moors to the south.
It is the chief mining town in Cornwall, and the bulk of the
population is engaged in the tin mines or at the numerous tin-
streaming works. The parish church of St Uny, of which only
the tower is ancient (Perpendicular), stands outside the town to
the west, at the foot of a rugged hill named Cam Brea. On the
summit of this hill, besides a monument (1836) to Lord de
Dunstanville and a small ancient castle, various prehistoric
remains are traceable. A museum attached to the science and
art schools and a miners' hospital are notable institutions in
Redruth. A large quantity of the tin is sold by public auction
at the mining exchange, the sales being known as tin-ticketings.
There are manufactures of safety fuses, breweries, iron foundries
and railway works. Tramways serve the neighbouring mines
and the small port of Portreath on the north coast.
RED SEA, a narrow strip of water extending S.S.E. from
Suez to the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb in a nearly straight line,
and separating the coasts of Arabia from those of Egypt, Nubia
and Abyssinia. Its total length is about 1-200 m., and its
breadth varies from about 250 m. in the southern half to
130 m. in 27 45' N., where it divides into two parts, the
Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Akaba, separated from each other
by the peninsula of Sinai.
The Gulf of Suez is shallow, and slopes regularly down to
the northern extremity of the Red Sea basin, which has a
DC ths. maximum depth of 640 fathoms, and then over a
shoal of 60 fathoms goes down to 1200 fathoms in
22 7' N. The Gulf of Akaba is separated from the Red Sea by
a submarine bank only 70 fathoms from the surface, and in
28 39' N. and 34 43' E. it attains the depth of 700 fathoms.
South of the i2oo-fathom depression a ridge rises to 500 fathoms
in the latitude of Jidda, and south of this again a similar depres-
sion goes down to 1190 fathoms. Throughout this northern part,
i.e. to the banks of Suakin and Farsan in 20 N., the loo-fathom
line keeps to a belt of coral reef close inshore, but in lower
latitudes the shallow coral region, 300 m. long and 70 to 80 m.
across, extends farther and farther seaward, until in the latitude
of Hodeda the deep channel (marked by the ico-fathom line) is
only 20 m. broad, all the rest of the area being dangerous to
navigation, even for small vessels. In the middle of the gradu-.
ally narrowing channel three depressions are known to exist;
soundings in two of these are: mo fathoms in 20 N. and 890
fathoms in 16 N., a little to the north of Massawa. To the
north-west of the volcanic island of Zebayir the depth is less
than $00 fathoms; the bottom of the channel rises to the 100-
fathom line at Hanish Island (also volcanic), then shoals to 45
fathoms, and sinks again in about the latitude of Mokha in a
narrow channel which curves westward round the island of
Perim (depth 170 fathoms), to lose itself in the Indian Ocean.
This western channel is 16 m. wide in the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb;
the eastern channel of the strait is 2 m. broad and 16 fathoms
deep.
Murray estimates the total area at 158,750 sq. m., and its
volume at 67,700 cub. m., giving a mean depth of 375 fathoms.
Karstens gives the area at 448,810 sq. kilometres Area,
(130,424 sq. geographical m.) and the volume at volume
206,901 cub. kilometres (32,413 cub. geographical and mean
m.), which gives a mean depth of 2.52 fathoms. ep
Both these computations, however, were made before the date
of the Austrian exploring expeditions (1896-98). Bludau's
measurements give the total area draining to the Red Sea
at about 255,000 sq. geographical m. Kriimmers more
recent calculations (see OCEAN) give values somewhat higher
than those of Karstens.
The Red Sea is formed by a line of fracture, probably dating
from Pliocene times, crossing the centre of a dome of Archean
rocks, on both flanks of which, in Egypt and Arabia, ,,
rest Secondary and Tertiary deposits. The granite rocks tjoa
forming the core of the dome appear at the surface on the
Red Sea coast, at the western end of the transverse line of heights
crossing Nejd. Along the line of fracture traces of volcanic activity
are frequent; a group of volcanic islands occurs in 14 N., and on
Jebel Teir, farther north, a volcano has only recently become
extinct. The margin of the Red Sea itself consists, on the Arabian
side, of a strip of low plain backed by ranges of barren hills of coral
and sand formation, and here and there by mountains of consider-
able height. The greater elevations are for the most part formed
of limestones, except in the south, where they are largely volcanic.
The coasts of the Gulf of Akaba are steep, with numerous coral
reefs on both sides. On the African side there are in the north
wide stretches of desert plain, which towards the south rise to
elevated tablelands, and ultimately to the mountains of Abyssinia.
The shores of the Red Sea are little indented; good harbours are
almost wanting in the desert regions of the north, while in the
south the chief inlets are at Massawa, and at Kamaran, almost
directly opposite. Coral formations are abundant; immense
reefs, both barrier and fringing, skirt both coasts, often enclosing
wide channels between the reef and the land. The reefs on the
eastern side are the more extensive; they occur in places as much
as 25 m. from the land. It has long been known that the whole
Red Sea area is undergoing gradual elevation, and much has been
done in recent years in investigating the levels of raised beaches
found in different localities.
In the northern part, down to almost 19 N., the prevailing
winds are north and north-west. The middle region, to l4-i6 N.,
has variable winds in an area of low barometric pres- Meteor-
sure, while in the southern Red Sea south-east and / ojey .
east winds prevail. From June to August the north-
west wind blows over the entire area; in September it retreats
again as far as 16 N., south of which the winds are for a time
variable. In the Gulf of Suez the westerly, or " Egyptian," wind
occurs frequently during winter, sometimes blowing with violence,
and generally accompanied by fog and clouds of dust. Strong
north-north-east winds prevail in the Gulf of Akaba during the
greater part of the year; they are weakest in April and May,
sometimes giving place at that season to southerly breezes. The
high temperature and great relative humidity make the summer
climate of the Red Sea one of the most disagreeable in the world.
The mean annual temperature of the surface waters near the
head is 77 F.; it rises to 80 in about 22 N., to 84 in 16 N.,
and drops again to 82 at the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb. fetapera-
Daily variations of temperature are observable to a tafg ^
depth of over 50 fathoms. Temperature is,, on the
whole, higher near the Arabian than the Egyptian side, but it
everywhere diminishes with increase of depth and latitude, down
to 380 fathoms from the surface; below this depth a uniform
constant temperature of 70-7 F. is observed throughout. In the
Gulf of Suez temperature is iclatively low, falling rapidly from
south to north. The waters of the Gulf of Akaba are warmer
towards the Arabian than the Sinai coasts; a uniform temperature
of 70-2 is observed at all depths below 270 fathoms.
REDSHANK REDSTART
971
The salinity of the waters is relatively great, the highest re-
corded being 42-7 per mille (Gulf of Suez), and the lowest 36-2
(Perira harbour). The distribution is, speaking
Salinity. generally, the opposite to that of temperature; salinity
increases from the surface downwards, and from the south north-
wards, and it is greater towards the western than the eastern side.
This statement holds good for the Gulf of Suez, in which the water
is much salter than in the open sea; but in the Gulf of Akaba
the distribution is exceedingly uniform, nowhere differing much
from an average of 40-6 per mine.
The movements of the waters are of great irregularity and com-
plexity, rendering navigation difficult and dangerous. Two
features stand out with special distinctness: the ex-
Clrcula- change of water between the Red Sea and the Indian
tloo. Ocean, and the tidal streams of the Gulf of Suez.
From the observations of salinity it is inferred that a surface
current flows inwards to the Red Sea in the eastern channel of the
Strait of Bab el-Mandeb, while a current of very salt water flows
outward to the Indian Ocean, through the western channel, at a
depth of 50 to 100 fathoms from the surface. In the Gulfs of Suez
and Akaba, almost the only part of the Red Sea in which tidal
phenomena are well developed, a sharply denned tidal circulation
is found. Elsewhere the surface movements at least are controlled
by the prevailing winds, which give rise in places to complex
" transverse " currents, and near the coast are modified by the
channels enclosed by the coral reefs. During the prevalence of
the north and north-west winds the surface level of the northern
part of the Red Sea is depressed by as much as 2 ft. The great
evaporation going on from the surface probably causes a slow vertical
circulation in the depth, the salter colder waters sinking, and
ultimately escaping to the Indian Ocean. Extensive collections
of the deposits forming the bed were made by the expeditions
of the Austrian ship " Pola " (1896 and 1898). These were analysed
by Dr K. Natterer, whose conclusions, however, have been disputed
by a number of other investigators. The zoological collections
of the " Pola " expeditions show that certain well-defined districts
are extremely rich in plankton, while others are correspondingly
poor; and it appears that the latter occur in districts surrounded
by currents of relatively low temperature, while the richer parts
are where the movements of water are blocked by irregularities
in the coast-line.
AUTHORITIES. A. Issel, Morfologia e genesi del Mar Rosso.
Saggio di Paleogeografia, Congresso Geogr. Ital. (Florence, 1899);
" Die Korallenriffc der Sinai-Halbinsel," Abhandl. Math.-phys.
Gesell. Wiss., vol. xiv. (Leipzig, 1888); Meteorological Charts of
the Red Sea (Meteorological Office, 1895); Re fort of the Voyage
of the Russian Corvette Vitiaz" (1889); " Benchte der Commis-
sion fur oceanographische Forschungen," 6th series, 1898 in vol.
LXV. of the Denkschriften der K.K. Akademie der Wissenschaften
(Vienna); also various notes and preliminary reports in the
Sitzungsberichle of the Vienna Academy of Sciences; Report of
the Voyage of H.M.S. " Challenger," " Oceanic Circulation," p. 30;
J. Hann, Klimatologie (1897), vol. iii. p. 76. (H. N. D.)
REDSHANK, the usual name of a bird the Scolopax calidris
of Linnaeus and Totanus calidris of modern authors so called
in English from the colour of the bare part of its legs, which,
being also long, are conspicuous as it flies or runs. In suitable
localities it is abundant throughout the greater part of Europe
and Asia, from Iceland to China, mostly retiring to the south-
ward for the winter, though a considerable number remain
during that season along the coasts and estuaries of some of the
more northern countries. Before the great changes effected by
drainage in England it was a common species in many districts,
but at the present day there are very few to which it can resort
for the purpose of reproduction. The body of the redshank is
as big as a snipe's, but its longer neck, wings and legs make
it appear a much larger bird. Above, the general colour is
greyish-drab, freckled with black, except the lower part of
the back and a conspicuous band on each wing, which are white,
while the flight-quills are black, thus producing a very har-
monious effect. In the breeding season the back and breast
are mottled with dark brown, but in winter the latter is white.
The nest is generally concealed in a tuft of rushes or grass, a
little removed from the wettest parts of the swamp whence the
bird gets its sustenance, and contains four eggs, usually of a
rather warmly tinted brown with blackish spots or blotches;
but no brief description can be given that would point out their
differences from the eggs of other birds, more or less akin, among
which, those of the lapwing (q.v.) especially, they are taken
and find a ready sale.
The name Redshank, prefixed by some epithet as Black, Dusky
or Spotted, has also been applied to a larger but allied species
the Totanus fuscus of ornithologists. This is a much less common
bird, and in Great Britain as well as the greater part of Europe it
only occurs on its passage to or from its breeding-grounds, which
are usually found south ol the Arctic Circle, and diner much from
those of its congeners the spot chosen for the nest being nearly
always in the midst of forests and, though not in the thickest part
of them, often with trees on all sides, generally where a fire ]\^*
cleared the undergrowth, and mostly at some distance from water.
This peculiar habit was first ascertained by Wolley in Lapland in
1853 and the following year. The breeding-dress this bird assumes
is also very remarkable, and seems (as is suggested) to have some
correlation with the burnt and blackened surface interspersed with
white stones or tufts of lichen on which its nest is made for the
head, neck, shoulders and lower parts are of a deep black, con-
trasting vividly with the pure white of the back and rump, while
the legs become of an intense crimson. At other times of the year
the plumage is very similar to that of the common redshank, and
the legs are of 'the same light orange-red. (A. N.)
REDSTART, a bird well known in Great Britain, in many
parts of which it is called firetail a name of almost the same
meaning, since " start " is from the Anglo-Saxon steort, a tail.
This beautiful bird, Rulicilla phoenicurus, returns to England
about the middle or towards the end of April, and at once takes
up its abode in gardens, orchards and about old buildings,
when its curious habit of flirting at nearly every change of
position its brightly-coloured tail, together with the pure white
forehead, the black throat, and bright bay breast of the cock,
renders him conspicuous, even if attention be not drawn by his
lively though intermittent song. The hen is much more plainly
attired; but the characteristic colouring and action of the tail
pertain to her equally as to her mate. The nest is almost
always placed in a hole of a tree or building, and contains from
five to seven eggs of a delicate greenish blue, occasionally sprinkled
with faint red spots. The young on assuming their feathers
present a great resemblance to those of the redbreast (q.v.)
at the same age; but the red tail, though of duller hue than in
the adult, forms even at this early age an easy means of dis-
tinguishing them. The redstart breeds regularly in all the
counties of England and Wales. It also reaches the extreme
north of Scotland; but in Ireland it is very rare. It appears
throughout the whole of Europe in summer, and is known to
winter in the interior of Africa. Several very nearly allied
forms occur in Asia; and one, R. aurorea, in Japan.
A congeneric species which has received the name of black
redstart, Rulicilla titys, 1 is very common throughout the greater
part of the continent of Europe, where, from its partiality for
gardens in towns and villages, it is often better known than the
preceding species. It yearly occurs in certain parts of England,
chiefly along or near the south coast, and curiously enough
during the autumn and winter, since it is in central Europe only
a summer visitor, and it has by no means the high northern
range of R. phoenicurus. The males of the black redstart seem
to be more than one year in acquiring their full plumage (a rare
thing in Passerine birds), and since they have been -known to
breed in the intermediate stage this fact has led to such birds
being accounted a distinct species under the name of R. cairii.
thereby perplexing ornithologists for a long while, though now
almost all authorities agree that these birds are, in one sense,
immature.
More than a dozen species of the genus Ruticilla have been
described, and the greater number of them seem to belong to the
Himalayan sub-region or its confines. One very pretty and
interesting form is the R. moussieri of Barbary, which allies the
redstart to the stone-chats (see WHEATEAR), and of late some
authors have included it in that genus. In an opposite direction
the bluethroats, apparently nearer to the redstarts than to any
other type, are placed in the genus Cyanecula, containing two
or three distinguishable forms: (i) C. suecica, with a bright
bay spot in the middle of its clear blue throat, breeding in
Scandinavia, Northern Russia and Siberia, and wintering in
Abyssinia and India, though rarely appearing in the intermediate
countries, to the wonder of all who have studied the migration
1 The orthography of the specific term would seem to be tilts
(Ann. Nat. History, ser. 4, x. p. 227), a word possibly cognate with
the first syllable of titlark and titmouse.
972
RED WING REED, A.
of birds; (2) C. leucocyanea, with a white instead of a red
gular spot, a more Western form, ranging from Barbary to
Germany and Holland; (3) C. wolfi, with its throat wholly
blue a form of comparatively rare occurrence. The first of
these is a not infrequent, though very irregular, visitant to
England, while the second has appeared there but seldom, and
the third never, so far as is known. The redstarts with their
allies mentioned in this article belong to the subfamily Turdinae
of the thrushes (q.v.).
In America the name redstart has been bestowed upon a bird
which has some curious outward resemblance, both in looks and
manners, to that of the Old Country, though the two are in the
opinion of some systematists nearly as widely separated from each
other as truly Passerine birds well can be. The American redstart
is Setophaga ruticilla, belonging to the purely New-World family
Mniotiltidae, and to a genus which contains about a dozen species,
ranging from Canada (in summer) to Bolivia. (A. N.)
RED WING, a city and the county seat of Goodhue county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Mississippi river,
near the head of Lake Pepin, about 40 m. S.E. of St Paul. Pop.
(1905, state census) 8149, 2138 being foreign-born; (1910) 9048.
It is served by the Chicago Great Western and the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul railways. Red Wing is the seat of the
Lutheran Ladies' Seminary (1894) and the Red Wing Theological
Seminary (Lutheran, 1885), and in the vicinity is the State
Training School for Boys and Girls, originally the Minnesota
State Reform School. In the city are the Carnegie-Lawther
library, a Federal building, a municipal theatre, the T. B.
Sheldon Memorial Auditorium, in connexion with which is a
School of Music, a Y.M.C.A. building, a City Hospital, St John's
Hospital (1902) and an old ladies' home. Red Wing is an
important wheat market and shipping point.
In 1695 Le Sueur built a post on Prairie Island, in the Mis-
sissippi, about 8 m. above the site of Red Wing, for the purpose,
according to Charlevoix, of interposing a barrier between the
warring Dakotas and Chippewas; and in 1727 Rene Boucher
built on the shore of Lake Pepin a fort which, after various
vicissitudes, was abandoned in 1753. An Indian village occu-
pied the site of Red Wing probably for many years before
the arrival of the first whites, two Swiss missionaries, Samuel
Denton and Daniel Gavin, who maintained a mission here in
1837-46. In 1848 another mission was established by the
American Board. Red Wing (named from an Indian chief)
was platted in 1853 and was chartered as a city in 1857.
REDWING (Swed. Rodvinge, Dan. Roddrossel, Ger. Rol-
drossel, Du. Kofienviek), a species of thrush (q.v.), Turdus iliacus,
which is an abundant winter visitor to the British Islands,
arriving in autumn generally about the same time as the fieldfare
(q.v.) does. This bird has its common English name * from the
sides of its body, its inner wing-coverts and axillaries being of
a bright reddish orange, of which colour, however, there is no
appearance on the wing itself while the bird is at rest, and not
much is ordinarily seen while it is in flight. In other respects
it is very like a song-thrush, and indeed in France and some
other countries it bears the name mauvis or mavis, often given
to that species in some parts of Britain; but a conspicuous
white streak over the eye at once affords a ready diagnosis.
The redwing breeds in Iceland, in the subalpine and arctic
districts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, and thence across
Northern Russia and Siberia, becoming scarce to the eastward
of the Yenisei, and not extending beyond Lake Baikal. In
winter it visits the whole of Europe and North Africa, occa-
1 Many old writers assert that this bird used to be known in
England as the "swinepipe"; but, except in books, this name
does not seem to survive to the present day. There is no reason,
however, to doubt that it was once in vogue, and the only question
is how it may have arisen. If it has not been corrupted from
the German Weindrossel or some other similar name, it may refer
to the soft inward whistle which the bird often utters, resembling
the sound of the pipe used by the swineherds of old when collecting
the animals under their charge. Another form of the word (which
may, however, be erroneous) is " windpipe." " Whindle " and
" wheenerd " have also been given as old English names of this
bird (Harl. Miscellany, 1st ed., li. p. 558), and these may be referred
to the local German Weindrustle and Winsel.
sionally reaching Madeira, while to the eastward it is found at
that season in Persia, and, it is said, at times in the north-
western Himalayas and Kohat. Many writers have praised
the song of this bird, comparing it with that of the nightingale
(q.ii.); but herein they seem to have been as much mistaken
as in older times was Linnaeus, who according to S. Nilsson
(Orn. Suecica, i. 177, note), failed to distinguish in life this
species from its commoner congener T. musicus. Its nest and
eggs a good deal resemble those of the blackbird, and have none
of the special characters which distinguish those of the song-
thrush. (A. N.)
REDWITZ, OSKAR, FREIHERR VON (1823-1891), German
poet, was born at Lichtenau, near Ansbach, on the 28th of
June 1823. Having studied at the universities of Munich and
Erlangen, he was apprenticed to the law in the Bavarian State
service (1846-40). He next (1849-50) studied languages and
literature at Bonn, and in 1851 was appointed professor of
aesthetics and of the history of literature at Vienna. In 1852,
however, he gave up this post and retired to his estate of
Schellenberg, near Kaiserslautern. The pious sentimentality
of his romantic epic Amaranth (1849; 42nd ed., 1898) had
already gained him enthusiastic admirers, and this work was
followed, in 1850, by Ein Marchen and by Gedichte (1852) and
the tragedy Sieglinde (1854)- He next settled on his estates
near Kronach, and here wrote the tragedy Thomas Morus (1856),
the historical dramas Philippine Welser (1859) and Der Zunjt-
meister von N timber g (1860), of which the first two met with great
success. Elected member of the Bavarian Second Chamber for the
district in which he lived, he removed to Munich in 1862. In
1868 he published the novel Hermann Stark, deutsches Leben, and
in 1871 Das Lied vom neuen deulschen Reich (which contains
several hundred patriotic sonnets). In 1872 he took up his
residence at Meran, but passed the last years of his life at a
sanatorium for nervous disorders near Bayreuth, where he
died on the 6th of July 1891.
See R. Prutz, Die deuische Literatur der Gegenwart (1870),
i. pp. 148 ff.; H. Keiter, Zeitgenossische katholische Dichter Deutsch-
lands (1884); H. von Volderndorff, Harmlose Plaudereien eines
alien Muncheners (1892); M. M. Rabenlechner, O. von Redwitz'
religioser Entwicklungsgang (1897).
REED, ANDREW (1787-1862), English nonconformist
divine and philanthropist, was born in London on the 27th of
November 1787. He entered Hackney Independent College
in 1807 and was ordained minister of New Road Chapel in 181 1.
About 1830 he built the larger Wycliffe Chapel, where he
remained until 1861. He visited America on a deputation to
the Congregational Churches in 1834 and received the degree
of D.D. from Yale. Reed's name is permanently associated
with a long list of philanthropic achievements, including the
London Orphan Asylum, the Infant Orphan Asylum and the
Reedham Orphanage, which he undertook on non-denomi-
national lines because the governors of the other institutions
had made the Anglican Catechism compulsory. Besides these
he originated in 1847 an asylum for idiots at Highgate, after-
wards moved to Earlswood in Surrey with a branch at Col-
chester, and in 1855 the Royal Hospital for Incurables at
Putney. He died on the 25th of February 1862. Besides an
account of his visit to America (2 vols., 1834), he compiled a
hymn-book (1841), and published some sermons and books of
devotion.
His second son, SIR CHARLES REED (1819-1881), was a suc-
cessful typefounder and a keen supporter of popular education.
As a common councillor of the city of London he developed
the Guildhall Library of the City of London School. He was
elected M.P. for Hackney (1868 and 1874) and for St Ives,
Cornwall (1880), and served as chairman of the London School
Board (1873-1881) in succession to Lord Lawrence. He was
interested in antiquarian research and in philanthropic work,
being an associate of George Peabody and an active worker
in connexion with the Sunday School Union, the Bible Society,
the Religious Tract Society and the London Missionary Society.
His eldest son, Charles Edward Baines Reed (1845-1884) was
REED, I. REED
973
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and became Congre-
gational minister at. Warminster (1871) and a secretary of the
British and Foreign Bible Society. He was killed by a fall in
Switzerland. Sir Charles Reed's third son, Talbiot Baines
Reed (1852-1893), educated at the City of London School,
became managing director of his father's firm, and was one of
the founders and secretary of the Bibliographical Society. He
is best known as the author of popular boys' books.
REED, ISAAC (1742-1807), English Shakespearian editor,
son of a baker, was born on New Year's Day, 1742, in London.
He was articled to a solicitor, and eventually set up as a con-
veyancer at Staple Inn, where he had a considerable practice.
His first important work was the Biographia dramatica (2 vols.,
1782), consisting of biographies of the dramatists and a
descriptive dictionary of their plays. This book, which was an
enlargement of David Erskine Baker's Companion to the Play-
house (2 vols., 1764), was re-edited (3 vols.) by Stephen Jones
in 1811, and is a valuable authority. The original work by
Baker had been based on Gerard Langbaine's Account of the
English Dramalick Poets (1691), Giles Jacob's Poetical Register
(1719), Thomas Whincop's " List of all the Dramatic Authors "
(printed with his tragedy of Scanderbeg, 1747) and the MSS. of
Thomas Coxeter (1680-1747), an industrious antiquary who
had collected much useful material. Reed's Notitia dramatica
(Addit. MSS. 25390-2, British Museum), supplementary to
the Biographia, was never published. He revised Dodsley's
Collection of Old Plays (12 vols., 1780). He also re-edited Johnson
and Steevens's edition (1773) of Shakespeare. Reed's edition
was published in 10 vols. (1785), and he gave great assistance
to Steevens in his edition (1793). He was Steevens's literary
executor, and in 1803 published another edition (21 vols.)
based on Steevens's later collections. This, which is known
as the first variorum, was re-issued ten years later. He died
on the 5th of January 1807. His valuable library of theatrical
literature was catalogued for sale as Bibliotheca Reediana (1807).
S<T John Nichol's Lit. Anec. of the i8th Century (vol. ii., 1812);
and Edward Dowden, Essays, Modern and Elizabethan.
REED, JOSEPH (1741-1785), American politician, was born
in Trenton, New Jersey, on the 27th of August 1741. He
graduated at Princeton in 1757, studied law under Richard
Stockton and, in 1763-65, at the Middle Temple, London,
and practised in Trenton from 1765 until his removal to Phila-
delphia in 1770. He was president of the second Provincial
Congress of Pennsylvania in 1775, was aide-de-camp and
military secretary to General Washington in 1775-76, and
was adjutant-general with the rank of colonel in 1776-77.
He resigned his commission in the autumn of 1777, and in
1 777-78 was a delegate to the Continental Congress. From
December 1778 to October 1781 he was president of the state
Executive Council. During his administration the proprietary
rights of the Penn family were abrogated (1779), and provision
was made for the gradual abolition of slavery (1780). During
this time Reed led the attack on Benedict Arnold (q.v.) for
the latter's administration of Philadelphia. Reed was elected
to Congress in 1784, but died in Philadelphia on the 5th of
March 1785.
The Life and Correspondence of Joseph Reed (2 vols., Philadelphia,
1874), by his grandson, William B. Reed, is based upon the family
papers. It pictures Reed as an heroic patriot and statesman;
George Bancroft, on the other hand, in the ninth volume (p. 229)
of his History (1866) and in Joseph Reed: an Historical Essay (1867),
pictures him as a trimmer of the most pronounced type. Bancroft's
principal charge against Reed was based on a passage in Count
Donop's diary referring to a Col. Reed protected by the British
in 1776. In 1876, however, Mr W. S. Stryker discovered that
the reference in the diary was really to Col. Charles Read (1715-
c. 1780). Bancroft withdrew this definite charge in the 1876
edition of his History, in which, however, his tone towards Joseph
Reed was unchanged.
Joseph Reed's son, JOSEPH REED (1772-1846), published
the Laws of Pennsylvania (5 vols., 1822-24), continuing the
work of .Charles Smith, published in 1810-12, which began
with the laws of 1700. His grandson, WILLIAM BRADFORD
REED (1806-1876), graduated at the university of Pennsylvania
in 1822, was a representative in the Pennsylvania legislature
in 1834-35, attorney-general of the state in 1838, and a
state senator in 1841. He was professor of American history
in the university of Pennsylvania in 1850-56, United States
minister to China in 1857-58, and in 1858 negotiated a
treaty with China, proclaimed in 1860. Besides the biography
of his grandfather mentioned above, he published one of Joseph
Reed's wife, Life of Esther De Berdt, afterwards Esther Reed
(1853).
W. B. Reed's brother, HENRY [HOPE] REED (1808-1854),
graduated at the university of Pennsylvania in 1825, practised
law in Philadelphia, and was assistant-professor of moral
philosophy in the university of Pennsylvania in 1831-34
and professor of English literature and rhetoric there in
J835-54- He assisted Wordsworth in the preparation of an
American edition of his poems in 1837, edited in America
Christopher Wordsworth's Memoirs of William Wordsworth
(1851) and published Lectures on English Literature from
Chaucer to Tennyson (1855).
REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839-1902), American states-
man, was born in Portland, Maine, on the i8th of October
1839. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1860; was acting
assistant-paymaster in the U.S. navy from April 1864 to
November 1865; and in 1865 was admitted to the bar. He
was a member of the Maine House of Representatives in
1868-69 an d of tne state Senate in 1870, was attorney-general
of the state in 1870-72, and was city solicitor of Portland in
1874-77. He was a Republican member of the National
House of Representatives from 1877 until 1899; was a member
of the Potter Committee to investigate the disputed presi-
dential election of 1876, and conducted the examination of
Samuel J. Tilden; and he was Speaker of the House in
1880-91, and in 1895-99. He was a "strong" speaker in his
control of the proceedings, and he developed an organized
committee system, making the majority of the Committee
on Rules consist of the speaker and chairman of the committees
on ways and means and on appropriations. The " Reed
Rules," drawn up by him, William McKinley and J. G. Cannon,
were adopted on the I4th of February 1800; they provided
that every member must vote, unless pecuniarily interested in
a measure, that members present and not voting may be '
counted for a quorum, and that no dilatory motion be enter-
tained by the speaker. His parliamentary methods were
bitterly attacked by his political enemies, who called him
" Tsar Reed." He greatly hastened the passage of the McKinley
Bill in 1800, and of the Dingley Bill in 1897. His rules and
methods of control of legislation were adopted by his successors
in the speakership, and the power of the Rules Committee was
greatly increased under Charles F. Crisp (1845-1806), Democratic
speaker in 1891-1895. After the war with Spain Reed broke
with the administration on the issue of imperialism. He
resigned his seat in 1899 and practised law in New York City.
He died in Washington on the 7th of December 1902. Reed was a
remarkable personality, of whom many good stories were told,
and opinions varied as to his conduct in the chair; but he was
essentially a .man of rugged honesty and power, whose death
was a loss to American public life.
Reed's Rules were published as a parliamentary manual. He
edited with others a Library of Modern Eloquence (10 vols., 1901).
See the chapter on Reed in H. B. Fuller's Speakers of the House
(Boston, 1909).
REED, a term applied to several distinct species of large, water-
loving grasses. The common or water-reed, Phragmites communis
(also known as Antndo phragmites), occurs along the margins
of lakes, fens, marshes and placid streams, not only throughout
Britain, but widely distributed in arctic and temperate regions.
Another very important species in Ammopltila arenaria (also
known as A. arundinacea or Psamma arenaria), the sea-reed or
marram-grass, a native of the sandy shores of Europe and N.
Africa. Both species have been of notable geological import-
ance, the former binding the soil and so impeding denudation,
and actually converting swamp into dry land, largely by the
974
REEDBUCK REED INSTRUMENTS
aid of its tall (5 to 10 ft.) close set stems. The latter species,
of which the branching rootstocks may be traced 30 or even
40 ft., is of still greater importance in holding sand-dunes against
the sea, and for this purpose has not only been long protected
by law, but has been extensively planted on the coasts of Nor-
folk, Holland, Gascony, &c. Other reeds are Calamagrostis
(various species), Gynerium argenteum (pampas grass), Deyeuxia,
&c., also Arundo Donax, the largest European grass (6 to 12 ft.
high), which is abundant in Europe. Reeds have been used
from the earliest times in thatching and in other branches of
construction, and also for arrows, the pipes of musical instru-
ments, &c. Reed pens are still used in the East. Plants
belonging to other orders occasionally share the name, especially
the bur-reed (Sparganium) and the reed-mace (Typha), both
belonging to the natural order Typhaceae. The bulrushes
(Scirpus), belonging to the natural order Cyperaceae, are also to
be distinguished.
REEDBUCK 1 (Dutch rietbok), the popular name of a foxy
red South African antelope (Cervicapra arundineum) of medium
size, with a moderately long bushy tail, a bare gland-patch
behind the ear, and in the male rather short horns which bend
forwards in a regular curve. There are several other species
of allied African antelopes included in the genus Cervicapra
to which the name of reedbuck is also applied, one of these
ranging as far N. as Abyssinia, and another inhabiting W.
Africa.
REED INSTRUMENTS (Fr. instruments a ancfte; Ger.
Blas-instrumente mil Zungen; It. Strumenti a ancia), a class of
wind instruments in the tubes of which sound-waves are
generated by the vibrations of a reed mouthpiece. Reed
instruments fall into two great classes: (i) those blown directly
by the breath of the performer, who is thus able in all but a
few obsolete instruments to express his emotional feelings in
music; (2) those in which the wind supply is obtained by
mechanical devices, such as the bag of bagpipe instruments
or the bellows of such keyboard instruments as the regal,
harmonium and kindred instruments.
. Directly-blown reed instruments comprise the section of
modern wind instruments known as the "wood wind," with the
-exception of flute and piccolo; they are classified according to
the kind of reed vibrator of which the mouthpiece is composed.
There are three kinds of reed mouthpieces: (i) the single or
beating reed; (2) the double reed; (3) the free reed, all of which
perform the function of sound-producer (see MOUTHPIECE and
FREE REED VIBRATOR). The reed used consists of a thin tongue
or strip of reed, cane or some elastic material, thinned gradually
to a delicate edge. It is adapted to a resonating tube in such a
manner that when it is at rest the opening at the mouthpiece
end of the tube consists only of a very slight aperture or chink,
which is periodically opened and closed by the pulsations of the
reed when acted upon by the compressed breath of the player.
This principle is common to all reed mouthpieces, and. the
difference.in timbre is in a measure due to the manner in which
the pulsations are brought about and the degree of elasticity
secured.
The double reed consists of two blades of reed or laminae of
elastic material tightly bound together by many turns of. waxed
silk, so that above the construction the tube has an oval section;
below, where it communicates with the main bore of the instru-
ment, the tube is strictly cylindrical. The chink here is formed
by two thin walls of reed of equal elasticity (see OBOE, BASSOON).
The double reed is common to the members of the oboe family,
consisting, besides the oboe, of the cor anglais or tenor, of the
fagotto or bassoon, and of the contra fagotto or double bassoon.
The double reed mouthpiece is used besides on thesarrusophone
family, instruments of brass but classed with the wood wind on
account of the mouthpiece and fingering.
The single or beating reed consists of a single blade bevelled
at the edge and placed over a table or frame communicating
with the main bore of the instrument, against which it beats,
causing a series of pulsations. The single reed is common to
all the members of the clarinet family, consisting, besides the
clarinet, of the basset-horn or tenor, and of the bass and pedal
clarinets; of the batyphone, an early bass clarinet, and of the
saxophone, a metal oboe with a beating reed instead of a double
reed. The ancient Greek aulos was undoubtedly used with a
beating reed during some period of its history.
The free reed is not represented among members of the modern
wood wind, and, as adapted to a directly-blown instrument,
only finds application in the Chinese cheng, the prototype of
the harmonium, and in the mouth organ or harmonica.
The reed in wind instruments produces a peculiar tone quality
to which it has given its name; it varies in the three different
kinds of mouthpieces without losing the fundamental reedy
timbre. In the single reed the impact against the hard wood
orvulcanite of the table against which it beats producesa sound
harsh and strident in inverse proportion to the degree of elasticity
possessed by the vibrating tongue. In the clarinet the reed is
carefully and delicately made of cane with due regard to the
interdependence of reed and clarinet tube. The strong wooden
or metallic beating reeds of the early organ reed pipes must
have had an unpleasantly harsh timbre, which won for them in
Germany the epithet Schnarrwerk.
In the double reed the two delicately shaped pieces of reed
vibrate against each other, producing the somewhat nasal,
reedy tone of the oboe family. In the free reed compressed
air is the only buffer which the vibrator encounters while
swinging through the aperture, alternately closing and reopening
it; hence the soft and mellow timbre which it is possible to
produce by proper treatment of the free reed. Experience has
shown that the best results for the double reed are obtained when
it is used in conjunction with a tube of conical bore, whereas
the beating reed is heard to greater advantage in instruments
with cylindrical bore, one notable exception in practice being,
as already mentioned, the saxophone family. ' The double
reed adapted to a conical tube confers upon the latter the
acoustic properties of the open pipe, whose wave-length is equal
to that of the tube and which is capable of overblowing the octave
and successive harmonics (theoretically). Either a single or a
double reed adapted to a cylindrical pipe converts it for all
acoustic purposes into a closed pipe, in which the whole wave-
length is twice the length of the tube, a node forming at the
mouthpiece end. The fundamental note of such a tube will
therefore be an octave lower than that of an open pipe of the '
same length, and it can only overblow the uneven numbers of
the harmonic series, such as the third harmonic (or twelfth above
the fundamental).
In order to overblow on instruments with reed mouthpieces,
greater pressure of breath must be exerted, and the vibrating
length of the reed must be decreased by the action of the lips
upon it. This is what occurs in instruments of the oboe and
clarinet type, which are blown directly from the mouth. There
are, however, cases in which the reed is concealed within the
instrument out of reach of the lips, either in a capsule, as in the
old instruments hautbois de Poitou and cromorne, or else in a
socket, as in the chaunter and drones of the bagpipe, or, again,
as in the mouthpieces of organ reed pipes. In the last (each of
which gives but one fixed note) the vibrating length of the reed
tongue is fixed, as is also the pressure of the compressed air
supply fed to them. The result in all these cases is similar:
no harmonics can be obtained, and therefore the scale of the
instrument depends solely on the number of holes and keys
provided, whereas, where the lips control the reed, fewer holes
are necessary to produce any given compass. The chaunters of
bagpipes have double reeds, but the drones are as a rule provided
with beating reeds and are of cylindrical bore, a combination
which, for the reason explained above, gives them a note an
octave deeper in pitch, the length of pipe being equal, than would
be the case if the bore were conical. In the musette, in the
cornemuse used in concert with the hautbois de Poitou, and in
the Neapolitan surdelina (see BAGPIPE), both chaunter and
drones had double reeds.
The aulos of the ancient Greeks and tibia of the Romans con-
sisted in the older instruments of a cylindrical tube of very narrow
REEF REEVE
975
bore, which facilitated the production of the harmonics. The
uulos, though often erroneously translated flute, was an oboe or
clarinet. Writers on musical instruments are not agreed as to
which mouthpiece was in use on the aulos; the probability is
that both were in use at one time or another, and that the double
reed, being the most primitive and also the more adaptable, was
the older contrivance. There is no sign of any suitable attachment
for a beating reed on any of the pipes of ancient Greece extant,
whereas among the ivory pipes recovered from the ruins of
Pompeii there is a fragment whirh may have lieen a beak mouth-
piece with beating reed similar to that of the modern clarinet.
The ancient Egyptians used the primitive beating reed familiarly
known as " iqneaKer," uluaincd by making a slight lateral slit
across a reed pipe or stem of straw, and with the knife splitting
luck longitudinally until a tongue was raised; the shorter the
tongue the quicker the vibration and the higher the pitch. This
small beating reed was then sunk some 3 or 4 in. within the main
tube of the instrument; some of these reeds have been discovered
in tombs by Professor Flinders Petrie. 1 It is certain that the
ancient Greeks did not use the reed in this form in the aulos, for
11 al writers distinctly describe the effect produced on a reed
by taking it into the mouth, but it is equally certain that they
were acquainted with the principle of the drone.
The history of the keyboard instruments furnishes instances
of the early use ol reeds. In the modern English church organ
the reed work is provided with beating reeds only, but in Germany,
for the sake of obtaining the power of expression, a set of free-reed
stops is nearly always Added. 1 It is probable that some of the
early pneumatic and hydraulic organs (see ORGAN) at the beginning
of our era were provided with beating reeds in imitation of the
I i.e.; pipe chaunter and drones. In the middle ages the regal
(q.v.), a small, portative reed-organ fitted with beating reeds, was
extremely popular in England and all over the continent of Europe,
but more especially in Germany and Italy.
REEF (i) (Du. rif, cf. Ger. Riff, Swed. ref, &c., all from
O. Nor. rif, rib), in physical geography, a narrow ridge of rock,
shingle or sand culminating at or near the surface of the sea.
In a transformed sense the word is used in mining of a vein or
lode of gold-bearing quartz; (2) (Du. reef, rif, cf. Ger. Ref, Swed.
raj, O. Nor. rif, possibly a transferred sense of rif, rib), a part
of a sail which can be rolled or folded up, thus diminishing the
amount of canvas spread to the wind. In square sails, " reefs "
are taken from the top, in fore-and-aft sails from the foot.
REEL (O.E. hrtol, glossed by the Med. Lat. alibrum in
Aelfric's Glossary, c. 1050; the word is of unknown origin;
it does not appear in cognate languages, and Celtic forms such
as Gaelic ruidhil are from English), a cylinder or apparatus of
cylindrical shape on which a thread or line can be wound; e.g.
the small wooden cylinder with projecting rims at either end
on which sewing cotton or silk is wound for immediate use,
the revolving " click-reel " attached to a fishing-rod, and the
open revolving framework on which thread is wound as it is
spun. The name of the Scottish dance (Gaelic rigliil, ruilhil)
is probably the same word (see DANCE). In architecture, an
ornamental moulding consisting of spherical-shaped bodies
alternating with flat reel-shaped disks placed on edge is known
as a "bead and reel" moulding.
REES, THOMAS (1777-1864), Welsh Nonconformist divine,
was bom at Gelligron, Glamorgan, and educated at the Pres-
byterian College, Carmarthen. He entered the Unitarian
ministry in 1807 at Newington Green Chapel, London, removing
to Southwark 1813 and to Stamford Street, Blackfriars, in 1823.
He had the degree of LL.D. of Glasgow (1819). He had a
great knowledge of the history of anti-trinitarian opinion,
especially during the i6th century. His scattered papers,
t hiefly in the Monthly Repository (1818-22), on such subjects as
" Faustus Socinus and Francis David," " The Italian Reforma-
tion," " Memoirs of the Socini," are important. Financial
.troubles drove him to Spain in 1853, and he died in obscurity
at Brighton on the ist of August 1864.
Another THOMAS REES (1815-1885), - a native of Pen
Pontbren, Carmarthenshire, held pastorates at Aberdare
(1840), Llanelly (1842), Cendl, Mon. (1849) and Swansea (1862)
1 An illustration of one of these is given in T. L. Southgate's
paper, " The Regal and its Successors," in English Music, 1604-
1904, Music Story Scries, 1906, p. 385.
'The addition dates from the very end of the 1 8th or the
beginning of the loth century, and is connected with the advent
of the harmonium (q.v.).
and became chairman of the Congregational Union of England
and Wales, but died just before his term of office was to begin.
His History of Protestant Nonconformity in Wales (1861; 2nd ed.
1883) is a sound and judicious piece of work.
REEVE, CLARA (1720-1807), English novelist, daughter of
William Reeve, a Suffolk clergyman, was born at Ipswichin 1729.
She was an industrious writer, and produced many works in
prose and verse, including a history of the Progress of Romance
(1785); but her only eminent success was the novel of The Old
English Baron (1777), originally published under the title of
The Champion of Virtue. In the history of the English novel
she stands midway between Walpole and Mrs. Radcliffe. She
died at Ipswich on the 3rd of December 1807.
REEVE, HENRY (1813-1895), English publicist, younger
son of Henry Reeve, a well-known Whig physician and writer
f Norwich, and nephew of Mrs. Sarah Austin, was born at
Norwich on the 9th of September 1813. He was educated at
he Norwich grammar school under Edward Valpy. During his
lolidays he saw a good deal of the young John Stuart Mill. In
1829 he studied at Geneva and mixed in Genevese society, then
very brilliant, and including the Sismondis, Huber, Bonstetten,
De Candolle, Rossil, Krasinski (his most intimate friend), and
Vlickiewicz, whose Paris he translated. During a visit to
London in 1831 he was introduced to Thackeray and Carlyle,
while through the Austins he made the acquaintance of other
men of letters. Next year, in Paris, he met Victor Hugo,
Cousin, and Scott. He travelled in Italy, sat under Schelling
at Munich and under Tieck at Dresden, became in 1835-36 a
frequenter of Madame de Circourt's salon, and numbered among
his friends Lamartine, Lacordaire, De Vigny, Thiers, Guizot,
Montalembert, and De Tocqueville, of whose books, Democratic
en Amirique and the Ancien regime, he made standard trans-
lations into English. In 1837 he was made clerk of appeal
and then registrar to the judicial committee of the Privy Council.
From 1840 to 1855 he wrote for The Times, his close touch with
men like Guizot, Bunsen, Lord Clarendon, and his own chief
at the Privy Council Office, Charles Greville, enabling him to
write with authority on foreign policy during the critical period
from 1848 to the end of the Crimean \Var. Upon the promotion
of Sir George Cornewall Lewis to the Cabinet early in 1855
Reeve was asked by Longman to edit the April number of the
Edinburgh Review, to which his father had been one of the
earliest contributors, and in the following July he became the
editor. His friendship with the Orleanist leaders in France
survived all vicissitudes, but he was appealed to for guidance
by successive French ambassadors, and was more than once
the medium of private negotiations between the English and
French governments. In April 1863 he published what was
perhaps the most important of his contributions to the Edin-
burgh a searching review of Kinglake's Crimea; and in 1872
he brought out a selection of his Quarterly and Edinburgh
articles on eminent Frenchmen, entitled Royal and Republican
France. Three years later appeared the first of three ' instal-
ments (1875, 1885 and 1887) of his edition of the famous
Memoirs which Charles Greville had placed in his hands a few
hours before his death in 1865. A purist in point of form and
style, of the school of Macaulay and Milman, Reeve outlived
his literary generation, and became eventually one of the most
reactionary of old Whigs. Yet he continued to edit and upon
the whole to maintain the reputation of the Edinburgh until
his death at his seat of Foxholes, in Hants, on the 2ist of
October 1895. He had been elected a member of "The Club"
in 1861, and was made a D.C.L. by Oxford University in 1869,
a C.B. in 1871, and a corresponding member of the French
Institute in 1865. A striking panegyric was pronounced upon
him by his lifelong friend, the due d'Aumale, before the
Academic des Sciences in November 1895.
His Memoirs and Letters (2 vols., with portrait) were edited by
Sir J. K. Laughton, in 1898. (T. SE.)
REEVE (O. E. gerefa), an English official who in early times
was entrusted with the administration of a division of the
country. He was the chief magistrate of a town or district.
976
REEVES
and is the ancestor of the sheriff, the shire-reeve. In addition
to the sheriff there were several kinds of reeves, and we are told
in the body of laws known as the laws of Edward the Confessor
that it is " multiplex nomen; greve enim dicitur de scira. de
wapentagiis, de hundredis, de burgis, de villis." Thus we hear
of port-reeves, burg-reeves, and tun-reeves, while the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle mentions high reeves. It was the tun-reeve
or reve of the township who with four other men represented
the township in the courts of the hundred and the shire. In
free townships he was probably chosen by the inhabitants; in
dependent townships by the lord. A little later there were
manor reeves, these being elected by the villains; according
to Fleta, their duties were to attend to the cultivation of the
land, and to see that each villain performed his proper share of
service. The reve of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales was doubtless
a steward or bailiff, something equivalent to the grieve in
Scotland to-day.
In early English the word reeve was sometimes used as a trans-
lation for the prefect or governor of Roman and Jewish times.
Some authorities have thought that there is some connexion
between the Anglo-Saxon gerefa and the German Graf, but Max
M tiller (Lectures on the Science of Language, 1885) is inclined to
doubt this. J. M. Kemble (Saxons in England, 1876), who goes
at length into the history of the reeve, connects the word with
rofan or refan, to call aloud, this making him the original of the
bannitor, or proclaimer of the court. At the present time the
word reeve is sometimes used to describe a foreman or overseer in a
coal mine. It is also used in Canada for the president of a village
or town council.
REEVES, JOHN SIMS (1818-1900), English vocalist, was
born at Woolwich on the 26th of September 1818, and received
his musical education from his father, a musician in the
Royal Artillery. At the age of fourteen he had progressed
so far as to be appointed organist of North Cray church, and
could play the oboe, bassoon, violin, and violoncello. He
seems to have studied medicine for a year, but changed his
mind when he gained his adult voice: it was at first a baritone,
and he made his earliest appearance at Newcastle in 1839 in
various baritone parts. He studied with Hobbs and T. Cooke,
and, his voice having become a tenor, he appeared under
Macready's management at Drury Lane (1841-43) in sub-
ordinate tenor parts in PurcelFs King Arthur, Der Freischutz, and
Acis and Galatea, when Handel's pastoral was mounted on the
stage with Stanfield's scenery. Four years were spent in study
on the Continent, under Bordogni in Paris and Mazzucato in
Milan, and his dtbut in Italian opera was made at the Scala as
Edgardo in Lucia. He reappeared in London in May 1847
at a benefit concert for Vincent Wallace, and at one of the
Ancient Concerts in the following month, his career on the
English operatic stage beginning at Drury Lane in December
1847 in Lucia, under the conductorship of Hector Berlioz. In
Balfe's Maid of Honour he created the part of Lyonnel in the
same season. In 1848 he went to Her Majesty's Theatre,
singing in Linda di Chamounix; and in the autumn of that year,
at the Norwich Festival, made a great sensation in " The
enemy said," from Israel in Egypt, a song in which the finest
qualities of his ringing voice could be appreciated. From his
first appearance at the Sacred Harmonic Society in the following
November he was recognized as the leading English tenor; and
in Costa's Eli and Naaman the tenor parts were written for him.
His first Handel Festival was that of 1857, and the effect of his
wonderful declamation in the Crystal Palace was a main attrac-
tion of this and of many subsequent festivals. His retirement
from public life, at first announced as to take place in 1882,
did not actually occur till 1891, when a farewell concert for his
benefit was given at the Albert Hall. His savings were invested
in an unfortunate speculation, and he was compelled to reappear
in public for a number of years. He died at Worthing on the
25th of October 1900.
END OF TWENTY-SECOND VOLUME
Printed by R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY, Chicago
HILL
REFERENCE
LIBRARY
f
